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Title: Studies of American Fungi. Mushrooms, Edible, Poisonous, etc.

Author: George Francis Atkinson

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PLATE 1.
Fig. 1.—Amanita muscaria.
Fig. 2.—A. frostiana.
Copyright 1900.

STUDIES OF AMERICAN FUNGI

MUSHROOMS
EDIBLE, POISONOUS, ETC.

BY
GEORGE FRANCIS ATKINSON
Professor of Botany in Cornell University, and Botanist of the
Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station

Recipes for Cooking Mushrooms, by Mrs. Sarah Tyson Rorer
Chemistry and Toxicology of Mushrooms, by J. F. Clark

WITH 230 ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE
AUTHOR, AND COLORED PLATES BY F. R. RATHBUN

SECOND EDITION

NEW YORK

HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
1903

Copyright, 1900, 1901,
BY
GEO. F. ATKINSON.

INTRODUCTION.

Since the issue of my "Studies and Illustrations of Mushrooms," as
Bulletins 138 and 168 of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment
Station, there have been so many inquiries for them and for literature
dealing with a larger number of species, it seemed desirable to publish in
book form a selection from the number of illustrations of these plants which
I have accumulated during the past six or seven years. The selection has
been made of those species representing the more important genera, and
also for the purpose of illustrating, as far as possible, all the genera of
agarics found in the United States. This has been accomplished except in a
few cases of the more unimportant ones. There have been added, also,
illustrative genera and species of all the other orders of the higher fungi, in
which are included many of the edible forms.

The photographs have been made with great care after considerable
experience in determining the best means for reproducing individual,
specific, and generic characters, so important and difficult to preserve in
these plants, and so impossible in many cases to accurately portray by
former methods of illustration.

One is often asked the question: "How do you tell the mushrooms from the
toadstools?" This implies that mushrooms are edible and that toadstools are
poisonous, and this belief is very widespread in the public mind. The fact is
that many of the toadstools are edible, the common belief that all of them

are poisonous being due to unfamiliarity with the plants or their
characteristics.

Some apply the term mushroom to a single species, the one in cultivation,
and which grows also in fields (Agaricus campestris), and call all others
toadstools. It is becoming customary with some students to apply the term
mushroom to the entire group of higher fungi to which the mushroom
belongs (Basidiomycetes), and toadstool is regarded as a synonymous term,
since there is, strictly speaking, no distinction between a mushroom and a
toadstool. There are, then, edible and poisonous mushrooms, or edible and
poisonous toadstools, as one chooses to employ the word.

A more pertinent question to ask is how to distinguish the edible from the
poisonous mushrooms. There is no single test or criterion, like the "silver
spoon" test, or the criterion of a scaly cap, or the presence of a "poison cup"
or "death cup," which will serve in all cases to distinguish the edible from
the poisonous. Two plants may possess identical characters in this respect, i.
e., each may have the "death cup," and one is edible while the other is
poisonous, as in Amanita cæsarea, edible, and A. phalloides, poisonous.
There are additional characters, however, in these two plants which show
that the two differ, and we recognize them as two different species.

To know several different kinds of edible mushrooms, which occur in
greater or less quantity through the different seasons, would enable those
interested in these plants to provide a palatable food at the expense only of
the time required to collect them. To know several of the poisonous ones
also is important, in order certainly to avoid them.

The purpose of this book is to present the important characters which it is
necessary to observe, in an interesting and intelligible way, to present life-
size photographic reproductions accompanied with plain and accurate
descriptions. By careful observation of the plant, and comparison with the

illustrations and text, one will be able to add many species to the list of
edible ones, where now perhaps is collected "only the one which is pink
underneath." The chapters 17 to 21 should also be carefully read.

The number of people in America who interest themselves in the collection
of mushrooms for the table is small compared to those in some European
countries. The number, however, is increasing, and if a little more attention
were given to the observation of these plants and the discrimination of the
more common kinds, many persons could add greatly to the variety of their
foods and relishes with comparatively no cost. The quest for these plants in
the fields and woods would also afford a most delightful and needed
recreation to many, and there is no subject in nature more fascinating to
engage one's interest and powers of observation.

There are also many important problems for the student in this group of
plants. Many of our species and the names of the plants are still in great
confusion, owing to the very careless way in which these plants have
usually been preserved, and the meagerness of recorded observations on the
characters of the fresh plants, or of the different stages of development. The
study has also an important relation to agriculture and forestry, for there are
numerous species which cause decay of valuable timber, or by causing
"heart rot" entail immense losses through the annual decretion occurring in
standing timber.

If this book contributes to the general interest in these plants as objects of
nature worthy of observation, if it succeeds in aiding those who are seeking
information of the edible kinds, and stimulates some students to undertake
the advancement of our knowledge of this group, it will serve the purpose
the author had in mind in its preparation.

I wish here to express my sincere thanks to Mrs. Sarah Tyson Rorer for her
kindness in writing a chapter on recipes for cooking mushrooms, especially

for this book; to Professor I. P. Roberts, Director of the Cornell University
Agricultural Experiment Station, for permission to use certain of the
illustrations (Figs. 1–7, 12–14, 31–43) from Bulletins 138 and 168, Studies
and Illustrations of Mushrooms; to Mr. F. R. Rathbun, for the charts from
which the colored plates were made; to Mr. J. F. Clark and Mr. H.
Hasselbring, for the Chapters on Chemistry and Toxicology of Mushrooms,
and Characters of Mushrooms, to which their names are appended, and also
to Dr. Chas. Peck, of Albany, N. Y., and Dr. G. Bresadola, of Austria-
Hungary, to whom some of the specimens have been submitted.

Geo. F. Atkinson,
Cornell University.
Ithaca, N. Y., October, 1900.

SECOND EDITION.

In this edition have been added 10 plates of mushrooms of which I did not
have photographs when the first edition was printed. It was possible to
accomplish this without changing the paging of any of the descriptive part,
so that references to all of the plants in either edition will be the same.

There are also added a chapter on the "Uses of Mushrooms," and an
extended chapter on the "Cultivation of Mushrooms." This subject I have
been giving some attention to for several years, and in view of the call for
information since the appearance of the first edition, it seemed well to add
this chapter, illustrated by several flashlight photographs.

G. F. A.
September, 1901.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE
Chapter I. Form and Characters of the Mushrooms, 1
Chapter II. Development of the Mushroom, 5
Chapter III. Gill Bearing Fungi; Agaricaceæ, 17
Chapter IV. The Purple-Brown-Spored Agarics, 18
Chapter V. The Black-Spored Agarics, 32
Chapter VI. The White-Spored Agarics, 52
Chapter VII. The Rosy-Spored Agarics, 138
Chapter VIII. The Ochre-Spored Agarics, 150
Chapter IX. The Tube Bearing Fungi; Polyporaceæ, 171
Chapter X. Hedgehog Fungi; Hydnaceæ, 195
Chapter XI. Coral Fungi; Clavariaceæ, 200
Chapter XII. The Trembling Fungi; Tremellineæ, 204
Chapter XIII. Thelephoraceæ, 208
Chapter XIV. Puff-Balls; Lycoperdaceæ, 209
Chapter XV. Stinkhorn Fungi; Phalloideæ, 213
Chapter XVI. Morels, Cup-Fungi, Helvellas, etc., Discomycetes, 216
Chapter XVII. Collection and Preservation of the Fleshy Fungi, 222
Chapter XVIII. Selection and Preparation of Mushrooms for the Table, 229
Chapter XIX. Uses of Mushrooms, 231
Fungi in the Arts, 234
Chapter XX. Cultivation of Mushrooms, 237
The Cave Culture of Mushrooms in America, 239
The House Culture of Mushrooms, 241
Curing the Manure, 247
Making up the Beds, 250
What Spawn Is, 255
Spawning the Beds, 263
Chapter XXI. Recipes for Cooking Mushrooms (Mrs. Sarah Tyson Rorer), 277
Chapter XXII. Chemistry and Toxicology of the Fungi (J. F. Clark), 288

Description of Terms applied to Certain Structural Characters of Mushrooms
Chapter XXIII. 298
(H. Hasselbring),
Appendix. Analytical Keys (The Author), 307
Glossary of Technical Terms (The Author), 313
Index to Genera and Illustrations, 315
Index to Species, 321

CORRECTIONS.

Page 33, 10th line, for κορνὁς read κοπρὁς.

Page 220, lines 6 and 9, for Gyromytra read Gyromitra.

CHAPTER I.

FORM AND CHARACTERS OF THE MUSHROOM.

Value of Form and Characters.—The different kinds of mushrooms vary
in form. Some are quite strikingly different from others, so that no one
would have difficulty in recognizing the difference in shape. For example,
an umbrella-shaped mushroom like the one shown in Fig. 1 or 81 is easily
distinguished from a shelving one like that in Fig. 9 or 188. But in many
cases different species vary only slightly in form, so that it becomes a more
or less difficult matter to distinguish them.

In those plants (for the mushroom is a plant) where the different kinds are
nearly alike in form, there are other characters than mere general form
which enable one to tell them apart. These, it is true, require close
observation on our part, as well as some experience in judging of the value
of such characters; the same habit of observation and discrimination we
apply to everyday affairs and to all departments of knowledge. But so few
people give their attention to the discrimination of these plants that few
know the value of their characters, or can even recognize them.

It is by a study of these especial characters of form peculiar to the
mushrooms that one acquires the power of discrimination among the
different kinds. For this reason one should become familiar with the parts of

the mushroom, as well as those characters and markings peculiar to them
which have been found to stamp them specifically.

Parts of the Mushroom.—To serve as a means of comparison, the
common pasture mushroom, or cultivated form (Agaricus campestris), is
first described. Figure 1 illustrates well the principal parts of the plant; the
cap, the radiating plates or gills on the under side, the stem, and the collar
or ring around its upper end.

The Cap.—The cap (technically the pileus) is the expanded part of the
mushroom. It is quite thick, and fleshy in consistency, more or less rounded
or convex on the upper side, and usually white in color. It is from 1–2 cm.
thick at the center and 5–10 cm. in diameter. The surface is generally
smooth, but sometimes it is torn up more or less into triangular scales.
When these scales are prominent they are often of a dark color. This gives
quite a different aspect to the plant, and has led to the enumeration of
several varieties, or may be species, among forms accredited by some to the
one species.

The Gills.—On the under side of the pileus are radiating plates, the gills, or
lamellæ (sing. lamella). These in shape resemble somewhat a knife blade.
They are very thin and delicate. When young they are pink in color, but in
age change to a dark purple brown, or nearly black color, due to the
immense number of spores that are borne on their surfaces. The gills do not
quite reach the stem, but are rounded at this end and so curve up to the cap.
The triangular spaces between the longer ones are occupied by successively
shorter gills, so that the combined surface of all the gills is very great.

Figure. 1.—Agaricus campestris. View of under side showing stem, annulus,
gills, and margin of pileus. (Natural size.)

The Stem or Stipe.—The stem in this plant, as in many other kinds, is
attached to the pileus in the center. The purpose of the stem seems quite
surely to be that of lifting the cap and the gills up above the ground, so that
the spores can float in the currents of air and be readily scattered. The stem
varies in length from 2–10 cm. and is about 1–1-1/2 cm. in diameter. It is
cylindrical in form, and even, quite firm and compact, though sometimes
there is a central core where the threads are looser. The stem is also white
and fleshy, and is usually smooth.

The Ring.—There is usually present in the mature plant of Agaricus
campestris a thin collar (annulus) or ring around the upper end of the stem.
It is not a movable ring, but is joined to the stem. It is very delicate, easily
rubbed off, or may be even washed off during rains.

Parts Present in Other Mushrooms—The Volva.—Some other
mushrooms, like the deadly Amanita (Amanita phalloides) and other species
of the genus Amanita, have, in addition to the cap, gills, stem, and ring, a

more or less well formed cup-like structure attached to the lower end of the
stem, and from which the stem appears to spring. (Figs. 55, 72, etc.) This is
the volva, sometimes popularly called the "death cup," or "poison cup."
This structure is a very important one to observe, though its presence by no
means indicates in all cases that the plant is poisonous. It will be described
more in detail in treating of the genus Amanita, where the illustrations
should also be consulted.

Figure 2.—Agaricus campestris. "Buttons" just appearing through the sod. Some
spawn at the left lower corner. Soil removed from the front. (Natural size.)

Presence or Absence of Ring or Volva.—Of the mushrooms which have
stems there are four types with respect to the presence or absence of the
ring and volva. In the first type both the ring and volva are absent, as in the

common fairy ring mushroom, Marasmius oreades; in the genus Lactarius,
Russula, Tricholoma, Clitocybe, and others. In the second type the ring is
present while the volva is absent, as in the common mushroom, Agaricus
campestris, and its close allies; in the genus Lepiota, Armillaria, and others.
In the third type the volva is present, but the ring is absent, as in the genus
Volvaria, or Amanitopsis. In the fourth type both the ring and volva are
present, as in the genus Amanita.

The Stem is Absent in Some Mushrooms.—There are also quite a large
number of mushrooms which lack a stem. These usually grow on stumps,
logs, or tree trunks, etc., and one side of the cap is attached directly to the
wood on which the fungus is growing. The pileus in such cases is lateral
and shelving, that is, it stands out more or less like a shelf from the trunk or
log, or in other cases is spread out flat on the surface of the wood. The
shelving form is well shown in the beautiful Claudopus nidulans,
sometimes called Pleurotus nidulans, and in other species of the genus
Pleurotus, Crepidotus, etc. These plants will be described later, and no
further description of the peculiarities in form of the mushrooms will be
now attempted, since these will be best dealt with when discussing species
fully under their appropriate genus. But the brief general description of
form given above will be found useful merely as an introduction to the
more detailed treatment. Chapter XXI should also be studied. For those who
wish the use of a glossary, one is appended at the close of the book, dealing
only with the more technical terms employed here.

Figure 3.—Agaricus campestris. Soil washed from the "spawn" and "buttons,"
showing the young "buttons" attached to the strands of mycelium. (1-1/4 natural
size.)

CHAPTER II.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MUSHROOM.

When the stems of the mushrooms are pulled or dug from the ground, white
strands are often clinging to the lower end. These strands are often seen by
removing some of the earth from the young plant, as shown in Fig. 2. This
is known among gardeners as "spawn." It is through the growth and
increase of this spawn that gardeners propagate the cultivated mushroom.
Fine specimens of the spawn of the cultivated mushroom can be seen by
digging up from a bed a group of very young plants, such a group as is
shown in Fig. 3. Here the white strands are more numerous than can readily
be found in the lawns and pastures where the plant grows in the feral state.

Figure 4.—Agaricus campestris. Sections of "buttons" at different stages,
showing formation of gills and veil covering them. (Natural size.)

Nature of Mushroom Spawn.—This spawn, it should be clearly
understood, is not spawn in the sense in which that word is used in fish
culture; though it may be employed so readily in propagation of
mushrooms. The spawn is nothing more than the vegetative portion of the
plant. It is made up of countless numbers of delicate, tiny, white, jointed
threads, the mycelium.

Mycelium of a Mold.—A good example of mycelium which is familiar to
nearly every one occurs in the form of a white mold on bread or on
vegetables. One of the molds, so common on bread, forms at first a white
cottony mass of loosely interwoven threads. Later the mold becomes black
in color because of numerous small fruit cases containing dark spores. This
last stage is the fruiting stage of the mold. The earlier stage is the growing,
or vegetative, stage. The white mycelium threads grow in the bread and
absorb food substances for the mold.

Figure 5.—Agaricus campestris. Nearly mature plants, showing veil stretched
across gill cavity. (Natural size.)

Mushroom Spawn is in the Form of Strands of Mycelium.—Now in the
mushrooms the threads of mycelium are usually interlaced into definite
strands or cords, especially when the mycelium is well developed. In some
species these strands become very long, and are dark brown in color. Each
thread of mycelium grows, or increases in length, at the end. Each one of
the threads grows independently, though all are intertwined in the strand. In
this way the strand of mycelium increases in length. It even branches as it
extends itself through the soil.

The Button Stage of the Mushroom.—The "spawn" stage, or strands of
mycelium, is the vegetative or growing stage of the mushroom. These
strands grow through the substance on which the fungus feeds. When the
fruiting stage, or the mushroom, begins there appear small knobs or
enlargements on these strands, and these are the beginnings of the button
stage, as it is properly called. These knobs or young buttons are well shown
in Fig. 3. They begin by the threads of mycelium growing in great numbers
out from the side of the cords. These enlarge and elongate and make their
way toward the surface of the ground. They are at first very minute and
grow from the size of a pinhead to that of a pea, and larger. Now they begin
to elongate somewhat and the end enlarges as shown in the larger button in
the figure. Here the two main parts of the mushroom are outlined, the stem
and the cap. At this stage also the other parts of the mushroom begin to be
outlined. The gills appear on the under side of this enlargement at the end of
the button, next the stem. They form by the growth of fungus threads
downward in radiating lines which correspond in position to the position of
the gills. At the same time a veil is formed over the gills by threads which
grow from the stem upward to the side of the button, and from the side of

the button down toward the stem to meet them. This covers the gills up at
an early period.

Figure 6.—Agaricus campestris. Under view of two plants just after rupture of
the veil, fragments of the latter clinging both to margin of the pileus and to stem.
(Natural size.)

From the Button Stage to the Mushroom.—If we split several of the
buttons of different sizes down through the middle, we shall be able to see
the position of the gills covered by the veil during their formation. These
stages are illustrated in Fig. 4.

As the cap grows in size the gills elongate, and the veil becomes broader.
But when the plant is nearly grown the veil ceases to grow, and then the
expanding cap pulls so strongly on it that it is torn. Figure 5 shows the veil
in a stretched condition just before it is ruptured, and in Fig. 6 the veil has
just been torn apart. The veil of the common mushroom is very delicate and
fragile, as the illustration shows, and when it is ruptured it often breaks
irregularly, sometimes portions of it clinging to the margin of the cap and
portions clinging to the stem, or all of it may cling to the cap at times; but

usually most of it remains clinging for a short while on the stem. Here it
forms the annulus or ring.

Figure 7.—Agaricus campestris. Plant in natural position just after rupture of
veil, showing tendency to double annulus on the stem. Portions of the veil also
dripping from margin of pileus. (Natural size.)

The Color of the Gills.—The color of the gills of the common mushroom
varies in different stages of development. When very young the gills are
white. But very soon the gills become pink in color, and during the button
stage if the veil is broken this pink color is usually present unless the button
is very small. The pink color soon changes to dark brown after the veil
becomes ruptured, and when the plants are quite old they are nearly black.

This dark color of the gills is due to the dark color of the spores, which are
formed in such great numbers on the surface of the gills.

Figure 8.—Agaricus campestris. Section of gill showing tr==trama; sh==sub-
hymenium; b==basidium, the basidia make up the hymenium; st==sterigma;
g==spore. (Magnified.)

Structure of a Gill.—In Fig. 8 is shown a portion of a section across one of
the gills, and it is easy to see in what manner the spores are borne. The gill
is made up, as the illustration shows, of mycelium threads. The center of the
gill is called the trama. The trama in the case of this plant is made up of
threads with rather long cells. Toward the outside of the trama the cells
branch into short cells, which make a thin layer. This forms the sub-

hymenium. The sub-hymenium in turn gives rise to long club-shaped cells
which stand parallel to each other at right angles to the surface of the gill.
The entire surface of the gill is covered with these club-shaped cells called
basidia (sing. basidium). Each of these club-shaped cells bears either two or
four spinous processes called sterígmata (sing. sterígma), and these in turn
each bear a spore. All these points are well shown in Fig. 8. The basidia
together make up the hymenium.

Figure 9.—Polyporus borealis, showing wound at base of hemlock spruce
caused by falling tree. Bracket fruit form of Polyporus borealis growing from
wound. (1/15 natural size.)

Wood Destroying Fungi.—Many of the mushrooms, and their kind, grow
on wood. A visit to the damp forest during the summer months, or during
the autumn, will reveal large numbers of these plants growing on logs,
stumps, from buried roots or rotten wood, on standing dead trunks, or even
on living trees. In the latter case the mushroom usually grows from some
knothole or wound in the tree (Fig. 9). Many of the forms which appear on
the trunks of dead or living trees are plants of tough or woody consistency.
They are known as shelving or bracket fungi, or popularly as "fungoids" or
"fungos." Both these latter words are very unfortunate and inappropriate.
Many of these shelving or bracket fungi are perennial and live from year to
year. They may therefore be found during the winter as well as in the
summer. The writer has found specimens over eighty years old. The shelves
or brackets are the fruit bodies, and consist of the pileus with the fruiting
surface below. The fruiting surface is either in the form of gills like
Agaricus, or it is honey-combed, or spinous, or entirely smooth.

Figure 10.—Polyporus borealis. Strands of mycelium extending radially in the
wood of the same living hemlock spruce shown in Fig. 9. (Natural size.)

Mycelium of the Wood Destroying Fungi.—While the fruit bodies are on
the outside of the trunk, the mycelium, or vegetative part of the fungus, is
within the wood or bark. By stripping off the bark from decaying logs
where these fungi are growing, the mycelium is often found in great
abundance. By tearing open the rotting wood it can be traced all through the
decaying parts. In fact, the mycelium is largely if not wholly responsible for
the rapid disintegration of the wood. In living trees the mycelium of certain
bracket fungi enters through a wound and grows into the heart wood. Now
the heart wood is dead and cannot long resist the entrance and destructive
action of the mycelium. The mycelium spreads through the heart of the tree,
causing it to rot (Fig. 10). When it has spread over a large feeding area it
can then grow out through a wound or old knothole and form the bracket

fruit body, in case the knothole or wound has not completely healed over so
as to imprison the fungus mycelium.

Plate 2, Figure 11.—Mycelium of Agaricus melleus on large door in passage
coal mine, Wilkesbarre, Pa. (1/20 natural size.)

Fungi in Abandoned Coal Mines.—Mushrooms and bracket fungi grow in
great profusion on the wood props or doors in abandoned coal mines,
cement mines, etc. There is here an abundance of moisture, and the
temperature conditions are more equable the year around. The conditions of
environment then are very favorable for the rapid growth of these plants.
They develop in midwinter as well as in summer.

Mycelium of Coal Mine Fungi.—The mycelium of the mushrooms and
bracket fungi grows in wonderful profusion in these abandoned coal mines.
So far down in the moist earth the air in the tunnels or passages where the

coal or rock has been removed is at all times nearly saturated with moisture.
This abundance of moisture, with the favorable temperature, permits the
mycelium to grow on the surface of the wood structures as readily as within
the wood.

In the forest, while the air is damp at times, it soon dries out to such a
degree that the mycelium can not exist to any great extent on the outer
surface of the trunks and stumps, for it needs a great percentage of moisture
for growth. The moisture, however, is abundant within the stumps or tree
trunks, and the mycelium develops abundantly there.

So one can understand how it is that deep down in these abandoned mines
the mycelium grows profusely on the surface of doors and wood props.
Figure 11 is from a flashlight photograph, taken by the writer, of a beautiful
growth on the surface of one of the doors in an abandoned coal mine at
Wilkesbarre, Pa., during September, 1896. The specimen covered an area
eight by ten feet on the surface of the door. The illustration shows very well
the habit of growth of the mycelium. At the right is the advancing zone of
growth, marked by several fan-shaped areas. At the extreme edge of growth
the mycelium presents a delicate fringe of the growing ends where the
threads are interlaced uniformly over the entire area. But a little distance
back from the edge, where the mycelium is older, the threads are growing in
a different way. They are now uniting into definite strands. Still further back
and covering the larger part of the sheet of mycelium lying on the surface of
the door, are numerous long, delicate tassels hanging downward. These
were formed by the attempt on the part of the mycelium at numerous places
to develop strands at right angles to the surface of the door. There being
nothing to support them in their attempted aerial flight, they dangle
downward in exquisite fashion. The mycelium in this condition is very soft
and perishable. It disappears almost at touch.

On the posts or wood props used to support the rock roof above, the
mycelium grows in great profusion also, often covering them with a thick
white mantle, or draping them with a fabric of elegant texture. From the
upper ends of the props it spreads out over the rock roof above for several
feet in circumference, and beautiful white pendulous tassels remind one of
stalactites.

Figure 12.—Agaricus campestris. Spore print. (Natural size.)

Direction in Growth of Mushrooms.—The direction of growth which
these fungi take forms an interesting question for study. The common
mushroom, the Agaricus, the amanitas, and other central stemmed species
grow usually in an upright fashion; that is, the stem is erect. The cap then,

when it expands, stands so that it is parallel with the surface of the earth.
Where the cap does not fully expand, as in the campanulate forms, the
pileus is still oriented horizontally, that is, with the gills downward. Even in
such species, where the stems are ascending, the upper end of the stem
curves so that the cap occupies the usual position with reference to the
surface of the earth. This is beautifully shown in the case of those plants
which grow on the side of trunks or stumps, where the stems could not well
grow directly upward without hugging close to the side of the trunk, and
then there would not be room for the expansion of the cap. This is well
shown in a number of species of Mycena.

In those species where the stem is sub-central, i. e., set toward one side of
the pileus, or where it is definitely lateral, the pileus is also expanded in a
horizontal direction. From these lateral stemmed species there is an easy
transition to the stemless forms which are sessile, that is, the shelving forms
where the pileus is itself attached to the trunk, or other object of support on
which it grows.

Where there is such uniformity in the position of a member or part of a
plant under a variety of conditions, it is an indication that there is some
underlying cause, and also, what is more important, that this position serves
some useful purpose in the life and well being of the plant. We may cut the
stem of a mushroom, say of the Agaricus campestris, close to the cap, and
place the latter, gills downward, on a piece of white paper. It should now be
covered securely with a small bell jar, or other vessel, so that no currents of
air can get underneath. In the course of a few hours myriads of the brown
spores will have fallen from the surface of the gills, where they are borne.
They will pile up in long lines along on either side of all the gills and so
give us an impression, or spore print, of the arrangement of the gills on the
under side of the cap as shown in Fig. 12. A white spore print from the
smooth lepiota (L. naucina) is shown in Fig. 13. This horizontal position of

the cap then favors the falling of the spores, so that currents of air can
scatter them and aid in the distribution of the fungus.

Figure 13.—Lepiota naucina. Spore print. (Natural size.)

But some may enquire how we know that there is any design in the
horizontal position of the cap, and that there is some cause which brings
about this uniformity of position with such entire harmony among such
dissimilar forms. When a mushroom with a comparatively long stem, not
quite fully matured or expanded, is pulled and laid on its side, or held in a
horizontal position for a time, the upper part of the stem where growth is

still taking place will curve upward so that the pileus is again brought more
or less in a horizontal position.

Figure 14.—Amanita phalloides. Plant turned to one side by directive force of
gravity, after having been placed in a horizontal position. (Natural size.)

In collecting these plants they are often placed on their side in the collecting
basket, or on a table when in the study. In a few hours the younger, long
stemmed ones have turned upward again. The plant shown in Fig. 14
(Amanita phalloides) was placed on its side in a basket for about an hour. At
the end of the hour it had not turned. It was then stood upright in a glass,
and in the course of a few hours had turned nearly at right angles. The
stimulus it received while lying in a horizontal position for only an hour
was sufficient to produce the change in direction of growth even after the
upright position had been restored. This is often the case. Some of the more
sensitive of the slender species are disturbed if they lie for only ten or
fifteen minutes on the side. It is necessary, therefore, when collecting, if one
wishes to keep the plants in the natural position for photographing, to
support them in an upright position when they are being carried home from
the woods.

The cause of this turning of the stem from the horizontal position, so that
the pileus will be brought parallel with the surface of the earth, is the

stimulus from the force of gravity, which has been well demonstrated in the
case of the higher plants. That is, the force which causes the stems of the
higher plants to grow upward also regulates the position of the cap of the
pileated fungi. The reason for this is to be seen in the perfection with which
the spores are shed from the surfaces of the gills by falling downward and
out from the crevices between. The same is true with the shelving fungi on
trees, etc., where the spores readily fall out from the pores of the honey-
combed surface or from between the teeth of those sorts with a spiny under
surface. If the caps were so arranged that the fruiting surface came to be on
the upper side, the larger number of the spores would lodge in the crevices
between the extensions of the fruiting surface. Singularly, this position of
the fruiting surface does occur in the case of one genus with a few small
species.

Interesting examples of the operation of this law are sometimes met with in
abandoned coal mines, or more frequently in the woods. In abandoned
mines the mushrooms sometimes grow from the mycelium which spreads
out on the rock roof overhead. The rock roof prevents the plant from
growing upright, and in growing laterally the weight of the plant together
with the slight hold it can obtain on the solid rock causes it to hang
downward. The end of the stem then curves upward so that the pileus is
brought in a horizontal position. I have seen this in the case of Coprinus
micaceus several times.

Figure 15.—Polyporus applanatus. From this view the larger cap is in the
normal position in which it grew on the standing tree. Turn one fourth way round
to the right for position of the plant after the tree fell. (1/6 natural size.)

In the woods, especially in the case of the perennial shelving fungi,
interesting cases are met with. Figure 15 illustrates one of these peculiar
forms of Polyporus (Fomes) applanatus. This is the species so often
collected as a "curio," and on account of its very white under surface is
much used for etching various figures. In the figure the larger cap which is
horizontal represents the position of the plant when on the standing maple
trunk. When the tree fell the shelf was brought into a perpendicular
position. The fungus continued to grow, but its substance being hard and
woody it cannot turn as the mushroom can. Instead, it now grows in such a
way as to form several new caps, all horizontal, i. e., parallel with the
surface of the earth, but perpendicular to the old shelf. If the page is turned
one-fourth way round the figure will be brought in the position of the plant
when it was growing on the fallen log.

Plate 3, Figure 16.—Dædalea ambigua. Upper right-hand shows normal plant
in normal position when on tree. Upper left-hand shows abnormal plant with the
large cap in normal position when growing on standing tree. Lower plant shows
same plant in position after the tree fell, with new caps growing out in horizontal
direction. (Lower plant 1/2 natural size.)

Another very interesting case is shown in the ambiguous trametes
(Trametes ambigua), a white shelving fungus which occurs in the Southern
States. It is shown in Fig. 16. At the upper right hand is shown the normal
plant in the normal position. At the upper left hand is shown an abnormal
one with the large and first formed cap also in the normal position as it
grew when the tree was standing. When the tree fell the shelf was on the

upper side of the log. Now numerous new caps grew out from the edge as
shown in the lower figure, forming a series of steps, as it were, up one side
and down the other.

CHAPTER III.

