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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Groups, Theory of" to "Gwyniad"

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THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XII SLICE VI

Groups, Theory of to Gwyniad

Articles in This Slice

GROUPS, THEORY OF GUIDICCIONI, GIOVANNI
GROUSE GUIDO OF AREZZO
GROVE, SIR GEORGE GUIDO OF SIENA
GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT GUIDO RENI
GROVE GUIENNE
GROZNYI GUIGNES, JOSEPH DE
GRUB GUILBERT, YVETTE
GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED GUILDFORD
GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON GUILDHALL
GRUMENTUM GUILFORD, BARONS AND EARLS OF
GRÜN GUILFORD
GRÜNBERG GUILLAUME, JEAN BAPTISTE CLAUDE
EUGÈNE

GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK GUILLAUME DE LORRIS
SEVERIN
GRUNDY, SYDNEY GUILLAUME DE PALERME
GRUNDY, MRS GUILLAUME D’ORANGE
GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND GUILLEMOT
GRÜNEWALD, MATHIAS GUILLOCHE
GRUTER, JAN GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE
GRUYÈRE GUILLOTINE
GRYNAEUS, JOHANN JAKOB GUILT
GRYNAEUS, SIMON GUIMARÃES
GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS GUIMARD, MARIE MADELEINE
GUACHARO GUIMET, JEAN BAPTISTE
GUACO GUINEA (Africa)
GUADALAJARA (city of Mexico) GUINEA (gold coin)
GUADALAJARA (province of Spain) GUINEA FOWL
GUADALAJARA (city of Spain) GUINEA-WORM
GUADALQUIVIR GÜINES
GUADELOUPE GUINGAMP
GUADET, MARGUERITE ÉLIE GUINNESS
GUADIANA GUINOBATAN
GUADIX GUIPÚZCOA
GUADUAS GUIRAUD, ERNEST
GUAIACUM GUISBOROUGH
GUALDO TADINO GUISE
GUALEGUAY GUISE, HOUSE OF
GUALEGUAYCHÚ GUITAR
GUALO, CARDINAL GUITAR FIDDLE
GUAM GUITRY, LUCIEN GERMAIN
GUAN GUIZOT, FRANÇOIS PIERRE GUILLAUME
GUANABACOA GUJARAT
GUANACO GUJARATI and RAJASTHANI
GUANAJAY GUJRANWALA
GUANAJUATO (state of Mexico) GUJRAT
GUANAJUATO (city of Mexico) GULA
GUANCHES GULBARGA
GUANIDINE GULF STREAM

GUANO GULFWEED
GUANTA GULL, SIR WILLIAM WITHEY
GUANTÁNAMO GULL
GUARANA GULLY, JOHN
GUARANIS GULPÁÏGÁN
GUARANTEE GUM
GUARATINGUETÁ GÜMBEL, KARL WILHELM VON
GUARDA GUMBINNEN
GUARDI, FRANCESCO GUMBO
GUARDIAN GUMTI
GUARDS, and HOUSEHOLD TROOPS GUMULJINA
GUARD-SHIP GUMUS
GUÁRICO GÜMÜSH-KHANEH
GUARIENTO GUN
GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO GUNA
GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA GUNCOTTON
GUARINO GUNDULICH, IVAN
GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA GUNG’L, JOSEF
GUARNIERI GUNNER
GUASTALLA GUNNING, PETER
GUATEMALA (republic) GUNNY
GUATEMALA (city of Guatemala) GUNPOWDER
GUATOS GUNPOWDER PLOT
GUATUSOS GUN-ROOM
GUAVA GUNTER, EDMUND
GUAYAMA GÜNTHER, JOHANN CHRISTIAN
GUAYAQUIL GÜNTHER OF SCHWARZBURG
GUAYAS GUNTRAM
GUAYCURUS GUNTUR
GUAYMAS GUPTA
GUBBIO GURA, EUGEN
GUBEN GURDASPUR
GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE GURGAON
GUDBRANDSDAL GURKHA
GUDE, MARQUARD GURNALL, WILLIAM
GUDEMAN, ALFRED GURNARD

GUDGEON GURNEY
GUDRUN GURNEY, EDMUND
GUÉBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES GURWOOD, JOHN
GUELDER ROSE GUSLA
GUELPH GUSTAVUS I. ERIKSSON
GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES GUSTAVUS II. ADOLPHUS
GUENEVERE GUSTAVUS III.
GUENON GUSTAVUS IV.
GUÉRET GUSTAVUS V.
GUEREZA GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS UNION
GUERICKE, HEINRICH ERNST GÜSTROW
FERDINAND
GUERICKE, OTTO VON GUTENBERG, JOHANN
GUÉRIDON GÜTERSLOH
GUÉRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN GUTHRIE, SIR JAMES
GUÉRIN, PIERRE NARCISSE GUTHRIE, THOMAS
GUÉRIN DU CAYLA, GEORGES GUTHRIE, THOMAS ANSTEY
MAURICE DE
GUERNIERI GUTHRIE
GUERNSEY GUTHRUM
GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO GUTSCHMID, ALFRED
GUERRERO GUTS-MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPH
FRIEDRICH
GUERRILLA GUTTA
GUERRINI, OLINDO GUTTA PERCHA
GUESDE, JULES BASILE GUTTER
GUEST, EDWIN GUTZKOW, KARL FERDINAND
GUEST GÜTZLAFF, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST
GUETTARD, JEAN ÉTIENNE GUY OF WARWICK
GUEUX, LES GUY, THOMAS
GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE GUYON, JEANNE MARIE BOUVIER DE LA
MOTHE
GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE GUYON, RICHARD DEBAUFRE
GUGLIELMI, PIETRO GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY
GUIANA GUYOT, YVES
GUIART, GUILLAUME GUYTON DE MORVEAU, LOUIS BERNARD
GUIBERT (of Ravenna) GUZMICS, IZIDÓR

GUIBERT (of Nogent) GWADAR
GUIBERT, JACQUES ANTOINE GWALIOR
HIPPOLYTE
GUICCIARDINI, FRANCESCO GWEEDORE
GUICHARD, KARL GOTTLIEB GWILT, JOSEPH
GUICHEN, LUC URBAIN DE BOUËXIC GWYN, NELL
GUIDE GWYNIAD
GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO

GROUPS,1 THEORY OF. The conception of an operation to be carried out on
some object or set of objects underlies all mathematical science. Thus in elementary
arithmetic there are the fundamental operations of the addition and the multiplication
of integers; in algebra a linear transformation is an operation which may be carried
out on any set of variables; while in geometry a translation, a rotation, or a projective
transformation are operations which may be carried out on any figure.

In speaking of an operation, an object or a set of objects to which it may be applied
is postulated; and the operation may, and generally will, have no meaning except in
regard to such a set of objects. If two operations, which can be performed on the same
set of objects, are such that, when carried out in succession on any possible object, the
result, whichever operation is performed first, is to produce no change in the object,
then each of the operations is spoken of as a definite operation, and each of them is
called the inverse of the other. Thus the operations which consist in replacing x by nx
and by x/n respectively, in any rational function of x, are definite inverse operations,
if n is any assigned number except zero. On the contrary, the operation of replacing x
by an assigned number in any rational function of x is not, in the present sense,
although it leads to a unique result, a definite operation; there is in fact no unique
inverse operation corresponding to it. It is to be noticed that the question whether an
operation is a definite operation or no may depend on the range of the objects on
which it operates. For example, the operations of squaring and extracting the square

root are definite inverse operations if the objects are restricted to be real positive
numbers, but not otherwise.

If O, O′, O″, ... is the totality of the objects on which a definite operation S
and its inverse S′ may be carried out, and if the result of carrying out S on O is
represented by O·S, then O·S·S′, O·S′·S, and O are the same object whatever
object of the set O may be. This will be represented by the equations SS′ = S′S =
1. Now O·S·S′ has a meaning only if O·S is an object on which S′ may be
performed. Hence whatever object of the set O may be, both O·S and O·S′
belong to the set. Similarly O·S·S, O·S·S·S, ... are objects of the set. These will
be represented by O·S2, O·S3, ... Suppose now that T is another definite
operation with the same set of objects as S, and that T′ is its inverse operation.
Then O·S·T is a definite operation of the set, and therefore the result of carrying
out S and then T on the set of objects is some operation U with a unique result.
Represent by U′ the result of carrying out T′ and then S′. Then O·UU′ =
O·S·T·T′·S′ = O·SS′ = O, and O·U′U = O·T′·S′·S·T = O·T′T = O, whatever
object O may be. Hence UU′ = U′U = 1; and U, U′ are definite inverse
operations.

If S, U, V are definite operations, and if S′ is the inverse of S, then

SU = SV

implies

S′SU = S′SV,

or

U = V.

Similarly

US = VS

implies

U = V.

Let S, T, U, ... be a set of definite operations, capable of being carried out on a
common object or set of objects, and let the set contain—
Definition of a
group.
(i.) the operation ST, S and T being any two operations of the set;

(ii.) the inverse operation of S, S being any operation of the set; the
set of operations is then called a group.

The number of operations in a group may be either finite or infinite. When it
is finite, the number is called the order of the group, and the group is spoken of
as a group of finite order. If the number of operations is infinite, there are three
possible cases. When the group is represented by a set of geometrical operations,
for the specification of an individual operation a number of measurements will
be necessary. In more analytical language, each operation will be specified by
the values of a set of parameters. If no one of these parameters is capable of
continuous variation, the group is called a discontinuous group. If all the
parameters are capable of continuous variation, the group is called a continuous
group. If some of the parameters are capable of continuous variation and some
are not, the group is called a mixed group.

If S′ is the inverse operation of S, a group which contains S must contain SS′,
which produces no change on any possible object. This is called the identical
operation, and will always be represented by I. Since SpSq = Sp+q when p and q
are positive integers, and SpS′ = Sp−1 while no meaning at present has been
attached to Sq when q is negative, S′ may be consistently represented by S−1.
The set of operations ..., S−2, S−1, 1, S, S2, ... obviously constitute a group. Such
a group is called a cyclical group.

It will be convenient, before giving some illustrations of the general group
idea, to add a number of further definitions and explanations which apply to all
groups alike. If from among the set of operations S, T, U, ... which constitute a
group G, a smaller set S′, T′, U′, ... can be chosen which
Subgroups, themselves constitute a group H, the group H is called a
conjugate subgroup of G. Thus, in particular, if S is an operation of G,
operations, the cyclical group constituted by ..., S−2, S−1, 1, S, S2, ... is a
isomorphism, &c.

subgroup of G, except in the special case when it coincides with G itself.

If S and T are any two operations of G, the two operations S and T-1ST are
called conjugate operations, and T−1ST is spoken of as the result of transforming
S by T. It is to be noted that since ST = T−1, TS, T, ST and TS are always
conjugate operations in any group containing both S and T. If T transforms S
into itself, that is, if S = T−1ST or TS = ST, S and T are called permutable
operations. A group whose operations are all permutable with each other is
called an Abelian group. If S is transformed into itself by every operation of G,
or, in other words, if it is permutable with every operation of G, it is called a
self-conjugate operation of G.

The conception of operations being conjugate to each other is extended to
subgroups. If S′, T′, U′, ... are the operations of a subgroup H, and if R is any
operation of G, then the operations R−1S′R, R−1T′R, R−1U′R, ... belong to G, and
constitute a subgroup of G. For if S′T′ = U′, then R−1S′R·R−1T′R = R−1S′T′R =
R−1U′R. This subgroup may be identical with H. In particular, it is necessarily
the same as H if R belongs to H. If it is not identical with H, it is said to be
conjugate to H; and it is in any case represented by the symbol R−1HR. If H =
R−1HR, the operation R is said to be permutable with the subgroup H. (It is to be
noticed that this does not imply that R is permutable with each operation of H.)

If H = R−1HR, when for R is taken in turn each of the operations of G, then H
is called a self-conjugate subgroup of G.

A group is spoken of as simple when it has no self-conjugate subgroup other
than that constituted by the identical operation alone. A group which has a self-
conjugate subgroup is called composite.

Let G be a group constituted of the operations S, T, U, ..., and g a second
group constituted of s, t, u, ..., and suppose that to each operation of G there
corresponds a single operation of g in such a way that if ST = U, then st = u,
where s, t, u are the operations corresponding to S, T, U respectively. The groups
are then said to be isomorphic, and the correspondence between their operations
is spoken of as an isomorphism between the groups. It is clear that there may be
two distinct cases of such isomorphism. To a single operation of g there may

correspond either a single operation of G or more than one. In the first case the
isomorphism is spoken of as simple, in the second as multiple.

Two simply isomorphic groups considered abstractly—that is to say, in regard
only to the way in which their operations combine among themselves, and apart
from any concrete representation of the operations—are clearly
indistinguishable.

If G is multiply isomorphic with g, let A, B, C, ... be the operations of G
which correspond to the identical operation of g. Then to the operations A−1 and
AB of G there corresponds the identical operation of g; so that A, B, C, ...
constitute a subgroup H of G. Moreover, if R is any operation of G, the identical
operation of g corresponds to every operation of R-1HR, and therefore H is a
self-conjugate subgroup of G. Since S corresponds to s, and every operation of
H to the identical operation of g, therefore every operation of the set SA, SB,
SC, ..., which is represented by SH, corresponds to s. Also these are the only
operations that correspond to s. The operations of G may therefore be divided
into sets, no two of which contain a common operation, such that the
correspondence between the operations of G and g connects each of the sets H,
SH, TH, UH, ... with the single operations 1, s, t, u, ... written below them. The
sets into which the operations of G are thus divided combine among themselves
by exactly the same laws as the operations of g. For if st = u, then SH·TH = UH,
in the sense that any operation of the set SH followed by any operation of the set
TH gives an operation of the set UH.

The group g, abstractly considered, is therefore completely defined by the
division of the operations of G into sets in respect of the self-conjugate subgroup
H. From this point of view it is spoken of as the factor-group of G in respect of
H, and is represented by the symbol G/H. Any composite group in a similar way
defines abstractly a factor-group in respect of each of its self-conjugate
subgroups.

It follows from the definition of a group that it must always be possible to
choose from its operations a set such that every operation of the group can be
obtained by combining the operations of the set and their inverses. If the set is
such that no one of the operations belonging to it can be represented in terms of

the others, it is called a set of independent generating operations. Such a set of
generating operations may be either finite or infinite in number. If A, B, ..., E are
the generating operations of a group, the group generated by them is represented
by the symbol {A, B, ..., E}. An obvious extension of this symbol is used such
that {A, H} represents the group generated by combining an operation A with
every operation of a group H; {H1, H2} represents the group obtained by
combining in all possible ways the operations of the groups H1 and H2; and so
on. The independent generating operations of a group may be subject to certain
relations connecting them, but these must be such that it is impossible by
combining them to obtain a relation expressing one operation in terms of the
others. For instance, AB = BA is a relation conditioning the group {A, B}; it
does not, however, enable A to be expressed in terms of B, so that A and B are
independent generating operations.

Let O, O′, O″, ... be a set of objects which are interchanged among themselves
by the operations of a group G, so that if S is any operation of the group, and O
any one of the objects, then O·S is an object occurring in the set. If it is possible
to find an operation S of the group such that O·S is any
Transitivity and assigned one of the set of objects, the group is called
primitivity. transitive in respect of this set of objects. When this is not
possible the group is called intransitive in respect of the set. If
it is possible to find S so that any arbitrarily chosen n objects of the set, O1, O2,
..., On are changed by S into O′1, O′2, ..., O′n respectively, the latter being also
arbitrarily chosen, the group is said to be n-ply transitive.

If O, O′, O″, ... is a set of objects in respect of which a group G is transitive, it
may be possible to divide the set into a number of subsets, no two of which
contain a common object, such that every operation of the group either
interchanges the objects of a subset among themselves, or changes them all into
the objects of some other subset. When this is the case the group is called
imprimitive in respect of the set; otherwise the group is called primitive. A group
which is doubly-transitive, in respect of a set of objects, obviously cannot be
imprimitive.

The foregoing general definitions and explanations will now be illustrated by
a consideration of certain particular groups. To begin with, as the operations
involved are of the most familiar nature, the group of rational arithmetic may be
considered. The fundamental operations of elementary
Illustrations of the arithmetic consist in the addition and subtraction of integers,
group idea. and multiplication and division by integers, division by zero
alone omitted. Multiplication by zero is not a definite
operation, and it must therefore be omitted in dealing with those operations of
elementary arithmetic which form a group. The operation that results from
carrying out additions, subtractions, multiplications and divisions, of and by
integers a finite number of times, is represented by the relation x′ = ax + b,
where a and b are rational numbers of which a is not zero, x is the object of the
operation, and x′ is the result. The totality of operations of this form obviously
constitutes a group.

If S and T represent respectively the operations x′ = ax + b and x′ = cx + d,
then T−1ST represents x′ = ax + d − ad + bc. When a and b are given rational
numbers, c and d may be chosen in an infinite number of ways as rational
numbers, so that d − ad + bc shall be any assigned rational number. Hence the
operations given by x′ = ax + b, where a is an assigned rational number and b is
any rational number, are all conjugate; and no two such operations for which the
a’s are different can be conjugate. If a is unity and b zero, S is the identical
operation which is necessarily self-conjugate. If a is unity and b different from
zero, the operation x′ = x + b is an addition. The totality of additions forms,
therefore, a single conjugate set of operations. Moreover, the totality of additions
with the identical operation, i.e. the totality of operations of the form x′ = x + b,
where b may be any rational number or zero, obviously constitutes a group. The
operations of this group are interchanged among themselves when transformed
by any operation of the original group. It is therefore a self-conjugate subgroup
of the original group.

The totality of multiplications, with the identical operation, i.e. all operations
of the form x′ = ax, where a is any rational number other than zero, again
obviously constitutes a group. This, however, is not a self-conjugate subgroup of
the original group. In fact, if the operations x′ = ax are all transformed by x′ = cx

+ d, they give rise to the set x′ = ax + d(1 − a). When d is a given rational
number, the set constitutes a subgroup which is conjugate to the group of
multiplications. It is to be noticed that the operations of this latter subgroup may
be written in the form x′ − d = a(x − d).

The totality of rational numbers, including zero, forms a set of objects which
are interchanged among themselves by all operations of the group.

If x1 and x2 are any pair of distinct rational numbers, and y1 and y2 any other
pair, there is just one operation of the group which changes x1 and x2 into y1 and
y2 respectively. For the equations y1 = ax1 + b, y1 = ax2 + b determine a and b
uniquely. The group is therefore doubly transitive in respect of the set of rational
numbers. If H is the subgroup that leaves unchanged a given rational number x1,
and S an operation changing x1 into x2, then every operation of S−1HS leaves x2
unchanged. The subgroups, each of which leaves a single rational number
unchanged, therefore form a single conjugate set. The group of multiplications
leaves zero unchanged; and, as has been seen, this is conjugate with the
subgroup formed of all operations x′ − d = a(x − d), where d is a given rational
number. This subgroup leaves d unchanged.

The group of multiplications is clearly generated by the operations x′ = px,
where for p negative unity and each prime is taken in turn. Every addition is
obtained on transforming x′ = x + 1 by the different operations of the group of
multiplications. Hence x′ = x + 1, and x′ = px, (p = −1, 3, 5, 7, ...), form a set of
independent generating operations of the group. It is a discontinuous group.

As a second example the group of motions in three-dimensional space will be
considered. The totality of motions, i.e. of space displacements which leave the
distance of every pair of points unaltered, obviously constitutes a set of
operations which satisfies the group definition. From the elements of kinematics
it is known that every motion is either (i.) a translation which leaves no point
unaltered, but changes each of a set of parallel lines into itself; or (ii.) a rotation
which leaves every point of one line unaltered and changes every other point and
line; or (iii.) a twist which leaves no point and only one line (its axis) unaltered,
and may be regarded as a translation along, combined with a rotation round, the
axis. Let S be any motion consisting of a translation l along and a rotation a

round a line AB, and let T be any other motion. There is some line CD into
which T changes AB; and therefore T−1ST leaves CD unchanged. Moreover, T-
1ST clearly effects the same translation along and rotation round CD that S
effects for AB. Two motions, therefore, are conjugate if and only if the
amplitudes of their translation and rotation components are respectively equal. In
particular, all translations of equal amplitude are conjugate, as also are all
rotations of equal amplitude. Any two translations are permutable with each
other, and give when combined another translation. The totality of translations
constitutes, therefore, a subgroup of the general group of motions; and this
subgroup is a self-conjugate subgroup, since a translation is always conjugate to
a translation.

All the points of space constitute a set of objects which are interchanged
among themselves by all operations of the group of motions. So also do all the
lines of space and all the planes. In respect of each of these sets the group is
simply transitive. In fact, there is an infinite number of motions which change a
point A to A′, but no motion can change A and B to A′ and B′ respectively unless
the distance AB is equal to the distance A′B′.

The totality of motions which leave a point A unchanged forms a subgroup. It
is clearly constituted of all possible rotations about all possible axes through A,
and is known as the group of rotations about a point. Every motion can be
represented as a rotation about some axis through A followed by a translation.
Hence if G is the group of motions and H the group of translations, G/H is
simply isomorphic with the group of rotations about a point.

The totality of the motions which bring a given solid to congruence with itself
again constitutes a subgroup of the group of motions. This will in general be the
trivial subgroup formed of the identical operation above, but may in the case of a
symmetrical body be more extensive. For a sphere or a right circular cylinder the
subgroups are those that leave the centre and the axis respectively unaltered. For
a solid bounded by plane faces the subgroup is clearly one of finite order. In
particular, to each of the regular solids there corresponds such a group. That for
the tetrahedron has 12 for its order, for the cube (or octahedron) 24, and for the
icosahedron (or dodecahedron) 60.

The determination of a particular operation of the group of motions involves
six distinct measurements; namely, four to give the axis of the twist, one for the
magnitude of the translation along the axis, and one for the magnitude of the
rotation about it. Each of the six quantities involved may have any value
whatever, and the group of motions is therefore a continuous group. On the other
hand, a subgroup of the group of motions which leaves a line or a plane
unaltered is a mixed group.

We shall now discuss (i.) continuous groups, (ii.) discontinuous groups whose order
is not finite, and (iii.) groups of finite order. For proofs of the statements, and the
general theorems, the reader is referred to the bibliography.

Continuous Groups.

The determination of a particular operation of a given continuous group depends on
assigning special values to each one of a set of parameters which are capable of
continuous variation. The first distinction regards the number of these parameters. If
this number is finite, the group is called a finite continuous group; if infinite, it is
called an infinite continuous group. In the latter case arbitrary functions must appear
in the equations defining the operations of the group when these are reduced to an
analytical form. The theory of infinite continuous groups is not yet so completely
developed as that of finite continuous groups. The latter theory will mainly occupy us
here.

Sophus Lie, to whom the foundation and a great part of the development of the
theory of continuous groups are due, undoubtedly approached the subject from a
geometrical standpoint. His conception of an operation is to regard it as a geometrical
transformation, by means of which each point of (n-dimensional) space is changed
into some other definite point.

The representation of such a transformation in analytical form involves a
system of equations,

x′s = ƒs (x1, x2, ..., xn), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),

expressing x′1, x′2, ..., x′n, the co-ordinates of the transformed point in terms of
x1, x2, ..., xn, the co-ordinates of the original point. In these equations the
functions ƒs are analytical functions of their arguments. Within a properly
limited region they must be one-valued, and the equations must admit a unique
solution with respect to x1, x2, ..., xn, since the operation would not otherwise be
a definite one.

From this point of view the operations of a continuous group, which depends
on a set of r parameters, will be defined analytically by a system of equations of
the form

x′s = ƒs(x1, x2, ..., xn; a1, a2, ..., ar), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
(i.)

where a1, a2, ..., ar represent the parameters. If this operation be represented by
A, and that in which b1, b2, ..., br are the parameters by B, then the operation AB
is represented by the elimination (assumed to be possible) of x′1, x′2, ..., x′n
between the equations (i.) and the equations

x″s = ƒs (x′1, x′2, ..., x′n; b1, b2, ..., br), (s = 1, 2, ..., n).

Since AB belongs to the group, the result of the elimination must be

x″s = ƒs (x1, x2, ..., xn; c1, c2, ..., cr),

where c1, c2, ..., cr represent another definite set of values of the parameters.
Moreover, since A−1 belongs to the group, the result of solving equations (i.)
with respect to x1, x2, ..., xn must be

xs = ƒs (x′1, x′2, ..., x′n; d1, d2, ..., dr), (s = 1, 2, ..., n).

Conversely, if equations (i.) are such that these two conditions are satisfied, they
do in fact define a finite continuous group.

It will be assumed that the r parameters which enter in equations (i.) are
independent, i.e. that it is impossible to choose r′ (< r) quantities in terms of
which a1, a2, ..., ar can be expressed. Where this is the case the group will be
spoken of as a “group of order r.” Lie uses the term “r-gliedrige Gruppe.” It is to

be noticed that the word order is used in quite a different
Infinitesimal sense from that given to it in connexion with groups of finite
operation of a order.
continuous group.
In regard to equations (i.), which define the general
operation of the group, it is to be noticed that, since the group contains the
identical operation, these equations must for some definite set of values of the
parameters reduce to x′1 = x1, x′2 = x2, ..., x′n = xn. This set of values may,
without loss of generality, be assumed to be simultaneous zero values. For if i1,
i2, ..., ir be the values of the parameters which give the identical operation, and if
we write

as = is + a, (s = 1, 2, ..., r),

then zero values of the new parameters a1, a2, ..., ar give the identical operation.

To infinitesimal values of the parameters, thus chosen, will correspond
operations which cause an infinitesimal change in each of the variables. These
are called infinitesimal operations. The most general infinitesimal operation of
the group is that given by the system

∂ƒs ∂ƒs ∂ƒs
x′s − xs = δxs = δa1 + δa2 + ... + δar, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
∂a1 ∂a2 ∂ar

where, in ∂ƒs/∂ai, zero values of the parameters are to be taken. Since a1, a2, ...,
ar are independent, the ratios of δa1, δa2, ..., δar are arbitrary. Hence the most
general infinitesimal operation of the group may be written in the form

∂ƒs ∂ƒs ∂ƒs
δxs = ( e1 + e2 + ... + er ) δt, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
∂a1 ∂a2 ∂ar

where e1, e2, ..., er are arbitrary constants, and δt is an infinitesimal.

If F(x1, x2, ..., xn) is any function of the variables, and if an infinitesimal
operation of the group be carried out on the variables in F, the resulting
increment of F will be

∂F δx1 + ∂F δx2 + ... + ∂F δxn.

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn

If the differential operator

∂ƒ1 ∂ ∂ƒ2 ∂ ∂ƒn ∂
+ + ... +
∂ai ∂x1 ∂ai ∂x2 ∂ai ∂xn

be represented by Xi, (i = 1, 2, ..., r), then the increment of F is given by

(e1X1 + e2X2 + ... + erXr) Fδt.

When the equations (i.) defining the general operation of the group are given, the
coefficients ∂ƒs/∂ai, which enter in these differential operators are functions of
the variables which can be directly calculated.

The differential operator e1X1 + e2X2 + ... + erXr may then be regarded as
defining the most general infinitesimal operation of the group. In fact, if it be for
a moment represented by X, then (1 + δtX)F is the result of carrying out the
infinitesimal operation on F; and by putting x1, x2, ..., xn in turn for F, the actual
infinitesimal operation is reproduced. By a very convenient, though perhaps
hardly justifiable, phraseology this differential operator is itself spoken of as the
general infinitesimal operation of the group. The sense in which this phraseology
is to be understood will be made clear by the foregoing explanations.

We suppose now that the constants e1, e2, ..., er have assigned values. Then the
result of repeating the particular infinitesimal operation e1X1 + e2X2 + ... + erXr
or X an infinite number of times is some finite operation of the group. The effect
of this finite operation on F may be directly calculated. In fact, if δt is the
infinitesimal already introduced, then

dF d2F
= X·F, = X·X·F, ...
dt dt2

Hence

dF t2 d2F
F′ = F + t + +
+ ...
dt 1·2 dt2
= F + tX·F + t2 X·X·F + ...

1·2

It must, of course, be understood that in this analytical representation of the
effect of the finite operation on F it is implied that t is taken sufficiently small to
ensure the convergence of the (in general) infinite series.

When x1, x2, ... are written in turn for F, the system of equations

t2
x′s = (1 + tX + X·X + ...)xs, (s = 1, 2, ..., n)
1·2 (ii.)

represent the finite operation completely. If t is here regarded as a parameter, this
set of operations must in themselves constitute a group, since they arise by the
repetition of a single infinitesimal operation. That this is really the case results
immediately from noticing that the result of eliminating F′ between

t2
F′ = F + tX·F + X·X·F + ...
1·2

and

t′2
F″ = F′ + t′X·F′ + X·X·F′ + ...
1·2

is

(t + t′)2
F″ = F + (t + t′) X·F + X·X·F + ...
1·2

The group thus generated by the repetition of an infinitesimal operation is called
a cyclical group; so that a continuous group contains a cyclical subgroup
corresponding to each of its infinitesimal operations.

The system of equations (ii.) represents an operation of the group whatever the
constants e1, e2, ..., er may be. Hence if e1t, e2t, ..., ert be replaced by a1, a2, ..., ar
the equations (ii.) represent a set of operations, depending on r parameters and
belonging to the group. They must therefore be a form of the general equations
for any operation of the group, and are equivalent to the equations (i.). The
determination of the finite equations of a cyclical group, when the infinitesimal

operation which generates it is given, will always depend on the integration of a
set of simultaneous ordinary differential equations. As a very simple example we
may consider the case in which the infinitesimal operation is given by X = x2∂/
∂x, so that there is only a single variable. The relation between x′ and t is given
by dx′/dt = x′2, with the condition that x′ = x when t = 0. This gives at once x′ =
x/(1 − tx), which might also be obtained by the direct use of (ii.).

When the finite equations (i.) of a continuous group of order r are known, it
has now been seen that the differential operator which defines the most general
infinitesimal operation of the group can be directly constructed, and that it
contains r arbitrary constants. This is equivalent to saying that
Relations between the group contains r linearly independent infinitesimal
the infinitesimal operations; and that the most general infinitesimal operation
operations of a is obtained by combining these linearly with constant
finite continuous coefficients. Moreover, when any r independent infinitesimal
group. operations of the group are known, it has been seen how the
general finite operation of the group may be calculated. This
obviously suggests that it must be possible to define the group by means of its
infinitesimal operations alone; and it is clear that such a definition would lend
itself more readily to some applications (for instance, to the theory of differential
equations) than the definition by means of the finite equations.

On the other hand, r arbitrarily given linear differential operators will not, in
general, give rise to a finite continuous group of order r; and the question arises
as to what conditions such a set of operators must satisfy in order that they may,
in fact, be the independent infinitesimal operations of such a group.

If X, Y are two linear differential operators, XY − YX is also a linear
differential operator. It is called the “combinant” of X and Y (Lie uses the
expression Klammerausdruck) and is denoted by (XY). If X, Y, Z are any three
linear differential operators the identity (known as Jacobi’s)

(X(YZ)) + (Y(ZX)) + (Z(XY)) = 0

holds between them. Now it may be shown that any continuous group of which
X, Y are infinitesimal operations contains also (XY) among its infinitesimal

operations. Hence if r linearly independent operations X1, X2, ..., Xr give rise to
a finite continuous group of order r, the combinant of each pair must be
expressible linearly in terms of the r operations themselves: that is, there must be
a system of relations

(XiXj) = Σk=rk=1 cijk Xk,

where the c’s are constants. Moreover, from Jacobi’s identity and the identity
(XY) + (YX) = 0 it follows that the c’s are subject to the relations

and

cijt + cjit = 0,
Σs (cjks cist + ckis cjst + cijs ckst) = 0
(iii.)

for all values of i, j, k and t.

The fundamental theorem of the theory of finite continuous groups is now that
these conditions, which are necessary in order that X1, X2, ...,
Determination of Xr may generate, as infinitesimal operations, a continuous
the distinct types of
group of order r, are also sufficient.
continuous groups
of a given order. For the proof of this fundamental theorem see Lie’s works
(cf. Lie-Engel, i. chap. 9; iii. chap. 25).

If two continuous groups of order r are such that, for each, a set of linearly
independent infinitesimal operations X1, X2, ..., Xr and Y1, Y2, ..., Yr can be
chosen, so that in the relations

(XiXj) = Σcijs Xs, (YiYj) = Σ dijs Ys,

the constants cijs and dijs are the same for all values of i, j and s, the two groups
are simply isomorphic, Xs and Ys being corresponding infinitesimal operations.

Two continuous groups of order r, whose infinitesimal operations obey the
same system of equations (iii.), may be of very different form; for instance, the
number of variables for the one may be different from that for the other. They

are, however, said to be of the same type, in the sense that the laws according to
which their operations combine are the same for both.

The problem of determining all distinct types of groups of order r is then
contained in the purely algebraical problem of finding all the systems of r3
quantities cijs which satisfy the relations

cijt + cijt = 0,
Σs cijs cskt + cjks csit + ckis csjt = 0.

for all values of i, j, k and t. To two distinct solutions of the algebraical problem,
however, two distinct types of group will not necessarily correspond. In fact, X1,
X2, ..., Xr may be replaced by any r independent linear functions of themselves,
and the c’s will then be transformed by a linear substitution containing r2
independent parameters. This, however, does not alter the type of group
considered.

For a single parameter there is, of course, only one type of group, which has
been called cyclical.

For a group of order two there is a single relation

(X1X2) = αX1 + βX2.

If α and β are not both zero, let α be finite. The relation may then be written
(αX1 + βX2, α−1X2) = αX1 + βX2. Hence if αX1 + βX2 = X′1, and α−1X2 = X′2,
then (X′1X′2) = X′1. There are, therefore, just two types of group of order two,
the one given by the relation last written, and the other by (X1X2) = 0.

Lie has determined all distinct types of continuous groups of orders three or
four; and all types of non-integrable groups (a term which will be explained
immediately) of orders five and six (cf. Lie-Engel, iii. 713-744).

A problem of fundamental importance in connexion with any given
continuous group is the determination of the self-conjugate subgroups which it
contains. If X is an infinitesimal operation of a group, and Y any other, the
general form of the infinitesimal operations which are conjugate to X is

t2
Self-conjugate
X + t(XY) + ((XY)Y) + ....
1·2
subgroups.
Integrable groups. Any subgroup which contains all the operations conjugate to
X must therefore contain all infinitesimal operations (XY),
((XY)Y), ..., where for Y each infinitesimal operation of the group is taken in
turn. Hence if X′1, X′2, ..., X′s are s linearly independent operations of the group
which generate a self-conjugate subgroup of order s, then for every infinitesimal
operation Y of the group relations of the form

(X′iY) = Σe=se=1 aie X′e, (i = 1, 2, ..., s)

must be satisfied. Conversely, if such a set of relations is satisfied, X′1, X′2, ...,
X′s generate a subgroup of order s, which contains every operation conjugate to
each of the infinitesimal generating operations, and is therefore a self-conjugate
subgroup.

A specially important self-conjugate subgroup is that generated by the
combinants of the r infinitesimal generating operations. That these generate a
self-conjugate subgroup follows from the relations (iii.). In fact,

((XiXj) Xk) = Σs cijs (XsXk).

Of the ½r(r − 1) combinants not more than r can be linearly independent. When
exactly r of them are linearly independent, the self-conjugate group generated by
them coincides with the original group. If the number that are linearly
independent is less than r, the self-conjugate subgroup generated by them is
actually a subgroup; i.e. its order is less than that of the original group. This
subgroup is known as the derived group, and Lie has called a group perfect
when it coincides with its derived group. A simple group, since it contains no
self-conjugate subgroup distinct from itself, is necessarily a perfect group.

If G is a given continuous group, G1 the derived group of G, G2 that of G1,
and so on, the series of groups G, G1, G2, ... will terminate either with the
identical operation or with a perfect group; for the order of Gs+1 is less than that
of Gs unless Gs is a perfect group. When the series terminates with the identical

operation, G is said to be an integrable group; in the contrary case G is called
non-integrable.

If G is an integrable group of order r, the infinitesimal operations X1, X2, ...,
Xr which generate the group may be chosen so that X1, X2, ..., Xr1, (r1 < r)
generate the first derived group, X1, X2, ..., Xr2, (r2 < r1) the second derived
group, and so on. When they are so chosen the constants cijs are clearly such that
if rp < i ≤ rp+1, rq < j ≤ rq+1, p ≥ q, then cijs vanishes unless s ≤ rp+1.

In particular the generating operations may be chosen so that cijs vanishes
unless s is equal to or less than the smaller of the two numbers i, j; and
conversely, if the c’s satisfy these relations, the group is integrable.

A simple group, as already defined, is one which has no self-conjugate
subgroup. It is a remarkable fact that the determination of all
Simple groups. distinct types of simple continuous groups has been made, for
in the case of discontinuous groups and groups of finite order
this is far from being the case. Lie has demonstrated the existence of four great
classes of simple groups:—

(i.) The groups simply isomorphic with the general projective group in space
of n dimensions. Such a group is defined analytically as the totality of the
transformations of the form

as, 1x1 + as, 2x2 + ... + as, nxn + as, n + 1
x′s = , (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
an+1, 1x1 + an+1, 2x2 + ... + an+1, nxn + 1

where the a’s are parameters. The order of this group is clearly n(n + 2).

(ii.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the projective
transformations which transform a non-special linear complex in space of 2n − 1
dimensions with itself. The order of this group is n(2n + 1).

(iii.) and (iv.) The groups simply isomorphic with the totality of the projective
transformations which change a quadric of non-vanishing discriminant into
itself. These fall into two distinct classes of types according as n is even or odd.
In either case the order is ½n(n + 1). The case n = 3 forms an exception in which

the corresponding group is not simple. It is also to be noticed that a cyclical
group is a simple group, since it has no continuous self-conjugate subgroup
distinct from itself.

W. K. J. Killing and E. J. Cartan have separately proved that outside these
four great classes there exist only five distinct types of simple groups, whose
orders are 14, 52, 78, 133 and 248; thus completing the enumeration of all
possible types.

To prevent any misapprehension as to the bearing of these very general
results, it is well to point out explicitly that there are no limitations on the
parameters of a continuous group as it has been defined above. They are to be
regarded as taking in general complex values. If in the finite equations of a
continuous group the imaginary symbol does not explicitly occur, the finite
equations will usually define a group (in the general sense of the original
definition) when both parameters and variables are limited to real values. Such a
group is, in a certain sense, a continuous group; and such groups have been
considered shortly by Lie (cf. Lie-Engel, iii. 360-392), who calls them real
continuous groups. To these real continuous groups the above statement as to the
totality of simple groups does not apply; and indeed, in all probability, the
number of types of real simple continuous groups admits of no such complete
enumeration. The effect of limitation to real transformations may be illustrated
by considering the groups of projective transformations which change

x2 + y2 + z2 − 1 = 0 and x2 + y2 − z2 − 1 = 0

respectively into themselves. Since one of these quadrics is changed into the
other by the imaginary transformation

x′ = x, y′ = y, z′ = z√ (−1),

the general continuous groups which transform the two quadrics respectively
into themselves are simply isomorphic. This is not, however, the case for the real
continuous groups. In fact, the second quadric has two real sets of generators;
and therefore the real group which transforms it into itself has two self-conjugate
subgroups, either of which leaves unchanged each of one set of generators. The
first quadric having imaginary generators, no such self-conjugate subgroups can

exist for the real group which transforms it into itself; and this real group is in
fact simple.

Among the groups isomorphic with a given continuous group there is one of
special importance which is known as the adjunct group. This
The adjunct group. is a homogeneous linear group in a number of variables equal
to the order of the group, whose infinitesimal operations are
defined by the relations

∂
Xi = Σi, s cijs xi , (j = 1, 2, ..., r),
∂xs

where cijs are the often-used constants, which give the combinants of the
infinitesimal operations in terms of the infinitesimal operations themselves.

That the r infinitesimal operations thus defined actually generate a group
isomorphic with the given group is verified by forming their combinants. It is
thus found that (XpXq) = Σs cpqsXs. The X’s, however, are not necessarily
linearly independent. In fact, the sufficient condition that Σj ajXj should be
identically zero is that Σj ajcijs should vanish for all values of i and s. Hence if
the equations Σj ajcijs = 0 for all values of i and s have r′ linearly independent
solutions, only r − r′ of the X’s are linearly independent, and the isomorphism of
the two groups is multiple. If Y1, Y2, ..., Yr are the infinitesimal operations of the
given group, the equations

Σj ajcijs = 0, (s, i = 1, 2, ..., r)

express the condition that the operations of the cyclical group generated by Σj
ajYi should be permutable with every operation of the group; in other words, that
they should be self-conjugate operations. In the case supposed, therefore, the
given group contains a subgroup of order r′ each of whose operations is self-
conjugate. The adjunct group of a given group will therefore be simply
isomorphic with the group, unless the latter contains self-conjugate operations;
and when this is the case the order of the adjunct will be less than that of the
given group by the order of the subgroup formed of the self-conjugate
operations.

We have been thus far mainly concerned with the abstract theory of
continuous groups, in which no distinction is made between
Continuous groups two simply isomorphic groups. We proceed to discuss the
of the line of the classification and theory of groups when their form is
plane, and of regarded as essential; and this is a return to a more
three-dimensional geometrical point of view.
space.
It is natural to begin with the projective groups, which are
the simplest in form and at the same time are of supreme importance in
geometry. The general projective group of the straight line is the group of order
three given by

ax + b
x′ = ,
cx + d′

where the parameters are the ratios of a, b, c, d. Since

x′3 − x′2 x′ − x′1 x3 − x2 x − x1
· = ·
x′3 − x′1 x′ − x′2 x3 − x1 x − x2

is an operation of the above form, the group is triply transitive. Every subgroup
of order two leaves one point unchanged, and all such subgroups are conjugate.
A cyclical subgroup leaves either two distinct points or two coincident points
unchanged. A subgroup which either leaves two points unchanged or
interchanges them is an example of a “mixed” group.

The analysis of the general projective group must obviously increase very
rapidly in complexity, as the dimensions of the space to which it applies
increase. This analysis has been completely carried out for the projective group
of the plane, with the result of showing that there are thirty distinct types of
subgroup. Excluding the general group itself, every one of these leaves either a
point, a line, or a conic section unaltered. For space of three dimensions Lie has
also carried out a similar investigation, but the results are extremely
complicated. One general result of great importance at which Lie arrives in this
connexion is that every projective group in space of three dimensions, other than
the general group, leaves either a point, a curve, a surface or a linear complex
unaltered.

Returning now to the case of a single variable, it can be shown that any finite
continuous group in one variable is either cyclical or of order two or three, and
that by a suitable transformation any such group may be changed into a
projective group.

The genesis of an infinite as distinguished from a finite continuous group may
be well illustrated by considering it in the case of a single variable. The
infinitesimal operations of the projective group in one variable are d/dx, x(d/dx),
x2(d/dx). If these combined with x3(d/dx) be taken as infinitesimal operations
from which to generate a continuous group among the infinitesimal operations
of the group, there must occur the combinant of x2(d/dx) and x3(d/dx). This is
x4(d/dx). The combinant of this and x2(d/dx) is 2x5(d/dx) and so on. Hence
xr(d/dx), where r is any positive integer, is an infinitesimal operation of the
group. The general infinitesimal operation of the group is therefore ƒ(x)(d/dx),
where ƒ(x) is an arbitrary integral function of x.

In the classification of the groups, projective or non-projective of two or more
variables, the distinction between primitive and imprimitive groups immediately
presents itself. For groups of the plane the following question arises. Is there or
is there not a singly-infinite family of curves ƒ(x, y) = C, where C is an arbitrary
constant such that every operation of the group interchanges the curves of the
family among themselves? In accordance with the previously given definition of
imprimitivity, the group is called imprimitive or primitive according as such a
set exists or not. In space of three dimensions there are two possibilities; namely,
there may either be a singly infinite system of surfaces F(x, y, z) = C, which are
interchanged among themselves by the operations of the group; or there may be
a doubly-infinite system of curves G(x, y, z) = a, H(x, y, z) = b, which are so
interchanged.

In regard to primitive groups Lie has shown that any primitive group of the
plane can, by a suitably chosen transformation, be transformed into one of three
definite types of projective groups; and that any primitive group of space of
three dimensions can be transformed into one of eight definite types, which,
however, cannot all be represented as projective groups in three dimensions.

The results which have been arrived at for imprimitive groups in two and
three variables do not admit of any such simple statement.

We shall now explain the conception of contact-transformations and groups of
contact-transformations. This conception, like that of
Contact continuous groups, owes its origin to Lie.
transformations.
From a purely analytical point of view a contact-
transformation may be defined as a point-transformation in 2n + 1 variables, z,
x1, x2, ..., xn, p1, p2, ..., pn which leaves unaltered the equation dz − p1dx1 −
p2dx2 − ... − pndxn = 0. Such a definition as this, however, gives no direct clue to
the geometrical properties of the transformation, nor does it explain the name
given.

In dealing with contact-transformations we shall restrict ourselves to space of
two or of three dimensions; and it will be necessary to begin with some purely
geometrical considerations. An infinitesimal surface-element in space of three
dimensions is completely specified, apart from its size, by its position and
orientation. If x, y, z are the co-ordinates of some one point of the element, and
if p, q, −1 give the ratios of the direction-cosines of its normal, x, y, z, p, q are
five quantities which completely specify the element. There are, therefore, ∞5
surface elements in three-dimensional space. The surface-elements of a surface
form a system of ∞2 elements, for there are ∞2 points on the surface, and at each
a definite surface-element. The surface-elements of a curve form, again, a
system of ∞2 elements, for there are ∞1 points on the curve, and at each ∞1
surface-elements containing the tangent to the curve at the point. Similarly the
surface-elements which contain a given point clearly form a system of ∞2
elements. Now each of these systems of ∞2 surface-elements has the property
that if (x, y, z, p, q) and (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz, p + dp, q + dq) are consecutive
elements from any one of them, then dz − pdx − qdy = 0. In fact, for a system of
the first kind dx, dy, dz are proportional to the direction-cosines of a tangent line
at a point of the surface, and p, q, −1 are proportional to the direction-cosines of
the normal. For a system of the second kind dx, dy, dz are proportional to the
direction-cosines of a tangent to the curve, and p, q, −1 give the direction-
cosines of the normal to a plane touching the curve; and for a system of the third

kind dx, dy, dz are zero. Now the most general way in which a system of ∞2
surface-elements can be given is by three independent equations between x, y, z,
p and q. If these equations do not contain p, q, they determine one or more (a
finite number in any case) points in space, and the system of surface-elements
consists of the elements containing these points; i.e. it consists of one or more
systems of the third kind.

If the equations are such that two distinct equations independent of p and q
can be derived from them, the points of the system of surface-elements lie on a
curve. For such a system the equation dz − pdx − qdy = 0 will hold for each two
consecutive elements only when the plane of each element touches the curve at
its own point.

If the equations are such that only one equation independent of p and q can be
derived from them, the points of the system of surface-elements lie on a surface.
Again, for such a system the equation dz − pdx − qdy = 0 will hold for each two
consecutive elements only when each element touches the surface at its own
point. Hence, when all possible systems of ∞2 surface-elements in space are
considered, the equation dz − pdx − qdy = 0 is characteristic of the three special
types in which the elements belong, in the sense explained above, to a point or a
curve or a surface.

Let us consider now the geometrical bearing of any transformation x′ = ƒ1(x,
y, z, p, q), ..., q′ = ƒ5(x, y, z, p, q), of the five variables. It will interchange the
surface-elements of space among themselves, and will change any system of ∞2
elements into another system of ∞2 elements. A special system, i.e. a system
which belongs to a point, curve or surface, will not, however, in general be
changed into another special system. The necessary and sufficient condition that
a special system should always be changed into a special system is that the
equation dz′ − p′dx′ − q′dy′ = 0 should be a consequence of the equation dz −
pdx − qdy = 0; or, in other words, that this latter equation should be invariant for
the transformation.

When this condition is satisfied the transformation is such as to change the
surface-elements of a surface in general into surface-elements of a surface,
though in particular cases they may become the surface-elements of a curve or

point; and similar statements may be made with respect to a curve or point. The
transformation is therefore a veritable geometrical transformation in space of
three dimensions. Moreover, two special systems of surface-elements which
have an element in common are transformed into two new special systems with
an element in common. Hence two curves or surfaces which touch each other are
transformed into two new curves or surfaces which touch each other. It is this
property which leads to the transformations in question being called contact-
transformations. It will be noticed that an ordinary point-transformation is
always a contact-transformation, but that a contact-transformation (in space of n
dimensions) is not in general a point-transformation (in space of n dimensions),
though it may always be regarded as a point-transformation in space of 2n + 1
dimensions. In the analogous theory for space of two dimensions a line-element,
defined by (x, y, p), where 1 : p gives the direction-cosines of the line, takes the
place of the surface-element; and a transformation of x, y and p which leaves the
equation dy − pdx = 0 unchanged transforms the ∞1 line-elements, which belong
to a curve, into ∞1 line-elements which again belong to a curve; while two
curves which touch are transformed into two other curves which touch.

One of the simplest instances of a contact-transformation that can be given is
the transformation by reciprocal polars. By this transformation a point P and a
plane p passing through it are changed into a plane p′ and a point P′ upon it; i.e.
the surface-element defined by P, p is changed into a definite surface-element
defined by P′, p′. The totality of surface-elements which belong to a (non-
developable) surface is known from geometrical considerations to be changed
into the totality which belongs to another (non-developable) surface. On the
other hand, the totality of the surface-elements which belong to a curve is
changed into another set which belong to a developable. The analytical formulae
for this transformation, when the reciprocation is effected with respect to the
paraboloid x2 + y2 − 2z = 0, are x′ = p, y′ = q, z′ = px + qy − z, p′ = x, q′ = y.
That this is, in fact, a contact-transformation is verified directly by noticing that

dz′ − p′dx′ − q′dy′ = −d (z − px − qy) − xdp − ydq = −(dz − pdx − qdy).

A second simple example is that in which every surface-element is displaced,
without change of orientation, normal to itself through a constant distance t. The

analytical equations in this case are easily found in the form

pt qt t
x′ = x + , y′ = y + , z′ = z − ,
√(1 + p2 + q2) √(1 + p2 + q2) √(1 + p2 + q2)

p′ = q, q′ = q.

That this is a contact-transformation is seen geometrically by noticing that it
changes a surface into a parallel surface. Every point is changed by it into a
sphere of radius t, and when t is regarded as a parameter the equations define a
cyclical group of contact-transformations.

The formal theory of continuous groups of contact-transformations is, of
course, in no way distinct from the formal theory of continuous groups in
general. On what may be called the geometrical side, the theory of groups of
contact-transformations has been developed with very considerable detail in the
second volume of Lie-Engel.

To the manifold applications of the theory of continuous groups in various
branches of pure and applied mathematics it is impossible
Applications of the here to refer in any detail. It must suffice to indicate a few of
theory of them very briefly. In some of the older theories a new point of
continuous groups. view is obtained which presents the results in a fresh light,
and suggests the natural generalization. As an example, the
theory of the invariants of a binary form may be considered.

If in the form ƒ = a0xn + na1xn−1y + ... + anyn, the variables be subjected to a
homogeneous substitution

x′ = αx + βy, y′ = γx + δy,
(i.)

and if the coefficients in the new form be represented by accenting the old
coefficients, then

a′0 = a0αn + a1nαn−1γ + ... + anγn,
a′1 = a0αn−1β + a1 {(n−1) αn−2βγ + αn−1δ} + ... + anγn−1δ,
· · · · ·

a′n = a0βn + a1nβn−1δ + ... + anδn;
(ii.)

and this is a homogeneous linear substitution performed on the coefficients. The
totality of the substitutions, (i.), for which αδ − βγ = 1, constitutes a continuous
group of order 3, which is generated by the two infinitesimal transformations
y(∂/∂x) and x(∂/∂y). Hence with the same limitations on α, β, γ, δ the totality of
the substitutions (ii.) forms a simply isomorphic continuous group of order 3,
which is generated by the two infinitesimal transformations

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
a0 + 2a1 + 3a1 + ... + nan − 1 ,
∂a1 ∂a2 ∂a3 ∂an

and

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
na1 + (n − 1)a2 + (n − 2)a3 + ... + au .
∂a0 ∂a1 ∂a2 ∂au−1

The invariants of the binary form, i.e. those functions of the coefficients which
are unaltered by all homogeneous substitutions on x, y of determinant unity, are
therefore identical with the functions of the coefficients which are invariant for
the continuous group generated by the two infinitesimal operations last written.
In other words, they are given by the common solutions of the differential
equations

∂ƒ ∂ƒ ∂ƒ
a0 + 2a1 + 3a2 + ... = 0,
∂a1 ∂a1 ∂a2
∂ƒ ∂ƒ ∂ƒ
na1 + (n − 1)a2 + (n − 2)a3 + ... = 0.
∂a0 ∂a1 ∂a2

Both this result and the method by which it is arrived at are well known, but the
point of view by which we pass from the transformation group of the variables
to the isomorphic transformation group of the coefficients, and regard the
invariants as invariants rather of the group than of the forms, is a new and a
fruitful one.

The general theory of curvature of curves and surfaces may in a similar way
be regarded as a theory of their invariants for the group of motions. That

something more than a mere change of phraseology is here implied will be
evident in dealing with minimum curves, i.e. with curves such that at every point
of them dx2 + dy2 + dz2 = 0. For such curves the ordinary theory of curvature
has no meaning, but they nevertheless have invariant properties in regard to the
group of motions.

The curvature and torsion of a curve, which are invariant for all
transformations by the group of motions, are special instances of what are
known as differential invariants. If ξ(∂/∂x) + η(∂/∂y) is the general infinitesimal
transformation of a group of point-transformations in the plane, and if y1, y2, ...
represent the successive differential coefficients of y, the infinitesimal
transformation may be written in the extended form

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
ξ +η + η1 + η2 + ...
∂x ∂y ∂y1 ∂y2

where η1δt, η2δt, ... are the increments of y1, y2, .... By including a sufficient
number of these variables the group must be intransitive in them, and must
therefore have one or more invariants. Such invariants are known as differential
invariants of the original group, being necessarily functions of the differential
coefficients of the original variables. For groups of the plane it may be shown
that not more than two of these differential invariants are independent, all others
being formed from these by algebraical processes and differentiation. For groups
of point-transformations in more than two variables there will be more than one
set of differential invariants. For instance, with three variables, one may be
regarded as independent and the other two as functions of it, or two as
independent and the remaining one as a function. Corresponding to these two
points of view, the differential invariants for a curve or for a surface will arise.

If a differential invariant of a continuous group of the plane be equated to
zero, the resulting differential equation remains unaltered when the variables
undergo any transformation of the group. Conversely, if an ordinary, differential
equation ƒ(x, y, y1, y2, ...) = 0 admits the transformations of a continuous group,
i.e. if the equation is unaltered when x and y undergo any transformation of the
group, then ƒ(x, y, y1, y2, ...) or some multiple of it must be a differential
invariant of the group. Hence it must be possible to find two independent

differential invariants α, β of the group, such that when these are taken as
variables the differential equation takes the form F(α, β, dβ/dα, d2β/dα2, ...) = 0.
This equation in α, β will be of lower order than the original equation, and in
general simpler to deal with. Supposing it solved in the form β = φ(α), where for
α, β their values in terms of x, y, y1, y2, ... are written, this new equation,
containing arbitrary constants, is necessarily again of lower order than the
original equation. The integration of the original equation is thus divided into
two steps. This will show how, in the case of an ordinary differential equation,
the fact that the equation admits a continuous group of transformations may be
taken advantage of for its integration.

The most important of the applications of continuous groups are to the theory
of systems of differential equations, both ordinary and partial; in fact, Lie states
that it was with a view to systematizing and advancing the general theory of
differential equations that he was led to the development of the theory of
continuous groups. It is quite impossible here to give any account of all that Lie
and his followers have done in this direction. An entirely new mode of regarding
the problem of the integration of a differential equation has been opened up, and
in the classification that arises from it all those apparently isolated types of
equations which in the older sense are said to be integrable take their proper
place. It may, for instance, be mentioned that the question as to whether Monge’s
method will apply to the integration of a partial differential equation of the
second order is shown to depend on whether or not a contact-transformation can
be found which will reduce the equation to either ∂2z/∂x2 = 0 or ∂2z/∂x∂y = 0. It
is in this direction that further advance in the theory of partial differential
equations must be looked for. Lastly, it may be remarked that one of the most
thorough discussions of the axioms of geometry hitherto undertaken is founded
entirely upon the theory of continuous groups.

Discontinuous Groups.

We go on now to the consideration of discontinuous groups. Although groups of
finite order are necessarily contained under this general head, it is convenient for
many reasons to deal with them separately, and it will therefore be assumed in the

present section that the number of operations in the group is not finite. Many large
classes of discontinuous groups have formed the subject of detailed investigation, but
a general formal theory of discontinuous groups can hardly be said to exist as yet. It
will thus be obvious that in considering discontinuous groups it is necessary to
proceed on different lines from those followed with continuous groups, and in fact to
deal with the subject almost entirely by way of example.

The consideration of a discontinuous group as arising from a set of
independent generating operations suggests a purely abstract point of view in
which any two simply isomorphic groups are indistinguishable. The number of
generating operations may be either finite or infinite, but the
Generating former case alone will be here considered. Suppose then that
operations. S1, S2, ..., Sn is a set of independent operations from which a
group G is generated. The general operation of the group will
be represented by the symbol SaαSbβ ... Sdδ, or Σ, where a, b, ..., d are chosen from
1, 2, ..., n, and α, β, ..., δ are any positive or negative integers. It may be assumed
that no two successive suffixes in Σ are the same, for if b = a, then SaαSbβ may be
replaced by Sα+βa. If there are no relations connecting the generating operations
and the identical operation, every distinct symbol Σ represents a distinct
operation of the group. For if Σ = Σ1, or SaαSbβ ... Sdδ = Sα1a1Sβ1b1 ... Sδ1d1, then S−δ1d1
... S−β1b1S−α1a1SaαSbβ ... Sdδ = 1; and unless a = a1, b = b1, ..., α = α1, β = β1, ..., this is
a relation connecting the generating operations.

Suppose now that T1, T2, ... are operations of G, and that H is that self-
conjugate subgroup of G which is generated by T1, T2, ... and the operations
conjugate to them. Then, of the operations that can be formed from S1, S2, ..., Sn,
the set ΣH, and no others, reduce to the same operation Σ when the conditions T1
= 1, T2 = 1, ... are satisfied by the generating operations. Hence the group which
is generated by the given operations, when subjected to the conditions just
written, is simply isomorphic with the factor-group G/H. Moreover, this is
obviously true even when the conditions are such that the generating operations
are no longer independent. Hence any discontinuous group may be defined
abstractly, that is, in regard to the laws of combination of its operations apart
from their actual form, by a set of generating operations and a system of

relations connecting them. Conversely, when such a set of operations and system
of relations are given arbitrarily they define in abstract form a single
discontinuous group. It may, of course, happen that the group so defined is a
group of finite order, or that it reduces to the identical operation only; but in
regard to the general statement these will be particular and exceptional cases.

An operation of a discontinuous group must necessarily be specified
analytically by a system of equations of the form
Properly and
improperly
x′s = ƒs (x1, x2, ..., xn; a1, a2, ..., ar), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),
discontinuous
and the different operations of the group will be given by
groups.
different sets of values of the parameters a1, a2, ..., ar. No one
of these parameters is susceptible of continuous variations,
but at least one must be capable of taking a number of values which is not finite,
if the group is not one of finite order. Among the sets of values of the parameters
there must be one which gives the identical transformation. No other
transformation makes each of the differences x′1 − x1, x′2 − x2, ..., x′n − xn
vanish. Let d be an arbitrary assigned positive quantity. Then if a transformation
of the group can be found such that the modulus of each of these differences is
less than d when the variables have arbitrary values within an assigned range of
variation, however small d may be chosen, the group is said to be improperly
discontinuous. In the contrary case the group is called properly discontinuous.
The range within which the variables are allowed to vary may clearly affect the
question whether a given group is properly or improperly discontinuous. For
instance, the group defined by the equation x′ = ax + b, where a and b are any
rational numbers, is improperly discontinuous; and the group defined by x′ = x +
a, where a is an integer, is properly discontinuous, whatever the range of the
variable. On the other hand, the group, to be later considered, defined by the
equation x′ = (ax + b) / (cx + d), where a, b, c, d are integers satisfying the
relation ad − bc = 1, is properly discontinuous when x may take any complex
value, and improperly discontinuous when the range of x is limited to real
values.

Among the discontinuous groups that occur in analysis, a large number may
be regarded as arising by imposing limitations on the range of variation of the

parameters of continuous groups. If

x′s = ƒs (x1, x2, ..., xn; a1, a2, ..., ar), (s = 1, 2, ..., n),

are the finite equations of a continuous group, and if C with parameters c1, c2, ...,
cr is the operation which results from carrying out A and B with corresponding
parameters in succession, then the c’s are determined uniquely by the a’s and the
b’s. If the c’s are rational functions of the a’s and b’s, and if the a’s and b’s are
arbitrary rational numbers of a given corpus (see Number), the c’s will be
rational numbers of the same corpus. If the c’s are rational integral functions of
the a’s and b’s, and the latter are arbitrarily chosen integers of a corpus, then the
c’s are integers of the same corpus. Hence in the first case the above equations,
when the a’s are limited to be rational numbers of a given corpus, will define a
discontinuous group; and in the second case they will define such a group when
the a’s are further limited to be integers of the corpus. A most
Linear important class of discontinuous groups are those that arise in
discontinuous this way from the general linear continuous group in a given
groups. set of variables. For n variables the finite equations of this
continuous group are

x′s = as1x1 + as2x2 + ... + asnxn, (s = 1, 2, ..., n),

where the determinant of the a’s must not be zero. In this case the c’s are clearly
integral lineo-linear functions of the a’s and b’s. Moreover, the determinant of
the c’s is the product of the determinant of the a’s and the determinant of the b’s.
Hence equations (ii.), where the parameters are restricted to be integers of a
given corpus, define a discontinuous group; and if the determinant of the
coefficients is limited to the value unity, they define a discontinuous group
which is a (self-conjugate) subgroup of the previous one.

The simplest case which thus presents itself is that in which there are two
variables while the coefficients are rational integers. This is the group defined by
the equations

x′ = ax + by,
y′ = cx + dy,

where a, b, c, d are integers such that ad − bc = 1. To every operation of this
group there corresponds an operation of the set defined by

az + b
z′ = ,
cz + d

in such a way that to the product of two operations of the group there
corresponds the product of the two analogous operations of the set. The
operations of the set (iv.), where ad − bc = 1, therefore constitute a group which
is isomorphic with the previous group. The isomorphism is multiple, since to a
single operation of the second set there correspond the two operations of the first
for which a, b, c, d and −a, −b, −c, −d are parameters. These two groups, which
are of fundamental importance in the theory of quadratic forms and in the theory
of modular functions, have been the object of very many investigations.

Another large class of discontinuous groups, which have far-reaching
applications in analysis, are those which arise in the first instance from purely
geometrical considerations. By the combination and repetition of a finite number
of geometrical operations such as displacements, projective
Discontinuous transformations, inversions, &c., a discontinuous group of
groups arising such operations will arise. Such a group, as regards the points
from geometrical of the plane (or of space), will in general be improperly
operations. discontinuous; but when the generating operations are
suitably chosen, the group may be properly discontinuous. In
the latter case the group may be represented in a graphical form by the division
of the plane (or space) into regions such that no point of one region can be
transformed into another point of the same region by any operation of the group,
while any given region can be transformed into any other by a suitable
transformation. Thus, let ABC be a triangle bounded by three circular arcs BC,
CA, AB; and consider the figure produced from ABC by inversions in the three
circles of which BC, CA, AB are part. By inversion at BC, ABC becomes an
equiangular triangle A′BC. An inversion in AB changes ABC and A′BC into
equiangular triangles ABC′ and A″BC′. Successive inversions at AB and BC
then will change ABC into a series of equiangular triangles with B for a common
vertex. These will not overlap and will just fill in the space round B if the angle
ABC is a submultiple of two right angles. If then the angles of ABC are

submultiples of two right angles (or zero), the triangles formed by any number
of inversions will never overlap, and to each operation consisting of a definite
series of inversions at BC, CA and AB will correspond a distinct triangle into
which ABC is changed by the operation. The network of triangles so formed
gives a graphical representation of the group that arises from the three inversions
in BC, CA, AB. The triangles may be divided into two sets, those, namely, like
A″BC′, which are derived from ABC by an even number of inversions, and those
like A′BC or ABC′ produced by an odd number. Each set are interchanged
among themselves by any even number of inversions. Hence the operations
consisting of an even number of inversions form a group by themselves. For this
group the quadrilateral formed by ABC and A′BC constitutes a region, which is
changed by every operation of the group into a distinct region (formed of two
adjacent triangles), and these regions clearly do not overlap. Their distribution
presents in a graphical form the group that arises by pairs of inversions at BC,
CA, AB; and this group is generated by the operation which consists of
successive inversions at AB, BC and that which consists of successive inversions
at BC, CA. The group defined thus geometrically may be presented in many
analytical forms. If x, y and x′, y′ are the rectangular co-ordinates of two points
which are inverse to each other with respect to a given circle, x′ and y′ are
rational functions of x and y, and conversely. Thus the group may be presented
in a form in which each operation gives a birational transformation of two
variables. If x + iy = z, x′ + iy′ = z′, and if x′, y′ is the point to which x, y is
transformed by any even number of inversions, then z′ and z are connected by a
linear relation z′ = (αz + β) / (γz + δ), where α, β, γ, δ are constants (in general
complex) depending on the circles at which the inversions are taken. Hence the
group may be presented in the form of a group of linear transformations of a
single variable generated by the two linear transformations z′ = (α1z + β1) / (γ1z
+ δ1), z′ = (α2z + β2) / (γ2z + δ2), which correspond to pairs of inversions at AB,
BC and BC, CA respectively. In particular, if the sides of the triangle are taken to
be x = 0, x2 + y2 − 1 = 0, x2 + y2 + 2x = 0, the generating operations are found to
be z′ = z + 1, z′ = −z−1; and the group is that consisting of all transformations of
the form z′ = (az + b) / (cz + d), where ad − bc = 1, a, b, c, d being integers. This
is the group already mentioned which underlies the theory of the elliptic modular

functions; a modular function being a function of z which is invariant for some
subgroup of finite index of the group in question.

The triangle ABC from which the above geometrical construction started may
be replaced by a polygon whose sides are circles. If each angle is a submultiple
of two right angles or zero, the construction is still effective to give a set of non-
overlapping regions, which represent graphically the group which arises from
pairs of inversions in the sides of the polygon. In their analytical form, as groups
of linear transformations of a single variable, the groups are those on which the
theory of automorphic functions depends. A similar construction in space, the
polygons bounded by circular arcs being replaced by polyhedra bounded by
spherical faces, has been used by F. Klein and Fricke to give a geometrical
representation for groups which are improperly discontinuous when represented
as groups of the plane.

The special classes of discontinuous groups that have been dealt with in the
previous paragraphs arise directly from geometrical
Group of a linear considerations. As a final example we shall refer briefly to a
differential class of groups whose origin is essentially analytical. Let
equation.
dny dn−1y dy
+ P1 + ... + Pn−1 + Pny = 0
dxn dxn−1 dx

be a linear differential equation, the coefficients in which are rational functions
of x, and let y1, y2, ..., yn be a linearly independent set of integrals of the
equation. In the neighbourhood of a finite value x0 of x, which is not a
singularity of any of the coefficients in the equation, these integrals are ordinary
power-series in x − x0. If the analytical continuations of y1, y2, ..., yn be formed
for any closed path starting from and returning to x0, the final values arrived at
when x0 is again reached will be another set of linearly independent integrals.
When the closed path contains no singular point of the coefficients of the
differential equation, the new set of integrals is identical with the original set. If,
however, the closed path encloses one or more singular points, this will not in
general be the case. Let y′1, y′2, ..., y′n be the new integrals arrived at. Since in

the neighbourhood of x0 every integral can be represented linearly in terms of y1,
y2, ..., yn, there must be a system of equations

y′1 = a11y1 + a12y2 + ... + a1nyn,
y′2 = a21y1 + a22y2 + ... + a2nyn,
· · · ·
y′n = an1y1 + an2y2 + ... + annyn,

where the a’s are constants, expressing the new integrals in terms of the original
ones. To each closed path described by x0 there therefore corresponds a definite
linear substitution performed on the y’s. Further, if S1 and S2 are the
substitutions that correspond to two closed paths L1 and L2, then to any closed
path which can be continuously deformed, without crossing a singular point, into
L1 followed by L2, there corresponds the substitution S1S2. Let L1, L2, ..., Lr be
arbitrarily chosen closed paths starting from and returning to the same point, and
each of them enclosing a single one of the (r) finite singular points of the
equation. Every closed path in the plane can be formed by combinations of these
r paths taken either in the positive or in the negative direction. Also a closed path
which does not cut itself, and encloses all the r singular points within it, is
equivalent to a path enclosing the point at infinity and no finite singular point. If
S1, S2, S3, ..., Sr are the linear substitutions that correspond to these r paths, then
the substitution corresponding to every possible path can be obtained by
combination and repetition of these r substitutions, and they therefore generate a
discontinuous group each of whose operations corresponds to a definite closed
path. The group thus arrived at is called the group of the equation. For a given
equation it is unique in type. In fact, the only effect of starting from another set
of independent integrals is to transform every operation of the group by an
arbitrary substitution, while choosing a different set of paths is equivalent to
taking a new set of generating operations. The great importance of the group of
the equation in connexion with the nature of its integrals cannot here be dealt
with, but it may be pointed out that if all the integrals of the equation are
algebraic functions, the group must be a group of finite order, since the set of
quantities y1, y2 ..., yn can then only take a finite number of distinct values.

Groups of Finite Order.

We shall now pass on to groups of finite order. It is clear that here we must have to
do with many properties which have no direct analogues in the theory of continuous
groups or in that of discontinuous groups in general; those properties, namely, which
depend on the fact that the number of distinct operations in the group is finite.

Let S1, S2, S3, ..., SN denote the operations of a group G of finite order N, S1
being the identical operation. The tableau

S1, S2, S3, ..., SN ,
S1S2, S2S2, S3S3, ..., SNS2,
S1S3, S2S3, S3S3, ..., SNS3,
· · · · ·
S1SN, S2SN, S3SN, ..., SN SN ,

when in it each compound symbol SpSq is replaced by the single symbol Sr that
is equivalent to it, is called the multiplication table of the group. It indicates
directly the result of multiplying together in an assigned sequence any number of
operations of the group. In each line (and in each column) of the tableau every
operation of the group occurs just once. If the letters in the tableau are regarded
as mere symbols, the operation of replacing each symbol in the first line by the
symbol which stands under it in the pth line is a permutation performed on the
set of N symbols. Thus to the N lines of the tableau there corresponds a set of N
permutations performed on the N symbols, which includes the identical
permutation that leaves each unchanged. Moreover, if SpSq = Sr, then the result
of carrying out in succession the permutations which correspond to the pth and
qth lines gives the permutation which corresponds to the rth line. Hence the set
of permutations constitutes a group which is simply isomorphic with the given
group.

Every group of finite order N can therefore be represented in concrete form as
a transitive group of permutations on N symbols.

The order of any subgroup or operation of G is necessarily finite. If T1(= S1),
T2, ..., Tn are the operations of a subgroup H of G, and if Σ is any operation of G
which is not contained in H, the set of operations ΣT1, ΣT2,
Properties of a ..., ΣTn, or ΣH, are all distinct from each other and from the
group which
operations of H. If the sets H and ΣH do not exhaust the
depend on the
operations of G, and if Σ′ is an operation not belonging to
order.
them, then the operations of the set Σ′H are distinct from each
other and from those of H and ΣH. This process may be
continued till the operations of G are exhausted. The order n of H must therefore
be a factor of the order N of G. The ratio N/n is called the index of the subgroup
H. By taking for H the cyclical subgroup generated by any operation S of G, it
follows that the order of S must be a factor of the order of G.

Every operation S is permutable with its own powers. Hence there must be
some subgroup H of G of greatest possible order, such that every operation of H
is permutable with S. Every operation of H transforms S into itself, and every
operation of the set HΣ transforms S into the same operation. Hence, when S is
transformed by every operation of G, just N/n distinct operations arise if n is the
order of H. These operations, and no others, are conjugate to S within G; they
are said to form a set of conjugate operations. The number of operations in every
conjugate set is therefore a factor of the order of G. In the same way it may be
shown that the number of subgroups which are conjugate to a given subgroup is
a factor of the order of G. An operation which is permutable with every
operation of the group is called a self-conjugate operation. The totality of the
self-conjugate operations of a group forms a self-conjugate Abelian subgroup,
each of whose operations is permutable with every operation of the group.

An Abelian group contains subgroups whose orders are any given factors of
the order of the group. In fact, since every subgroup H of an Abelian group G
and the corresponding factor groups G/H are Abelian, this
Sylow’s theorem. result follows immediately by an induction from the case in
which the order contains n prime factors to that in which it
contains n + 1. For a group which is not Abelian no general law can be stated as
to the existence or non-existence of a subgroup whose order is an arbitrarily
assigned factor of the order of the group. In this connexion the most important

general result, which is independent of any supposition as to the order of the
group, is known as Sylow’s theorem, which states that if pa is the highest power
of a prime p which divides the order of a group G, then G contains a single
conjugate set of subgroups of order pa, the number in the set being of the form 1
+ kp. Sylow’s theorem may be extended to show that if pa′ is a factor of the order
of a group, the number of subgroups of order pa′ is of the form 1 + kp. If,
however, pa′ is not the highest power of p which divides the order, these groups
do not in general form a single conjugate set.

The importance of Sylow’s theorem in discussing the structure of a group of
given order need hardly be insisted on. Thus, as a very simple instance, a group
whose order is the product p1p2 of two primes (p1 < p2) must have a self-
conjugate subgroup of order p2, since the order of the group contains no factor,
other than unity, of the form 1 + kp2. The same again is true for a group of order
p12p2, unless p1 = 2, and p2 = 3.

There is one other numerical property of a group connected with its order
which is quite general. If N is the order of G, and n a factor of N, the number of
operations of G, whose orders are equal to or are factors of n, is a multiple of n.

As already defined, a composite group is a group which contains one or more
self-conjugate subgroups, whose orders are greater than unity. If H is a self-
conjugate subgroup of G, the factor-group G/H may be either
Composition-series simple or composite. In the former case G can contain no self-
of a group. conjugate subgroup K, which itself contains H; for if it did
K/H would be a self-conjugate subgroup of G/H. When G/H
is simple, H is said to be a maximum self-conjugate subgroup of G. Suppose
now that G being a given composite group, G, G1, G2, ..., Gn, 1 is a series of
subgroups of G, such that each is a maximum self-conjugate subgroup of the
preceding; the last term of the series consisting of the identical operation only.
Such a series is called a composition-series of G. In general it is not unique,
since a group may have two or more maximum self-conjugate subgroups. A
composition-series of a group, however it may be chosen, has the property that
the number of terms of which it consists is always the same, while the factor-
groups G/G1, G1/G2, ..., Gn differ only in the sequence in which they occur. It

should be noticed that though a group defines uniquely the set of factor-groups
that occur in its composition-series, the set of factor-groups do not conversely in
general define a single type of group. When the orders of all the factor-groups
are primes the group is said to be soluble.

If the series of subgroups G, H, K, ..., L, 1 is chosen so that each is the
greatest self-conjugate subgroup of G contained in the previous one, the series is
called a chief composition-series of G. All such series derived from a given
group may be shown to consist of the same number of terms, and to give rise to
the same set of factor-groups, except as regards sequence. The factor-groups of
such a series will not, however, necessarily be simple groups. From any chief
composition-series a composition-series may be formed by interpolating
between any two terms H and K of the series for which H/K is not a simple
group, a number of terms h1, h2, ..., hr; and it may be shown that the factor-
groups H/h1, h1/h2, ..., hr/K are all simply isomorphic with each other.

A group may be represented as isomorphic with itself by transforming all its
operations by any one of them. In fact, if SpSq = Sr, then S−1SpS·S−1SqS =
S−1SrS. An isomorphism of the group with itself, established
Isomorphism of a in this way, is called an inner isomorphism. It may be
group with itself. regarded as an operation carried out on the symbols of the
operations, being indeed a permutation performed on these
symbols. The totality of these operations clearly constitutes a group isomorphic
with the given group, and this group is called the group of inner isomorphisms.
A group is simply or multiply isomorphic with its group of inner isomorphisms
according as it does not or does contain self-conjugate operations other than
identity. It may be possible to establish a correspondence between the operations
of a group other than those given by the inner isomorphisms, such that if S′ is
the operation corresponding to S, then S′pS′q = S′r is a consequence of SpSq = Sr.
The substitution on the symbols of the operations of a group resulting from such
a correspondence is called an outer isomorphism. The totality of the
isomorphisms of both kinds constitutes the group of isomorphisms of the given
group, and within this the group of inner isomorphisms is a self-conjugate
subgroup. Every set of conjugate operations of a group is necessarily

transformed into itself by an inner isomorphism, but two or more sets may be
interchanged by an outer isomorphism.

A subgroup of a group G, which is transformed into itself by every
isomorphism of G, is called a characteristic subgroup. A series of groups G, G1,
G2, ..., 1, such that each is a maximum characteristic subgroup of G contained in
the preceding, may be shown to have the same invariant properties as the
subgroups of a composition series. A group which has no characteristic subgroup
must be either a simple group or the direct product of a number of simply
isomorphic simple groups.

It has been seen that every group of finite order can be represented as a group
of permutations performed on a set of symbols whose number is equal to the
order of the group. In general such a representation is possible
Permutation- with a smaller number of symbols. Let H be a subgroup of G,
groups. and let the operations of G be divided, in respect of H, into
the sets H, S2H, S3H, ..., SmH. If S is any operation of G, the
sets SH, SS2H, SS3H, ..., SSmH differ from the previous sets only in the
sequence in which they occur. In fact, if SSp belong to the set SqH, then since H
is a group, the set SSpH is identical with the set SqH. Hence, to each operation S
of the group will correspond a permutation performed on the symbols of the m
sets, and to the product of two operations corresponds the product of the two
analogous permutations. The set of permutations, therefore, forms a group
isomorphic with the given group. Moreover, the isomorphism is simple unless
for one or more operations, other than identity, the sets all remain unaltered. This
can only be the case for S, when every operation conjugate to S belongs to H. In
this case H would contain a self-conjugate subgroup, and the isomorphism is
multiple.

The fact that every group of finite order can be represented, generally in
several ways, as a group of permutations, gives special importance to such
groups. The number of symbols involved in such a representation is called the
degree of the group. In accordance with the general definitions already given, a
permutation-group is called transitive or intransitive according as it does or does
not contain permutations changing any one of the symbols into any other. It is

called imprimitive or primitive according as the symbols can or cannot be
arranged in sets, such that every permutation of the group changes the symbols
of any one set either among themselves or into the symbols of another set. When
a group is imprimitive the number of symbols in each set must clearly be the
same.

The total number of permutations that can be performed on n symbols is n!,
and these necessarily constitute a group. It is known as the symmetric group of
degree n, the only rational functions of the symbols which are unaltered by all
possible permutations being the symmetric functions. When any permutation is
carried out on the product of the n(n − 1)/2, differences of the n symbols, it must
either remain unaltered or its sign must be changed. Those permutations which
leave the product unaltered constitute a group of order n!/2, which is called the
alternating group of degree n; it is a self-conjugate subgroup of the symmetric
group. Except when n = 4 the alternating group is a simple group. A group of
degree n, which is not contained in the alternating group, must necessarily have
a self-conjugate subgroup of index 2, consisting of those of its permutations
which belong to the alternating group.

Among the various concrete forms in which a group of finite order can be
presented the most important is that of a group of linear
Groups of linear substitutions. Such groups have already been referred to in
substitutions. connexion with discontinuous groups. Here the number of
distinct substitutions is necessarily finite; and to each
operation S of a group G of finite order there will correspond a linear
substitution s, viz.

xi = Σj=mj=1 sij xj (i, j = 1, 2, ..., m),

on a set of m variables, such that if ST = U, then st = u. The linear substitutions
s, t, u, ... then constitute a group g with which G is isomorphic; and whether the
isomorphism is simple or multiple g is said to give a “representation” of G as a
group of linear substitutions. If all the substitutions of g are transformed by the
same substitution on the m variables, the (in general) new group of linear
substitutions so constituted is said to be “equivalent” with g as a representation

of G; and two representations are called “non-equivalent,” or “distinct,” when
one is not capable of being transformed into the other.

A group of linear substitutions on m variables is said to be “reducible” when it
is possible to choose m′ (< m) linear functions of the variables which are
transformed among themselves by every substitution of the group. When this
cannot be done the group is called “irreducible.” It can be shown that a group of
linear substitutions, of finite order, is always either irreducible, or such that the
variables, when suitably chosen, may be divided into sets, each set being
irreducibly transformed among themselves. This being so, it is clear that when
the irreducible representations of a group of finite order are known, all
representations may be built up.

It has been seen at the beginning of this section that every group of finite
order N can be presented as a group of permutations (i.e. linear substitutions in a
limited sense) on N symbols. This group is obviously reducible; in fact, the sum
of the symbols remain unaltered by every substitution of the group. The
fundamental theorem in connexion with the representations, as an irreducible
group of linear substitutions, of a group of finite order N is the following.

If r is the number of different sets of conjugate operations in the group, then,
when the group of N permutations is completely reduced,

(i.) just r distinct irreducible representations occur:

(ii.) each of these occurs a number of times equal to the number of symbols on
which it operates:

(iii.) these irreducible representations exhaust all the distinct irreducible
representations of the group.

Among these representations what is called the “identical” representation
necessarily occurs, i.e. that in which each operation of the group corresponds to
leaving a single symbol unchanged. If these representations are denoted by Γ1,
Γ2, ..., Γr, then any representation of the group as a group of linear substitutions,
or in particular as a group of permutations, may be uniquely represented by a

symbol ΣαiΓi, in the sense that the representation when completely reduced will
contain the representation Γi just αi times for each suffix i.

A representation of a group of finite order as an irreducible group of linear
substitutions may be presented in an infinite number of
Group equivalent forms. If
characteristics.
x′i = Σsij xj (i, j = 1, 2, ..., m),

is the linear substitution which, in a given irreducible representation of a group
of finite order G, corresponds to the operation S, the determinant

s11 − λ s12 ... s1m
s21 s22 − λ ... s2m
. . ... .
. . ... .
. . ... .
sm1 s2m ... smm − λ

is invariant for all equivalent representations, when written as a polynomial in λ.
Moreover, it has the same value for S and S′, if these are two conjugate
operations in G. Of the various invariants that thus arise the most important is
s11 + s22 + ... + smm, which is called the “characteristic” of S. If S is an operation
of order p, its characteristic is the sum of m pth roots of unity; and in particular,
if S is the identical operation its characteristic is m. If r is the number of sets of
conjugate operations in G, there is, for each representation of G as an irreducible
group, a set of r characteristics: X1, X2, ... Xr, one corresponding to each
conjugate set; so that for the r irreducible representations just r such sets of
characteristics arise. These are distinct, in the sense that if Ψ1, Ψ2, ..., Ψr are the
characteristics for a distinct representation from the above, then Xi and Ψi are
not equal for all values of the suffix i. It may be the case that the r characteristics
for a given representation are all real. If this is so the representation is said to be
self-inverse. In the contrary case there is always another representation, called
the “inverse” representation, for which each characteristic is the conjugate

imaginary of the corresponding one in the original representation. The
characteristics are subject to certain remarkable relations. If hp denotes the
number of operations in the pth conjugate set, while Xip, and Xjp are the
characteristics of the pth conjugate set in Γi and Γj, then

Σp=rp=1 hp Xip Xjp = 0 or n,
according to Γi and Γj are not or are inverse representations, n being the order of
G.

Again

Σi=ri=1 Xip Xiq = 0 or n/hp
according as the pth and qth conjugate sets are not or are inverse; the qth set
being called the inverse of the pth if it consists of the inverses of the operations
constituting the pth.

Another form in which every group of finite order can be represented is that
known as a linear homogeneous group. If in the equations
Linear
homogeneous
x′r = ar1x1 + ar2x2 + ... + armxm, (r = 1, 2, ..., m),
groups.
which define a linear homogeneous substitution, the
coefficients are integers, and if the equations are replaced by
congruences to a finite modulus n, the system of congruences will give a definite
operation, provided that the determinant of the coefficients is relatively prime to
n. The product of two such operations is another operation of the same kind; and
the total number of distinct operations is finite, since there is only a limited
number of choices for the coefficients. The totality of these operations, therefore,
constitutes a group of finite order; and such a group is known as a linear
homogeneous group. If n is a prime the order of the group is

(nm − 1) (nm − n) ... (nm − nm−1).

The totality of the operations of the linear homogeneous group for which the
determinant of the coefficients is congruent to unity forms a subgroup. Other
subgroups arise by considering those operations which leave a function of the

variables unchanged (mod. n). All such subgroups are known as linear
homogeneous groups.

When the ratios only of the variables are considered, there arises a linear
fractional group, with which the corresponding linear homogeneous group is
isomorphic. Thus, if p is a prime the totality of the congruences

az + b
z′ ≡ , ad − bc ≠ 0, (mod. p)
cz + d

constitutes a group of order p(p2 − 1). This class of groups for various values of
p is almost the only one which has been as yet exhaustively analysed. For all
values of p except 3 it contains a simple self-conjugate subgroup of index 2.

A great extension of the theory of linear homogeneous groups has been made
in recent years by considering systems of congruences of the form

x′r ≡ ar1x1 + ar2x2 + ... + armxm, (r = 1, 2, ..., m),

in which the coefficients ars, are integral functions with real integral coefficients
of a root of an irreducible congruence to a prime modulus. Such a system of
congruences is obviously limited in numbers and defines a group which contains
as a subgroup the group defined by the same congruences with ordinary integral
coefficients.

The chief application of the theory of groups of finite order is to the theory of
algebraic equations. The analogy of equations of the second, third and fourth
degrees would give rise to the expectation that a root of an
Applications. equation of any finite degree could be expressed in terms of
the coefficients by a finite number of the operations of
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and the extraction of roots; in
other words, that the equation could be solved by radicals. This, however, as
proved by Abel and Galois, is not the case: an equation of a higher degree than
the fourth in general defines an algebraic irrationality which cannot be expressed
by means of radicals, and the cases in which such an equation can be solved by
radicals must be regarded as exceptional. The theory of groups gives the means
of determining whether an equation comes under this exceptional case, and of

solving the equation when it does. When it does not, the theory provides the
means of reducing the problem presented by the equation to a normal form.
From this point of view the theory of equations of the fifth degree has been
exhaustively treated, and the problems presented by certain equations of the
sixth and seventh degrees have actually been reduced to normal form.

Galois (see Equation) showed that, corresponding to every irreducible
equation of the nth degree, there exists a transitive substitution-group of degree
n, such that every function of the roots, the numerical value of which is
unaltered by all the substitutions of the group can be expressed rationally in
terms of the coefficients, while conversely every function of the roots which is
expressible rationally in terms of the coefficients is unaltered by the substitutions
of the group. This group is called the group of the equation. In general, if the
equation is given arbitrarily, the group will be the symmetric group. The
necessary and sufficient condition that the equation may be soluble by radicals is
that its group should be a soluble group. When the coefficients in an equation are
rational integers, the determination of its group may be made by a finite number
of processes each of which involves only rational arithmetical operations. These
processes consist in forming resolvents of the equation corresponding to each
distinct type of subgroup of the symmetric group whose degree is that of the
equation. Each of the resolvents so formed is then examined to find whether it
has rational roots. The group corresponding to any resolvent which has a rational
root contains the group of the equation; and the least of the groups so found is
the group of the equation. Thus, for an equation of the fifth degree the various
transitive subgroups of the symmetric group of degree five have to be
considered. These are (i.) the alternating group; (ii.) a soluble group of order 20;
(iii.) a group of order 10, self-conjugate in the preceding; (iv.) a cyclical group of
order 5, self-conjugate in both the preceding. If x0, x1, x2, x3, x4 are the roots of
the equation, the corresponding resolvents may be taken to be those which have
for roots (i.) the square root of the discriminant; (ii.) the function (x0x1 + x1x2 +
x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0) (x0x2 + x2x4 + x4x1 + x1x3 + x3x0); (iii.) the function x0x1 +
x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0; and (iv.) the function x02x1 + x12x2 + x22x3 + x32x4 +
x42x0. Since the groups for which (iii.) and (iv.) are invariant are contained in
that for which (ii.) is invariant, and since these are the only soluble groups of the

set, the equation will be soluble by radicals only when the function (ii.) can be
expressed rationally in terms of the coefficients. If

(x0x1 + x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0) (x0x2 + x2x4 + x4x1 + x1x3 + x3x0)

is known, then clearly x0x1 + x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0 can be determined by the
solution of a quadratic equation. Moreover, the sum and product (x0 + εx1 + ε2x2
+ ε3x3 + ε4x4)5 and (x0 + ε4x1 + ε3x2 + ε2x3 + εx4)5 can be expressed rationally
in terms of x0x1 + x1x2 + x2x3 + x3x4 + x4x0, ε, and the symmetric functions; ε
being a fifth root of unity. Hence (x0 + εx1 + ε2x2 + ε3x3 + ε4X4)5 can be
determined by the solution of a quadratic equation. The roots of the original
equation are then finally determined by the extraction of a fifth root. The
problem of reducing an equation of the fifth degree, when not soluble by
radicals, to a normal form, forms the subject of Klein’s Vorlesungen über das
Ikosaeder. Another application of groups of finite order is to the theory of linear
differential equations whose integrals are algebraic functions. It has been already
seen, in the discussion of discontinuous groups in general, that the groups of
such equations must be groups of finite order. To every group of finite order
which can be represented as an irreducible group of linear substitutions on n
variables will correspond a class of irreducible linear differential equations of
the nth order whose integrals are algebraic. The complete determination of the
class of linear differential equations of the second order with all their integrals
algebraic, whose group has the greatest possible order, viz. 120, has been carried
out by Klein.

Authorities.—Continuous groups: Lie and Engel, Theorie der
Transformationsgruppen (Leipzig, vol. i., 1888; vol. ii., 1890; vol. iii., 1893);
Lie and Scheffers, Vorlesungen über gewöhnliche Differentialgleichungen mit
bekannten infinitesimalen Transformationen (Leipzig, 1891); Idem, Vorlesungen
über continuierliche Gruppen (Leipzig, 1893); Idem, Geometrie der
Berührungstransformationen (Leipzig, 1896); Klein and Schilling, Höhere
Geometrie, vol. ii. (lithographed) (Göttingen, 1893, for both continuous and
discontinuous groups). Campbell, Introductory Treatise on Lie’s Theory of Finite
Continuous Transformation Groups (Oxford, 1903). Discontinuous groups:
Klein and Fricke, Vorlesungen über die Theorie der elliptischen

Modulfunktionen (vol. i., Leipzig, 1890) (for a full discussion of the modular
group); Idem, Vorlesungen über die Theorie der automorphen Funktionen (vol.
i., Leipzig, 1897; vol. ii. pt. i., 1901) (for the general theory of discontinuous
groups); Schoenflies, Krystallsysteme und Krystallstruktur (Leipzig, 1891) (for
discontinuous groups of motions); Groups of finite order: Galois, Œuvres
mathématiques (Paris, 1897, reprint); Jordan, Traité des substitutions et des
équations algébriques (Paris, 1870); Netto, Substitutionentheorie und ihre
Anwendung auf die Algebra (Leipzig, 1882; Eng. trans. by Cole, Ann Arbor,
U.S.A., 1892); Klein, Vorlesungen über das Ikosaeder (Leipzig, 1884; Eng.
trans. by Morrice, London, 1888); H. Vogt, Leçons sur la résolution algébrique
des équations (Paris, 1895); Weber, Lehrbuch der Algebra (Braunschweig, vol.
i., 1895; vol. ii., 1896; a second edition appeared in 1898); Burnside, Theory of
Groups of Finite Order (Cambridge, 1897); Bianchi, Teoria dei gruppi di
sostituzioni e delle equazioni algebriche (Pisa, 1899); Dickson, Linear Groups
with an Exposition of the Galois Field Theory (Leipzig, 1901); De Séguier,
Éléments de la théorie des groupes abstraits (Paris, 1904), A summary with
many references will be found in the Encyklopädie der mathematischen
Wissenschaften (Leipzig, vol. i., 1898, 1899).

( )

1 The word “group,” which appears first in English in the sense of an assemblage of
figures in an artistic design, picture, &c., is adapted from the Fr. groupe, which is to be
referred to the Teutonic word meaning “knot,” “mass,” “bunch,” represented in English by
“crop” (q.v.). The technical mathematical sense is not older than 1870.

GROUSE, a word of uncertain origin,1 now used generally by
ornithologists to include all the “rough-footed” Gallinaceous birds, but in
common speech applied almost exclusively, when used alone, to the Tetrao
scoticus of Linnaeus, the Lagopus scoticus of modern systematists—more
particularly called in English the red grouse, but till the end of the 18th
century almost invariably spoken of as the Moor-fowl or Moor-game. The
effect which this species is supposed to have had on the British legislature,
and therefore on history, is well known, for it was the common belief that
parliament always rose when the season for grouse-shooting began (August
12th); while according to the Orkneyinga Saga (ed. Jonaeus, p. 356; ed.
Anderson, p. 168) events of some importance in the annals of North Britain
followed from its pursuit in Caithness in the year 1157.

The red grouse is found on moors from Monmouthshire and Derbyshire
northward to the Orkneys, as well as in most of the Hebrides. It inhabits
similar situations throughout Wales and Ireland, but it does not naturally
occur beyond the limits of the British Islands,2 and is the only species
among birds peculiar to them. The word “species” may in this case be used
advisedly (since the red grouse invariably “breeds true,” it admits of an easy
diagnosis, and it has a definite geographical range); but scarcely any
zoologist can doubt of its common origin with the willow-grouse, Lagopus

albus (L. subalpinus or L. saliceti of some authors), that inhabits a subarctic
zone from Norway across the continents of Europe and Asia, as well as
North America from the Aleutian Islands to Newfoundland. The red grouse
indeed is rarely or never found away from the heather on which chiefly it
subsists; while the willow-grouse in many parts of the Old World seems to
prefer the shrubby growth of berry-bearing plants (Vaccinium and others)
that, often thickly interspersed with willows and birches, clothes the higher
levels or the lower mountain-slopes, and it flourishes in the New World
where heather scarcely exists, and a “heath” in its strict sense is unknown. It
is true that the willow-grouse always becomes white in winter, which the
red grouse never does; but in summer there is a considerable resemblance
between the two species, the cock willow-grouse having his head, neck and
breast of nearly the same rich chestnut-brown as his British representative,
and, though his back be lighter in colour, as is also the whole plumage of
his mate, than is found in the red grouse, in other respects the two species
are precisely alike. No distinction can be discovered in their voice, their
eggs, their build, nor in their anatomical details, so far as these have been
investigated and compared.3 Moreover, the red grouse, restricted as is its
range, varies in colour not inconsiderably according to locality.

Red Grouse.

Though the red grouse does not, after the manner of other members of
the genus Lagopus, become white in winter, Scotland possesses a species of
the genus which does. This is the ptarmigan, L. mutus or L. alpinus, which
differs far more in structure, station and habits from the red grouse than that
does from the willow-grouse, and in Scotland is far less abundant, haunting
only the highest and most barren mountains. It is said to have formerly
inhabited both Wales and England, but there is no evidence of its
appearance in Ireland. On the continent of Europe it is found most
numerously in Norway, but at an elevation far above the growth of trees,
and it occurs on the Pyrenees and on the Alps. It also inhabits northern
Russia. In North America, Greenland and Iceland it is represented by a very
nearly allied form—so much so indeed that it is only at certain seasons that
the slight difference between them can be detected. This form is the L.

rupestris of authors, and it would appear to be found also in Siberia (Ibis,
1879, p. 148). Spitzbergen is inhabited by a large form which has received
recognition as L. hemileucurus, and the northern end of the chain of the
Rocky Mountains is tenanted by a very distinct species, the smallest and
perhaps the most beautiful of the genus, L. leucurus, which has all the
feathers of the tail white.

Ptarmigan.

Blackcock.

The bird, however, to which the name of grouse in all strictness belongs
is probably the Tetrao tetrix of Linnaeus—the blackcock and greyhen, as
the sexes are respectively called. It is distributed over most of the heath-
country of England, except in East Anglia, where attempts to introduce it
have been only partially successful. It also occurs in North Wales and very
generally throughout Scotland, though not in Orkney, Shetland or the Outer
Hebrides, nor in Ireland. On the continent of Europe it has a very wide
range, and it extends into Siberia. In Georgia its place is taken by a distinct
species, on which a Polish naturalist (Proc. Zool. Society, 1875, p. 267) has
conferred the name of T. mlokosiewiczi. Both these birds have much in
common with their larger congener the capercally and its eastern
representative.

The species of the genus Bonasa, of which the European B. sylvestris is
the type, does not inhabit the British Islands. It is perhaps the most delicate
game-bird that comes to table. It is the gelinotte of the French, the
Haselhuhn of Germans, and Hjerpe of Scandinavians. Like its transatlantic
congener B. umbellus, the ruffed grouse or birch-partridge (of which there
are two other local forms, B. umbelloides and B. sabinii), it is purely a
forest-bird. The same may be said of the species of Canace, of which two
forms are found in America, C. canadensis, the spruce-partridge, and C.
franklini, and also of the Siberian C. falcipennis. Nearly allied to these birds
is the group known as Dendragapus, containing three large and fine forms
D. obscurus, D. fuliginosus, and D. richardsoni—all peculiar to North
America. Then there are Centrocercus urophasianus, the sage-cock of the
plains of Columbia and California, and Pedioecetes, the sharp-tailed grouse,
with its two forms, P. phasianellus and P. columbianus, while finally
Cupidonia, the prairie-hen, also with two local forms, C. cupido and C.
pallidicincta, is a bird that in the United States of America possesses
considerable economic value, enormous numbers being consumed there,
and also exported to Europe.

The various sorts of grouse are nearly all figured in Elliot’s
Monograph of the Tetraoninae, and an excellent account of the
American species is given in Baird, Brewer and Ridgway’s North
American Birds (iii. 414-465). See also Shooting.
(A. N.)

1 It seems first to occur (O. Salusbury Brereton, Archaeologia, iii. 157) as “grows” in
an ordinance for the regulation of the royal household dated “apud Eltham, mens. Jan. 22
Hen. VIII.,” i.e. 1531, and considering the locality must refer to black game. It is found in
an Act of Parliament 1 Jac. I. cap. 27, § 2, i.e. 1603, and, as reprinted in the Statutes at
Large, stands as now commonly spelt, but by many writers or printers the final e was
omitted in the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1611 Cotgrave had “Poule griesche. A Moore-
henne; the henne of the Grice [in ed. 1673 “Griece”] or Mooregame” (Dictionarie of the
French and English Tongues, s.v. Poule). The most likely derivation seems to be from the

old French word griesche, greoche or griais (meaning speckled, and cognate with griseus,
grisly or grey), which was applied to some kind of partridge, or according to Brunetto
Latini (Trés. p. 211) to a quail, “porce que ele fu premiers trovée en Grece.” The Oxford
Dictionary repudiates the possibility of “grouse” being a spurious singular of an alleged
plural “grice,” and, with regard to the possibility of “grows” being a plural of “grow,”
refers to Giraldus Cambrensis (c. 1210), Topogr. Hib. opera (Rolls) v. 47: “gallinae
campestres, quas vulgariter grutas vocant.”

2 It was successfully, though with much trouble, introduced by Mr Oscar Dickson on a
tract of land near Gottenburg in Sweden (Svenska Jägarförbundets Nya Tidskrift, 1868, p.
64 et alibi).

3 A very interesting subject for discussion would be whether Lagopus scoticus or L.
albus has varied most from the common stock of both. Looking to the fact that the former
is the only species of the genus which does not assume white clothing in winter, an
evolutionist might at first deem the variation greatest in its case; but then it must be borne
in mind that the species of Lagopus which turn white differ in that respect from all other
groups of the family Tetraonidae. Furthermore every species of Lagopus (even L. leucurus,
the whitest of all) has its first set of remiges coloured brown. These are dropped when the
bird is about half-grown, and in all the species but L. scoticus white remiges are then
produced. If therefore the successive phases assumed by any animal in the course of its
progress to maturity indicate the phases through which the species has passed, there may
have been a time when all the species of Lagopus wore a brown livery even when adult,
and the white dress donned in winter has been imposed upon the wearers by causes that can
be easily suggested. The white plumage of the birds of this group protects them from
danger during the snows of a protracted winter. But the red grouse, instead of perpetuating
directly the more ancient properties of an original Lagopus that underwent no great
seasonal change of plumage, may derive its ancestry from the widely-ranging willow-
grouse, which in an epoch comparatively recent (in the geological sense) may have stocked
Britain, and left descendants that, under conditions in which the assumption of a white garb
would be almost fatal to the preservation of the species, have reverted (though doubtless
with some modifications) to a comparative immutability essentially the same as that of the
primal Lagopus.

GROVE, SIR GEORGE (1820-1900), English writer on music, was
born at Clapham on the 13th of August 1820. He was articled to a civil
engineer, and worked for two years in a factory near Glasgow. In 1841 and
1845 he was employed in the West Indies, erecting lighthouses in Jamaica
and Bermuda. In 1849 he became secretary to the Society of Arts, and in
1852 to the Crystal Palace. In this capacity his natural love of music and
enthusiasm for the art found a splendid opening, and he threw all the weight
of his influence into the task of promoting the best music of all schools in
connexion with the weekly and daily concerts at Sydenham, which had a
long and honourable career under the direction of Mr (afterwards Sir)
August Manns. Without Sir George Grove that eminent conductor would
hardly have succeeded in doing what he did to encourage young composers
and to educate the British public in music. Grove’s analyses of the
Beethoven symphonies, and the other works presented at the concerts, set
the pattern of what such things should be; and it was as a result of these,
and of the fact that he was editor of Macmillan’s Magazine from 1868 to
1883, that the scheme of his famous Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
published from 1878 to 1889 (new edition, edited by J. A. Fuller Maitland,
1904-1907), was conceived and executed. His own articles in that work on
Beethoven, Mendelssohn and Schubert are monuments of a special kind of
learning, and that the rest of the book is a little thrown out of balance owing
to their great length is hardly to be regretted. Long before this he had
contributed to the Dictionary of the Bible, and had promoted the foundation
of the Palestine Exploration Fund. On a journey to Vienna, undertaken in
the company of his lifelong friend, Sir Arthur Sullivan, the important
discovery of a large number of compositions by Schubert was made,
including the music to Rosamunde. When the Royal College of Music was
founded in 1882 he was appointed its first director, receiving the honour of
knighthood. He brought the new institution into line with the most useful
European conservatoriums. On the completion of the new buildings in 1894

he resigned the directorship, but retained an active interest in the institution
to the end of his life. He died at Sydenham on the 28th of May 1900.

His life, a most interesting one, was written by Mr Charles Graves.
(J. A. F. M.)