GILL BEARING FUNGI: AGARICACEAE.[A]

The gill bearing fungi are known under the family Agaricaceæ, or popularly
the agarics. They are distinguished by the fruiting area being distributed
over the surface of plate-like or knife-like extensions or folds, usually from
the under surface of the cap. These are known as the gills, or lamellæ, and
they usually radiate from a common point, as from or near the stem, when
the stem is present; or from the point of attachment of the pileus when the
stem is absent. The plants vary widely in form and consistency, some being
very soft and soon decaying, others turning into an inky fluid, others being
tough and leathery, and some more or less woody or corky. The spores
when seen in mass possess certain colors, white, rosy, brown or purple
brown, black or ochraceous. While a more natural division of the agarics
can be made on the basis of structure and consistency, the treatment here
followed is based on the color of the spores, the method in vogue with the
older botanists. While this method is more artificial, it is believed to be
better for the beginner, especially for a popular treatment. The sections will
be treated in the following order:

1. The purple-brown-spored agarics.
2. The black-spored agarics.
3. The white-spored agarics.
4. The rosy-spored agarics.

5. The ochre-spored agarics.

FOOTNOTES:

[A] For analytical keys to the families and genera see Chapter XXIV.

CHAPTER IV.

THE PURPLE-BROWN-SPORED AGARICS.[B]

The members of this subdivision are recognized at maturity by the purple-
brown, dark brown or nearly black spores when seen in mass. As they ripen
on the surface of the gills the large number give the characteristic color to
the lamellæ. Even on the gills the purple tinge of the brown spores can often
be seen. The color is more satisfactorily obtained when the spores are
caught in mass by placing the cap, gills downward, on white paper.

AGARICUS Linn. (PSALLIOTA Fr.)

In the genus Agaricus the spores at maturity are either purple-brown in
mass or blackish with a purple tinge. The annulus is present on the stem,
though disappearing soon in some species, and the stem is easily separated
from the substance of the pileus. The gills are free from the stem, or only
slightly adnexed. The genus is closely related to Stropharia and the species
of the two genera are by some united under one genus (Psalliota,
Hennings). Peck, 36th Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 41–49, describes 7
species. Lloyd Mycol. Notes, No. 4, describes 8 species. C. O. Smith,
Rhodora, I: 161–164, 1899, describes 8 species.

Agaricus (Psalliota) campestris Linn. Edible.—This plant has been quite
fully described in the treatment of the parts of the mushroom, and a
recapitulation will be sufficient here. It grows in lawns, pastures, by
roadsides, and even in gardens and cultivated fields. A few specimens begin
to appear in July, it is more plentiful in August, and abundantly so in
September and October. It is 5–8 cm. high (2–3 inches), the cap is 5–12 cm.
broad, and the stem 8–12 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is first rounded, then convex and more or less expanded. The
surface at first is nearly smooth, presenting a soft, silky appearance from
numerous loose fibrils. The surface is sometimes more or less torn into
triangular scales, especially as the plants become old. The color is usually
white, but varies more or less to light brown, especially in the scaly forms,
where the scales may be quite prominent and dark brown in color.
Sometimes the color is brownish before the scales appear. The flesh is
white. The gills in the young button stage are white. They soon become
pink in color and after the cap is expanded they quickly become purple
brown, dark brown, and nearly black from the large number of spores on
their surfaces. The gills are free from the stem and rounded behind (near the
stem). The stem is white, nearly cylindrical, or it tapers a little toward the
lower end. The flesh is solid, though the central core is less firm. The veil is
thin, white, silky, and very frail. It is stretched as the cap expands and
finally torn so that it clings either as an annulus around the stem, or
fragments cling around the margin of the cap. Since the annulus is so frail
it shrivels as the plant ages and becomes quite inconspicuous or disappears
entirely (see Figs. 1–7).

Figure 17.—Agaricus rodmani. Entirely white, showing double veil or ring.
(Natural size.) Copyright.

Variations in the surface characters of the cap and stem have led some to
recognize several varieties. This is known as the common mushroom and is
more widely known and collected for food than any other. It is also
cultivated in mushroom houses, cellars, caves, abandoned mines, etc.

Agaricus (Psalliota) rodmani Pk. Edible.—Rodman's mushroom,
Agaricus rodmani, grows in grassy places along streets of cities, either
between the curbing and the walk, or between the curbing and the
pavement. It is entirely white or whitish and sometimes tinged with
yellowish at the center of the pileus. The plants are 4–8 cm. high, the cap 5–
8 cm. broad and the stem 1–2 cm. in thickness.

Figure 18.—Agaricus arvensis, fairy ring.

The pileus is rounded, and then convex, very firm, compact and thick, with
white flesh. The gills are crowded, first white, then pink, and in age
blackish brown. The stem is very short, solid, nearly cylindrical, not
bulbous. The annulus is quite characteristic, being very thick, with a short
limb, and double, so that it often appears as two distinct rings on the middle
or lower part of the stem as shown in Fig. 17. This form of the annulus is
probably due to the fact that the thick part of the margin of the pileus during
the young stage rests between the lower and upper part of the annulus, i. e.,
the thick veil is attached both to the inner and outer surface of the margin of
the cap, and when it is freed by the expansion of the pileus it remains as a
double ring. It is eagerly sought and much relished by several persons at
Ithaca familiar with its edible qualities.

The plant closely resembles A. campestris var., edulis, Vittad. (See Plate 54,
Bresadola, I Funghi Mangerecci e Velenosi, 1899) and is probably the same.

Figure 19.—Agaricus silvicola. White to cream color, or yellow stains. (Natural
size.) Copyright.

Agaricus (Psalliota) arvensis Schaeff. Edible.—The field mushroom, or
horse mushroom, Agaricus arvensis, grows in fields or pastures, sometimes
under trees and in borders of woods. One form is often white, or yellowish
white, and often shows the yellow color when dried. The plant sometimes
occurs in the form of a fairy ring as shown in Fig. 18. It is 5–12 cm. high,
the cap from 5–15 cm. broad and the stem 8–15 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is smooth, quite thick and firm, convex to expanded. The gills
are first white, then tinged with pink and finally blackish brown. The stem

is stout, nearly cylindrical, hollow, bulbous. The veil is double like that of
Agaricus placomyces, the upper or inner layer remaining as a membrane,
while the lower or outer layer is split radially and remains in large patches
on the lower surface of the upper membrane.

Figure 20.—Agaricus silvicola, showing radiately torn lower part of veil.
(Natural size.) Copyright.

Agaricus (Psalliota) silvicola Vittad. Edible.—The Agaricus silvicola
grows in woods, groves, etc., on the ground, and has been found also in a
newly made garden in the vicinity of trees near the woods. It is an attractive
plant because of its graceful habit and the delicate shades of yellow and

white. It ranges from 10–20 cm. high, the cap is 5–12 cm. broad and the
stem 6–10 mm. in thickness.

The pileus becomes convex, and expanded or nearly flat, and often with an
elevation or umbo in the center. It is thin, smooth, whitish and often tinged
more or less deeply with yellow (sulfur or ochraceous) and is sometimes
tinged with pink in the center. The flesh is whitish or tinged with pink. The
gills when very young are whitish, then pink, and finally dark brown or
blackish brown, much crowded, and distant from the stem. The stem is
long, nearly cylindrical, whitish, abruptly enlarged below into a bulb. It is
often yellowish below, and especially in drying becomes stained with
yellow. The ring is thin, membranaceous, delicate, sometimes with broad,
soft, floccose patches on the under side. The ring usually appears single, but
sometimes the veil is seen to be double, and the outer or lower portion tends
to split radially as in A. arvensis or A. placomyces. This is well shown in
large specimens, and especially as the veil is stretched over the gills as
shown in Fig. 20.

From the form of the plant as well as the peculiarities of the veil in the
larger specimens, it is related to A. arvensis and A. placomyces, more
closely to the former. It occurs during mid-summer and early autumn.
Figure 10 is from plants (No. 1986 C. U. herbarium) collected in open
woods at Ithaca.

Plate 4.—Agaricus placomyces. Figure 21.—Upper view of cap, side view of
stem. Figure 22.—Under view of plant showing radiately torn under side of the
double veil. (3/4 natural size.) Copyright.

Plate 5, Figure 23.—Agaricus placomyces. Three different views, see text for
explanations. Dark scales on cap. (Natural size.) Copyright.

Agaricus (Psalliota) subrufescens Pk. Edible.—The Agaricus
subrufescens was described by Dr. Peck from specimens collected on a

compost heap composed chiefly of leaves, at Glen Cove, Long Island. It
occurs sometimes in greenhouses. In one case reported by Peck it appeared
in soil prepared for forcing cucumbers in a greenhouse in Washington, D. C.

According to the description the pileus becomes convex or broadly
expanded, is covered with silky hairs and numerous minute scales. The
color is whitish, grayish or dull reddish brown, the center being usually
smooth and darker, while the flesh is white. The gills change from white to
pinkish and blackish brown in age. The stem is long, nearly cylindrical or
somewhat enlarged or bulbous at the base, first stuffed, then hollow, white.
The annulus is thick, and the under side marked by loose threads or scales.

This plant is said to differ from the common mushroom (A. campestris) in
the more deeply hemispherical cap of the young plant, the hollow and
somewhat bulbous stem, and in the scales on the under side of the annulus.
In fresh plants the flesh has also a flavor of almonds. It is closely related to
A. silvaticus Schaeff., p. 62, T. 242, Icones Fung. Bav. etc., 1770, if not
identical with it. A. silvaticus has light ochraceous or subrufescent scales on
the cap, a strong odor, and occurs in gardens as well as in the woods.

Agaricus (Psalliota) fabaceus Berk., was described in Hooker's London
Journal of Botany, 6: 314, 1847, from specimens collected in Ohio. The
plant is white and is said to have a strong but not unpleasant odor. Agaricus
amygdalinus Curt., from North Carolina, and of which no description was
published, was so named on account of the almond-like flavor of the plant.
Dr. Farlow suggests (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 26: 356–358, 1894) that A.
fabaceus, amygdalinus, and subrufescens are identical.

Agaricus (Psalliota) placomyces Pk. Edible.—The flat-cap mushroom,
Agaricus placomyces Pk., occurs in borders of woods or under trees from
June to September. According to Peck it occurs in borders of hemlock
woods, or under hemlock trees. At Ithaca it is not always associated with

hemlock trees. The largest specimens found here were in the border of
mixed woods where hemlock was a constituent. It has been found near and
under white pine trees in lawns, around the Norway spruce and under the
Norway spruce. The plants are from 5–15 cm. high, the cap from 5–12 cm.
in diameter, and the stem 6–8 mm. in thickness.

The pileus when young is broadly ovate, then becomes convex or fully
expanded and flat in age, and is quite thin. The ground color is whitish,
often with a yellowish tinge, while the surface is ornamented with
numerous minute brownish scales which are scattered over a large part of
the cap, but crowded or conjoined at the center into a large circular patch.
This gives to the plant with its shapely form a beautiful appearance. In the
young stage the entire surface of the pileus is quite evenly brown. As it
expands the outer brown portion is torn asunder into numerous scales
because the surface threads composing this brown layer cease to grow.
These scales are farther apart toward the margin of the cap, because this
portion of the cap always expands more than the center, in all mushrooms.
The gills are at first white, or very soon pink in color, and in age are
blackish brown. Spores 5–8 × 3–4 µ.

The stem is nearly cylindrical, hollow or stuffed, white or whitish, smooth,
bulbous, and the bulb is sometimes tinged with yellow. The veil is very
handsome, and the way in which the annulus is formed from it is very
interesting. The veil is quite broad, and it is double, that is, it consists of
two layers which are loosely joined by threads. In the young stage the veil
lies between the gills and the lower two-thirds of the stem. As the pileus
expands the lower (outer part) layer of the veil is torn, often in quite regular
radiating portions, as shown in Fig. 22. An interesting condition of the veil
is shown in the middle plant in Fig. 23. Here the outer or lower layer of the
veil did not split radially, but remained as a tube surrounding the stem,
while the two layers were separated, the inner one being still stretched over

the gills. It is customary to speak of the lower part of the veil as the outer
part when the cap is expanded and the veil is still stretched across over the
gills, while the upper portion is spoken of as the inner layer or part. It is
closely related to A. arvensis, and may represent a wood inhabiting variety
of that species.

Agaricus (Psalliota) comtulus Fr.—This pretty little agaric seems to be
rather rare. It was found sparingly on several occasions in open woods
under pines at Ithaca, N. Y., during October, 1898. Lloyd reports it from
Ohio (Mycolog. Notes, No. 56, Nov. 1899), and Smith from Vermont
(Rhodora I, 1899). Fries' description (Epicrisis, No. 877) runs as follows:
"Pileus slightly fleshy, convex, plane, obtuse, nearly smooth, with
appressed silky hairs, stem hollow, sub-attenuate, smooth, white to
yellowish, annulus fugacious; gills free, crowded, broad in front, from flesh
to rose color. In damp grassy places. Stem 2 inches by 2 lines, at first
floccose stuffed. Pileus 1–1-1/2 inch diameter. Color from white to
yellowish."

Figure 24.—Agaricus comtulus (natural size, sometimes larger). Cap creamy
white with egg-yellow stains, smoky when older. Stem same color; gills grayish,

then rose, then purple brown. Copyright.

The plants collected at Ithaca are illustrated in Fig. 24 from a photograph of
plants (No. 2879 C. U. herbarium). My notes on these specimens run as
follows: Plant 3–6 cm. high, pileus 1.5–3 cm. broad, stem 3–4 mm. in
thickness. Pileus convex to expanded, fleshy, thin on the margin, margin at
first incurved, creamy white with egg yellow stains, darker on the center, in
age somewhat darker to umber or fuliginous, moist when fresh, surface
soon dry, flesh tinged with yellow. The gills are white when young, then
grayish to pale rose, and finally light purple brown, rounded in front,
tapering behind (next the stem) and rounded, free from the stem, 4–5 mm.
broad. Basidia clavate, 25–30 × 5–6 µ. Spores small, oval, 3–4 × 2–3 µ, in
mass light purple brown. The stem tapers above, is sub-bulbous below,
yellowish and stained with darker yellowish threads below the annulus,
hollow, fibrous, fleshy. The veil whitish stained with yellow, delicate,
rupturing irregularly, portions of it clinging to margin of the pileus and
portions forming a delicate ring. When parts of the plant come in contact
with white paper a blue stain is apt to be imparted to the paper, resembling
the reaction of iodine on starch. This peculiarity has been observed also in
the case of another species of Agaricus. The species is regarded with
suspicion by some. I collected the plant also at Blowing Rock, N. C., in
September, 1899. The caps of these specimens measure 4 cm. in diameter.

Agaricus diminutivus Pk., is a closely related species. It is distinguished
chiefly by its somewhat larger size, and purplish to reddish brown hairs on
the surface of the pileus, and by the somewhat larger spores, which,
however, are small. I have found it at Ithaca, the surface of the pileus hairy,
with beautiful, triangular, soft, appressed, purplish scales.

HYPHOLOMA Fr.

In the genus Hypholoma the spores are purple brown, the gills attached to
the stem, and the veil when ruptured clings to the margin of the cap instead
of to the stem, so that a ring is not formed, or only rarely in some
specimens. The stem is said to be continuous with the substance of the cap,
that is, it is not easily separated from it. The genus is closely related to
Agaricus (Psalliota) and Stropharia, from both of which it differs in the veil
not forming a ring, but clinging to the margin of the cap. It further differs
from Agaricus in the stem being continuous with the substance of the cap,
while Stropharia seems to differ in this respect in different species. The
plants grow both on the ground and on wood. There are several species
which are edible and are very common. Peck gives a synopsis of six species
in the 49th Report New York State Mus., page 61, 1896, and Morgan
describes 7 species in Jour. Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist. 6: 113–115.

Hypholoma sublateritium Schaeff. Edible, bitter sometimes. The name of
this species is derived from the color of the cap, which is nearly a brick red
color, sometimes tawny. The margin is lighter in color. The plants grow
usually in large clusters on old stumps or frequently appearing on the
ground from buried portions of stumps or from roots. There are from six to
ten, or twenty or more plants in a single cluster. A single plant is from 8–12
cm. high, the cap is 5–8 cm. broad, and the stem 6–8 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex to expanded, smooth, or sometimes with loose threads
from the veil, especially when young, even, dry. The flesh is firm, whitish,
and in age becoming somewhat yellowish. The gills are adnate, sometimes
decurrent by a little tooth, rather crowded, narrow, whitish, then dull yellow,
and becoming dark from the spores, purplish to olivaceous. The stem
usually tapers downward, is firm, stuffed, smooth, or with remnants of the
veil giving it a floccose scaly appearance, usually ascending because of the
crowded growth. The veil is thin and only manifested in the young stage of

the plant as a loose weft of threads. As the cap expands the veil is torn and
adheres to the margin, but soon disappears.

Plate 6, Figure 25.—Hypholoma sublateritium. Cap brick-red or tawny.
(Natural size, often larger.) Copyright.

Plate 7, Figure 26.—Hypholoma appendiculatum (natural size, often larger).
White floccose scales on cap (var. coroniferum) and appendiculate veil; caps
whitish or brown, tawny, or tinge of ochre. Gills white, then purple-brown.
Copyright.

The flesh of this plant is said by European writers to be bitter to the taste,
and it is regarded there as poisonous. This character seems to be the only
distinguishing one between the Hypholoma sublateritium Schaeff., of
Europe, and the Hypholoma perplexum Pk., of this country which is edible,
and probably is identical with H. sublateritium. If the plant in hand agrees
with this description in other respects, and is not bitter, there should be no
danger in its use. According to Bresadola, the bitter taste is not pronounced
in H. sublateritium. The taste probably varies as it does in other plants. For
example, in Pholiota præcox, an edible species, I detected a decided bitter
taste in plants collected in June, 1900. Four other persons were requested to
taste the plants. Two of them pronounced them bitter, while two did not
detect the bitter taste.

There is a variety of Hypholoma sublateritium, with delicate floccose scales
in concentric rows near the margin of the cap, called var. squamosum
Cooke. This is the plant illustrated in Fig. 25, from specimens collected on
rotting wood in the Cascadilla woods, Ithaca, N. Y. It occurs from spring to
autumn.

Hypholoma epixanthum Fr., is near the former species, but has a yellow
pileus, and the light yellow gills become gray, not purple.

Hypholoma appendiculatum Bull. Edible.—This species is common
during late spring and in the summer. It grows on old stumps and logs, and
often on the ground, especially where there are dead roots. It is scattered or
clustered, but large tufts are not formed as in H. sublateritium. The plants
are 6–8 cm. high, the cap 5–7 cm. broad, and the stem 4–6 mm. in
thickness.

The pileus is ovate, convex to expanded, and often the margin elevated, and
then the cap appears depressed. It is fleshy, thin, whitish or brown, tawny,
or with a tinge of ochre, and becoming pale in age and when dry. As the
plant becomes old the pileus often cracks in various ways, sometimes
splitting radially into several lobes, and then in other cases cracking into
irregular areas, showing the white flesh underneath. The surface of the
pileus when young is sometimes sprinkled with whitish particles giving it a
mealy appearance. The gills are attached to the stem, crowded, becoming
more or less free by breaking away from the stem, especially in old plants.
They are white, then flesh colored, brownish with a slight purple tinge. The
stem is white, smooth, or with numerous small white particles at the apex,
becoming hollow. The veil is very delicate, white, and only seen in quite
young plants when they are fresh. It clings to the margin of the cap for a
short period, and then soon disappears.

Figure 27.—Hypholoma appendiculatum (natural size), showing appendiculate
veil. Copyright.

Sometimes the pileus is covered with numerous white, delicate floccose
scales, which give it a beautiful appearance, as in Fig. 26, from specimens
(No. 3185 C. U. herbarium), collected on the campus of Cornell University
among grass. The entire plant is very brittle, and easily broken. It is tender
and excellent for food. I often eat the caps raw.

Hypholoma candolleanum Fr., occurs in woods on the ground, or on very
rotten wood. It is not so fragile as H. appendiculatum and the gills are dark
violaceous, not flesh color as they are in H. appendiculatum when they
begin to turn, and nearly free from the stem.

Hypholoma lacrymabundum Fr.—This plant was found during September
and October in wet grassy places in a shallow ditch by the roadside, and in
borders of woods, Ithaca, N. Y., 1898. The plants are scattered or clustered,
several often joined at the base of the stem. They are 4–8 cm. high, the cap
2–5 cm. broad, and the stem 4–8 mm. in thickness.

Figure 28.—Hypholoma lacrymabundum (natural size). Cap and stem tawny or
light yellowish, with intermediate shades or shades of umber, surface with soft
floccose scales. Copyright.

The pileus is convex to expanded, sometimes broadly umbonate in age, and
usually with radiating wrinkles extending irregularly. On the surface are
silky or tomentose threads not much elevated from the surface, and as the
plant ages these are drawn into triangular scales which are easily washed
apart by the rains. The color is tawny or light yellowish with intermediate
shades, darker on the umbo and becoming darker in age, sometimes umber
colored, and stained with black, especially after rains where the spores are
washed on the pileus. The flesh is tinged with light yellow, or tawny, or
brown, soft, and easily broken. The gills are sinuate, adnate, somewhat
ventricose, very rarely in abnormal specimens anastomosing near the
margin of the pileus, at first light yellowish, then shading to umber and
spotted with black and rusty brown as the spores mature, easily breaking
away from the stipe, whitish on the edge. Drops of moisture sometimes are

formed on the gills. Basidia abruptly clavate, 30–35 × 10–12 µ. Cystidia
hyaline, thin walled, projecting above the hymenium 40 µ, and 14–15 µ
broad. Spores black, purple tinged, broadly elliptical and somewhat curved,
9–11 × 7–8 µ.

The stem is fleshy to fibrous, the same color as the pileus, floccose scaly
more or less up to the veil, smooth or white pruinose above the veil, straight
or curved, somewhat striate below.

The veil in young plants is hairy, of the same texture as the surface of the
pileus, torn and mostly clinging to the margin of the pileus, and
disappearing with age.

The general habit and different stages of development as well as some of
the characters of the plant are shown in Fig. 28 (No. 4620 Cornell
University herbarium). The edible qualities of this plant have not been
tested.

Hypholoma rugocephalum Atkinson.—This interesting species grows in
damp places in woods. The plants are tufted or occur singly. They are 8–12
cm. high, the cap 6–10 cm. broad, and the stem 6–10 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex to expanded, and the margin at last revolute
(upturned). The surface is marked by strong wrinkles (rugæ), which radiate
irregularly from the center toward the margin. The pileus is broadly
umbonate, fleshy at the center and thinner toward the margin, the flesh
tinged with yellow, the surface slightly viscid, but not markedly so even
when moist, smooth, not hairy or scaly, the thin margin extending little
beyond ends of the gills. The color is tawny (near fulvus). The gills are
adnate, slightly sinuate, 5–7 mm. broad, in age easily breaking away from
the stem and then rounded at this end, spotted with the black spores, lighter
on the edge. The spores are black in mass (with a suggestion of a purple

tinge), oval to broadly elliptical, inequilateral, pointed at each end,
echinulate, or minutely tuberculate, 8–11 × 6–8 µ. The basidia are short,
cylindrical; cystidia cylindrical, somewhat enlarged at the free end, hyaline,
delicate, thin-walled, in groups of two to six or more (perhaps this is partly
responsible for the black spotted condition of the gills). The stem is
cylindrical, even, somewhat bulbous, of the same color as the pileus, but
lighter above the annulus, irregular, smooth, fleshy, hollow, continuous with
the substance of the pileus. The annulus is formed of a few threads,
remnants of the veil, which are stained black by the spores. Figure 29 is
from plants (No. 3202 C. U. herbarium) collected near Ithaca, July 18,
1899.

Plate 8, Figure 29.—Hypholoma rugocephalum (7/8 natural size). Cap tawny,
gills purple black, spotted. Copyright.

STROPHARIA Fr.

The genus Stropharia has purple-brown spores, the gills are attached to the
stem, and the veil forms a ring on the stem.

Figure 30.—Stropharia semiglobata (natural size). Cap and stem light yellow,
viscid, gills brownish purple. Copyright.

Stropharia semiglobata Batsch.—This species is rather common and
widely distributed, occurring in grassy places recently manured, or on dung.
The plants are scattered or clustered, rarely two or three joined at the base.
They are 5–12 cm. high, the cap 1–3 cm. broad, and the stems 2–4 mm. in
thickness. The entire plant is light yellow, and viscid when moist, the gills

becoming purplish brown, or nearly black. Stevenson says it is regarded as
poisonous.

The pileus is rounded, then hemispherical (semi-globate), smooth, fleshy at
the center, thinner toward the margin, even, very viscid or viscous when
moist, light yellow. The gills are squarely set against the stem (adnate),
broad, smooth, in age purplish brown to blackish, the color more or less
clouded. The spores in mass, are brownish purple. The stem is slender,
cylindrical, becoming hollow, straight, even or bulbous below, yellowish,
but paler at the apex where there are often parallel striæ, marks from the
gills in the young stage. The stem is often viscid and smeared with the
glutinous substance which envelopes the plant when young, and from the
more or less glutinous veil. The ring is glutinous when moist.

Figure 30 is from plants (No. 4613 C. U. herbarium) collected on one of the
streets of Ithaca.

Stropharia stercoraria Fr., is a closely related plant, about the same size,
but the pileus, first hemispherical, then becoming expanded and sometimes
striate on the margin, while the stem is stuffed. The gills are said to be of
one color and the ring floccose, viscose, and evanescent in drying. It occurs
on dung, or in grassy places recently manured.

Stropharia æruginosa Curt., the greenish Stropharia, is from 6–8 cm.
high, and the pileus 5–7 cm. broad. The ground color is yellowish, but the
plant is covered with a greenish slime which tends to disappear with age. It
is found in woods and open places during late summer and in autumn.
According to Stevenson it is poisonous.

FOOTNOTES:

[B] For analytical key to the genera see Chapter XXIV.

CHAPTER V.

THE BLACK-SPORED AGARICS.

The spores are black in mass, not purple tinged. For analytical keys to the
genera see Chapter XXIV.

COPRINUS Pers.

The species of Coprinus are readily recognised from the black spores in
addition to the fact that the gills, at maturity, dissolve into a black or inky
fluid. The larger species especially form in this way an abundance of the
black fluid, so that it drops from the pileus and blackens the grass, etc.,
underneath the plant. In some of the smaller species the gills do not wholly
deliquesce, but the cap splits on top along the line of the longer gills, this
split passing down through the gill, dividing it into two thin laminæ, which,
however, remain united at the lower edge. This gives a fluted appearance to
the margin of the pileus, which is very thin and membranaceous.

Figure 31.—Coprinus comatus, "shaggy-mane," in lawn.

The plants vary in size, from tiny ones to those which are several inches
high and more than an inch broad. Their habitat (that is, the place where
they grow) is peculiar. A number of the species grow on dung or recently
manured ground. From this peculiarity the genus received the name
Coprinus from the Greek word κοπρὁς, meaning dung. Some of the species,
however, grow on decaying logs, on the ground, on leaves, etc.

Coprinus comatus Fr. Edible.—One of the finest species in this genus is
the shaggy-mane, or horse-tail mushroom, as it is popularly called. It occurs
in lawns and other grassy places, especially in richly manured ground. The
plants sometimes occur singly, or a few together, but often quite large
numbers of them appear in a small area. They occur most abundantly during
quite wet weather, or after heavy rains, in late spring or during the autumn,
and also in the summer. From the rapid growth of many of the mushrooms

we are apt to be taken by surprise to see them all up some day, when the
day before there were none. The shaggy-mane often furnishes a surprise of
this kind. In our lawns we are accustomed to a pretty bit of greensward with
clumps of shrubbery, and here and there the overhanging branches of some
shade tree. On some fine morning when we find a whole flock of these
shaggy-manes, which have sprung up during the night, we can imagine that
some such kind of a surprise must have come to Browning when he wrote
these words:

"By the rose flesh mushroom undivulged
Last evening. Nay, in to-day's first dew
Yon sudden coral nipple bulged,
Where a freaked, fawn colored, flaky crew
Of toadstools peep indulged."

Figure 32.—Coprinus comatus. "Buttons," some in section showing gill slits and
hollow stem; colors white and black. (Natural size.)

The plant is called shaggy-mane because of the very shaggy appearance of
the cap, due to the surface being torn up into long locks. The illustrations of

the shaggy mane shown here represent the different stages of development,
and the account here given is largely taken from the account written by me
in Bulletin 168 of the Cornell University Agr. Exp. Station.

Figure 33.—Coprinus comatus (natural size).]

In Fig. 32 are shown two buttons of the size when they are just ready to
break through the soil. They appear mottled with dark and white, for the
outer layer of fungus threads, which are dark brown, is torn and separated
into patches or scales, showing between the delicate meshes of white
threads which lie beneath. The upper part of the button is already forming
the cap, and the slight constriction about midway shows the lower boundary

or margin of the pileus where it is still connected with the undeveloped
stem.

At the right of each of these buttons in the figure is shown a section of a
plant of the same age. Here the parts of the plant, though still undeveloped,
are quite well marked out. Just underneath the pileus layer are the gills. In
the section one gill is exposed to view on either side. In the section of the
larger button the free edge of the gill is still closely applied to the stem,
while in the small one the gills are separated a short distance from the stems
showing "gill slits." Here, too, the connection of the margin of the pileus
with the stem is still shown, and forms the veil. This kind of a veil is a
marginal veil.

Figure 34.—Coprinus comatus (natural size). This one entirely white, none of
the scales black tipped.

The stem is hollow even at this young stage, and a slender cord of
mycelium extends down the center of the tube thus formed, as is shown in
the sections.

The plants are nearly all white when full grown. The brown scales, so close
together on the buttons, are widely separated except at the top or center of
the pileus, where they remain close together and form a broad cap.

A study of the different stages, which appear from the button stage to the
mature plant, reveals the cause of this change in color and the wide
separation of the dark brown scales. The threads of the outer layer of the
pileus, and especially those in the brown patches seen on the buttons, soon
cease to grow, though they are firmly entangled with the inner layers. Now
the threads underneath and all through the plant, in the gills and in the upper
part of the stem, grow and elongate rapidly. This pulls on the outer layer,
tearing it in the first place into small patches, and causing them later to be
more widely separated on the mature plant. Some of these scales remain
quite large, while others are torn up into quite small tufts.

Figure 35.—Coprinus comatus, sections of the plants in Fig. 33 (natural size).

As the plant ages, the next inner layers of the pileus grow less rapidly, so
that the white layer beneath the brown is torn up into an intricate tangle of
locks and tufts, or is frazzled into a delicate pile which exists here and there
between well formed tufts. While all present the same general characters
there is considerable individual variation, as one can see by comparing a
number of different plants. Figure 34 shows one of the interesting
conditions. There is little of the brown color, and the outer portion of the
pileus is torn into long locks, quite evenly distributed and curled up at the
ends in an interesting fashion which merits well the term "shaggy." In
others the threads are looped up quite regularly into triangular tresses which
appear to be knotted at the ends where the tangle of brown threads holds
them together.

Figure 36.—Coprinus comatus, early stages of deliquescence; the ring is lying
on the sod (natural size).

There is one curious feature about the expansion of the pileus of the
shaggy-mane which could not escape our attention. The pileus has become
very long while comparatively little lateral expansion has taken place. The
pileus has remained cylindrical or barrel-shaped, while in the case of the
common mushroom the pileus expands into the form of an umbrella.

Figure 37.—Coprinus comatus, later stage of deliquescence, pileus becoming
more expanded (natural size).

The cylindrical or barrel-shaped pileus is characteristic of the shaggy-mane
mushroom. As the pileus elongates the stem does also, but more rapidly.
This tears apart the connection of the margin of the pileus with the base of
the stem, as is plainly shown in Fig. 33. In breaking away, the connecting
portion or veil is freed both from the stem and from the margin of the
pileus, and is left as a free, or loose, ring around the stem. In the shaggy-
mane the veil does not form a thin, expanded curtain. It is really an annular
outer layer of the button lying between the margin of the cap and the base
of the stem. It becomes free from the stem. As the stem elongates more

rapidly than the cap, the latter is lifted up away from the base of the stem.
Sometimes the free ring is left as a collar around the base of the stem, still
loosely adherent to the superficial layer of the same, or it remains for a time
more or less adherent to the margin of the pileus as shown in the plant at the
left hand in Fig. 33. It is often lifted higher up on the stem before it
becomes free from the cap, and is then left dangling somewhere on the
stem, or it may break and fall down on the sod. In other instances it may
remain quite firmly adherent to the margin of the pileus so that it breaks
apart as the pileus in age expands somewhat. In such cases one often
searches for some time to discover it clinging as a sterile margin of the cap.
It is interesting to observe a section of the plants at this stage. These
sections can be made by splitting the pileus and stem lengthwise through
the middle line with a sharp knife, as shown in Fig. 35. Here, in the plant at
the right hand, the "cord" of mycelium is plainly seen running through the
hollow stem. The gills form a large portion of the plant, for they are very
broad and lie closely packed side by side. They are nowhere attached to the
stem, but at the upper end round off to the cap, leaving a well defined space
between their ends and the stem. The cap, while it is rather thick at the
center, i. e., where it joins the stem, becomes comparatively thin where it
spreads out over the gills. At this age of the plant the gills are of a rich
salmon color, i. e., before the spores are ripe, and the taste when raw is a
pleasant nutty flavor, reminding one of the meat of fresh green hickory nuts.
In a somewhat earlier stage the edges of all the gills are closely applied to
the stem which they surround. So closely are they applied to the stem in
most cases that threads of mycelium pass from the stem to the edge of the
gills. As the cap expands slightly in ageing, these threads are torn asunder
and the stem is covered with a very delicate down or with flocculent
particles which easily disappear on handling or by the washing of the rains.
The edges of the gills are also left in a frazzled condition, as one can see by
examining them with a good hand lens.

The spores now begin to ripen and as they become black the color of the
gills changes. At the same time the gills and the cap begin to dissolve into
an inky fluid, first becoming dark and then melting into a black liquid. As
this accumulates it forms into drops which dangle from the cap until they
fall away. This change takes place on the margin of the cap first, and
advances toward the center, and the contrast of color, as the blackening
invades the rich salmon, is very striking. The cap now begins to expand
outward more, so that it becomes somewhat umbrella shaped. The extreme
outer surface does not dissolve so freely, and the thin remnant curls upward
and becomes enrolled on the upper side as the cap with wasted gills
becomes nearly flat.

Coprinus atramentarius (Bull.) Fr. Edible.—The ink-cap (Coprinus
atramentarius) occurs under much the same conditions as the shaggy-mane,
and is sometimes found accompanying it. It is usually more common and
more abundant. It springs up in old or newly made lawns which have been
richly manured, or it occurs in other grassy places. Sometimes the plants are
scattered, sometimes two or three in a cluster, but usually large clusters are
formed where ten to twenty or more are crowded closely together (Fig. 39).
The stems are shorter than those of the shaggy-mane and the cap is different
in shape and color. The cap is egg-shaped or oval. It varies in color from a
silvery grey, in some forms, to a dark ashen grey, or smoky brown color in
others. Sometimes the cap is entirely smooth, as I have seen it in some of
the silvery grey forms, where the delicate fibres coursing down in lines on
the outer surface cast a beautiful silvery sheen in the light. Other forms
present numerous small scales on the top or center of the cap which are
formed by the cleavage of the outer surface here into large numbers of
pointed tufts. In others, the delicate tufts cover more or less the entire
surface, giving the plant a coarsely granular aspect. This is perhaps the
more common appearance, at least so far as my observation goes. But not
infrequently one finds forms which have the entire outer surface of the cap

torn into quite a large number of coarse scales, and these are often more
prominent over the upper portion. Fine lines or striations mark also the
entire surface of all the forms, especially toward the margin, where the
scales are not so prominent. The marginal half of the cap is also frequently
furrowed more or less irregularly, and this forms a crenate or uneven edge.

Plate 9, Figure 38. Coprinus comatus, drops of inky fluid about to fall from
wasted pileus (natural size).

Plate 10, Figure 39.—Coprinus atramentarius, nearly smooth form, gray color
(natural size)

Figure 40.—Coprinus atramentarius, scaly form (natural size).

The annulus or ring on the stem of the ink-cap is very different from that of
the shaggy-mane. It forms an irregularly zigzag elevated line of threads
which extend around the stem near the base. It is well shown in Fig. 41 as a
border line between the lower scaly end of the stem and the smooth white
upper part. It is formed at the time of the separation of the margin of the cap
from the stem, the connecting fibres being pulled outward and left to mark
the line of junction, while others below give the scaly appearance. It is
easily effaced by rough handling or by the washing of the rains. A section of
a plant is illustrated by a photograph in Fig. 42. On either side of the stem is
shown the layer of fibres which form the annulus, and this layer is of a

different texture from that of the stem. The stem is hollow as seen here also.
In this figure one can see the change in color of the gills just at the time
when they begin to deliquesce. This deliquescence proceeds much in the
same way as in the shaggy-mane, and sometimes the thin remnant of the
cap expands and the margin is enrolled over the top.

Figure 41.—Coprinus atramentarius, showing annulus as border line between
scaly and smooth part of the stem (natural size).

Coprinus micaceus (Bull.) Fr. Edible.—The glistening coprinus received
its name because of the very delicate scales which often cover the surface of
the cap, and glisten in the light like particles of mica. This plant is very
common during the spring and early summer, though it does appear during
the autumn. It occurs about the bases of stumps or trees or in grassy or
denuded places, from dead roots, etc., buried in the soil. It occurs in dense

tufts of ten to thirty or more individuals; sometimes as many as several
hundred spring up from the roots of a dead tree or stump along the streets or
in lawns, forming large masses. More rarely it occurs on logs in the woods,
and sometimes the plants are scattered in lawns. From the different habits of
the plant it is sometimes difficult to determine, especially where the
individuals are more or less scattered. However, the color, and the markings
on the cap, especially the presence of the small shining scales when not
effaced, characterize the plant so that little difficulty is experienced in
determining it when one has once carefully noted these peculiarities.

Figure 42.—Coprinus atramentarius, section of one of the plants in Fig. 41
(natural size).

Figure 43 is from a group of three young individuals photographed just as
the margin of the pileus is breaking away from the lower part of the stem,
showing the delicate fibrous ring which is formed in the same way as in
Coprinus atramentarius. The ring is much more delicate and is rarely seen
except in very young specimens which are carefully collected and which
have not been washed by rains. The mature plants are 8–10 cm. high (3–4
inches), and the cap varies from 2–4 cm. in diameter. The stem is quite
slender and the cap and gills quite thin as compared with the shaggy-mane
and ink-cap. The gills are not nearly so crowded as they are in the two other
species. The cap is tan color, or light buff, or yellowish brown. Except near
the center it is marked with quite prominent striations which radiate to the
margin. These striations are minute furrows or depressed lines, and form
one of the characters of the species, being much more prominent than on
the cap of the ink-cap.

Figure 43.—Coprinus micaceus, young stage showing annulus, on the cap the
"mica" particles (natural size).

Figure 44.—Coprinus micaceus, plants natural size, from floor of coal mine at
Wilkesbarre. Caps tan color. Copyright.

In wet weather this coprinus melts down into an inky fluid also, but in quite
dry weather it remains more or less firm, and sometimes it does not
deliquesce at all, but dries with all parts well preserved, though much
shrunken of course, as is the case with all the very fleshy fungi.

Plate 11, Figure 45.—Panæolus retirugis, group of plants from lawn along
street, showing veil in young plants at the left, which breaks into V-shaped loops
and clings to margin of the cap. Cap dark smoky color at first, becoming grayish
in age (natural size). Copyright.

PANAEOLUS Fr.

In Panæolus, the pileus is somewhat fleshy, or thin, the margin even, that is,
not striate. The margin extends beyond the gills, and the gills are not
uniform in color, being clouded or spotted with black and brown colors, the
edge of the gills often white in contrast. The spores are black. The stem is
usually smooth, sometimes floccose scaly, often long, firm, generally

hollow. The veil is of interwoven threads, sometimes quite compact,
especially when the plants are young. Peck, 23rd Report N. Y. State Mus.,
p. 10 et seq., gives a synopsis of five species.

Figure 46.—Panæolus retirugis, section of caps showing form and position of
gills (natural size).

Panæolus retirugis Fr.—The color of this plant is not attractive, but it is
one of the most beautiful species I have studied, if one regards form and the
general features in its development. It is said to occur on dung. I have found
it in lawns or grassy places, especially freshly made lawns or greenswards
which have been heavily manured. The illustrations in Figs. 45–48 were
made from photographs of plants which grew in a newly made boulevard
along Buffalo street, Ithaca, N. Y. (No. 2356 C. U. herbarium). The plants
are from 7–15 cm. high, the cap from 1–3 cm. in diameter, and the stem is
3–4 mm. in thickness. The size of the plants varies greatly according to the
environment, being larger in moist soil and wet weather and smaller in dry
soil and dry weather. It occurs in late spring and during the summer.

Figure 47.—Panæolus retirugis, showing rugose character of cap in left-hand
plant (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is oval to ovate and conic, and in some cases it becomes more or
less expanded, but never, so far as I have observed, does it become
depressed or even plane. In wet weather it is usually at first dark smoky in
color, viscid, becoming grayish in age, and as the pileus dries it becomes
shining. In lighter colored forms the pileus is at first light leather color to
cream color. Toward the center of the pileus are irregular wrinkles or
shallow pits, the wrinkles anastomosing more or less, and it is because of
this character of the surface of the pileus that the plant receives its specific
name. During dry weather there is a tendency for the pileus to crack,

separating the dark color of the surface into patches showing the white flesh
beneath. The pileus is often umbonate or gibbous, and the center is often
darker than the margin. The pileus in rare cases is entirely white. The gills
are adnate, broad in the middle, and in the more expanded forms as the gills
separate more and more from the stem there is a tendency for them to
become somewhat triangular. The spores are black in mass, are elliptical or
short fusiform, and measure from 10–12 × 15–18 µ. The stem is cylindrical,
sometimes tortuous, smoky gray, light reddish brown, or paler, sometimes
entirely white, the lighter forms of the stem accompanying the light forms
of the pileus; cartilaginous in texture, becoming hollow, always darker
below and paler above, smooth, granulate with minute darker points,
bulbous. The veil is very prominent and stout when the plant is young, and
extends from the margin of the pileus to the stem when the plant is very
young and the stem has not elongated. As the stipe elongates the veil
separates from the stipe as a ring, and then, as the pileus expands, it is
broken quite regularly into short segments which become arranged
regularly around the margin of the pileus in the form of the letter V, which
gives a beautiful appearance to this stage of the plant. It is only when the
plants are fresh and moist that this condition of the veil can be seen, for on
drying the veil collapses. Water is sometimes caught under the veil before
the pileus separates far from the stem, and the spores falling thus float
against the stem at this point and make a dark ring around the stem, which,
however, should not be mistaken for the annulus. In no case was the veil
observed to cling to the stem, and many plants have been observed to see if
this variation might present itself.

Figure 48.—Panæolus retirugis, showing cracked surface of cap in the left-hand
plant, also in same plant the ring mark of black spores which lodged before veil
ruptured, in other plants showing well the V-shaped loops of veil on margin of
cap (natural size). Copyright.

This peculiarity of the veil in clinging to the margin of the pileus has led
Hennings to place the plant in Karsten's genus (Engler and Prantl,
Pflanzenfamilien) Chalymotta, as Chalymotta retirugis. The plants have
several times been eaten raw by me, and while they have a nutty flavor and
odor, the taste is not entirely agreeable in this condition, because of the
accompanying slimy sensation.

A number of smaller species, among them P. fimicola Fr., and P.
papilionaceus Fr., occur in similar places. Panæolus solidipes Pk., is a
large species with a long, solid stem, growing on dung. Psilocybe fœnisecii,

abundant in lawns and grassy places during late spring and summer,
resembles a Panæolus. The cap shows zones of light and dark color, due to
different amounts of water, which disappear as the plant matures. It belongs
to the purple-brown-spored agarics.

PSATHYRELLA Fr.

The pileus is thin, membranaceous, striate, the margin not extending
beyond the edge of the gills, and when young the margin of the pileus lies
straight against the stem. The gills are black to fuliginous, of a uniform
color, i. e., not spotted as in Panæolus and Anellaria. The spores are black.
The plants are all fragile. Only one species is mentioned here. In
appearance the species are like Psathyra of the purple-brown-spored
agarics, but much thinner. Peck describes three species in the 23d Report N.
Y. State Mus., p. 102 et seq. Only one species is described here.

Figure 49.—Psathyrella disseminata (natural size), caps whitish, grayish, or
grayish-brown. Copyright.

Psathyrella disseminata Pers.—This is a very common and widely
distributed species, appearing from late spring until late autumn. It
sometimes appears in greenhouses throughout the year. The plants are 2–3
cm. high, and the caps 6–10 mm. broad. The plants are crowded in large
tufts, often growing on decaying wood, but also on the ground, especially
about much decayed stumps, but also in lawns and similar places, where
buried roots, etc., are decaying. They resemble small specimens of a
Coprinus.

The pileus is whitish or gray, or grayish brown, very thin, oval, then bell-
shaped, minutely scaly, becoming smooth, prominently silicate or plicate,

plaited. The gills are adnate, broad, white, gray, then black. The spores are
black, oblong, 8 × 6 µ. The stem is very slender, becoming hollow, often
curved. The entire plant is very fragile, and in age becomes so soft as to
suggest a Coprinus in addition to the general appearance. Figure 49 is from
plants collected on decaying logs at Ithaca.

GOMPHIDIUS Fr.

The genus Gomphidius has a slimy or glutinous universal veil enveloping
the entire plant when young, and for a time is stretched over the gills as the
pileus is expanding. The gills are somewhat mucilaginous in consistency,
are distant and decurrent on the stem. The gills are easily removed from the
under surface of the pileus in some species by peeling off in strips, showing
the imprint of the gills beneath the projecting portions of the pileus, which
extended part way between the laminæ of the gills. The spores in some
species are blackish, and for this reason the genus has been placed by many
with the black-spored agarics, while its true relationship is probably with
the genus Hygrophorus or Paxillus.

Gomphidius nigricans Pk.—The description given by Peck for this plant
in the 48th Report, p. 12, 1895, reads as follows:

"Pileus convex, or nearly plane, pale, brownish red, covered with a tough
gluten, which becomes black in drying, flesh firm, whitish; lamellæ distant,
decurrent, some of them forked, white, becoming smoky brown, black in
the dried plant; stem subequal, longer than the diameter of the pileus,
glutinous, solid, at first whitish, especially at the top, soon blackish by the
drying of the gluten, whitish within, slightly tinged with red toward the
base; spores oblong fusoid, 15–25 µ long, 6–7 µ broad. Pileus 1–2 inches
broad; stem 1.5–2.5 inches long, 2–4 lines thick."

"This species is easily known by the blackening gluten which smears both
pileus and stem, and even forms a veil by which the lamellæ in the young
plant are concealed. In the dried state the whole plant is black."

"Under pine trees, Westport, September."

Figure 50.—Gomphidius nigricans. Side and under view showing forked gills,
and reticulate collapsed patches of dark slime on stem. Cap flesh color, gills dark
gray; entire plant black when dried (natural size). Copyright.

What appears to be the same plant was collected by me at Blowing Rock,
N. C., under a pine tree, in September, 1899 (No. 3979 C. U. herbarium).

The notes taken on the fresh plant are as follows:

Very viscid, with a thick, tough viscid cuticle, cortina or veil viscid, and
collapsing on the stem, forming coarse, walnut-brown or dark vinaceous
reticulations, terminating abruptly near the gills, or reaching them.

The stem is white underneath the slimy veil covering, tough, fibrous,
continuous, and not separable from the hymenophore, tapering below.

The pileus is convex, the very thin margin somewhat incurved, disk
expanded, uneven, near the center cracked into numerous small viscid
brownish areoles; pileus flesh color, flesh same color except toward the
gills. Gills dark drab gray, arcuate, distant, decurrent, many of them forked,
separating easily from the hymenophore, peeling off in broad sheets, and
leaving behind corresponding elevations of the hymenophore which
extended between the laminæ of the lamellæ. Pileus 7 cm. in diameter; stem
4–5 cm. long by 2 cm. diameter.

In drying, the entire plant as well as the gluten becomes black, on the pileus
a shining black.

The spores are rusty to dark brown, or nearly black, fusoid or oblong, and
measure 15–22 × 5–6 µ.

Figure 51.—Gomphidius nigricans. Under view with portion of gills stripped off
from hymenophore, showing forked character of gills (natural size). Copyright.

In Fig. 50 a side and under view of the plant are given, and in Fig. 51 a
view after a portion of the lamellæ have been peeled off, showing how
nicely the separation takes place, as well as showing the forked character of
the lamellæ and the processes of the pileus, which extend between the
laminæ of the lamellæ.

This plant seems to be very near Gomphidius glutinosus (Schaeff.), Fr., if
not identical with it, though the illustrations cited in Schaeffer and in
Krombholz seem to indicate a stouter plant. The descriptions say nothing as
to the appearance of the dried plant.

CHAPTER VI.

THE WHITE-SPORED AGARICS.

The spores are white in mass, or sometimes with a faint yellowish or lilac
tinge. For analytical keys to the genera see Chapter XXIV.

AMANITA Pers.

The genus Amanita has both a volva and a veil; the spores are white, and
the stem is easily separable from the cap. In the young stage the volva
forms a universal veil, that is, a layer of fungus tissue which entirely
envelops the young plant. In the button stage, where this envelope runs over
the cap, it is more or less free from it, that is, it is not "concrete" with the
surface of the pileus. As the pileus expands and the stem elongates, the
volva is ruptured in different ways according to the species. In some the
volva splits at the apex and is left as a "cup" at the base of the stem. In
others it splits circularly, that is, transversely across the middle, the lower
half forming a shallow cup with a very narrow rim, or in other cases it is
closely fitted against the stem, while the upper half remains on the cap and
is broken up into patches or warts. In still other cases the volva breaks
irregularly, and only remnants of it may be found on either the base of the
stem or on the pileus. For the various conditions one must consult the
descriptions of the species. The genus is closely related to Lepiota, from

which it is separated by the volva being separate from the pileus. This genus
contains some of the most deadly poisonous mushrooms, and also some of
the species are edible. Morgan, Jour. Mycol. 3: 25–33, describes 28 species.
Peck, 33d Report N. Y. State Mus., pp. 38–49, describes 14 species. Lloyd,
A Compilation of the Volvæ of the U. S., Cincinnati, 1898, gives a brief
synopsis of our species.

Amanita muscaria Linn. Poisonous.—This plant in some places is
popularly known as the fly agaric, since infusions of it are used as a fly
poison. It occurs during the summer and early autumn. It grows along
roadsides near trees, or in groves, and in woods, according to some
preferring a rather poor gravelly soil. It attains its typical form usually
under these conditions in groves or rather open woods where the soil is
poor. It is a handsome and striking plant because of the usually brilliant
coloring of the cap in contrast with the white stems and gills, and the
usually white scales on the surface. It usually ranges from 10–15 cm. high,
and the cap from 8–12 cm. broad, while the stem is 1–1.5 cm. in thickness,
or the plant may be considerably larger.

Plate 12, Figure 52.—Amanita muscaria, "buttons," showing different stages of
rupture of the volva or universal veil, and formation of inner veil (natural size).
Copyright.

Plate 13, Figure 53.—Amanita muscaria. Further stages in opening of plant,
formation of veil and ring. Cap yellowish, or orange. Scales on cap and at base
of stem white; stem and gills white (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus passes from convex to expanded and nearly flat in age, the
margin when mature is marked by depressed lines forming parallel
striations, and on the surface are numbers of scattered floccose or rather
compact scales, formed from the fragments of the upper part of the volva or
outer veil. These scales are usually white in color and are quite easily
removed, so that old plants are sometimes quite free from them. The scales
are sometimes yellowish in color. The color of the pileus varies from yellow
to orange, or even red, the yellow color being more common. Late in the
season the color is paler, and in old plants also the color fades out, so that
white forms are sometimes found. The flesh is white, sometimes yellowish
underneath the cuticle. The gills in typical forms are white, in some forms
accredited to this species they are yellowish. The stem is cylindrical,
hollow, or stuffed when young, and enlarged below into a prominent bulb. It
is white, covered with loose floccose scales, or more or less lacerate or torn,

and the lower part of the stem and upper part of the bulb are marked usually
by prominent concentric scales forming interrupted rings. These are formed
by the splitting of the outer veil or volva, and form the remnants of the
volva present on the base of the stem.

The main features in the development of the plant are shown in Figs. 52–54,
where a series from the button stage to the mature plant is represented. In
the youngest specimens the outline of the bulb and the young convex or
nearly globose cap are only seen, and these are covered with the more or
less floccose outer veil or volva. The fungus threads composing this layer
cease to grow, and with the expansion of the cap and the elongation of the
stem, the volva is torn into patches. The upper and lower surface of the
inner veil is attached to the edge of the gills and to the outer surface of the
stem by loose threads, which are torn asunder as the pileus expands.
Floccose scales are thus left on the surface of the stem below the annulus,
as in the left hand plant of Fig. 53. The veil remains attached longer to the
gills and is first separated from the stem. Again, as in the right hand plant, it
may first be separated from the gills when it is later ripped up from the
stem.

The fly agaric is one of the well known poisonous species and is very
widely distributed in this country, as well as in other parts of the world. In
well developed forms there should be no difficulty in distinguishing it from
the common mushroom by even a novice. Nor should there be difficulty in
distinguishing it from the royal agaric, or Cæsar's agaric (Amanita
cæsarea), by one who has become reasonably familiar with the characters
and appearance of the two. But small and depauperate specimens of the two
species run so nearly together in form, color, and surface characters, that it
becomes a matter of some difficulty for even an expert to distinguish them.

Figure 54.—Amanita muscaria. View of upper side of cap (natural size). Colors
as in Fig. 53. Copyright.

Figures 52–54 are from plants (No. 2065 C. U. herbarium) collected in an
open woods near Ithaca. For the poisonous property of the plant see Chapter
XXII.

Amanita frostiana Pk. Poisonous.—According to Dr. Peck, who published
the first description of this plant, it grows in company with Amanita
muscaria, but seems to prefer more dense woods, especially mixed or
hemlock woods, and occurs from June to October. The plant is 5–8 cm.
high, the caps 2–5 cm. broad, and the stems 3–6 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is "convex to expanded, bright orange or yellow, warty,
sometimes nearly or quite smooth, striate on the margin; lamellæ white or
tinged with yellow; stem white or yellowish, stuffed, bearing a slight,
sometimes evanescent annulus, bulbous at the base, the bulb slightly

margined by the volva; spores globose," 7.5–10 µ in diameter. He notes that
it appears like a small form of A. muscaria, to which it was first referred as
var. minor,—"The only characters for distinguishing it are its small size and
its globose spores." It is near A. muscaria var. puella Pers.

I have several times found this plant in the Adirondack mountains, N. Y.,
and Ithaca, and also at Blowing Rock, N. C. The volva is often yellowish,
so that the warts on the pileus are also yellow, and sometimes the only
remnants of the volva on the base of the stem are yellow or orange particles.
The annulus is also frequently yellow. In our plants, which seem to be
typical, the spores are nearly globose, varying to oval, and with the minute
point where the spore was attached to the sterigma at the smaller end, the
spores usually being finely granular, 6–9 µ in diameter, and rarely varying
towards short elliptical, showing a tendency to approach the shape of the
spores of A. muscaria. The species as I have seen it is a very variable one,
large forms being difficult to separate from A. muscaria, on the one hand,
and others difficult to separate from the depauperate forms of A. cæsarea.
In the latter, however, the striæ are coarser, though the yellow color may be
present only on portions of the pileus. The spores of A. cæsarea are from
globose to oval, ovate or short elliptical, the globose ones often agreeing in
size with the spores of A. frostiana, but they usually contain a prominent oil
drop or "nucleus," often nearly filling the spore. In some specimens of A.
frostiana the spores are quite variable, being nearly globose, ovate to
elliptical, approaching the spores of A. muscaria. These intermediate forms
should not in themselves lead one to regard all these three species as
representing variations in a single variable species. With observations in the
field I should think it possible to separate them.

Amanita phalloides Fr. Deadly Poisonous.—The Amanita phalloides and
its various forms, or closely related species, are the most dangerous of the
poisonous mushrooms. For this reason the A. phalloides is known as the

deadly agaric, or deadly amanita. The plant is very variable in color, the
forms being pure white, or yellowish, green, or olive to umber. Variations
also occur in the way in which the volva ruptures, as well as in the surface
characters of the stem, and thus it is often a difficult matter to determine
whether all these forms represent a single variable species or whether there
are several species, and if so, what are the limits of these species. Whether
these are recognized as different forms of one species or as different
species, they are all very poisonous. The plant usually occurs in woods or
along the borders of woods. It does, however, sometimes occur in lawns. It
varies from 6–20 cm. high, the cap from 3–10 cm. broad, and the stem 6–10
mm. in thickness.

Figure 55.—Amanita phalloides, white form, showing cap, stem, ring, and cup-
like volva with a free, prominent limb (natural size).

The pileus is fleshy, viscid or slimy when moist, smooth, that is, not striate,
orbicular to bell-shaped, convex and finally expanded, and in old specimens
more or less depressed by the elevation of the margin. The cap is often free
from any remnants of the volva, while in other cases portions of the volva
or outer veil appear on the surface of the cap in rather broad patches, or it
may be broken up into a number of smaller ones quite evenly distributed
over the surface of the cap. The presence or absence of these scales on the
cap depends entirely on the way in which the volva ruptures. When there is
a clean rupture at the apex the pileus is free from scales, but if portions of
the apex of the volva are torn away they are apt to remain on the cap.

Plate 14, Figure 56.—Amanita phalloides, brownish, umber, or olive-brown
form (natural size). Caps brownish or whitish, and streaked with brown, scales
white, gills and stem white, stem slowly turning dull brown where bruised.
Copyright.

The white form is common in this country, and so is the olive or umber
form. The yellow form is rarer. Sometimes there is only a tinge of yellow at

the center of the white pileus, while in other cases a large part of the pileus
may be yellow, a deeper shade usually on the center. The green form is
probably more common in Europe than in this country. The olive form
varies considerably also in the depth of the color, usually darker on the
center and fading out to light olive or gray, or whitish, on the margin. In
other cases the entire pileus may be dark olive or umber color. The gills in
all the forms are white, and free from the stem or only joined by a narrow
line. The stem is stuffed when young, but in age is nearly or quite hollow. It
is cylindrical, 6–20 cm. long × 6–12 mm. in thickness. In the larger
specimens the bulb is quite prominent and abrupt, while in the smaller
specimens it is not always proportionally so large. The stem is usually
smooth and the color is white, except in the dark forms, when it is dingy or
partakes more or less of the color of the pileus, though much lighter in
shade. There is a tendency in these forms to a discoloration of the stem
where handled or bruised, and this should caution one in comparing such
forms with the edible A. rubescens.

Figure 57.—Amanita phalloides, volva circumscissile, cap scaly, limb of volva
not prominent, cap dark, scales white (natural size). Copyright.

Perhaps no part of the plant is more variable than the outer veil or volva.
Where the volva is quite thick and stout it usually splits at the apex, and
there is a prominent free limb, as shown in Fig. 55. Sometimes thin portions
of the volva are caught, and remain on the surface of the pileus. But when
the volva is thinner and of a looser texture, it splits transversely about the
middle, circumscissile, and all or a large part of the upper half of the volva
then clings to the cap, and is separated into patches. Between this and the
former condition there seem to be all gradations. Some of these are shown
in Fig. 56, which is from a photograph of dark olive and umber forms, from

plants collected in the Blue Ridge mountains, at Blowing Rock, N. C.,
during September, 1899. In the very young plant the volva split transversely
(in a circumscissile fashion) quite clearly, and the free limb is quite short
and distant from the stem on the margin of the saucer-like bulb. In the large
and fully expanded plant at the center, the volva ruptured irregularly at the
apex, and portions of the thin upper half remain as patches on the cap while
the larger part remains as the free limb, attached at the margin of the broad
saucer-shaped bulb, and collapsed up against the base of the stem.

Figure 58.—Amanita phalloides, volva circumscissile, concave bulb margined
by definite short limb of volva; upper part of volva has disappeared from cap;
cap whitish, tinged with brown.

Figure 58 and the small plant in Fig. 56, both from photographs of the sooty
form of Amanita phalloides, show in a striking manner the typical condition
of the circumscissile volva margining the broad saucer-like bulb as
described for Amanita mappa. The color of A. mappa is usually said to be
straw color, but Fries even says that the color is as in A. phalloides, "now
white, now green, now yellow, now dark brown" (Epicrisis, page 6).
According to this, Fig. 58 would represent A. mappa.