GROVE, SIR WILLIAM ROBERT (1811-1896), English judge and
man of science, was born on the 11th of July 1811 at Swansea, South Wales.
After being educated by private tutors, he went to Brasenose College,
Oxford, where he took an ordinary degree in 1832. Three years later he was
called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn. His health, however, did not allow him to
devote himself strenuously to practice, and he occupied his leisure with
scientific studies. About 1839 he constructed the platinum-zinc voltaic cell
that bears his name, and with the aid of a number of these exhibited the
electric arc light in the London Institution, Finsbury Circus. The result was
that in 1840 the managers appointed him to the professorship of
experimental philosophy, an office which he held for seven years. His
researches dealt very largely with electro-chemistry and with the voltaic
cell, of which he invented several varieties. One of these, the Grove gas-
battery, which is of special interest both intrinsically and as the forerunner
of the secondary batteries now in use for the “storage” of electricity, was
based on his observation that a current is produced by a couple of platinum
plates standing in acidulated water and immersed, the one in hydrogen, the
other in oxygen. At one of his lectures at the Institution he anticipated the
electric lighting of to-day by illuminating the theatre with incandescent
electric lamps, the filaments being of platinum and the current supplied by a

battery of his nitric acid cells. In 1846 he published his famous book on The
Correlation of Physical Forces, the leading ideas of which he had already
put forward in his lectures: its fundamental conception was that each of the
forces of nature—light, heat, electricity, &c.—is definitely and equivalently
convertible into any other, and that where experiment does not give the full
equivalent, it is because the initial force has been dissipated, not lost, by
conversion into other unrecognized forces. In the same year he received a
Royal medal from the Royal Society for his Bakerian lecture on “Certain
phenomena of voltaic ignition and the decomposition of water into its
constituent gases.” In 1866 he presided over the British Association at its
Nottingham meeting and delivered an address on the continuity of natural
phenomena. But while he was thus engaged in scientific research, his legal
work was not neglected, and his practice increased so greatly that in 1853
he became a Q.C. One of the best-known cases in which he appeared as an
advocate was that of William Palmer, the Rugeley poisoner, whom he
defended. In 1871 he was made a judge of the Common Pleas in succession
to Sir Robert Collier, and remained on the bench till 1887. He died in
London on the 1st of August 1896.

A selection of his scientific papers is given in the sixth edition of The
Correlation of Physical Forces, published in 1874.

GROVE (O.E. graf, cf. O.E. græfa, brushwood, later “greave”; the word
does not appear in any other Teutonic language, and the New English
Dictionary finds no Indo-European root to which it can be referred; Skeat
considers it connected with “grave,” to cut, and finds the original meaning

to be a glade cut through a wood), a small group or cluster of trees, growing
naturally and forming something smaller than a wood, or planted in
particular shapes or for particular purposes, in a park, &c. Groves have been
connected with religious worship from the earliest times, and in many parts
of India every village has its sacred group of trees. For the connexion of
religion with sacred groves see Tree-Worship.

The word “grove” was used by the authors of the Authorized Version
of the Bible to translate two Hebrew words: (1) ’ēshel, as in Gen. xxi.
33, and 1 Sam. xxii. 6; this is rightly given in the Revised Version as
“tamarisk”; (2) asherah in many places throughout the Old Testament.
Here the translators followed the Septuagint ἄλσος and the Vulgate
lucus. The ’ăshéráh was a wooden post erected at the Canaanitish
places of worship, and also by the altars of Yahweh. It may have
represented a tree.

GROZNYI, a fortress and town of Russia, North Caucasia, in the
province of Terek, on the Zunzha river, 82 m. by rail N.E. of Vladikavkaz,
on the railway to Petrovsk. There are naphtha wells close by. The
fortifications were constructed in 1819. Pop. (1897) 15,599.

GRUB, the larva of an insect, a caterpillar, maggot. The word is formed
from the verb “to grub,” to dig, break up the surface of the ground, and
clear of stumps, roots, weeds, &c. According to the New English
Dictionary, “grub” may be referred to an ablaut variant of the Old Teutonic
grab-, to dig, cf. “grave.” Skeat (Etym. Dict. 1898) refers it rather to the
root seen in “grope,” “grab,” &c., the original meaning “to search for.” The
earliest quotation of the slang use of the word in the sense of food in the
New English Dictionary is dated 1659 from Ancient Poems, Ballads, &c.,
Percy Society Publications. “Grub-street,” as a collective term for needy
hack-writers, dates from the 17th century and is due to the name of a street
near Moorfields, London, now Milton Street, which was as Johnson says
“much inhabited by writers of small histories, dictionaries and temporary
poems.”

GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1774-1851), German critic and
literary historian, was born at Naumburg on the Saale, on the 29th of
November 1774. He received his education at the town school of Naumburg
and the university of Leipzig, after which he resided successively at
Göttingen, Leipzig, Jena and Weimar, occupying himself partly in teaching
and partly in various literary enterprises, and enjoying in Weimar the
friendship of Herder, Wieland and Goethe. In 1811 he was appointed
professor at the university of Wittenberg, and after the division of Saxony
he was sent by the senate to Berlin to negotiate the union of the university
of Wittenberg with that of Halle. After the union was effected he became in
1815 professor of philosophy at Halle. He was associated with Johann

Samuel Ersch in the editorship of the great work Allgemeine Encyklopädie
der Wissenschaften und Künste; and after the death of Ersch he continued
the first section from vol. xviii. to vol. liv. He also succeeded Ersch in the
editorship of the Allgemeine Literaturzeitung. He died on the 7th of August
1851.

Gruber was the author of a large number of works, the principal of
which are Charakteristik Herders (Leipzig, 1805), in conjunction with
Johann T. L. Danz (1769-1851), afterwards professor of theology at
Jena; Geschichte des menschlichen Geschlechts (2 vols., Leipzig,
1806); Wörterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie (3 vols., Weimar,
1810-1815); Wielands Leben (2 parts, Weimar, 1815-1816), and
Klopstocks Leben (Weimar, 1832). He also edited Wieland’s Sämtliche
Werke (Leipzig, 1818-1828).

GRUMBACH, WILHELM VON (1503-1567), German adventurer,
chiefly known through his connexion with the so-called “Grumbach feuds”
(Grumbachsche Händel), the last attempt of the German knights to destroy
the power of the territorial princes. A member of an old Franconian family,
he was born on the 1st of June 1503, and having passed some time at the
court of Casimir, prince of Bayreuth (d. 1527), fought against the peasants
during the rising in 1524 and 1525. About 1540 Grumbach became
associated with Albert Alcibiades, the turbulent prince of Bayreuth, whom
he served both in peace and war. After the conclusion of the peace of Passau
in 1552, Grumbach assisted Albert in his career of plunder in Franconia and
was thus able to take some revenge upon his enemy, Melchior von Zobel,

bishop of Würzburg. As a landholder Grumbach was a vassal of the bishops
of Würzburg, and had held office at the court of Conrad of Bibra, who was
bishop from 1540 to 1544. When, however, Zobel was chosen to succeed
Conrad the harmonious relations between lord and vassal were quickly
disturbed. Unable to free himself and his associates from the suzerainty of
the bishop by appealing to the imperial courts he decided to adopt more
violent measures, and his friendship with Albert was very serviceable in this
connexion. Albert’s career, however, was checked by his defeat at
Sievershausen in July 1553 and his subsequent flight into France, and the
bishop took advantage of this state of affairs to seize Grumbach’s lands.
The knight obtained an order of restitution from the imperial court of justice
(Reichskammergericht), but he was unable to carry this into effect; and in
April 1558 some of his partisans seized and killed the bishop. Grumbach
declared he was innocent of this crime, but his story was not believed, and
he fled to France. Returning to Germany he pleaded his cause in person
before the diet at Augsburg in 1559, but without success. Meanwhile he had
found a new patron in John Frederick, duke of Saxony, whose father, John
Frederick, had been obliged to surrender the electoral dignity to the
Albertine branch of his family. Chafing under this deprivation the duke
listened readily to Grumbach’s plans for recovering the lost dignity,
including a general rising of the German knights and the deposition of
Frederick II., king of Denmark. Magical charms were employed against the
duke’s enemies, and communications from angels were invented which
helped to stir up the zeal of the people. In 1563 Grumbach attacked
Würzburg, seized and plundered the city and compelled the chapter and the
bishop to restore his lands. He was consequently placed under the imperial
ban, but John Frederick refused to obey the order of the emperor
Maximilian II. to withdraw his protection from him. Meanwhile Grumbach
sought to compass the assassination of the Saxon elector, Augustus;
proclamations were issued calling for assistance; and alliances both without

and within Germany were concluded. In November 1566 John Frederick
was placed under the ban, which had been renewed against Grumbach
earlier in the year, and Augustus marched against Gotha. Assistance was not
forthcoming, and a mutiny led to the capitulation of the town. Grumbach
was delivered to his foes, and, after being tortured, was executed at Gotha
on the 18th of April 1567.

See F. Ortloff, Geschichte der Grumbachschen Händel (Jena, 1868-
1870), and J. Voigt, Wilhelm von Grumbach und seine Händel (Leipzig,
1846-1847).

GRUMENTUM, an ancient town in the centre of Lucania, 33 m. S. of
Potentia by the direct road through Anxia, and 52 m. by the Via Herculia, at
the point of divergence of a road eastward to Heraclea. It seems to have
been a native Lucanian town, not a Greek settlement. In 215 b.c. the
Carthaginian general Hanno was defeated under its walls, and in 207 b.c.
Hannibal made it his headquarters. In the Social War it appears as a strong
fortress, and seems to have been held by both sides at different times. It
became a colony, perhaps in the time of Sulla, at latest under Augustus, and
seems to have been of some importance. Its site, identified by Holste from
the description of the martyrdom of St Laverius, is a ridge on the right bank
of the Aciris (Agri) about 1960 ft. above sea-level, ½ m. below the modern
Saponara, which lies much higher (2533 ft.). Its ruins (all of the Roman
period) include those of a large amphitheatre (arena 205 by 197 ft.), the
only one in Lucania, except that at Paestum. There are also remains of a
theatre. Inscriptions record the repair of its town walls and the construction

of thermae (of which remains were found) in 57-51 b.c., the construction in
43 b.c., of a portico, remains of which may be seen along an ancient road, at
right angles to the main road, which traversed Grumentum from S. to N.

See F. P. Caputi in Notizie degli scavi (1877), 129, and G. Patroni,
ibid. (1897) 180.
(T. As.)

GRÜN. Hans Baldung (c. 1470-1545), commonly called Grün, a
German painter of the age of Dürer, was born at Gmünd in Swabia, and
spent the greater part of his life at Strassburg and Freiburg in Breisgau. The
earliest pictures assigned to him are altarpieces with the monogram H. B.
interlaced, and the date of 1496, in the monastery chapel of Lichtenthal near
Baden. Another early work is a portrait of the emperor Maximilian, drawn
in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the print-room at Carlsruhe. The
“Martyrdom of St Sebastian” and the “Epiphany” (Berlin Museum), fruits
of his labour in 1507, were painted for the market-church of Halle in
Saxony. In 1509 Grün purchased the freedom of the city of Strassburg, and
resided there till 1513, when he moved to Freiburg in Breisgau. There he
began a series of large compositions, which he finished in 1516, and placed
on the high altar of the Freiburg cathedral. He purchased anew the freedom
of Strassburg in 1517, resided in that city as his domicile, and died a
member of its great town council 1545.

Though nothing is known of Grün’s youth and education, it may be
inferred from his style that he was no stranger to the school of which Dürer
was the chief. Gmünd is but 50 m. distant on either side from Augsburg and

Nuremberg. Grün prints were often mistaken for those of Dürer; and Dürer
himself was well acquainted with Grün’s woodcuts and copper-plates in
which he traded during his trip to the Netherlands (1520). But Grün’s prints,
though Düreresque, are far below Dürer, and his paintings are below his
prints. Without absolute correctness as a draughtsman, his conception of
human form is often very unpleasant, whilst a questionable taste is shown in
ornament equally profuse and “baroque.” Nothing is more remarkable in his
pictures than the pug-like shape of the faces, unless we except the
coarseness of the extremities. No trace is apparent of any feeling for
atmosphere or light and shade. Though Grün has been commonly called the
Correggio of the north, his compositions are a curious medley of glaring
and heterogeneous colours, in which pure black is contrasted with pale
yellow, dirty grey, impure red and glowing green. Flesh is a mere glaze
under which the features are indicated by lines. His works are mainly
interesting because of the wild and fantastic strength which some of them
display. We may pass lightly over the “Epiphany” of 1507, the
“Crucifixion” of 1512, or the “Stoning of Stephen” of 1522, in the Berlin
Museum. There is some force in the “Dance of Death” of 1517, in the
museum of Basel, or the “Madonna” of 1530, in the Liechtenstein Gallery
at Vienna. Grün’s best effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg, where the
“Coronation of the Virgin,” and the “Twelve Apostles,” the “Annunciation,
Visitation, Nativity and Flight into Egypt,” and the “Crucifixion,” with
portraits of donors, are executed with some of that fanciful power which
Martin Schön bequeathed to the Swabian school. As a portrait painter he is
well known. He drew the likeness of Charles V., as well as that of
Maximilian; and his bust of Margrave Philip in the Munich Gallery tells us
that he was connected with the reigning family of Baden as early as 1514.
At a later period he had sittings from Margrave Christopher of Baden,
Ottilia his wife, and all their children, and the picture containing these
portraits is still in the grand-ducal gallery at Carlsruhe. Like Dürer and

Cranach, Grün became a hearty supporter of the Reformation. He was
present at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, and one of his woodcuts represents
Luther under the protection of the Holy Ghost, which hovers over him in
the shape of a dove.

GRÜNBERG, a town of Germany, in Prussian Silesia, beautifully
situated between two hills on an affluent of the Oder, and on the railway
from Breslau to Stettin via Küstrin, 36 m. N.N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1905)
20,987. It has a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a modern
school and a technical (textiles) school. There are manufactures of cloth,
paper, machinery, straw hats, leather and tobacco. The prosperity of the
town depends chiefly on the vine culture in the neighbourhood, from which,
besides the exportation of a large quantity of grapes, about 700,000 gallons
of wine are manufactured annually.

GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK SEVERIN (1783-1872),
Danish poet, statesman and divine, was born at the parsonage of Udby in
Zealand on the 8th of September 1783. In 1791 he was sent to live at the
house of a priest in Jutland, and studied at the free school of Aarhuus until
he went up to the university of Copenhagen in 1800. At the close of his
university life he made Icelandic his special study, until in 1805 he took the

position of tutor in a house on the island of Langeland. The next three years
were spent in the study of Shakespeare, Schiller and Fichte. His cousin, the
philosopher Henrik Steffens, had returned to Copenhagen in 1802 full of the
teaching of Schelling and his lectures and the early poetry of Öhlenschläger
opened the eyes of Grundtvig to the new era in literature. His first work, On
the Songs in the Edda, attracted no attention. Returning to Copenhagen in
1808 he achieved greater success with his Northern Mythology, and again
in 1809-1811 with a long epic poem, the Decline of the Heroic Life in the
North. The boldness of the theological views expressed in his first sermon
in 1810 offended the ecclesiastical authorities, and he retired to a country
parish as his father’s assistant for a while. From 1812 to 1817 he published
five or six works, of which the Rhyme of Roskilde is the most remarkable.
From 1816 to 1819 he was editor of a polemical journal entitled
Dannevirke, and in 1818 to 1822 appeared his Danish paraphrases (6 vols.)
of Saxo Grammaticus and Snorri. During these years he was preaching
against rationalism to an enthusiastic congregation in Copenhagen, but he
accepted in 1821 the country living of Praestö, only to return to the
metropolis the year after. In 1825 he published a pamphlet, The Church’s
Reply, against H. N. Clausen, who was professor of theology in the
university of Copenhagen. Grundtvig was publicly prosecuted and fined,
and for seven years he was forbidden to preach, years which he spent in
publishing a collection of his theological works, in paying two visits to
England, and in studying Anglo-Saxon. In 1832 he obtained permission to
preach again, and in 1839 he became priest of the workhouse church of
Vartov hospital, Copenhagen, a post he continued to hold until his death. In
1837-1841 he published Songs for the Danish Church, a rich collection of
sacred poetry; in 1838 he brought out a selection of early Scandinavian
verse; in 1840 he edited the Anglo-Saxon poem of the Phoenix, with a
Danish translation. He visited England a third time in 1843. From 1844
until after the first German war Grundtvig took a very prominent part in

politics. In 1861 he received the titular rank of bishop, but without a see. He
went on writing occasional poems till 1866, and preached in the Vartov
every Sunday until a month before his death. His preaching attracted large
congregations, and he soon had a following. His hymn-book effected a
great change in Danish church services, substituting the hymns of the
national poets for the slow measures of the orthodox Lutherans. The chief
characteristic of his theology was the substitution of the authority of the
“living word” for the apostolic commentaries, and he desired to see each
congregation a practically independent community. His patriotism was
almost a part of his religion, and he established popular schools where the
national poetry and history should form an essential part of the instruction.
His followers are known as Grundtvigians. He was married three times, the
last time in his seventy-sixth year. He died on the 2nd of September 1872.
Grundtvig holds a unique position in the literature of his country; he has
been styled the Danish Carlyle. He was above all things a man of action,
not an artist; and the formless vehemence of his writings, which have had a
great influence over his own countrymen, is hardly agreeable or intelligible
to a foreigner. The best of his poetical works were published in a selection
(7 vols., 1880-1889) by his eldest son, Svend Hersleb Grundtvig (1824-
1883), who was an authority on Scandinavian antiquities, and made an
admirable collection of old Danish poetry (Danmarks gamle Folkeviser,
1853-1883, 5 vols.; completed in 1891 by A. Olrik).

His correspondence with Ingemann was edited by S. Grundtvig
(1882); his correspondence with Christian Molbech by L. Schröder
(1888); see also F. Winkel Horn, Grundtvigs Liv og Gjerning (1883);
and an article by F. Nielsen in Bricka’s Dansk Biografisk Lexikon.

GRUNDY, SYDNEY (1848- ), English dramatist, was born at
Manchester on the 23rd of March 1848, son of Alderman Charles Sydney
Grundy. He was educated at Owens College, Manchester, and was called to
the bar in 1869, practising in Manchester until 1876. His farce, A Little
Change, was produced at the Haymarket Theatre in 1872. He became well
known as an adapter of plays, among his early successes in this direction
being The Snowball (Strand Theatre, 1879) from Oscar, ou le mari qui
trompe sa femme by MM. Scribe and Duvergne, and In Honour Bound
(1880) from Scribe’s Une Chaîne. In 1887 he made a popular success with
The Bells of Haslemere, written with Mr H. Pettitt and produced at the
Adelphi. In 1889-1890 he produced two ingenious original comedies, A
White Lie (Court Theatre) and A Fool’s Paradise (Gaiety Theatre), which
had been played two years earlier at Greenwich as The Mouse-Trap. These
were followed by Sowing the Wind (Comedy, 1893), An Old Jew (Garrick,
1894), and by an adaptation of Octave Feuillet’s Montjoye as A Bunch of
Violets (Haymarket, 1894). In 1894 he produced The New Woman and The
Slaves of the Ring; in 1895, The Greatest of These, played by Mr and Mrs
Kendal at the Garrick Theatre; The Degenerates (Haymarket, 1899), and A
Debt of Honour (St James’s 1900). Among Mr Grundy’s most successful
adaptations were the charming Pair of Spectacles (Garrick, 1890) from Les
Petits Oiseaux of MM. Labiche and Delacour. Others were A Village Priest
(Haymarket, 1890) from Le Secret de la terreuse, a melodrama by MM.
Busnach and Cauvin; A Marriage of Convenience (Haymarket, 1897) from
Un Mariage de Louis XV, by Alex. Dumas, père, The Silver Key (Her
Majesty’s, 1897) from his Mlle de Belle-isle, and The Musqueteers (1899)
from the same author’s novel; Frocks and Frills (Haymarket, 1902) from
the Doigts de fées of MM. Scribe and Legouvé; The Garden of Lies (St
James’s Theatre, 1904) from Mr Justus Miles Forman’s novel; Business is
Business (His Majesty’s Theatre, 1905), a rather free adaptation from

Octave Mirbeau’s Les Affaires sont les affaires; and The Diplomatists
(Royalty Theatre, 1905) from La Poudre aux yeux, by Labiche.

GRUNDY, MRS, the name of an imaginary English character, who
typifies the disciplinary control of the conventional “proprieties” of society
over conduct, the tyrannical pressure of the opinion of neighbours on the
acts of others. The name appears in a play of Thomas Morton, Speed the
Plough (1798), in which one of the characters, Dame Ashfield, continually
refers to what her neighbour Mrs Grundy will say as the criterion of
respectability. Mrs Grundy is not a character in the play, but is a kind of
“Mrs Harris” to Dame Ashfield.

GRUNER, GOTTLIEB SIGMUND (1717-1778), the author of the first
connected attempt to describe in detail the snowy mountains of Switzerland.
His father, Johann Rudolf Gruner (1680-1761), was pastor of Trachselwald,
in the Bernese Emmenthal (1705), and later (1725) of Burgdorf, and a great
collector of information relating to historical and scientific matters; his
great Thesaurus topographico-historicus totius ditionis Bernensis (4 vols.
folio, 1729-1730) still remains in MS., but in 1732 he published a small
work entitled Deliciae urbis Bernae, while he possessed an extensive
cabinet of natural history objects. Naturally such tastes had a great

influence on the mind of his son, who was born at Trachselwald, and
educated by his father and at the Latin school at Burgdorf, not going to
Berne much before 1736, when he published a dissertation on the use of fire
by the heathen. In 1739 he qualified as a notary, in 1741 became the
archivist of Hesse-Homburg, and in 1743 accompanied Prince Christian of
Anhalt-Schaumburg to Silesia and the university of Halle. He returned to
his native land before 1749, when he obtained a post at Thorberg, being
transferred in 1764 to Landshut and Fraubrunnen. It was in 1760 that he
published in 3 vols. at Berne his chief work, Die Eisgebirge des
Schweizerlandes (bad French translation by M. de Kéralio, Paris, 1770).
The first two volumes are filled by a detailed description of the snowy
Swiss mountains, based not so much on personal experience as on older
works, and a very large number of communications received by Gruner
from numerous friends; the third volume deals with glaciers in general, and
their various properties. Though in many respects imperfect, Gruner’s book
sums up all that was known on the subject in his day, and forms the
starting-point for later writers. The illustrations are very curious and
interesting. In 1778 he republished (nominally in London, really at Berne)
much of the information contained in his larger work, but thrown into the
form of letters, supposed to be written in 1776 from various spots, under the
title of Reisen durch die merkwürdigsten Gegenden Helvetiens (2 vols.).
(W. A. B. C.)

GRÜNEWALD, MATHIAS. The accounts which are given of this
German painter, a native of Aschaffenburg, are curiously contradictory.
Between 1518 and 1530, according to statements adopted by Waagen and

Passavant, he was commissioned by Albert of Brandenburg, elector and
archbishop of Mainz, to produce an altarpiece for the collegiate church of St
Maurice and Mary Magdalen at Halle on the Saale; and he acquitted
himself of this duty with such cleverness that the prelate in after years
caused the picture to be rescued from the Reformers and brought back to
Aschaffenburg. From one of the churches of that city it was taken to the
Pinakothek of Munich in 1836. It represents St Maurice and Mary
Magdalen between four saints, and displays a style so markedly
characteristic, and so like that of Lucas Cranach, that Waagen was induced
to call Grünewald Cranach’s master. He also traced the same hand and
technical execution in the great altarpieces of Annaberg and Heilbronn, and
in various panels exhibited in the museums of Mainz, Darmstadt,
Aschaffenburg, Vienna and Berlin. A later race of critics, declining to
accept the statements of Waagen and Passavant, affirm that there is no
documentary evidence to connect Grünewald with the pictures of Halle and
Annaberg, and they quote Sandrart and Bernhard Jobin of Strassburg to
show that Grünewald is the painter of pictures of a different class. They
prove that he finished before 1516 the large altarpiece of Issenheim, at
present in the museum of Colmar, and starting from these premises they
connect the artist with Altdorfer and Dürer to the exclusion of Cranach.
That a native of the Palatinate should have been asked to execute pictures
for a church in Saxony can scarcely be accounted strange, since we observe
that Hans Baldung (Grün) was entrusted with a commission of this kind.
But that a painter of Aschaffenburg should display the style of Cranach is
strange and indeed incredible, unless vouched for by first-class evidence. In
this case documents are altogether wanting, whilst on the other hand it is
beyond the possibility of doubt, even according to Waagen, that the
altarpiece of Issenheim is the creation of a man whose teaching was
altogether different from that of the painter of the pictures of Halle and
Annaberg. The altarpiece of Issenheim is a fine and powerful work,

completed as local records show before 1516 by a Swabian, whose
distinguishing mark is that he followed the traditions of Martin Schongauer,
and came under the influence of Altdorfer and Dürer. As a work of art the
altarpiece is important, being a poliptych of eleven panels, a carved central
shrine covered with a double set of wings, and two side pieces containing
the Temptation of St Anthony, the hermits Anthony and Paul in converse,
the Virgin adored by Angels, the Resurrection, the Annunciation, the
Crucifixion, St Sebastian, St Anthony, and the Marys wailing over the dead
body of Christ. The author of these compositions is also the painter of a
series of monochromes described by Sandrart in the Dominican convent,
and now in part in the Saalhof at Frankfort, and a Resurrection in the
museum of Basel, registered in Amerbach’s inventory as the work of
Grünewald.

GRUTER (or Gruytère), JAN (1560-1627), a critic and scholar of
Dutch parentage by his father’s side and English by his mother’s, was born
at Antwerp on the 3rd of December 1560. To avoid religious persecution his
parents while he was still young came to England; and for some years he
prosecuted his studies at Cambridge, after which he went to Leiden, where
he graduated M. A. In 1586 he was appointed professor of history at
Wittenberg, but as he refused to subscribe the formula concordiae he was
unable to retain his office. From 1589 to 1592 he taught at Rostock, after
which he went to Heidelberg, where in 1602 he was appointed librarian to
the university. He died at Heidelberg on the 20th of September 1627.

Gruter’s chief works were his Inscriptiones antiquae totius orbis
Romani (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1603), and Lampas, sive fax artium
liberalium (7 vols., Frankfort, 1602-1634).

GRUYÈRE (Ger. Greyerz), a district in the south-eastern portion of the
Swiss canton of Fribourg, famed for its cattle and its cheese, and the
original home of the “Ranz des Vaches,” the melody by which the herdsmen
call their cows home at milking time. It is composed of the middle reach
(from Montbovon to beyond Bulle) of the Sarine or Saane valley, with its
tributary glens of the Hongrin (left), the Jogne (right) and the Trême (left),
and is a delightful pastoral region (in 1901 it contained 17,364 cattle). It
forms an administrative district of the canton of Fribourg, its population in
1900 being 23,111, mainly French-speaking and Romanists. From
Montbovon (11 m. by rail from Bulle) there are mountain railways leading
S.W. past Les Avants to Montreux (14 m.), and E. up the Sarine valley past
Château d’Oex to Saanen or Gessenay (14 m.), and by a tunnel below a low
pass to the Simme valley and Spiez on the Lake of Thun. The modern
capital of the district is the small town of Bulle [Ger. Boll], with a 13th-
century castle and in 1900 3330 inhabitants, French-speaking and
Romanists. But the historical capital is the very picturesque little town of
Gruyères (which keeps its final “s” in order to distinguish it from the
district), perched on a steep hill (S.E. of Bulle) above the left bank of the
Sarine, and at a height of 2713 ft. above the sea-level. It is only accessible
by a rough carriage road, and boasts of a very fine old castle, at the foot of
which is the solitary street of the town, which in 1900 had 1389 inhabitants.

The castle was the seat of the counts of the Gruyère, who are first
mentioned in 1073. The name is said to come from the word gruyer,
meaning the officer of woods and forests, but the counts bore the canting
arms of a crane (grue), which are seen all over the castle and the town. That
valiant family ended (in the legitimate line) with Count Michel (d. 1575)
whose extravagance and consequent indebtedness compelled him in 1555 to
sell his domains to Bern and Fribourg. Bern took the upper Sarine valley (it
still keeps Saanen at its head, but in 1798 lost the Pays d’En-Haut to the
canton du Léman, which in 1803 became the canton of Vaud). Fribourg
took the rest of the county, which it added to Bulle and Albeuve (taken in
1537 from the bishop of Lausanne), and to the lordship of Jaun in the Jaun
or Jogne valley (bought in 1502-1504 from its lords), in order to form the
present administrative district of Gruyère, which is not co-extensive with
the historical county of that name.

See the materials collected by J. J. Hisely and published in
successive vols. of the Mémoires et documents de la suisse romande ...
introa. à l’hist. (1851); Histoire (2 vols., 1855-1857); and Monuments
de l’histoire (2 vols., 1867-1869); K. V. von Bonstetten, Briefe über ein
schweiz. Hirtenland (1781) (Eng. trans., 1784); J. Reichlen, La
Gruyère illustrée (1890), seq.; H. Raemy, La Gruyère (1867); and Les
Alpes fribourgeoises, by many authors (Lausanne, 1908).
(W. A. B. C.)

GRYNAEUS (or Gryner), JOHANN JAKOB (1540-1617), Swiss
Protestant divine, was born on the 1st of October 1540 at Bern. His father,

Thomas (1512-1564), was for a time professor of ancient languages at
Basel and Bern, but afterwards became pastor of Röteln in Baden. He was
nephew of the more eminent Simon Grynaeus (q.v.). Johann was educated
at Basel, and in 1559 received an appointment as curate to his father. In
1563 he proceeded to Tübingen for the purpose of completing his
theological studies, and in 1565 he returned to Röteln as successor to his
father. Here he felt compelled to abjure the Lutheran doctrine of the Lord’s
Supper, and to renounce the formula concordiae. Called in 1575 to the chair
of Old Testament exegesis at Basel, he became involved in unpleasant
controversy with Simon Sulzer and other champions of Lutheran
orthodoxy; and in 1584 he was glad to accept an invitation to assist in the
restoration of the university of Heidelberg. Returning to Basel in 1586, after
Simon Sulzer’s death, as antistes or superintendent of the church there and
as professor of the New Testament, he exerted for upwards of twenty-five
years a considerable influence upon both the church and the state affairs of
that community, and acquired a wide reputation as a skilful theologian of
the school of Ulrich Zwingli. Amongst other labours he helped to
reorganize the gymnasium in 1588. Five years before his death he became
totally blind, but continued to preach and lecture till his death on the 13th of
August 1617.

His many works include commentaries on various books of the Old
and New Testament, Theologica theoremata el problemata (1588), and
a collection of patristic literature entitled Monumenta S. patrum
orthodoxographa (2 vols., fol., 1569).

GRYNAEUS, SIMON (1493-1541), German scholar and theologian of
the Reformation, son of Jacob Gryner, a Swabian peasant, was born in 1493
at Vehringen, in Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. He adopted the name Grynaeus
from the epithet of Apollo in Virgil. He was a schoolfellow with
Melanchthon at Pforzheim, whence he went to the university of Vienna,
distinguishing himself there as a Latinist and Grecian. His appointment as
rector of a school at Buda was of no long continuance; his views excited the
zeal of the Dominicans and he was thrown into prison. Gaining his freedom
at the instance of Hungarian magnates, he visited Melanchthon at
Wittenberg, and in 1524 became professor of Greek at the university of
Heidelberg, being in addition professor of Latin from 1526. His Zwinglian
view of the Eucharist disturbed his relations with his Catholic colleagues.
From 1526 he had corresponded with Oecolampadius, who in 1529 invited
him to Basel, which Erasmus had just left. The university being
disorganized, Grynaeus pursued his studies, and in 1531 visited England for
research in libraries. A commendatory letter from Erasmus gained him the
good offices of Sir Thomas More. He returned to Basel charged with the
task of collecting the opinions of continental reformers on the subject of
Henry VIII.’s divorce, and was present at the death of Oecolampadius (Nov.
24, 1531). He now, while holding the chair of Greek, was appointed
extraordinary professor of theology, and gave exegetical lectures on the
New Testament. In 1534 Duke Ulrich called him to Württemberg in aid of
the reformation there, as well as for the reconstitution of the university of
Tübingen, which he carried out in concert with Ambrosius Blarer of
Constanz. Two years later he had an active hand in the so-called First
Helvetic Confession (the work of Swiss divines at Basel in January 1536);
also in the conferences which urged the Swiss acceptance of the Wittenberg
Concord (1536). At the Worms conference (1540) between Catholics and
Protestants he was the sole representative of the Swiss churches, being
deputed by the authorities of Basel. He was carried off suddenly in his

prime by the plague at Basel on the 1st of August 1541. A brilliant scholar,
a mediating theologian, and personally of lovable temperament, his
influence was great and wisely exercised. Erasmus and Calvin were among
his correspondents. His chief works were Latin versions of Plutarch,
Aristotle and Chrysostom.

His son Samuel (1539-1599) was professor of jurisprudence at Basel. His
nephew Thomas (1512?-1564) was professor at Basel and minister in
Baden, and left four distinguished sons of whom Johann Jakob (1540-1617)
was a leader in the religious affairs of Basel. The last of the direct
descendants of Simon Grynaeus was his namesake Simon (1725-1799),
translator into German of French and English anti-deistical works, and
author of a version of the Bible in modern German (1776).

See Bayle’s Dictionnaire; W. T. Streuber in Hauck’s
Realencyklopädie (1899); and for bibliography, Streuber’s S. Grynaei
epistolae (1847).
(A. Go.*)

GRYPHIUS, ANDREAS (1616-1664), German lyric poet and dramatist,
was born on the 11th of October 1616, at Grossglogau in Silesia, where his
father was a clergyman. The family name was Greif, latinized, according to
the prevailing fashion, as Gryphius. Left early an orphan and driven from
his native town by the troubles of the Thirty Years’ War, he received his
schooling in various places, but notably at Fraustadt, where he enjoyed an
excellent classical education. In 1634 he became tutor to the sons of the
eminent jurist Georg von Schönborn (1579-1637), a man of wide culture

and considerable wealth, who, after filling various administrative posts and
writing many erudite volumes on law, had been rewarded by the emperor
Ferdinand II. with the title and office of imperial count-palatine (Pfalzgraf).
Schönborn, who recognized Gryphius’s genius, crowned him poëta
laureatus, gave him the diploma of master of philosophy, and bestowed on
him a patent of nobility, though Gryphius never used the title. A month
later, on the 23rd of December 1637, Schönborn died; and next year
Gryphius went to continue his studies at Leiden, where he remained six
years, both hearing and delivering lectures. Here he fell under the influence
of the great Dutch dramatists, Pieter Cornelissen Hooft (1581-1647) and
Joost van den Vondel (1587-1679), who largely determined the character of
his later dramatic works. After travelling in France, Italy and South
Germany, Gryphius settled in 1647 at Fraustadt, where he began his
dramatic work, and in 1650 was appointed syndic of Glogau, a post he held
until his death on the 16th of July 1664. A short time previously he had
been admitted under the title of “The Immortal” into the Fruchtbringende
Gesellschaft, a literary society, founded in 1617 by Ludwig, prince of
Anhalt-Köthen on the model of the Italian academies.

Gryphius was a man of morbid disposition, and his melancholy
temperament, fostered by the misfortunes of his childhood, is largely
reflected in his lyrics, of which the most famous are the Kirchhofsgedanken
(1656). His best works are his comedies, one of which, Absurda Comica,
oder Herr Peter Squentz (1663), is evidently based on the comic episode of
Pyramus and Thisbe in The Midsummer Night’s Dream. Die geliebte
Dornrose (1660), which is written in a Silesian dialect, contains many
touches of natural simplicity and grace, and ranks high among the
comparatively small number of German dramas of the 17th century.
Horribilicribrifax (1663), founded on the Miles gloriosus of Plautus, is a
rather laboured attack on pedantry. Besides these three comedies, Gryphius
wrote five tragedies. In all of them his tendency is to become wild and

bombastic, but he had the merit of at least attempting to work out
artistically conceived plans, and there are occasional flashes both of passion
and of imagination. His models seem to have been Seneca and Vondel. He
had the courage, in Carolus Stuardus (1649) to deal with events of his own
day; his other tragedies are Leo Armenius (1646); Katharina von Georgien
(1657), Cardenio und Celinde (1657) and Papinianus (1663). No German
dramatic writer before him had risen to so high a level, nor had he worthy
successors until about the middle of the 18th century.

A complete edition of Gryphius’s dramas and lyric poetry has been
published by H. Palm in the series of the Stuttgart Literarische Verein
(3 vols., 1878, 1882, 1884). Volumes of selected works will be found in
W. Muller’s Bibliothek der deutschen Dichter des 17ten Jahrhunderts
(1822) and in J. Tittmann’s Deutsche Dichter des 17ten Jahrhunderts
(1870). There is also a good selection by H. Palm in Kürschner’s
Deutsche Nationalliteratur.

See O. Klopp, Andreas Gryphius als Dramatiker (1851); J.
Hermann, Über Andreas Gryphius (1851); T. Wissowa, Beiträge zur
Kenntnis von Andreas Gryphius’ Leben und Schriften (1876); J.
Wysocki, Andreas Gryphius et la tragédie allemande au XVIIe siècle;
and V. Mannheimer, Die Lyrik des Andreas Gryphius (1904).

GUACHARO (said to be an obsolete Spanish word signifying one that
cries, moans or laments loudly), the Spanish-American name of what
English writers call the oil-bird, the Steatornis caripensis of ornithologists,

a very remarkable bird, first described by Alexander von Humboldt (Voy.
aux rég. équinoxiales i. 413, Eng. trans. iii. 119; Obs. Zoologie ii. 141, pl.
xliv.) from his own observation and from examples obtained by Aimé J. A.
Bonpland, on the visit of those two travellers, in September 1799, to a cave
near Caripé (at that time a monastery of Aragonese Capuchins) some forty
miles S.E. of Cumaná on the northern coast of South America. A few years
later it was discovered, says Latham (Gen. Hist. Birds, 1823, vii. 365), to
inhabit Trinidad, where it appears to bear the name of Diablotin;1 but by the
receipt of specimens procured at Sarayacu in Peru, Cajamarca in the
Peruvian Andes, and Antioquia in Colombia (Proc. Zool. Society, 1878, pp.
139, 140; 1879, p. 532), its range has been shown to be much greater than
had been supposed. The singularity of its structure, its curious habits, and
its peculiar economical value have naturally attracted no little attention
from zoologists. First referring it to the genus Caprimulgus, its original
describer soon saw that it was no true goatsucker. It was subsequently
separated as forming a subfamily, and has at last been regarded as the type
of a distinct family, Steatornithidae—a view which, though not put forth till
1870 (Zool. Record, vi. 67), seems now to be generally deemed correct. Its
systematic position, however, can scarcely be considered settled, for though
on the whole its predominating alliance may be with the Caprimulgidae,
nearly as much affinity may be traced to the Strigidae, while it possesses
some characters in which it differs from both (Proc. Zool. Society, 1873, pp.
526-535). About as big as a crow, its plumage exhibits the blended tints of
chocolate-colour and grey, barred and pencilled with dark-brown or black,
and spotted in places with white, that prevail in the two families just named.
The beak is hard, strong and deeply notched, the nostrils are prominent, and
the gape is furnished with twelve long hairs on each side. The legs and toes
are comparatively feeble, but the wings are large. In habits the guacharo is
wholly nocturnal, slumbering by day in deep and dark caverns which it
frequents in vast numbers. Towards evening it arouses itself, and, with

croaking and clattering which has been likened to that of castanets, it
approaches the exit of its retreat, whence at nightfall it issues in search of its
food, which, so far as is known, consists entirely of oily nuts or fruits,
belonging especially to the genera Achras, Aiphanas, Laurus and
Psichotria, some of them sought, it would seem, at a very great distance, for
Funck (Bull. Acad. Sc. Bruxelles xi. pt. 2, pp. 371-377) states that in the
stomach of one he obtained at Caripé he found the seed of a tree which he
believed did not grow nearer than 80 leagues. The hard, indigestible seed
swallowed by the guacharo are found in quantities on the floor and the
ledges of the caverns it frequents, where many of them for a time vegetate,
the plants thus growing being etiolated from want of light, and, according to
travellers, forming a singular feature of the gloomy scene which these
places present. The guacharo is said to build a bowl-like nest of clay, in
which it lays from two to four white eggs, with a smooth but lustreless
surface, resembling those of some owls. The young soon after they are
hatched become a perfect mass of fat, and while yet in the nest are sought
by the Indians, who at Caripé, and perhaps elsewhere, make a special
business of taking them and extracting the oil they contain. This is done
about midsummer, when by the aid of torches and long poles many
thousands of the young birds are slaughtered, while their parents in alarm
and rage hover over the destroyers’ heads, uttering harsh and deafening
cries. The grease is melted over fires kindled at the cavern’s mouth, run into
earthen pots, and preserved for use in cooking as well as for the lighting of
lamps. It is said to be pure and limpid, free from any disagreeable taste or
smell, and capable of being kept for a year without turning rancid. In
Trinidad the young are esteemed s great delicacy for the table by many,
though some persons object to their peculiar scent, which resembles that of
a cockroach (Blatta), and consequently refuse to eat them. The old birds
also, according to E. C. Taylor (Ibis, 1864, p. 90), have a strong crow-like
odour. But one species of the genus Steatornis is known.

In addition to the works above quoted valuable information about
this curious bird may be found under the following references:
L’Herminier, Ann. Sc. Nat. (1836), p. 60, and Nouv. Ann. Mus. (1838),
p. 321; Hautessier, Rev. Zool. (1838), p. 164; J. Müller, Monatsb. Berl.
Acad. (1841), p. 172, and Archiv für Anat. (1862), pp. 1-11; des Murs,
Rev. zool. (1843), p. 32, and Ool. Orn. pp. 260-263; Blanchard, Ann.
Mus. (1859), xi. pl. 4, fig. 30; König-Warthausen, Journ. für Orn.
(1868), pp. 384-387; Goering, Vargasia (1869), pp. 124-128; Murie,
Ibis (1873), pp. 81-86.
(A. N.)

1 Not to be confounded with the bird so called in the French Antilles, which is a petrel
(Oestrelata).

GUACO, Huaco or Guao, also Vejuco and Bejuco, terms applied to
various Central and South American and West Indian plants, in repute for
curative virtues. The Indians and negroes of Colombia believe the plants
known to them as guaco to have been so named after a species of kite, thus
designated in imitation of its cry, which they say attracts to it the snakes that
serve it principally for food; they further hold the tradition that their
antidotal qualities were discovered through the observation that the bird
eats of their leaves, and even spreads the juice of the same on its wings,
during contests with its prey. The disputes that have arisen as to what is “the
true guaco” are to be attributed mainly to the fact that the names of the
American Indians for all natural objects are generic, and their genera not
always in coincidence with those of naturalists. Thus any twining plant with

a heart-shaped leaf, white and green above and purple beneath, is called by
them guaco (R. Spruce, in Howard’s Neueva Quinologia, “Cinchona
succirubra,” p. 22, note). What is most commonly recognized in Colombia
as guaco, or Vejuco del guaco, would appear to be Mikania Guaco
(Humboldt and Bonpland, Pl. équinox, ii. 84, pl. 105, 1809), a climbing
Composite plant of the tribe Eupatoriaceae, affecting moist and shady
situations, and having a much-branched and deep-growing root, variegated,
serrate, opposite leaves and dull-white flowers, in axillary clusters. The
whole plant emits a disagreeable odour. It is stated that the Indians of
Central America, after having “guaconized” themselves, i.e. taken guaco,
catch with impunity the most dangerous snakes, which writhe in their hands
as though touched by a hot iron (B. Seemann, Hooker’s Journ. of Bot. v. 76,
1853). The odour alone of guaco has been said to cause in snakes a state of
stupor and torpidity; and Humboldt, who observed that the near approach of
a rod steeped in guaco-juice was obnoxious to the venomous Coluber
corallinus, was of opinion that inoculation with it imparts to the
perspiration an odour which makes reptiles unwilling to bite. The drug is
not used in modern therapeutics.

GUADALAJARA, an inland city of Mexico and capital of the state of
Jalisco, 275 m. (direct) W.N.W. of the Federal capital, in lat. 20° 41′ 10″ N.,
long. 103° 21′ 15″ W. Pop. (1895) 83,934; (1900) 101,208. Guadalajara is
served by a short branch of the Mexican Central railway from Irapuato. The
city is in the Antemarac valley near the Rio Grande de Santiago, 5092 ft.
above sea-level. Its climate is dry, mild and healthy, though subject to

sudden changes. The city is well built, with straight and well-paved streets,
numerous plazas, public gardens and shady promenades. Its public services
include tramways and electric lighting, the Juanacatlán falls of the Rio
Grande near the city furnishing the electric power. Guadalajara is an
episcopal see, and its cathedral, built between 1571 and 1618, is one of the
largest and most elaborately decorated churches in Mexico. The
government palace, which like the cathedral faces upon the plaza mayor, is
generally considered one of the finest specimens of Spanish architecture in
Mexico. Other important edifices and institutions are the university, with its
schools of law and medicine, the mint, built in 1811, the modern national
college and high schools, a public library of over 28,000 volumes, an
episcopal seminary, an academy of fine arts, the Teatro Degollado, and the
large modern granite building of the penitentiary. There are many
interesting churches and eleven conventual establishments in the city.
Charitable institutions of a high character are also prominent, among which
are the Hospicio, which includes an asylum for the aged, infirm, blind, deaf
and dumb, foundlings and orphans, a primary school for both sexes, and a
girls’ training school, and the Hospital de San Miguel de Belen, which is a
hospital, an insane asylum, and a school for little children. One of the most
popular public resorts of the city is the Paseo, a beautiful drive and
promenade extending along both banks of the Rio San Juan de Dios for 1¼
m. and terminating in the alameda, or public garden. The city has a good
water-supply, derived from springs and brought in through an aqueduct 8 m.
long. Guadalajara is surrounded by a fertile agricultural district and is an
important commercial town, but the city is chiefly distinguished as the
centre of the iron, steel and glass industries of Mexico. It is also widely
known for the artistic pottery manufactured by the Indians of the city and of
its suburb, San Pedro. Among other prominent industries are the
manufacture of cotton and woollen goods, leather, furniture, hats and
sweetmeats. Guadalajara was founded in 1531 by Nuño de Guzman, and

became the seat of a bishop in 1549. The Calderon bridge near the city was
the scene of a serious defeat of the revolutionists under Hidalgo in January
1811. The severe earthquake of the 31st of May 1818 partially destroyed the
two cathedral steeples; and that of the 11th of March 1875 damaged many
of the larger buildings. The population includes large Indian and mestizo
elements.

GUADALAJARA, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 of
districts taken from New Castile; bounded on the N. by Segovia, Soria and
Saragossa, E. by Saragossa and Teruel, S. by Cuenca and W. by Madrid.
Pop. (1900) 200,186; area, 4676 sq. m. Along the northern frontier of
Guadalajara rise the lofty Guadarrama mountains, culminating in the peaks
of La Cebollera (6955 ft.) and Ocejon (6775 ft.); the rest of the province,
apart from several lower ranges in the east, belongs to the elevated plateau
of New Castile, and has a level or slightly undulating surface, which forms
the upper basin of the river Tagus, and is watered by its tributaries the
Tajuña, Henares, Jarama and Gallo. The climate of this region, as of Castile
generally, is marked by the extreme severity of its winter cold and summer
heat; the soil varies very much in quality, but is fertile enough in many
districts, notably the cornlands of the Alcarria, towards the south. Few of
the cork and oak forests which formerly covered the mountains have
escaped destruction; and the higher tracts of land are mainly pasture for the
sheep and goats which form the principal wealth of the peasantry. Grain,
olive oil, wine, saffron, silk and flax are produced, but agriculture makes
little progress, owing to defective communications and unscientific

farming. In 1903, the only minerals worked were common salt and silver,
and the total output of the mines was valued at £25,000. Deposits of iron,
lead and gold also exist and were worked by the Romans; but their
exploitation proved unprofitable when renewed in the 19th century. Trade is
stagnant and the local industries are those common to almost all Spanish
towns and villages, such as the manufacture of coarse cloth and pottery. The
Madrid-Saragossa railway traverses the province for 70 m.; the roads are
ill-kept and insufficient. Guadalajara (11,144) is the capital, and the only
town with more than 5000 inhabitants; Molina de Aragon, a fortified town
built at the foot of the Parameras de Molina (2500-3500 ft.), and on the
right bank of the Gallo, a tributary of the Tagus, is of some importance as
an agricultural centre. Siguënza, on the railway, is an episcopal city, with a
fine Romanesque cathedral dating from the 11th century. It is probably the
ancient Segontia, founded in 218 b.c. by refugees from Saguntum. The
population of the province, which numbers only 42 per sq. m., decreased
slightly between 1870 and 1900, and extreme poverty compels many
families to emigrate (see also Castile).

GUADALAJARA, the capital of the Spanish province of Guadalajara,
on the left bank of the river Henares, and on the Madrid-Saragossa railway,
35 m. E.N.E. of Madrid. Pop. (1900) 11,144. Guadalajara is a picturesque
town, occupying a somewhat sterile plain, 2100 ft. above the sea. A Roman
aqueduct and the Roman foundations of the bridge built in 1758 across the
Henares bear witness to its antiquity. Under Roman and Visigothic rule it
was known as Arriaca or Caraca; its present name, which sometimes

appears in medieval chronicles as Godelfare, represents the Wad-al-
hajarah, or “Valley of Stones,” of the Moors, who occupied the town from
714 until 1081, when it was captured by Alvar Yañez de Minaya, a comrade
of the more famous Cid. The church of Santa Maria contains the image of
the “Virgin of Battles,” which accompanied Alphonso VI. of Castile (1072-
1109) on his campaigns against the Moors; and there are several other
ancient and interesting churches in Guadalajara, besides two palaces, dating
from the 15th century, and built with that blend of Christian and Moorish
architecture which Spaniards call the Mudéjar style. The more important of
these is the palace of the ducal house del Infantado, formerly owned by the
Mendoza family, whose panteon, or mausoleum, added between 1696 and
1720 to the 13th-century church of San Francisco, is remarkable for the rich
sculpture of its tombs. The town and provincial halls date from 1585, and
the college of engineers was originally built by Philip V., early in the 18th
century, as a cloth factory. Manufactures of soap, leather, woollen fabrics
and bricks have superseded the original cloth-weaving industry for which
Guadalajara was long celebrated; there is also a considerable trade in
agricultural produce.

GUADALQUIVIR (ancient Baetis, Moorish Wadi al Kebir, “the Great
River”), a river of southern Spain. What is regarded as the main stream rises
4475 ft. above sea-level between the Sierra de Cazorla and Sierra del Pozo,
in the province of Jaen. It does not become a large river until it is joined by
the Guadiana Menor (Guadianamenor) on the left, and the Guadalimar on
the right. Lower down it receives many tributaries, the chief being the Genil

or Jenil, from the left. The general direction of the river is west by south,
but a few miles above Seville it changes to south by west. Below Coria it
traverses the series of broad fens known as Las Marismas, the greatest area
of swamp in the Iberian Peninsula. Here it forms two subsidiary channels,
the western 31 m., the eastern 12 m. long, which rejoin the main stream on
the borders of the province of Cadiz. Below Sanlúcar the river enters the
Atlantic after a total course of 360 m. It drains an area of 21,865 sq. m.
Though the shortest of the great rivers of the peninsula, it is the only one
which flows at all seasons with a full stream, being fed in winter by the
rains, in summer by the melted snows of the Sierra Nevada. In the time of
the Moors it was navigable up to Cordova, but owing to the accumulation
of silt in its lower reaches it is now only navigable up to Seville by vessels
of 1200 to 1500 tons.

GUADELOUPE, a French colony in the West Indies, lying between the
British islands of Montserrat on the N., and Dominica on the S., between
15° 59′ and 16° 20′ N. and 61° 31′ and 61° 50′ W. It consists of two entirely
distinct islands, separated by a narrow arm of the sea, Rivière Salée (Salt
river), varying from 100 ft. to 400 ft. in width and navigable for small
vessels. The western island, a rugged mass of ridges, peaks and lofty
uplands, is called Basse-Terre, while the eastern and smaller island, the real
low-land, is known as Grande-Terre. A sinuous ridge runs through Basse-
Terre from N. to S. In the north-west rises the peak of Grosse Montagne
(2370 ft.), from which sharp spurs radiate in all directions; near the middle
of the west coast are the twin heights of Les Mamelles (2536 ft. and 2368

ft.). Farther south the highest elevation is attained in La Soufrière (4900 ft.).
In 1797 this volcano was active, and in 1843 its convulsions laid several
towns in ruins; but a few thermal springs and solfataras emitting vapour are
now its only signs of activity. The range terminates in the extreme south in
the jagged peak of Caraibe (2300 ft.). Basse-Terre is supremely beautiful,
its cloud-capped mountains being clothed with a mantle of luxuriant
vegetation. On Grande-Terre the highest elevation is only 450 ft., and this
island is the seat of extensive sugar plantations. It consists of a plain
composed mainly of limestone and a conglomerate of sand and broken
shells known as maconne de bon dieu, much used for building. The bay
between the two sections of Guadeloupe on the north is called Grand Cul-
de-Sac Marin, that on the south being Petit Cul-de-Sac Marin. Basse-Terre
(364 sq. m.) is 28 m. long by 12 m. to 15 m. wide; Grande-Terre (255 sq.
m.) is 22 m. long from N. to S., of irregular shape, with a long peninsula,
Chateaux Point, stretching from the south-eastern extremity. Basse-Terre is
watered by a considerable number of streams, most of which in the rainy
season are liable to sudden floods (locally called galions), but Grande-Terre
is practically destitute of springs, and the water-supply is derived almost
entirely from ponds and cisterns.