The variable condition in this one species A. phalloides, now splitting at the
apex, now tearing up irregularly, now splitting in a definitely circumscissile
manner, seems to bid defiance to any attempt to separate the species of
Amanita into groups based on the manner in which the volva ruptures.
While it seems to be quite fixed and characteristic in certain species, it is so
extremely variable in others as to lead to the suspicion that it is responsible
in some cases for the multiplication and confusion of species. At the same
time, the occurrence of some of these forms at certain seasons of the year
suggests the desirability of prolonged and careful study of fresh material,
and the search for additional evidence of the unity of these forms, or of their
definite segregation.

Figure 59.—Amanita verna, white (natural size). Copyright.

Since the Amanita phalloides occurs usually in woods, or along borders of
woods, there is little danger of confounding it with edible mushrooms
collected in lawns distant from the woods, and in open fields. However, it
does occur in lawns bordering on woods, and in the summer of 1899 I
found several of the white forms of this species in a lawn distant from the
woods. This should cause beginners and those not thoroughly familiar with
the appearance of the plant to be extremely cautious against eating
mushrooms simply because they were not collected in or near the woods.
Furthermore, sometimes the white form of the deadly amanita possesses a

faint tinge of pink in the gills, which might lead the novice to mistake it for
the common mushroom. The bulb of the deadly amanita is usually inserted
quite deep in the soil or leaf mold, and specimens are often picked leaving
the very important character of the volva in the ground, and then the plant
might easily be taken for the common mushroom, or more likely for the
smooth lepiota, Lepiota naucina, which is entirely white, the gills only in
age showing a faint pink tinge. It is very important, therefore, that, until one
has such familiarity with these plants that they are easily recognized in the
absence of some of these characters, the stem should be carefully dug from
the soil. In the case of the specimens of the deadly amanita growing in the
lawn on the campus of Cornell University, the stems were sunk to three to
four inches in the quite hard ground.

Amanita verna Bull. Deadly Poisonous.—The Amanita verna is by some
considered as only a white form of the Amanita phalloides. It is of a pure
white color, and this in addition to its very poisonous property has led to its
designation as the "destroying angel."

Figure 60.—Amanita verna, "buttons," cap bursting through the volva; left hand
plant in section (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is smooth and viscid when moist; the gills free; the stem stuffed
or hollow in age; the annulus forms a broad collar, and the volva is split at
the apex, and being quite stout, the free limb is prominent, and it hugs more
or less closely to the base of the stem. Figure 59 represents the form of the
plant which Gillet recognizes as A. verna; the pileus convex, the annulus
broad and entire, and the stem scaly. These floccose scales are formed as a
result of the separation of the annulus from the outer layer of the stem.

The characters presented in the formation of the veil and annulus in this
species are very interesting, and sometimes present two of the types in the
formation of the veil and annulus found in the genus Amanita. In the very
young plant, in the button stage, as the young gills lie with their edges close

against the side of the stem, loose threads extend from the edges of the gills
to the outer layer of the stem. This outer layer of the stem forms the veil,
and is more or less loosely connected with the firmer portion of the stem by
loose threads. As the pileus expands, the threads connecting the edges of the
gills with the veil are stronger than those which unite the veil with the
surface of the stem. The veil is separated from the stem then,
simultaneously, or nearly so, throughout its entire extent, and is not ripped
up from below as in Amanita velatipes.

As the pileus expands, then, the veil lies closely over the edges of the gills
until finally it is freed from them and from the margin of the pileus. As the
veil is split off from the surface of the stem, the latter is torn into numerous
floccose scales, as shown in Fig. 59.

In other cases, in addition to the primary veil which is separated from the
stem in the manner described above, there is a secondary veil formed in
exactly the same way as that described for Amanita velatipes.

Figure 61.—Amanita verna, small form, white (natural size). Copyright.

In such cases there are two veils, or a double veil, each attached to the
margin of the pileus, the upper one ascending over the edges of the gills and
attached above on the stem, while the lower one descends and is attached
below as it is being ripped up from a second layer of the stem. Figures 59–
61 are from plants collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., in September, 1899.

Amanita virosa Fr. Deadly Poisonous.—This plant also by some is
regarded as only a form of Amanita phalloides. It is a pure white plant and
the pileus is viscid as in the A. verna and A. phalloides. The volva splits at
the apex as in A. verna, but the veil is very fragile and torn into shreds as

the pileus expands, portions of it clinging to the margin of the cap as well as
to the stem, as shown in Fig. 62. The stem is also adorned with soft floccose
scales. Gillet further states that the pileus is conic to campanulate, not
becoming convex as in A. verna and A. phalloides.

The variability presented in the character of the veil and in the shape of the
pileus suggests, as some believe, that all these are but forms of a single
variable species. On the other hand, we need a more careful and extended
field study of these variations. Doubtless different interpretations of the
specific limits by different students will lead some to recognize several
species where others would recognize but one. Since species are not distinct
creations there may be tolerably good grounds for both of these views.

Figure 62.—Amanita virosa, white (natural size). Copyright.

Amanita floccocephala Atkinson. Probably Poisonous.—This species
occurs in woods and groves at Ithaca during the autumn. The plants are
medium sized, 6–8 cm. high, the cap 3–6 cm. broad, and the stems 4–6 mm.
in thickness.

The pileus is hemispherical to convex, and expanded, smooth, whitish, with
a tinge of straw color, and covered with torn, thin floccose patches of the
upper half of the circumscissile volva. The gills are white and adnexed. The
spores are globose, 7–10 µ. The stem is cylindrical or slightly tapering
above, hollow or stuffed, floccose scaly and abruptly bulbous below. The

annulus is superior, that is, near the upper end of the stem,
membranaceous, thin, sometimes tearing, as in A. virosa. The volva is
circumscissile, the margin of the bulb not being clear cut and prominent,
because there is much refuse matter and soil interwoven with the lower
portion of the volva. The bulb closely resembles those in Cooke's figure
(Illustrations, 4) of A. mappa. Figure 63 shows these characters well.

Figure 63.—Amanita floccocephala (natural size). Copyright.

Amanita velatipes Atkinson. Properties Unknown.—This plant is very
interesting since it shows in a striking manner the peculiar way in which the
veil is formed in some of the species of Amanita. Though not possessing
brilliant colors, it is handsome in its form and in the peculiar setting of the
volva fragments on the rich brown or faint yellow of the pileus. It has been
found on several occasions during the month of July in a beech woods on

one of the old flood plains of Six-mile creek, one of the gorges in the
vicinity of Ithaca, N. Y. The mature plant is from 15–20 cm. high, the cap
from 8–10 cm. broad, and the stem 1–1.5 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is viscid when moist, rounded, then broadly oval and convex to
expanded, striate on the margin, sometimes in old plants the margin is
elevated. It is smooth throughout, and of a soft, rich hair brown, or umber
brown color, darker in the center. Sometimes there is a decided but dull
maize yellow tinge over the larger part of the pileus, but even then the
center is often brown in color, shading into the yellow color toward the
margin; the light yellow forms in age, often thinning out to a cream color.
The flesh of the pileus is rather thin, even in the center, and becomes very
thin toward the margin, as shown in Fig. 67. The scales on the pileus are
more or less flattened, rather thin, clearly separated from the pileus, and
easily removed. They are more or less angular, and while elongated
transversely at first, become nearly isodiametric as the pileus becomes fully
expanded, passing from an elongated form to rectangular, or sinuous in
outline, the margin more or less upturned, especially in age, when they
begin to loosen and "peel" from the surface of the cap. They are lighter in
color than the pileus and I have never observed the yellow tint in them. The
gills are white, broad at the middle, about 1 cm., and taper gradually toward
each end. The spores are usually inequilaterally oval, 8–10 × 6–7 µ,
granular when young, when mature with a large oil drop.

Plate 15, Figure 64.—Amanita velatipes (3/4 natural size). Cap hair-brown, or
umber-brown, sometimes with tinge of lemon yellow, or entirely maize-yellow.
Scales, gills, and stem white. Copyright.

Figure 65.—Amanita velatipes. Different stages of "buttons," in the right-hand
plant the upper part of the volva separating to form the scales (natural size).
Copyright.

The stem is cylindrical, somewhat bulbous, the bulb often tapering
abruptly, as shown in Figs. 64, 66. The stem is white, smooth, or floccose
scaly where the veil has been ripped off from it. It is hollow and stuffed
with loose cottony threads, as shown in Fig. 67. The veil is formed by the
ripping up of the outer layer of the stem as the latter elongates and as the
pileus expands. When it is freed from the margin of the cap it collapses and
hangs downward as a broad collar (Fig. 64). The annulus is inferior, its
position on the stem being due to the peculiar way in which it is formed.

Figure 66.—Amanita velatipes. Three plants natural size, the left-hand one
sectioned, showing stuffed center of stem. Others show how veil is ripped up
from the stem. For other details see text. Copyright.

Some of the stages of development are illustrated in Figs. 64–67. The
buttons are queer looking objects, the bulb being the most prominent part. It
tapers abruptly below, and on the upper side is the small rounded young cap
seated in the center. The volva is present as a rough floccose layer, covering
the upper part of the bulb and the young cap. As the stem elongates and the
pileus enlarges and expands, the volva is torn into areolate patches. The
lower patches, those adjoining the margin of the cap and the upper part of
the bulb, are separated in a more or less concentric manner. One or more of

them lie on the upper part of the bulb, forming the "limb" of the "ocreate"
volva. Others lie around the margin of the pileus. Sometimes an annular one
bordering the pileus and bulb is left clinging part way up on the stem, as
shown in Fig. 66. The concentric arrangement on the pileus is sometimes
shown for a considerable time, as in Fig. 67, the elongated areas being
present in greater number at this age of the pileus. However, as the pileus
expands more, these are separated into smaller areas and their connection
with the surface of the pileus becomes less firm.

The formation of the veil and annulus can be easily followed in these
figures. The margin of the cap in the button stage is firmly connected with
the outer layer of the stem at its lower end. This probably occurs by the
intermingling growth of the threads from the lower end of the stem and the
margin of the cap, while the edges of the gills are quite free from the stem.
Now as the stem elongates and the cap expands the veil is "ripped" up from
the outer part of the stem. This is very clearly shown in Fig. 66, especially
where two strips on the stem have become disconnected from the margin of
the cap and are therefore left in position on the outside of the stem.

This species is related to A. excelsa Fr., which is said to have a superior
ring.

Plate 16, Figure 67.—Amanita velatipes. The right-hand plant shows how the
veil is ripped up from the stem and also shows the transversely elongate scales
on the cap. For details see text (natural size). Copyright.

Amanita cothurnata Atkinson. Probably Poisonous.—The booted
amanita, Amanita cothurnata, I have found in two different years in the
Blue Ridge mountains at Blowing Rock, N. C., once in 1888, during the
first week of September, and again during the three first weeks in
September, 1899. It occurs sparingly during the first week or so of
September, and during the middle of the month is very abundant. The
species seems to be clearly distinct from other species of Amanita, and there
are certain characters so persistent as to make it easily recognizable. It

ranges in height from 7–12 cm. and the caps are 3–7 cm. or more broad,
while the stems are 4–10 mm. in thickness. The entire plant is usually
white, but in some specimens the cap has a tinge of citron yellow, or in
others tawny olive, in the center.

Plate 17, Figure 68.—Amanita cothurnata. Different stages of development; for
details see text. Entire plant white, sometimes tinge of umber at center of cap,
and rarely slight tinge of lemon-yellow at center (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is fleshy, and passes, in its development, from nearly globose to
hemispherical, convex, expanded, and when specimens are very old
sometimes the margin is elevated. It is usually white, though specimens are
found with a tinge of citron yellow in the center, or of tawny olive in the
center of other specimens. The pileus is viscid, strongly so when moist. It is
finely striate on the margin, and covered with numerous, white, floccose
scales from the upper half of the volva, forming more or less dense patches,
which may wash off in heavy rains. The gills are rounded next the stem, and
quite remote from it. The edge of the gills is often eroded or frazzly from
the torn out threads with which they were loosely connected to the upper

side of the veil in the young or button stage. The spores are globose or
nearly so, with a large "nucleus" nearly filling the spore.

Figure 69.—Amanita cothurnata. Different stages opening up of plant, the two
center ones showing veil being ripped from stem, but veil narrow. The right-hand
illustration has been scratched transversely, these marks not being characteristic
of the plant (natural size). Copyright.

The stem is cylindrical, even, and expanded below into quite a large oval
bulb, the stem just above the bulb being margined by a close fitting roll of
the volva, and the upper edge of this presenting the appearance of having
been sewed at the top like the rolled edge of a garment or buskin. The
surface of the stem is minutely floccose scaly or strongly so, and decidedly

hollow even from a very young stage, or sometimes when young with loose
threads in the cavity.

Figures 68–70, from plants (No. 3715, C. U. herbarium) collected at
Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899, illustrate certain of the
features in the form and development of this plant.

Figure 70.—Amanita cothurnata. Two plants in section showing clearly hollow
stem, veil attachment, etc. (natural size). Copyright.

In Amanita frostiana the remains of the volva sometimes form a similar
collar, but not so stout, on the base of the stem. The variations in A.
frostiana where the stem, annulus and gills are white might suggest that

there is a close relationship between A. frostiana and A. cothurnata, and
that the latter is only a form of the former. From a careful study of the two
plants growing side by side the evidence is convincing that the two are
distinct. Amanita frostiana occurs also at Blowing Rock, appearing earlier
in the season than A. cothurnata, and also being contemporary with it. A.
frostiana is more variable, not nearly so viscid, nor nearly so abundant, the
stem is solid or stuffed, the annulus is more frail and evolved from the stem
in a different manner. The volva does not leave such a constant and well
defined roll where it separated on the stem transversely, and the pileus is
yellow or orange. When A. cothurnata is yellowish at all it is a different tint
of yellow and then only a tinge of yellow at the center. Albino or faded
forms of A. frostiana might occur, but we would not expect them to appear
at a definite season of the year in great abundance while the normal form,
showing no intergrading specimens in the same locality, continued to
appear in the same abundance and with the same characters as before. The
dried plants of A. cothurnata are apt to become tinged with yellow on the
gills, the upper part of the stem and upper part of the annulus during the
processes of drying, but the pileus does not change in like manner, nor do
these plants show traces of yellow on these parts when fresh. The spores are
also decidedly different, though the shape and size do not differ to any great
extent. In A. frostiana and the pale forms of the species the spores are
nearly globose or oval, rarely with a tendency to become elliptical, but the
content is quite constantly finely granular, while the spores of A.
cothurnata are perhaps more constantly globose or nearly so, but the spore
is nearly filled with a highly refractive oil globule or "nucleus." The pileus
of A. frostiana is also thinner than that of A. cothurnata. It is nearer, in
some respects, to specimens of Amanita pantherina received from
Bresadola, of Austria-Hungary.

Figure 71.—Amanita spreta. The two outside plants show the free limb of the
volva lying close against the stem (natural size, often larger). Copyright.

Amanita spreta Pk. Said to be Poisonous.—According to Peck this
species grows in open or bushy places. The specimens illustrated in Fig. 71
grew in sandy ground by the roadside near trees in the edge of an open field
at Blowing Rock, N. C., and others were found in a grove. The plants are
10–15 cm. high, the caps 6–12 cm. broad, and the stems 8–12 mm. in
thickness. The pileus is convex to expanded, gray or light drab, and darker
on the center, or according to Dr. Peck it may be white. It is smooth, or with
only a few remnants of the volva, striate on the margin, and 1—.5 cm. thick
at the center. The gills are white, adnexed, that is they reach the stem by
their upper angle. The stem is of the same color as the pileus, but somewhat
lighter, white to light gray or light drab, cylindrical, not bulbous, hollow or
stuffed. The annulus is thin and attached above the middle of the stem. The

volva is sordid white, and sheathes the stem with a long free limb of 3–5
lobes. It splits at the apex, but portions sometimes cling to the surface of the
pileus.

Figure 71 is from plants (No. 3707, C. U.) collected at Blowing Rock, N.
C., September, 1899.

Amanita cæsarea Scop. Edible, but use great caution.—This plant is
known as the orange amanita, royal agaric, Cæsar's agaric, etc. It is one of
the most beautiful of all the agarics, and is well distributed over the earth.
With us it is more common in the Southern States. It occurs in the summer
and early autumn in the woods. It is easily recognized by its usually large
size, yellow or orange color of the cap, gills, stem and ring, and the
prominent, white, sac-like volva at the base of the stem. It is usually 12–20
cm. high, the cap 5–10 cm. broad, and the stems 6–10 mm. in thickness,
though it may exceed this size, and depauperate forms are met with which
are much smaller.

The pileus is ovate to bell-shaped, convex, and finally more or less
expanded, when the surface may be nearly flat or the center may be
somewhat elevated or umbonate and the margin curved downward. The
surface is smooth except at the margin, where it is prominently striate. The
color varies from orange to reddish or yellow, usually the well developed
and larger specimens have the deeper and richer colors, while the smaller
specimens have the lighter colors, and the color is usually deeper on the
center of the pileus. The gills are yellow, and free from the stem. The stem
is hollow, even in young plants, when it may be stuffed with loose threads.
It is often very floccose scaly below the annulus. It is cylindrical, only
slightly enlarged below, where it is covered by the large, fleshy, sac-like
white volva. The annulus is membranaceous, large, and hangs like a broad
collar from the upper part of the stem. The stem and ring are orange or

yellow, the depth of the color varying more with the size of the plant than is
the case with the color of the cap. In small specimens the stem is often
white, especially in depauperate specimens are the stem and annulus white,
and even the gills are white when the volva may be so reduced as to make it
difficult to distinguish the specimens from similar specimens of the
poisonous fly agaric.

Plate 18, Figure 72.—Amanita cæsarea. Different stages of development (2/3
natural size). Cap, stem, gills, veil orange or yellow. Volva white. Copyright.

In the button stage the plant is ovate and the white color of the volva, which
at this time entirely surrounds the plants, presents an appearance not unlike
that of an egg. The volva splits open at the apex as the stem elongates. The
veil is often connected by loose threads with the outer portion of the stem
and as the pileus expands this is torn away, leaving coarse floccose scales
on the stem. Some of the different stages in the opening of the plant are
shown in Fig. 72. This illustration is taken from a photograph of plants (No.
3726, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899.

The plant is said to be one of the best esculents, and has been prized as an
article of food from ancient times. Great caution should be used in
distinguishing it from the fly agaric and from other amanitas.

PLATE 19.
Fig. 1.—Amanita rubescens
Fig. 2.—A. cæsarea.
Copyright 1900.

Amanita rubescens Fr. Edible, but use great caution.—The reddish
amanita, Amanita rubescens, is so called because of the sordid reddish color
diffused over the entire plant, and especially because bruised portions
quickly change to a reddish color. The plant is often quite large, from 12–20

cm. high, the cap 8–12 cm. broad and the stem 8–12 mm. in thickness, but
it is sometimes much smaller. It occurs during the latter part of the summer
and in early autumn, in woods and open places.

Figure 73.—Amanita rubescens. Plant partly expanded. Dull reddish brown,
stains reddish when bruised; for other details see text (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is oval to convex, and becoming expanded when old. It is
smooth or faintly striate on the margin, and covered with numerous
scattered, thin, floccose, grayish scales, forming remnants of the larger part
of the volva or outer veil. The color of the cap varies correspondingly, but is
always tinged more or less distinctly with pink, red, or brownish red hues.
The gills are white or whitish and free from the stem. The stem is nearly

cylindrical, tapering some above, and with a prominent bulb which often
tapers abruptly below. In addition to the suffused dull reddish color the stem
is often stained with red, especially where handled or touched by some
object. There are very few evidences of the volva on the stem since the
volva is so floccose and torn into loose fragments, most of which remain on
the surface of the cap. Sometimes a few of these loose fragments are seen
on the upper portion of the bulb, but they are easily removed by handling or
by rains. The annulus is membranous, broad, and fragile.

Since the plant has become well known it is regarded as excellent and
wholesome for food and pleasant to the taste. In case of the larger
specimens there should be no difficulty in distinguishing it from others by
those who care to compare the descriptions closely with the fresh
specimens. But as in all cases beginners should use extreme caution in
eating plants they have not become thoroughly familiar with. Small
specimens of this species sometimes show but little of the reddish color,
and are therefore difficult to determine.

Figures 73 and 74 are from plants (No. 3727 C. U. herbarium) collected at
Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

Amanita solitaria Bull. Edible, but use caution.—The solitary amanita,
like many other plants, is not always true to its name. While it often occurs
solitary, it does occur sometimes in groups. It is one of the largest of the
amanitas. Its large size, together with its chalky white or grayish white
color, and ragged or shaggy appearance, makes it a striking object in the
woods, or along roadsides in woods where it grows. Frequently parts of the
cap, the entire stem and the gills are covered with a white, crumbly,
floccose substance of a mealy consistency which often sticks to the hands
or other objects. The plant ranges from 15–20 cm. or more high, the cap
from 8–15 cm. broad, and the stems are 1–2 cm. or more in thickness.

In form the pileus ranges from nearly globose in the button stage, to
hemispherical, convex and expanded, when quite old the margin becoming
more or less elevated. It is covered either with flaky or floccose portions of
the volva, or with more or less distinct conic white scales, especially toward
the center. The conic scales are easily rubbed off in handling or are easily
washed off by rains. Many of them are loosened and fall because of the
tension produced by the expanding pileus on the surface of which they rest.
These scales vary in size from quite small ones, appearing like granules, to
those fewer in number and larger, 3 mm. high and nearly as broad at the
base. In other cases the scales are harder and stouter and dark colored.
These forms will be discussed after the description of the other parts of the
plant.

Plate 20, Figure 74.—Amanita rubescens. Under and side view. Dull reddish
brown, stains reddish where bruised (3/4 natural size). Copyright.

Plate 21, Figure 75.—Amanita solitaria. Entirely white, or cap and scales sordid
buff, dull brown, or grayish in some plants. For details see text (1/2 natural size).
Copyright.

The gills are free, or are only attached by the upper inner angle; the edges
are often floccose where they are torn from the slight union with the upper
surface of the veil. The stem is cylindrical, solid or stuffed when old,
enlarged usually below into a prominent bulb which then tapers into a more
or less elongated root-like process, sometimes extending 5–10 cm. in the
ground below the bulb. In rare cases the bulb is not present, but the
cylindrical stem extends for a considerable distance into the ground. The
veil is a very interesting part of the plant and the manner in which it forms
and disappears as the cap expands is worth a careful study. This is well
shown in Figs. 75, 76, from photographs of plants (No. 3731 C. U.
herbarium) made at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

During the latter part of August and the first three weeks of September the
plants were quite common in the mountain woods at Blowing Rock. In
certain features there was close agreement in the case of all the specimens
examined, especially in the long rooting character of the base of the stem.
The veil and annulus were also quite constant in their characters, though
sometimes a tendency was manifested to split up more irregularly than at
other times. In the character of the warts of the pileus there was great
variation, showing typical forms of Amanita solitaria and grading into
forms which might be taken for typical Amanita strobiliformis. Especially is
this so in the case of some of my specimens (No. 3733), where the scales
are pyramidal, dark brown, surrounded by a sordid buff or grayish area, and
these latter areas separated by narrow chinks whitish in color. The scales in
this specimen are fixed quite firmly to the surface of the pileus. In other
specimens (No. 3732) these hard scales remove quite easily, while in still
another the pileus is almost smooth, even the floccose scales having been
obliterated, while a very few of the hard angular warts are still present. In
another half expanded plant (of No. 3732) the warts are pyramidal, 4–6
mm. long at the center of the pileus and rather closely imbricated, hard, and
firmly joined to the surface of the cap. In Nos. 3733 and 3731 the spores
measure 7–9 × 4–6 µ. In 3732 they are longer, varying from 7–11 µ.

The specimens with the long hard scales suggest Amanita strobiliformis
Vittad., but the long rooting base of the stem does not agree with the
description of that plant, but does clearly agree with Amanita solitaria Bull.
A study of the variations in these plants suggests that Amanita solitaria and
strobiliformis Vittad., represent only variations in a single species as
Bulliard interpreted the species more than a century ago. Forms of the plant
are also found which suggest that A. polypyramis B. & C., collected in
North Carolina, is but one of the variations of A. solitaria.

Figures 75, 76 show well certain stages in the development of this plant.
The conical or pyramidal warts are formed in a very young stage of the
plant by the primary separation of the outer part of the volva, and as the
pileus expands more, and the cessation of growth of the outer veil proceeds
inward, the scales become more widely separated at the apex and broader at
the base. In some cases the volva is probably thinner than in others, and
with the rapid expansion of the pileus in wet weather the scales would be
smaller, or more floccose. But with different conditions, when it is not so
wet, the plant expands less rapidly, the surface of the pileus becomes drier,
the volva layer does not separate so readily and the fissures between the
scales proceed deeper, and sometimes probably enter the surface of the
pileus, so that the size of the warts is augmented. A similar state of things
sometimes takes place on the base of the stem at the upper margin of the
bulb, where the concentric fissures may extend to some distance in the
stem, making the scales here more prominent in some specimens than in
others. A similar variation in the character of the scales on the bulb of
Amanita muscaria is sometimes presented.

The veil is often loosely attached to the edges of the gills, and so is stripped
off from the stem quite early. Sometimes it is more strongly adherent to the
stem, or portions of it may be, when it is very irregularly ruptured as it is
peeled off from the stem, as shown in the plant near the left side in Fig. 75.
The veil is very fragile and often tears a little distance from the margin of
the cap, while the portion attached to the stem forms the annulus. This
condition is shown in the case of three plants in Fig. 75. The plant is said to
be edible.

AMANITOPSIS Roze.

This genus has white spores, and a volva, but the annulus and inner veil are
wanting. In other respects it agrees with Amanita. It is considered as a sub-
genus of Amanita by some.

Plate 22, Figure 76.—Amanita solitaria. Three plants, 3/4 natural size.
Copyright.

Amanitopsis vaginata (Bull.) Roz. Edible.—The sheathed amanitopsis, A.
vaginata, is a quite common and widely distributed plant in woods. It is
well named since the prominent volva forms a large sheath to the
cylindrical base of the stem. The plant occurs in several forms, a gray or
mouse colored form, and a brownish or fulvous form, and sometimes nearly
white. These forms are recognized by some as varieties, and by others as

species. The plants are 8–15 cm. high, the caps 3–7 cm. broad, and the
stems 5–8 mm. in thickness.

Plate 23, Figure 77.—Amanitopsis vaginata. Tawny form (natural size).
Copyright.

The pileus is from ovate to bell-shaped, then convex and expanded,
smooth, rarely with fragments of the volva on the surface. The margin is
thin and marked by deep furrows and ridges, so that it is deeply striate, or
the terms sulcate or pectinate sulcate are used to express the character of the
margin. The term pectinate sulcate is employed on account of a series of
small elevations on the ridges, giving them a pectinate, or comb-like,
appearance. The color varies from gray to mouse color, brown, or
ochraceous brown. The flesh is white. The gills are white or nearly so, and
free. The spores are globose, 7–10 µ in diameter. The stem is cylindrical,
even, or slightly tapering upward, hollow or stuffed, not bulbous, smooth,

or with mealy particles or prominent floccose scales. These scales are
formed by the separation of the edges of the gills from the surface of the
stem, to which they are closely applied before the pileus begins to expand.
Threads of mycelium growing from the edge of the lamellæ and from the
stem intermingle. When the pileus expands these are torn asunder, or by
their pull tear up the outer surface of the stem. The volva forms a prominent
sheath which is usually quite soft and easily collapses (Fig. 77).

The entire plant is very brittle and fragile. It is considered an excellent one
for food. I often eat it raw when collecting.

Authors differ as to the number of species recognized in the plant as
described above. Secretan recognized as many as ten species. The two
prominent color forms are quite often recognized as two species, or by
others as varieties; the gray or mouse colored form as A. livida Pers., and
the tawny form as A. spadicea Pers. According to Fries and others the livida
appears earlier in the season than spadicea, and this fact is recognized by
some as entitling the two to specific rank. Plowright (Trans. Brit. Mycol.
Soc., p. 40, 1897–98) points out that in European forms of spadicea there is
a second volva inside the outer, and in livida there are "folds or wrinkles of
considerable size on the inner surface of the volva." He thinks the two
entitled to specific rank. At Ithaca and in the mountains of North Carolina I
have found both forms appearing at the same season, and thus far have been
unable to detect the differences noted by Plowright in the volva. But I have
never found intergrading color forms, and have not yet satisfied myself as
to whether or not the two should be entitled to specific rank.

Some of the other species of Amanitopsis found in this country are A.
nivalis Grev., an entirely white plant regarded by some as only a white form
of A. vaginata. Another white plant is A. volvata Pk., which has elliptical
spores, and is striate on the margin instead of sulcate.

Figure 78.—Amanitopsis farinosa. Cap grayish (natural size). Copyright.

Amanitopsis farinosa Schw.—The mealy agaric, or powdery amanita, is a
pretty little species. It was first collected and described from North Carolina
by de Schweinitz (Synop. fung. Car. No. 552, 1822), and the specimens
illustrated in Fig. 78 were collected by me at Blowing Rock, N. C., during
September, 1899. Peck has given in the 33rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 49,
an excellent description of the plant, though it often exceeds somewhat the
height given by him. It ranges from 5–8 or 10 cm. high, the cap from 2–3
cm. broad, and the stem 3–6 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is from subglobose to convex and expanded, becoming nearly
plane or even depressed by the elevation of the margin in old specimens.
The color is gray or grayish brown, or mouse colored. The pileus is thin,
and deeply striate on the margin, covered with a grayish floccose, powdery
or mealy substance, the remnant of the evanescent volva. This substance is
denser at the center and is easily rubbed off. The gills are white and free

from the stem. The spores are subglobose and ovate to elliptical, 6–7 µ
long. The stem is cylindrical, even, hollow or stuffed, whitish or gray and
very slightly enlarged at the base into a small rounded bulb which is quite
constant and characteristic, and at first is covered on its upper margin by the
floccose matter from the volva.

Plate 24, Figure 79.—Lepiota naucina. Entirely white (natural size).

At Blowing Rock the plants occurred in sandy soil by roadsides or in open
woods. In habit it resembles strikingly forms of Amanitopsis vaginata, but
the volva is entirely different (Fig. 78). Although A. vaginata was common
in the same locality, I searched in vain for intermediate forms which I
thought might be found. Sometimes the floccose matter would cling
together more or less, and portions of it remained as patches on the lower
part of the stem, while depauperate forms of A. vaginata would have a
somewhat reduced volva, but in no case did I find intermediate stages
between the two kinds of volva.

LEPIOTA Fr.

The genus Lepiota lacks a volva, but the veil is present forming a ring on
the stem. The genus is closely related to Amanita, from which it differs in
the absence of the volva, or perhaps more properly speaking in the fact that
the universal veil is firmly connected (concrete with) with the pileus, and
with the base of the stem, so that a volva is not formed. The gills are usually
free from the stem, some being simply adnexed, but in some species
connected with a collar near the stem. The stem is fleshy and is easily
separable from the cap. A number of the species are edible. Peck, 35th
Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 150–164, describes 18 species. Lloyd, Mycol.
Notes, November, 1898, describes 9 species.

Lepiota naucina Fr. (Lepiota naucinoides Pk., Annularia lævis Krombh.)
Edible.—The smooth lepiota, L. naucina, grows in lawns, in pastures and
by roadsides, etc. It occurs during the latter part of summer and during
autumn, being more abundant in September and early October. It is entirely
white, or the cap is sometimes buff, and in age the gills become dirty pink
in color. It is from 8–12 cm. high, the cap 5–10 cm. broad, and the stem 8–
15 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is very fleshy, nearly globose, then convex to nearly expanded,
smooth, or rarely the surface is broken into minute scales. The gills are first
white, free from the stem, and in age assume a dull pink tinge. The spores
are usually white in mass, but rarely when caught on white paper they show
a faint pink tinge. The spores are elliptical to oval. The stem is nearly
cylindrical, gradually enlarging below so that it is clavate, nearly hollow or
stuffed with loose threads.

Figure 80.—Lepiota naucina.—Section of three plants, different ages.

Since the plant occurs in the same situations as the Agaricus campestris it
might be mistaken for it, especially for white forms. But of course no harm
could come by eating it by mistake for the common mushroom, for it is
valued just as highly for food by some who have eaten it. If one should look
at the gills, however, they would not likely mistake it for the common
mushroom because the gills become pink only when the plant is well
expanded and quite old. There is much more danger in mistaking it for the
white amanitas, A. phalloides, A. verna, or A. virosa, since the gills of these
deadly plants are white, and they do sometimes grow in lawns and other
grassy places where the smooth lepiota and the common mushroom grow.
For this reason one should study the descriptions and illustrations of these
amanitas given on preceding pages, and especially should the suggestions
given there about care in collecting plants be followed, until one is so

certainly familiar with the characters that the plants would be known "on
sight."

Plate 25, Figure 81.—Lepiota procera. Grayish brown to reddish brown, gills
and flesh white (3/4 natural size). Copyright.

The pink color of the gills of this lepiota has led certain students of the
fungi into mistakes of another kind. This pink color of the gills has led
some to place the plant among the rosy spored agarics in the genus
Annularia, where it was named Annularia lævis by Krombholtz (vide
Bresadola Funghi Mangerecci e velenosi, p. 29, 1899). It fits the description
of that plant exactly. The pink color of the gills, as well as the fact that the
gills turn brownish when dry, has led to a confusion in some cases of the

Lepiota naucina with the chalky agaric, Agaricus cretaceus. The external
resemblance of the plants, as shown in various illustrations, is very striking,
and in the chalky agaric the gills remain pink very late, only becoming
brown when very old.

Lepiota procera Scop. Edible.—The parasol mushroom, Lepiota procera,
grows in pastures, lawns, gardens, along roadsides, or in thin woods, or in
gardens. It is a large and handsome plant and when expanded seems not
inappropriately named. It is from 12–20 cm. or more high, the cap expands
from 5–12 cm., while the stem is 4–7 mm. in thickness. It occurs during
summer and in early autumn.

The pileus is oval, then bell-shaped, convex and nearly expanded, with
usually a more or less prominent elevation (umbo) at the center. Sometimes
it is depressed at the center. It is grayish brown or reddish brown in color on
the surface and the flesh is whitish. As the cap expands the surface layer
ceases to grow and is therefore cracked, first narrow chinks appearing,
showing white or grayish threads underneath. As the cap becomes more
expanded the brown surface is torn into scales, which give the cap a more
or less shaggy appearance except on the umbo, where the color is more
uniform. The torn surface of the pileus shows numerous radiating fibres,
and it is soft and yielding to the touch. The gills are remote from the stem,
broad and crowded. The spores are long, elliptical, 12–17 µ long. The stem
is cylindrical, hollow, or stuffed, even, enlarged below into a prominent
bulb, of the same color as the pileus, though paler, especially above the
annulus. The surface is usually cracked into numerous small scales, the
chinks between showing the white inner portion of the stem. The ring is
stout, narrow, usually quite free from the stem, so that it can be moved up
and down on the stem, and is called a movable ring.

Figure 81 is from plants (No. 3842, C. U. herbarium) collected in a garden
at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

A closely related plant, Lepiota rachodes Vitt., has smaller spores, 9–12 ×
7–9 µ. It is also edible, and by some considered only a variety of L.
procera. It is rare in this country, but appears about Boston in considerable
quantities "in or near greenhouses or in enriched soil out of doors," where it
has the appearance of an introduced plant (Webster, Rhodora, 1: 226, 1899).
It is a much stouter plant than L. procera, the pileus usually depressed,
much more coarsely scaly, and usually grows in dense clusters, while L.
procera usually occurs singly or scattered, is more slender, often umbonate.
L. rachodes has a veil with a double edge, the edges more or less fringed.
The veil is fixed to the stem until the plant is quite mature, when it becomes
movable. The flesh of the plant on exposure to the air becomes a brownish
orange tint.

Figure 82.—Lepiota americana. Scales and center of cap reddish or reddish
brown. Entire plant turns reddish on drying (natural size). Copyright.

Lepiota morgani Pk.—This plant occurs from Ohio, southward and west.
It grows in grassy places, especially in wet pastures. It is one of the largest
of the lepiotas, ranging from 20–40 cm. high, the cap 20–30 cm. broad, and
the stem about 2 cm. in thickness. The pileus, when fully expanded, is
whitish, with large dark scales, especially toward the center. The ring is
large, sometimes movable, and the gills and spores are greenish. Some
report the plant as edible, while others say illness results from eating it.

Lepiota americana Pk. Edible.—This plant is widely distributed in the
United States. The plants occur singly or are clustered, 6–12 cm. high, the
cap 4–10 cm. broad, and the stem 4–10 mm. in thickness. The cap is
adorned with reddish or reddish brown scales except on the center, where
the color is uniform because the surface is not broken up into scales. The
flesh is white, but changes to reddish when cut or bruised, and the whole
plant becomes reddish on drying.

Figure 82 is from plants (No. 2718, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca.

The European plant, L. badhami, also reported in this country, changes to a
brownish red. It is believed by some to be identical with L. americana.

Figure 83.—Lepiota cristata. Entirely white, but scales grayish or pinkish
brown, stem often flesh color (natural size). Copyright.

Lepiota acutesquamosa Weinm.—This is a medium or small sized plant
with a floccose pileus adorned with small, acute, erect scales, and has a
loose, hairy or wooly veil which is often torn irregularly. The erect scales
fall away from the pileus and leave little scars where they were attached.

Lepiota cristata A. & S. Edible.—The crested lepiota, Lepiota cristata,
occurs in grassy places and borders of woods, in groves, etc., from May to
September, and is widely distributed. The plant is small, 3–5 cm. high, the
cap 1–4 cm. broad, and the stem 2–5 mm. in thickness. It grows in clusters
or is scattered.

The pileus is ovate, bell-shaped, then convex and expanded, and thin. The
surface is at first entirely dull reddish or reddish brown, but soon cracks
into numerous scales of the same color arranged in a crested manner, more
numerous between the margin and the center, and often arranged in a
concentric manner. The center of the cap often preserves the uniform
reddish brown color because the pileus at this point does not expand so
much and therefore the surface does not crack, while the margin often
becomes white because of the disappearance of the brown covering here.
The gills are free from the stem, narrow, crowded, and close to the stem.
The spores are more or less angular, elongated, more narrowed at one end,
and measure 5–8 × 3–4 µ. The stem is slender, cylindrical, hollow, whitish,
smooth. The ring is small, white, and easily breaks up and disappears.

The characters of the plant are well shown in Fig. 83 from plants collected
at Ithaca. Lepiota angustana Britz. is identical, and according to Morgan L.
miamensis Morgan is a white form of L. angustana.

Lepiota asperula Atkinson.—This lepiota resembles A. asper in some
respects, but it is smaller and the spores are much smaller, being very
minute. The plant is 5–8 cm. high, the pileus 2–4 cm. broad, and the stem
4–6 mm. in thickness. It grows in leaf mould in the woods and has been
found at Ithaca, N. Y., twice during July and September, 1897.

The pileus is convex and bell-shaped, becoming nearly or quite expanded.
It is hair brown to olive brown in color. The surface is dry, made up of
interwoven threads, and is adorned with numerous small, erect, pointed

scales resembling in this respect A. asper Fr. The gills are white or
yellowish, free, but rather close to the stem, narrow, often eroded on the
edge, sometimes forked near the stem, and some of them arranged in pairs.
The spores are oblong, smooth, and very minute, measuring 5 × 2 µ. The
stem is the same color as the pileus, cylindrical, hollow, with loose threads
in the cavity, enlarged into a rounded bulb below, minutely downy to
pubescent. The outer portion of the bulb is formed of intricately interwoven
threads, among which are entangled soil and humus particles. The veil is
white, silky, hairy, separating from the stem like a dense cortina, the threads
stretched both above and below as shown in Fig. 84 from plants (No. 3157
C. U. herbarium), collected at Ithaca.

In some specimens, as the pileus expands, the spaces between the pointed
scales are torn, thus forming quite coarse scales which are often arranged in
more or less concentric rows, showing the yellow-tinged flesh in the cracks,
and the coarse scales bearing the fine point at the center. A layer connecting
the margin of the pileus with the base of the stem and covered with fine
brown points, sometimes separates from the edge of the cap and the base of
the stem, and clings partly to the cortina and partly to the stem in much the
same way that portions of the volva cling to the stem of certain species of
Amanita, as seen in A. velatipes (Fig. 66). Sometimes this is left on the base
of the stem and then resembles a short, free limb of a volva, and suggests a
species of Amanita. The scales, however, are concrete with the pileus, and
the species appears to show a closer relationship with Lepiota.

Plate 26, Figure 84.—Lepiota asperula. Cap hair-brown to olive-brown, scales
minute, pointed, gills and stem white (natural size). Copyright.

ARMILLARIA Fr.

In the genus Armillaria the inner veil which forms a ring on the stem is
present. The stem is fibrous, or the outer portion cartilaginous in some
species, and not easily separable from the substance of the pileus
(continuous with the hymenophore), and the gills are attached to the stem,
sinuate, or decurrent, spores white. Peck, 43rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p.
40–45, describes 6 species.

Some of the species resemble very closely certain species of Amanita or
Lepiota, but can be distinguished by the firm continuity of the substance of
the stem and cap.

Armillaria mellea Vahl. Edible.—This is one of the most common of the
late summer and autumn fungi, and is widely distributed over the world. It

grows about the bases of old stumps or dead trees, or from buried roots.
Sometimes it is found attached to the living roots of trees. The plant occurs
in tufts or clusters, several to many individuals growing together, the bases
of their stems connected with a black rope-like strand from which they
arise. The entire plant is often more or less honey colored, from which the
plant gets its specific name. Its clustered habit, the usually prominent ring
on the stems, and the sharp, blackish, erect scales which usually adorn the
center of the cap, mark it as an easy plant to determine in most cases. The
colors and markings, however, vary greatly, so that some of the forms are
very puzzling. The plant varies in height from 10–15 cm., the cap from 5–
10 cm. broad, and the stem 4–10 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is oval to convex and expanded, sometimes with a slight umbo
or elevation at the center. The color varies from honey color to nearly white,
or yellowish brown to dull reddish brown, usually darker on the center. In
typical forms the pileus is adorned with pointed dark brown, or blackish,
erect, scales especially abundant over the center, while the margin is often
free from them, but may be marked with looser floccose, brownish, or
yellowish scales. Sometimes there are no blackish pointed scales anywhere
on the cap, only loose floccose colored scales, or in some forms the cap is
entirely smooth. The margin in old specimens is often striate. The pileus is
usually dry, but Webster cites an instance in which it was viscid in wet
weather.

The gills are attached to the stem squarely (adnate) or they are decurrent
(extend downward on the stem), are white, or whitish, becoming in age
more or less dingy or stained. The spores are rounded or elliptical, 6–9 µ.
The stem is elastic, spongy within and sometimes hollow. It is smooth or
often floccose scaly below the ring, sometimes with prominent transverse
bands of a hairy substance. It is usually whitish near the upper end, but dull
brown or reddish brown below the annulus, sometimes distinctly yellowish.

The veil varies greatly also. It may be membranaceous and thin, or quite
thick, or in other cases may be absent entirely. The ring of course varies in
a corresponding manner. As shown in Fig. 85 it is quite thick, so that it
appears double on the edge, where it broke away from the inner and outer
surfaces of the margin of the cap. It is frequently fixed to the stem, that is,
not movable, but when very thin and frail it often disappears.

The honey colored agaric is said by nearly all writers to be edible, though
some condemn it. It is not one of the best since it is of rather tough
consistency. It is a species of considerable economic importance and
interest, since it is a parasite on certain coniferous trees, and perhaps also on
certain of the broad-leaved trees. It attacks the roots of these trees, the
mycelium making its way through the outer layer, and then it grows beneath
the bark. Here it forms fan-like sheets of mycelium which advance along
both away from the tree and towards the trunk. It disorganizes and breaks
down the tissues of the root here, providing a space for a thicker growth of
the mycelium as it becomes older. In places the mycelium forms rope-like
strands, at first white in color, but later becoming dark brown and shining.
These cords or strands, known as rhizomorphs, extend for long distances
underneath the bark of the root. They are also found growing in the hollow
trunks of trees sometimes. In time enough of the roots are injured to kill the
tree, or the roots are so weakened that heavy winds will blow the trees over.

The fruiting plants always arise from these rhizomorphs, and by digging
carefully around the bases of the stems one can find these cords with the
stems attached, though the attachment is frail and the stems are easily
separated from the cords. Often these cords grow for years without forming
any fruit bodies. In this condition they are often found by stripping off the
bark from dead and rotting logs in the woods. These cords were once
supposed to be separate fungi, and they were known under the name
Rhizomorpha subcorticalis.

Plate 27, Figure 85.—Armillaria mellea. Showing double ring present in some
large specimens; cap honey colored, scales minute, more numerous at center,
blackish, often floccose, and sometimes wanting (3/4 natural size, often smaller).
Copyright.

Armillaria aurantia Schaeff. (Tricholoma peckii Howe) Suspected.—This
is a very pretty species and rare in the United States. The plants are 6–8 cm.
high, the cap 4–7 cm. broad, and the stem 6–8 mm. in thickness. It occurs in
woods. It is known by its viscid pileus, the orange brown or ochraceous
rufus color of the pileus and stem, and the color of the stem being confined
to the superficial layer, which becomes torn into concentric floccose scales,
forming numerous minute floccose irregular rings of color around the stem.

Figure 86.—Armillaria aurantia Schaeff. (=Tricholoma peckii Howe). Cap
orange-brown or ochraceous rufus, viscid; floccose scales on stem same color
(natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex to expanded, with an umbo, and the edge inrolled,
fleshy, thin, viscid, ochraceous rufus (in specimens collected by myself),
darker on the umbo, and minutely scaly from tufts of hairs, and the viscid
cuticle easily peeling off. The gills are narrow, crowded, slightly adnexed,
or many free, white, becoming brown discolored where bruised, and in
drying brownish or rufus. The spores are minute, globose to ovoid, or
rarely sub-elliptical when a little longer, with a prominent oil globule
usually, 3–3.5 × 3–5 µ, sometimes a little longer when the elliptical forms
are presented. The stem is straight or ascending, even, very floccose scaly
as the pileus is unrolled from it, scales same color as the pileus, the scales

running transversely, being separated perhaps by the elongation of the stem
so that numerous floccose rings are formed, showing the white flesh of the
stem between. The upper part of the stem, that above the annulus, is white,
but the upper part floccose.

Figure 87.—Tricholoma personatum. Entire plant grayish brown, tinged with
lilac or purple, spores light ochraceous (natural size, often larger).

This plant has been long known in Europe. There is a rather poor figure of it
in Schaeffer Table 37, and a better one in Gillet Champignons de France,
Hymenomycetes, 1, opposite page 76, but a very good one in Bresadola
Funghi Mangerecci e Velenosi, Tavel 18, 1899. A good figure is also given
by Barla, Les Champignons des Alpes—Maritimes, Pl. 19, Figs. 1–6. The
plant was first reported from America in the 41st Report, State Museum, N.

Y., p. 82, 1888, under the name Tricholoma peckii Howe, from the Catskill
Mountains, N. Y. Figure 86 is from plants (No. 3991, C. U. herbarium)
collected in the Blue Ridge mountains, at Blowing Rock, N. C., during
September, 1899. The European and American description both ascribe a
bitter taste to the flesh of the pileus, and it is regarded as suspicious.

There does not seem to be a well formed annulus, the veil only being
present in a rather young stage, as the inrolled margin of the pileus is
unrolling from the surface of the stem. It seems to be more in the form of a
universal veil resembling the veil of some of the lepiotas. It shows a
relationship with Tricholoma which possesses in typical forms a delicate
veil present only in the young stage. Perhaps for this reason it was referred
by Howe to Tricholoma as an undescribed species when it was named T.
peckii. If its affinities should prove to be with Tricholoma rather than with
Armillaria, it would then be known as Tricholoma aurantium.

TRICHOLOMA Fr.

In the genus Tricholoma the volva and annulus are both wanting, the spores
are white, and the gills are attached to the stem, but are more or less
strongly notched or sinuate at the stem. Sometimes the notch is very slight.
The stem is fleshy-fibrous, attached to the center of the pileus, and is
usually short and stout. In some specimens when young there is a slight
cobwebby veil which very soon disappears. The genus is a very large one.
Some species are said to be poisonous and a few are known to be edible.
Peck, 44th Report, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 38–64, describes 46 species.

Figure 88.—Tricholoma personatum. Section (natural size).

Tricholoma personatum Fr. Edible.—This plant occurs during the autumn
and persists up to the winter months. It grows on the ground in open places
and in woods. The stem is short, usually 3–7 cm. long × 1–2 cm. in
thickness, and the cap is from 5–10 cm. or more broad. The entire plant
often has a lilac or purple tint.

The pileus is convex, expanded, moist, smooth, grayish to brownish tinged
with lilac or purple, especially when young, fading out in age. When young
the pileus is sometimes adorned with white mealy particles, and when old
the margin may be more or less upturned and wavy. The gills are crowded,
rounded next the stem, and nearly free but close to the stem, violet or lilac
when young, changing to dull reddish brown when old. The spores when

caught in mass are dull pink or salmon color. They measure 7–9 µ long. The
stem is solid, fibrous, smooth, deep lilac when young and retaining the lilac
color longer than the pileus. Sometimes the base is bulbous as in Fig. 87.

This plant is regarded by all writers as one of the best of the edible fungi.
Sometimes the pileus is water soaked and then the flavor is not so fine. The
position of the plant is regarded as doubtful by some because of the more or
less russety pink color of the spores when seen in mass, and the ease with
which the gills separate from the pileus, characters which show its
relationship to the genus Paxillus.

Tricholoma sejunctum Sowerb. Edible.—This plant occurs on the ground
in rather open woods during late summer and in the autumn. It is 8–12 cm.
high, the cap 5–8 cm. broad, and the stem 10–15 mm. in thickness.

Figure 89.—Tricholoma sejunctum. Cap light yellow, streaked with dark threads
on the surface, viscid. Stem and gills white (natural size, often larger).

Copyright.

The pileus is convex to expanded, umbonate, viscid when moist, light
yellow in color and streaked with dark threads in the surface. The flesh is
white, and very fragile, differing in this respect from T. equestre, which it
resembles in general form. The gills are broad, rather distant, broadly
notched near the stem, and easily separating from the stem. The stem is
solid, smooth and shining white. Figure 89 is from plants collected at
Ithaca. It is said to be edible.

Plate 28, Figure 90.—Clitocybe candida. Entirely white (natural size).
Copyright.

Plate 29, Figure 91.—Clitocybe candida. Under view of nearly lateral stemmed
individual (natural size). Copyright.

CLITOCYBE Fr.

The volva and annulus are wanting in this genus, and the spores are white.
The stem is elastic, spongy within, the outside being elastic or fibrous, so
that the fibres hold together well when the stem is twisted or broken, as in
Tricholoma. The stem does not separate readily from the pileus, but the
rather strong fibres are continuous with the substance of the pileus. The
gills are narrowed toward the stem, joined squarely or decurrent (running
down on the stem), very rarely some of them notched at the stem while
others of the same plant are decurrent. In one species at least (C. laccata, by
some placed in the genus Laccaria) the gills are often strongly notched or
sinuate. The cap is usually plane, depressed, or funnel-shaped, many of the
species having the latter form. The plants grow chiefly on the ground,

though a number of species occur on dead wood. The genus contains a very
large number of species. Peck describes ten species in the 23rd Report, N.
Y. State Mus., p. 76, et. seq., also 48th Report, p. 172, several species.
Morgan, Jour. Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist. 6: 70–73, describes 12 species.

Clitocybe candida Bres. Edible.—This is one of the large species of the
genus. It occurs in late autumn in Europe. It has been found on several
occasions during late autumn at Ithaca, N. Y., on the ground in open woods,
during wet weather. It occurs in clusters, though the specimens are usually
not crowded. The stem is usually very short, 2–4 cm. long, and 2–3 cm. in
thickness, while the cap is up to 10–18 cm. broad.

The pileus is sometimes regular, but often very irregular, and produced
much more strongly on one side than on the other. It is convex, then
expanded, the margin first incurved and finally wavy and often somewhat
lobed. The color is white or light buff in age. The flesh is thick and white.
The gills are white, stout, broad, somewhat decurrent, some adnate.

The taste is not unpleasant when raw, and when cooked it is agreeable. I
have eaten it on several occasions. Figures 90, 91 are from plants (No. 4612
C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca.

Clitocybe laccata Scop. Edible.—This plant is a very common and widely
distributed one, growing in woods, fields, roadsides and other waste places.
It is usually quite easily recognized from the whitish scurfy cap, the pink or
purplish gills, though the spores are white, from the gills being either
decurrent, adnate, or more or less strongly notched, and the stem fibrous
and whitish or of a pale pink color. When the plants are mature the pale red
or pink gills appear mealy from being covered with the numerous white
spores.

The pileus is thin, convex or later expanded, of a watery appearance, nearly
smooth or scurfy or slightly squamulose. The spores are rounded, and
possess spine-like processes, or are prominently roughened. In the warty
character of the spores this species differs from most of the species of the
genus Clitocybe, and some writers place it in a different genus erected to
accommodate the species of Clitocybe which have warty or spiny spores.
The species with spiny spores are few. The genus in which this plant is
placed by some is Laccaria, and then the plant is called Laccaria laccata.
There are several other species of Clitocybe which are common and which
one is apt to run across often, especially in the woods. These are of the
funnel form type, the cap being more or less funnel-shaped. Clitocybe
infundibuliformis Schaeffer is one of these. The cap, when mature, is pale
red or tan color, fading out in age. It is 5–7 cm. high, and the cap 2–4 cm.
broad. It is considered delicious. Clitocybe cyathiformis, as its name
indicates, is similar in form, and occurs in woods. The pileus is of a darker
color, dark brown or smoky in color.

Clitocybe illudens Schw. Not Edible.—This species is distributed through
the Eastern United States and sometimes is very abundant. It occurs from
July to October about the bases of old stumps, dead trees, or from
underground roots. It is one of the large species, the cap being 15–20 cm.
broad, the stem 12–20 cm. long, and 8–12 mm. in thickness. It occurs in
large clusters, several or many joined at their bases. From the rich saffron
yellow color of all parts of the plant, and especially by its strong
phosphorescence, so evident in the dark, it is an easy plant to recognize.
Because of its phosphorescence it is sometimes called "Jack-my-lantern."

The pileus is convex, then expanded, and depressed, sometimes with a
small umbo, smooth, often irregular or eccentric from its crowded habit,
and in age the margin of the pileus is wavy. The flesh is thick at the center
and thin toward the margin. In old plants the color becomes sordid or

brownish. The gills are broad, not crowded, decurrent, some extending for a
considerable distance down on the stem while others for a less distance. The
stem is solid, firm, smooth, and tapers toward the base.

While the plant is not a dangerously poisonous one, it has occasioned
serious cases of illness, acting as a violent emetic, and of course should be
avoided. Its phosphorescence has often been observed. Another and much
smaller plant, widely distributed in this country as well as Europe, and
belonging to another genus, is also phosphorescent. It is Panus stipticus, a
small white plant with a short lateral stem, growing on branches, stumps,
trunks, etc. When freshly developed the phosphorescence is marked, but
when the plants become old they often fail to show it.

Figure 92.—Clitocybe illudens. Entire plant rich saffron yellow, old plants
become sordid brown sometimes; when fresh shows phosphorescence at night
(2/3 natural size, often much larger). Copyright.

Clitocybe multiceps Peck. Edible.—This plant is not uncommon during
late summer and autumn. It usually grows in large tufts of 10 to 30 or more
individuals. The caps in such large clusters are often irregular from
pressure. The plants are 6–12 cm. high, the caps 5–10 cm. broad, and the
stems 8–15 mm. in thickness. The pileus is white or gray, brownish gray or
buff, smooth, dry, the flesh white. The gills are white, crowded, narrow at
each end. The spores are smooth, globose, 5–7 µ in diameter. The stems are

tough, fibrous, solid, tinged with the same color as cap. Fig. 93 is from
plants (No. 5467, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, October 14, 1900.

COLLYBIA Fr.

In the genus Collybia the annulus and volva are both wanting, the spores
are white, the gills are free or notched, or sinuate. The stem is either entirely
cartilaginous or has a cartilaginous rind, while the central portion of the
stem is fibrous, or fleshy, stuffed or fistulose. The pileus is fleshy and when
the plants are young the margin of the pileus is incurved or inrolled, i. e., it
does not lie straight against the stem as in Mycena.

Many of the species of Collybia are quite firm and will revive somewhat
after drying when moistened, but they are not coriaceous as in Marasmius,
nor do they revive so thoroughly. It is difficult, however, to draw the line
between the two genera. Twenty-five of the New York species of Collybia
are described by Peck in the 49th Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 32 et seq.
Morgan describes twelve species in Jour. Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist., 6: 70–73.

Collybia radicata Rehl. Edible.—This is one of the common and widely
distributed species of the genus. It occurs on the ground in the woods or
groves or borders of woods. It is quite easily recognized by the more or less
flattened cap, the long striate stem somewhat enlarged below and then
tapering off into a long, slender root-like process in the ground. It is from
this "rooting" character that the plant gets its specific name. It is 10–20 cm.
high, the cap 3–7 cm. broad, and the stem 4–8 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, thin, convex to nearly plane, or even with the margin
upturned in old plants, and the center sometimes umbonate. It is smooth,
viscid when moist, and often with wrinkles on the surface which extend
radially. The color varies from nearly white in some small specimens to

grayish, grayish brown or umber. The flesh is white. The gills are white,
broad, rather distant, adnexed, i. e., joined to the stem by the upper angle.
The spores are elliptical and about 15 × 10 µ. The stem is the same color as
the pileus though paler, and usually white above, tapers gradually above, is
often striate or grooved, or sometimes only mealy. The long tapering "root"
is often attached to some underground dead root. Fig. 94 is from plants (No.
5641, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, August, 1900.

Plate 30, Figure 93.—Clitocybe multiceps. Plants white or gray to buff or
grayish brown. (Three-fourths natural size.) Copyright.

Plate 31, Fig. 94.—Collybia radicata. Caps grayish-brown to grayish and white
in some small forms. (Natural size.) Copyright.

Plate 32, Fig. 95.—Collybia velutipes. Cap yellowish or reddish yellow, viscid,
gills white, stem dark brown, velvety hairy (natural size). Copyright.

Collybia velutipes Curt. Edible.—This is very common in woods or
groves during the autumn, on dead limbs or trunks, or from dead places in
living ones. The plants are very viscid, and the stem, except in young
plants, is velvety hairy with dark hairs. Figure 95 is from plants (No. 5430,
C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, October, 1900.

Collybia longipes Bull., is a closely related plant. It is much larger, has a
velvety, to hairy, stem, and a much longer root-like process to the stem. It
has been sometimes considered to be merely a variety of C. radicata, and
may be only a large form of that species. I have found a few specimens in
the Adirondack mountains, and one in the Blue Ridge mountains, which
seem to belong to this species.

Collybia platyphylla Fr. Edible.—This is a much larger and stouter plant
than Collybia radicata, though it is not so tall as the larger specimens of

that species. It occurs on rotten logs or on the ground about rotten logs and
stumps in the woods from June to September. It is 8–12 cm. high, the cap
10–15 cm. broad, and the stem about 2 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex becoming expanded, plane, and even the margin
upturned in age. It is whitish, varying to grayish brown or dark brown, the
center sometimes darker than the margin, as is usual in many plants. The
surface of the pileus is often marked in radiating streaks by fine dark hairs.
The gills are white, very broad, adnexed, and usually deeply and broadly
notched next the stem. In age they are more or less broken and cracked. The
spores are white, elliptical, 7–10 × 6–7 µ.

The plant resembles somewhat certain species of Tricholoma and care
should be used in selecting it in order to avoid the suspected species of
Tricholoma.

MYCENA Fr.

The genus Mycena is closely related to Collybia. The plants are usually
smaller, many of them being of small size, the cap is usually bell-shaped,
rarely umbilicate, but what is a more important character the margin of the
cap in the young stage is straight as it is applied against the stem, and not at
first incurved as it is in Collybia, when the gills and margin of the pileus lie
against the stem. The stem is cartilaginous as in Collybia, and is usually
hollow or fistulose. The gills are not decurrent, or only slightly so by a
tooth-like process. Some of the species are apt to be confused with certain
species of Omphalia in which the gills are but slightly decurrent, but in
Omphalia the pileus is umbilicate in such species, while in Mycena it is
blunt or umbonate. The spores are white. A large number of the plants grow
on leaves and wood, few on the ground. Some of those which grow on
leaves might be mistaken for species of Marasmius, but in Marasmius the

plants are of a tough consistency, and when dried will revive again if
moistened with water.