The west half of the island consists of a foundation of old eruptive rocks
upon which rest the recent accumulations of the great volcanic cones,
together with mechanical deposits derived from the denudation of the older
rocks. Grande-Terre on the other hand, consists chiefly of nearly horizontal
limestones lying conformably upon a series of fine tuffs and ashes, the
whole belonging to the early part of the Tertiary system (probably Eocene
and Oligocene). Occasional deposits of marl and limestone of late Pliocene
age rest unconformably upon these older beds; and near the coast there are
raised coral reefs of modern date.

The mean annual temperature is 78° F., and the minimum 61° F., and the
maximum 101° F. From July to November heavy rains fall, the annual
average on the coast being 86 in., while in the interior it is much greater.
Guadeloupe is subject to terrible storms. In 1825 a hurricane destroyed the
town of Basse-Terre, and Grand Bourg in Marie Galante suffered a like fate
in 1865. The soil is rich and fruitful, sugar having long been its staple
product. The other crops include cereals, cocoa, cotton, manioc, yams and
rubber; tobacco, vanilla, coffee and bananas are grown, but in smaller
quantities. Over 30% of the total area is under cultivation, and of this more
than 50% is under sugar. The centres of this industry are St Anne, Pointe-à-
Pitre and Le Moule, where there are well-equipped usines, and there is also
a large usine at Basse-Terre. The forests, confined to the island of Basse-
Terre, are extensive and rich in valuable woods, but, being difficult of
access, are not worked. Salt and sulphur are the only minerals extracted,
and in addition to the sugar usines, there are factories for the making of
rum, liqueurs, chocolate, besides fruit-canning works and tanneries. France
takes most of the exports; and next to France, the United States, Great
Britain and India are the countries most interested in the import trade.

The inhabitants of Guadeloupe consist of a few white officials and
planters, a few East Indian immigrants from the French possessions in
India, and the rest negroes and mulattoes. These mulattoes are famous for
their grace and beauty of both form and feature. The women greatly
outnumber the men, and there is a very large percentage of illegitimate
births. Pop. (1900) 182,112.

The governor is assisted by a privy council, a director of the interior, a
procurator-general and a paymaster, and there is also an elected legislative
council of 30 members. The colony forms a department of France and is
represented in the French parliament by a senator and two deputies.

Political elections are very eagerly contested, the mulatto element always
striving to gain the preponderance of power.

The seat of government, of the Apostolic administration and of the court
of appeal is at Basse-Terre (7762), which is situated on the south-west coast
of the island of that name. It is a picturesque, healthy town standing on an
open roadstead. Pointe-à-Pitre (17,242), the largest town, lies in Grande-
Terre near the mouth of the Rivière Salée. Its excellent harbour has made it
the chief port and commercial capital of the colony. Le Moule (10,378) on
the east coast of Grande-Terre does a considerable export trade in sugar,
despite its poor harbour. Of the other towns, St Anne (9497), Morne à l’Eau
(8442), Petit Canal (6748), St François (5265), Petit Bourg (5110) and Trois
Rivières (5016), are the most important.

Round Guadeloupe are grouped its dependencies, namely, La Desirade, 6
m. E., a narrow rugged island 10 sq. m. in area; Marie Galante 16 m. S.E.
Les Saintes, a group of seven small islands, 7 m. S., one of the strategic
points of the Antilles, with a magnificent and strongly fortified naval
harbour; St Martin, 142 m. N.N.W.; and St Bartholomew, 130 m. N.N.W.

History.—Guadeloupe was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and
received its name in honour of the monastery of S. Maria de Guadalupe at
Estremadura in Spain. In 1635 l’Olive and Duplessis took possession of it
in the name of the French Company of the Islands of America, and l’Olive
exterminated the Caribs with great cruelty. Four chartered companies were
ruined in their attempts to colonize the island, and in 1674 it passed into the
possession of the French crown and long remained a dependency of
Martinique. After unsuccessful attempts in 1666, 1691 and 1703, the British
captured the island in 1759, and held it for four years. Guadeloupe was
finally separated from Martinique in 1775, but it remained under the
governor of the French Windward Islands. In 1782 Rodney defeated the
French fleet near the island, and the British again obtained possession in

April 1794, but in the following summer they were driven out by Victor
Hugues with the assistance of the slaves whom he had liberated for the
purpose. In 1802 Bonaparte, then first consul, sent an expedition to the
island in order to re-establish slavery, but, after a heroic defence, many of
the negroes preferred suicide to submission. During the Hundred Days in
1810, the British once more occupied the island, but, in spite of its cession
to Sweden by the treaty of 1813 and a French invasion in 1814, they did not
withdraw till 1816. Between 1816 and 1825 the code of laws peculiar to the
island was introduced. Municipal institutions were established in 1837; and
slavery was finally abolished in 1848.

GUADET, MARGUERITE ÉLIE (1758-1794), French Revolutionist,
was born at St Émilion near Bordeaux on the 20th of July 1758. When the
Revolution broke out he had already gained a reputation as a brilliant
advocate at Bordeaux. In 1790 he was made administrator of the Gironde
and in 1791 president of the criminal tribunal. In this year he was elected to
the Legislative Assembly as one of the brilliant group of deputies known
subsequently as Girondins or Girondists. As a supporter of the constitution
of 1791 he joined the Jacobin club, and here and in the Assembly became
an eloquent advocate of all the measures directed against real or supposed
traitors to the constitution. He bitterly attacked the ministers of Louis XVI.,
and was largely instrumental in forcing the king to accept the Girondist
ministry of the 15th of March 1792. He was an ardent advocate of the
policy of forcing Louis XVI. into harmony with the Revolution; moved
(May 3) for the dismissal of the king’s non-juring confessor, for the

banishment of all non-juring priests (May 16), for the disbandment of the
royal guard (May 30), and the formation in Paris of a camp of fédérés (June
4). He remained a royalist, however, and with Gensonné and Vergniaud
even addressed a letter to the king soliciting a private interview. Whatever
negotiations may have resulted, however, were cut short by the insurrection
of the 10th of August. Guadet, who presided over the Assembly during part
of this fateful day, put himself into vigorous opposition to the
insurrectionary Commune of Paris, and it was on his motion that on the
30th of August the Assembly voted its dissolution—a decision reversed on
the following day. In September Guadet was returned by a large majority as
deputy to the Convention. At the trial of Louis XVI. he voted for an appeal
to the people and for the death sentence, but with a respite pending appeal.
In March 1793 he had several conferences with Danton, who was anxious
to bring about a rapprochement between the Girondists and the Mountain
during the war in La Vendée, but he unconditionally refused to join hands
with the man whom he held responsible for the massacres of September.
Involved in the fall of the Girondists, and his arrest being decreed on the
2nd of June 1793, he fled to Caen, and afterwards hid in his father’s house
at St Émilion. He was discovered and taken to Bordeaux, where, after his
identity had been established, he was guillotined on the 17th of June 1794.

See J. Guadet, Les Girondins (Paris, 1889); and F. A. Aulard, Les
Orateurs de la législative et de la convention (Paris, 2nd ed., 1906).

GUADIANA (anc. Anas, Moorish Wadi Ana), a river of Spain and
Portugal. The Guadiana was long believed to rise in the lowland known as

the Campo de Montiel, where a chain of small lakes, the Lagunas de
Ruidera (partly in Ciudad Real, partly in Albacete), are linked together by
the Guadiana Alto or Upper Guadiana. This stream flows north-westward
from the last lake and vanishes underground within 3 m. of the river
Zancara or Giguela. About 22 m. S.W. of the point of disappearance, the
Guadiana Alto was believed to re-emerge in the form of several large
springs, which form numerous lakes near the Zancara and are known as the
“eyes of the Guadiana” (los ojos de Guadiana). The stream which connects
them with the Zancara is called the Guadiana Bajo or Lower Guadiana. It is
now known that the Guadiana Alto has no such course, but flows
underground to the Zancara itself, which is the true “Upper Guadiana.” The
Zancara rises near the source of the Júcar, in the east of the tableland of La
Mancha; thence it flows westward, assuming the name of Guadiana near
Ciudad Real, and reaching the Portuguese frontier 6 m. S.W. of Badajoz. In
piercing the Sierra Morena it forms a series of foaming rapids, and only
begins to be navigable at Mertola, 42 m. from its mouth. From the
neighbourhood of Badajoz it forms the boundary between Spain and
Portugal as far as a point near Monsaraz, where it receives the small river
Priega Muñoz on the left, and passes into Portuguese territory, with a
southerly direction. At Pomarão it again becomes a frontier stream and
forms a broad estuary 25 m. long. It enters the Gulf of Cadiz between the
Portuguese town of Villa Real de Santo Antonio and the Spanish Ayamonte,
after a total course of 510 m. Its mouth is divided by sandbanks into many
channels. The Guadiana drains an area of 31,940 sq. m. Its principal
tributaries are the Zujar, Jabalón, Matachel and Ardila from the left; the
Bullaque, Ruecas, Botoa, Degebe and Cobres from the right.

The Guadiana Menor (or Guadianamenor, i.e. “Lesser Guadiana”) rises
in the Sierra Nevada, receives two large tributaries, the Fardes from the
right and Barbata from the left, and enters the Guadalquivir near Ubeda,
after a course of 95 m.

GUADIX, a city of southern Spain, in the province of Granada; on the
left bank of the river Guadix, a subtributary of the Guadiana Menor, and on
the Madrid-Valdepeñas-Almería railway. Pop. (1900) 12,652. Guadix
occupies part of an elevated plateau among the northern foothills of the
Sierra Nevada. It is surrounded by ancient walls, and was formerly
dominated by a Moorish castle, now in ruins. It is an episcopal see of great
antiquity, but its cathedral, built in the 18th century on the site of a mosque,
possesses little architectural merit. The city was once famous for its cutlery;
but its modern manufactures (chiefly earthenware, hempen goods, and hats)
are inconsiderable. It has some trade in wool, cotton, flax, corn and
liqueurs. The warm mineral springs of Graena, much frequented during the
summer, are 6 m. W. Guadix el Viejo, 5 m. N.W., was the Roman Acci, and,
according to tradition, the seat of the first Iberian bishopric, in the 2nd
century. After 711 it rose to some importance as a Moorish fortress and
trading station, and was renamed Wad Ash, “Water of Life.” It was
surrendered without a siege to the Spaniards, under Ferdinand and Isabella,
in 1489.

GUADUAS, a town of the department of Cundinamarca, Colombia, 53
m. N.W. of Bogotá on the old road between that city and the Magdalena
river port of Honda. Pop. (1900, estimate) 9000, chiefly Indians or of mixed

blood. It stands in a narrow and picturesque valley formed by spurs of the
Eastern Cordillera, and on a small stream bearing the same name, which is
that of the South American bamboo (guaduas), found in great abundance
along its banks. Sugar-cane and coffee are cultivated in the vicinity, and
fruits of various kinds are produced in great abundance. The elevation of
the town is 3353 ft. above the sea, and it has a remarkably uniform
temperature throughout the whole year. Guaduas has a pretty church facing
upon its plaza, and an old monastery now used for secular purposes. The
importance of the town sprang from its position on the old camino real
between Bogotá and Honda, an importance that has passed away with the
completion of the railway from Girardot to the Bogotá plateau. Guaduas
was founded in 1614.

GUAIACUM, a genus of trees of the natural order Zygophyllaceae. The
guaiacum or lignum-vitae tree (Ger. Guajakbaum, Franzosenbaum,
Pockenholzbaum; Fr. Gayac, Gaïac), G. officinale, is a native of the West
Indies and the north coast of South America, where it attains a height of 20
to 30 ft. Its branches are numerous, flexuous and knotted; the leaves
opposite and pinnate, with caducous (falling early) stipules, and entire,
glabrous, obovate or oval leaflets, arranged in 2 or, more rarely, 3 pairs; the
flowers are in axillary clusters (cymes), and have 5 oval pubescent sepals, 5
distinct pale-blue petals three times the length of the sepals, 10 stamens,
and a 2-celled superior ovary. The fruit is about ¾ in. long, with a leathery
pericarp, and contains in each of its two cells a single seed (see fig.). G.
sanctum grows in the Bahamas and Cuba, and at Key West in Florida. It is

distinguished from G. officinale by its smaller and narrow leaflets, which
are in 4 to 5 pairs, by its shorter and glabrous sepals, and 5-celled and 5-
winged fruit. G. arboreum, the guaiacum tree of Colombia, is found in the
valley of the Magdalena up to altitudes 800 metres (2625 ft.) above sea-
level, and reaches considerable dimensions. Its wood is of a yellow colour
merging into green, and has an almost pulverulent fracture; the flowers are
yellow and conspicuous; and the fruit is dry and 4-winged.

The lignum vitae of commerce, so named on account of its high repute as
a medicinal agent in past times, when also it was known as lignum sanctum
and lignum Indicum, lignum guaycanum, or simply guayacan, is procured
from G. officinale, and in smaller amount from G. sanctum. It is exported in
large logs or blocks, generally divested of bark, and presents in transverse
section very slightly marked concentric rings of growth, and scarcely any
traces of pith; with the aid of a magnifying glass the medullary rays are
seen to be equidistant and very numerous. The outer wood, the sapwood or
alburnum, is of a pale yellow hue, and devoid of resin; the inner, the
heartwood or duramen, which is by far the larger proportion, is of a dark
greenish-brown, contains in its pores 26% of resin, and has a specific
gravity of 1.333, and therefore sinks in water on which the alburnum floats.
Owing to the diagonal and oblique arrangement of the successive layers of
its fibres, the wood cannot be split; and on account of its hardness, density
and durability it is much valued for the manufacture of ships’ pulleys,
rulers, skittle-balls, mallets and other articles.

From Bentley & Trimen’s Medicinal Plants, by permission of J. & A. Churchill.
Guaiacum or Lignum Vitae, Guaiacum officinale shoot-bearing leaves and flowers. 1, Fruit; 2,
Vertical section of fruit, showing the solitary pendulous seed in each chamber. All about ½ natural
size.

Chips or turnings of the heartwood of G. officinale (guaiaci lignum) are
employed in the preparation of the liquor sarsae compositus concentratus
of British pharmacy. They may be recognized by being either yellow of
greenish-brown in colour, and by turning bluish-green when treated with
nitric acid, or when heated with corrosive sublimate, and green with
solution of chloride of lime. They are occasionally adulterated with
boxwood shavings. Lignum vitae is imported chiefly from St Domingo, the
Bahamas and Jamaica.

The bark was formerly used in medicine; it contains much calcium
oxalate, and yields on incineration 23% of ash. Guaiacum resin, the

guaiaci resina of pharmacopoeias, is obtained from the wood as an
exudation from natural fissures or from incisions; by heating billets
about 3 ft. in length, bored to permit of the outflow of the resin; or by
boiling chips and raspings in water to which salt has been added to
raise the temperature of ebullition. It occurs in rounded or oval tears,
commonly coated with a greyish-green dust, and supposed to be the
produce of G. sanctum, or in large brownish or greenish-brown masses,
translucent at the edges; fuses at 85° C.; is brittle, and has a vitreous
fracture, and a slightly balsamic odour, increased by pulverization and
by heat; and is at first tasteless when chewed, but produces
subsequently a sense of heat in the throat. It is readily soluble in
alcohol, ether, chloroform, creosote, oil of cloves and solutions of
caustic alkalies; and its solution gives a blue colour with gluten, raw
potato parings and the roots of horse-radish, carrot and various other
plants. The alcoholic tincture becomes green with sodium hypochlorite,
and with nitric acid turns in succession green, blue and brown. With
glycerin it gives a clear solution, and with nitrous ether a bluish-green
gelatinous mass. It is blued by various oxidizing agents, e.g. ozone,
and, as Schönbein discovered, by the juice of certain fungi. The chief
constituents are three distinct resins, guaiaconic acid, C19H20O5 (70%),
guaiac acid, which is closely allied to benzoic acid, and guaiaretic
acid. Like all resins, these are insoluble in water, soluble in alkalies,
but precipitated on neutralization of the alkaline solution.

Guaiacum wood was first introduced into Europe by the Spaniards in
1508, and Nicolaus Poll, writing in 1517 (see Luisinus, De morbo
gallico, p. 210, Ven., 1566), states that some three thousand persons in
Spain had already been restored to health by it. The virtues of the resin,
however, were not known until a later period, and in Thomas Paynel’s
translation (Of the Wood called Guaiacum, &c., p. 9, ed. of 1540) of
Ulrich von Hutten’s treatise De morbi gallici curatione per

administrationem ligni guaiaci (1519) we read of the wood: “There
followeth fro it, whan it bourneth a gomme, which we yet knowe not,
for what pourpose it serueth.” Flückiger and Hanbury
(Pharmacographia, p. 95) state that the first edition of the London
Pharmacopoeia in which they find the resin mentioned is that of 1677.
The decoction of the wood was administered in gout, the stone, palsy,
leprosy, dropsy, epilepsy, and other diseases, but principally in the
“morbus gallicus,” or syphilis, for which it was reckoned a certain
specific, insomuch that at first “the physitions wolde not allowe it,
perceyuynge that theyr profite wolde decay therby” (Paynel, op. cit. p.
8). Minute instructions are given in old works as to the mode of
administering guaiacum. The patient was confined in a closed and
heated chamber, was placed on the lowest possible diet, and, after
liberal purgation, was made twice a day to drink a milk-warm
decoction of the wood. The use of salt was specially to be avoided. A
decoction of 1 ℔ of guaiacum was held to be sufficient for the four
first days of the treatment. The earlier opinions as to the efficacy of
guaiacum came to be much modified in the course of time, and Dr
Pearson (Observations on the Effects of Various Articles of the Mat.
Med. in the Cure of Lues Venerea, c. i., 2nd ed., 1807) says:—“I never
saw one single instance in which the powers of this medicine
eradicated the venereal virus.” He found its beneficial effects to be
most marked in cases of secondary symptoms. Guaiacum resin is given
medicinally in doses of 5-15 grains. Its important preparations in the
British Pharmacopoeia are the mistura guiaci (dose ½-1 oz.), the
ammoniated tincture of guaiacum (dose ½-1 drachm), in which the
resin is dissolved by means of ammonia, and the trochiscus or lozenge,
containing 3 grains of the resin. This lozenge is undoubtedly of value
when given early in cases of sore throat, especially of rheumatic origin.
Powdered guaiacum is also used.

Guaiacum resin differs pharmacologically from other resins in being
less irritant, so that it is absorbed from the bowel and exerts remote
stimulant actions, notably upon the skin and kidneys. It affects the
bronchi but slightly, since it contains no volatile oil.

The drug is useful both in acute and chronic sore throat, the mixture,
according to Sir Lauder Brunton, being more effective than the
tincture. The aperient action, which it exerts less markedly than other
members of its class, renders it useful in the treatment of chronic
constipation. Sir Alfred Garrod has urged the claims of this drug in the
treatment of chronic gout. Both in this disease and in other forms of
chronic arthritis guaiacum may be given in combination with iodides,
which it often enables the patient to tolerate. Guaiacum is not now used
in the treatment of syphilis.

The tincture of guaiacum is universally used as a test for the
presence of blood, or rather of haemoglobin, the red colouring matter
of the blood, in urine or other secretions. This test was first suggested
by Dr John Day of Geelong, Australia. A single drop of the tincture
should be added to, say, an inch of urine in a test-tube. The resin is at
once precipitated, yielding a milky fluid. If “ozonic ether”—an ethereal
solution of hydrogen peroxide—be now poured gently into the test-
tube, a deep blue coloration is produced along the line of contact if
haemoglobin be present. The reaction is due to the oxidation of the
resin by the peroxide of hydrogen—such oxidation occurring only if
haemoglobin be present to act as an oxygen-carrier.

GUALDO TADINO (anc. Tadinum, 1 m. to the W.), a town and
episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, 1755 ft. above sea-level, in the province of
Perugia, 22 m. N. of Foligno by rail. Pop. (1901), town, 4440; commune,
10,756. The suffix Tadino distinguishes it from Gualdo in the province of
Macerata, and Gualdo Cattaneo, S.W. of Foligno. The cathedral has a good
rose-window and possesses, like several of the other churches, 15th-century
paintings by Umbrian artists, especially works by Niccolò Alunno. The
town is still surrounded by walls. The ancient Tadinum lay 1 m. to the W. of
the modern town. It is mentioned in the Eugubine tablets (see Iguvium) as a
hostile city against which imprecations are directed. In its neighbourhood
Narses defeated and slew Totila in 552. No ruins are now visible, though
they seem to have been extant in the 17th century. The new town seems to
have been founded in 1237. It was at first independent, but passed under
Perugia in 1292, and later became dependent on the duchy of Spoleto.

GUALEGUAY, a flourishing town and river port of the province of
Entre Rios, Argentine Republic, on the Gualeguay river, 32 m. above its
confluence with the Ibicuy branch of the Paraná, and about 120 m. N.N.W.
of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1895) 7810. The Gualeguay is the largest of the
Entre Rios rivers, traversing almost the whole length of the province from
N. to S., but it is of but slight service in the transportation of produce except
the few miles below Gualeguay, whose port, known as Puerto Ruiz, is 7 m.
lower down stream. A steam tramway connects the town and port, and a
branch line connects with Entre Rios railways at the station of Tala. The
principal industry in this region is that of stock-raising, and there is a large

exportation of cattle, jerked beef, hides, tallow, mutton, wool and sheep-
skins. Wood and charcoal are also exported to Buenos Aires. The town was
founded in 1783.

GUALEGUAYCHÚ, a prosperous commercial and industrial town and
port of the province of Entre Rios, Argentine Republic, on the left bank of
the Gualeguaychú river, 11 m. above its confluence with the Uruguay, and
120 m. N. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1892, est.) 14,000. It is the chief town of
a department of the same name, the largest in the province. A bar at the
mouth of the river prevents the entrance of larger vessels and compels the
transfer of cargoes to and from lighters. The town is surrounded by a rich
grazing country, and exports cattle, jerked beef, mutton, hides, pelts, tallow,
wool and various by-products. A branch line running N. connects with the
Entre Rios railways at Basavilbaso. The town was founded in 1783.

GUALO, CARDINAL (fl. 1216), was sent to England by Pope Innocent
III. in 1216. He supported John with all the weight of papal authority. After
John’s death he crowned the infant Henry III. and played an active part in
organizing resistance to the rebels led by Louis of France, afterwards king
Louis VIII. As representing the pope, the suzerain of Henry, he claimed the
regency and actually divided the chief power with William Marshal, earl of

Pembroke. He proclaimed a crusade against Louis and the French, and,
after the peace of Lambeth, he forced Louis to make a public and
humiliating profession of penitence (1217). He punished the rebellious
clergy severely, and ruled the church with an absolute hand till his departure
from England in 1218. Gualo’s character has been severely criticized by
English writers; but his chief offence seems to have been that of
representing unpopular papal claims.

GUAM (Span. Guajan; Guahan, in the native Chamorro), the largest and
most populous of the Ladrone or Mariana Islands, in the North Pacific, in
13° 26′ N. lat. and 144° 39′ E. long., about 1823 m. E. by S. of Hong Kong,
and about 1450 m. E. of Manila. Pop. (1908) about 11,360, of whom 363
were foreigners, 140 being members of the U.S. naval force. Guam extends
about 30 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W., has an average width of about 6½ m.,
and has an area of 207 sq. m. The N. portion is a plateau from 300 to 600 ft.
above the sea, lowest in the interior and highest along the E. and W. coast,
where it terminates abruptly in bluffs and headlands; Mt Santa Rosa, toward
the N. extremity, has an elevation of 840 ft. A range of hills from 700 to
nearly 1300 ft. in height traverses the S. portion from N. to S. a little W. of
the middle—Mt Jumullong Mangloc, the highest peak, has an elevation of
1274 ft. Between the foot of the steep W. slope of these hills and the sea is a
belt of rolling lowlands and to the E. the surface is broken by the valleys of
five rivers with a number of tributaries, has a general slope toward the sea,
and terminates in a coast-line of bluffs. Apra (formerly San Luis d’Apra) on
the middle W. coast is the only good harbour; it is about 3½ m. across, has a

depth of 4-27 fathoms, and is divided into an inner and an outer harbour by
a peninsula and an island. It serves as a naval station and as a port of transit
between America and the Philippines, at which army transports call
monthly. Deer, wild hog, duck, curlew, snipe and pigeon are abundant
game, and several varieties of fish are caught. Some of the highest points of
the island are nearly bare of vegetation, and the more elevated plateau
surface is covered with sword grass, but in the valleys and on the lower
portions of the plateaus there is valuable timber. The lowlands have a rich
soil; in lower parts of the highlands raised coralliferous limestone with a
light covering of soil appears, and in the higher parts the soil is entirely of
clay and silt. The climate is agreeable and healthy. From December to June
the N.E. trade winds prevail and the rainfall is relatively light; during the
other six months the monsoon blows and produces the rainy season.
Destructive typhoons and earthquakes sometimes visit Guam. The island is
thought to possess little if any mineral wealth, with the possible exception
of coal. Only a small part of Guam is under cultivation, and most of this lies
along the S.W. coast, its chief products being cocoanuts, rice, sugar, coffee
and cacao. A United States Agricultural Experiment Station in Guam (at
Agaña) was provided for in 1908.

The inhabitants are of the Chamorro (Indonesian) stock, strongly
intermixed with Philippine Tagals and Spaniards; their speech is a dialect of
Malay, corrupted by Tagal and Spanish. There are very few full-blood
Chamorros. The aboriginal native was of a very dark mahogany or
chocolate colour. A majority of the total number of natives live in Agaña.
The natives are nearly all farmers, and most of them are poor, but their
condition has been improved under American rule. Public schools have
been established; in 1908 the enrolment was 1700. On the island there is a
small colony of lepers, segregated only after American occupation.
Gangrosa is a disease said to be peculiar to Guam and the neighbouring
islands; it is due to a specific bacillus and usually destroys the nasal septum.

The victims of this disease also are segregated. There is a good general
hospital.

Agaña (or San Ignacio de Agaña) is the capital and principal town; under
the Spanish régime it was the capital of the Ladrones. It is about 5 m. N.E.
of Piti, the landing-place of Apra harbour and port of entry, with which it is
connected by an excellent road. Agaña has paved streets and sewer and
water systems. Other villages, all small, are Asan, Piti, Sumay, Umata,
Merizo and Inarajan. Guam is governed by a “naval governor,” an officer of
the U.S. navy who is commandant of the naval station. The island is divided
into four administrative districts, each with an executive head called a
gobernadorcillo (commissioner), and there are a court of appeals, a court of
first instance and courts of justices of the peace. Peonage was abolished in
the island by the United States in February 1900. Telegraphic
communication with the Caroline Islands was established in 1905; in 1908
there were four cables ending at the relay station at Sumay on the Shore of
Apra harbour.

Guam was discovered by Magellan in 1521, was occupied by Spain in
1688, was captured by the United States cruiser “Charleston” in June 1899,
and was ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Paris on the 10th of
December 1898.

See A List of Books (with References to Periodicals) on Samoa and
Guam (1901; issued by the Library of Congress); L. M. Cox, “The
Island of Guam,” in Bulletin of the American Geographical Society,
vol. 36 (New York, 1904); Gen. Joseph Wheeler, Report on the Island
of Guam, June 1900 (War Department, Document No. 123); F. W.
Christian, The Caroline Islands (London, 1899); an account of the flora
of Guam by W. E. Safford in the publications of the National
Herbarium (Smithsonian Institution); and the reports of the naval
governor.

GUAN, a word apparently first introduced into the ornithologist’s
vocabulary about 1743 by Edwards,1 who said that a bird he figured (Nat.
Hist. Uncommon Birds, pl. xiii.) was “so called in the West Indies,” and the
name has hence been generally applied to all the members of the subfamily
Penelopinae, which are distinguished from the kindred subfamily Cracinae
or curassows by the broad postacetabular area of the pelvis as pointed out
by Huxley (Proc. Zool. Society, 1868, p. 297) as well as by their maxilla
being wider than it is high, with its culmen depressed, the crown feathered,
and the nostrils bare—the last two characters separating the Penelopinae
from the Oreophasinae, which form the third subfamily of the Cracidae,2 a
family belonging to that taxonomer’s division Peristeropodes of the order
Gallinae.

The Penelopinae have been separated into seven genera, of which
Penelope and Ortalis, containing respectively about sixteen and nineteen
species, are the largest, the others numbering from one to three only. Into
their minute differences it would be useless to enter: nearly all have the
throat bare of feathers, and from that of many of them hangs a wattle; but
one form, Chamaepetes, has neither of these features, and Stegnolaema,
though wattled, has the throat clothed. With few exceptions the guans are
confined to the South-American continent; one species of Penelope is
however found in Mexico (e.g. at Mazatlan), Pipile cumanensis inhabits
Trinidad as well as the mainland, while three species of Ortalis occur in
Mexico or Texas, and one, which is also common to Venezuela, in Tobago.
Like curassows, guans are in great measure of arboreal habit. They also
readily become tame, but all attempts to domesticate them in the full sense

of the word have wholly failed, and the cases in which they have even been
induced to breed and the young have been reared in confinement are very
few. Yet it would seem that guans and curassows will interbreed with
poultry (Ibis, 1866, p. 24; Bull. Soc. Imp. d’Acclimatation, 1868, p. 559;
1869, p. 357), and what is more extraordinary is that in Texas the hybrids
between the chiacalacca (Ortalis vetula) and the domestic fowl are asserted
to be far superior to ordinary game-cocks for fighting purposes.
(A. N.)

1 Edwards also gives “quan” as an alternative spelling, and this may be nearer the
original form, since we find Dampier in 1676 writing (Voy. ii. pt. 2, p. 66) of what was
doubtless an allied if not the same bird as the “quam.” The species represented by Edwards
does not seem to have been identified.

2 See the excellent Synopsis by Sclater and Salvin in the Proceedings of the Zoological
Society for 1870 (pp. 504-544), while further information on the Cracinae was given by
Sclater in the Transactions of the same society (ix. pp. 273-288, pls. xl.-liii.). Some
additions have since been made to the knowledge of the family, but none of very great
importance.

GUANABACOA (an Indian name meaning “site of the waters”), a town
of Cuba, in Havana province, about 6 m. E. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 14,368.
Guanabacoa is served by railway to Havana, with which it is connected by
the Regla ferry across the bay. It is picturesquely situated amid woods, on
high hills which furnish a fine view. There are medicinal springs in the
town, and deposits of liquid bitumen in the neighbouring hills. The town is
essentially a residence suburb of the capital, and has some rather pretty
streets and squares and some old and interesting churches (including
Nuestra Señora de la Asuncion, 1714-1721). Just outside the city is the

church of Potosi with a famous “wonder-working” shrine and image. An
Indian pueblo of the same name existed here before 1555, and a church was
established in 1576. Already at the end of the 17th century Guanabacoa was
the fashionable summer residence of Havana. It enjoyed its greatest
popularity in this respect from the end of the 18th to the middle of the 19th
century. It was created a villa with an ayuntamiento (city council) in 1743.
In 1762 its fort, the Little Morro, on the N. shore near Cojimar (a bathing
beach, where the Key West cable now lands), was taken by the English.

GUANACO, sometimes
spelt Huanaca, the larger of
the two wild
representatives in South
America of the camel tribe;
the other being the
vicugña. The guanaco
(Lama huanacus), which
stands nearly 4 ft. at the
shoulder, is an elegant
creature, with gracefully
curved neck and long
slender legs, the hind-pair
of the latter bearing two Head of Guanaco.
naked patches or
callosities. The head and body are covered with long soft hair of a fawn

colour above and almost pure white beneath. Guanaco are found throughout
the southern half of South America, from Peru in the north to Cape Horn in
the south, but occur in greatest abundance in Patagonia. They live in herds
usually of from six to thirty, although these occasionally contain several
hundreds, while solitary individuals are sometimes met. They are
exceedingly timid, and therefore wary and difficult of approach; like many
other ruminants, however, their curiosity sometimes overcomes their
timidity, so as to bring them within range of the hunter’s rifle. Their cry is
peculiar, being something between the belling of a deer and the neigh of a
horse. The chief enemies of the guanaco are the Patagonian Indians and the
puma, as it forms the principal food of both. Its flesh is palatable although
wanting in fat, while its skin forms the chief clothing material of the
Patagonians. Guanaco are readily domesticated, and in this state become
very bold and will attack man, striking him from behind with both knees. In
the wild state they never defend themselves, and if approached from
different points, according to the Indian fashion of hunting, get completely
bewildered and fall an easy prey. They take readily to the water, and have
been observed swimming from one island to another, while they have been
seen drinking salt-water. They have a habit of depositing their droppings
during successive days on the same spot—a habit appreciated by the
Peruvian Indians, who use those deposits for fuel. Guanaco also have
favourite localities in which to die, as appears from the great heaps of their
bones found in particular spots.

GUANAJAY, a town of western Cuba, in Pinar del Rio province, about
36 m. (by rail) S.W. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 6400. Guanajay is served by
the W. branch of the United railways of Havana, of which it is the W.
terminus. The town lies among hills, has an excellent climate, and in
colonial times was (like Holguín) an acclimatization station for troops fresh
from Spain; it now has considerable repute as a health resort. The
surrounding country is a fertile sugar and tobacco region. Guanajay has
always been important as a distributing point in the commerce of the
western end of the island. It was an ancient pueblo, of considerable size and
importance as early as the end of the 18th century.

GUANAJUATO, or Guanaxuato, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N.
by Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi, E. by Querétaro, S. by Michoacan and
W. by Jalisco. Area, 11,370 sq. m. It is one of the most densely populated
states of the republic; pop. (1895) 1,047,817; (1900) 1,061,724. The state
lies wholly within the limits of the great central plateau of Mexico, and has
an average elevation of about 6000 ft. The surface of its northern half is
broken by the Sierra Gorda and Sierra de Guanajuato, but its southern half
is covered by fertile plains largely devoted to agriculture. It is drained by
the Rio Grande de Lerma and its tributaries, which in places flow through
deeply eroded valleys. The climate is semi-tropical and healthy, and the
rainfall is sufficient to insure good results in agriculture and stock-raising.
In the warm valleys sugar-cane is grown, and at higher elevations Indian
corn, beans, barley and wheat. The southern plains are largely devoted to
stock-raising. Guanajuato has suffered much from the destruction of its

forests, but there remain some small areas on the higher elevations of the
north. The principal industry of the state is mining, the mineral wealth of
the mountain ranges of the north being enormous. Among its mineral
products are silver, gold, tin, lead, mercury, copper and opals. Silver has
been extracted since the early days of the Spanish conquest, over
$800,000,000 having been taken from the mines during the subsequent
three and a half centuries. Some of the more productive of these mines, or
groups of mines, are the Veta Madre (mother lode), the San Bernabé lode,
and the Rayas mines of Guanajuato, and the La Valenciana mine, the output
of which is said to have been $226,000,000 between 1766 and 1826. The
manufacturing establishments include flour mills, tanneries and
manufactories of leather, cotton and woollen mills, distilleries, foundries
and potteries. The Mexican Central and the Mexican National railway lines
cross the state from N. to S., and the former operates a short branch from
Silao to the state capital and another westward from Irapuato to
Guadalajara. The capital is Guanajuato, and other important cities and
towns are León, or León de las Aldamas; Celaya (pop. 25,565 in 1900), an
important railway junction 22 m. by rail W. from Querétaro, and known for
its manufactures of broadcloth, saddlery, soap and sweetmeats; Irapuato
(18,593 in 1900), a railway junction and commercial centre, 21 m. S. by W.
of Guanajuato; Silao (15,355), a railway junction and manufacturing town
(woollens and cottons), 14 m. S.W. of Guanajuato; Salamanca (13,583). on
the Mexican Central railway and Lerma river, 25 m. S. by E. of Guanajuato,
with manufactures of cottons and porcelain; Allende (10,547), a commercial
town 30 m. E. by S. of Guanajuato, with mineral springs; Valle de Santiago
(12,660). 50 m. W. by S. of Querétaro; Salvatierra (10,393), 60 m. S.E. of
Guanajuato; Cortazar (8633); La Luz (8318), in a rich mining district;
Pénjamo (8262); Santa Cruz (7239); San Francisco del Rincón (10,904), 39
m. W. of Guanajuato in a rich mining district; and Acambaro (8345), a
prosperous town of the plain, 76 m. S.S.E. of Guanajuato.

GUANAJUATO, or Santa Fé de Guanajuato, a city of Mexico and
capital of the above state, 155 m. (direct) N.W. of the Federal capital, on a
small tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma or Santiago. Pop. (1895)
39,404; (1900) 41,486. The city is built in the Cañada de Marfil at the
junction of three ravines about 6500 ft. above the sea, and its narrow,
tortuous streets rise steeply as they follow the ravines upward to the mining
villages clustered about the opening of the mines in the hillsides.
Guanajuato is sometimes described as a collection of mining villages; but in
addition there is the central city with its crowded winding streets, its
substantial old Spanish buildings, its fifty ore-crushing mills and busy
factories and its bustling commercial life. Enclosing the city are the steep,
barren mountain sides honeycombed with mines. The climate is semi-
tropical and is considered healthy. The noteworthy public buildings and
institutions are an interesting old Jesuit church with arches of pink stone
and delicate carving, eight monasteries, the government palace, a mint
dating from 1812, a national college, the fine Teatro Juárez, and the
Pantheon, or public cemetery, with catacombs below. The Alhóndiga de
Granaditas, originally a public granary, was used as a fort during the War of
Independence, and is celebrated as the scene of the first battle (1810) in that
long struggle. Among the manufactures are cottons, prints, soaps,
chemicals, pottery and silverware, but mining is the principal interest and
occupation of the population. The silver mines of the vicinity were long
considered the richest in Mexico, the celebrated Veta Madre (mother lode)
even being described as the richest in the world; and Guanajuato has the
largest reduction works in Mexico. The railway outlet for the city consists
of a short branch of the Mexican Central, which joins the trunk line at Silao.

Guanajuato was founded in 1554. It attained the dignity of a city in 1741. It
was celebrated for its vigorous resistance to the invaders at the time of the
Spanish conquest, and was repeatedly sacked during that war.

GUANCHES, Guanchis or Guanchos (native Guanchinet; Guan =
person, Chinet = Teneriffe,—“man of Teneriffe,” corrupted, according to
Nuñez de la Peña, by Spaniards into Guanchos), the aboriginal inhabitants
of the Canary Islands. Strictly the Guanches were the primitive inhabitants
of Teneriffe, where they seem to have preserved racial purity to the time of
the Spanish conquest, but the name came to be applied to the indigenous
populations of all the islands. The Guanches, now extinct as a distinct
people, appear, from the study of skulls and bones discovered, to have
resembled the Cro-Magnon race of the Quaternary age, and no real doubt is
now entertained that they were an offshoot of the great race of Berbers
which from the dawn of history has occupied northern Africa from Egypt to
the Atlantic. Pliny the Elder, deriving his knowledge from the accounts of
Juba, king of Mauretania, states that when visited by the Carthaginians
under Hanno the archipelago was found by them to be uninhabited, but that
they saw ruins of great buildings. This would suggest that the Guanches
were not the first inhabitants, and from the absence of any trace of
Mahommedanism among the peoples found in the archipelago by the
Spaniards it would seem that this extreme westerly migration of Berbers
took place between the time of which Pliny wrote and the conquest of
northern Africa by the Arabs. Many of the Guanches fell in resisting the

Spaniards, many were sold as slaves, and many conformed to the Roman
Catholic faith and married Spaniards.

Such remains as there are of their language, a few expressions and the
proper names of ancient chieftains still borne by certain families, connect it
with the Berber dialects. In many of the islands signs are engraved on rocks.
Domingo Vandewalle, a military governor of Las Palmas, was the first, in
1752, to investigate these; and it is due to the perseverance of D. Aquilino
Padran, a priest of Las Palmas, that anything about the inscription on the
island Hierro has been brought to light. In 1878 Dr R. Verneau discovered
in the ravines of Las Balos some genuine Libyan inscriptions. Without
exception the rock inscriptions have proved to be Numidic. In two of the
islands (Teneriffe and Gomera) the Guanche type has been retained with
more purity than in the others. No inscriptions have been found in these two
islands, and therefore it would seem that the true Guanches did not know
how to write. In the other islands numerous Semitic traces are found, and in
all of them are the rock-signs. From these facts it would seem that the
Numidians, travelling from the neighbourhood of Carthage and intermixing
with the dominant Semitic race, landed in the Canary Islands, and that it is
they who have written the inscriptions at Hierro and Grand Canary.

The political and social institutions of the Guanches varied. In some
islands hereditary autocracy prevailed; in others the government was
elective. In Teneriffe all the land belonged to the chiefs who leased it to
their subjects. In Grand Canary suicide was regarded as honourable, and on
a chief inheriting, one of his subjects willingly honoured the occasion by
throwing himself over a precipice. In some islands polyandry was practised;
in others the natives were monogamous. But everywhere the women appear
to have been respected, an insult offered any woman by an armed man
being a capital offence. Almost all the Guanches used to wear garments of
goat-skins, and others of vegetable fibres, which have been found in the

tombs of Grand Canary. They had a taste for ornaments, necklaces of wood,
bone and shells, worked in different designs. Beads of baked earth,
cylindrical and of all shapes, with smooth or polished surfaces, mostly
black and red in colour, were chiefly in use. They painted their bodies; the
pintaderas, baked clay objects like seals in shape, have been explained by
Dr Verneau as having been used solely for painting the body in various
colours. They manufactured rough pottery, mostly without decorations, or
ornamented by means of the finger-nail. The Guanches’ weapons were
those of the ancient races of south Europe. The polished battle-axe was
more used in Grand Canary, while stone and obsidian, roughly cut, were
commoner in Teneriffe. They had, besides, the lance, the club, sometimes
studded with pebbles, and the javelin, and they seem to have known the
shield. They lived in natural or artificial caves in their mountains. In
districts where cave-dwellings were impossible, they built small round
houses and, according to the Spaniards, they even practised rude
fortification. In Palma the old people were at their own wish left to die
alone. After bidding their family farewell they were carried to the
sepulchral cave, nothing but a bowl of milk being left them. The Guanches
embalmed their dead; many mummies have been found in an extreme state
of desiccation, each weighing not more than 6 or 7 ℔. Two almost
inaccessible caves in a vertical rock by the shore 3 m. from Santa Cruz
(Teneriffe) are said still to contain bones. The process of embalming seems
to have varied. In Teneriffe and Grand Canary the corpse was simply
wrapped up in goat and sheep skins, while in other islands a resinous
substance was used to preserve the body, which was then placed in a cave
difficult of access, or buried under a tumulus. The work of embalming was
reserved for a special class, women for female corpses, men for male.
Embalming seems not to have been universal, and bodies were often simply
hidden in caves or buried.

Little is known of the religion of the Guanches. They appear to have been
a distinctly religious race. There was a general belief in a supreme being,
called Acoran, in Grand Canary, Achihuran in Teneriffe, Eraoranhan in
Hierro, and Abora in Palma. The women of Hierro worshipped a goddess
called Moneiba. According to tradition the male and female gods lived in
mountains whence they descended to hear the prayers of the people. In
other islands the natives venerated the sun, moon, earth and stars. A belief
in an evil spirit was general. The demon of Teneriffe was called Guayota
and lived in the peak of Teyde, which was the hell called Echeyde. In times
of drought the Guanches drove their flocks to consecrated grounds, where
the lambs were separated from their mothers in the belief that their plaintive
bleatings would melt the heart of the Great Spirit. During the religious
feasts all war and even personal quarrels were stayed.

Bibliography.—S. Berthelot, Antiquités canariennes (Paris, 1839);
Baker Webb and S. Berthelot, Histoire naturelle des îles Canaries
(Paris, 1839); Paul Broca, Revue d’anthropologie, iv. (1874); General
L. L. C. Faidherbe, Quelque mots sur l’ethnologie de l’archipel
canarien (Paris, 1875); Chil y Naranjo, Estudios historicos,
climatologicos y Patologicos de las Islas Canarias (Las Palmas, 1876-
1889); “De la pluralité des races humaines de l’archipel canarien,”
Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris, 1878; “Habitations et sépultures des anciens
habitants des îles Canaries,” Revue d’anthrop., 1879; R. Verneau, “Sur
les Sémites aux îles Canaries,” and “Sur les anciens habitants de la
Isleta, Grande Canarie,” Bull. Soc. Anthrop. Paris, 1881; Rapport sur
une mission scientifique dans l’archipel canarien (Paris, 1887); Cinq
années de séjour aux îles Canaries (Paris, 1891); H. Meyer, Die Insel
Tenerife (Leipzig, 1896), “Über die Urbewohner der canarischen
Inseln,” in Adolf Bastian Festschrift (Berlin, 1896); F. von Luschan,
Anhang über eine Schädelsammlung von den canarischen Inseln; R.
Virchow, “Schädel mit Carionecrosis der Sagittalgegend,”

Verhandlungen der Berliner Anthrop. Gesellschaft (1896); G. Sergi,
The Mediterranean Race (London, 1901); The Guanches of Tenerife ...,
by Alonso de Espinosa, translated by Sir Clements Markham, with
bibliography (Hakluyt Society, 1907).

GUANIDINE, CN3H5 or HN:C(NH2)2, the amidine of amidocarbonic
acid. It occurs in beet juice. It was first prepared in 1861 by A. Strecker,
who oxidized guanine with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate. It
may be obtained synthetically by the action of ammonium iodide on
cyanamide, CN·NH2 + NH4I = CN3H5·HI·; by heating ortho-carbonic
esters with ammonia to 150° C.; but best by heating ammonium thiocyanate
to 180°-190° C., when the thiourea first formed is converted into guanidine
thiocyanate, 2CS(NH2)2 = HN:C(NH2)2·HCNS + H2S. It is a colourless
crystalline solid, readily soluble in water and alcohol; it deliquesces on
exposure to air. It has strong basic properties, absorbs carbon dioxide
readily, and forms well-defined crystalline salts. Baryta water hydrolyses it
to urea. By direct union with glycocoll acid, it yields glycocyamine,
NH2·(HN):C·NH·CH2·CO2H, whilst with methyl glycocoll (sarcosine) it
forms creatine, NH2·(NH):C·N(CH3)·CH2·CO2H.

Many derivatives of guanidine were obtained by J. Thiele (Ann.,
1892, 270, p. 1; 1893, 273, p. 133; Ber., 1893, 26, pp. 2598, 2645). By
the action of nitric acid on guanidine in the presence of sulphuric acid,
nitroguanidine, HN:C(NH2)·NH·NO2 (a substance possessing acid
properties) is obtained; from which, by reduction with zinc dust,

amidoguanidine, HN:C(NH2)·NH·NH2, is formed. This
amidoguanidine decomposes on hydrolysis with the formation of
semicarbazide, NH2·CO·NH·NH2, which, in its turn, breaks down into
carbon dioxide, ammonia and hydrazine. Amidoguanidine is a body of
hydrazine type, for it reduces gold and silver salts and yields a
benzylidine derivative. On oxidation with potassium permanganate, it
gives azodicarbondiamidine nitrate, NH2·(HN):C·N:N·C:
(NH)·NH2·2HNO3, which, when reduced by sulphuretted hydrogen, is
converted into the corresponding hydrazodicarbondiamidine,
NH2·(HN):C·NH·NH·C:(NH)·NH2. By the action of nitrous acid on a
nitric acid solution of amidoguanidine, diazoguanidine nitrate,
NH2·(HN):C·NH·N2·NO3, is obtained. This diazo compound is
decomposed by caustic alkalis with the formation of cyanamide and
hydrazoic acid, CH4N5·NO3 = N3H + CN·NH2 + HNO3, whilst
acetates and carbonates convert it into amidotetrazotic acid,
Amidotetrazotic acid yields addition compounds with
amines, and by the further action of nitrous acid yields a very explosive
derivative, diazotetrazol, CN6. By fusing guanidine with urea,
dicyandiamidine H2N·(HN):C·NH·CO·NH2, is formed.

GUANO (a Spanish word from the Peruvian huanu, dung), the
excrement of birds, found as large deposits on certain islands off the coast
of Peru, and on others situated in the Southern ocean and off the west coast
of Africa. The large proportions of phosphorus in the form of phosphates

and of nitrogen as ammonium oxalate and urate renders it a valuable
fertilizer. Bat’s guano, composed of the excrement of bats, is found in
certain caves in New Zealand and elsewhere; it is similar in composition to
Peruvian guano. (See Manures and Manuring.)

GUANTA, a port on the Caribbean coast of the state of Bermúdez,
Venezuela, 12 m. N.E. of Barcelona, with which it is connected by rail. It
dates from the completion of the railway to the coal mines of Naricual and
Capiricual nearly 12 m. beyond Barcelona, and was created for the
shipment of coal. The harbour is horseshoe-shaped, with its entrance, 1998
ft. wide, protected by an island less than 1 m. off the shore. The entrance is
easy and safe, and the harbour affords secure anchorage for large vessels,
with deep water alongside the iron railway wharf. These advantages have
made Guanta the best port on this part of the coast, and the trade of
Barcelona and that of a large inland district have been transferred to it. A
prominent feature in its trade is the shipment of live cattle. Among its
exports are sugar, coffee, cacáo, tobacco and fruit.

GUANTÁNAMO, the easternmost important town of the S. coast of
Cuba, in the province of Santiago, about 40 m. E. of Santiago. Pop. (1907)
14,559. It is situated by the Guazo (or Guaso) river, on a little open plain

between the mountains. The beautiful, land-locked harbour, 10 m. long
from N. to S. and 4 m. wide in places, has an outer and an inner basin. The
latter has a very narrow entrance, and 2 to 2.5 fathoms depth of water. From
the port of Caimanera to the city of Guantánamo, 13 m. N., there is a
railway, and the city has railway connexion with Santiago. Guantánamo is
one of the two ports leased by Cuba to the United States for a naval station.
It is the shipping-port and centre of a surrounding coffee-, sugar- and lime-
growing district. In 1741 an English force under Admiral Edward Vernon
and General Thomas Wentworth landed here to attack Santiago. They
named the harbour Cumberland bay. After their retreat fortifications were
begun. The history of the region practically dates, however, from the end of
the 18th century, when it gained prosperity from the settlement of French
refugees from Santo Domingo; the town, as such, dates only from 1822.
Almost all the old families are of French descent, and French was the
language locally most used as late as the last third of the 19th century. In
recent years, especially since the Spanish-American War of 1898, the region
has greatly changed socially and economically. Guantánamo was once a
fashionable summer residence resort for wealthy Cubans.

GUARANA (so called from the Guaranis, an aboriginal American tribe),
the plant Paullinia Cupana (or P. sorbilis) of the natural order Sapindaceae,
indigenous to the north and west of Brazil. It has a smooth erect stem; large
pinnate alternate leaves, composed of 5 oblong-oval leaflets; narrow
panicles of short-stalked flowers; and ovoid or pyriform fruit about as large
as a grape, and containing usually one seed only, which is shaped like a

minute horse-chestnut. What is commonly known as guarana, guarana
bread or Brazilian cocoa, is prepared from the seeds as follows. In October
and November, at which time they become ripe, the seeds are removed from
their capsules and sun-dried, so as to admit of the ready removal by hand of
the white aril; they are next ground in a stone mortar or deep dish of hard
sandstone; the powder, moistened by the addition of a small quantity of
water, or by exposure to the dews, is then made into a paste with a certain
proportion of whole or broken seeds, and worked up sometimes into balls,
but usually into rolls not unlike German sausages, 5 to 8 in. in length, and
12 to 16 oz. in weight. After drying by artificial or solar heat, the guarana is
packed between broad leaves in sacks or baskets. Thus prepared, it is of
extreme hardness, and has a brown hue, a bitter astringent taste, and an
odour faintly resembling that of roasted coffee. An inferior kind, softer and
of a lighter colour, is manufactured by admixture of cocoa or cassava.
Rasped or grated into sugar and water, guarana forms a beverage largely
consumed in S. America. Its manufacture, originally confined to the
Mauhés Indians, has spread into various parts of Brazil.