Some of the plants have distinct odors, as alkaline, or the odor of radishes,
and in collecting them notes should be made on all these characters which
usually disappear in drying. A few of the plants exude a colored or watery
juice when bruised, and should not be confounded with species of
Lactarius.

Mycena galericulata Scop. Edible.—Mycena galericulata grows on dead
logs, stumps, branches, etc., in woods. It is a very common and very widely
distributed species. It occurs from late spring to autumn. The plants are
clustered, many growing in a compact group, the hairy bases closely joined
and the stems usually ascending. The plants are from 5–12 cm. high, the
caps from 1–3 cm. broad, and the slender stems 2–3 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is conic to bell-shaped, sometimes umbonate, striate to near the
center, and in color some shade of brown or gray, but variable. The gills are
decurrent by a tooth, not crowded, connected by veins over the interspaces,
white or flesh colored. The slender stems are firm, hollow, and hairy at the
base.

Figure 96.—Mycena polygramma, long-stemmed form growing on ground (=
M. prælonga Pk.). Cap dark brown with a leaden tint, striate on margin; stem
finely and beautifully longitudinally striate (natural size). Copyright.

Mycena polygramma Bull.—This plant is very closely related to M.
galericulata, and has the same habit. It might be easily mistaken for it. It is
easily distinguished by its peculiar bright, shining, longitudinally striate to
sulcate stem. It usually grows on wood, but does occur on the ground, when
it often has a very long stem. In this condition it was described by Peck in
the 23rd Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 81, as Mycena prælonga, from plants
collected in a sphagnum moor during the month of June. This form was also
collected at Ithaca several times during late autumn in a woods near Ithaca,

in 1898. The plants are from 12–20 cm. high, the cap 1–2 cm. broad, and
the stem 2–3 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is first nearly cylindrical, then conic, becoming bell-shaped and
finally nearly expanded, when it is umbonate. It is smooth, striate on the
margin, of a dark brown color with a leaden tint. The gills are narrow,
white, adnate and slightly decurrent on the stem by a tooth. The very long
stem is smooth, but marked with parallel grooves too fine to show in the
photograph, firm, hollow, somewhat paler than the pileus, usually tinged
with red, and hairy at the base. Figure 96 is from plants (No. 3113 C. U.
herbarium), collected in a woods near Ithaca in damp places among leaves.
A number of the specimens collected were attacked by a parasitic mucor of
the genus Spinellus. Two species, S. fusiger (Link.) van Tiegh., and S.
macrocarpus (Corda) Karst., were found, sometimes both on the same
plant. The long-stalked sporangia bristle in all directions from the cap.

Figure 97.—Mycena pura. Entire plant rose, rose purple, violet, or lilac. Striate
on margin of pileus (natural size, often much larger).

Mycena pura Pers.—This plant is quite common and very widely
distributed, and occurs in woods and grassy open places, during late
summer and in the autumn. The entire plant is nearly of a uniform color,
and the color varies from rose, to rose purple, violet, or lilac. Plants from
the Blue Ridge mountains of North Carolina were chiefly rose purple, very
young plants of a much deeper color (auricula purple of Ridgeway), while
those collected at Ithaca were violet. The plants vary from 5–8 cm. high, the
cap 2–3 cm. broad, and the stem 2–4 mm. stout. The plants are scattered or
somewhat clustered, sometimes occurring singly, and again many covering
a small area of ground.

The pileus is thin, conic, bell-shaped to convex and nearly expanded,
sometimes with a small umbo, smooth, and finely striate on the margin, in
age the striæ sometimes rugulose from the upturning of the margin.
Sometimes the pileus is rugose on the center. The gills vary from white to
violet, rose, etc., they are adnate to sinuate, and in age sometimes become
free by breaking away from the stem. They are broad in the middle,
connected by vein-like elevations over the surface, and sometimes wavy
and crenate on the edge, the edge of the gills sometimes white. The spores
are white, oblong, 2.5–3.5 × 6–7 µ, smooth. The basidia are cylindrical,
20–25 × 3–4 µ, four-spored. There are a few cystidia in the hymenium,
colorless, thin walled, clavate, the portion above the hymenium cylindrical,
and 30–40 × 10–12 µ.

The stem is sometimes white when young, but later becomes of the same
color as the pileus, often a lighter shade above. It is straight, or ascending,
cylindrical, even, smooth, hollow, with a few white threads at the base.

Sometimes on drying the pileus becomes deeper in color than when fresh.
The gills also become deeper in color in drying, though the edge remains
white if white when fresh. Figure 97 is from plants (No. 3946, C. U.
herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., in August, 1899. The plants
are often considerably larger than shown in the figure.

Figure 98.—Mycena epipterygia. Cap viscid, grayish, often tinged with
yellowish or reddish in age, gills white, sometimes tinged with blue or red, stem
yellowish, or same color as cap (natural size). Copyright.

Mycena epipterygia Scop.—This pretty little species is quite readily
distinguished by the gray, conic or bell-shaped cap, the long, hollow,
slender stem, and the viscid pellicle or skin which is quite easily peeled off
from the stem or cap when moist. It grows in woods or grassy places, or
among moss, etc., on the ground or on very rotten wood. The plants are
from 5–10 cm. high, the cap 1–2 cm. broad, and the stem about 2 mm. in
thickness. It is widely distributed in Europe, America, and other North
temperate countries.

The pileus is viscid when moist, ovate to conic or campanulate, and later
more or less expanded, obtuse, the margin striate, and sometimes minutely
toothed. The usual color is grayish, but in age it often becomes reddish. The
gills are decurrent by a small tooth, and quite variable in color, whitish, then
gray, or tinged with blue or red.

The stem is very slender, flexuous, or straight, fistulose, tough, with soft
hairs at the base, usually yellowish, sometimes the same color as the cap,
and viscid like the cap when moist. Figure 98 is from plants (No. 4547, C.
U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca in August, 1899.

Mycena vulgaris Pers.—This common and pretty species is easily
recognized by its smoky or grayish color, the umbilicate pileus and very
slimy stem. It grows on decaying leaves, sticks, etc., in woods. It occurs in
clusters. The plants are small, 3–5 cm. high, the cap 4–7 mm. broad, and the
stem about 1.5 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is thin, bell-shaped, then convex, and depressed at the center,
with a papilla usually in the center, finely striate on the margin, and slightly
viscid. The gills are white, thin, and finally decurrent, so that from the form
of the cap and the decurrent gills the plant has much the appearance of an
Omphalia. The stem is very viscid, grayish in color, often rooting at the
base, and with white fibrils at the base, becoming hollow.

Figure 99 is from plants collected in woods near Ithaca, during August,
1899.

Figure 99.—Mycena vulgaris. Entirely white, center of cap grayish, entire plant
very slimy when moist (natural size). Copyright.

Mycena acicula Schaeff.—This is one of the very small mycenas, and with
the brilliant red pileus and yellow gills and stem it makes a very pretty
object growing on leaves, twigs, or rotten wood in the forest. It occurs
during summer and autumn. It is 2–5 cm. high, the cap 2–4 mm. broad, and
the stem is thread-like.

Figure 100.—Mycena acicula. Cap brilliant red, gills and stem yellowish
(natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is very thin, membranaceous, bell-shaped, then convex, when
the pointed apex appears as a small umbo. It is smooth, striate on the
margin, and of a rich vermilion or orange color. The gills are rounded at the
stem and adnexed, rather broad in the middle, distant, yellow, the edge
white, or sometimes the gills are entirely white. The stem is very slender,
with a root-like process entering the rotten wood, smooth except the hairs
on the root-like process, yellow.

Figure 100 is from plants (No. 2780, C. U. herbarium) collected in a woods
near Ithaca. It has been found here several times.

Mycena cyanothrix Atkinson.—This is a very pretty plant growing on
rotting wood in clusters, often two or three joined at the base, the base of
the stem inserted in the rotten wood for 1–2 cm., and the base is clothed
with blue, hair-like threads. The plants are 6–9 cm. high, the cap 1–2 cm.
broad, and the stem not quite 2 mm. in diameter.

The pileus is ovate to convex, viscid when young. The color is bright blue
when young, becoming pale and whitish in age, with a tendency to fuscous
on the center. The cap is smooth and the margin finely striate. After the
plants have dried the color is nearly uniform ochraceous or tawny. The gills
are close, free, narrow, white, then grayish white, the edge finely toothed or
fimbriate. The spores are globose, smooth, 6–9 µ. The stem is slender,
hollow, faintly purple when young, becoming whitish or flesh color,
flexuous, or nearly straight, even, often two united at the base into a root-
like extension which enters the rotten wood. The base of the stem is covered
with deep blue mycelium which retains its color in age, but disappears on
drying after a time. Figure 101 is from plants (No. 2382, C. U. herbarium)
collected at Ithaca, in woods, June 16, 1898.

Mycena hæmatopa Pers.—This is one of the species of Mycena with a red
juice which exudes in drops where wounds occur on the plant. It is easily
recognized by its dense cespitose habit, the deep blood red juice, the hollow
stem, and the crenate or denticulate sterile margin of the cap. Numbers of
the plant occur usually in a single cluster, and their bases are closely joined
and hairy. The stems are more or less ascending according to the position of
the plant on the wood. The plants are 5–10 cm. high, the cap is 1–2.5 cm.
broad, and the stem 2–3 mm. in thickness.

Figure 101.—Mycena cyanothrix. Cap viscid when young, blue, becoming pale
and whitish in age, and fuscous in center; gills white; stem faintly purple when
young, then flesh color or white, blue, clothed with blue hairs at base (natural
size). Copyright.

The pileus is conic, then bell-shaped, and as the margin of the cap expands
more appears umbonate, obtuse, smooth, even or somewhat striate on the
margin. The color varies from whitish to flesh color, or dull red, and
appears more or less saturated with a red juice. The thin margin extends a
short distance beyond the ends of the gills, and the margin is then
beautifully crenate. The gills are adnate, and often extend down on the stem
a short distance by a little tooth. The stem is firm, sometimes smooth,

sometimes with minute hairs, at the base with long hairs, hollow, in color
the same as that of the pileus.

Figure 102.—Mycena hæmatopa. Dull red or flesh color, or whitish, a dull red
juice exudes where broken or cut, margin of cap serrate with thin sterile flaps
(natural size). Copyright.

The color varies somewhat, being darker in some plants than in others. In
some plants the juice is more abundant and they bleed profusely when
wounded, while in other cases there is but little of the juice, sometimes
wounds only showing a change in color to a deep red without any free
drops exuding. Figure 102 is from plants collected at Ithaca, in August,
1899. It is widely distributed in Europe and North America.

Mycena succosa Pk., another species of Mycena with a juice, occurs on
very rotten wood in the woods. It is a small plant, dull white at first, but
soon spotted with black, and turning black in handling or where bruised,
and when dried. Wounds exude a "serum-like juice," and the wounds soon
become black. It was described by Peck under Collybia in the 25th Report,
p. 74.

OMPHALIA Fr.

The genus Omphalia is closely related to Mycena and Collybia. It differs
from these mainly in the decurrent gills. In the small species of Mycena
where the gills are slightly decurrent, the pileus is not umbilicate as it is in
corresponding species of Omphalia. In some of the species of Omphalia the
pileus is not umbilicate, but here the gills are plainly decurrent. The stem is
cartilaginous.

Plate 33, Figure 103.—Omphalia campanella. Watkin's Glen, N. Y., August,
1898. Caps dull reddish-yellow. Gills yellow. Stem brownish, hairy at base.

(Natural size.) Copyright.

Omphalia campanella Batsch.—One of the most common and widely
distributed species of the genus is the little bell-omphalia, Omphalia
campanella. It occurs throughout the summer and autumn on dead or rotten
logs, stumps, branches, etc., in woods. It is often clustered, large numbers
covering a considerable surface of the decaying log. It is 1–3 cm. high, the
cap 8–20 mm. broad, and the stem very slender.

The pileus is convex, umbilicate, faintly striate, dull reddish yellow, in
damp weather with a watery appearance. The gills are narrow, yellow,
connected by veins, strongly curved because of the form of the pileus, and
then being decurrent on the stem. The stem is slender, often ascending,
brownish hairy toward the base, and paler above.

Figure 104.—Omphalia epichysium. Entire plant smoky or dull gray in color
(natural size). Copyright.

Omphalia epichysium Pers.—This plant occurs during the autumn in
woods, growing usually on much decayed wood, or sometimes apparently
on the ground. The smoky, or dull gray color of the entire plant, the
depressed or funnel-shaped pileus, and short, slender stem serve to
distinguish it. The cap is 2–4 cm. broad, the plant is 3–5 cm. high, and the
stem 2–4 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex, becoming expanded, umbilicate or depressed at the
center or nearly funnel-shaped, smooth, smoky or gray with a saturated
watery appearance, light gray or nearly white when dry. The gills are
narrow, crowded, or a little decurrent. The slender stem is smooth, hollow,
equal. Figure 104 is from plants (No. 3373, C. U. herbarium) collected in
woods near Ithaca, N. Y., in the autumn of 1899.

PLEUROTUS Fr.

Figure 105.—Pleurotus ulmarius. Cap white, or with shades of yellow or brown
near the center (natural size). Copyright.

The genus Pleurotus is usually recognized without difficulty among the
fleshy, white-spored agarics, because of the eccentric (not quite in the
center of the pileus) or lateral stem, or by the pileus being attached at one
side in a more or less shelving position, or in some species where the upper

side of the pileus lies directly against the wood on which the plant is
growing, and is then said to be resupinate. The gills are either decurrent
(extending downward) on the stem, or in some species they are rounded or
notched at the junction with the stem. There is no annulus, though
sometimes a veil, and the genus resembles both Tricholoma and Clitocybe,
except for the position of the stem on the pileus. In Tricholoma and
Clitocybe the stem is usually attached at the center, and the majority of the
species grow on the ground, while the species of Pleurotus are especially
characterized by growing on wood. Some species, at least, appear to grow
from the ground, as in Pleurotus petaloides, which is sometimes found
growing on buried roots or portions of decayed stumps which no longer
show above ground. On the other hand species of Clitocybe, as in C.
candida (Fig. 91), often have an eccentric stem. This presents to us one of
the many difficulties which students, especially beginners, of this group of
fungi meet, and also suggests how unsatisfactory any arrangement of genera
as yet proposed is.

Pleurotus ulmarius Bull. Edible.—The elm pleurotus is so called because
it is often found growing on dead elm branches or trunks, or from wounds
in living trees, but it is not confined to the elm. It is a large species, easily
distinguished from the oyster agaric and the other related species by its long
stem attached usually near the center of the cap, and by the gills being
rounded or notched at their inner extremity. The cap is 5–12 cm. broad, the
stem 5–10 cm. long, and 1–2 cm. in thickness.

Figure 106.—Pleurotus ulmarius. Under view and section (natural size).
Copyright.

The pileus is convex, the margin incurved, then nearly expanded, smooth,
firm, white or whitish, or with shades of yellow or brown on the center, and
the flesh is white. The gills are broad, rather distant, sinuate, white or nearly
so. The spores are globose, 5–8 µ in diameter. The stem is firm, eccentric,
usually curved because of its lateral attachment on the side of the tree, and
the horizontal position of the pileus.

The elm pleurotus has been long known as an edible fungus, and is
regarded as an excellent one for food on account of its flavor and because

of its large size. It occurs abundantly during the late autumn, and at this
season of the year is usually well protected from the attacks of insects. It
occurs in the woods, or fields, more frequently on dead trees. On shade
trees which have been severely pruned, and are nearly or quite dead, it
sometimes appears at the wounds, where limbs have been removed, in great
abundance. In the plants shown in Fig. 105 the stems are strongly curved
because the weight of the cap bore the plant downward. Sometimes when
the plant is growing directly on the upper side of a branch or log, the stem
may be central.

Pleurotus ostreatus Jacq. Edible.—This plant is known as the oyster
agaric, because the form of the plant sometimes suggests the outline of an
oyster shell, as is seen in Fig. 107. It grows on dead trunks and branches,
usually in crowded clusters, the caps often overlapping or imbricated. It is
large, measuring 8–20 cm. or more broad.

The pileus is elongated and attached at one side by being sessile, or it is
narrowed into a very short stem. It is broadest at the outer extremity, where
it becomes quite thin toward the margin. It is more or less curved in outline
as seen from the side, being depressed usually on the upper side near the
point of attachment, and toward the margin convex and the margin
incurved. The color is white, light gray, buff or dark gray, often becoming
yellowish on drying. The gills are white, broad, not much crowded, and run
down on the stem in long elevated lines resembling veins, which
anastomose often in a reticulate fashion. The spores are white, oblong, 7–
10 µ long. The stem when present is very short, and often hairy at the base.

The oyster agaric has long been known as an edible mushroom, but it is not
ranked among the best, because, like most Pleuroti, it is rather tough,
especially in age. It is well to select young plants. Figure 107 is from plants
(No. 2097, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, N. Y.

Plate 34, Figure 107.—Pleurotus ostreatus. Under view showing decurrent and
anastomosing gills on the stem. Cap white, light gray, buff, or dark gray in color.
Spores white (natural size, often larger). Copyright.

Pleurotus sapidus Kalchb. Edible.—This plant usually grows in large
clusters from dead trunks or branches or from dead portions of living trees.
It grows on a number of different kinds of trees. The stems are often joined
at the base, but sometimes the plants are scattered over a portion of the
branch or trunk. The cap is from 5–10 cm. broad. The plants occur from
June to November.

Plate 35, Figure 108.—Pleurotus sapidus. Color of cap white, yellowish, gray,
or brownish, with lilac tints sometimes. Spores lilac tinted in mass (1/2 natural
size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex, the margin incurved when young, and more or less
depressed in age, smooth, broadened toward the margin and tapering into
the short stem, which is very short in some cases and elongated in others.
Often the caps are quite irregular and the margin wavy, especially when old.
It is quite firm, but the margin splits quite readily on being handled. The
color varies greatly, white, yellowish, gray, or brownish and lilac tints. The
flesh is white. The stems are usually attached to the pileus, at or near one
edge. The gills are white, broad, not at all crowded, and extend down on the
stem as in the oyster agaric. They are white or whitish, and as in the other
related species are sometimes cracked, due probably to the tension brought
to bear because of the expanding pileus. The spores are tinged with lilac
when seen in mass, as when caught on paper. The color seems to be
intensified after the spores have lain on the paper for a day or two.

It is very difficult to distinguish this species from the oyster agaric. The
color of the spores seems to be the only distinguishing character, and this
may not be constant. Peck suggests that it may only be a variety of the
oyster agaric. I have found the plant growing from a dead spot on the base
of a living oak tree. There was for several years a drive near this tree, and
the wheels of vehicles cut into the roots of the tree on this side, and
probably so injured it as to kill a portion and give this fungus and another
one (Polystictus pergamenus) a start, and later they have slowly encroached
on the side of the tree.

Figure 108 represents the plant (No. 3307, C. U. herbarium) from a dead
maple trunk in a woods near Ithaca, collected during the autumn of 1899.
This plant compares favorably with the oyster agaric as an edible one.
Neither of these plants preserve as well as the elm pleurotus.

Pleurotus dryinus Pers. Edible.—Pleurotus dryinus represents a section of
the genus in which the species are provided with a veil when young, but
which disappears as the pileus expands. This species has been long known
in Europe on trunks of oak, ash, willow, etc., and occurs there from
September to October. It was collected near Ithaca, N. Y., in a beech woods
along Six-mile creek, on October 24th, 1898, growing from a decayed
knothole in the trunk of a living hickory tree, and again in a few days from
a decayed stump. The pileus varies from 5–10 cm. broad, and the lateral or
eccentric stem is 2–12 cm. long by 1–2 cm. in thickness, the length of the
stem depending on the depth of the insertion of the stem in a hollow portion
of the trunk. The plant is white or whitish, and the substance is quite firm,
drying quite hard.

The pileus is convex to expanded, more or less depressed in the center, the
margin involute, and the surface at first floccose, becoming in age floccose
scaly, since the surface breaks up into triangular scales more prominent in

and near the center, smaller and inconspicuous toward the margin. The
prevailing color is white, but in age the scales become cream color or buff
(in European plants said to become fuscous). The pileus is either definitely
lateral (Fig. 109) or eccentric when the stem is attached near the center as in
Fig. 110. The gills are white, becoming tinged with yellow in age, decurrent
(running down on the stem) in striæ for short distances, 4–5 mm. broad, not
crowded. The stem is nearly central (Fig. 110), or definitely lateral (Fig.
109), the length varying according to conditions as stated above. It is firm,
tough, fibrous. The veil is prominent in young and medium plants, floccose,
tearing irregularly as the pileus expands.

Figure 110 is from plants (No. 2478a C. U. herbarium) growing from
knothole in living hickory tree, and Fig. 109 from plants (No. 2478b)
growing on a dead stump, near Ithaca.

According to the descriptions of P. dryinus as given by Persoon, and as
followed by Fries and most later writers, the pileus is definitely lateral, and
more or less dimidiate, while in P. corticatus Fr., the pileus is entire and the
stem rather long and eccentric. Stevenson suggests (p. 166) that corticatus is
perhaps too closely allied to dryinus. The plants in our Fig. 110 agree in all
respects with P. corticatus, except that possibly the lamellæ do not
anastomose on the stem as they are said to in corticatus. According to the
usual descriptions corticatus is given as the larger species, while Fig. 109 of
our plant, possessing the typical characters of dryinus, is the larger. The
form of the pileus, the length and position of the stem, depends, as we
know, to a large extent on the position of the plant on the tree. When
growing from the upper side, so that there is room above for the expansion
of the cap, the pileus is apt to be more regular, just as is the case in
Pleurotus ulmarius, and the stem more nearly central. When the plant grows
from a hollow place in the trunk as those shown in Fig. 110 did, then there
is an opportunity for them to grow more or less erect, at least until they

emerge from the hollow, and then the pileus is more nearly equal in its
expansion and the stem is longer. Berkeley describes specimens of P.
dryinus with long stems growing from a hollow in an ash, and Stevenson (p.
167) reports the same condition.

Plate 36, Figure 109.—Pleurotus dryinus. Side and upper view. Plant entirely
white, scales sometimes buff or cream colored in age (natural size). Copyright.

Pleurotus sulfureoides Pk.—This rare species, first collected in the
Catskill Mountains 1869, and described by Peck in the 23rd Report, N. Y.
State Mus., p. 86, 1870, was found by me on two different occasions at
Ithaca, N. Y., during the autumn of 1898, on rotting logs, Ithaca Flats, and
again in Enfield Gorge, six miles from Ithaca. The plants are from 5–8 cm.
high, the cap 3–5 cm. broad, and the stem 5–7 mm. in thickness, and the
entire plant is of a dull, or pale, yellow.

Plate 37, Figure 110.—Pleurotus dryinus, form corticatus. Entire plant white,
scales cream or buff in age sometimes. The ruptured veil shows in the small
plant below (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is nearly regular, fleshy, thin toward the margin, convex,
umbonate, smooth or with a few small scales. The gills are rather crowded,
broad, rounded or notched at the stem, pale yellow. The spores are
elliptical, 7–9 × 5–6 µ. The stem is ascending and curved, nearly or quite
central in some specimens in its attachment to the pileus, whitish or
yellowish, mealy or slightly tomentose at the apex.

Figure 111 is from plants (No. 2953, C. U. herbarium) on rotting log, Ithaca
Flats, October, 1898.

Figure 111.—Pleurotus sulfureoides. Entire plant dull or pale yellow (natural
size). Copyright.

Pleurotus petaloides Bull. Edible.—The petal-like agaric is so called from
the fancied resemblance of the plant to the petal of a flower. The plant
usually grows in a nearly upright or more or less ascending position, or
when it grows from the side of a trunk it is somewhat shelving. It is
somewhat spathulate in form, i. e., broad at the free end and tapering
downward into the short stem in a wedge-shaped manner, and varies from
2–10 cm. long and 1–5 cm. in breadth. It grows on fallen branches or
trunks, on stumps, and often apparently from the ground, but in reality from
underground roots or buried portions of decayed stumps, etc.

Figure 112.—Pleurotus petaloides. Color pale reddish brown or brown,
sometimes entirely white; gills white (natural size). Copyright.

Figure 113.—Pleurotus petaloides. More irregular form than that shown in
figure 112; color same as there described (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus varies from a regular wedge-shape to spathulate, or more or less
irregularly petaloid, or conchoid forms, the extremes of size and form being
shown in Figs. 112, 113. The margin is at first involute, finally fully
expanded, and the upper surface is nearly plane or somewhat depressed.
The color is often a pale reddish brown, or brown, and sometimes pure
white. The margin is sometimes marked with fine striations when moist.
The upper portion near the union with the stem is sometimes tomentose,
sometimes smooth. The gills are narrow, white, or yellowish, crowded and
strongly decurrent. While the plant varies greatly in form and size, it is
easily recognized by the presence of numerous short whitish cystidia in the
hymenium, which bristle over the surface of the hymenium and under a
pocket lens present a "fuzzy" appearance to the lamellæ. They are 70–80 ×
10–12 µ. The spores are white.

Figures 112, 113 are from plants collected at Ithaca.

Pleurotus serotinus Schrad. This is an interesting plant and occurs during
the autumn on dead trunks, branches, etc., in the woods. The stem is
wanting, and the cap is shelving, dimidiate, reniform or suborbicular. The
plants occur singly or are clustered and overlapping, about the same size
and position as Claudopus nidulans, from which it is readily told by its
white gills and spores. The color varies from dull yellow to brownish, often
with shades of olive or green.

Pleurotus applicatus Batsch.—This is a pretty little species and usually
occurs on much decayed wood, lying close to the ground so that it is usually
directly on the under side of the log or branch. It does occur, however, on
the side of the log when it is more or less shelving, because of the tendency
of the pileus always to be more or less horizontal.

Figure 114.—Pleurotus applicatus. Color gray to dark bluish gray, or black with
a bluish tinge (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is 4–6 mm. broad, its upper surface closely applied to the wood
or bark on which it is growing when it appears directly on the under side.
The margin is sometimes free and involute. Sometimes it is attached only
by the center of the pileus. There is then often a short process. When it
grows on the side of the log it is attached laterally, or on the upper side of
one margin, while the greater portion of the pileus is free and shelving. The
surface is smooth or somewhat hairy. The color varies from gray to dark
bluish gray, or black with a bluish tinge. The gills are thick, broad in
proportion to the size of the cap, distant, and are said by some to be paler
than the pileus. In plants collected at Ithaca, the gills are often as dark as the
pileus. The entire plant is rather tough, and revives after being dried if
placed in water, resembling in this respect Marasmius, Panus, or Trogia,
and it may be more nearly related to one of these. Figure 114 is from plants
(No. 4599, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca.

HYGROPHORUS Fries.

Figure 115.—Hygrophorus chrysodon. Entirely white with golden yellow
granules on cap and stem (natural size). Copyright.

The genus Hygrophorus is one which presents some difficulties in the case
of some of the species, especially to beginners, and plants need to be
studied in the fresh condition to understand the most important character
which separates it from certain of the other white-spored agarics. The
substance of the pileus is continuous with that of the stem, that is, the stem
is not easily separated from the cap at the point of junction, but is more or
less tenacious. The gills may be adnexed, adnate, sinuate, or decurrent, but
what is important they are usually rather distant, the edge is acute or sharp,
and gradually thickened toward the junction with the cap, so that a section
of the gill is more or less triangular. This is brought about by the fact that
the substance of the cap extends downward into the gill between the laminæ
or surfaces of the gill. But the most important character for determining the
genus is the fact that the surfaces of the gills become rather of a waxy
consistency at maturity, so that they appear to be full of a watery substance
though they do not bleed, and the surface of the gill can be rather easily
removed, leaving the projecting line of the trama. This is more marked in
some species than in others. The waxy consistency of the gills then, with

the gills acute at the edge, broad at the point of attachment to the pileus, and
the gills being rather widely separated are the important characters in
determining the species which belong to this genus. The nearest related
genus is Cantharellus, which, however, has blunt and forked gills. A number
of the plants are brilliantly colored.

Plate 38, Figure 116.—Hygrophorus eburneus. Entirely white, slimy (natural
size). Copyright.

Hygrophorus chrysodon (Batsch.) Fries. Edible.—This plant has about
the same range as Hygrophorus eburneus, though it is said to be rare. It is a
very pretty plant and one quite easily recognised because of the uniform
white ground color of the entire plant when fresh, and the numerous golden
floccules or squamules scattered over the cap and the stem. The name
chrysodon means golden tooth, and refers to these numerous golden flecks
on the plant. A form of the plant, variety leucodon, is said to occur in which
these granules are white. The plant is 4–7 cm. high, the cap 4–7 cm. broad,

and the stem 6–10 mm. in thickness. The plants grow on the ground in the
woods, or rather open places, during late summer and autumn.

The pileus is convex, then expanded, the margin strongly involute when
young, and unrolling as the cap expands, very viscid, so that particles of dirt
and portions of leaves, etc., cling to it in drying. The golden or light yellow
granules on the surface are rather numerous near the margin of the pileus,
but are scattered over the entire surface. On the margin they sometimes
stand in concentric rows close together. The gills are white, distant,
decurrent, 3–6 mm. broad, white, somewhat yellowish in age and in drying,
and connected by veins. The spores white, oval to ovate, the longer ones
approaching elliptical, 6–10 × 5–6 µ.

The stem is soft, spongy within, nearly equal, white, the yellowish granules
scattered over the surface, but more numerous toward the apex, where they
are often arranged in the form of a ring. When the plant is young these
yellow granules or squamules on the stem and the upper surface of the
inrolled margin of the pileus meet, forming a continuous layer in the form
of a veil, which becomes spread out in the form of separated granules as the
pileus expands, and no free collar is left on the stem.

Figure 115 is from plants (No. 3108, C. U. herbarium) collected in October,
1898, in woods, and by roadsides, Ithaca, N. Y.

Hygrophorus eburneus (Bulliard) Fries. Edible.—This plant is widely
distributed in Europe and America. It is entirely white, of medium size, very
viscid or glutinous, being entirely covered with a coating of gluten, which
makes it very slippery in handling. The odor is mild and not unpleasant like
that of a closely related species, H. cossus. The plants are 6–15 cm. high,
the cap is from 3–8 cm. broad, and the stem 3–8 mm. in thickness. It grows
on the ground in woods, or in open grassy places.