The properties of guarana as a nervous stimulant and restorative are
due to the presence of what was originally described as a new principle
and termed guaranine, but is now known to be identical with caffeine
or theine. Besides this substance, which is stated to exist in it in the
form of tannate, guarana yields on analysis the glucoside saponin, with
tannin, starch, gum, three volatile oils, and an acrid green fixed oil
(Fournier, Journ. de Pharm. vol. xxxix., 1861, p. 291).

GUARANIS, a tribe and stock of South American Indians, having their
home in Paraguay, Uruguay and on the Brazilian coast. The Guaranis had
developed some civilization before the arrival of the Spaniards, and being a
peaceable people quickly submitted. They form to-day the chief element in
the populations of Paraguay and Uruguay. Owing to its patronage by the
Jesuit missionaries the Guarani language became a widespread medium of
communication, and in a corrupted form is still the common language in
Paraguay.

GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt “guarantie” or “guaranty”; an O. Fr.
form of “warrant,” from the Teutonic word which appears in German as
wahren, to defend or make safe and binding), a term more comprehensive
and of higher import than either “warrant” or “security,” and designating
either some international treaty whereby claims, rights or possessions are
secured, or more commonly a mere private transaction, by means of which
one person, to obtain some trust, confidence or credit for another, engages
to be answerable for him.

In English law, a guarantee is a contract to answer for the payment of
some debt, or the performance of some duty, by a third person who is
primarily liable to such payment or performance. It is a collateral contract,
which does not extinguish the original liability or obligation to which it is
accessory, but on the contrary is itself rendered null and void should the
latter fail, as without a principal there can be no accessory. The liabilities of
a surety are in law dependent upon those of the principal debtor, and when
the latter cease the former do so likewise (per Collins, L.J., in Stacey v.

Hill, 1901, 1 K.B., at p. 666; see per Willes, J., in Bateson v. Gosling, 1871,
L.R. 7 C.P., at p. 14), except in certain cases where the discharge of the
principal debtor is by operation of law (see In re Fitzgeorge—ex parte
Robson, 1905, 1 K.B. p. 462). If, therefore, persons wrongly suppose that a
third person is liable to one of them, and a guarantee is given on that
erroneous supposition, it is invalid ab initio, by virtue of the lex contractûs,
because its foundation (which was that another was taken to be liable) has
failed (per Willes, J., in Mountstephen v. Lakeman, L.R. 7 Q.B. p. 202).
According to various existing codes civil, a suretyship, in respect of an
obligation “non-valable,” is null and void save where the invalidity is the
result of personal incapacity of the principal debtor (Codes Civil, France
and Belgium, 2012; Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822; Italy, 1899; Holland, 1858;
Lower Canada, 1932). In some countries, however, the mere personal
incapacity of a son under age to borrow suffices to vitiate the guarantee of a
loan made to him (Spain, 1824; Portugal, 822, s. 2, 1535, 1536). The
Egyptian codes sanction guarantees expressly entered into “in view of
debtor’s want of legal capacity” to contract a valid principal obligation
(Egyptian Codes, Mixed Suits, 605; Native Tribunals, 496). The Portuguese
code (art. 822, s. 1) retains the surety’s liability, in respect of an invalid
principal obligation, until the latter has been legally rescinded.

The giver of a guarantee is called “the surety,” or “the guarantor”; the
person to whom it is given “the creditor,” or “the guarantee”; while the
person whose payment or performance is secured thereby is termed “the
principal debtor,” or simply “the principal.” In America, but not apparently
elsewhere, there is a recognized distinction between “a surety” and “a
guarantor”; the former being usually bound with the principal, at the same
time and on the same consideration, while the contract of the latter is his
own separate undertaking, in which the principal does not join, and in
respect of which he is not to be held liable, until due diligence has been
exerted to compel the principal debtor to make good his default. There is no

privity of contract between the surety and the principal debtor, for the surety
contracts with the creditor, and they do not constitute in law one person, and
are not jointly liable to the creditor (per Baron Parke in Bain v. Cooper, 1
Dowl. R. (N.S.) 11, 14).

No special phraseology is necessary to the formation of a guarantee; and
what really distinguishes such a contract from one of insurance is not any
essential difference between the two forms of words insurance and
guarantee, but the substance of the contract entered into by the parties in
each particular case (per Romer, L.J., in Seaton v. Heath—Seaton v.
Burnand, 1899, 1 Q.B. 782, 792, C.A.; per Vaughan Williams, L.J., in In re
Denton’s Estate Licenses Insurance Corporation and Guarantee Fund Ltd.
v. Denton, 1904, 2 Ch., at p. 188; and see Dane v. Mortgage Insurance
Corporation, 1894, 1 Q.B. 54 C.A.) In this connexion it may be mentioned
that the different kinds of suretyships have been classified as follows: (1)
Those in which there is an agreement to constitute, for a particular purpose,
the relation of principal and surety, to which agreement the creditor thereby
secured is a party; (2) those in which there is a similar agreement between
the principal and surety only, to which the creditor is a stranger; and (3)
those in which, without any such contract of suretyship, there is a primary
and a secondary liability of two persons for one and the same debt, the debt
being, as between the two, that of one of those persons only, and not equally
of both, so that the other, if he should be compelled to pay it, would be
entitled to reimbursement from the person by whom (as between the two) it
ought to have been paid (per Earl of Selborne, L.C., in Duncan Fox and Co.
v. North and South Wales Bank, 6 App. Cas., at p. 11). According to several
codes civil sureties are made divisible into conventional, legal and judicial
(Fr. and Bel., 2015, 2040 et seq.; Spain, 1823; Lower Canada, 1930), while
the Spanish code further divides them into gratuitous and for valuable
consideration (art. 1, 823).

In England the common-law requisites of a guarantee in no way differ
from those essential to the formation of any other contract. That is to say,
they comprise the mutual assent of two or more parties, competency to
contract, and, unless the guarantee be under seal, valuable consideration. An
offer to guarantee is not binding until it has been accepted, being revocable
till then by the party making it. Unless, however, as sometimes happens, the
offer contemplates an express acceptance, one may be implied, and it may
be a question for a jury whether an offer of guarantee has in fact been
accepted. Where the surety’s assent to a guarantee has been procured by
fraud of the person to whom it is given, there is no binding contract. Such
fraud may consist of suppression or concealment or misrepresentation.
There is some conflict of authorities as to what facts must be spontaneously
disclosed to the surety by the creditor, but it may be taken that the rule on
the subject is less stringent than that governing insurances upon marine, life
and other risks (The North British Insurance Co. v. Lloyd, 10 Exch. 523),
though formerly this was denied (Owen v. Homan, 3 Mac. & G. 378, 397).
Moreover, even where the contract relied upon is in the form of a policy
guaranteeing the solvency of a surety for another’s debt, and is therefore
governed by the doctrine of uberrima fides, only such facts as are really
material to the risk undertaken need be spontaneously disclosed (Seaton v.
Burnand—Burnand v. Seaton, 1900, A.C. 135). As regards the competency
of the parties to enter into a contract of guarantee, this may be affected by
insanity or intoxication of the surety, if known to the creditor, or by
disability of any kind. The ordinary disabilities are those of infants and
married women—now in England greatly mitigated as regards the latter by
the Married Women’s Property Acts, 1870 to 1893, which enable a married
woman to contract, as a feme sole, to the extent of her separate property.
Every guarantee not under seal must according to English law have a
consideration to support it, though the least spark of one suffices (per
Wilmot, J., in Pillan v. van Mierop and Hopkins, 3 Burr., at p. 1666; Haigh

v. Brooks, 10 A. & E. 309; Barrell v. Trussell, 4 Taunt. 117), which, as in
other cases, may consist either of some right, interest, profit or benefit
accruing to the one party, or some forbearance, detriment, loss or
responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the other. In some
guarantees the consideration is entire—as where, in consideration of a lease
being granted, the surety becomes answerable for the performance of the
covenants; in other cases it is fragmentary, i.e. supplied from time to time—
as where a guarantee is given to secure the balance of a running account at a
banker’s, or a balance of a running account for goods supplied (per Lush,
L.J., in Lloyd’s v. Harper, 16 Ch. Div., at p. 319). In the former case, the
moment the lease is granted there is nothing more for the lessor to do, and
such a guarantee as that of necessity runs on throughout the duration of the
lease and is irrevocable. In the latter case, however, unless the guarantee
stipulates to the contrary, the surety may at any time terminate his liability
under the guarantee as to future advances, &c. The consideration for a
guarantee must not be past or executed, but on the other hand it need not
comprise a direct benefit or advantage to either the surety or the creditor,
but may solely consist of anything done, or any promise made, for the
benefit of the principal debtor. It is more frequently executory than
concurrent, taking the form either of forbearance to sue the principal debtor,
or of a future advance of money or supply of goods to him.

By the Indian Contract Act 1872, sect. 127, it is provided that the
consideration for a guarantee may consist of anything done or any promise
made for the benefit of the principal debtor by the creditor. Total failure of
the consideration stipulated for by the party giving a guarantee will prevent
its being enforced, as will also the existence of an illegal consideration.
Though in all countries the mutual assent of two or more parties is essential
to the formation of any contract (see e.g. Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 1108;
Port. 643, 647 et seq.; Spain, 1258, 1261; Italy, 1104; Holl. 1356; Lower
Canada, 984), a consideration is not everywhere regarded as a necessary

element (see Pothier’s Law of Obligations, Evans’s edition, vol. ii. p. 19).
Thus in Scotland a contract may be binding without a consideration to
support it (Stair i. 10. 7).

The statutory requisites of a guarantee are, in England, prescribed by (1)
the Statute of Frauds, which, with reference to guarantees, provides that “no
action shall be brought whereby to charge the defendant upon any special
promise to answer for the debt, default or miscarriages of another person,
unless the agreement upon which such action shall be brought, or some
memorandum or note thereof, shall be in writing and signed by the party to
be charged therewith, or some other person thereunto by him lawfully
authorized,” and (2) Lord Tenterden’s Act (9 Geo. IV. c. 14), which by § 6
enacts that “no action shall be brought whereby to charge any person upon
or by reason of any representation or assurance made or given concerning
or relating to the character, conduct, credit, ability, trade or dealings of any
other person, to the intent or purpose that such other person may obtain
credit, money or goods upon” (i.e. “upon credit,” see per Parke, B., in Lyde
v. Barnard, 1 M. & W., at p. 104), “unless such representation or assurance
be made in writing signed by the party to be charged therewith.” This latter
enactment, which applies to incorporated companies as well as to individual
persons (Hirst v. West Riding Union Banking Co., 1901, 2 K.B. 560 C.A.),
was rendered necessary by an evasion of the 4th section of the Statute of
Frauds, accomplished by treating the special promise to answer for
another’s debt, default or miscarriage, when not in writing, as required by
that section, as a false and fraudulent representation concerning another’s
credit, solvency or honesty, in respect of which damages, as for a tort, were
held to be recoverable (Pasley v. Freeman, 3 T.R. 51). In Scotland, where, it
should be stated, a guarantee is called a “cautionary obligation,” similar
enactments to those just specified are contained in § 6 of the Mercantile
Law Amendment Act (Scotland) 1856, while in the Irish Statute of Frauds
(7 Will. III. c. 12) there is a provision (§ 2) identical with that found in the

English Statute of Frauds. In India a guarantee may be either oral or written
(Indian Contract Act, § 126), while in the Australian colonies, Jamaica and
Ceylon it must be in writing. The German code civil requires the surety’s
promise to be verified by writing where he has not executed the principal
obligation (art. 766), and the Portuguese code renders a guarantee provable
by all the modes established by law for the proof of the principal contract
(art. 826). According to most codes civil now in force a guarantee like any
other contract can usually be made verbally in the presence of witnesses
and in certain cases (where for instance considerable sums of money are
involved) sous signature privée or else by judicial or notarial instrument
(see Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 1341; Spain, 1244; Port. 2506, 2513; Italy,
1341 et seq.; Pothier’s Law of Obligations, Evans’s ed. i. 257; Burge on
Suretyship, p. 19; van der Linden’s Institutes of Holland, p. 120); the French
and Belgian Codes, moreover, provide that suretyship is not to be presumed
but must always be expressed (art. 2015).

The Statute of Frauds does not invalidate a verbal guarantee, but renders
it unenforceable by action. It may therefore be available in support of a
defence to an action, and money paid under it cannot be recovered. An
indemnity is not a guarantee within the statute, unless it contemplates the
primary liability of a third person. It need not, therefore, be in writing when
it is a mere promise to become liable for a debt, whenever the person to
whom the promise is made should become liable (Wildes v. Dudlow, L.R.
19 Eq. 198; per Vaughan Williams, L.J. in Harburg India-Rubber Co. v.
Martin, 1902, 1 K.B. p. 786; Guild v. Conrad, 1894, 2 Q.B. 885 C.A.).
Neither does the statute apply to the promise of a del credere agent, which
binds him, in consideration of the higher commission he receives, to make
no sales on behalf of his principal except to persons who are absolutely
solvent, and renders him liable for any loss that may result from the non-
fulfilment of his promise. A promise to give a guarantee is, however, within
the statute, though not one to procure a guarantee.

The general principles which determine what are guarantees within the
Statute of Frauds, as deduced from a multitude of decided cases, are briefly
as follows: (1) the primary liability of a third person must exist or be
contemplated as the foundation of the contract (Birkmyr v. Darnell, 1 Sm.
L.C. 11th ed. p. 299; Mountstephen v. Lakeman, L.R. 7 Q.B. 196; L.R. 7
H.L. 17); (2) the promise must be made to the creditor; (3) there must be an
absence of all liability on the part of the surety independently of his express
promise of guarantee; (4) the main object of the transaction between the
parties to the guarantee must be the fulfilment of a third party’s obligation
(see Harburg India-rubber Comb Co. v. Martin, 1902, 1 K.B. 778, 786);
and (5) the contract entered into must not amount to a sale by the creditor to
the promiser of a security for a debt or of the debt itself (see de Colyar’s
Law of Guarantees and of Principal and Surety, 3rd ed. pp. 65-161, where
these principles are discussed in detail by the light of decided cases there
cited).

As regards the kind of note or memorandum of the guarantee that will
satisfy the Statute of Frauds, it is now provided by § 3 of the Mercantile
Law Amendment Act 1856, that “no special promise to be made, by any
person after the passing of this act, to answer for the debt, default or
miscarriage of another person, being in writing and signed by the party to
be charged therewith, or some other person by him thereunto lawfully
authorized, shall be deemed invalid to support an action, suit or other
proceeding, to charge the person by whom such promise shall have been
made, by reason only that the consideration for such promise does not
appear in writing or by necessary inference from a written document.” Prior
to this enactment, which is not retrospective in its operation, it was held in
many cases that as the Statute of Frauds requires “the agreement” to be in
writing, all parts thereof were required so to be, including the consideration
moving to, as well as the promise by, the party to be charged (Wain v.
Walters, 5 East, 10; Sounders v. Wakefield, 4 B. & Ald. 595). These

decisions, however, proved to be burdensome to the mercantile community,
especially in Scotland and the north of England, and ultimately led to the
alteration of the law, so far as guarantees are concerned, by means of the
enactment already specified. Any writing embodying the terms of the
agreement between the parties, and signed by the party to be charged, is
sufficient; and the idea of agreement need not be present to the mind of the
person signing (per Lindley, L.J., in In re Hoyle—Hoyle v. Hoyle, 1893, 1
Ch., at p. 98). It is, however, necessary that the names of the contracting
parties should appear somewhere in writing; that the party to be charged, or
his agent, should sign the memorandum or note of agreement, or else
should sign another paper referring thereto; and that, when the note or
memorandum is made, a complete agreement shall exist. Moreover, the
memorandum must have been made before action brought, though it need
not be contemporaneous with the agreement itself. As regards the stamping
of the memorandum or note of agreement, a guarantee cannot, in England,
be given in evidence unless properly stamped (Stamp Act 1891). A
guarantee for the payment of goods, however, requires no stamp, being
within the exception contained in the first schedule of the act. Nor is it
necessary to stamp a written representation or assurance as to character
within 9 Geo. IV. c. 14, supra. If under seal, a guarantee requires sometimes
an ad valorem stamp and sometimes a ten-shilling stamp; in other cases a
sixpenny stamp generally suffices; and, on certain prescribed terms, the
stamps can be affixed any time after execution (Stamp Act 1891, § 15,
amended by § 15 of the Finance Act 1895).

The liability incurred by a surety under his guarantee depends upon its
terms, and is not necessarily co-extensive with that of the principal debtor.
It is, however, obvious that as the surety’s obligation is
Extent of surety’s merely accessory to that of the principal it cannot as such
liability. exceed it (de Colyar, Law of Guarantees, 3rd ed. p. 233;
Burge, Suretyship, p. 5). By the Roman law, if there were

any such excess the surety’s obligation was rendered wholly void and not
merely void pro tanto. By many existing codes civil, however, a guarantee
which imposes on the surety a greater liability than that of the principal is
not thereby invalidated, but the liability is merely reducible to that of the
principal (Fr. and Bel. 2013; Port. 823; Spain, 1826; Italy, 1900; Holland,
1859; Lower Canada, 1933). By sec. 128 of the Indian Contract Act 1872
the liability of the surety is, unless otherwise provided by contract,
coextensive with that of the principal. Where the liability of the surety is
less extensive in amount than that of the principal debtor, difficult questions
have arisen in England and America as to whether the surety is liable only
for part of the debt equal to the limit of his liability, or, up to such limit, for
the whole debt (Ellis v. Emmanuel, 1 Ex. Div. 157; Hobson v. Bass, 6 Ch.
App. 792; Brandt, Suretyship, sec. 219). The surety cannot be made liable
except for a loss sustained by reason of the default guaranteed against.
Moreover, in the case of a joint and several guarantee by several sureties,
unless all sign it none are liable thereunder (National Pro. Bk. of England v.
Brackenbury, 1906, 22 Times L.R. 797). It was formerly considered in
England to be the duty of the party taking a guarantee to see that it was
couched in language enabling the party giving it to understand clearly to
what extent he was binding himself (Nicholson v. Paget, 1 C. & M. 48, 52).
This view, however, can no longer be sustained, it being now recognized
that a guarantee, like any other contract, must, in cases of ambiguity, be
construed against the party bound thereby and in favour of the party
receiving it (Mayer v. Isaac, 6 M. & W. 605, 612; Wood v. Priestner, L.R. 2
Exch. 66, 71). The surety is not to be changed beyond the limits prescribed
by his contract, which must be construed so as to give effect to what may
fairly be inferred to have been the intention of the parties, from what they
themselves have expressed in writing. In cases of doubtful import, recourse
to parol evidence is permissible, to explain, but not to contradict, the written
evidence of the guarantee. As a general rule, the surety is not liable if the

principal debt cannot be enforced, because, as already explained, the
obligation of the surety is merely accessory to that of the principal debtor. It
has never been actually decided in England whether this rule holds good in
cases where the principal debtor is an infant, and on that account is not
liable to the creditor. Probably in such a case the surety might be held liable
by estoppel (see Kimball v. Newell, 7 Hill (N.Y.) 116). When directors
guarantee the performance by their company of a contract which is ultra
vires, and therefore not binding on the latter, the directors’ suretyship
liability is, nevertheless, enforceable against them (Yorkshire Railway
Waggon Co. v. Maclure, 21 Ch. D. 309 C.A.).

It is not always easy to determine for how long a time liability under a
guarantee endures. Sometimes a guarantee is limited to a single transaction,
and is obviously intended to be security against one specific default only.
On the other hand, it as often happens that it is not exhausted by one
transaction on the faith of it, but extends to a series of transactions, and
remains a standing security until it is revoked, either by the act of the
parties or else by the death of the surety. It is then termed a continuing
guarantee. No fixed rules of interpretation determine whether a guarantee is
a continuing one or not, but each case must be judged on its individual
merits; and frequently, in order to achieve a correct construction, it becomes
necessary to examine the surrounding circumstances, which often reveal
what was the subject-matter which the parties contemplated when the
guarantee was given, and likewise what was the scope and object of the
transaction between them. Most continuing guarantees are either ordinary
mercantile securities, in respect of advances made or goods supplied to the
principal debtor or else bonds for the good behaviour of persons in public or
private offices or employments. With regard to the latter class of continuing
guarantees, the surety’s liability is, generally speaking, revoked by any
change in the constitution of the persons to or for whom the guarantee is
given. On this subject it is now provided by section 18 of the Partnership

Act 1890, which applies to Scotland as well as England, that “a continuing
guarantee or cautionary obligation given either to a firm or to a third person
in respect of the transactions of a firm, is, in the absence of agreement to the
contrary, revoked as to future transactions by any change in the constitution
of the firm to which, or of the firm in respect of the transactions of which
the guaranty or obligation was given.” This section, like the enactment it
replaces, namely, sec. 4 of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act 1856, is
mainly declaratory of the English common law, as embodied in decided
cases, which indicate that the changes in the persons to or for whom a
guarantee is given may consist either of an increase in their number, of a
diminution thereof caused by death or retirement from business, or of the
incorporation or consolidation of the persons to whom the guarantee is
given. In this connexion it may be stated that the Government Offices
(Security) Act 1875, which has been amended by the Statute Law Revision
Act 1883, contains certain provisions with regard to the acceptance by the
heads of public departments of guarantees given by companies for the due
performance of the duties of an office or employment in the public service,
and enables the Commissioners of His Majesty’s Treasury to vary the
character of any security, for good behaviour by public servants, given after
the passing of the act.

Before the surety can be rendered liable on his guarantee, the principal
debtor must have made default. When, however, this has occurred, the
creditor, in the absence of express agreement to the contrary, may sue the
surety, without even informing him of such default having taken place, or
requiring him to pay, and before proceeding against the principal debtor or
resorting to securities for the debt received from the latter. In those
countries where the municipal law is based on the Roman civil law, sureties
usually possess the right (which may, however, be renounced by them)
originally conferred by the Roman law, of compelling the creditor to insist
on the goods, &c. (if any) of the principal debtor being first “discussed,” i.e.

appraised and sold, and appropriated to the liquidation of the debt
guaranteed (see Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2021 et seq.; Spain, 1830, 1831;
Port. 830; Germany, 771, 772, 773; Holland, 1868; Italy, 1907; Lower
Canada, 1941-1942; Egypt [mixed suits] 612; ibid. [native tribunals] 502),
before having recourse to the sureties. This right, according to a great
American jurist (Chancellor Kent in Hayes v. Ward, 4 Johns. New York, Ch.
Cas. p. 132), “accords with a common sense of justice and the natural
equity of mankind.” In England this right has never been fully recognized.
Neither does it prevail in America nor, since the passing of the Mercantile
Law Amendment Act (Scotland) 1856, s. 8, is it any longer available in
Scotland where, prior to the last-named enactment, the benefit of
discussion, as it is termed, existed. In England, however, before any
demand for payment has been made by the creditor on the surety, the latter
can, as soon as the principal debtor has made default, compel the creditor,
on giving him an indemnity against costs and expenses, to sue the principal
debtor if the latter be solvent and able to pay (per A. L. Smith, L.J., in
Rouse v. Bradford Banking Company, 1894, 2 Ch. 75; per Lord Eldon in
Wright v. Simpson, 6 Ves., at p. 733), and a similar remedy is also open to
the surety in America (see Brandt on Suretyship, par. 205, p. 290) though in
neither of these countries nor in Scotland can one of several sureties, when
sued for the whole guaranteed debt by the creditor, compel the latter to
divide his claim amongst all the solvent sureties, and reduce it to the share
and proportion of each surety. However, this beneficium divisionis, as it is
called in Roman law, is recognized by many existing codes (Fr. and Bel.
2025-2027; Spain, 1837; Portugal, 835-836; Germany, 426; Holland, 1873-
1874; Italy, 1911-1912; Lower Canada, 1946; Egypt [mixed suits], 615,
616).

The usual mode in England of enforcing liability under a guarantee is by
action in the High Court or in the county court. It is also permissible for the
creditor to obtain redress by means of a set-off or counter-claim, in an

action brought against him by the surety. On the other hand, the surety may
now, in any court in which the action on the guarantee is pending, avail
himself of any set-off which may exist between the principal debtor and the
creditor. Moreover, if one of several sureties for the same debt is sued by
the creditor or his guarantee, he can, by means of a proceeding termed a
third-party notice, claim contribution from his co-surety towards the
common liability. Independent proof of the surety’s liability under his
guarantee must always be given at the trial; as the creditor cannot rely either
on admissions made by the principal debtor, or on a judgment or award
obtained against him (Ex parte Young In re Kitchin, 17 Ch. Div. 668).
Should the surety become bankrupt either before or after default has been
made by the principal debtor, the creditor will have to prove against his
estate. This right of proof is now in England regulated by the 37th section
of the Bankruptcy Act, 1883, which is most comprehensive in its terms.

A person liable as a surety for another under a guarantee possesses
various rights against him, against the person to whom the guarantee is
given, and also against those who may have become co-
Rights of sureties. sureties in respect of the same debt, default or
miscarriage. As regards the surety’s rights against the
principal debtor, the latter may, where the guarantee was made with his
consent but not otherwise (see Hodgson v. Shaw, 3 Myl. & K. at p. 190),
after he has made default, be compelled by the surety to exonerate him from
liability by payment of the guaranteed debt (per Sir W. Grant, M.R., in
Antrobus v. Davidson, 3 Meriv. 569, 579; per Lindley, L.J., in Johnston v.
Salvage Association, 19 Q.B.D. 460, 461; and see Wolmershausen v.
Gullick, 1893, 2 Ch. 514). The moment, moreover, the surety has himself
paid any portion of the guaranteed debt, he is entitled to rank as a creditor
for the amount so paid, and to compel repayment thereof. In the event of the
principal debtor’s bankruptcy, the surety can in England, if the creditor has
not already proved in respect of the guaranteed debt, prove against the

bankrupt’s estate, not only in respect of payments made before the
bankruptcy of the principal debtor, but also, it seems, in respect of the
contingent liability to pay under the guarantee (see Ex parte Delmar re
Herepath, 1889, 38 W.R. 752), while if the creditor has already proved, the
surety who has paid the guaranteed debt has a right to all dividends received
by the creditor from the bankrupt in respect thereof, and to stand in the
creditor’s place as to future dividends. This right is, however, often waived
by the guarantee stipulating that, until the creditor has received full
payment of all sums over and above the guaranteed debt, due to him from
the principal debtor, the surety shall not participate in any dividends
distributed from the bankrupt’s estate amongst his creditors. As regards the
rights of the surety against the creditor, they are in England exercisable
even by one who in the first instance was a principal debtor, but has since
become a surety, by arrangement with his creditor, duly notified to the
creditor, though not even sanctioned by him. This was decided by the
House of Lords in the case of Rouse v. The Bradford Banking Co., 1894,
A.C. 586, removing a doubt created by the previous case of Swire v.
Redman, 1 Q.B.D. 536, which must now be treated as overruled. The
surety’s principal right against the creditor entitles him, after payment of the
guaranteed debt, to the benefit of all securities, whether known to him (the
surety) or not, which the creditor held against the principal debtor; and
where, by default or laches of the creditor, such securities have been lost, or
rendered otherwise unavailable, the surety is discharged pro tanto. This
right, which is not in abeyance till the surety is called on to pay (Dixon v.
Steel, 1901, 2 Ch. 602), extends to all securities, whether satisfied or not,
given before or after the contract of suretyship was entered into. On this
subject the Mercantile Law Amendment Act, 1856, § 5, provides that
“every person who being surety for the debt or duty of another, or being
liable with another for any debt or duty, shall pay such debt or perform such
duty, shall be entitled to have assigned to him, or to a trustee for him, every

judgment, specialty, or other security, which shall be held by the creditor in
respect of such debt or duty, whether such judgment, specialty, or other
security shall or shall not be deemed at law to have been satisfied by the
payment of the debt or performance of the duty, and such person shall be
entitled to stand in the place of the creditor, and to use all the remedies, and,
if need be, and upon a proper indemnity, to use the name of the creditor, in
any action or other proceeding at law or in equity, in order to obtain from
the principal debtor, or any co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, as the
case may be, indemnification for the advances made and loss sustained by
the person who shall have so paid such debt or performed such duty; and
such payment or performance so made by such surety shall not be pleadable
in bar of any such action or other proceeding by him, provided always that
no co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor shall be entitled to recover from
any other co-surety, co-contractor, or co-debtor, by the means aforesaid,
more than the just proportion to which, as between those parties themselves,
such last-mentioned person shall be justly liable.” This enactment is so far
retrospective that it applies to a contract made before the act, where the
breach thereof, and the payment by the surety, have taken place
subsequently. The right of the surety to be subrogated, on payment by him
of the guaranteed debt, to all the rights of the creditor against the principal
debtor is recognized in America (Tobin v. Kirk, 80 New York S.C.R. 229),
and many other countries (Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2029; Spain, 1839;
Port. 839; Germany, 774; Holland, 1877; Italy, 1916; Lower Canada, 2959;
Egypt [mixed suits], 617; ibid. [native tribunals], 505).

As regards the rights of the surety against a co-surety, he is entitled to
contribution from him in respect of their common liability. This particular
right is not the result of any contract, but is derived from a general equity,
on the ground of equality of burden and benefit, and exists whether the
sureties be bound jointly, or jointly and severally, and by the same, or
different, instruments. There is, however, no right of contribution where

each surety is severally bound for a given portion only of the guaranteed
debt; nor in the case of a surety for a surety; (see In re Denton’s Estate,
1904, 2 Ch. 178 C.A.); nor where a person becomes a surety jointly with
another and at the latter’s request. Contribution may be enforced, either
before payment, or as soon as the surety has paid more than his share of the
common debt (Wolmershausen v. Gullick, 1803, 2 Ch. 514); and the amount
recoverable is now always regulated by the number of solvent sureties,
though formerly this rule only prevailed in equity. In the event of the
bankruptcy of a surety, proof can be made against his estate by a co-surety
for any excess over the latter’s contributive share. The right of contribution
is not the only right possessed by co-sureties against each other, but they are
also entitled to the benefit of all securities which have been taken by any
one of them as an indemnity against the liability incurred for the principal
debtor. The Roman law did not recognize the right of contribution amongst
sureties. It is, however, sanctioned by many existing codes (Fr. and Bel.
2033; Germany, 426, 474; Italy, 1920; Holland, 1881; Spain, 1844; Port.
845; Lower Canada, 1955; Egypt [mixed suits], 618, ibid. [native tribunals],
506), and also by the Indian Contract Act 1872, ss. 146-147.

The discharge of a surety from liability under his guarantee may be
accomplished In various ways, he being regarded, especially in England
and America, as a “favoured debtor” (per Turner, L.J., in Wheatley v.
Bastow, 7 De G. M. & G. 279, 280; per Earl of Selborne, L.C., in In re
Sherry—London and County Banking Co. v. Terry, 25 Ch. D., at p. 703; and
see Brandt on Suretyship, secs. 79, 80). Thus, fraud subsequent to the
execution of the guarantee (as where, for example, the creditor connives at
the principal debtor’s default) will certainly discharge the surety. Again, a
material alteration made by the creditor in the instrument of guarantee after
its execution may also have this effect. The most prolific ground of
discharge, however, is usually traceable to causes originating in the
creditor’s laches or conduct, the governing principle being that if the

creditor violates any rights which the surety possessed when he entered into
the suretyship, even though the damage be nominal only, the guarantee
cannot be enforced. On this subject it suffices to state that the surety’s
discharge may be accomplished (1) by a variation of the terms of the
contract between the creditor and the principal debtor, or of that subsisting
between the creditor and the surety (see Rickaby v. Lewis, 22 T.L.R. 130);
(2) by the creditor taking a new security from the principal debtor in lieu of
the original one; (3) by the creditor discharging the principal debtor from
liability; (4) by the creditor binding himself to give time to the principal
debtor for payment of the guaranteed debt; or (5) by loss of securities
received by the creditor in respect of the guaranteed debt.

In this connexion It may be stated in general terms that whatever
extinguishes the principal obligation necessarily determines that of the
surety (which is accessory thereto), not only in England but elsewhere also
(Codes Civil, Fr. and Bel. 2034, 2038; Spain, 1847; Port. 848; Lower
Canada, 1956; 1960; Egypt [mixed suits], 622, ibid. [native tribunals], 509;
Indian Contract Act 1872, sec. 134), and that, by most of the codes civil
now in force, the surety is discharged by laches or conduct of the creditor
inconsistent with the surety’s rights (see Fr. and Bel. 2037; Spain, 1852;
Port. 853; Germany, 776; Italy, 1928; Egypt [mixed suits], 623), though it
may be mentioned that the rule prevailing in England, Scotland, America
and India which releases the surety from liability where the creditor, by
binding contract with the principal, extends without the surety’s consent the
time for fulfilling the principal obligation, while recognized by two existing
codes civil (Spain, 1851; Port. 852), is rejected by the majority of them (Fr.
and Bel. 2039; Holland, 1887; Italy, 1930; Lower Canada, 1961; Egypt
[mixed suits], 613; ib. [native tribunals], 503); (and see Morice, English and
Dutch Law, p. 96; van der Linden, Institutes of Holland, pp. 120-121). A
revocation of the contract of suretyship by act of the parties, or in certain
cases by the death of the surety, may also operate to discharge the surety.

The death of a surety does not per se determine the guarantee, but, save
where from its nature the guarantee is irrevocable by the surety himself, it
can be revoked by express notice after his death, or, it would appear, by the
creditor becoming affected with constructive notice thereof; except where,
under the testator’s will, the executor has the option of continuing the
guarantee, in which case the executor should, it seems, specifically
withdraw the guarantee in order to determine it. Where one of a number of
joint and several sureties dies, the future liability of the survivors under the
guarantee continues, at all events until it has been determined by express
notice. Moreover, when three persons joined in a guarantee to a bank, and
their liability thereunder was not expressed to be several, it was held that
the death of one surety did not determine the liability of the survivors. In
such a case, however, the estate of the deceased surety would be relieved
from liability.

The Statutes of Limitation bar the right of action on guarantees under
seal after twenty years, and on other guarantees after six years, from the
date when the creditor might have sued the surety.

Authorities.—De Colyar, Law of Guarantees and of Principal and
Surety (3rd ed., 1897); American edition, by J. A. Morgan (1875);
Throop, Validity of Verbal Agreements; Fell, Guarantees (2nd ed.);
Theobald, Law of Principal and Surety; Brandt, Law of Suretyships and
Guarantee; article by de Colyar in Journal of Comparative Legislation
(1905), on “Suretyship from the Standpoint of Comparative
Jurisprudence.”
(H. A. de C.)

GUARATINGUETÁ, a city of Brazil In the eastern part of the state of
São Paulo, 124 m. N.E. of the city of São Paulo. Pop. (1890) of the
municipality, which includes a large rural district and the villages of
Apparecida and Roseira, 30,690. The city, which was founded in 1651,
stands on a fertile plain 3 m. from the Parahyba river, and is the commercial
centre of one of the oldest agricultural districts of the state. The district
produces large quantities of coffee, and some sugar, Indian corn and beans.
Cattle and pigs are raised. The city dwellings are for the most part
constructed of rough wooden frames covered with mud, called taipa by the
natives, and roofed with curved tiles. The São Paulo branch of the Brazilian
Central railway passes through the city, by which it is connected with Rio
de Janeiro on one side and São Paulo and Santos on the other.

GUARDA, an episcopal city and the capital of an administrative district
bearing the same name, and formerly in the province of Beira, Portugal; on
the Guarda-Abrantes and Lisbon-Villar Formoso railways. Pop. (1900)
6124. Guarda is situated 3370 ft. above sea-level, at the north-eastern
extremity of the Serra da Estrella, overlooking the fertile valley of the river
Côa. It is surrounded by ancient walls, and contains a ruined castle, a fine
16th-century cathedral and a sanatorium for consumptives. Its industries
comprise the manufacture of coarse cloth and the sale of grain, wine and
live stock. In 1199 Guarda was founded, on the site of the Roman Lencia
Oppidana, by Sancho I. of Portugal, who intended it, as its name implies, to
be a “guard” against Moorish invasion. The administrative district of
Guarda coincides with north-eastern Beira; pop. (1900), 261,630; area,
1065 sq. m.

GUARDI, FRANCESCO (1712-1793), Venetian painter, was a pupil of
Canaletto, and followed his style so closely that his pictures are very
frequently attributed to his more celebrated master. Nevertheless, the
diversity, when once perceived, is sufficiently marked—Canaletto being
more firm, solid, distinct, well-grounded, and on the whole the higher
master, while Guardi is noticeable for spirited touch, sparkling colour and
picturesquely sketched figures—in these respects being fully equal to
Canaletto. Guardi sometimes coloured Canaletto’s designs. He had
extraordinary facility, three or four days being enough for producing an
entire work. The number of his performances is large in proportion to this

facility and to the love of gain which characterized him. Many of his works
are to be found in England and seven in the Louvre.

GUARDIAN, one who guards or defends another, a protector. The O. Fr.
guarden, garden, mod. gardien, from guarder, garder, is of Teutonic origin,
from the base war-, to protect, cf. O.H. Ger. warten, and Eng. “ward”; thus
“guardian” and “warden” are etymologically identical, as are “guard” and
“ward”; cf. the use of the correlatives “guardian” and “ward,” i.e. a minor,
or person incapable of managing his affairs, under the protection or in the
custody of a guardian. For the position of guardians of the poor see Poor
Law, and for the legal relations between a guardian and his ward see Infant,
Marriage and Roman Law.

GUARDS, and HOUSEHOLD TROOPS. The word guard is an
adaptation of the Fr. guarde, mod. garde, O. Ger. ward; see Guardian. The
practice of maintaining bodyguards is of great antiquity, and may indeed be
considered the beginning of organized armies. Thus there is often no clear
distinction between the inner ring of personal defenders and the select corps
of trained combatants who are at the chief’s entire disposal. Famous
examples of corps that fell under one or both these headings are the
“Immortals” of Xerxes, the Mamelukes, Janissaries, the Huscarles of the

Anglo-Saxon kings, and the Russian Strelitz (Stryeltsi). In modern times the
distinction of function is better marked, and the fighting men who are more
intimately connected with the sovereign than the bulk of the army can be
classified as to duties into “Household Troops,” who are in a sense personal
retainers, and “Guards,” who are a corps d’élite of combatants. But the
dividing line is not so clear as to any given body of troops. Thus the British
Household Cavalry is part of the combatant army as well as the sovereign’s
escort.

The oldest of the household or bodyguard corps in the United Kingdom
is the King’s Bodyguard of the Yeomen of the Guard (q.v.), formed at his
accession by Henry VII. The “nearest guard,” the personal escort of the
sovereign, is the “King’s Bodyguard of the Honourable Corps of
Gentlemen-at-Arms,” created by Henry VIII. at his accession in 1509.
Formed possibly on the pattern of the “Pensionnaires” of the French kings
—retainers of noble birth who were the predecessors of the Maison du Roi
(see below)—the new corps was originally called “the Pensioners.” The
importance of such guards regiments in the general development of
organized armies is illustrated by a declaration of the House of Commons,
made in 1674, that the militia, the pensioners and the Yeomen of the Guard
were the only lawful armed forces in the realm. But with the rise of the
professional soldier and the corresponding disuse of arms by the nobles and
gentry, the Gentlemen-at-Arms (a title which came into use in James II.’s
time, though it did not become that of the corps until William IV.’s)
retaining their noble character, became less and less military. Burke
attempted without success in 1782 to restrict membership to officers of the
army and navy, but the necessity of giving the corps an effective military
character became obvious when, on the occasion of a threatened Chartist
riot, it was called upon to do duty as an armed body at St James’s Palace.
The corps was reconstituted on a purely military basis in 1862, and from
that date only military officers of the regular services who have received a

war decoration are eligible for appointment. The office of captain, however,
is political, the holder (who is always a peer) vacating it on the resignation
of the government of which he is a member. The corps consists at present of
captain, lieutenant, standard bearer, clerk of the cheque (adjutant), sub-
officer and 39 gentlemen-at-arms. The uniform consists of a scarlet
swallow-tailed coat and blue overalls, with gold epaulettes, brass dragoon
helmet with drooping white plume and brass box-spurs, these last
contrasting rather forcibly with the partizan, an essentially infantry weapon,
that they carry.

The Royal Company of Archers.—The king’s bodyguard for
Scotland was constituted in its present form in the year 1670, by an act
of the privy council of Scotland. An earlier origin has been claimed for
the company, some connecting it with a supposed archer guard of the
kings of Scotland. In the above-mentioned year, 1676, the minutes of
the Royal Company begin by stating, that owing to “the noble and
usefull recreation of archery being for many years much neglected,
several noblemen and gentlemen did associate themselves in a
company for encouragement thereof ... and did apply to the privy
council for their approbation ... which was granted.” For about twenty
years at the end of the 17th century, perhaps owing to the adhesion of
the majority to the Stuart cause, its existence seems to have been
suspended. But in 1703 a new captain-general, Sir George Mackenzie,
Viscount Tarbat, afterwards earl of Cromarty (1630-1714), was elected,
and he procured for the company a new charter from Queen Anne. The
rights and privileges renewed or conferred by this charter were to be
held of the crown for the reddendo of a pair of barbed arrows. This
reddendo was paid to George IV. at Holyrood in 1822, to Queen
Victoria in 1842 and to King Edward VII. in 1903. The history of the
Royal Company since 1703 has been one of great prosperity. Large
parades were frequently held, and many distinguished men marched in

the ranks. Several of the leading insurgents in 1745 were members, but
the company was not at that time suspended in any way.

In 1822 when King George IV. visited Scotland, it was thought
appropriate that the Royal Company should act as his majesty’s
bodyguard during his stay, especially as there was a tradition of a
former archer bodyguard. They therefore performed the duties usually
assigned to the gentlemen-at-arms. When Queen Victoria visited the
Scottish capital in 1842, the Royal Company again did duty; the last
time they were called out in her reign in their capacity of royal
bodyguard was in 1860 on the occasion of the great volunteer review in
the Queen’s Park, Edinburgh. They acted in the same capacity when
King Edward VII. reviewed the Scottish Volunteers there on the 18th of
September 1905.

King George IV. authorized the company to take, in addition to their
former name, that of “The King’s Body Guard for Scotland,” and
presented to the captain-general a gold stick, thus constituting the
company part of the royal household. In virtue of this stick the captain-
general of the Royal Company takes his place at a coronation or similar
pageant immediately behind the gold stick of England. The lieutenants-
general of the company have silver sticks; and the council, which is the
executive body of the company, possess seven ebony ones. George IV.
further appointed a full dress uniform to be worn by members of the
company at court, when not on duty as guards, in which latter case the
ordinary field dress is used. The court dress is green with green velvet
facings, gold epaulettes and lace, crimson silk sash, and cocked hat
with green plume. The officers wear a gold sash in place of a crimson
one, and an aiguillette on the left shoulder. All ranks wear swords. The
field dress at present consists of a dark-green tunic, shoulder-wings and
gauntleted cuffs and trousers trimmed with black and crimson; a bow-

case worn as a sash, of the same colour as the coat, black waistbelt
with sword, and Balmoral bonnet with thistle ornament and eagle’s
feather. The officers of the company are the captain-general, 4 captains,
4 lieutenants, 4 ensigns, 12 brigadiers and adjutant.

Corps of the gentlemen-at-arms or yeoman type do not of course count as
combatant troops—if for no other reason at least because they are armed
with the weapons of bygone times. Colonel Clifford Walton states in his
History of the British Standing Army that neither the Yeomen of the Guard
nor the Pensioners were ever subject to martial law. The British guards and
household troops that are armed, trained and organized as part of the army
are the Household Cavalry and the Foot Guards.

The Household Cavalry consists at the present day of three regiments,
and has its origin, as have certain of the Foot guard regiments, in the ashes
of the “New Model” army disbanded at the restoration of Charles II. in
1660. In that year the “1st or His Majesty’s Own Troop of Guards” formed
during the king’s exile of his cavalier followers, was taken on the strength
of the army. The 2nd troop was formerly in the Spanish service as the
“Duke of York’s Guards,” and was also a cavalier unit. In 1670, on Monk’s
death, the original 3rd troop (Monk’s Life Guards, renamed in 1660 the
“Lord General’s Troop of Guards”) became the 2nd (the queen’s) troop, and
the duke of York’s troop the 3rd. In 1685 the 1st and 2nd troops were styled
Life Guards of Horse, and two years later the blue-uniformed “Royal
Regiment of Horse,” a New Model regiment that had been disbanded and at
once re-raised in 1660, was made a household cavalry corps. Later under
the colonelcy of the earl of Oxford it was popularly called “The Oxford
Blues.” There were also from time to time other troops (e.g. Scots troops
1700-1746) that have now disappeared. In 1746 the 2nd troop was
disbanded, but it was revived in 1788, when the two senior corps were
given their present title of 1st and 2nd Life Guards. From 1750 to 1819 the

Blues bore the name of “Royal Horse Guards Blue,” which in 1819 was
changed to “Royal Horse Guards (The Blues).” The general distinction
between the uniforms of the red Life Guard and the blue Horse Guard still
exists. The 1st and the 2nd regiments of Life Guards wear scarlet tunics
with blue collars and cuffs, and the Royal Horse Guards blue tunics with
scarlet collars and cuffs. All three wear steel cuirasses on state occasions
and on guard duty. The head-dress is a steel helmet with drooping horse-
hair plume (white for Life Guards, red for Horse Guards). In full dress
white buckskin pantaloons and long knee boots are worn. Amongst the
peculiarities of these corps d’élite is the survival of the old custom of
calling non-commissioned officers “corporal of horse” instead of sergeant,
and corporal-major instead of sergeant-major, the wearing by trumpeters
and bandsmen in full dress of a black velvet cap, a richly laced coat with a
full skirt extending to the wearer’s knees and long white gaiters. There is
little distinction between the two Life Guards regiments’ uniforms, the most
obvious point being that the cord running through the white leather pouch
belt is red for the 1st and blue for the 2nd.

The Foot Guards comprise the Grenadier Guards, the Coldstream Guards,
the Scots Guards and the Irish Guards, each (except the last) of three
battalions. The Grenadiers, originally the First Foot Guards, represent a
royalist infantry regiment which served with the exiled princes in the
Spanish army and returned at the Restoration in 1660. The Coldstream
Guards are a New Model regiment, and were originally called the Lord
General’s (Monk’s) regiment of Foot Guards. Their popular title, which
became their official designation in 1670, is derived from the fact that the
army with which Monk restored the monarchy crossed the Tweed into
England at the village of Coldstream, and that his troops (which were
afterwards, except the two units of horse and foot of which Monk himself
was colonel, disbanded) were called the Coldstreamers. The two battalions
of Scots Foot Guards, which regiment was separately raised and maintained

in Scotland after the Restoration, marched to London in 1686 and 1688 and
were brought on to the English Establishment in 1707. In George III.’s reign
they were known as the Third Guards, and from 1831 to 1877 (when the
present title was adopted) as the Scots Fusilier Guards.

The Irish Guards (one battalion) were formed in 1902, after the South
African War, as a mark of Queen Victoria’s appreciation of the services
rendered by the various Irish regiments of the line.1 The dress of the Foot
Guards is generally similar in all four regiments, scarlet tunic with blue
collars, cuffs and shoulder-straps, blue trousers and high, rounded bearskin
cap. The regimental distinctions most easily noticed are these. The
Grenadiers wear a small white plume in the bearskin, the Coldstreams a
similar red one, the Scots none, the Irish a blue-green one. The buttons on
the tunic are spaced evenly for the Grenadiers, by twos for the Coldstreams,
by threes for the Scots and by fours for the Irish. The band of the modern
cap is red for the Grenadiers, white for the Coldstreams, “diced” red and
white (chequers) for the Scots and green for the Irish. Former privileges of
foot guard regiments, such as higher brevet rank in the army for their
regimental officers, are now abolished, but Guards are still subject
exclusively to the command of their own officers, and the officers of the
Foot Guards, like those of the Household Cavalry, have special duties at
court. Neither the cavalry nor the infantry guards serve abroad in peace time
as a rule, but in 1907 a battalion of the Guards, which it was at that time
proposed to disband, was sent to Egypt. “Guards’ Brigades” served in the
Napoleonic Wars, in the Crimea, in Egypt at various times from 1887 to
1898 and in South Africa 1899-1902. The last employment of the
Household Cavalry as a brigade in war was at Waterloo, but composite
regiments made up from officers and men of the Life Guards and Blues
were employed in Egypt and in S. Africa.

The sovereigns of France had guards in their service in Merovingian
times, and their household forces appear from time to time in the
history of medieval wars. Louis XI. was, however, the first to
regularize their somewhat loose organization, and he did so to such
good purpose that Francis I. had no less than 8000 guardsmen
organized, subdivided and permanently under arms. The senior unit of
the Gardes du Corps was the famous company of Scottish archers
(Compagnie écossaise de la Garde du Corps du Roi), which was
originally formed (1418) from the Scottish contingents that assisted the
French in the Hundred Years’ War. Scott’s Quentin Durward gives a
picture of life in the corps as it was under Louis XI. In the following
century, however, its regimental history becomes somewhat confused.
Two French companies were added by Louis XI. and Francis I. and the
Gardes du Corps came to consist exclusively of cavalry. About 1634
nearly all the Scots then serving went into the “regiment d’Hébron”
and thence later into the British regular army (see Hepburn, Sir John).
Thereafter, though the titles, distinctions and privileges of the original
Archer Guard were continued, it was recruited from native Frenchmen,
preference being (at any rate at first) given to those of Scottish descent.
At its disbandment in 1791 along with the rest of the Gardes du Corps,
it contained few, if any, native Scots. There was also, for a short time
(1643-1660), an infantry regiment of Gardes écossaises.

In 1671 the title of Maison Militaire du Roi was applied to that
portion of the household that was distinctively military. It came to
consist of 4 companies of the Gardes du Corps, 2 companies of
Mousquetaires (cavalry) (formed 1622 and 1660), 1 company of
Chevaux légers (1570), 1 of Gendarmes de la Maison Rouge, and 1 of
Grenadiers à Cheval (1676), with 1 company of Gardes de la Porte
and one called the Cent-Suisses, the last two being semi-military. This
large establishment, which did not include all the guard regiments, was

considerably reduced by the Count of St Germain’s reforms in 1775, all
except the Gardes du Corps and the Cent-Suisses being disbanded. The
whole of the Maison du Roi, with the exception of the semi-military
bodies referred to, was cavalry.

The Gardes françaises, formed in 1563, did not form part of the
Maison. They were an infantry regiment, as were the famous Gardes
suisses, originally a Swiss mercenary regiment in the Wars of Religion,
which was, for good conduct at the combat of Arques, incorporated in
the permanent establishment by Henry IV. in 1589 and in the guards in
1615. At the Revolution, contrary to expectation, the French Guards
sided openly with the Constitutional movement and were disbanded.
The Swiss Guards, however, being foreigners, and therefore unaffected
by civil troubles, retained their exact discipline and devotion to the
court to the day on which they were sacrificed by their master to the
bullets of the Marseillais and the pikes of the mob (August 10, 1792).
Their tragic fate is commemorated by the well-known monument
called the “Lion of Lucerne,” the work of Thorvaldsen, erected near
Lucerne in 1821. The “Constitutional,” “Revolutionary” and other
guards that were created after the abolition of the Maison and the
slaughter of the Swiss are unimportant, but through the “Directory
Guards” they form a nominal link between the household troops of the
monarchy and the corps which is perhaps the most famous “Guard” in
history. The Imperial Guard of Napoleon had its beginnings in an
escort squadron called the Corps of Guides, which accompanied him in
the Italian campaign of 1796-1797 and in Egypt. On becoming First
Consul in 1799 he built up out of this and of the guard of the Directory
a small corps of horse and foot, called the Consular Guard, and this,
which was more of a fighting unit than a personal bodyguard, took part
in the battle of Marengo. The Imperial Guard, into which it was
converted on the establishment of the Empire, was at first of about the

strength of a division. As such it took part in the Austerlitz and Jena
campaigns, but after the conquest of Prussia Napoleon augmented it,
and divided it into the “Old Guard” and the “Young Guard.”
Subsequently the “Middle Guard” was created, and by successive
augmentations the corps of the guard had grown to be 57,000 strong in
1811-1812 and 81,000 in 1813. It preserved its general character as a
corps d’élite of veterans to the last, but from about 1813 the “Young
Guard” was recruited directly from the best of the annual conscript
contingent. The officers held a higher rank in the army than their
regimental rank in the Guards. At the first Restoration an attempt was
made to revive the Maison du Roi, but in the constitutional régime of
the second Restoration this semi-medieval form of bodyguard was
given up and replaced by the Garde Royale, a selected fighting corps.
This took part in the short war with Spain and a portion of it fought in
Algeria, but it was disbanded at the July Revolution. Louis Philippe
had no real guard troops, but the memories of the Imperial Guard were
revived by Napoleon III., who formed a large guard corps in 1853-
1854. This, however, was open to an even greater degree than
Napoleon I.’s guard to the objection that it took away the best soldiers
from the line. Since the fall of the Empire in 1870 there have been no
guard troops in France. The duty of watching over the safety of the
president is taken in the ordinary roster of duty by the troops stationed
in the capital. The “Republican Guard” is the Paris gendarmerie,
recruited from old soldiers and armed and trained as a military body.

In Austria-Hungary there are only small bodies of household troops
(Archer Body Guard, Trabant Guard, Hungarian Crown Guards, &c.)
analogous to the British Gentlemen at Arms or Yeomen of the Guard.
Similar forces, the “Noble Guard” and the “Swiss Guard,” are
maintained in the Vatican. The court troops of Spain are called
“halberdiers” and armed with the halbert.

In Russia the Guard is organized as an army corps. It possesses
special privileges, particularly as regards officers’ advancement.

In Germany the distinction between armed retainers and “Guards” is
well marked. The army is for practical purposes a unit under imperial
control, while household troops (“castle-guards” as they are usually
called) belong individually to the various sovereigns within the empire.
The “Guards,” as a combatant force in the army are those of the king of
Prussia and constitute a strong army corps. This has grown gradually
from a bodyguard of archers, and, as in Great Britain, the functions of
the heavy cavalry regiments of the Guard preserve to some extent the
name and character of a body guard (Gardes du Corps). The senior foot
guard regiment is also personally connected with the royal family. The
conversion of a palace-guard to a combatant force is due chiefly to
Frederick William I., to whom drill was a ruling passion, and who
substituted effective regiments for the ornamental “Trabant Guards” of
his father. A further move was made by Frederick the Great in
substituting for Frederick William’s expensive “giant” regiment of
guards a larger number of ordinary soldiers, whom he subjected to the
same rigorous training and made a corps d’élite. Frederick the Great
also formed the Body Guard alluded to above. Nevertheless in 1806 the
Guard still consisted only of two cavalry regiments and four infantry
regiments, and it was the example of Napoleon’s imperial guard which
converted this force into a corps of all arms. In 1813 its strength was
that of a weak division, but in 1860 by slight but frequent
augmentations it had come to consist of an army corps, complete with
all auxiliary services. A few guard regiments belonging to the minor
sovereigns are counted in the line of the German army. In war the
Guard is employed as a unit, like other army corps. It is recruited by
the assignment of selected young men of each annual contingent, and is

thus free from the reproach of the French Imperial Guard, which took
the best-trained soldiers from the regiments of the line.

1 The “Irish Guards” of the Stuarts took the side of James II., fought against William
III. in Ireland and lost their regimental identity in the French service to which the officers
and soldiers transferred themselves on the abandonment of the struggle.

GUARD-SHIP, a warship stationed at some port or harbour to act as a
guard, and in former times in the British navy to receive the men impressed
for service. She usually was the flagship of the admiral commanding on the
coast. A guard-boat is a boat which goes the round of a fleet at anchor to see
that due watch is kept at night.

GUÁRICO, a large inland state of Venezuela created by the territorial
redivision of 1904, bounded by Aragua and Miranda on the N., Bermúdez
on the E., Bolívar on the S., and Zamora on the W. Pop. (1905 estimate),
78,117. It extends across the northern llanos to the Orinoco and Apure
rivers and is devoted almost wholly to pastoral pursuits, exporting cattle,
horses and mules, hides and skins, cheese and some other products. The
capital is Calabozo, and the other principal towns are Camaguán (pop.
3648) on the Portugueza river, Guayabal (pop. 3146), on a small tributary of

the Guárico river, and Zaraza (pop. 14,546) on the Unare river, nearly 150
m. S.E. of Carácas.

GUARIENTO, sometimes incorrectly named Guerriero, the first
Paduan painter who distinguished himself. The only date distinctly known
in his career is 1365, when, having already acquired high renown in his
native city, he was invited by the Venetian authorities to paint a Paradise,
and some incidents of the war of Spoleto, in the great council-hall of
Venice. These works were greatly admired at the time, but have long ago
disappeared under repaintings. His works in Padua have suffered much. In
the church of the Eremitani are allegories of the Planets, and, in its choir,
some small sacred histories in dead colour, such as an Ecce Homo; also, on
the upper walls, the life of St Augustine, with some other subjects. A few
fragments of other paintings by Guariento are still extant in Padua. In the
gallery of Bassano is a Crucifixion, carefully executed, and somewhat
superior to a merely traditional method of handling, although on the whole
Guariento must rather be classed in that school of art which preceded
Cimabue than as having advanced in his vestiges; likewise two other works
in Bassano, ascribed to the same hand. The painter is buried in the church of
S. Bernardino, Padua.

GUARINI, CAMILLO-GUARINO (1624-1683), Italian monk, writer
and architect, was born at Modena in 1624. He was at once a learned
mathematician, professor of literature and philosophy at Messina, and, from
the age of seventeen, was architect to Duke Philibert of Savoy. He designed
a very large number of public and private buildings at Turin, including the
palaces of the duke of Savoy and the prince of Cacignan, and many public
buildings at Modena, Verona, Vienna, Prague, Lisbon and Paris. He died at
Milan in 1683.

GUARINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1537-1612), Italian poet, author
of the Pastor fido, was born at Ferrara on the 10th of December 1537, just
seven years before the birth of Tasso. He was descended from Guarino da
Verona. The young Battista studied both at Pisa and Padua, whence he was
called, when not yet twenty, to profess moral philosophy in the schools of
his native city. He inherited considerable wealth, and was able early in life
to marry Taddea de’ Bendedei, a lady of good birth. In 1567 he entered the
service of Alphonso II., duke of Ferrara, thus beginning the court career
which was destined to prove a constant source of disappointment and
annoyance to him. Though he cultivated poetry for pastime, Guarini aimed
at state employment as the serious business of his life, and managed to be
sent on various embassies and missions by his ducal master. There was,
however, at the end of the 16th century no opportunity for a man of energy
and intellectual ability to distinguish himself in the petty sphere of Italian
diplomacy. The time too had passed when the profession of a courtier,
painted in such glowing terms by Castiglione, could confer either profit or

honour. It is true that the court of Alphonso presented a brilliant spectacle to
Europe, with Tasso for titular poet, and an attractive circle of accomplished
ladies. But the last duke of Ferrara was an illiberal patron, feeding his
servants with promises, and ever ready to treat them with the brutality that
condemned the author of the Gerusalemme liberata to a madhouse. Guarini
spent his time and money to little purpose, suffered from the spite and ill-
will of two successive secretaries,—Pigna and Montecatini,—quarrelled
with his old friend Tasso, and at the end of fourteen years of service found
himself half-ruined, with a large family and no prospects. When Tasso was
condemned to S. Anna, the duke promoted Guarini to the vacant post of
court poet. There is an interesting letter extant from the latter to his friend
Cornelio Bentivoglio, describing the efforts he made to fill this place
appropriately. “I strove to transform myself into another person, and, like a
player, reassumed the character, costume and feelings of my youth.
Advanced in manhood, I forced myself to look young; I turned my natural
melancholy into artificial gaiety, affected loves I did not feel, exchanged
wisdom for folly, and, in a word, passed from a philosopher into a poet.”
How ill-adapted he felt himself to this masquerade life may be gathered
from the following sentence: “I am already in my forty-fourth year, the
father of eight children, two of whom are old enough to be my censors,
while my daughters are of an age to marry.” Abandoning so uncongenial a
strain upon his faculties, Guarini retired in 1582 to his ancestral farm, the
Villa Guarina, in the lovely country that lies between the Adige and Po,
where he gave himself up to the cares of his family, the nursing of his
dilapidated fortunes and the composition of the Pastor fido. He was not
happy in his domestic lot; for he had lost his wife young, and quarrelled
with his elder sons about the division of his estate. Litigation seems to have
been an inveterate vice with Guarini; nor was he ever free from legal
troubles. After studying his biography, the conclusion is forced upon our
minds that he was originally a man of robust and virile intellect, ambitious

of greatness, confident in his own powers, and well qualified for serious
affairs, whose energies found no proper scope for their exercise. Literary
work offered but a poor sphere for such a character, while the enforced
inactivity of court life soured a naturally capricious and choleric temper. Of
poetry he spoke with a certain tone of condescension, professing to practise
it only in his leisure moments; nor are his miscellaneous verses of a quality
to secure for their author a very lasting reputation. It is therefore not a little
remarkable that the fruit of his retirement—a disappointed courtier past the
prime of early manhood—should have been a dramatic masterpiece worthy
to be ranked with the classics of Italian literature. Deferring a further
account of the Pastor fido for the present, the remaining incidents of
Guarini’s restless life may be briefly told. In 1585 he was at Turin
superintending the first public performance of his drama, whence Alphonso
recalled him to Ferrara, and gave him the office of secretary of state. This
reconciliation between the poet and his patron did not last long. Guarini
moved to Florence, then to Rome, and back again to Florence, where he
established himself as the courtier of Ferdinand de’ Medici. A
dishonourable marriage, pressed upon his son Guarino by the grand-duke,
roused the natural resentment of Guarini, always scrupulous upon the point
of honour. He abandoned the Medicean court, and took refuge with
Francesco Maria of Urbino, the last scion of the Montefeltro-della-Rovere
house. Yet he found no satisfaction at Urbino. “The old court is a dead
institution,” he writes to a friend; “one may see a shadow of it, but not the
substance in Italy of to-day. Ours is an age of appearances, and one goes a-
masquerading all the year.” This was true enough. Those dwindling deadly-
lively little residence towns of Italian ducal families, whose day of glory
was over, and who were waiting to be slowly absorbed by the capacious
appetite of Austria, were no fit places for a man of energy and
independence. Guarini finally took refuge in his native Ferrara, which, since
the death of Alphonso, had now devolved to the papal see. Here, and at the

Villa Guarina, his last years were passed in study, law-suits, and polemical
disputes with his contemporary critics, until 1612, when he died at Venice
in his seventy-fifth year.

The Pastor fido (first published in 1590) is a pastoral drama composed
not without reminiscences of Tasso’s Aminta. The scene is laid in Arcadia,
where Guarini supposes it to have been the custom to sacrifice a maiden
yearly to Diana. But an oracle has declared that when two scions of divine
lineage are united in marriage, and a faithful shepherd has atoned for the
ancient error of a faithless woman, this inhuman rite shall cease. The plot
turns upon the unexpected fulfilment of this prophecy, contrary to all the
schemes which had been devised for bringing it to accomplishment, and in
despite of apparent improbabilities of divers kinds. It is extremely
elaborate, and, regarded as a piece of cunning mechanism, leaves nothing to
be desired. Each motive has been carefully prepared, each situation amply
developed. Yet, considered as a play, the Pastor fido disappoints a reader
trained in the school of Sophocles or Shakespeare. The action itself seems
to take place off the stage, and only the results of action, stationary tableaux
representing the movement of the drama, are put before us in the scenes.
The art is lyrical, not merely in form but in spirit, and in adaptation to the
requirements of music which demands stationary expressions of emotion
for development. The characters have been well considered, and are
exhibited with great truth and vividness; the cold and eager hunter Silvio
contrasting with the tender and romantic Mirtillo, and Corisca’s
meretricious arts enhancing the pure affection of Amarilli. Dorinda presents
another type of love so impulsive that it prevails over a maiden’s sense of
shame, while the courtier Carino brings the corruption of towns into
comparison with the innocence of the country. In Carino the poet painted
his own experience, and here his satire upon the court of Ferrara is none the
less biting because it is gravely measured. In Corisca he delineated a
woman vitiated by the same town life, and a very hideous portrait has he

drawn. Though a satirical element was thus introduced into the Pastor fido
in order to relieve its ideal picture of Arcadia, the whole play is but a study
of contemporary feeling in Italian society. There is no true rusticity
whatever in the drama. This correspondence with the spirit of the age
secured its success during Guarini’s lifetime; this made it so dangerously
seductive that Cardinal Bellarmine told the poet he had done more harm to
Christendom by his blandishments than Luther by his heresy. Without
anywhere transgressing the limits of decorum, the Pastor fido is steeped in
sensuousness; and the immodesty of its pictures is enhanced by rhetorical
concealments more provocative than nudity. Moreover, the love described is
effeminate and wanton, felt less as passion than as lust enveloped in a veil
of sentiment. We divine the coming age of cicisbei and castrati. Of
Guarini’s style it would be difficult to speak in terms of too high praise. The
thought and experience of a lifetime have been condensed in these five acts,
and have found expression in language brilliant, classical, chiselled to
perfection. Here and there the taste of the 17th century makes itself felt in
frigid conceits and forced antitheses; nor does Guarini abstain from
sententious maxims which reveal the moralist rather than the poet. Yet these
are but minor blemishes in a masterpiece of diction, glittering and faultless
like a polished bas-relief of hard Corinthian bronze. That a single pastoral
should occupy so prominent a place in the history of literature seems
astonishing, until we reflect that Italy, upon the close of the 16th century,
expressed itself in the Pastor fido, and that the influence of this drama was
felt through all the art of Europe till the epoch of the Revolution. It is not a
mere play. The sensual refinement proper to an age of social decadence
found in it the most exact embodiment, and made it the code of gallantry for
the next two centuries.

The best edition of the Pastor fido is the 20th, published at Venice
(Ciotti) in 1602. The most convenient is that of Barbéra (Florence,
1866). For Guarini’s miscellaneous Rime, the Ferrara edition, in 4

vols., 1737, may be consulted. His polemical writings, Verato primo
and secondo, and his prose comedy called Idropica, were published at
Venice, Florence and Rome, between 1588 and 1614. (J. A. S.)

GUARINO, also known as Varinus, and surnamed from his birthplace
Favorinus, Phavorinus or Camers (c. 1450-1537), Italian lexicographer and
scholar, was born at Favera near Camerino, studied Greek and Latin at
Florence under Politian, and afterwards became for a time the pupil of
Lascaris. Having entered the Benedictine order, he now gave himself with
great zeal to Greek lexicography; and in 1496 published his Thesaurus
cornucopiae et horti Adonidis, a collection of thirty-four grammatical tracts
in Greek. He for some time acted as tutor to Giovanni dei Medici
(afterwards Leo X.), and also held the appointment of keeper of the
Medicean library at Florence. In 1514 Leo appointed him bishop of Nocera.
In 1517 he published a translation of the Apophthegmata of Joannes
Stobaeus, and in 1523 appeared his Etymologicum magnum, sive thesaurus
universae linguae Graecae ex multis variisque autoribus collectus, a
compilation which has been frequently reprinted, and which has laid
subsequent scholars under great though not always acknowledged
obligations.

GUARINO [GUARINUS] DA VERONA (1370-1460), one of the
Italian restorers of classical learning, was born in 1370 at Verona, and
studied Greek at Constantinople, where for five years he was the pupil of
Manuel Chrysoloras. When he set out on his return to Italy he was the
happy possessor of two cases of precious Greek MSS. which he had been at
great pains to collect; it is said that the loss of one of these by shipwreck
caused him such distress that his hair turned grey in a single night. He
supported himself as a teacher of Greek, first at Verona and afterwards in
Venice and Florence; in 1436 he became, through the patronage of Lionel,
marquis of Este, professor of Greek at Ferrara; and in 1438 and following
years he acted as interpreter for the Greeks at the councils of Ferrara and
Florence. He died at Ferrara on the 14th of December 1460.

His principal works are translations of Strabo and of some of the
Lives of Plutarch, a compendium of the Greek grammar of
Chrysoloras, and a series of commentaries on Persius, Juvenal, Martial
and on some of the writings of Aristotle and Cicero. See Rosmini, Vita
e disciplina di Guarino (1805-1806); Sabbadini, Guarino Veronese
(1885); Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. ii. (1908).

GUARNIERI, or Guarnerius, a celebrated family of violin-makers of
Cremona. The first was Andreas (c. 1626-1698), who worked with Antonio
Stradivari in the workshop of Nicolo Amati (son of Geronimo). Violins of a
model original to him are dated from the sign of “St Theresa” in Cremona.
His son Joseph (1666-c. 1739) made instruments at first like his father’s,
but later in a style of his own with a narrow waist; his son, Peter of Venice

(b. 1695), was also a fine maker. Another son of Andreas, Peter (Pietro
Giovanni), commonly known as “Peter of Cremona” (b. 1655), moved from
Cremona and settled at Mantua, where he too worked “sub signo Sanctae
Teresae.” Peter’s violins again showed considerable variations from those
of the other Guarnieri. Hart, in his work on the violin, says, “There is
increased breadth between the sound-holes; the sound-hole is rounder and
more perpendicular; the middle bouts are more contracted, and the model is
more raised.”

The greatest of all the Guarnieri, however, was a nephew of Andreas,
Joseph del Gesù (1687-1745), whose title originates in the I.H.S. inscribed
on his tickets. His master was Gaspar di Salo. His conception follows that
of the early Brescian makers in the boldness of outline and the massive
construction which aim at the production of tone rather than visual
perfection of form. The great variety of his work in size, model, &c.,
represents his various experiments in the direction of discovering this tone.
A stain or sap-mark, parallel with the finger-board on both sides, appears on
the bellies of most of his instruments. Since the middle of the 18th century a
great many spurious instruments ascribed to this master have poured over
Europe. It was not until Paganini played on a “Joseph” that the taste of
amateurs turned from the sweetness of the Amati and the Stradivarius
violins in favour of the robuster tone of the Joseph Guarnerius. See Violin.

GUASTALLA, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in the province
of Reggio, from which it is 18 m. N. by road, on the S. bank of the Po, 79
ft. above sea-level. It is also connected by rail with Parma and Mantua (via

Suzzara). Pop. (1901), 2658 (town); 11,091 (commune). It has 16th-century
fortifications. The cathedral, dating from the 10th century, has been
frequently restored. Guastalla was founded by the Lombards in the 7th
century; in the church of the Pieve Pope Paschal II. held a council in 1106.
In 1307 it was seized by Giberto da Correggio of Parma. In 1403 it passed
to Guido Torello, cousin of Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan. In 1539 it was
sold by the last female descendant of the Torelli to Ferrante Gonzaga. In
1621 it was made the seat of a duchy, but in 1748 it was added to those of
Parma and Piacenza, whose history it subsequently followed.

GUATEMALA (sometimes incorrectly written Guatimala), a name now
restricted to the republic of Guatemala and to its chief city, but formerly
given to a captaincy-general of Spanish America, which included the fifteen
provinces of Chiapas, Suchitepeques, Escuintla, Sonsonate, San Salvador,
Vera Paz and Peten, Chiquimula, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
Totonicapam, Quezaltenango, Sololá, Chimaltenango and Sacatepeques,—
or, in other words, the whole of Central America (except Panama) and part
of Mexico. The name is probably of Aztec origin, and is said by some
authorities to mean in its native form Quauhtematlan, “Land of the Eagle,”
or “Land of Forest”; others, writing it U-ha-tez-ma-la, connect it with the
volcano of Agua (i.e. “water”), and interpret it as “mountain vomiting
water.”

The republic of Guatemala is situated between 13° 42′ and 17° 49′ N.,
and 88° 10′ and 92° 30′ W. (For map, see Central America.) Pop. (1903),
1,842,134; area about 48,250 sq. m. Guatemala is bounded on the W. and N.

by Mexico, N.E. by British Honduras, E. by the Gulf of Honduras, and the
republic of Honduras, S.E. by Salvador and S. by the Pacific Ocean. The
frontier towards Mexico was determined by conventions of the 27th of
September 1882, the 17th of October 1883, the 1st of April 1895, and the
8th of May 1899. Starting from the Pacific, it ascends the river Suchiate,
then follows an irregular line towards the north-east, till it reaches the
parallel of 17° 49′ N., along which it runs to the frontier of British
Honduras. This frontier, by the convention of the 9th of July 1893,
coincides with the meridian of 89° 20′ W., till it meets the river Sarstoon or
Sarstun, which it follows eastwards to the Gulf of Honduras.

Physical Description.—Guatemala is naturally divided into five
regions—the lowlands of the Pacific coast, the volcanic mountains of
the Sierra Madre, the so-called plateaus immediately north of these, the
mountains of the Atlantic versant and the plain of Peten. (1) The
coastal plains extend along the entire southern seaboard, with a mean
breadth of 50 m., and link together the belts of similar territory in
Salvador and the district of Soconusco in Chiapas. Owing to their
tropical heat, low elevation above sea-level, and marshy soil, they are
thinly peopled, and contain few important towns except the seaports.
(2) The precipitous barrier of the Sierra Madre, which closes in the
coastal plains on the north, is similarly prolonged into Salvador and
Mexico. It is known near Guatemala city as the Sierra de las Nubes,
and enters Mexico as the Sierra de Istatan. It forms the main watershed
between the Pacific and Atlantic river systems. Its summit is not a well-
defined crest, but is often rounded or flattened into a table-land. The
direction of the great volcanic cones, which rise in an irregular line
above it, is not identical with the main axis of the Sierra itself, except
near the Mexican frontier, but has a more southerly trend, especially
towards Salvador; here the base of many of the igneous peaks rests
among the southern foothills of the range. It is, however, impossible to

subdivide the Sierra Madre into a northern and a volcanic chain; for the
volcanoes are isolated by stretches of comparatively low country; at
least thirteen considerable streams flow down between them, from the
main watershed to the sea. Viewed from the coast, the volcanic cones
seem to rise directly from the central heights of the Sierra Madre,
above which they tower; but in reality their bases are, as a rule, farther
south. East of Tacana, which marks the Mexican frontier, and is
variously estimated at 13,976 ft. and 13,090 ft., and if the higher
estimate be correct is the loftiest peak in Central America, the principal
volcanoes are—Tajamulco or Tajumulco (13,517 ft.); Santa Maria
(12,467 ft.), which was in eruption during 1902, after centuries of
quiescence, in which its slopes had been overgrown by dense forests;
Atitlán (11,719), overlooking the lake of that name; Acatenango
(13,615). which shares the claim of Tacana to be the highest mountain
of Central America; Fuego (i.e. “fire,” variously estimated at 12,795 ft.
and 12,582 ft.), which received its name from its activity at the time of
the Spanish conquest; Agua (i.e. “water,” 12,139 ft.), so named in 1541
because it destroyed the former capital of Guatemala with a deluge of
water from its flooded crater; and Pacaya (8390), a group of igneous
peaks which were in eruption in 1870. (3) The so-called plateaus which
extend north of the Sierra Madre are in fact high valleys, rather than
table-lands, enclosed by mountains. A better idea of this region is
conveyed by the native name Altos, or highlands, although that term
includes the northern declivity of the Sierra Madre. The mean elevation
is greatest in the west (Altos of Quezaltenango) and least in the east
(Altos of Guatemala). A few of the streams of the Pacific slope actually
rise in the Altos, and force a way through the Sierra Madre at the
bottom of deep ravines. One large river, the Chixoy, escapes
northwards towards the Atlantic. (4) The relief of the mountainous
country which lies north of the Altos and drains into the Atlantic is

varied by innumerable terraces, ridges and underfalls; but its general
configuration is admirably compared by E. Reclus with the appearance
of “a stormy sea breaking into parallel billows” (Universal Geography,
ed. E. G. Ravenstein, div. xxxiii., p. 212). The parallel ranges extend
east and west with a slight southerly curve towards their centres. A
range called the Sierra de Chama, which, however, changes its name
frequently from place to place, strikes eastward towards British
Honduras, and is connected by low hills with the Cockscomb
Mountains; another similar range, the Sierra de Santa Cruz, continues
east to Cape Cocoli between the Polochic and the Sarstoon; and a third,
the Sierra de las Minas or, in its eastern portion, Sierra del Mico,
stretches between the Polochic and the Motagua. Between Honduras
and Guatemala the frontier is formed by the Sierra de Merendon. (5)
The great plain of Peten, which comprises about one-third of the whole
area of Guatemala, belongs geographically to the Yucatan Peninsula,
and consists of level or undulating country, covered with grass or
forest. Its population numbers less than two per sq. m., although many
districts have a wonderfully fertile soil and abundance of water. The
greater part of this region is uncultivated, and only utilized as pasture
by the Indians, who form the majority of its inhabitants.

Guatemala is richly watered. On the western side of the sierras the
versant is short, and the streams, while very numerous, are
consequently small and rapid; but on the eastern side a number of the
rivers attain a very considerable development. The Motagua, whose
principal head stream is called the Rio Grande, has a course of about
250 m., and is navigable to within 90 m. of the capital, which is
situated on one of its confluents, the Rio de las Vacas. It forms a delta
on the south of the Gulf of Honduras. Of similar importance is the
Polochic, which is about 180 m. in length, and navigable about 20 m.
above the river-port of Telemán. Before reaching the Golfo Amatique it

passes through the Golfo Dulce, or Izabal Lake, and the Golfete Dulce.
A vast number of streams, among which are the Chixoy, the
Guadalupe, and the Rio de la Pasion, unite to form the Usumacinta,
whose noble current passes along the Mexican frontier, and flowing on
through Chiapas and Tabasco, falls into the Bay of Campeche. The
Chiapas follows a similar course.

There are several extensive lakes in Guatemala. The Lake of Peten
or Laguna de Flores, in the centre of the department of Peten, is an
irregular basin about 27 m. long, with an extreme breadth of 13 m. In
an island in the western portion stands Flores, a town well known to
American antiquaries for the number of ancient idols which have been
recovered from its soil. On the shore of the lake is the stalactite cave of
Jobitsinal, of great local celebrity; and in its depths, according to the
popular legend, may still be discerned the stone image of a horse that
belonged to Cortes. The Golfo Dulce is, as its name implies, a fresh-
water lake, although so near the Atlantic. It is about 36 m. long, and
would be of considerable value as a harbour if the bar at the mouth of
the Rio Dulce did not prevent the upward passage of seafaring vessels.
As a contrast the Lake of Atitlán (q.v.) is a land-locked basin
encompassed with lofty mountains. About 9 m. S. of the capital lies the
Lake of Amatitlán (q.v.) with the town of the same name. On the
borders of Salvador and Guatemala there is the Lake of Guija, about 20
m. long and 12 broad, at a height of 2100 ft. above the sea. It is
connected by the river Ostuma with the Lake of Ayarza which lies
about 1000 ft. higher at the foot of the Sierra Madre.

The geology, fauna and flora of Guatemala are discussed under
Central America. The bird-life of the country is remarkably rich; one
bird of magnificent plumage, the quetzal, quijal or quesal (Trogon
resplendens), has been chosen as the national emblem.

Climate.—The climate is healthy, except on the coasts, where
malarial fever is prevalent. The rainy season in the interior lasts from
May to October, but on the coast sometimes continues till December.
The coldest month is January, and the warmest is May. The average
temperatures for these months at places of different altitudes, as given
by Dr Karl Sapper, are shown on the following page.

The average rainfall is very heavy, especially on the Atlantic slope,
where the prevailing winds are charged with moisture from the Gulf of
Mexico or the Caribbean Sea; at Tual, a high station on the Atlantic
slope, it reaches 195 in.; in central Guatemala it is only 27 in. Towards
the Atlantic rain often occurs in the dry season, and there is a local
saying near the Golfo Dulce that “it rains thirteen months in the year.”
Fogs are not rare. In Guatemala, as in other parts of Central America
(q.v.), each of the three climatic zones, cold, temperate and hot (tierra
fria, tierra templada, tierra caliente) has its special characteristics, and
it is not easy to generalize about the climate of the country as a whole.

Altitude Fahrenheit Degrees.
Locality.
(Feet). January. May.
Puerto Barrios 6 74 81
Salamá 3020 68 77
Campur 3050 64 73
Chimax 4280 61 68
Guatemala 4870 60 67
Quezaltenango 7710 50 62

Natural Products.—The minerals discovered in Guatemala include
gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, mercury, antimony, coal, salt and sulphur;
but it is uncertain if many of these exist in quantities sufficient to repay

exploitation. Gold is obtained at Las Quebradas near Izabal, silver in
the departments of Santa Rosa and Chiquimula, salt in those of Santa
Rosa and Alta Vera Paz. During the 17th century gold-washing was
carried on by English miners in the Motagua valley, and is said to have
yielded rich profits; hence the name of “Gold Coast” was not
infrequently given to the Atlantic littoral near the mouth of the
Motagua.

The area of forest has only been seriously diminished in the west,
and amounted to 2030 sq. m. in 1904. Besides rubber, it yields many
valuable dye-woods and cabinet-woods, such as cedar, mahogany and
logwood. Fruits, grain and medicinal plants are obtained in great
abundance, especially where the soil is largely of volcanic origin, as in
the Altos and Sierra Madre. Parts of the Peten district are equally
fertile, maize in this region yielding two hundredfold from unmanured
soil. The vegetable products of Guatemala include coffee, cocoa, sugar-
cane, bananas, oranges, vanilla, aloes, agave, ipecacuanha, castor-oil,
sarsaparilla, cinchona, tobacco, indigo and the wax-plant (Myrica
cerifera).

Inhabitants.—The inhabitants of Guatemala, who tend to increase rapidly
owing to the high birth-rate, low mortality, and low rate of emigration,
numbered in 1903 1,842,134, or more than one-third of the entire
population of Central America. Fully 60% are pure Indians, and the
remainder, classed as Ladinos or “Latins” (i.e. Spaniards in speech and
mode of life), comprise a large majority of half-castes (mestizos) and
civilized Indians and a smaller proportion of whites. It includes a foreign
population of about 12,000 Europeans and North Americans, among them
being many Jews from the west of the United States. There are important
German agricultural settlements, and many colonists from north Italy who
are locally called Tiroleses, and despised by the Indians for their industry

and thrift. About half the births among the Indians and one-third among the
whites are illegitimate.

No part of Central America contains a greater diversity of tribes, and in
1883 Otto Stoll estimated the number of spoken languages as eighteen,
although east of the meridian of Lake Amatitlán the native speech has
almost entirely disappeared and been replaced by Spanish. The Indians
belong chiefly to the Maya stock, which predominates throughout Peten, or
to the allied Quiché race which is well represented in the Altos and central
districts. The Itzas, Mopans, Lacandons, Chols, Pokonchi and the
Pokomans who inhabit the large settlement of Mixco near the capital, all
belong to the Maya family; but parts of central and eastern Guatemala are
peopled by tribes distinct from the Mayas and not found in Mexico. In the
16th century the Mayas and Quichés had attained a high level of civilization
(see Central America, Archaeology), and at least two of the Guatemalan
languages, Quiché and Cakchiquel, possess the rudiments or the relics of a
literature. The Quiché Popol Vuh, or “Book of History,” which was
translated into Spanish by the Dominican friar Ximenes, and edited with a
French version by Brasseur de Bourbourg, is an important document for
students of the local myths. In appearance the various Guatemalan tribes
differ very little; in almost all the characteristic type of Indian is short but
muscular, with low forehead, prominent cheek-bones and straight black
hair. In character the Indians are, as a rule, peaceable, though conscious of
their numerical superiority and at times driven to join in the revolutions
which so often disturb the course of local politics; they are often intensely
religious, but with a few exceptions are thriftless, indolent and inveterate
gamblers. Their confradias, or brotherhoods, each with its patron saint and
male and female chiefs, exist largely to organize public festivals, and to
purchase wooden masks, costumes and decorations for the dances and
dramas in which the Indians delight. These dramas, which deal with
religious and historical subjects, are of Indian origin, and somewhat

resemble the mystery-plays of medieval Europe, a resemblance heightened
by the introduction, due to Spanish missionaries, of Christian saints and
heroes such as Charlemagne. The Indians are devoted to bull-fighting and
cock-fighting. Choral singing is a popular amusement, and is accompanied
by the Spanish guitar and native wind-instruments. The Indians have a habit
of consuming a yellowish edible earth containing sulphur; on pilgrimages
they obtain images moulded of this earth at the shrines they visit, and eat
the images as a prophylactic against disease. Maize, beans and bananas,
varied occasionally with dried meat and fresh pork, form their staple diet;
drunkenness is common on pay-days and festivals, when large quantities of
a fiery brandy called chicha are consumed.

Chief Towns.—The capital of the republic, Guatemala or Guatemala
la Nueva (pop. 1905 about 97,000) and the cities of Quezaltenango
(31,000), Totonicapam (28,000), Coban (25,000), Sololá (17,000),
Escuintla (12,000), Huehuetanango (12,000), Amatitlán (10,000) and
Atitlán (9000) are described under separate headings. All the chief
towns except the seaports are situated within the mountainous region
where the climate is temperate. Retalhuleu, among the southern
foothills of the Sierra Madre, is one of the centres of coffee production,
and is connected by rail with the Pacific port of Champerico, a very
unhealthy place in the wet season. Both Retalhuleu and Champerico
were, like Quezaltenango, Sololá, and other towns, temporarily ruined
by the earthquake of the 18th of April 1902. Santa Cruz Quiché, 25 m.
N.E. of Totonicapam, was formerly the capital of the Quiché kings, but
has now a Ladino population. Livingston, a seaport at the mouth of the
Polochic (here called the Rio Dulce), was founded in 1806, and
subsequently named after the author of a code of Guatemalan laws; few
vestiges remain of the Spanish settlement of Sevilla la Nueva, founded
in 1844, and of the English colony of Abbotsville, founded in 1825,—

both near Livingston. La Libertad, also called by its Indian name of
Sacluc, is the principal town of Peten.

Shipping and Communications.—The republic is in regular steam
communication on the Atlantic side with New Orleans, New York and
Hamburg, by vessels which visit the ports of Barrios (Santo Tomas)
and Livingston. On the southern side the ports of San José, Champerico
and Ocós are visited by the Pacific mail steamers, by the vessels of a
Hamburg company and by those of the South American (Chilean) and
the Pacific Steam Navigation Companies. Iztapa, formerly the principal
harbour on the south coast, has been almost entirely abandoned since
1853. Gualan, on the Motagua, and Panzos, on the Polochic, are small
river-ports. The principal towns are connected by wagon roads, towards
the construction and maintenance of which each male inhabitant is
required to pay two pesos or give four days’ work a year. There are
coach routes between the capital and Quezaltenango, but over a great
portion of the country transport is still on mule-back. All the railway
lines have been built since 1875. The main lines are the Southern,
belonging to an American company and running from San José to the
capital; the Northern, a government line from the capital to Puerto
Barrios, which completes the interoceanic railroad; and the Western,
from Champerico to Quezaltenango, belonging to a Guatemalan
company, but largely under German management. For local traffic
there are several lines; one from Iztapa, near San José, to Naranjo, and
another from Ocós to the western coffee plantations. On the Atlantic
slope transport is effected mainly by river tow-boats from Livingston
along the Golfo Dulce and other lakes, and the Polochic river as far as
Panzos. The narrow-gauge railway that serves the German plantations
in the Vera Paz region is largely owned by Germans.

Guatemala joined the Postal Union in 1881; but its postal and
telegraphic services have suffered greatly from financial difficulties.
The telephonic systems of Guatemala la Nueva, Quezaltenango and
other cities are owned by private companies.

Commerce and Industry.—The natural resources of Guatemala are
rich but undeveloped; and the capital necessary for their development
is not easily obtained in a country where war, revolution and economic
crises recur at frequent intervals, where the premium on gold has
varied by no less than 500% in a single year, and where many of the
wealthiest cities and agricultural districts have been destroyed by
earthquake in one day (18th of April 1902). At the beginning of the
19th century, Guatemala had practically no export trade; but between
1825 and 1850 cochineal was largely exported, the centre of production
being the Amatitlán district. This industry was ruined by the
competition of chemical dyes, and a substitute was found in the
cultivation of coffee. Guatemala is surpassed only by Brazil and the
East Indies in the quantity of coffee it exports. The chief plantations are
owned and managed by Germans; more than half of the crop is sent to
Germany, while three-fifths of the remainder go to the United States
and one-fifth to Great Britain. The average yearly product is about
70,000,000 ℔, worth approximately £1,300,000, and subject to an
export duty of one gold dollar (4s.) per quintal (101 ℔). Sugar,
bananas, tobacco and cocoa are also cultivated; but much of the sugar
and bananas, most of the cocoa, and all the tobacco are consumed in
the country. During the colonial period, the cocoa of western
Guatemala and Soconusco was reserved on account of its fine flavour
for the Spanish court. The indigo and cotton plantations yield little
profit, owing to foreign competition, and have in most cases been
converted to other uses. The cultivation of bananas tends to increase,
though more slowly than in other Central American countries. Grain,

sweet potatoes and beans are grown for home consumption. Cattle-
farming is carried on in the high pasture-lands and the plains of Peten;
but the whole number of sheep (77,000 in 1900) and pigs (30,000) in
the republic is inferior to the number kept in many single English
counties. Much of the wool is sold, like the native cotton, to Indian and
Ladino women, who manufacture coarse cloth and linen in their
homes.

By the Land Act of 1894 the state domains, except on the coasts and
frontiers, were divided into lots for sale. The largest holding tenable by
one person under this act was fixed at 50 caballerias, or 5625 acres; the
price varies from £40 to £80 per caballeria of 112½ acres. Free grants
of uncultivated land are sometimes made to immigrants (including
foreign companies), to persons who undertake to build roads or
railways through their allotments, to towns, villages and schools. The
condition of the Indians on the plantations is often akin to slavery,
owing to the system adopted by some planters of making payments in
advance; for the Indians soon spend their earnings, and thus contract
debts which can only be repaid by long service.

In addition to the breweries, rum and brandy distilleries, sugar mills
and tobacco factories, which are sometimes worked as adjuncts to the
plantations, there are many purely urban industries, such as the
manufacture of woollen and cotton goods on a large scale, and
manufactures of building material and furniture; but these industries
are far less important than agriculture.

During the five years 1900 to 1904 inclusive, the average value of
Guatemalan imports, which consisted chiefly of textiles, iron and
machinery, sacks, provisions, flour, beer, wine and spirits, amounted to
£776,000; about one-half came from the United States, and nearly one-
fourth from the United Kingdom. The exports during the same period

had an average value of £1,528,000, and ranked as follows in order of
value: coffee (£1,300,000), timber, hides, rubber, sugar, bananas,
cocoa.

Finance.—Within the republic there are six banks of issue, to which
the government is deeply indebted. There is practically neither gold nor
silver in circulation, and the value of the bank-notes is so fluctuating
that trade is seriously hampered. On the 25th of June 1903, the issue of
bank-notes without a guarantee was restricted; and thenceforward all
banks were compelled to retain gold or silver to the value of 10% of
the notes issued in 1904, 20% in 1905 and 30% in 1906. This reform
has not, to any appreciable extent, rendered more stable the value of
the notes issued. The silver peso, or dollar, of 100 centavas is the
monetary unit, weighs 25 grammes .900 fine, and has a nominal value
of 4s. Being no longer current it has been replaced by the paper peso.
The nickel coins include the real (nominal value 6d.), half-real and
quarter-real. The metric system of weights and measures has been
adopted, but the old Spanish standards remain in general use.

Of the revenue, about 64% is derived from customs and excise; 9%
from property, road, military, slaughter and salt taxes; 1.7% from the
gunpowder monopoly; and the remainder from various taxes, stamps,
government lands, and postal and telegraph services. The estimated
revenue for 1905-1906 was 23,000,000 pesos (about £328,500); the
estimated expenditure was 27,317,659 pesos (£390,200), of which
£242,800 were allotted to the public debt, £42,000 to internal
development and justice, £29,000 to the army and the remainder
largely to education. The gold value of the currency peso (75 = £1 in
1903, 70 = £1 in 1904, 58 = £1 in 1905) fluctuates between limits so
wide that conversion into sterling (especially for a series of years), with
any pretension to accuracy, is impracticable. In 1899 the rate of

exchange moved between 710% and 206% premium on gold.
According to the official statement, the gold debt, which runs chiefly at
4% and is held in Germany and England, amounted to £1,987,905 on
the 1st of January 1905; the currency debt (note issues, internal loans,
&c.) amounted to £704,730; total £2,692,635, a decrease since 1900 of
about £300,000.

Government.—According to the constitution of December 1879
(modified in 1885, 1887, 1889 and 1903) the legislative power is vested in a
national assembly of 69 deputies (1 for every 20,000 inhabitants) chosen for
4 years by direct popular vote, under universal manhood suffrage. The
president of the republic is elected in a similar manner, but for 6 years, and
he is theoretically not eligible for the following term. He is assisted by 6
ministers, heads of government departments, and by a council of state of 13
members, partly appointed by himself and partly by the national assembly.

Local Government.—Each of the twenty-two departments is
administered by an official called a jefe politico, or political chief,
appointed by the president, and each is subdivided into municipal districts.
These districts are administered by one or more alcaldes or mayors, assisted
by municipal councils, both alcaldes and councils being chosen by the
people.

Justice.—The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, consisting of a
chief justice and four associate justices elected by the people; six appeal
courts, each with three judges, also elected by the people; and twenty-six
courts of first instance, each consisting of one judge appointed by the
president and two by the chief justice of the supreme court.

Religion and Instruction.—The prevailing form of religion is the Roman
Catholic, but the state recognizes no distinction of creed. The establishment
of conventual or monastic institutions is prohibited. Of the population in

1893, 90% could neither read nor write, 2% could only read, and 8% could
read and write. Primary instruction is nominally compulsory, and, in
government schools, is provided at the cost of the state. In 1903 there were
1064 government primary schools. There are besides about 128 private
(occasionally aided) schools of similar character, owners of plantations on
which there are more than ten children being obliged to provide school
accommodation. Higher instruction is given in two national institutes at the
capital, one for men with 500 pupils and one for women with 300. At
Quezaltenango there are two similar institutes, and at Chiquimula there are
other two. To each of the six there is a school for teachers attached, and
within the republic there are four other schools for teachers. For
professional instruction (law, medicine, engineering) there are schools
supported by private funds, but aided occasionally by the government.
Other educational establishments are a school of art, a national conservatory
of music, a commercial college, four trades’ schools with more than 600
pupils and a national library. There is a German school, endowed by the
German government.

Defence.—For the white and mixed population military service is
compulsory; from the eighteenth to the thirtieth year of age in the active
army, and from the thirtieth to the fiftieth in the reserve. The effective force
of the active army is 56,900, of the reserve 29,400. About 7000 officers and
men are kept in regular service. Military training is given in all public and
most private schools.

History.—Guatemala was conquered by the Spaniards under Pedro de
Alvarado between 1522 and 1524. Up to the years 1837-1839 its history
differs only in minor details from that of the neighbouring states of Central
America (q.v.). The colonial period was marked by the destruction of the
ancient Indian civilization, the extermination of many entire tribes, and the
enslavement of the survivors, who were exploited to the utmost for the

benefit of Spanish officials and adventurers. But although the
administration was weak, corrupt and cruel, it succeeded in establishing the
Roman Catholic religion, and in introducing the Spanish language among
the Indians and Ladinos, who thus obtained a tincture of civilization and
ultimately a desire for more liberal institutions. The Central American
provinces revolted in 1821, were annexed to the Mexican empire of Iturbide
from 1822 to 1823, and united to form a federal republic from 1823 to
1839. In Guatemala the Clerical, Conservative or anti-Federal party was
supreme; after a protracted struggle it overthrew the Liberals or Federalists,
and declared the country an independent republic, with Rafael Carrera
(1814-1865) as president. In 1845 an attempt to restore the federal union
failed; in 1851 Carrera defeated the Federalist forces of Honduras and
Salvador at La Arada near Chiquimula, and was recognized as the
pacificator of the republic. In 1851 a new constitution was promulgated,
and Carrera was appointed president till 1856, a dignity which was in 1854
bestowed upon him for life. His rivalry with Gerardo Barrios (d. 1865),
president of Salvador, resulted in open war in 1863. At Coatepeque the
Guatemalans suffered a severe defeat, which was followed by a truce.
Honduras now joined with Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa Rica with
Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favour of Carrera, who
besieged and occupied San Salvador and made himself dominant also in
Honduras and Nicaragua. During the rest of his rule, which lasted till his
death in April 1865, he continued to act in concert with the Clerical party,
and endeavoured to maintain friendly relations with the European
governments. Carrera’s successor was General Cerna, who had been
recommended by him for election. The Liberal party began to rise in
influence about 1870, and in May 1871 Cerna was deposed. The archbishop
of Guatemala and the Jesuits were driven into exile as intriguers in the
interests of the Clericals. Pres. Rufino Barrios (1835-1885), elected in 1873,
governed the country after the manner of a dictator; he expelled the Jesuits,

confiscated their property and disestablished and disendowed the church.
But though he encouraged education, promoted railway and other
enterprises, and succeeded in settling difficulties as to the Mexican
boundary, the general result of his policy was baneful. Conspiracies against
him were rife, and in 1884 he narrowly escaped assassination. His ambition
was to be the restorer of the federal union of the Central American states,
and when his efforts towards this end by peaceful means failed he had
recourse to the sword. Counting on the support of Honduras and Salvador,
he proclaimed himself, in February 1885, the supreme military chief of
Central America, and claimed the command of all the forces within the five
states. President Zaldívar, of Salvador, had been his friend, but after the
issue of the decree of union he entered into a defensive alliance with Costa
Rica and Nicaragua. In March Barrios invaded Salvador, and on the 2nd of
April a battle was fought, in which the Guatemalan president was killed. He
was succeeded by General Manuel Barillas. No further effort was made to
force on the union, and on the 16th of April the war was formally ended.
Peace, however, only provided opportunity for domestic conspiracy, with
assassination and revolution in view. In 1892 General José Maria Reina
Barrios was elected president, and in 1897 he was re-elected; but on the 8th
of February 1898 he was assassinated. Señor Morales, vice-president,
succeeded him; but in the same year Don Manuel Estrada Cabrera (b. 1857)
was elected president for the term ending 1905. Cabrera promoted
education, commerce and the improvement of communications, but his re-
election for the term 1905-1911 caused widespread discontent. He was
charged with aiming at a dictatorship, with permitting or even encouraging
the imprisonment, torture and execution without trial of political opponents,
with maladministration of the finances and with aggression against the
neighbouring states. A well-armed force, which included a body of
adventurers from San Francisco (U.S.A.) was organized by General
Barillas, the ex-president, and invaded Guatemala in March 1906 from

Mexico, British Honduras and Salvador. Barillas (1845-1907) proclaimed
his intention of establishing a silver currency, and gained, to a great extent,
the sympathy of the German and British residents; he had been the sole
Guatemalan president who had not sought to prolong his own tenure of
office. Ocós was captured by his lieutenant, General Castillo, and the
revolution speedily became a war, in which Honduras, Costa Rica and
Salvador were openly involved against Guatemala, while Nicaragua was
hostile. But Cabrera held his ground, and even gained several indecisive
victories. The intervention of President Roosevelt and of President Diaz of
Mexico brought about an armistice on the 19th of July, and the so-called
“Marblehead Pact” was signed on the following day on board the United
States cruiser “Marblehead.” Its terms were embodied in a treaty signed
(28th of September) by representatives of the four belligerent states,
Nicaragua taking no part in the negotiations. The treaty included regulations
for the improvement of commerce and navigation in the area affected by the
war, and provided for the settlement of subsequent disputes by the
arbitration of the United States and Mexico.

Bibliography.—Besides the works cited under Central America see
the interesting narrative of Thomas Gage, the English missionary, in
Juarros, Compendio de la historia de Guatemala (1808-1818, 2 vols.;
new ed., 1857), which in Bailly’s English translation (London, 1823)
long formed the chief authority. See also C. Juan Anino, La Republica
de Guatemala (Guatemala, 1894); T. Brigham, Guatemala, The Land
of the Quetzal (London, 1887); J. M. Caceres, Geografia de Centro-
America (Paris, 1882); G. Lemale, Guia geografica de los centros de
poblacion de la republica de Guatemala (Guatemala, 1882); F. A. de
Fuentes y Guzman, Historia de Guatemala o Recordacion Florida
(Madrid, 1882); A. C. and A. P. Maudslay, A Glimpse at Guatemala,
and some Notes on the Ancient Monuments of Central America
(London, 1899); Gustavo Niederlein, The Republic of Guatemala

(Philadelphia, 1898); Ramon A. Salazar, Historia del disenvolvimiento
intelectual de Guatemala, vol. i. (Guatemala, 1897); Otto Stoll, Reisen
und Schilderungen aus den Jahren 1878-1883 (Leipzig, 1886); J.
Mendez, Guia del immigrante en la republica de Guatemala
(Guatemala, 1895); Karl Sapper, “Grundzüge der physikalischen
Geographie von Guatemala,” Ergänzungsheft No. 115, Petermann’s
Mitteilungen (Gotha, 1894); Anuario de estadistica de la republica de
Guatemala (Guatemala); Memoria de la Secretaria de Instruccion
Publica (Guatemala, 1899); Handbook of Guatemala, revised (Bureau
of the American Republics, Washington, 1897); United States Consular
Reports (Washington); British Foreign Office Diplomatic and Consular
Reports (London).

GUATEMALA, or Guatemala la Nueva (i.e. “New Guatemala,”
sometimes written Nueva Guatemala, and formerly Santiago de los
Caballeros de Guatemala), the capital of the republic of Guatemala, and
until 1821 of the Spanish captaincy-general of Guatemala, which comprised
Chiapas in Mexico and all Central America except Panama. Pop. (1905)
about 97,000. Guatemala is built more than 5000 ft. above sea-level, in a
wide table-land traversed by the Rio de las Vacas, or Cow River, so called
from the cattle introduced here by Spanish colonists in the 16th century.
Deep ravines mark the edge of the table-land, and beyond it lofty mountains
rise on every side, the highest peaks being on the south, where the volcanic
summits of the Sierra Madre exceed 12,000 ft. Guatemala has a station on
the transcontinental railway from Puerto Barrios on the Atlantic (190 m.

N.E.) to San José on the Pacific (75 m. S. by W.). It is thrice the size of any
other city in the republic, and has a corresponding commercial superiority.
Its archbishop is the primate of Central America (excluding Panama). Like
most Spanish-American towns Guatemala is laid out in wide and regular
streets, often planted with avenues of trees, and it has extensive suburbs.
The houses, though usually of only one storey, are solidly and comfortably
constructed; many of them are surrounded by large gardens and courts.
Among the open spaces the chief are the Plaza Mayor, which contains the
cathedral, erected in 1730, the archiepiscopal palace, the government
buildings, the mint and other public offices; and the more modern Reforma
Park and Plaza de la Concordia, now the favourite resorts of the inhabitants.
There are many large schools for both sexes, besides hospitals and an
orphanage. Many of the principal buildings, such as the military academy,
were originally convents. The theatre, founded in 1858, is one of the best in
Central America. A museum, founded in 1831, is maintained by the
Sociedad Economica, which in various ways has done great service to the
city and the country. There are two fortresses, the Castello Matamoros, built
by Rafael Carrera (see Guatemala [republic] under History), and the
Castello de San José. Water is brought from a distance of about 8 m. by two
old aqueducts from the towns of Mixco and Pinula; fuel and provisions are
largely supplied by the Pokoman Indians of Mixco. The general prosperity,
and to some extent the appearance, of Guatemala have procured it the name
of the Paris of Central America. It is lighted by electricity and has a good
telephone service. Its trade is chiefly in coffee, but it also possesses cigar
factories, wool and cotton factories, breweries, tanneries and other
industrial establishments. The foreign trade is chiefly controlled by
Germans.