The pileus is fleshy, moderately thick, sometimes thin, convex to expanded,
the margin uneven or sometimes wavy, smooth, and shining. When young
the margin of the cap is incurved. The gills are strongly decurrent, distant,
with vein-like elevations near the stem. Spores rather long, oval, 6–10 × 5–
6 µ, granular. The stem varies in length, it is spongy to stuffed within,
sometimes hollow and tapers below. The slime which envelops the plant is
sometimes so abundant as to form a veil covering the entire plant and
extending across from the margin of the cap to the stem, covering the gills.
As the plant dries this disappears, and does not leave an annulus on the
stem.

Figure 117.—Hygrophorus fuligineus. Cap and stem dull reddish brown or
smoky brown, very viscid when moist; gills white (natural size). Copyright.

Figure 116 is from a photograph of plants (No. 2534, C. U. herbarium)
collected in Enfield Gorge near Ithaca, N. Y., Nov. 5th, 1898.

Hygrophorus fuligineus Frost. Edible.—The smoky hygrophorus was
described in the 35th Report of the N. Y. State Museum, p. 134. It is an
American plant, and was first collected at West Albany, during the month of
November. It is one of the largest species of the genus, and grows on the

ground in woods, in late autumn. The plants are 5–10 cm. high, the cap
from 3–10 cm. broad, and the stem 1–2 cm. in thickness. The large size of
the plant together with the smoky, brown, viscid cap aid in the recognition
of the plant.

The pileus is convex, becoming expanded, smooth, very viscid, dull reddish
brown or smoky brown, darker on the center; the margin of the pileus is
even in young specimens, becoming irregular in others; and in age often
elevated more or less. The gills are broad, distant, usually decurrent, often
connected by veins, white, with yellowish tinge in drying. The spores oval
to elliptical, 8–12 × 5–7 µ. The stem is stout, sometimes ascending, equal,
or enlarged in the middle, or tapering toward the base, solid, viscid like the
pileus, usually white, sometimes tinged with the same color as pileus,
somewhat yellowish tinged in drying.

Figure 117 is from plants (No. 2546, C. U. herbarium) collected in Enfield
Gorge near Ithaca, Nov. 5, 1898.

Hygrophorus pratensis (Pers.) Fr. Edible.—This hygrophorus grows on
the ground in pastures, old fields, or in waste places, or in thin and open
woods, from mid-summer to late autumn. The plants are 3–5 cm. high, the
cap 2–5 cm. or more broad, and the stem 6–12 mm. in thickness. The cap
being thick at the center, and the stem being usually stouter at the apex,
often gives to the plant a shape like that of a top.

The pileus is hemispherical, then convex, then nearly or quite expanded,
white, or with various shades of yellow or tawny, or buff, not viscid, often
cracking in dry weather. Flesh very thick at the center, thinner at the
margin. The flesh is firm and white. The gills are stout, distant, long
decurrent, white or yellowish, and arcuate when the margin of the pileus is
incurved in the young state, then ascending as the pileus takes the shape of
an inverted cone. The gills are connected across the interspaces by vein-like

folds, or elevations. The spores are nearly globose to ovate or nearly
elliptical, white, 6–8 × 5–6 µ. The stem is smooth, firm outside and spongy
within, tapering downward.

Hygrophorus miniatus Fr. The vermilion hygrophorus is a very common
plant in the woods during the summer. The cap and stem are bright red,
sometimes vermilion. The gills are yellow and often tinged with red. The
gills are adnate or sinuate. The plant is a small one but often abundant, and
measures from 3–5 cm. high, and the cap 2–4 cm. broad. Hygrophorus
coccineus (Schaeff.) Fr., is a somewhat larger plant and with a scarlet cap,
which becomes yellowish in age, and the gills are adnate. Hygrophorus
conicus (Scop.) Fr., is another bright red plant with a remarkable conical
pileus, and the gills are annexed to free.

Hygrophorus psittacinus Fr., is a remarkably pretty plant, the cap being
from bell-shaped to expanded, umbilicate, striate, and covered with a
greenish slime. It occurs in woods and open places. The prevailing color is
yellow, tinged with green, but it varies greatly, sometimes yellow, red,
white, etc., but nearly always is marked by the presence of the greenish
slime, the color of this disappearing as the plant dries. It occurs in pastures,
open woods, etc., from mid-summer to autumn.

Hygrophorus hypothejus Fr., is another very variable plant in color as
well as in size, varying from yellow, orange, reddish, sometimes paler,
usually first grayish when covered with the olive colored slime. The gills
are decurrent, white, then yellow. It occurs in autumn.

LACTARIUS Fr.

The genus Lactarius is easily distinguished from nearly all the other agarics
by the presence of a milky or colored juice which exudes from wounded,

cut, or broken places on the fresh plant. There are a few of the species of the
genus Mycena which exude a watery or colored juice where wounded, but
these are easily told from Lactarius because of their small size, more
slender habit, and bell-shaped cap. By careful observation of these
characters it is quite an easy matter to tell whether or not the plant at hand is
a Lactarius. In addition to the presence of this juice or milk as it is
commonly termed, the entire plant while firm is quite brittle, especially the
gills. There are groups of rounded or vesiculose cells intermingled with
thread-like cells in the substance of the cap. This latter character can only
be seen on examination with the microscope. The brittleness of the plant as
well as the presence of these groups of vesiculose cells is shared by the
genus Russula, which is at once separated from Lactarius by the absence of
a juice which exudes in drops.

In determining the species it is a very important thing to know the taste of
the juice or of the fresh plant, whether it is peppery, or bitter, or mild, that
is, tasteless. If one is careful not to swallow any of the juice or flesh of the
plant no harm results from tasting any of the plants, provided they are not
tasted too often during a short time, beyond the unpleasant sensation
resulting from tasting some of the very "hot" kinds. It is important also to
know the color of the milk when it first exudes from wounds and if it
changes color on exposure to the air. These tests of the plant should be
made of course while it is fresh. The spores are white, globose or nearly so
in all species, and usually covered with minute spiny processes. There are a
large number of species. Peck, 38th Report, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 111–133,
describes 40 American species.

Figure 118.—Lactarius corrugis. Showing corrugated cap, and white milk
exuding. Dark tawny brown, gills orange brown (natural size, often larger).
Copyright.

Lactarius volemus Fr. Edible.—This species is by some termed the orange
brown lactarius because of its usual color. It was probably termed Lactarius
volemus because of the voluminous quantity of milk which exudes where
the plant is broken or bruised, though it is not the only species having this
character. In fresh, young plants, a mere crack or bruise will set loose
quantities of the milky juice which drops rapidly from the plant. The plant
is about the size of Lactarius deliciosus and occurs in damp woods, where it
grows in considerable abundance from July to September, several usually
growing near each other. The pileus is convex, then expanded, often with a
small elevation (umbo) at the center, or sometimes plane, and when old a
little depressed in the center, smooth or somewhat wrinkled. The cap is dull
orange or tawny, the shade of color being lighter in some plants and darker
in others. The flesh is white and quite firm. The gills are white, often tinged
with the same color as the pileus, but much lighter; they are adnate or
slightly decurrent. The stem is usually short, but varies from 3–10 × 1–2
cm. It is colored like the pileus, but a lighter shade.

The milk is white, abundant, mild, not unpleasant to the taste, but sticky as
it dries. This plant has also long been known as one of the excellent

mushrooms for food both in Europe and America. Peck states that there are
several plants which resemble Lactarius volemus in color and in the milk,
but that no harm could come from eating them. There is one with a more
reddish brown pileus, Lactarius rufus, found sparingly in the woods, but
which has a very peppery taste. It is said by some to be poisonous.

Lactarius corrugis Pk. Edible.—This species occurs with Lactarius
volemus and very closely resembles it, but it is of a darker color, and the
pileus is more often marked by prominent wrinkles, from which character
the plant has derived its specific name. It is perhaps a little stouter plant
than L. volemus, and with a thicker cap. The surface of the pileus seems to
be covered with a very fine velvety tomentum which glistens as the cap is
turned in the light. The gills are much darker than in L. volemus. The plants
are usually clearly separated on account of these characters, yet there are
occasionally light colored forms of L. corrugis which are difficult to
distinguish from dark forms of L. volemus, and this fact has aroused the
suspicion that corrugis is only a form of volemus.

The milk is very abundant and in every respect agrees with that of L.
volemus. I do not know that any one has tested L. corrugis for food. But
since it is so closely related to L. volemus I tested it during the summer of
1899 in the North Carolina mountains. I consider it excellent. The methods
of cooking there were rather primitive. It was sliced and fried with butter
and salt. It should be well cooked, for when not well done the partially raw
taste is not pleasant. The plant was very abundant in the woods, and for
three weeks an abundance was served twice a day for a table of twelve
persons. The only disagreeable feature about it is the sticky character of the
milk, which adheres in quantity to the hands and becomes black. This
makes the preparation of the plant for the broiler a rather unpleasant task.

Figure 118 is from plants (No. 3910, C. U. herbarium) collected in the
woods at Blowing Rock, during September, 1899. Just before the exposure
was made to get the photograph several of the plants were wounded with a
pin to cause the drops of milk to exude, as is well shown in the illustration.

The dark color of the lamellæ in L. corrugis is due to the number of brown
cystidia or setæ, in the hymenium, which project above the surface of the
gills, and they are especially abundant on the edge of the gills. These setæ
are long fusoid, 80–120 × 10–12 µ. The variations in the color of the gills,
in some plants the gills being much darker than in others, is due to the
variations either in the number of these setæ or to the variation in their
color. Where the cystidia are fewer in number or are lighter in color the
lamellæ are lighter colored. Typical forms of Lactarius volemus have
similar setæ, but they are very pale in color and not so abundant over the
surface of the gills. In the darker forms of L. volemus the setæ are more
abundant and darker in color, approaching those found in L. corrugis. These
facts, supported by the variation in the color of the pileus in the two species
and the variations in the rugosities of the pileus, seem to indicate that the
two species are very closely related.

Figure 119.—Lactarius lignyotus. Cap and stem sooty, cap wrinkled, gills white,
then tinged with ochre (natural size, sometimes larger). Copyright.

Lactarius lignyotus Fr.—This is known as the sooty lactarius and occurs in
woods along with the smoky lactarius. It is distinguished from the latter by
the dark brown color of the pileus and by the presence usually of rugose
wrinkles over the center of the cap. In size it agrees with the smoky
lactarius.

The pileus is convex, then plane, or somewhat depressed in the center, dry,
sometimes with a small umbo, dark brown or sooty (chocolate to seal
brown as given in Ridgeway's nomenclature of colors), covered with a very
fine tomentum which has the appearance of a bloom. The margin of the cap,
especially in old plants, is somewhat wavy or plicate as in Lactarius
fuliginosus. The gills are moderately crowded when young, becoming

distant in older plants, white, then cream color or yellow, changing to
reddish or salmon color where bruised. The spores are yellowish in mass,
faintly so under the microscope, globose, strongly echinulate, 6–10 µ. The
taste is mild, or sometimes slowly and slightly acrid. The plants from North
Carolina showed distinctly the change to reddish or salmon color when the
gills were bruised, and the taste was noted as mild.

Figure 119 is from plants (No. 3864, C. U. herbarium) collected in the Blue
Ridge Mountains, at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899.

Lactarius fuliginosus Fr.—The smoky or dingy lactarius occurs in woods
and open grassy places. It is widely distributed. The plants are 4–7 cm.
high, the cap 3–5 cm. broad, and the stem 6–10 mm. in thickness. The light
smoky color of the cap and stem, the dull yellowish white color of the gills,
and in old plants the wavy margin of the cap make it comparatively easy to
recognize the species.

Figure 120.—Lactarius fuliginosus. Cap and stem smoky, cap usually not
wrinkled; gills white, then light ochre, distant (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is thin, at first firm, becoming soft, convex, then plane and often
somewhat depressed in the center, usually even, dry, the margin in old
plants crenately wavy, dull gray or smoky gray in color, with a fine down or
tomentum. The gills are adnate, distant, more so in old plants, white, then
yellowish, sometimes changing to salmon color or reddish where bruised.
The spores are yellowish in mass, faintly yellow under the microscope,
strongly echinulate or tuberculate, globose, 6–10 µ. The stem is usually
paler than the pileus, firm, stuffed. The milk is white, slowly acrid to the
taste.

Figure 120 is from plants (No. 3867, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing
Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

Lactarius gerardii Pk.—This plant was described by Dr. Peck in the 26th
Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 65, and in the 28th Rept. p. 129. According to
the descriptions it differs from Lactarius fuliginosus only in the spores
being white, the gills more distant, and the taste being constantly mild.
Since the taste in L. fuliginosus is sometimes mild, or slowly acrid, and the
lamellæ in the older plants are more distant, the spores sometimes only
tinged with yellow, there does not seem to be a very marked difference
between the two species. In fact all three of these species, fuliginosus,
lignyotus and gerardii, seem to be very closely related. Forms of fuliginosus
approach lignyotus in color, and the pileus sometimes is rugose wrinkled,
while in lignyotus pale forms occur, and the pileus is not always rugose
wrinkled. The color of the bruised lamellæ is the same in the two last
species and sometimes the change in color is not marked.

Figure 121.—Lactarius torminosus. Cap ochraceous and pink hues, with zones
of darker color, margin of cap wooly (natural size, often much larger).
Copyright.

Lactarius torminosus (Schaeff.) Fr.—This plant is widely distributed in
Europe, Asia, as well as in America. It is easily recognised by the uneven
mixture of pink and ochraceous colors, and the very hairy or tomentose
margin of the cap. The plants are 5–10 cm. high, the cap about the same
breadth, and the stem 1–2 cm. in thickness. It occurs in woods on the
ground during late summer and autumn.

The pileus is convex, depressed in the center, and the margin strongly
incurved when young, the abundant hairs on the margin forming an
apparent veil at this time which covers up the gills. The upper surface of the
pileus is smooth, or sometimes more or less covered with a tomentum
similar to that on the margin. The color is an admixture of ochraceous and
pink hues, sometimes with concentric zones of darker shades. The gills are
crowded, narrow, whitish, with a tinge of yellowish flesh color. The stem is
cylindrical, even, hollow, whitish.

The milk is white, unchangeable, acrid to the taste. Figure 121, left hand
plants, is from plants (No. 3911, C. U. herbarium) collected in the Blue
Ridge Mountains, N. C., in September, 1899, and the right hand plant (No.
2960, C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca, N. Y.

Figure 122.—Lactarius piperatus. Entirely white, milk very peppery (natural
size, often larger). Copyright.

Lactarius piperatus (Scop.) Fr.—This species is very hot and peppery to
the taste, is of medium size, entirely white, depressed at the center, or
funnel-shaped, with a short stem, and very narrow and crowded gills, and
abundant white milk. The plants are 3–7 cm. high, the cap 8–12 cm. broad,
and the stem 1–2 cm. in thickness. It grows in woods on the ground and is
quite common, sometimes very common in late summer and autumn.

The pileus is fleshy, thick, firm, convex, umbilicate, and then depressed in
the center, becoming finally more or less funnel-shaped by the elevation of
the margin. It is white, smooth when young, in age sometimes becoming
sordid and somewhat roughened. The gills are white, very narrow, very
much crowded, and some of them forked, arcuate and then ascending
because of the funnel-shaped pileus. The spores are smooth, oval, with a
small point, 5–7 × 4–5 µ. The stem is equal or tapering below, short, solid.

The milk is white, unchangeable, very acrid to the taste and abundant. The
plant is reported as edible. A closely related species is L. pergamenus

(Swartz) Fr., which resembles it very closely, but has a longer, stuffed stem,
and thinner, more pliant pileus, which is more frequently irregular and
eccentric, and not at first umbilicate. Figure 122 is from plants (No. 3887,
C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September,
1899.

Figure 123.—Lactarius resimus. Entire plant white, in age scales on cap dull
ochraceous (natural size). Copyright.

Lactarius resimus Fr.?—This plant is very common in the woods
bordering a sphagnum moor at Malloryville, N. Y., ten miles from Ithaca,
during July to September. I have found it at this place every summer for the
past three years. It occurs also in the woods of the damp ravines in the

vicinity of Ithaca. It was also abundant in the Blue Ridge Mountains of
North Carolina, during September, 1899. The plants are large, the caps 10–
15 cm. broad, the stem 5–8 cm. long, and 2–3 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex, umbilicate, then depressed and more or less funnel-
shaped in age, white, in the center roughened with fibrous scales as the
plant ages, the scales becoming quite stout in old plants. The scales are
tinged with dull ochraceous or are light brownish in the older plants. The
ochre colored scales are sometimes evident over the entire cap, even in
young plants. In young plants the margin is strongly involute or inrolled,
and a loose but thick veil of interwoven threads extends from the surface of
the roll to the stem. This disappears as the margin of the cap unrolls with
the expanding pileus. The margin of the pileus is often sterile, that is, it
extends beyond the ends of the gills. The gills are white, stout, and broad,
decurrent, some of them forked near the stem. When bruised, the gills after
several hours become ochraceous brown. The spores are subglobose,
minutely spiny, 8–12 µ. The stem is solid, cylindrical, minutely tomentose,
spongy within when old.

Figure 124.—Lactarius resimus. Section of young plant showing inrolled margin
of cap, and the veil (natural size). Copyright.

The taste is very acrid, and the white milk not changing to yellow. While
the milk does not change to yellow, broken portions of the plant slowly
change to flesh color, then ochraceous brown. Figures 123, 124 are from
plants collected in one of the damp gorges near Ithaca, during September,
1896. The forked gills, the strongly inrolled margin of the cap and veil of
the young plants are well shown in the illustration.

Lactarius chrysorrheus Fr.—This is a common and widely distributed
species, from small to medium size. The plants are 5–8 cm. high, the cap 5–

10 cm. broad, and the stem 1–1.5 cm. in thickness. It grows in woods and
groves during late summer and autumn.

The pileus is fleshy, of medium thickness, convex and depressed in the
center from the young condition, and as the pileus expands the margin
becomes more and more upturned and the depression deeper, so that
eventually it is more or less broadly funnel-form. The color varies from
white to flesh color, tinged with yellow sometimes in spots, and marked
usually with faint zones of brighter yellow. The zones are sometimes very
indistinct or entirely wanting. The gills are crowded, white then yellow,
where bruised becoming yellowish, then dull reddish. The stem is equal or
tapering below, hollow or stuffed, paler than the pileus, smooth (sometimes
pitted as shown in the Fig. 125).

Figure 125.—Lactarius chrysorrheus. Cap white or flesh color, often tinged with
yellowish, and with darker zones (natural size). Copyright.

The plant is acrid to the taste, the milk white changing to citron yellow on
exposure. Figure 125 is from plants (No. 3875, C. U. herbarium) collected
in the Blue Ridge Mountains at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899. The

species was quite abundant in this locality during August and September, in
chestnut groves, mixed woods, and borders of woods.

Lactarius deliciosus (L.) Fr. Edible.—Lactarius deliciosus grows in damp
woods, is widely distributed and sometimes is quite common. It occurs
from July to October. It is one of the medium or large sized species, being
3–10 cm. high, the cap 5–12 cm. broad, and the stem 1–2 cm. in thickness.
It is easily recognized by its orange color and the concentric zones of light
and dark orange around on the pileus, and by the orange milk which is
exuded where wounded.

The pileus is first convex, then slightly depressed in the center, becoming
more expanded, and finally more or less funnel-shaped by the elevation of
the margin. It is usually more or less orange in color or mottled with
varying shades, and with concentric bands of a deeper color. The gills are
yellowish orange often with darker spots. The stem is of the same color as
the pileus but paler, sometimes with darker spots. The flesh of the plant is
white, shaded with orange. In old plants the color fades out somewhat and
becomes unevenly tinged with green, and bruised places become green.
Peck states that when fresh the plant often has a slight acrid taste.

Being a widely distributed and not uncommon plant, and one so readily
recognized, it has long been known in the old world as well as here. All
writers on these subjects concur in recommending it for food, some
pronouncing it excellent, some the most delicious known. Its name suggests
the estimation in which it was held when christened.

Lactarius chelidonium Pk. Edible.—This pretty little Lactarius was
described by Peck in the 24th Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 74. It is closely
allied to Lactarius deliciosus, from which it is said to differ in its "more
narrow lamellæ, differently colored milk, smaller spores." The plant is

about 5 cm. high, the cap about 5 cm. broad, and the stem 1–1.5 cm. in
thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, firm, convex and depressed in the center, smooth,
slightly viscid when moist, "of a grayish green color with blue and yellow
tints, and a few narrow zones on the margin." The gills are crowded,
narrow, some of them forked at the base, and sometimes joining to form
reticulations. The spores are yellowish. The short stem is nearly equal,
smooth, hollow, and the same color as the pileus.

The taste is mild, the milk not abundant, and of a yellowish color,
"resembling the juice of Celandine or the liquid secreted from the mouth of
grasshoppers." Wounds on the plant are first of the color of the milk,
changing on exposure to blue, and finally to green. The plant occurs during
late summer and in the autumn in woods. Peck reported it first from
Saratoga, N. Y. It has been found elsewhere in the State, and it has probably
quite a wide distribution. I found it during September, 1899, in the Blue
Ridge Mountains of N. C. Figure 1, plate 39, is from some of the water
color drawings made by Mr. Franklin R. Rathbun.

PLATE 39.
Fig. 1.—Lactarius deliciosus.
Fig. 2.—L. chelidonium.
Fig. 3.—L. indigo.
Copyright 1900.

Lactarius indigo (Schw.) Fr.—The indigo blue lactarius is a very striking
and easily recognized plant because of the rich indigo blue color so
predominant in the entire plant. It is not very abundant, but is widely
distributed in North America. The plant is 5–7 cm. high, the cap 5–12 cm.
broad, and the stem is 1–2 cm. in thickness. The plants occur during late
summer and in the autumn.

The pileus when young is umbilicate, the margin involute, and in age the
margin becomes elevated and then the pileus is more or less funnel-shaped.
The indigo blue color is deeply seated, and the surface of the pileus has a
silvery gray appearance through which the indigo blue color is seen. The
surface is marked by concentric zones of a darker shade. In age the color is
apt to be less uniformly distributed, it is paler, and the zones are fainter. The
gills are crowded, and when bruised, or in age, the indigo blue color
changes somewhat to greenish. The milk is dark blue.

RUSSULA Pers.

The species of Russula are very characteristic, and the genus is easily
recognized in most cases after a little experience. In the very brittle texture
of the plants the genus resembles Lactarius, and many of them are more
brittle than the species of this genus. A section of the pileus shows under the
microscope a similar vesicular condition, that is the grouping of large
rounded cells together, with threads between. But the species of Russula are
at once separated from those of Lactarius by the absence of a juice which
exudes in drops from bruised parts of Lactarius. While some of the species
are white and others have dull or sombre colors, many of the species of
Russula have bright, or even brilliant colors, as red, purple, violet, pink,
blue, yellow, green. In determining many of the species, however, it is
necessary to know the taste, whether mild, bitter, acrid, etc., and in this
respect the genus again resembles Lactarius. The color of the gills as well
as the color of the spores in mass should also be determined. The genus is
quite a large one, and the American species are not well known, the genus
being a difficult one. In Jour. Mycolog., 5: 58–64, 1889, the characters of
the tribes of Russula with descriptions of 25 species are quoted from
Stevenson, with notes on their distribution in N. A. by MacAdam.

Russula alutacea Fr. Edible.—This handsome Russula differs from the
others described here in the color of the gills and spores. The plant is
common and occurs in mixed woods during the summer and early autumn.
It is 5–10 cm. high, the cap 5–12 cm. broad, and the stem 1.5–2.5 cm. in
thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, oval to bell-shaped, becoming plane, and sometimes
umbilicate. It is red or blood red in color, sometimes purple, and becoming
pale in age, especially at the center. It is viscid when moist, the margin thin
and striate-tuberculate. The gills are free from the stem, stout, broad, first
white, becoming yellow, and in age ochraceous. The gills are all of the same
length, not crowded, and they are connected by vein-like elevations over the
surface. The stem is stout, solid, even, white, portions of the stem are red,
sometimes purple.

The taste is mild, and the plant is regarded as one of the very good ones for
food.

Russula lepida Fr. Edible.—This elegant Russula occurs in birch woods or
in mixed woods during late summer and autumn. It is 5–8 cm. high, the cap
6–8 cm. broad, and the stem 1–2 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, convex, then expanded, obtuse, not shining, deep red,
becoming pale in age, often whitish at the center, silky, in age the surface
cracking, the margin blunt and not striate. The gills are rounded next the
stem, thick, rather crowded, and sometimes forked, white, sometimes red on
the edge near the margin of the pileus. The gills are often connected by
vein-like elevations over the surface. The stem is equal, white or rose color.
The taste is mild.

Russula virescens (Schaeff.) Fr. Edible.—This plant grows on the ground
in woods or in grassy places in groves from July to September. The stem is

short, 2–7 cm. long × 1–2 cm. thick, and the cap is 5–10 cm. broad. The
plant is well known by the green color of the pileus and by the surface of
the pileus being separated into numerous, quite regular, somewhat angular
areas or patches, where the green color is more pronounced.

The pileus is first rounded, then convex and expanded, and when old
somewhat depressed in the center. It is quite firm, dry, greenish, and the
surface with numerous angular floccose areas or patches of usually a deeper
green. Sometimes the pileus is said to be tinged with yellow. The gills are
adnate, nearly free from the stem, and crowded. The stem is white and firm.

The greenish Russula, Russula virescens, like a number of other plants, has
long been recommended for food, both in Europe and in this country. There
are several species of Russula in which the pileus is green, but this species
is readily distinguished from them by the greenish floccose patches on the
surface of the pileus. Russula furcata is a common species in similar
situations, with forked gills, and the cap very variable in color, sometimes
reddish, purple, purple brown, or in one form green. I know of the Russula
furcata having been eaten in rather small quantities, and while in this case
no harm resulted the taste was not agreeable.

PLATE 40.
Fig. 1.—Russula virescens.
Fig. 2.—R. alutacea.
Fig. 3.—R. lepida.
Fig. 4.—R. emetica.
Fig. 5.—Yellow Russula.
Fig. 6.—R. adusta.
Copyright 1900.

Russula fragilis (Pers.) Fr.—This plant is very common in damp woods, or
during wet weather from July to September. It is a small plant and very
fragile, as its name suggests, much more so than most other species. It is 2–
4 cm. high, the cap 2–5 cm. broad, and the stem about 1 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex, sometimes slightly umbonate, then plane, and in age
somewhat depressed. The cuticle peels off very easily. The color is often a
bright red, or pink, sometimes purple or violet, and becomes paler in age. It
is somewhat viscid when moist, and the margin is very thin and strongly
striate and tuberculate, i. e., the ridges between the marginal furrows are
tuberculate. The gills are lightly adnexed, thin, crowded, broad, all of the
same length, white. The stem is usually white, sometimes more or less pink
colored, spongy within, becoming hollow. The taste is very acrid.

Russula emetica Fr. Poisonous.—This Russula has a very wide
distribution and occurs on the ground in woods or open places during
summer and autumn. It is a beautiful species and very fragile. The plants
are 5–10 cm. high, the cap 5–10 cm. broad, and the stem 1–2 cm. in
thickness. The pileus is oval to bell-shaped when young, becoming plane,
and in age depressed. It is smooth, shining, the margin furrowed and
tuberculate. The color is from pink or rosy when young to dark red when
older, and fading to tawny or sometimes yellowish in age. The cuticle is
easily separable as in R. fragilis, the flesh white, but reddish just beneath
the cuticle. The gills are nearly free, broad, not crowded, white. The stem is
stout, spongy within, white or reddish, fragile when old.

The plant is very acrid to the taste and is said to be poisonous, and to act as
an emetic.

Russula adusta (Pers.) Fr.—This plant occurs on the ground in woods
during late summer and in autumn. It is 3–6 cm. high, the cap 5–15 cm.
broad, and the stem is 1–1.5 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, firm, convex, depressed at the center, and when old
more or less funnel-shaped from the upturning of the margin, which is at
first incurved and smooth. It varies from white to gray and smoky color.
The gills are adnate, or decurrent, thin, crowded, of unequal lengths, white,

then becoming dark. The stem is colored like the pileus. The entire plant
becomes darker in drying, sometimes almost black. It is near Russula
nigricans, but is smaller, and does not have a red juice as R. nigricans has.

CANTHARELLUS Adanson.

From the other white-spored agarics of a fleshy consistency Cantharellus is
distinguished by the form of the gills. The gills are generally forked, once
or several times, in a dichotomous manner, though sometimes irregularly.
They are blunt on the edge, not acute as in most of the other genera. The
gills are usually narrow and in many species look like veins, folds, or
wrinkles, but in some species, as in Cantharellus aurantiacus, they are
rather thin and broad.

Figure 126.—Cantharellus cibarius. Under view showing forked gills with veins
connecting them. Entire plant rich chrome yellow (natural size).

Cantharellus cibarius Fr. Edible.—This plant is known as the chanterelle.
It has a very wide distribution and has long been regarded as one of the best
of the edible mushrooms. Many of the writers on fungi speak of it in terms
of high praise. The entire plant is a uniform rich chrome yellow. Sometimes
it is symmetrical in form, but usually it is more or less irregular and
unsymmetrical in form. The plants are 5–10 cm. high, the cap 4–8 cm.
broad, and the stem short and rather thick.

Plate 41, Figure 127.—Cantharellus aurantiacus. Color orange yellow, and cap
varies ochre, raw sienna, tawny, in different specimens (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is fleshy, rather thick, the margin thick and blunt and at first
inrolled. It is convex, becoming expanded or sometimes depressed by the
margin of the cap becoming elevated. The margin is often wavy or repand,
and in irregular forms it is only produced at one side, or more at one side
than at the other, or the cap is irregularly lobed. The gills are very narrow,
stout, distant, more or less sinuous, forked or anastomosing irregularly, and
because of the pileus being something like an inverted cone the gills appear
to run down on the stem. The spores are faintly yellowish, elliptical, 7–10
µ. Figure 126 represents but a single specimen, and this one with a nearly
lateral pileus.

Figure 128.—Cantharellus aurantiacus, under view, enlarged nearly twice,
showing regularly forked gills.