The first city named Guatemala, now called Ciudad Vieja or “Old City,”
was founded in 1527 by Pedro de Alvarado, the conqueror of the country,
on the banks of the Rio Pensativo, and at the foot of the volcano of Agua

(i.e. “Water”). In 1541 it was overwhelmed by a deluge of water from the
flooded crater of Agua; and in 1542 Alvarado founded Santiago de los
Caballeros la Nueva, now Antigua. This city flourished greatly, and by the
middle of the 18th century had become the most populous place in Central
America, with 60,000 inhabitants and more than 100 churches and
convents. But in 1773 it was ruined by an earthquake. It was rebuilt, and
ultimately became capital of the department of Sacatepeques, and a health-
resort locally celebrated for its thermal springs. But the Guatemalans
determined to found a new capital on the site occupied by the hamlet of
Ermita, 27 m. N.E. Here the third and last city of Guatemala was built, and
became the seat of government in 1779. The remarkable regularity of the
streets is due to the construction of the city on a uniform plan. The wide
area covered, and the lowness of the houses, were similarly due to an
ordinance which, in order to minimize the danger from earthquakes,
forbade the erection of any building more than 20 ft. high. Many of the
belfries of convents or churches, added after the ordinance had fallen into
abeyance, were overthrown by the earthquake of 1874, which also
destroyed a large part of Antigua.

GUATOS, a tribe of South American Indians of the upper Paraguay.
They are of a European fairness and wear beards. They live almost entirely
in canoes, building rough shelters in the swamps. They aided the Brazilians
in the war with Paraguay 1865-70. Very few survive.

GUATUSOS, a tribe of American Indians of Costa Rica. They are an
active, hardy people, who have always maintained hostility towards the
Spaniards and retain their independence. From their language they appear to
be a distinct stock. They were described by old writers as being very fair,
with flaxen hair, and these reports led to a belief, since exploded, that they
were European hybrids. There are very few surviving.

GUAVA (from the Mexican guayaba), the name applied to the fruits of
species of Psidium, a genus belonging to the natural order Myrtaceae. The
species which produces the bulk of the guava fruits of commerce is Psidium
Guajava, a small tree from 15 to 20 ft. high, a native of the tropical parts of
America and the West Indies. It bears short-stalked ovate or oblong leaves,
with strongly marked veins, and covered with a soft tomentum or down.
The flowers are borne on axillary stalks, and the fruits vary much in size,
shape and colour, numerous forms and varieties being known and
cultivated. The variety of which the fruits are most valued is that which is
sometimes called the white guava (P. Guajava, var. pyriferum). The fruits
are pear-shaped, about the size of a hen’s egg, covered with a thin bright
yellow or whitish skin filled with soft pulp, also of a light yellowish tinge,
and having a pleasant sweet-acid and somewhat aromatic flavour. P.
Guajava, var. pomiferum, produces a more globular or apple-shaped fruit,
sometimes called the red guava. The pulp of this variety is mostly of a
darker colour than the former and not of so fine a flavour, therefore the first
named is most esteemed for eating in a raw state; both, however, are used in
the preparation of two kinds of preserve known as guava jelly and guava

cheese, which are made in the West Indies and imported thence to England;
the fruits are of much too perishable a nature to allow of their importation
in their natural state. Both varieties have been introduced into various parts
of India, as well as in other countries of the East, where they have become
perfectly naturalized. Though of course much too tender for outdoor
planting in England, the guava thrives there in hothouses or stoves.

Psidium variabile (also known as P. Cattleyanum), a tree of from 10 to
20 ft. high, a native of Brazil (the Araçá or Araçá de Praya), is known as the
purple guava. The fruit, which is very abundantly produced in the axils of
the leaves, is large, spherical, of a fine deep claret colour; the rind is pitted,
and the pulp is soft, fleshy, purplish, reddish next the skin, but becoming
paler towards the middle and in the centre almost or quite white. It has a
very agreeable acid-sweet flavour, which has been likened to that of a
strawberry.

GUAYAMA, a small city and the capital of a municipal district and
department of the same name, on the southern coast of Porto Rico, 53 m. S.
of San Juan. Pop. (1899) of the city, 5334; (1910) 8321; (1899) of the
district, 12,749. The district (156 sq. m.) includes Arroyo and Salinas. The
city stands about 230 ft. above the sea and has a mild, healthy climate. It is
connected with Ponce by railway (1910), and with the port of Arroyo by an
excellent road, part of the military road extending to Cayey, and it exports
sugar, rum, tobacco, coffee, cattle, fruit and other products of the
department, which is very fertile. The city was founded in 1736, but was
completely destroyed by fire in 1832. It was rebuilt on a rectangular plan

and possesses several buildings of note. Drinking-water is brought in
through an aqueduct.

GUAYAQUIL, or Santiago de Guayaquil, a city and port of Ecuador,
capital of the province of Guayas, on the right bank of the Guayas river, 33
m. above its entrance into the Gulf of Guayaquil, in 2° 12′ S., 79° 51′ W.
Pop. (1890) 44,772; (1897, estimate) 51,000, mostly half-breeds. The city is
built on a comparatively level pajonal or savanna, extending southward
from the base of three low hills, called Los Cerros de la Cruz, between the
river and the partially filled waters of the Estero Salado. It is about 30 ft.
above sea-level, and the lower parts of the town are partially flooded in the
rainy season. The old town is the upper or northern part, and is inhabited by
the poorer classes, its streets being badly paved, crooked, undrained, dirty
and pestilential. The great fire of 1896 destroyed a large part of the old
town, and some of its insanitary conditions were improved in rebuilding.
The new town, or southern part, is the business and residential quarter of
the better classes, but the buildings are chiefly of wood and the streets are
provided with surface drainage only. Among the public buildings are the
governor’s and bishop’s palaces, town-hall, cathedral and 9 churches,
national college, episcopal seminary and schools of law and medicine,
theatre, two hospitals, custom-house, and several asylums and charitable
institutions. Guayaquil is also the seat of a university corporation with
faculties of law and medicine. A peculiarity of Guayaquil is that the upper
floors in the business streets project over the walks, forming covered
arcades. The year is divided into a wet and dry season, the former from

January to June, when the hot days are followed by nights of drenching
rain. The mean annual temperature is about 82° to 83° F.; malarial and
bilious fevers are common, the latter being known as “Guayaquil fever,”
and epidemics of yellow fever are frequent. The dry or summer season is
considered pleasant and healthy. The water-supply is now brought in
through iron mains from the Cordilleras 53 m. distant. The mains pass
under the Guayas river and discharge into a large distributing reservoir on
one of the hills N. of the city. The city is provided with tramway and
telephone services, the streets are lighted with gas and electricity, and
telegraph communication with the outside world is maintained by means of
the West Coast cable, which lands at the small port of Santa Elena, on the
Pacific coast, about 65 m. W. of Guayaquil. Railway connexion with Quito
(290 m.) was established in June 1908. There is also steamboat connexion
with the producing districts of the province on the Guayas river and its
tributaries, on which boats run regularly as far up as Bodegas (80 m.) in the
dry season, and for a distance of 40 m. on the Daule. For smaller boats there
are about 200 m. of navigation on this system of rivers. The exports of the
province are almost wholly transported on these rivers, and are shipped
either at Guayaquil, or at Puna, its deep-water port, 6½ m. outside the
Guayas bar, on the E. end of Puna Island. The Guayas river is navigable up
to Guayaquil for steamers drawing 22 ft. of water; larger vessels anchor at
Puna, 40 m. from Guayaquil, where cargoes and passengers are transferred
to lighters and tenders. There is a quay on the river front, but the depth
alongside does not exceed 18 ft. The principal exports are cacao, rubber,
coffee, tobacco, hides, cotton, Panama hats, cinchona bark and ivory nuts,
the value of all exports for the year 1905 being 14,148,877 sucres, in a total
of 18,565,668 sucres for the whole republic. In 1908 the exports were:
cacao, about 64,000,000 ℔, valued at $6,400,000; hides, valued at
$135,000; rubber, valued at $235,000; coffee, valued at $273,000; and
vegetable ivory, valued at $102,000. There are some small industries in the

city, including a shipyard, saw-mills, foundry, sugar refineries, cotton and
woollen mills, brewery, and manufactures of soap, cigars, chocolate, ice,
soda-water and liqueurs.

Santiago de Guayaquil was founded on St James’s day, the 25th of July
1535, by Sebastian de Benalcazar, but was twice abandoned before its
permanent settlement in 1537 by Francesco de Orellana. It was captured
and sacked several times in the 17th and 18th centuries by pirates and
freebooters—by Jacob Clark in 1624, by French pirates in 1686, by English
freebooters under Edward David in 1687, by William Dampier in 1707 and
by Clapperton in 1709. Defensive works were erected in 1730, and in 1763,
when the town was made a governor’s residence, a castle and other
fortifications were constructed. Owing to the flimsy construction of its
buildings Guayaquil has been repeatedly burned, the greater fires occurring
in 1707, 1764, 1865, 1896 and 1899. The city was made the see of a
bishopric in 1837.

GUAYAS, or El Guayas, a coast province of Ecuador, bounded N. by
Manabí and Pichincha, E. by Los Rios, Cañar and Azuay, S. by El Oro and
the Gulf of Guayaquil, and W. by the same gulf, the Pacific Ocean and the
province of Manabí. Pop. (1893, estimate) 98,100; area, 11,504 sq. m. It is
very irregular in form and comprises the low alluvial districts surrounding
the Gulf of Guayaquil between the Western Cordilleras and the coast. It
includes (since 1885) the Galápagos Islands, lying 600 m. off the coast. The
province of Guayas is heavily forested and traversed by numerous rivers,
for the most part tributaries of the Guayas river, which enters the gulf from

the N. This river system has a drainage area of about 14,000 sq. m. and an
aggregate of 200 m. of navigable channels in the rainy season. Its principal
tributaries are the Daule and Babahoyo or Chimbo (also called Bodegas),
and of the latter the Vinces and Yaguachi. The climate is hot, humid and
unhealthy, bilious and malarial fevers being prevalent. The rainfall is
abundant and the soil is deep and fertile. Agriculture and the collection of
forest products are the chief industries. The staple products are cacao,
coffee, sugar-cane, cotton, tobacco and rice. The cultivation of cacao is the
principal industry, the exports forming about one-third the world’s supply.
Stock-raising is also carried on to a limited extent. Among forest products
are rubber, cinchona bark, toquilla fibre and ivory nuts. The manufacture of
so-called Panama hats from the fibre of the toquilla palm (commonly called
jipijapa, after a town in Manabí famous for this industry) is a long-
established domestic industry among the natives of this and other coast
provinces, the humidity of the climate greatly facilitating the work of
plaiting the delicate straws, which would be broken in a dry atmosphere.
Guayas is the chief industrial and commercial province of the republic,
about nineteen-twentieths of the commerce of Ecuador passing through the
port of its capital, Guayaquil. There are no land transport routes in the
province except the Quito & Guayaquil railway, which traverses its eastern
half. The sluggish river channels which intersect the greater part of its
territory afford excellent facilities for transporting produce, and a large
number of small boats are regularly engaged in that traffic. There are no
large towns in Guayas other than Guayaquil. Durán, on the Guayas river
opposite Guayaquil, is the starting point of the Quito railway and contains
the shops and offices of that line. The port of Santa Elena on a bay of the
same name, about 65 m. W. of Guayaquil, is a landing-point of the West
Coast cable, and a port of call for some of the regular steamship lines. Its
exports are chiefly Panama hats and salt.

GUAYCURUS, a tribe of South American Indians on the Paraguay. The
name has been used generally of all the mounted Indians of Gran Chaco.
The Guaycurus are a wild, fierce people, who paint their bodies and go
naked. They are fearless horsemen and are occupied chiefly in cattle
rearing.

GUAYMAS, or San José de Guaymas, a seaport of Mexico, in the state
of Sonora, on a small bay opening into the Gulf of California a few miles
W. of the mouth of the Yaqui river, in lat. 27° 58′ N., long. 110° 58′ W. Pop.
(1900) 8648. The harbour is one of the best on the W. coast of Mexico, and
the port is a principal outlet for the products of the large state of Sonora.
The town stands on a small, arid plain, nearly shut in by mountains, and has
a very hot, dry climate. It is connected with the railways of the United
States by a branch of the Southern Pacific from Benson, Arizona, and is 230
m. S. by W. of the frontier town of Nogales, where that line enters Mexico.
The exports include gold, silver, hides and pearls.

GUBBIO (anc. Iguvium, q.v.; med. Eugubium), a town and episcopal see
of Umbria, Italy, in the province of Perugia, from which it is 23 m. N.N.E.
by road; by rail it is 13 m. N.W. of Fossato di Vico (on the line between
Foligno and Ancona) and 70 m. E.S.E. of Arezzo. Pop. (1901) 5783 (town);

26,718 (commune). Gubbio is situated at the foot and on the steep slopes of
Monte Calvo, from 1568 to 1735 ft. above sea-level, at the entrance to the
gorge which ascends to Scheggia, probably on the site of the ancient
Umbrian town. It presents a markedly medieval appearance. The most
prominent building is the Palazzo dei Consoli, on the N. side of the Piazza
della Signoria; it is a huge Gothic edifice with a tower, erected in 1332-
1346, according to tradition, by Matteo di Giovanello of Gubbio, the name
of Angelo da Orvieto occurs on the arch of the main door, but his work may
be limited to the sculptures of this arch. It has two stories above the ground
floor, and, being on the slope of the hill, is, like the whole piazza, raised on
arched substructures. On the S. side of the piazza is the Palazzo Pretorio, or
della Podestà, begun in 1349 and now the municipal palace. It contains the
famous Tabulae Iguvinae, and a collection of paintings of the Umbrian
school, of furniture and of majolica. On the E. side is the modern Palazzo
Ranghiasci-Brancaleone, which until 1882 contained fine collections, now
dispersed. Above the Piazza della Signoria, at the highest point of the town,
is the Palazzo Ducale, erected by the dukes of Urbino in 1474-1480; the
architect was, in all probability, Lucio da Laurana, to whom is due the
palace at Urbino, which this palace resembles, especially in its fine
colonnaded court. The Palazzo Beni, lower down, belongs to a somewhat
earlier period of the 15th century. Pope Martin V. lodged here for a few
days in 1420. The Palazzo Accoramboni, on the other hand, is a
Renaissance structure, with a fine entrance arch. Here Vittoria Accoramboni
was born in 1557. Opposite the Palazzo Ducale is the cathedral, dedicated
to SS. Mariano e Jacopo, a structure of the 12th century, with a façade,
adorned with contemporary sculptures, partly restored in 1514-1550. The
interior contains some good pictures by Umbrian artists, a fine episcopal
throne in carved wood, and a fine Flemish cope given by Pope Marcellus II.
(1555) in the sacristy. The exterior of the Gothic church of S. Francesco, in
the lower part of the town, built in 1259, preserves its original style, but the

interior has been modernized; and the same fate has overtaken the Gothic
churches of S. Maria Nuova and S. Pietro. S. Agostino, on the other hand,
has its Gothic interior better preserved. The whole town is full of specimens
of medieval architecture, the pointed arch of the 13th century being
especially prevalent. A remarkable procession takes place in Gubbio on the
15th of May in each year, in honour of S. Ubaldo, when three colossal
wooden pedestals, each over 30 ft. high, and crowned by statues of SS.
Ubaldo, Antonio and Giorgio, are carried through the town, and then, in a
wild race, up to the church of S. Ubaldo on the mountain-side (2690 ft.).
See H. M. Bower, The Elevation and Procession of the Ceri at Gubbio
(Folk-lore Society, London, 1897).

After its reconstruction with the help of Narses (see Iguvium) the town
remained subject to the exarchs of Ravenna, and, after the destruction of the
Lombard kingdom in 774, formed part of the donation of Charlemagne to
the pope. In the 11th century the beginnings of its independence may be
traced. In the struggles of that time it was generally on the Ghibelline side.
In 1151 it repelled an attack of several neighbouring cities, and formed
from this time a republic governed by consuls. In 1155 it was besieged by
the emperor Frederick I., but saved by the intervention of its bishop, S.
Ubaldo, and was granted privileges by the emperor. In 1203 it had its first
podestà, and from this period dates the rise of its importance. In 1387, after
various political changes, it surrendered to Antonio da Montefeltro of
Urbino, and remained under the dominion of the dukes of Urbino until, in
1624, the whole duchy was ceded to the pope.

Gubbio was the birthplace of Oderisio, a famous miniature painter (1240-
1299), mentioned by Dante as the honour of his native town (Purg. xi. 80
“l’onor d’Agobbio”), but no authentic works by him exist. In the 14th and
15th centuries a branch of the Umbrian school of painting flourished here,
the most famous masters of which were Guido Palmerucci (1280-1345?)

and several members of the Nelli family, particularly Ottaviano (d. 1444),
whose best work is the “Madonna del Belvedere” in S. Maria Nuova at
Gubbio (1404), extremely well preserved, with bright colouring and fine
details. Another work by him is the group of frescoes including a large
“Last Judgment,” and scenes from the life of St Augustine, in the church of
S. Agostino, discovered in 1902 under a coating of whitewash. These
painters seem to have been influenced by the contemporary masters of the
Sienese school.

Gubbio occupies a far more important place in the history of majolica. In
a decree of 1438 a vasarius vasorum pictorum is mentioned, who probably
was not the first of his trade. The art was brought to perfection by Giorgio
Andreoli, whose father had emigrated hither from Pavia, and who in 1498
became a citizen of Gubbio. The works by his hand are remarkable for their
ruby tint, with a beautiful metallic lustre; but only one small tazza remains
in Gubbio itself. His art was carried on by his sons, Cencio and Ubaldo, but
was afterwards lost, and only recovered in 1853 by Angelico Fabbri and
Luigi Carocci.

Two miles outside Porta Metauro to the N.E. is the Bottaccione, a large
water reservoir, constructed in the 12th or 14th century; the water is
collected in the bed of a stream by a massive dam.

See A. Colasanti, Gubbio (Bergamo, 1905); L. McCracken, Gubbio
(London, 1905).
(T. As.)

GUBEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, at the
confluence of the Lubis with the Neisse, 28 m. S.S.E. of Frankfort-on-Oder,
at the junction of railways to Breslau, Halle and Forst. Pop. (1875) 23,704;
(1905) 36,666. It possesses three Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic
church, a synagogue, a gymnasium, a modern school, a museum and a
theatre. The principal industries are the spinning and weaving of wool,
dyeing, tanning, and the manufacture of pottery ware, hats, cloth, paper and
machinery. The vine is cultivated in the neighbourhood to some extent, and
there is also some trade in fruit and vegetables. Guben is of Wendish origin.
It is mentioned in 1207 and received civic rights in 1235. It was surrounded
by walls in 1311, about which time it came into the possession of the
margrave of Brandenburg, from whom it passed to Bohemia in 1368. It was
twice devastated by the Hussites, and in 1631 and 1642 it was occupied by
the Swedes. By the peace of Prague in 1635 it came into the possession of
the elector of Saxony, and in 1815 it was, with the rest of Lower Lusatia,
united to Prussia.

GUBERNATIS, ANGELO DE, Count (1840- ), Italian man of
letters, was born at Turin and educated there and at Berlin, where he studied
philology. In 1862 he was appointed professor of Sanskrit at Florence, but
having married a cousin of the Socialist Bakunin and become interested in
his views he resigned his appointment and spent some years in travel. He
was reappointed, however, in 1867; and in 1891 he was transferred to the
university of Rome. He became prominent both as an orientalist, a publicist
and a poet. He founded the Italia letteraria (1862), the Rivista orientale

(1867), the Civitta italiana and Rivista europea (1869), the Bollettino
italiano degli studii orientali (1876) and the Revue internationale (1883),
and in 1887 became director of the Giornale della società asiatica. In 1878
he started the Dizionario biografico degli scrittori contemporanei. His
Oriental and mythological works include the Piccola enciclopedia indiana
(1867), the Fonti vediche (1868), a famous work on zoological mythology
(1872), and another on plant mythology (1878). He also edited the
encyclopaedic Storia universale della letteratura (1882-1885). His work in
verse includes the dramas Cato, Romolo, Il re Nala, Don Rodrigo, Savitri,
&c.

GUDBRANDSDAL, a district in the midlands of southern Norway,
comprising the upper course of the river Lougen or Laagen from
Lillehammer at the head of Lake Mjösen to its source in Lake Lesjekogen
and tributary valleys. Lillehammer, the centre of a rich timber district, is
114 m. N. of Christiania by rail. The railway continues through the well-
wooded and cultivated valley to Otta (70 m.). Several tracks run westward
into the wild district of the Jotunheim. From Otto good driving routes run
across the watershed and descend the western slope, where the scenery is
incomparably finer than in Gudbrandsdal itself—(a) past Sörum, with the
13th-century churches of Vaagen and Lom (a fine specimen of the
Stavekirke or timber-built church), Aanstad and Polfos, with beautiful falls
of the Otta river, to Grotlid, whence roads diverge to Stryn on the
Nordfjord, and to Marok on the Geirangerfjord; (b) past Domaas (with
branch road north to Stören near Trondhjem, skirting the Dovrefjeld), over

the watershed formed by Lesjekogen Lake, which drains in both directions,
and down through the magnificent Romsdal.

GUDE (Gudius), MARQUARD (1635-1689), German archaeologist and
classical scholar, was born at Rendsburg in Holstein on the 1st of February
1635. He was originally intended for the law, but from an early age showed
a decided preference for classical studies. In 1658 he went to Holland in the
hope of finding work as a teacher of classics, and in the following year,
through the influence of J. F. Gronovius, he obtained the post of tutor and
travelling companion to a wealthy young Dutchman, Samuel Schars.
During his travels Gude seized the opportunity of copying inscriptions and
MSS. At the earnest request of his pupil, who had become greatly attached
to him, Gude refused more than one professional appointment, and it was
not until 1671 that he accepted the post of librarian to Duke Christian Albert
of Holstein-Gottorp. Schars, who had accompanied Gude, died in 1675, and
left him the greater part of his property. In 1678 Gude, having quarrelled
with the duke, retired into private life; but in 1682 he entered the service of
Christian V. of Denmark as counsellor of the Schleswig-Holstein
chancellery, and remained in it almost to the time of his death on the 26th of
November 1689. Gude’s great life-work, the collection of Greek and Latin
inscriptions, was not published till 1731. Mention may also be made of his
editio princeps (1661) of the treatise of Hippolytus the Martyr on
Antichrist, and of his notes on Phaedrus (with four new fables discovered
by him) published in P. Burmann’s edition (1698).

His correspondence (ed. P. Burmann, 1697) is the most important
authority for the events of Gude’s life, besides containing valuable
information on the learning of the times. See also J. Moller, Cimbria
literata, iii., and C. Bursian in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, x.

GUDEMAN, ALFRED (1862- ), American classical scholar, was
born in Atlanta, Georgia, on the 26th of August 1862. He graduated at
Columbia University in 1883 and studied under Hermann Diels at the
University of Berlin. From 1890 to 1893 he was reader in classical
philology at Johns Hopkins University, from 1893 to 1902 professor in the
University of Pennsylvania, and from 1902 to 1904 professor in Cornell
University. In 1904 he became a member of the corps of scholars preparing
the Wölfflin Thesaurus linguae Latinae—a unique distinction for an
American Latinist, as was the publication of his critical edition, with
German commentary, of Tacitus’ Agricola in 1902 by the Weidmannsche
Buchhandlung of Berlin. He wrote Latin Literature of the Empire (2 vols.,
Prose and Poetry, 1898-1899), a History of Classical Philology (1902) and
Sources of Plutarch’s Life of Cicero (1902); and edited Tacitus’ Dialogus de
oratoribus (text with commentary, 1894 and 1898) and Agricola (1899;
with Germania, 1900), and Sallust’s Catiline (1903).

GUDGEON (Gobio fluviatilis), a small fish of the Cyprinid family. It is
nearly related to the barbel, and has a small barbel or fleshy appendage at
each corner of the mouth. It is the gobione of Italy, goujon of France
(whence adapted in M. English as gojon), and Grässling or Gründling of
Germany. Gudgeons thrive in streams and lakes, keeping to the bottom, and
seldom exceeding 8 in. in length. In China and Japan there are varieties
differing only slightly from the common European type.

GUDRUN (Kudrun), a Middle High German epic, written probably in
the early years of the 13th century, not long after the Nibelungenlied, the
influence of which may be traced upon it. It is preserved in a single MS.
which was prepared at the command of Maximilian I., and was discovered
as late as 1820 in the Castle of Ambras in Tirol. The author was an unnamed
Austrian poet, but the story itself belongs to the cycle of sagas, which
originated on the shores of the North Sea. The epic falls into three easily
distinguishable parts—the adventures of King Hagen of Ireland, the
romance of Hettel, king of the Hegelingen, who woos and wins Hagen’s
daughter Hilde, and lastly, the more or less parallel story of how Herwig,
king of Seeland, wins, in opposition to her father’s wishes, Gudrun, the
daughter of Hettel and Hilde. Gudrun is carried off by a king of Normandy,
and her kinsfolk, who are in pursuit, are defeated in a great battle on the
island of Wülpensand off the Dutch coast. The finest parts of the epic are
those in which Gudrun, a prisoner in the Norman castle, refuses to become
the wife of her captor, and is condemned to do the most menial work of the
household. Here, thirteen years later, Herwig and her brother Ortwin find

her washing clothes by the sea; on the following day they attack the
Norman castle with their army and carry out the long-delayed retribution.

The epic of Gudrun is not unworthy to stand beside the greater
Nibelungenlied, and it has been aptly compared with it as the Odyssey to the
Iliad. Like the Odyssey, Gudrun is an epic of the sea, a story of adventure; it
does not turn solely round the conflict of human passions; nor is it built up
round one all-absorbing, all-dominating idea like the Nibelungenlied.
Scenery and incident are more varied, and the poet has an opportunity for a
more lyric interpretation of motive and character. Gudrun is composed in
stanzas similar to those of the Nibelungenlied, but with the essential
difference that the last line of each stanza is identical with the others, and
does not contain the extra accented syllable characteristic of the Nibelungen
metre.

Gudrun was first edited by von der Hagen in vol. i. of his
Heldenbuch (1820). Subsequent editions by A. Ziemann and A. J.
Vollmer followed in 1837 and 1845. The best editions are those by K.
Bartsch (4th ed., 1880), who has also edited the poem for Kürschner’s
Deutsche Nationalliteratur (vol. 6, 1885), by B. Symons (1883) and by
E. Martin (2nd ed., 1901). L. Ettmüller first applied Lachmann’s
ballad-theory to the poem (1841), and K. Müllenhoff (Kudrun, die
echten Teile des Gedichts, 1845) rejected more than three-quarters of
the whole as “not genuine.” There are many translations of the epic
into modern German, the best known being that of K. Simrock (15th
ed., 1884). A translation into English by M. P. Nichols appeared at
Boston, U.S.A., in 1889.

See K. Bartsch, Beiträge zur Geschichte und Kritik der Kudrun
(1865); H. Keck, Die Gudrunsage (1867); W. Wilmanns, Die
Entwickelung der Kudrundichtung (1873); A. Fécamp, Le Poème de
Gudrun, ses origines, sa formation et son histoire (1892); F. Panzer,

Hilde-Gudrun (1901). For later versions and adaptations of the saga see
O. Benedict, Die Gudrunsage in der neueren Literatur (1902.)

GUÉBRIANT, JEAN BAPTISTE BUDES, Comte de (1602-1643),
marshal of France, was born at Plessis-Budes, near St Brieuc, of an old
Breton family. He served first in Holland, and in the Thirty Years’ War he
commanded from 1638 to 1639 the French contingent in the army of his
friend Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, distinguishing himself particularly at the
siege of Breisach in 1638. Upon the death of Bernard he received the
command of his army, and tried, in conjunction with J. Baner (1596-1641),
the Swedish general, a bold attack upon Regensburg (1640). His victories of
Wolfenbüttel on the 29th of June 1641 and of Kempen in 1642 won for him
the marshal’s bâton. Having failed in an attempt to invade Bavaria in
concert with Torstensson he seized Rottweil, but was mortally wounded
there on the 17th of November 1643.

A biography was published by Le Laboureur, Histoire du mareschal
de Guébriant, in 1656. See A. Brinzinger in Württembergische
Vierteljahrschrift für Landesgeschichte (1902).

GUELDER ROSE, so called from Guelderland, its supposed source,
termed also marsh elder, rose elder, water elder (Ger. Wasserholder,
Schneeball; Fr. viorne-obier, l’obier d’Europe), known botanically as
Viburnum Opulus, a shrub or small tree of the natural order Caprifoliaceae,
a native of Britain, and widely distributed in the temperate and colder parts
of Europe, Asia and North America. It is common in Ireland, but rare in
Scotland. In height it is from 6 to 12 ft., and it thrives best in moist
situations. The leaves are smooth, 2 to 3 in. broad, with 3 to 5 unequal
serrate lobes, and glandular stipules adnate to the stalk. In autumn the
leaves change their normal bright green for a pink or crimson hue. The
flowers, which appear in June and July, are small, white, and arranged in
cymes 2 to 4 in. in diameter. The outer blossoms in the wild plant have an
enlarged corolla, ¾ in. in diameter, and are devoid of stamens or pistils; in
the common cultivated variety all the flowers are sterile and the
inflorescence is globular, hence the term “snowball tree” applied to the
plant, the appearance of which at the time of flowering has been prettily
described by Cowper in his Winter Walk at Noon. The guelder rose bears
juicy, red, elliptical berries, 1⁄3 in. long, which ripen in September, and
contain each a single compressed seed. In northern Europe these are eaten,
and in Siberia, after fermentation with flour, they are distilled for spirit. The
plant has, however, emetic, purgative and narcotic properties; and Taylor
(Med. Jurisp. i. 448, 2nd ed., 1873) has recorded an instance of the fatal
poisoning of a child by the berries. Both they and the bark contain
valerianic acid. The woody shoots of the guelder rose are manufactured into
various small articles in Sweden and Russia. Another member of the genus,
Viburnum, Lantana, wayfaring tree, is found in dry copses and hedges in
England, except in the north.

GUELPH, a city of Ontario, Canada, 45 m. W. of Toronto, on the river
Speed and the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1901)
11,496. It is the centre of a fine agricultural district, and exports grain, fruit
and live-stock in large quantities. It contains, in addition to the county and
municipal buildings, the Ontario Agricultural College, which draws
students from all parts of North and South America. The river affords
abundant water-power for flour-mills, saw-mills, woollen-mills and
numerous factories, of which agricultural implements, sewing machines and
musical instruments are the chief.

GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. These names are doubtless
Italianized forms of the German words Welf and Waiblingen, although one
tradition says that they are derived from Guelph and Gibel, two rival
brothers of Pistoia. Another theory derives Ghibelline from Gibello, a word
used by the Sicilian Arabs to translate Hohenstaufen. However, a more
popular story tells how, during a fight around Weinsberg in December 1140
between the German king Conrad III. and Welf, count of Bavaria, a member
of the powerful family to which Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and
Bavaria, belonged, the soldiers of the latter raised the cry “Hie Welf!” to
which the king’s troops replied with “Hie Waiblingen!” this being the name
of one of Conrad’s castles. But the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen,
of which family Conrad was a member, was anterior to this event, and had
been for some years a prominent fact in the history of Swabia and Bavaria,
although its introduction into Italy—in a slightly modified form, however—
only dates from the time of the Italian expeditions of the emperor Frederick

I. It is about this time that the German chronicler, Otto of Freising, says,
“Duae in Romano orbe apud Galliae Germaniaeve fines famosae familiae
actenus fuere, una Heinricorum de Gueibelinga, alia Guelforum de Aldorfo,
altera imperatores, altera magnos duces producere solita.” Chosen German
king in 1152, Frederick was not only the nephew and the heir of Conrad, he
was related also to the Welfs; yet, although his election abated to some
extent the rivalry between Welf and Hohenstaufen in Germany, it opened it
upon a larger and fiercer scale in Italy.

During the long and interesting period covered by Frederick’s Italian
campaigns, his enemies, prominent among whom were the cities of the
Lombard League, became known as Welfs, or Guelphs, while his partisans
seized upon the rival term of Waiblingen, or Ghibelline, and the contest
between these two parties was carried on with a ferocity unknown even to
the inhabitants of southern Germany. The distracted state of northern Italy,
the jealousies between various pairs of towns, the savage hatred between
family and family, were some of the causes which fed this feud, and it
reached its height during the momentous struggle between Frederick II. and
the Papacy in the 13th century. The story of the contest between Guelph and
Ghibelline, however, is little less than the history of Italy in the middle
ages. At the opening of the 13th century it was intensified by the fight for
the German and imperial thrones between Philip, duke of Swabia, a son of
Frederick I., and the Welf, Otto of Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto
IV., a fight waged in Italy as well as in Germany. Then, as the heir of Philip
of Swabia and the rival of Otto of Brunswick, Frederick II. was forced to
throw himself into the arms of the Ghibellines, while his enemies, the
popes, ranged themselves definitely among the Guelphs, and soon Guelph
and Ghibelline became synonymous with supporter of pope and emperor.

After the death of Frederick II. in 1250 the Ghibellines looked for
leadership to his son and successor, the German king, Conrad IV., and then

to his natural son, Manfred, while the Guelphs called the French prince,
Charles of Anjou, to their aid. But the combatants were nearing exhaustion,
and after the execution of Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, in 1268,
this great struggle began to lose force and interest. Guelph and Ghibelline
were soon found representing local and family rather than papal and
imperial interests; the names were taken with little or no regard for their
original significance, and in the 15th century they began to die out of
current politics. However, when Louis XII. of France conquered Milan at
the beginning of the 16th century the old names were revived; the French
king’s supporters were called Guelphs and the friends of the emperor
Maximilian I. were referred to as Ghibellines.

The feud of Guelph and Ghibelline penetrated within the walls of almost
every city of northern Italy, and the contest between the parties, which
practically makes the history of Florence during the 13th century, is
specially noteworthy. First one side and then the other was driven into exile;
the Guelph defeat at the battle of Monte Aperto in 1260 was followed by
the expulsion of the Ghibellines by Charles of Anjou in 1266, and on a
smaller scale a similar story may be told of many other cities (see
Florence).

The Guelph cause was buttressed by an idea, yet very nebulous, of Italian
patriotism. Dislike of the German and the foreigner rather than any strong
affection for the Papacy was the feeling which bound the Guelph to the
pope, and so enabled the latter to defy the arms of Frederick II. The
Ghibelline cause, on the other hand, was aided by the dislike of the
temporal power of the pope and the desire for a strong central authority.
This made Dante a Ghibelline, but the hopes of this party, kindled anew by
the journey of Henry VII. to Italy in 1310, were extinguished by his
departure. J. A. Symonds thus describes the constituents of the two parties:
“The Guelph party meant the burghers of the consular Communes, the men

of industry and commerce, the upholders of civil liberty, the friends of
democratic expansion. The Ghibelline party included the naturalized nobles,
the men of arms and idleness, the advocates of feudalism, the politicians
who regarded constitutional progress with disfavour. That the banner of the
church floated over the one camp, while the standard of the empire rallied
to itself the hostile party, was a matter of comparatively superficial
moment.” In another passage the same writer thus describes the sharp and
universal division between Guelph and Ghibelline: “Ghibellines wore the
feathers in their caps upon one side, Guelphs upon the other. Ghibellines cut
fruit at table crosswise, Guelphs straight down ... Ghibellines drank out of
smooth and Guelphs out of chased goblets. Ghibellines wore white and
Guelphs red roses.” It is interesting to note that while Dante was a
Ghibelline, Petrarch was a Guelph.

See J. A. Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy, vol. i. (1875).

GUENEVERE (Lat. Guanhumara; Welsh, Gwenhwyfar; O. Eng.
Gaynore), in Arthurian romance the wife of King Arthur. Geoffrey of
Monmouth, who calls her Guanhumara, makes her a Roman lady, but the
general tradition is that she was of Cornish birth and daughter to King
Leodegrance. Wace, who, while translating Geoffrey, evidently knew, and
used, popular tradition, combines these two, asserting that she was of
Roman parentage on the mother’s side, but cousin to Cador of Cornwall by
whom she was brought up. The tradition relating to Guenevere is decidedly
confused and demands further study. The Welsh triads know no fewer than
three Gwenhwyfars; Giraldus Cambrensis, relating the discovery of the

royal tombs at Glastonbury, speaks of the body found as that of Arthur’s
second wife; the prose Merlin gives Guenevere a bastard half-sister of the
same name, who strongly resembles her; and the Lancelot relates how this
lady, trading on the likeness, persuaded Arthur that she was the true
daughter of Leodegrance, and the queen the bastard interloper. This episode
of the false Guenevere is very perplexing.

To the majority of English readers Guenevere is best known in connexion
with her liaison with Lancelot, a story which, in the hands of Malory and
Tennyson, has assumed a form widely different from the original
conception, and at once more picturesque and more convincing. In the
French romances Lancelot is a late addition to the Arthurian cycle, his birth
is not recorded till long after the marriage of Arthur and Guenevere, and he
is at least twenty years the junior of the queen. The relations between them
are of the most conventional and courtly character, and are entirely lacking
in the genuine dramatic passion which marks the love story of Tristan and
Iseult. The Lancelot-Guenevere romance took form and shape in the
artificial atmosphere encouraged by such patronesses of literature as
Eleanor of Aquitaine and her daughter Marie, Comtesse de Champagne (for
whom Chrétien de Troyes wrote his Chevalier de la Charrette), and reflects
the low social morality of a time when love between husband and wife was
declared impossible. But though Guenevere has changed her lover, the
tradition of her infidelity is of much earlier date and formed a part of the
primitive Arthurian legend. Who the original lover was is doubtful; the Vita
Gildae relates how she was carried off by Melwas, king of Aestiva Regis, to
Glastonbury, whither Arthur, at the head of an army, pursued the ravisher. A
fragment of a Welsh poem seems to confirm this tradition, which certainly
lies at the root of her later abduction by Meleagaunt. In the Lanzelet of
Ulrich von Zatzikhoven the abductor is Falerîn. The story in these forms
represents an other-world abduction. A curious fragment of Welsh
dialogues, printed by Professor Rhys in his Studies on the Arthurian

Legend, appears to represent Kay as the abductor. In the pseudo-Chronicles
and the romances based upon them the abductor is Mordred, and in the
chronicles there is no doubt that the lady was no unwilling victim. On the
final defeat of Mordred she retires to a nunnery, takes the veil, and is no
more heard of. Wace says emphatically—

Ne fu oie ne véue,
Ne fu trovée, ne séue
Por la vergogne del mesfait
Et del pecié qu ele avoit fait (11. 13627-30).

Layamon, who in his translation of Wace treats his original much as
Wace treated Geoffrey, says that there was a tradition that she had drowned
herself, and that her memory and that of Mordred were hateful in every
land, so that none would offer prayer for their souls. On the other hand
certain romances, e.g. the Perceval, give her an excellent character. The
truth is probably that the tradition of his wife’s adultery and treachery was a
genuine part of the Arthurian story, which, neglected for a time, was
brought again into prominence by the social conditions of the courts for
which the later romances were composed; and it is in this later and
conventionalized form that the tale has become familiar to us (see also
Lancelot).

See Studies on the Arthurian Legend by Professor Rhys; The Legend
of Sir Lancelot, Grimm Library, xii., Jessie L. Weston; Der
Karrenritter, ed. Professor Foerster.
(J. L. W.)

GUENON (from the French, = one who grimaces, hence an ape), the
name applied by naturalists to the monkeys of the African genus
Cercopithecus, the Ethiopian representative of the Asiatic macaques, from
which they differ by the absence of a posterior heel to the last molar in the
lower jaw.

GUÉRET, a town of central France, capital of the department of Creuse,
situated on a mountain declivity 48 m. N.E. of Limoges on the Orleans
railway. Pop. (1906), town, 6042; commune (including troops, &c.), 8058.
Apart from the Hôtel des Monneyroux (used as prefecture), a picturesque
mansion of the 15th and 16th centuries, with mansard roofs and mullioned
windows, Guéret has little architectural interest. It is the seat of a prefect
and a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber of
commerce and lycées and training colleges, for both sexes. The industries
include brewing, saw-milling, leather-making and the manufacture of
basket-work and wooden shoes, and there is trade in agricultural produce
and cattle. Guéret grew up round an abbey founded in the 7th century, and
in later times became the capital of the district of Marche.

GUEREZA, the native name of a long-tailed, black and white
Abyssinian monkey, Colobus guereza (or C. abyssinicus), characterized by

the white hairs forming a long pendent mantle. Other east African monkeys
with a similar type of colouring, which, together with the wholly black west
African C. satanas, collectively constitute the subgenus Guereza, may be
included under the same title; and the name may be further extended to
embrace all the African thumbless monkeys of the genus Colobus. These
monkeys are the African representatives of the Indo-Malay langurs
(Semnopithecus), with which they agree in their slender build, long limbs
and tail, and complex stomachs, although differing by the rudimentary
thumb. The members of the subgenus Guereza present a transition from a
wholly black animal (C. satanas) to one (C. caudatus) in which the sides of
the face are white, and the whole flanks, as well as the tail, clothed with a
long fringe of pure white hairs.

GUERICKE, HEINRICH ERNST FERDINAND (1803-1878),
German theologian, was born at Wettin in Saxony on the 25th of February
1803 and studied theology at Halle, where he was appointed professor in
1829. He greatly disliked the union between the Lutheran and the Reformed
churches, which had been accomplished by the Prussian government in
1817, and in 1833 he definitely threw in his lot with the Old Lutherans. In
1835 he lost his professorship, but he regained it in 1840. Among his works
were a Life of August Hermann Francke (1827, Eng. trans. 1837), Church
History (1833, Eng. trans. by W. T. Shedd, New York, 1857-1863),
Allgemeine christliche Symbolik (1839). In 1840 he helped to found the
Zeitschrift für die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche, and he died
at Halle on the 4th of February 1878.

GUERICKE, OTTO VON (1602-1686), German experimental
philosopher, was born at Magdeburg, in Prussian Saxony, on the 20th of
November 1602. Having studied law at Leipzig, Helmstadt and Jena, and
mathematics, especially geometry and mechanics, at Leiden, he visited
France and England, and in 1636 became engineer-in-chief at Erfurt. In
1627 he was elected alderman of Magdeburg, and in 1646 mayor of that
city and a magistrate of Brandenburg. His leisure was devoted to scientific
pursuits, especially in pneumatics. Incited by the discoveries of Galileo,
Pascal and Torricelli, he attempted the creation of a vacuum. He began by
experimenting with a pump on water placed in a barrel, but found that when
the water was drawn off the air permeated the wood. He then took a globe
of copper fitted with pump and stopcock, and discovered that he could
pump out air as well as water. Thus he became the inventor of the air-pump
(1650). He illustrated his discovery before the emperor Ferdinand III. at the
imperial diet which assembled at Regensburg in 1654, by the experiment of
the “Magdeburg hemispheres.” Taking two hollow hemispheres of copper,
the edges of which fitted nicely together, he exhausted the air from between
them by means of his pump, and it is recorded that thirty horses, fifteen
back to back, were unable to pull them asunder until the air was readmitted.
Besides investigating other phenomena connected with a vacuum, he
constructed an electrical machine which depended on the excitation of a
rotating ball of sulphur; and he made successful researches in astronomy,
predicting the periodicity of the return of comets. In 1681 he gave up office,
and retired to Hamburg, where he died on the 11th of May 1686.

His principal observations are given in his work, Experimenta nova,
ut vocant, Magdeburgica de vacuo spatio (Amsterdam, 1672). He is
also the author of a Geschichte der Belagerung und Eroberung von
Magdeburg. See F. W. Hoffmann, Otto von Guericke (Magdeburg,
1874).

GUÉRIDON, a small table to hold a lamp or vase, supported by a tall
column or a human or mythological figure. This piece of furniture, often
very graceful and elegant, originated in France towards the middle of the
17th century. In the beginning the table was supported by a negro or other
exotic figure, and there is some reason to believe that it took its name from
the generic appellation of the young African groom or “tiger,” who was
generally called “Guéridon,” or as we should say in English “Sambo.” The
swarthy figure and brilliant costume of the “Moor” when reproduced in
wood and picked out in colours produced a very striking effect, and when a
small table was supported on the head by the upraised hands the idea of
passive service was suggested with completeness. The guéridon is still
occasionally seen in something approaching its original form; but it had no
sooner been introduced than the artistic instinct of the French designer and
artificer converted it into a far worthier object. By the death of Louis XIV.
there were several hundreds of them at Versailles, and within a generation
or two they had taken an infinity of forms—columns, tripods, termini and
mythological figures. Some of the simpler and more artistic forms were of
wood carved with familiar decorative motives and gilded. Silver, enamel,
and indeed almost any material from which furniture can be made, have

been used for their construction. A variety of small “occasional” tables are
now called in French guéridons.

GUÉRIN, JEAN BAPTISTE PAULIN (1783-1855), French painter,
was born at Toulon, on the 25th of March 1783, of poor parents. He learnt,
as a lad, his father’s trade of a locksmith, whilst at the same time he
followed the classes of the free school of art. Having sold some copies to a
local amateur, Guérin started for Paris, where he came under the notice of
Vincent, whose counsels were of material service. In 1810 Guérin made his
first appearance at the Salon with some portraits, which had a certain
success. In 1812 he exhibited “Cain after the murder of Abel” (formerly in
Luxembourg), and, on the return of the Bourbons, was much employed in
works of restoration and decoration at Versailles. His “Dead Christ”
(Cathedral, Baltimore) obtained a medal in 1817, and this success was
followed up by a long series of works, of which the following are the more
noteworthy: “Christ on the knees of the Virgin” (1819); “Anchises and
Venus” (1822) (formerly in Luxembourg); “Ulysses and Minerva” (1824)
(Musée de Rennes); “the Holy Family” (1829) (Cathedral, Toulon); and
“Saint Catherine” (1838) (St Roch). In his treatment of subject, Guérin
attempted to realize rococo graces of conception, the liveliness of which
was lost in the strenuous effort to be correct. His chief successes were
attained by portraits, and those of Charles Nodier and the Abbé Lamennais
became widely popular. He died on the 19th of January 1855.

GUÉRIN, PIERRE NARCISSE, Baron (1774-1833), French painter,
was born at Paris on the 13th of May 1774. Becoming a pupil of Jean
Baptiste Regnault, he carried off one of the three “grands prix” offered in
1796, in consequence of the competition not having taken place since 1793.
The pension was not indeed re-established, but Guérin fulfilled at Paris the
conditions imposed upon a pensionnaire, and produced various works, one
of which brought him prominently before the public. This work, “Marcus
Sextus” (Louvre), exhibited at the Salon of 1799, excited wild enthusiasm,
partly due to the subject,—a victim of Sulla’s proscription returning to
Rome to find his wife dead and his house in mourning—in which an
allusion was found to the actual situation of the émigrés. Guérin on this
occasion was publicly crowned by the president of the Institute, and before
his departure for Rome (on the re-establishment of the École under Suvée) a
banquet was given to him by the most distinguished artists of Paris. In
1800, unable to remain in Rome on account of his health, he went to
Naples, where he painted the “Grave of Amyntas.” In 1802 Guérin
produced “Phaedra and Hippolytus” (Louvre); in 1810, after his return to
Paris, he again achieved a great success with “Andromache and Pyrrhus”
(Louvre); and in the same year also exhibited “Cephalus and Aurora”
(Collection Sommariva) and “Bonaparte and the Rebels of Cairo”
(Versailles). The Restoration brought to Guérin fresh honours; he had
received from the first consul in 1803 the cross of the Legion of Honour,
and in 1815 Louis XVIII. named him Academician. The success of Guérin’s
“Hippolytus” of “Andromache,” of “Phaedra” and of “Clytaemnestra”
(Louvre) had been ensured by the skilful selection of highly melodramatic
situations, treated with the strained and pompous dignity proper to the art of
the first empire; in “Aeneas relating to Dido the disasters of Troy” (Louvre),
which appeared side by side with “Clytaemnestra” at the Salon of 1817, the
influence of the Restoration is plainly to be traced. In this work Guérin
sought to captivate the public by an appeal to those sensuous charms which

he had previously rejected, and by the introduction of picturesque elements
of interest. But with this work Guérin’s public successes came to a close.
He was, indeed, commissioned to paint for the Madeleine a scene from the
history of St Louis, but his health prevented him from accomplishing what
he had begun, and in 1822 he accepted the post of director of the École de
Rome, which in 1816 he had refused. On returning to Paris in 1828, Guérin,
who had previously been made chevalier of the order of St Michel, was
ennobled. He now attempted to complete “Pyrrhus and Priam,” a work
which he had begun at Rome, but in vain; his health had finally broken
down, and in the hope of improvement he returned to Italy with Horace
Vernet. Shortly after his arrival at Rome Baron Guérin died, on the 6th of
July 1833, and was buried in the church of La Trinità de’ Monti by the side
of Claude Lorraine.

A careful analysis and criticism of his principal works will be found
in Meyer’s Geschichte der französischen Malerei.

GUÉRIN DU CAYLA, GEORGES MAURICE DE (1810-1839),
French poet, descended from a noble but poor family, was born at the
chateau of Le Cayla in Languedoc, on the 4th of August 1810. He was
educated for the church at a religious seminary at Toulouse, and then at the
Collège Stanislas, Paris, after which he entered the society at La Chesnaye
in Brittany, founded by Lamennais. It was only after great hesitation, and
without being satisfied as to his religious vocation, that under the influence
of Lamennais he joined the new religious order in the autumn of 1832; and
when, in September of the next year, Lamennais, who had come under the

displeasure of Rome, severed connexion with the society, Maurice de
Guérin soon followed his example. Early in the following year he went to
Paris, where he was for a short time a teacher at the College Stanislas. In
November 1838 he married a Creole lady of some fortune; but a few
months afterwards he was attacked by consumption and died on the 19th of
July 1839. In the Revue des deux mondes for May 15th, 1840, there
appeared a notice of Maurice de Guérin by George Sand, to which she
added two fragments of his writings—one a composition in prose entitled
the Centaur, and the other a short poem. His Reliquiae (2 vols., 1861),
including the Centaur, his journal, a number of his letters and several
poems, was edited by G. S. Trébutien, and accompanied with a biographical
and critical notice by Sainte-Beuve; a new edition, with the title Journal,
lettres et poèmes, followed in 1862; and an English translation of it was
published at New York in 1867. Though he was essentially a poet, his prose
is more striking and original than his poetry. Its peculiar and unique charm
arises from his strong and absorbing passion for nature, a passion whose
intensity reached almost to adoration and worship, but in which the pagan
was more prominent than the moral element. According to Sainte-Beuve,
“no French poet or painter has rendered so well the feeling for nature—the
feeling not so much for details as for the ensemble and the divine
universality, the feeling for the origin of things and the sovereign principle
of life.”

The name of Eugénie de Guérin (1805-1848), the sister of Maurice,
cannot be omitted from any notice of him. Her Journals (1861, Eng. trans.,
1865) and her Lettres (1864, Eng. trans., 1865) indicated the possession of
gifts of as rare an order as those of her brother, though of a somewhat
different kind. In her case mysticism assumed a form more strictly
religious, and she continued to mourn her brother’s loss of his early
Catholic faith. Five years older than he, she cherished a love for him which
was blended with a somewhat motherly anxiety. After his death she began

the collection and publication of the scattered fragments of his writings. She
died, however, on the 31st of May 1848, before her task was completed.

See the notices by George Sand and Sainte-Beuve referred to above;
Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi (vol. xii.) and Nouveaux Lundis (vol.
iii.); G. Merlet, Causeries sur les femmes et les livres (Paris, 1865);
Selden, L’Esprit des femmes de notre temps (Paris, 1864); Marelle,
Eugénie et Maurice de Guérin (Berlin, 1869); Harriet Parr, M. and E. de
Guérin, a monograph (London, 1870); and Matthew Arnold’s essays on
Maurice and Eugénie de Guérin, in his Essays in Criticism.

GUERNIERI, or Werner, a celebrated mercenary captain who lived
about the middle of the 14th century. He was a member of the family of the
dukes of Urslingen, and probably a descendant of the dukes of Spoleto.
From 1340 to 1343 he was in the service of the citizens of Pisa, but
afterwards he collected a troop of adventurers which he called the Great
Company, and with which he plundered Tuscany and Lombardy. He then
entered the service of Louis I. the Great, king of Hungary and Poland, whom
he assisted to obtain possession of Naples; but when dismissed from this
service his ravages became more terrible than ever, culminating in the
dreadful sack of Anagni in 1358, shortly after which Guernieri disappeared
from history. He is said to have worn a breastplate with the inscription, “The
enemy of God, of pity and of mercy.”

GUERNSEY (Fr. Guernesey), one of the Channel Islands, belonging to
Britain, the second in size and westernmost of the important members of the
group. Its chief town, St Peter Port, on the east coast, is in 2° 33′ W., 49° 27′
N., 74 m. S. of Portland Bill on the English coast, and 30 m. from the nearest
French coast to the east. The island, roughly triangular in form, is 9¼ m.
long from N.E. to S.W. and has an extreme breadth of 5¼ m. and an area of
15,691 acres or 24.5 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 40,446, the density being thus 162
per sq. m.

The surface of the island rises gradually from north to south, and reaches
its greatest elevation at Haut Nez (349 ft.) above Point Icart on the south
coast. The coast scenery, which forms one of the principal attractions to the
numerous summer visitors to the island, is finest on the south. This coast,
between Jerbourg and Pleinmont Points, respectively at the south-eastern
and south-western corners of the island, is bold, rocky and indented with
many exquisite little bays. Of these the most notable are Moulin Huet,
Saint’s, and Petit Bot, all in the eastern half of the south coast. The cliffs,
however, culminate in the neighbourhood of Pleinmont. Picturesque caves
occur at several points, such as the Creux Mahie. On the west coast there is a
succession of larger bays—Rocquaine Perelle, Vazon, and Cobo. Off the first
lies Lihou Island, the Hanois and other islets, and all three bays are sown
with rocks. The coast, however, diminishes in height, until at the north-
eastern extremity of the island the land is so low across the Vale or Braye du
Val, from shore to shore, that the projection of L’Ancresse is within a few
feet of being isolated. The east coast, on which, besides the town and
harbour of St Peter Port, is that of St Sampson, presents no physical feature
of note. The interior of the island is generally undulating, and gains in
beauty from its rich vegetation. Picturesque glens descend upon some of the
southern bays (the two converging upon Petit Bot are notable), and the high-
banked paths, arched with foliage, which follow the small rills down to
Moulin Huet Bay, are much admired under the name of water-lanes.

The soil is generally light sandy loam, overlying an angular gravel which
rests upon the weathered granite. This soil requires much manure, and a
large proportion of the total area (about three-fifths) is under careful
cultivation, producing a considerable amount of grain, but more famous for
market-gardening. Vegetables and potatoes are exported, with much fruit,
including grapes and flowers. Granite is quarried and exported from St
Sampson, and the fisheries form an important industry.

For administrative purposes Guernsey is united with Alderney, Sark,
Herm and the adjacent islets to form the bailiwick of Guernsey, separate
from Jersey. The peculiar constitution, machinery of administration and
justice, finance, &c., are considered under the heading Channel Islands.
Guernsey is divided into the ten parishes of St Peter Port, St Sampson, Vale,
Câtel, St Saviour, St Andrew, St Martin, Forest, St Peter du Bois and
Torteval. The population of St Peter Port in 1901 was 18,264; of the other
parishes that of St Sampson was 5614 and that of Vale 5082. The population
of the bailiwick of Guernsey nearly doubled between 1821 and 1901, and
that of the island increased from 35,243 in 1891 to 40,446 in 1901. The
island roads are excellent, Guernsey owing much in this respect to Sir John
Doyle (d. 1834), the governor whose monument stands on the promontory of
Jerbourg. Like Jersey and the neighbouring part of France, Guernsey retains
considerable traces of early habitation in cromlechs and menhirs, of which
the most notable is the cromlech in the north at L’Ancresse. As regards
ecclesiastical architecture, all the parish churches retain some archaeological
interest. There is good Norman work in the church of St Michael, Vale, and
the church of St Peter Port is a notable building of various periods from the
early 14th century. Small remains of monastic buildings are seen at Vale and
on Lihou Island.

GUERRAZZI, FRANCESCO DOMENICO (1804-1873), Italian
publicist, born at Leghorn, was educated for the law at Pisa, and began to
practise in his native place. But he soon took to politics and literature, under
the influence of Byron, and his novel, the Battagli di Benevento (1827),
brought him into notice. Mazzini made his acquaintance, and with Carlo
Bini they started a paper, the Indicatore, at Leghorn in 1829, which was
quickly suppressed. Guerrazzi himself had to endure several terms of
imprisonment for his activity in the cause of Young Italy, and it was in
Portoferrato in 1834 that he wrote his most famous novel Assidio di Firenze.
He was the most powerful Liberal leader at Leghorn, and in 1848 became a
minister, with some idea of exercising a moderating influence in the
difficulties with the grand-duke of Tuscany. In 1849, when the latter fled, he
was first one of the triumvirate with Mazzini and Montanelli, and then
dictator, but on the restoration he was arrested and imprisoned for three
years. His Apologia was published in 1852. Released from prison, he was
exiled to Corsica, but subsequently was restored and was for some time a
deputy at Turin (1862-1870), dying of apoplexy at Leghorn on the 25th of
September 1873. He wrote a number of other works besides the novels
already mentioned, notably Isabella Orsini (1845) and Beatrice Cenci
(1854), and his Opere were collected at Milan (1868).

See the Life and Works by Bosio (1877), and Carducci’s edition of his
letters (1880).

GUERRERO, a Pacific coast state of Mexico, bounded N.W. by
Michoacan, N. by Mexico (state) and Morelos, N.E. and E. by Puebla and

Oaxaca, and S. and W. by the Pacific. Area, 24,996 sq. m. Pop., largely
composed of Indians and mestizos (1895), 417,886; (1900) 479,205. The
state is roughly broken by the Sierra Madre and its spurs, which cover its
entire surface with the exception of the low coastal plain (averaging about 20
m. in width) on the Pacific. The valleys are usually narrow, fertile and
heavily forested, but difficult of access. The state is divided into two distinct
zones—the tierras calientes of the coast and lower river courses where
tropical conditions prevail, and the tierras templadas of the mountain region
where the conditions are subtropical. The latter is celebrated for its agreeable
and healthy climate, and for the variety and character of its products. The
principal river of the state is the Rio de las Balsas or Mescala, which, having
its source in Tlaxcala, flows entirely across the state from W. to E., and then
southward to the Pacific on the frontier of Michoacan. This river is 429 m.
long and receives many affluents from the mountainous region through
which it passes, but its course is very precipitous and its mouth obstructed by
sand bars. The agricultural products include cotton, coffee, tobacco and
cereals, and the forests produce rubber, vanilla and various textile fibres.
Mining is undeveloped, although the mineral resources of the state include
silver, gold, mercury, lead, iron, coal, sulphur and precious stones. The
capital, Chilpancingo, or Chilpancingo de los Bravos (pop. 7497 in 1900), is
a small town in the Sierra Madre about 110 m. from the coast and 200 m. S.
of the Federal capital. It is a healthy well-built town on the old Acapulco
road, is lighted by electricity and is temporarily the western terminus of the
Interoceanic railway from Vera Cruz. It is celebrated in the history of
Mexico as the meeting-place of the revolutionary congress of 1813, which
issued a declaration of independence. Chilpancingo was badly damaged by
an earthquake in January 1902, and again on the 16th of April 1907. Other
important towns of the state are Tixtla, or Tixtla de Guerrero, formerly the
capital (pop. 6316 in 1900), 3 m. N.E. of Chilpancingo; Chilapa (8256 in
1895), the most populous town of the state, partially destroyed by a
hurricane in 1889, and again by the earthquake of 1907; Iguala (6631 in

1895); and Acapulco. Guerrero was organized as a state in 1849, its territory
being taken from the states of Mexico, Michoacan and Puebla.

GUERRILLA (erroneously written “guerilla,” being the diminutive of
the Span. guerra, war), a term currently used to denote war carried on by
bands in any irregular and unorganized manner. At the Hague Conference of
1899 the position of irregular combatants was one of the subjects dealt with,
and the rules there adopted were reaffirmed at the Conference of 1907. They
provide that irregular bands in order to enjoy recognition as belligerent
forces shall (a) have at their head a person responsible for his subordinates,
(b) wear some fixed distinctive badge recognizable at a distance, (c) carry
arms openly, and (d) conform in their operations to the laws and customs of
war. The rules, however, also provide that in case of invasion the inhabitants
of a territory who on the approach of the invading enemy spontaneously take
up arms to resist it, shall be regarded as belligerent troops if they carry arms
openly and respect the laws and customs of war, although they may not have
had time to become organized in accordance with the above provisions.
These rules were borrowed almost word for word from the project drawn up
at the Brussels international conference of 1874, which, though never
ratified, was practically incorporated in the army regulations issued by the
Russian government in connexion with the war of 1877-78.
(T. Ba.)

GUERRINI, OLINDO (1845- ), Italian poet, was born at Sant’
Alberto, Ravenna, and after studying law took to a life of letters, becoming
eventually librarian at Bologna University. In 1877 he published Postuma, a
volume of canzoniere, under the name of Lorenzo Stechetti, following this
with Polemica (1878), Canti popolari romagnoli (1880) and other poetical
works, and becoming known as the leader of the “verist” school among
Italian lyrical writers.

GUESDE, JULES BASILE (1845- ), French socialist, was born in
Paris on the 11th of November 1845. He had begun his career as a clerk in
the French Home Office, but at the outbreak of the Franco-German War he
was editing Les Droits de l’homme at Montpellier, and had to take refuge at
Geneva in 1871 from a prosecution instituted on account of articles which
had appeared in his paper in defence of the Commune. In 1876 he returned
to France to become one of the chief French apostles of Marxian
collectivism, and was imprisoned for six months in 1878 for taking part in
the first Parisian International Congress. He edited at different times Les
Droits de l’homme, Le Cri du peuple, Le Socialiste, but his best-known
organ was the weekly Égalité. He had been in close association with Paul
Lafargue, and through him with Karl Marx, whose daughter he married. It
was in conjunction with Marx and Lafargue that he drew up the programme
accepted by the national congress of the Labour party at Havre in 1880,
which laid stress on the formation of an international labour party working
by revolutionary methods. Next year at the Reims congress the orthodox
Marxian programme of Guesde was opposed by the “possibilists,” who
rejected the intransigeant attitude of Guesde for the opportunist policy of

Benoît Malon. At the congress of St-Étienne the difference developed into
separation, those who refused all compromise with a capitalist government
following Guesde, while the opportunists formed several groups. Guesde
took his full share in the consequent discussion between the Guesdists, the
Blanquists, the possibilists, &c. In 1893 he was returned to the Chamber of
Deputies for Lille (7th circonscription) with a large majority over the
Christian Socialist and Radical candidates. He brought forward various
proposals in social legislation forming the programme of the Labour party,
without reference to the divisions among the Socialists, and on the 20th of
November 1894 succeeded in raising a two days’ discussion of the
collectivist principle in the Chamber. In 1902 he was not re-elected, but
resumed his seat in 1906. In 1903 there was a formal reconciliation at the
Reims congress of the sections of the party, which then took the name of the
Socialist party of France. Guesde, nevertheless, continued to oppose the
opportunist policy of Jaurès, whom he denounced for supporting one
bourgeois party against another. His defence of the principle of freedom of
association led him, incongruously enough, to support the religious
Congregations against Émile Combes. Besides his numerous political and
socialist pamphlets he published in 1901 two volumes of his speeches in the
Chamber of Deputies entitled Quatre ans de lutte de classe 1893-1898.

GUEST, EDWIN (1800-1880), English antiquary, was born in 1800. He
was educated at King Edward’s school, Birmingham, and at Caius College,
Cambridge, where he graduated as eleventh wrangler, subsequently
becoming a fellow of his college. Called to the bar in 1828, he devoted
himself, after some years of legal practice, to antiquarian and literary

research. In 1838 he published his exhaustive History of English Rhythms.
He also wrote a very large number of papers on Roman-British history,
which, together with a mass of fresh material for a history of early Britain,
were published posthumously under the editorship of Dr Stubbs under the
title Origines Celticae (1883). In 1852 Guest was elected master of Caius
College, becoming LL.D. in the following year, and in 1854-1855 he was
vice-chancellor of Cambridge University. Guest was a fellow of the Royal
Society, and an honorary member of the Society of Antiquaries. He died on
the 23rd of November 1880.

GUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Gast, and Swed.
gäst; cognate with Lat. hostis, originally a stranger, hence enemy; cf.
“host”), one who receives hospitality in the house of another, his “host”;
hence applied to a parasite.

GUETTARD, JEAN ÉTIENNE (1715-1786), French naturalist and
mineralogist, was born at Étampes, on the 22nd of September 1715. In
boyhood he gained a knowledge of plants from his grandfather, who was an
apothecary, and later he qualified as a doctor in medicine. Pursuing the study
of botany in various parts of France and other countries, he began to take
notice of the relation between the distribution of plants and the soils and

subsoils. In this way his attention came to be directed to minerals and rocks.
In 1746 he communicated to the Academy of Sciences in Paris a memoir on
the distribution of minerals and rocks, and this was accompanied by a map
on which he had recorded his observations. He thus, as remarked by W. D.
Conybeare, “first carried into execution the idea, proposed by [Martin] Lister
years before, of geological maps.” In the course of his journeys he made a
large collection of fossils and figured many of them, but he had no clear
ideas about the sequence of strata. He made observations also on the
degradation of mountains by rain, rivers and sea; and he was the first to
ascertain the existence of former volcanoes in the district of Auvergne. He
died in Paris on the 7th of January 1786.

His publications include: Observations sur les plantes (2 vols., 1747);
Histoire de la découverte faite en France de matières semblables à
celles dont la porcelaine de la Chine est composée (1765); Mémoires
sur différentes parties des sciences et arts (5 vols., 1768-1783);
Mémoire sur la minéralogie du Dauphiné (2 vols., 1779). See The
Founders of Geology, by Sir A. Geikie (1897).

GUEUX, LES, or “The Beggars,” a name assumed by the confederacy of
nobles and other malcontents, who in 1566 opposed Spanish tyranny in the
Netherlands. The leaders of the nobles, who signed a solemn league known
as “the Compromise,” by which they bound themselves to assist in
defending the rights and liberties of the Netherlands against the civil and
religious despotism of Philip II., were Louis, count of Nassau, and Henry,
count of Brederode. On the 5th of April 1566 permission was obtained for

the confederates to present a petition of grievances, called “the Request,” to
the regent, Margaret, duchess of Parma. About 250 nobles marched to the
palace accompanied by Louis of Nassau and Brederode. The regent was at
first alarmed at the appearance of so large a body, but one of her councillors,
Berlaymont by name, was heard to exclaim, “What, madam, is your
highness afraid of these beggars (ces gueux)?” The appellation was not
forgotten. At a great feast held by some 300 confederates at the Hôtel
Culemburg three days later, Brederode in a speech declared that if need be
they were all ready to become “beggars” in their country’s cause. The words
caught on, and the hall resounded with loud cries of “Vivent les gueux!” The
name became henceforward a party appellation. The patriot party adopted
the emblems of beggarhood, the wallet and the bowl, as trinkets to be worn
on their hats or their girdles, and a medal was struck having on one side the
head of Philip II., on the other two clasped hands with the motto “Fidèle au
roy, jusques à porter la besace.” The original league of “Beggars” was short-
lived, crushed by the iron hand of Alva, but its principles survived and were
to be ultimately triumphant.

In the year 1569 the prince of Orange, who had now openly placed
himself at the head of the party of revolt, granted letters of marque to a
number of vessels manned by crews of desperadoes drawn from all
nationalities. These fierce corsairs under the command of a succession of
daring and reckless leaders—the best-known of whom is William de la
Marek, lord of Lumey—were called “Gueux de mer,” or “Sea Beggars.” At
first they were content with plundering both by sea and land and carrying
their booty to the English ports where they were able to refit and replenish
their stores. This went on till 1572, when Queen Elizabeth suddenly refused
to admit them to her harbours. Having no longer any refuge, the Sea Beggars
in desperation made an attack upon Brill, which they seized by surprise in
the absence of the Spanish garrison on the 1st of April 1572. Encouraged by
their unhoped-for success, they now sailed to Flushing, which was also taken

by a coup de main. The capture of these two towns gave the signal for a
general revolt of the northern Netherlands, and is regarded as the real
beginning oí the War of Dutch Independence.

GUEVARA, ANTONIO DE (c. 1490-1544), Spanish chronicler and
moralist, was a native of the province of Alava, and passed some of his
earlier years at the court of Isabella, queen of Castile. In 1528 he entered the
Franciscan order, and afterwards accompanied the emperor Charles V. during
his journeys to Italy and other parts of Europe. After having held
successively the offices of court preacher, court historiographer, bishop of
Guadix and bishop of Mondoñedo, he died in 1544. His earliest work,
entitled Reloj de principes, published at Valladolid in 1529, and, according
to its author, the fruit of eleven years’ labour, is a didactic novel, designed,
after the manner of Xenophon’s Cyropaedia, to delineate, in a somewhat
ideal way for the benefit of modern sovereigns, the life and character of an
ancient prince, Marcus Aurelius, distinguished for wisdom and virtue. It was
often reprinted in Spanish; and before the close of the century had also been
translated into Latin, Italian, French and English, an English translation
being by J. Bourchier (London, 1546) and another being by T. North. It is
difficult now to account for its extraordinary popularity, its thought being
neither just nor profound, while its style is stiff and affected. It gave rise to a
literary controversy, however, of great bitterness and violence, the author
having ventured without warrant to claim for it an historical character,
appealing to an imaginary “manuscript in Florence.” Other works of
Guevara are the Decada de los Césares (Valladolid, 1539), or “Lives of the
Ten Roman Emperors,” in imitation of the manner of Plutarch and

Suetonius; and the Epistolas familiares (Valladolid, 1539-1545), sometimes
called “The Golden Letters,” often printed in Spain, and translated into all
the principal languages of Europe. They are in reality a collection of stiff and
formal essays which have long ago fallen into merited oblivion. Guevara,
whose influence upon the Spanish prose of the 16th century was
considerable, also wrote Libro de los inventores del arte de marear
(Valladolid, 1539, and Madrid, 1895).

GUEVARA, LUIS VELEZ DE (1579-1644), Spanish dramatist and
novelist, was born at Écija on the 1st of August 1579. After graduating as a
sizar at the university of Osuna in 1596, he joined the household of Rodrigo
de Castro, cardinal-archbishop of Seville, and celebrated the marriage of
Philip II. in a poem signed “Velez de Santander,” a name which he continued
to use till some years later. He appears to have served as a soldier in Italy
and Algiers, returning to Spain in 1602 when he entered the service of the
count de Saldaña, and dedicated himself to writing for the stage. He died at
Madrid on the 10th of November 1644. He was the author of over four
hundred plays, of which the best are Reinar despues de morir, Más pesa el
rey que la sangre, La Luna de la Sierra and El Diablo está en Cantillana;
but he is most widely known as the author of El Diablo cojuelo (1641), a
fantastic novel which suggested to Le Sage the idea of his Diable boiteux.

GUGLIELMI, PIETRO (1727-1804), Italian composer, was born at
Massa Carrara in May 1727, and died in Rome on the 19th of November
1804. He received his first musical education from his father, and afterwards
studied under Durante at the Conservatorio di Santa Maria di Loreto at
Naples. His first operatic work, produced at Turin in 1755, established his
reputation, and soon his fame spread beyond the limits of his own country,
so that in 1762 he was called to Dresden to conduct the opera there. He
remained for some years in Germany, where his works met with much
success, but the greatest triumphs were reserved for him in England. He
went to London, according to Burney, in 1768, but according to Florimo in
1772, returning to Naples in 1777. He still continued to produce operas at an
astounding rate, but was unable to compete successfully with the younger
masters of the day. In 1793 he became maestro di cappella at St Peter’s,
Rome. He was a very prolific composer of Italian comic opera, and there is
in most of his scores a vein of humour and natural gaiety not surpassed by
Cimarosa himself. In serious opera he was less successful. But here also he
shows at least the qualities of a competent musician. Considering the
enormous number of his works, his unequal workmanship and the frequent
instances of mechanical and slip-shod writing in his music need not surprise
us. The following are among the most celebrated of his operas: I Due
Gemelli, La Serva inamorata, La Pastorella nobile, La Bella Peccatrice,
Rinaldo, Artaserse, Didone and Enea e Lavinia. He also wrote oratorios and
miscellaneous pieces of orchestral and chamber music. Of his eight sons two
at least acquired fame as musicians—Pietro Carlo (1763-1827), a successful
imitator of his father’s operatic style, and Giacomo, an excellent singer.

GUIANA (Guyana, Guayana1), the general name given in its widest
acceptation to the part of South America lying to the north-east from 8° 40′
N. to 3° 30′ S. and from 50° W. to 68° 30′ W. Its greatest length, from Cabo
do Norte to the confluence of the Rio Xie and Rio Negro, is about 1250 m.,
its greatest breadth, from Barima Point in the mouth of the Orinoco to the
confluence of the Rio Negro and Amazon, 800 m. Its area is roughly 690,000
sq. m. Comprised in this vast territory are Venezuelan (formerly Spanish)
Guiana, lying on both sides of the Orinoco and extending S. and S.W. to the
Rio Negro and Brazilian settlements; British Guiana, extending from
Venezuela to the left bank of the Corentyn river; Dutch Guiana (or Surinam),
from the Corentyn to the Maroni river; French Guiana (or Cayenne), from
the Maroni to the Oyapock river;2 Brazilian (formerly Portuguese) Guiana,
extending from the southern boundaries of French, Dutch, British and part of
Venezuelan Guiana, to the Amazon and the Negro. Of these divisions the
first and last are now included in Venezuela and Brazil respectively; British,
Dutch and French Guiana are described in order below, and are alone
considered here.

In their physical geography the three Guianas present certain common
characteristics. In each the principal features are the rivers and their branch
streams. In each colony the northern portion consists of a fluviomarine
deposit extending inland and gradually rising to a height of 10 to 15 ft.

above the sea. This alluvial plain varies in width from 50 m. to 18 m. and is
traversed by ridges of sand and shells, roughly parallel to what is now the
coast, indicating the trend of former shore lines. By the draining and diking
of these lands the plantations have been formed along the coast and up the
rivers. These low lands are attached to a somewhat higher plateau, which
towards the coast is traversed by numerous huge sand-dunes and inland by
ranges of hills rising in places to as much as 2000 ft. The greater part of this
belt of country, in which the auriferous districts principally occur, is covered
with a dense growth of jungle and high forest, but savannahs, growing only a
long wiry grass and poor shrubs, intrude here and there, being in the S.E.
much nearer to the coast than in the N.W. The hinterlands consist of
undulating open savannahs rising into hills and mountains, some grass-
covered, some in dense forest.

Geology3.—Guiana is formed almost entirely of gneiss and
crystalline schists penetrated by numerous dikes of diorite, diabase, &c.
The gold of the placer deposits appears to be derived, not from quartz
reefs, but from the schists and intrusive rocks, the selvages of the
diabase dikes sometimes containing as much as 5 oz. of gold to the ton.
In British Guiana a series of conglomerates, red and white sandstone
and red shale, rests upon the gneiss and forms the remarkable table-
topped mountains Roraima, Kukenaam, &c. The beds are horizontal,
and according to Brown and Sawkins, three layers of greenstone, partly
intrusive and partly contemporaneous, are interstratified with the
sedimentary deposits. The age of these beds is uncertain, but they
evidently correspond with the similar series which occurs in Brazil,
partly Palaeozoic and partly Cretaceous. In Dutch Guiana there are a
few small patches supposed to belong to the Cretaceous period. Along
the coast, and in the lower parts of the river valleys, are deposits which
are mainly Quaternary but may also include beds of Tertiary age.

History.—The coast of Guiana was sighted by Columbus in 1498 when he
discovered the island of Trinidad and the peninsula of Paria, and in the
following year by Alonzo de Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci; and in 1500
Vincente Yañez Pinzon ventured south of the equator, and sailing north-west
along the coast discovered the Amazon; he is believed to have also entered
some of the other rivers of Guiana, one of which, now called Oyapock, is
marked on early maps as Rio Pinzon. Little, however, was known of Guiana
until the fame of the fabled golden city Manoa or El Dorado tempted
adventurers to explore its rivers and forests. From letters of these explorers
found in captured ships, Sir Walter Raleigh was induced to ascend the
Orinoco in search of El Dorado in 1595, to send Lawrence Keymis on the
same quest in the following year, and in 1617 to try once again, with the
same intrepid lieutenant, an expedition fraught with disaster for both of
them. As early as 1580 the Dutch had established a systematic trade with the
Spanish main, but so far as is known their first voyage to Guiana was in
1598. By 1613 they had three or four settlements on the coast of Demerara
and Essequibo, and in about 1616 some Zeelanders settled on a small island,
called by them Kyk ober al (“see over all”), in the confluence of the Cuyuni
and Mazaruni rivers. While the Dutch traders were struggling for a footing
in Essequibo and Demerara, English and French traders were endeavouring
to form settlements on the Oyapock river, in Cayenne and in Surinam, and
by 1652 the English had large interests in the latter and the French in
Cayenne. In 1663 Charles II. issued letters patent to Lord Willoughby of
Parham and Lawrence Hyde, second son of the earl of Clarendon, granting
them the district between the Copenam and Maroni rivers, a province
described as extending from E. to W. some 120 m. This colony was,
however, formally ceded to the Netherlands in 1667 by the peace of Breda,
Great Britain taking possession of New York. Meanwhile the Dutch West
India Company, formed in 1621, had taken possession of Essequibo, over
which colony it exercised sovereign rights until 1791. In 1624 a Dutch
settlement was effected in the Berbice river, and from this grew Berbice, for

a long time a separate and independent colony. In 1657 the Zeelanders
firmly established themselves in the Pomeroon, Moruca and Demerara
rivers, and by 1674 the Dutch were colonizing all the territory now known as
British and Dutch Guiana. The New Dutch West Indian Company, founded
in that year to replace the older company which had failed, received Guiana
by charter from the states-general in 1682. In the following year the
company sold one-third of their territory to the city of Amsterdam, and
another third to Cornelis van Aerssens, lord of Sommelsdijk. The new
owners and the company incorporated themselves as the Chartered Society
of Surinam, and Sommelsdijk agreed to fill the post of governor of the
colony at his own expense. The lucrative trade in slaves was retained by the
West Indian Company, but the society could import them on its own account
by paying a fine to the company. Sommelsdijk’s rule was wise and energetic.
He repressed and pacified the Indian tribes, erected forts and disciplined the
soldiery, constructed the canal which bears his name, established a high
court of justice and introduced the valuable cultivation of the cocoa-nut. But
on the 17th of June 1688 he was massacred in a mutiny of the soldiers. The
“third” which Sommelsdijk possessed was offered by his widow to William
III. of England, but it was ultimately purchased by the city of Amsterdam for
700,000 fl. The settlements in Essequibo progressed somewhat slowly, and it
was not until immigration was attracted in 1740 by offers to newcomers of
free land and immunity for a decade from taxation that anything like a
colony could be said to exist there. In 1732 Berbice placed itself under the
protection of the states-general of Holland and was granted a constitution,
and in 1773 Demerara, till then a dependency of Essequibo, was constituted
as a separate colony. In 1781 the three colonies, Demerara, Essequibo and
Berbice, were captured by British privateers, and were placed by Rodney
under the governor of Barbados, but in 1782 they were taken by France, then
an ally of the Netherlands, and retained until the peace of 1783, when they
were restored to Holland. In 1784 Essequibo and Demerara were placed
under one governor, and Georgetown—then called Stabroek—was fixed on

as the seat of government. The next decade saw a series of struggles between
the colonies and the Dutch West India company, which ended in the
company being wound up and in the three colonies being governed directly
by the states-general. In 1796 the British again took possession, and retained
the three colonies until the peace of Amiens in 1802, when they were once
again restored to Holland, only to be recaptured by Great Britain in 1803, in
which year the history proper of British Guiana began.

I. British Guiana, the only British possession in S. America, was formally
ceded in 1814-1815. The three colonies were in 1831 consolidated into one
colony divided into three counties, Berbice extending
British Guiana. from the Corentyn river to the Abary creek, Demerara
from the Abary to the Boerasirie creek, Essequibo from
the Boerasirie to the Venezuelan frontier. This boundary-line between British
Guiana and Venezuela was for many years the subject of dispute. The Dutch,
while British Guiana was in their possession, claimed the whole watershed
of the Essequibo river, while the Venezuelans asserted that the Spanish
province of Guayana had extended up to the left bank of the Essequibo. In
1840 Sir Robert Schomburgk had suggested a demarcation, afterwards
known as the “Schomburgk line”; and subsequently, though no agreement
was arrived at, certain modifications were made in this British claim. In
1886 the government of Great Britain declared that it would thenceforward
exercise jurisdiction up to and within a boundary known as “the modified
Schomburgk line.” Outposts were located at points on this line, and for some
years Guianese police and Venezuelan soldiers faced one another across the
Amacura creek in the Orinoco mouth and at Yuruan up the Cuyuni river. In
1897 the dispute formed the subject of a message to congress from the
president of the United States, and in consequence of this intervention the
matter was submitted to an international commission, whose award was
issued at Paris in 1899 (see Venezuela). By this decision neither party
gained its extreme claim, the line laid down differing but little from the

original Schomburgk line. The demarcation was at once undertaken by a
joint commission appointed by Venezuela and British Guiana and was
completed in 1904. It was not found practicable, owing to the impassable
nature of the country, to lay down on earth that part of the boundary fixed by
the Paris award between the head of the Wenamu creek and the summit of
Mt. Roraima, and the boundary commissioners suggested a deviation to
follow the watersheds of the Caroni, Cuyuni and Mazaruni rivers, a
suggestion accepted by the two governments. In 1902 the delimitation of the
boundary between British Guiana and Brazil was referred to the arbitration
of the king of Italy, and by his reward, issued in June 1904, the substantial
area in dispute was conceded to British Guiana. The work of demarcation
has since been carried out.

Towns, &c.—The capital of British Guiana is Georgetown, at the mouth of
the Demerara river, on its right bank, with a population of about 50,000.
New Amsterdam, on the right bank of the Berbice river, has a population of
about 7500. Each possesses a mayor and town council, with statutory powers
to impose rates. There are nineteen incorporated villages, and ten other
locally governed areas known as country districts, the affairs of which are
controlled by local authorities, known as village councils and country
authorities respectively.

Population.—The census of 1891 gave the population of British Guiana
as 278,328. There was no census taken in 1901. By official estimates the
population at the end of 1904 was 301,923. Of these some 120,000 were
negroes and 124,000 East Indians; 4300 were Europeans, other than
Portuguese, estimated at about 11,600, and some 30,000 of mixed race. The
aborigines—Arawaks, Caribs, Wapisianas, Warraws, &c.—who numbered
about 10,000 in 1891, are now estimated at about 6500. In 1904 the birth-
rate for the whole colony was 30.3 per 1000 and the death-rate 28.8.

Physical Geography.—The surface features of British Guiana may be
divided roughly into four regions: first, the alluvial seaboard, flat and
below the level of high-water; secondly, the forest belt, swampy along
the rivers but rising into undulating lands and hills between them;
thirdly, the savannahs in and inland of the forest belt, elevated table-
lands, grass-covered and practically treeless; and fourthly, the mountain
ranges. The eastern portion of the colony, from the source of its two
largest rivers, the Corentyn and Essequibo, is a rough inclined plain,
starting at some 900 ft. above sea-level at the source of the Takutu in the
west, but only some 400 at that of the Corentyn in the west, and sloping
down gradually to the low alluvial flats about 3 ft. below high-water
line. The eastern part is generally forested; the western is an almost
level savannah, with woodlands along the rivers. The northern portion
of British Guiana, the alluvial flats alluded to already, consists of a
fluviomarine deposit extending inland from 25 m. to 30 m., gradually
rising to about 12 ft. above high-water mark and ending against beds of
sandy clay, the residua of igneous rocks decomposed in situ, which form
an extensive undulating region rising to 150 ft. above the sea and
stretching back to the forest-covered hills. Roughly parallel to the
existing coast-line are narrow reefs of sand and sea-shells, which are
dunes indicating the trend of former limits of the sea, and still farther
back are the higher “sand hills,” hills of granite or diabase with a thick
stratum of coarse white sand superimposed. From the coast-line
seawards the ocean deepens very gradually, and at low tide extensive
flats of sand and of mixed clay and sand (called locally “caddy”) are left
bare, these flats being at times covered with a deposit of thin drift mud.

Two great parallel mountain systems cross the colony from W. to E.,
the greater being that of the Pacaraima and Merumé Mts., and the lesser
including the Kanuku Mts. (2000 ft.), while the Acarai Mts., a densely-
wooded range rising to 2500 ft., form the southern boundary of British

Guiana and the watershed between the Essequibo and the Amazon.
These mountains rise generally in a succession of terraces and broad
plateaus, with steep or even sheer sandstone escarpments. They are
mostly flat-topped, and their average height is about 3500 ft. The
Pacaraima Mts., however, reach 8635 ft. at Roraima, and the latter
remarkable mountain rises as a perpendicular wall of red rock 1500 ft.
in height springing out of the forest-clad slopes below the summit, and
was considered inaccessible until in December 1884 Messrs im Thurn
and Perkins found a ledge by which the top could be reached. The
summit is a table-land some 12 sq. m. in area. Mt. Kukenaam is of
similar structure and also rises above 8500 ft. Other conspicuous
summits (about 7000 ft.) are Iwalkarima, Eluwarima, Ilutipu and
Waiakapiapu. The southern portion of the Pacaraima range comprises
rugged hills and rock-strewn valleys, but to the N., where the sandstone
assumes the table-shaped form, there are dense forests, and the scenery
is of extraordinary grandeur. Waterfalls frequently descend the cliffs
from a great height (nearly 2000 ft. sheer at Roraima and Kukenaam).
The sandstone formation can be traced from the northern Pacaraima
range on the N.W. to the Corentyn in the S.E. It is traversed in places by
dikes and sills of diabase or dolerite, while bosses of more or less
altered gabbro rise through it. The surface of a large part of the colony
is composed of gneiss, and of gneissose granite, which is seen in large
water-worn bosses in the river beds. Intrusive granite is of somewhat
rare occurrence; where found, it gives rise to long low rolls of hilly
country and to cataracts in the rivers. Extensive areas of the country
consist of quartz-porphyry, porphyrites and felstone, and of more or less
schistose rocks derived from them. These rocks are closely connected
with the gneissose granites and gneiss, and there are reasons for
believing that the latter are the deep-seated portions of them and are
only visible where they have been exposed by denudation. Long ranges
of hills, varying in elevation from a few hundreds to from 2000 ft. to

3000 ft., traverse the plains of the gneissose districts. These are caused
either by old intrusions of diabase and gabbro which have undergone
modifications, or by later ones of dolerite. These ranges are of high
importance, as the rocks comprising them are the main source of gold in
British Guiana.

Rivers.—The principal physical features of British Guiana are its
rivers and their branches, which form one vast network of waterways all
over it, and are the principal, indeed practically the only, highways
inland from the coast. Chief among them are the Waini, the Essequibo,
and its tributaries the Mazaruni and Cuyuni, the Demerara, the Berbice
and the Corentyn. The Essequibo rises in the Acarai Mts., in 0° 41′ N.
and about 850 ft. above the sea, and flows northwards for about 600 m.
until it discharges itself into the ocean by an estuary nearly 15 m. in
width. In this estuary are several large and fertile islands, on four of
which sugar used to be grown. Now but one, Wakenaam, can boast of a
factory. The Essequibo can be entered only by craft drawing less than
20 ft. and is navigable for these vessels for not more than 50 m., its
subsequent course upwards being frequently broken by cataracts and
rapids. Some 7 m. below the first series of rapids it is joined by the
Mazaruni, itself joined by the Cuyuni some 4 m. farther up. It has a
remarkable course from its source in the Merume Mountains, about
2400 ft. above the sea. It flows first south, then west, north-west, north,
and finally south-east to within 20 m. of its own source, forming many
fine falls, and its course thereafter is still very tortuous. In 4° N. and 58°
W., the Essequibo is joined by the Rupununi, which, rising in a
savannah at the foot of the Karawaimento Mts., has a northerly and
easterly course of fully 200 m. In 3° 37′ N. the Awaricura joins the
Rupununi, and by this tributary the Pirara, a tributary of the Amazon,
may be reached,—an example of the interesting series of itabos
connecting nearly all S. American rivers with one another. Another large

tributary of the Essequibo is the Potaro, on which, at 1130 ft. above sea-
level and in 5° 8′ N. and 59° 19′ W., is the celebrated Kaieteur fall,
discovered in 1870 by Mr C. Barrington Brown while engaged on a
geological survey. This fall is produced by the river flowing from a
tableland of sandstone and conglomerate into a deep valley 822 ft.
below. For the first 741 ft. the water falls as a perpendicular column,
thence as a sloping cataract to the still reach below. The river 200 yds.
above the fall is about 400 ft. wide, while the actual waterway of the fall
itself varies from 120 ft. in dry weather to nearly 400 ft. in rainy
seasons. The Kaieteur, which it took Mr Brown a fortnight to reach
from the coast, can now be reached on the fifth day from Georgetown.
Among other considerable tributaries of the Essequibo are the Siparuni,
Burro-Burro, Rewa, Kuyuwini and Kassi-Kudji. The Demerara river,
the head-waters of which are known only to Indians, rises probably near
5° N., and after a winding northerly course of some 200 m. enters the
ocean in 6° 50′ N. and 58° 20′ W. A bar of mud and sand prevents the
entrance of vessels drawing more than 19 ft. The river is from its mouth,
which is nearly 2 m. wide, navigable for 70 m. to all vessels which can
enter. The Berbice river rises in about 3° 40′ N., and in 3° 53′ N. is
within 9 m. of the Essequibo. At its mouth it is about 2½ m. wide, and is
navigable for vessels drawing not more than 12 ft. for about 105 m. and
for vessels drawing not more than 7 ft. for fully 175 m. Thence upwards
it is broken by great cataracts. The Canje creek joins the Berbice river
close to the sea. The Corentyn river rises in 1° 48′ 30″ N., about 140 m.
E. of the Essequibo, and flowing northwards enters the Atlantic by an
estuary some 14 m. wide. The divide between its head-waters and those
of streams belonging to the Amazon system is only some 400 ft. in
elevation. It is navigable for about 150 m., some of the reaches being of
great width and beauty. The upper reaches are broken by a series of
great cataracts, some of which, until the discovery of Kaieteur, were
believed to be the grandest in British Guiana. Among other rivers are

the Pomeroon, Moruca and Barima, while several large streams or
creeks fall directly into the Atlantic, the largest being the Abary,
Mahaicony and Mahaica, between Berbice and Demerara, and the
Boerasirie between Demerara and Essequibo. The colour of the water of
the rivers and creeks is in general a dark brown, caused by the infusion
of vegetable matter, but where the streams run for a long distance
through savannahs they are of a milky colour.

Climate.—The climate is, as tropical countries go, not unhealthy.
Malarial fevers are common but preventible; and phthisis is prevalent,
not because the climate is unsuitable to sufferers from pulmonary
complaints, but because of the ignorance of the common people of the
elementary principles of hygiene, an ignorance which the state is
endeavouring to lessen by including the teaching of hygiene in the
syllabus of the primary schools. The temperature is uniform on the coast
for the ten months from October to July, the regular N.E. trade winds
keeping it down to an average of 80° F. In August and September the
trades die away and the heat becomes oppressive. In the interior the
nights are cold and damp. Hurricanes, indeed even strong gales, are
unknown; a tidal wave is an impossibility; and the nature of the soil of
the coast lands renders earthquakes practically harmless. Occasionally
there are severe droughts, and the rains are sometimes unduly
prolonged, but usually the year is clearly divided into two wet and two
dry seasons. The long wet season begins in mid-April and lasts until
mid-August. The long dry season is from September to the last week in
November. December and January constitute the short rainy season, and
February and March the short dry season. The rainfall varies greatly in
different parts of the colony; on the coast it averages about 80 in.
annually.

Flora.—The vegetation is most luxuriant and its growth perpetual.
Indigenous trees and plants abound in the utmost variety, while many

exotics have readily adapted themselves to local conditions. Along the
coast is a belt of courida and mangrove—the bark of the latter being
used for tanning—forming a natural barrier to the inroads of the sea, but
one which—very unwisely—has been in parts almost ruined to allow of
direct drainage. The vast forests afford an almost inexhaustible supply
of valuable timbers; greenheart and mora, largely used in shipbuilding
and for wharves and dock and lock gates; silverbally, yielding
magnificent planks for all kinds of boats; and cabinet woods, such as
cedar and crabwood. There may be seen great trees, struggling for life
one with the other, covered with orchids—some of great beauty and
value—and draped with falling lianas and vines. Giant palms fringe the
river-banks and break the monotony of the mass of smaller foliage.
Many of the trees yield gums, oils and febrifuges, the bullet tree being
bled extensively for balata, a gum used largely in the manufacture of
belting. Valuable varieties of rubber have also been found in several
districts, and since early in 1905 have attracted the attention of experts
from abroad. On the coast plantains, bananas and mangoes grow readily
and are largely used for food, while several districts are admirably
adapted to the growth of limes. Oranges, pineapples, star-apples,
granadillas, guavas are among the fruits; Indian corn, cassava, yams,
eddoes, tannias, sweet potatoes and ochroes are among the vegetables,
while innumerable varieties of peppers are grown and used in large
quantities by all classes. The dainty avocado pear, purple and green,
grows readily. In the lagoons and trenches many varieties of water-lilies
grow wild, the largest being the famous Victoria regia.

Fauna.—Guiana is full of wild animals, birds, insects and reptiles.
Among the wild animals, one and all nocturnal, are the mipourrie or
tapir, manatee, acouri and labba (both excellent eating), sloth, ant-eater,
armadillo, several kinds of deer, baboons, monkeys and the puma and
jaguar. The last is seen frequently down on the coast, attracted from the

forest by the cattle grazing on the front and back pasture lands of the
estates. Among the birds may be mentioned the carrion crow (an
invaluable scavenger), vicissi and muscovy ducks, snipe, teal, plover,
pigeon, the ubiquitous kiskadee or qu’est que dit, a species of shrike—
his name derived from his shrill call—the canary and the twa-twa, both
charming whistlers. These are all found on the coast. In the forest are
maam (partridge), maroudi (wild turkey), the beautiful bell-bird with
note like a silver gong, the quadrille bird with its tuneful oft-repeated
bar, great flocks of macaws and parrots, and other birds of plumage of
almost indescribable richness and variety. On the coast the trenches and
canals are full of alligators, but the great cayman is found only in the
rivers of the interior. Among the many varieties of snakes are huge
constricting camoudies, deadly bushmasters, labarrias and rattlesnakes.
Among other reptiles are the two large lizards, the salumpenta (an active
enemy of the barn-door fowl), and the iguana, whose flesh when cooked
resembles tender chicken. The rivers, streams and trenches abound with
fishes, crabs and shrimps, the amount of the latter consumed being
enormous, running into tons weekly as the coolies use them in their
curries and the blacks in their foo-foo.

Government and Administration.—Executive power is vested in a
governor, who is advised in all administrative matters by an executive
council, consisting of five official and three unofficial members nominated
by the crown. Legislative authority is vested in the Court of Policy,
consisting of the governor, who presides and without whose permission no
legislation can be initiated, seven other official members and eight elected
members. This body has, however, no financial authority, all taxation and
expenditure being dealt with by the Combined Court, consisting of the Court
of Policy combined with six financial representatives. The elected members
of the Court of Policy and the financial representatives are elected by their
several constituencies for five years. Qualification for the Court of Policy is

the ownership, or possession under lease for a term of twenty-one years, of
eighty acres of land, of which at least forty acres are under cultivation, or of
house property to the value of $7500. A financial representative must be
similarly qualified or be in receipt of a clear income of not less than £300
per annum. Every male is entitled to be registered as a voter who (in addition
to the usual formal qualifications) owns (during six months prior to
registration) three acres of land in cultivation or a house of the annual rental
or value of £20; or is a secured tenant for not less than three years of six
acres of land in cultivation or for one year of a house of £40 rental; or has an
income of not less than £100 per annum; or has during the previous twelve
months paid £4, 3s. 4d. in direct taxation. Residence in the electoral district
for six months prior to registration is coupled with the last two alternative
qualifications. Plural voting is legal but no plumping is allowed. The
combined court is by this constitution, which was granted in 1891, allowed
the use of all revenues due to the crown in return for a civil list voted for a
term now fixed at three years. English is the official and common language.
The Roman-Dutch law, modified by orders-in-council and local statutes,
governs actions in the civil courts, but the criminal law is founded on that of
England. Magistrates have in civil cases jurisdiction up to £20, while an
appeal lies from their decisions in any criminal or civil case. The supreme
court consists of a chief justice and two puisne judges, and has various
jurisdictions. The full court, consisting of the three judges or any two of
them, has jurisdiction over all civil matters, but an appeal lies to His Majesty
in privy council in cases involving £500 and upwards. A single judge sits in
insolvency, in actions involving not over £520, and in appeals from
magistrates’ decisions. The appeal full court, consisting of three judges, sits
to hear appeals from decisions of a single judge in the limited civil, appellate
and insolvency courts. Criminal courts are held four times a year in each
county, a single judge presiding in each court. A court of crown cases
reserved is formed by the three judges, of whom two form a quorum
provided the chief-justice is one of the two. There are no imperial troops

now stationed in British Guiana, but there is a semi-military police force, a
small militia and two companies of volunteers. The Church of England and
the Church of Scotland are both established, and grants-in-aid are also given
to the Roman Catholic and Wesleyan churches and to several other
denominations.

The revenue and expenditure now each amount annually to an
average of a little over £500,000. About one-half of the revenue is
produced by import duties, and about £90,000 by excise. The public
debt on the 31st of March 1905 stood at £989,620.

The system of primary education is denominational and is mainly
supported from the general revenue. During 1904-1905, 213 schools
received grants-in-aid amounting to £23,500, the average cost per
scholar being a little over £1. These grants are calculated on the results
of examinations held annually, an allowance varying from 4s. 4½d. to
1s. 0½d. being made for each pass in reading, writing, arithmetic,
school-garden work, nature study, singing and drill, English, geography,
elementary hygiene and sewing. Secondary education is provided in
Georgetown at some private establishments, and for boys at Queen’s
College, an undenominational government institution where the course
of instruction is the same as at a public school in England, and the boys
are prepared for the Cambridge local examinations, on the result of
which annually depend the Guiana scholarship—open to boys and girls,
and carrying a university or professional training in England—and two
scholarships at Queen’s College.

Industries and Trade.—At the end of the third decade of the 19th
century the principal exports were sugar, rum, molasses, cotton and
coffee. In 1830, 9,500,000 ℔ of coffee were sent abroad, but after the
emancipation of the slaves it almost ceased as an export, and the little
that is now grown is practically entirely consumed in the colony. The

cultivation of cotton ceased in 1844, and, but for a short revival during
the American civil war, has never prospered since. Efforts have been
made to resuscitate its growth, but the experiments of the Board of
Agriculture have only shown that Sea Island cotton is not adaptable to
local conditions, and that no other known variety can as yet be
recommended. To-day the principal exports are sugar, rum, molasses,
molascuit—a cattle food made from molasses—gold, timber, balata,
shingles and cattle. The annual value of the total exports is just under
£2,000,000, of which about two-thirds go to Great Britain and British
possessions. The cultivation of rice has made great strides in recent
years, and, where difficulties of drainage and irrigation can be
economically overcome, promises to increase rapidly. In 1873,
32,000,000 ℔ of rice were imported, whereas in 1904-1905, the
quantity imported having fallen to 20,500,000 ℔, there were over
18,000 acres under rice cultivation, and exportation, principally to the
British West Indies, had commenced. The cultivation of the sugar-cane,
and its manufacture into sugar and its by-products, still remains, in spite
of numerous fluctuations, the staple industry. The provision of a
trustworthy labour supply for the estates is of great importance, and
local scarcity has made it necessary since 1840 to import it under a
system of indenture. In that year and until 1867, liberated Africans were
brought from Rio de Janeiro, Havana, Sierra Leone and St Helena, and
in 1845 systematic immigration from India commenced and has since
been carried on annually—save in 1849-1850. In 1853 immigration
from China was tried, and was carried on by the government from 1859
to 1866, when it ceased owing to a convention arranged at Peking,
stipulating that all immigrants should on the expiry of their term of
indenture be entitled to be sent back at the expense of the colony, a
liability it could not afford to incur. To reduce the cost of supervision
and kindred expenses, and consequently of the cane and its manufacture
into sugar, the policy of centralization has been universally adopted, and

forty-six estates now produce as much sugar as three times that number
did in 1875. During recent years Canada has come forward as a large
buyer of Guiana’s sugar, and in 1904-1905 the same amount went there
as to the United States, in each case over 44,000 tons, whereas in 1901-
1902 the United States took 85,000 tons and Canada under 8000 tons.
Practically all the rum and molascuit go to England, and the molasses to
Holland and Portuguese possessions. The lands on the coast and on the
river banks up to the sand hills are of marked fertility, and can produce
almost any tropical vegetable or fruit. Cultivation, however, save on the
sugar, coffee and cocoa estates, and by a few exceptional small farmers,
is carried on in a haphazard and half-hearted manner, and the problem
of agricultural development is one of great difficulty for the
government. Much of the privately-owned land is not beneficially
occupied, and in many cases it is not possible even to learn to whom it
belongs, and though there are vast tracts of uncultivated crown land
where a large farm or a small homestead can be easily and cheaply
acquired, the difficulties involved in clearing, draining, and in some
cases of protecting it by dams, are prohibitive to all but the
exceptionally determined.

Prospecting for gold began in 1880, and from 1884 to 1893-1894 the
output, chiefly from alluvial workings, increased from 250 oz. to nearly
140,000 oz. annually. The industry then received a serious check by the
failure of several mines, and for nearly a decade was almost entirely in
the hands of the small tributor, known locally as a pork-knocker. There
has been some revival, chiefly due to foreign enterprise. At Omai on the
Essequibo river a German syndicate worked a large concession on the
hydraulic process of placer mining with considerable success, and more
recently took to dredging on its flats. In the Puruni (a tributary of the
Mazaruni) American capitalists, working the Peters’ mine, have
established their workings to a considerable depth, besides constructing

a road, 60 m. in length, from Kartabo point, at the confluence of the
Guyuni and Mazaruni, to the Puruni river opposite the mine. An English
syndicate started dredging in the Conawarook, a tributary of the
Essequibo. The principal gold districts are on the Essequibo and its
tributaries—the chief being the Cuyuni, Mazaruni, Potaro and
Conawarook—and on the Barima, Barama and Waini rivers in the
north-west district. There have been smaller workings, mostly
unsuccessful, in the Demerara and Berbice rivers.

Diamonds and other precious stones have been found in small
quantities, and since 1900 efforts have been made to extend the output,
nearly 11,000 carats weight of diamonds being exported in 1904. But
though the small stones found were of good water, the cost of transport
to the diamond fields, on the Mazaruni river, was heavy, and after 1904
the industry declined. Laws dealing with gold and precious stones
passed in 1880, 1886 and 1887, and regulations in 1899, were codified
in 1902 and amended in 1905.

Timber is cut, and balata and rubber collected, from crown lands by
licences issued from the department of Lands and Mines. Wood-cutting,
save on concessions held by a local company owning an up-country line
of railway connecting the Demerara and Essequibo rivers, is limited to
those parts of the forest which are close to the lower stretches of the
rivers and creeks, the overland haulage of the heavy logs being both
difficult and costly, while transport through the upper reaches of the
rivers is impossible on account of the many cataracts and rapids. The
average annual value of imports is £1,500,000, of which about two-
thirds are from Great Britain and British possessions. Of the vessels
trading with the colony, most are under the British flag, the remainder
being principally American and Norwegian.