Cantharellus aurantiacus Fr.—This orange cantharellus is very common,
and occurs on the ground or on very rotten wood, logs, branches, etc., from
summer to very late autumn. It is widely distributed in Europe and America.
It is easily known by its dull orange or brownish pileus, yellow gills, which
are thin and regularly forked, and by the pileus being more or less
depressed or funnel-shaped. The plants are from 5–8 cm. high, the cap from
2–7 cm. broad, and the stem about 4–8 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, soft, flexible, convex, to expanded, or obconic, plane
or depressed, or funnel-shaped, the margin strongly inrolled when young, in
age simply incurved, the margin plane or repand and undulate. The color
varies from ochre yellow to dull orange, or orange ochraceous, raw sienna,
and tawny, in different specimens. It is often brownish at the center. The
surface of the pileus is minutely tomentose with silky hairs, especially
toward the center, and sometimes smooth toward the margin. The flesh is 3–
5 mm. at the center, and thin toward the margin. The gills are arcuate,
decurrent, thin, the edge blunt, but not so much so as in a number of other
species, crowded, regularly forked several times, at length ascending when
the pileus is elevated at the margin. The color of the gills is orange to
cadmium orange, or sometimes paler, cadmium yellow or deep chrome. The
stem is clay color to ochre yellow, enlarged below, spongy, stuffed,
fistulose, soft, fibrous, more or less ascending at the base.

The taste is somewhat nutty, sometimes bitterish. The plants in Fig. 127
(No. 3272, C. U. herbarium) were collected near Ithaca, October 7, 1899.

MARASMIUS Fr.

In this genus the plants are tough and fleshy or membranaceous, leathery
and dry. They do not easily decay, but shrivel up in dry weather, and revive
in wet weather, or when placed in water. This is an important character in
distinguishing the genus. It is closely related to Collybia, from which it is
difficult to separate certain species. On the other hand, it is closely related
to Lentinus and Panus, both of which are tough and pliant. In Marasmius,
however, the substance of the pileus is separate from that of the stem, while
in Lentinus and Panus it is continuous, a character rather difficult for the
beginner to understand. The species of Marasmius, however, are generally
much smaller than those of Lentinus and Panus, especially those which

grow on wood. The stem in Marasmius is in nearly all species central, while
in Lentinus and Panus it is generally more or less eccentric. Many of the
species of the genus Marasmius have an odor of garlic when fresh. Besides
the fairy ring (M. oreades) which grows on the ground, M. rotula is a very
common species on wood and leaves. It has a slender, black, shining stem,
and a brownish pileus usually with a black spot in the depression in the
center. The species are very numerous. Peck, 23rd Report, N. Y. State Mus.,
p. 124–126, describes 8 species. Morgan Jour. Cinn. Soc. Nat. Hist. 6: 189–
194, describes 17 species.

Marasmius oreades Fr. Edible.—This is the well known "fairy ring"
mushroom. It grows during the summer and autumn in grassy places, as in
lawns, by roadsides, in pastures, etc. It appears most abundantly during wet
weather or following heavy rains. It is found usually in circles, or in the arc
of a circle, though few scattered plants not arranged in this way often occur.
The plants are 7–10 cm. high, the cap 2–4 cm. broad, and the stem 3–4 mm.
in thickness.

Figure 129.—Marasmius oreades. Caps buff, tawny, or reddish.

The pileus is convex to expanded, sometimes the center elevated, fleshy,
rather thin, tough, smooth, buff color, or tawny or reddish, in age, or in
drying, paler. When moist the pileus may be striate on the margin. The gills
are broad, free or adnexed, rounded near the stem, white or dull yellowish.
The spores are elliptical, 7–8 µ long. The stem is tough, solid, whitish.

This widely distributed fungus is much prized everywhere by those who
know it. It is not the only fungus which appears in rings, so that this habit is
not peculiar to this plant. Several different kinds are known to appear in
rings at times. The appearance of the fungus in rings is due to the mode of
growth of the mycelium or spawn in the soil.

Having started at a given spot the mycelium consumes the food material in
the soil suitable for it, and the plants for the first year appear in a group. In
the center of this spot the mycelium, having consumed all the available
food, probably dies after producing the crop of mushrooms. But around the
edge of the spot the mycelium or spawn still exists, and at the beginning of
the next season it starts into growth and feeds on the available food in a
zone surrounding the spot where it grew the previous year. This second
year, then, the plants appear in a small ring. So in succeeding years it
advances outward, the ring each year becoming larger. Where the plants
appear only in the arc of a circle, something has happened to check or
destroy the mycelium in the remaining arc of the circle.

It has been noted by several observers that the grass in the ring occupied by
the mushrooms is often greener than that adjoining. This is perhaps due to
some stimulus exerted by the mycelium of the fungus on the grass, or
possibly the mycelium may in some way make certain foods available for
the grass which gives an additional supply to it at this point.

Fig. 129 is from plants (No. 5503, C. U. herbarium) collected in a lawn,
October 25, 1900, Ithaca.

Illustrations of some fine large rings formed by this fungus appeared in
circular No. 13 by Mr. Coville, of the Division of Botany in the U. S. Dept.
Agr.

Marasmius cohærens (Fr.) Bres. (Mycena cohærens Fr. Collybia
lachnophylla Berk. Collybia spinulifera Pk.)—This plant grows in dense
clusters, ten to twenty individuals with their stems closely joined below and
fastened together by the abundant growth of threads from the lower ends.
From this character the name cohærens was derived. The plants grow on the
ground or on very rotten wood in woods during late spring and in the
summer. The plant is not very common in this country, but appears to be
widely distributed both in Europe and here, having been collected in
Carolina, Ohio, Vermont, New York, etc. The plants are 12–20 cm. high, the
cap 2–2.5 cm. broad, and the stem 4–7 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, tough, convex or bell-shaped, then expanded,
sometimes umbonate, or in age sometimes the margin upturned and more or
less wavy, not viscid, but finely striate when damp, thin. The color varies
from vinaceous cinnamon to chestnut or light leather color, or tawny, paler
in age, and sometimes darker on the center. The gills are sometimes more or
less crowded, narrow, 5–6 mm. broad, adnate, but notched, and sometimes
becoming free from the stem. The color is light leather color, brick red or
bay, the color and color variations being due to numbers of colored cystidia
or spicules scattered over the surface of the gills and on the edge. The
cystidia are fulvous, fusoid, 75–90 µ long. The spores are oval, white,
small, 6 × 3 µ. The stem is long and slender, nearly cylindrical, tapering
somewhat above, slightly enlarged below, and rooting. The color is the
same as that of the pileus or dark bay brown, and shining, and seems to be
due to large numbers of spicules similar to those on the gills. The color is
paler below in some cases, or gradually darker below in others. The stems
are bound together below by numerous threads.

Figure 130 is from plants (No. 2373, C. U. herbarium) collected in woods
near Freeville, N. Y. The plants have been collected near Ithaca on three
different occasions, twice near Freeville about nine miles from Ithaca, and
once in the woods at Ithaca. It is easily distinguished by its color and the
presence of the peculiar setæ or cystidia.

Figure 130.—Marasmius cohaerens (Fr.) Bres. (= Mycena cohaerens Fr. =
Collybia lachnophylla Berk. = C. spinulifera Pk.) Color chestnut, light leather
color, tawny or vinaceous cinnamon, darker in center, stems dark, shining, gills
leather color, or fulvous, or wine color, brick red or bay, varying in different
specimens (natural size). Copyright.

Although the plant has been collected on several different occasions in
America, it does not seem to have been recognized under this name until
recently, save the record of it from Carolina by de Schweinitz (Synop. fung.
Car. No. 606. p. 81).

LENTINUS Fr.

The plants of this genus are tough and pliant, becoming hard when old,
unless very watery, and when dry. The genus differs from the other tough
and pliant ones by the peculiarity of the gills, the gills being notched or
serrate on the edges. Sometimes this appearance is intensified by the
cracking of the gills in age or in drying. The nearest ally of the genus is
Panus, which is only separated from Lentinus by the edge of the gills being
plane. This does not seem a very good character on which to separate the
species of the two genera, since it is often difficult to tell whether the gills
are naturally serrate or whether they have become so by certain tensions
which exist on the lamellæ during the expansion and drying of the pileus.
Schrœter unites Panus with Lentinus (Cohn's Krypt. Flora, Schlesien, 3, 1;
554, 1889). The plants are usually very irregular and many of them
shelving, only a few grow upright and have regular caps.

Lentinus vulpinus Fr.—This is a large and handsome species, having a
wide distribution in Europe and in this country, but it does not seem to be
common. It grows on trunks, logs, stumps, etc., in the woods. It was quite
abundant during late summer and in the autumn on fallen logs, in a woods
near Ithaca. The caps are shelving, closely overlapping in shingled fashion
(imbricated), and joined at the narrowed base. The surface is convex, and
the margin is strongly incurved, so that each of the individual caps is shell-
shaped (conchate). The surface of the pileus is coarsely hairy or hispid, the
surface becoming more rough with age. Many coarse hairs unite to form

coarse tufts which are stouter and nearly erect toward the base of the cap,
and give the surface a tuberculate appearance. Toward the margin of the cap
these coarse hairs are arranged in nearly parallel lines, making rows or
ridges, which are very rough. The hairs and tubercles are dark in color,
being nearly black toward the base, especially in old plants, and sometimes
pale or of a smoky hue, especially in young plants. The pileus is flesh color
when young, becoming darker when old, and the flesh is quite thin, whitish
toward the gills and darker toward the surface. The gills are broad, nearly
white, flesh color near the base, coarsely serrate, becoming cracked in age
and in drying, narrowed toward the base of the pileus, not forked, crowded,
4–6 mm. broad. The cap and gills are tough even when fresh. The plant has
an intensely pungent taste.

Figures 131, 132 represent an upper, front, and under view of the pilei (No.
3315, C. U. herbarium).

Plate 42, Figure 131.—Lentinus vulpinus. The coarse, hairy scales are black in
old plants, paler, of a smoky hue, in younger ones (natural size). Copyright.

Lentinus lecomtei Fr., is a very common and widely distributed species
growing on wood. When it grows on the upper side of logs the pileus is
sometimes regular and funnel-shaped (cyathiform), but it is often irregular
and produced on one side, especially if it grows on the side of the
substratum. In most cases, however, there is a funnel-shaped depression
above the attachment of the stem. The pileus is tough, reddish or reddish
brown or leather color, hairy or sometimes strigose, the margin incurved.
The stem is usually short, hairy, or in age it may become more or less
smooth. The gills are narrow, crowded, the spores small, ovate to elliptical
5–6 × 2–3 µ. According to Bresadola this is the same as Panus rudis Fr. It
resembles very closely also Panus cyathiformis (Schaeff.) Fr., and P.
strigosus B. & C.

Lentinus lepideus Fr., [L. squamosus (Schaeff.) Schroet.] is another
common and widely distributed species. It is much larger than L. lecomtei,
whitish with coarse brown scales on the cap. It is 12–20 cm. high, and the
cap is often as broad. The stem is 2–8 cm. long and 1–2 cm. in thickness. It
grows on wood.

Figure 132.—Lentinus vulpinus, front and under view (natural size). Copyright.

Lentinus stipticus (Bull.) Schroet. (Panus stipticus Bull.) is a very small
species compared with the three named above. It is, however, a very
common and widely distributed one, growing on wood, and may be found
the year around. The pileus is 1–3 cm. in diameter, whitish or grayish, very

tough, expanded in wet weather, and curled up in dry weather. The stem is
very short, and attached to one side of the cap. When freshly developed the
plant is phosphorescent.

SCHIZOPHYLLUM Fr.

This is a very interesting genus, but the species are very few. The plants are
tough, pliant when fresh, and dry. The gills are very characteristic, being
split along the edge and generally strongly revolute, that is, the split edges
curve around against the side of the gill. This character can be seen
sometimes with the aid of a hand lens, but is very evident when a section of
the cap and gills is made and then examined with a microscope. The spores
are white.

Figure 133.—Schizophyllum alneum (==S. commune). View of under side
(natural size). Copyright.

Schizophyllum alneum (L.) Schroet.—This species usually goes by the
name of Schizophyllum commune, but the earlier name is S. alneum. It is a
very common plant and is world wide in its distribution, growing on wood,
as on branches, trunks, etc. It is white, and the pileus is very hairy or
tomentose, with coarse white hairs. It is 1–3 cm. in diameter, and the cap is
sessile, either attached at one side when the cap is more produced on one
side than on the other, or it may be attached at or near the center of the top,
when the cap is more evenly developed on all sides. It is often crenate or
lobed on the margin, the larger plants showing this character more

prominently. The margin is incurved. The gills are white, wooly, branched
and extend out toward the margin of the cap like the radiations of a fan. The
gills are deeply split along the edge, and strongly revolute. It is a very pretty
plant, but one becomes rather tired of collecting it because it is so common.
It may be found at all seasons of the year on dead sticks and branches,
either in the woods or elsewhere, if the branches are present. It is very
coriaceous, and tough. During dry weather it is much shrunken and curled
up, but during rains it expands quickly and then it is seen in its beauty.

Plate 43, Figure 134.—Trogia crispa. Large cluster of caps, view of underside
(natural size). Copyright.

Figure 133 shows the plant in the expanded condition, from the under side.
The plants were growing on a hickory branch, and were dry and shrunken
when brought in the laboratory. The branch and the fungus were placed in
water for a few hours, when the fungus expanded, and was then
photographed in this condition.

TROGIA Fr.

This genus is characterized, according to Fries, by the gills being channeled
along the edge, but singularly the only species attributed to the genus in
Europe and in our country has not channeled gills, but only somewhat
crisped along the edges. It is usually, therefore, a difficult matter for a
beginner to determine the plant simply from this description. The gills are
furthermore narrow, irregular, and the plants are somewhat soft and flabby
when wet, but brittle and persistent when dry, so that when moistened they
revive and appear as if fresh.

Trogia crispa Fr.—This species is the principal if not only one in Europe
and America. It is widely distributed, and sometimes not very uncommon. It
occurs on trunks, branches, etc., often on the birch. The plants are from 0.5–
1 cm. broad, usually sessile. The upper surface is whitish or reddish yellow
toward the attachment, sometimes tan color, and when young it is
sometimes covered with whitish hairs. The gills are very narrow, vein-like,
irregular, interrupted or continuous, and often more or less branched. The
gills are very much crisped, hence the name, blunt at the edge and white or
bluish gray. The caps are usually much crowded and overlapped in an
imbricated fashion as shown in Fig. 134; a photograph of a fine specimen
after being moistened.

CHAPTER VII.

THE ROSY-SPORED AGARICS.

The spores are rosy, pink, salmon colored, flesh colored, or reddish. For
analytical keys to the genera see Chapter XXIV.

PLUTEUS Fr.

In the genus Pluteus the volva and annulus are both wanting, the gills are
usually free from the stem, and the stem is easily broken out from the
substance of the cap, reminding one in some cases of a ball and socket joint.
The substance of the cap is thus said to be not continuous with that of the
stem. The spores seen in mass are flesh colored as in other genera of this
subdivision of the agarics.

Figure 135.—Pluteus cervinus. Cap grayish brown, or sooty, smooth or
sometimes scaly, rarely white, stem same color, but paler; gills first white, then
flesh color (natural size, often larger). Copyright.

Pluteus cervinus Schaeff. Edible.—This is one of the very common
species of the higher fungi, and is also very widely distributed. It varies
considerably in size and appearance. It is 7–15 cm. high, the cap 5–10 cm.
broad, and the stem 6–12 mm. in thickness. It occurs on the ground from
underground roots or rotten wood, or grows on decaying stumps, logs, etc.,
from spring until late autumn. Sometimes it is found growing in sawdust.

The pileus is fleshy, bell-shaped, then convex, and becoming expanded, the
surface usually smooth, but showing radiating fibrils, grayish brown, or
sometimes sooty, sometimes more or less scaly. The gills are not crowded,
broad, free from the stem, white, then becoming flesh color with the
maturity of the spores. One very characteristic feature of the plant is the

presence of cystidia in the hymenium on the gills. These are stout,
colorless, elliptical, thick-walled, and terminate in two or three blunt, short
prongs.

The stem is nearly equal, solid, the color much the same as that of the
pileus, but often paler above, smooth or sometimes scaly.

In some forms the plant is entirely white, except the gills. In addition to the
white forms occurring in the woods, I have found them in an old abandoned
cement mine growing on wood props.

Figure 136.—Pluteus tomentosulus. Cap and stem entirely white, gills flesh
color, stem furrowed and tomentose (natural size). Copyright.

Pluteus tomentosulus Pk.—This plant was described by Peck in the 32d
Report, N. Y. State Mus., page 28, 1879. It grows on decaying wood in the
woods during July and August. The plants are 5–12 cm. high, the cap 3–7
cm. broad, and the stem 4–8 mm. in thickness. The description given by
Peck is as follows: "Pileus thin, convex or expanded, subumbonate, dry,
minutely squamulose-tomentose, white, sometimes pinkish on the margin;
lamellæ rather broad, rounded behind, free, crowded, white then flesh
colored; stem equal, solid, striate, slightly pubescent or subtomentose,
white; spores subglobose, 7 µ in diameter, generally containing a large
single nucleus." From the plant collected at Ithaca the following notes were
made. The pileus and stem are entirely white, the gills flesh color. The
pileus is expanded, umbonate, thin except at the umbo, minutely floccose
squamulose, no pinkish tinge noted; the flesh is white, but on the umbo
changing to flesh color where wounded. The gills are free, with a clear
white space between stem and rounded edges, crowded, narrow (about 3–4
mm. broad) edge finely fimbriate, probably formed by numerous bottle-
shaped cystidia on the edge, and which extend up a little distance on the
side of the gills, but are not distributed in numbers over the surface of the
gills; cystidia thin walled, hyaline. The spores are flesh colored,
subglobose, 5–7 µ. Stem cylindrical, even, twisted somewhat, white, striate
and minutely squamulose like the pileus, but with coarser scales, especially
toward the base, solid, flesh white.

The species received its name from the tomentose, striate character of the
stem. The plants (No. 3219, C. U. herbarium) illustrated in Fig. 136 were
collected in Enfield Gorge, vicinity of Ithaca, July 28, 1899.

VOLVARIA Fr.

This genus takes its name from the volva, which means a wrapper, and
which, as we know from our studies of Amanita, entirely envelops the plant
at a young stage. The genus is characterized then by the rosy or reddish
spores, the presence of a volva, and the annulus is wanting. The stem is
easily separable from the pileus at its junction, in this respect being similar
to Amanita, Amanitopsis, Lepiota and others. The gills are usually, also, free
from the stem. The species grow on rotting wood, on leaf mould and on
richly manured ground, etc. They are of a very soft texture and usually soon
decay.

Volvaria bombycina (Pers.) Fr. Edible.—The silky volvaria is so called
because of the beautiful silky texture of the surface of the cap. It is not very
common, but is world wide in its distribution, and occurs on decayed wood
of logs, stumps, etc., during late summer and in autumn. It is usually of a
beautiful white color, large, the volva large and thick, reminding one of a
bag, and the stem is ascending when the plant grows on the side of the
trunk, or erect when it grows on the upper side of a log or stump. The plant
is from 8–16 cm. high, the cap 6–20 cm. broad, and the stem 1–1.5 cm.
thickness.

The pileus is globose, then bell-shaped, and finally convex and somewhat
umbonate, white, according to some becoming somewhat reddish. The
entire surface is silky, and numerous hairs stand out in the form of soft
down, when older the surface becoming more or less scaly, or rarely
becoming smooth at the apex. The flesh is white. The gills are crowded,
very broad along the middle, flesh colored, the edge sometimes ragged. The
spores are rosy in mass, oval to broadly elliptical, 6–9 × 5–6 µ, smooth.
The stem tapers from the base to the apex, is solid, smooth. The volva is
large and bag-like. The plant is considered edible by some. Figure 137 is
from a plant (No. 3096, C. U. herbarium) collected on a log of Acer rubrum
in Cascadilla woods, Ithaca, on August 10th, 1898.

Figure 137.—Volvaria bombycina. Cap, stem and volva entirely white, gills
flesh color (natural size). Copyright.

Volvaria speciosa Fr.—This plant seems to be rare, but it has a wide
distribution in Europe and the United States. It occurs on richly manured
ground, on dung, etc. The plants are 10–20 cm. high, the cap 6–12 cm.
broad, and the stem 1–2 cm. in thickness. The entire plant is white or
whitish, sometimes grayish, especially at the center, where it is also
sometimes darker and of a smoky color.

The pileus is globose when young, then bell-shaped, and finally more or
less expanded, and umbonate, smooth, very viscid, so that earth, leaves,

etc., cling to it. The flesh is white and very soft. The gills are free, flesh
colored to reddish or fulvous, from the deeply colored spores. The spores
are broadly elliptical, or oval, 12–18 × 8–10 µ. The stem is nearly
cylindrical, or tapering evenly from the base, when young more or less
hairy, becoming smooth. The volva is large, edge free, but fitting very
close, flabby and irregularly torn.

The species is reported from California by McClatchie, and from Wisconsin
by Bundy.

Specimens were received in June, 1898, from Dr. Post of Lansing, Mich.,
which were collected there in a potato patch. It was abundant during May
and June. Plants which were sent in a fresh condition were badly decayed
by the time they reached Ithaca, and the odor was very disagreeable. It is
remarkable that the odor was that of rotting potatoes! In this connection
might be mentioned Dr. Peck's observation (Bull. Torr. Bot. Club 26: p. 67,
1899) that Agaricus maritimus Pk., which grows near the seashore,
possessed "a taste and odor suggestive of the sea."

McClatchie reports that it is common in cultivated soil, especially grain
fields and along roads, and that it is "a fine edible agaric and our most
abundant one in California."

CLITOPILUS Fr.

In the rosy-spored agarics belonging to this genus the gills are decurrent,
that is, extend for some distance down on the stem. The stem is fleshy. The
gills are white at first and become pink or salmon color as the plants
mature, and the spores take on their characteristic color. The plants should
thus not be confused with any of the species of Agaricus to which the
common mushroom belongs, since in those species the gills become dark

brown or blackish when mature. The genus corresponds with Clitocybe
among the white-spored ones.

Clitopilus prunulus Scop. Edible.—This species grows on the ground in
the woods from mid-summer to autumn. It is not very common, but
sometimes appears in considerable quantities at one place. During the
autumn of 1898 quite a large number of specimens were found in a woods
near Ithaca, growing on the ground around an old stump. The plants are 3–8
cm. high, the cap 5–10 cm. broad, and stem 1–2 cm. in thickness.

Plate 44, Figure 138.—Clitopilus prunulus, cap whitish or dark gray, gills flesh
color (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is fleshy, firm, convex and becoming nearly plane, and
sometimes as the plants become old the center may be slightly depressed. It
is whitish in color, or dark gray, or with a leaden tint, dry, sometimes with a
distinct bloom on the surface, and the margin is often wavy. The cap is
sometimes produced more on one side than on the other. The gills are not
close, at first whitish, then salmon colored as the spores mature, and they
are decurrent as is characteristic of the genus. The spores are elliptical or
nearly so, and measure 10–12 µ long.

Figure 138 is from plants collected near Ithaca, in the autumn of 1898. This
species is considered to be one of the excellent mushrooms for food. When
fresh it has a mealy odor and taste, as do several of the species of this
genus. It is known as the prune mushroom.

Clitopilus orcella Bull. Edible.—This plant is sometimes spoken of as the
sweet-bread mushroom. It is much like the prune mushroom just described,
in odor and taste, and sometimes resembles it in form and other characters.
It is white in color, and the plants are usually considerably smaller, and the
pileus is, according to my observations, sometimes more irregular, lobed
and wavy on the margin. The flesh is also softer, and the cap is said to be
slightly viscid in wet weather. The plant grows in the woods and sometimes
in open fields.

ENTOLOMA Fr.

The volva and annulus are absent in this genus, the spores are rosy, the gills
adnate to sinuate or adnexed, easily separating from the stem in some
species. The stem is fleshy or fibrous, sometimes waxy, and the pileus is
fleshy with the margin incurved, especially when young. The spores are
prominently angular. The genus corresponds with Tricholoma of the white-
spored agarics, and also with Hebeloma and Inocybe of the ochre-spored
ones. Entoloma repandum Bull., is an Inocybe [I. repandum (Bull.) Bres.]
and has angular spores resembling those of an Entoloma, but the spores are
not rosy.

Entoloma jubatum Fr.—Growing on the ground in woods. The plants are
5–10 cm. high, the cap 3–6 cm. broad, and the stem 3–6 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is conic in some plants, to convex and umbonate, thin, minutely
scaly with blackish hairy scales, dull heliotrope purple, darker on the umbo.

The gills are vinaceous rufus to deep flesh color, strongly sinuate, and
irregularly notched along the edge. The spores are irregularly oval to short
oblong, coarsely angular, with an oil drop, 5–7 angled, 7–11 × 6–7 µ. The
stem is of the same color as the pileus, sometimes deeply rooting, hollow.
Figure 139 is from plants (No. 4000, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing
Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

Entoloma grayanum Pk.—This plant grows on the ground in woods. It is
from 6–8 cm. high, the cap is 3–6 cm. broad, and the stem 4–6 mm. in
thickness.

Figure 139.—Entoloma jubatum. Entire plant dull heliotrope purple, gills later
flesh color (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex to expanded, sometimes broadly umbonate, drab in
color, the surface wrinkled or rugose, and watery in appearance. The flesh is
thin and the margin incurved. The gills are first drab in color, but lighter
than the pileus, becoming pinkish in age. The spores on paper are very light
salmon color. They are globose or rounded in outline, 5–7 angled, with an
oil globule, 8–10 µ in diameter. The stem is the same color as the pileus,
but lighter, striate, hollow, somewhat twisted, and enlarged below. Figure
140 is from plants (No. 3998, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock,
N. C., during September, 1899.

Figure 140.—Entoloma grayanum. Cap and stem drab, gills flesh color (natural
size). Copyright.

Entoloma strictius Pk.—The plants grow in grassy places, pastures, etc.
They are clustered, sometimes two or three joined at the base of the stem.
They are 7–10 cm. high, the caps 2–4 cm. broad, and the stems 3–6 mm. in
thickness.

The pileus is convex, the disk expanded, and the margin incurved and more
or less wavy or repand on the extreme edge. It is umbonate at the center
with usually a slight depression around the umbo, smooth, watery
(hygrophanous) in appearance, not viscid, of an umber color, shining,
faintly and closely striate on the margin. In drying the surface of the pileus
loses some of its dark umber color and presents a silvery sheen. The flesh is
fibrous and umber color also. The gills are grayish white, then tinged with
flesh color, slightly sinuate, the longer ones somewhat broader in the
middle (ventricose), rather distant, and quite thick as seen in cross section,
the center of the gill (trama) presenting parallel threads. The sub-hymenium
is very thin and composed of small cells; the basidia are clavate, 25–30 ×
9–10 µ, and four-spored. The spores are dull rose color on paper,
subgloblose, 5–8 µ in diameter, angular with 5–6 angles as seen from one
side. The stem is the same color as the pileus, but considerably lighter. It is
hollow with white fibers within, fibrous striate on the surface, twisted,
brittle, and somewhat cartilaginous, partly snapping, but holding by fibers
in places, cylindrical, even, ascending, with delicate white fibers covering
the lower end.

Figure 141.—Entoloma strictius. Cap umber or smoky, stem paler, gills grayish,
then flesh color (natural size). Copyright.

Figure 141 is from plants (No. 2461, C. U. herbarium) collected near Ithaca,
October, 1898.

LEPTONIA Fr.

In Leptonia the stem is cartilaginous, hollow or stuffed, smooth and
somewhat shining. The pileus is thin, umbilicate or with the center darker,
the surface hairy or scaly, and the margin at first incurved. The gills are
adnate or adnexed at first, and easily separating from the stem in age. Many
of the species are bright colored.

Figure 142.—Leptonia asprella. Cap hair brown (mouse colored), minute dark
scales at center, stem same color, but sometimes reddish brown, green or blue,
gills flesh color.

Leptonia asprella Fr.—This species occurs on the ground in woods or in
open grassy places. The plants are 3–5 cm. high, the cap 2–4 cm. broad, and
the stem 2–3 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex, then more or less expanded, umbilicate, rarely
umbonate, hair brown (mouse colored), with dark scales on the center and
minute scales over the surface, striate.

The gills are sinuate to adnexed. The spores are strongly 5–6 angled, 10–12
× 8–10 µ. The stem is smooth, even, usually the same color as the cap, but
sometimes it is reddish brown, green, or blue. Figure 142 is from plants
(No. 3996, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during
September, 1899.

Leptonia incana Fr., is a more common species, and is characterized by an
odor of mice.

ECCILIA Fr.

The genus Eccilia corresponds with Omphalia of the white-spored agarics.
The stem is cartilaginous, hollow or stuffed. The pileus is thin and
somewhat membranaceous, plane or depressed at the center, and the margin
at first incurved. The gills are more or less decurrent.

Eccilia polita Pers.—This plant occurs on the ground in woods. It is 6–10
cm. high, the cap 2–4 cm. broad, and the stem is 3–4 mm. in thickness.

Figure 143.—Eccilia polita. Cap hair brown to olive, stem lighter, gills flesh
color, notched and irregular (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex and umbilicate, somewhat membranaceous, smooth,
watery in appearance, finely striate on the margin, hair brown to olive in
color. The gills are decurrent. In the specimens illustrated in Fig. 143 the
gills are very irregular and many of them appear sinuate. The spores are
strongly 4–5 angled, some of them square, 10–12 µ in diameter, with a
prominent mucro at one angle. The stem is cartilaginous, becoming hollow,
lighter in color than the pileus, and somewhat enlarged below. Figure 143 is
from plants (No. 3999, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C.,
during September, 1899.

Plate 45, Figure 144.—Claudopus nidulans, view of under side. Cap rich
yellow or buff, gills flesh color (natural size). Copyright.

CLAUDOPUS W. Smith.

In the genus Claudopus, recognized by some, the pileus is eccentric or
lateral, that is, the stem is attached near the side of the cap, or the cap is
sessile and attached by one side to the wood on which the plant is growing;
or the plants are resupinate, that is, they may be spread over the surface of
the wood.

The genus is perhaps not well separated from some of the species of
Pleurotus with lilac spores like P. sapidus. In fact, a number of the species
were formerly placed in Pleurotus, while others were placed in Crepidotus
among the ochre-spored agarics. Several species are reported from America.
Peck in 39th Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 67, et seq., 1886, describes five
species.

Claudopus nidulans (Pers.) Pk.—This is one of the very pretty agarics
growing on dead branches and trunks during the autumn, and is widely
distributed. It has, however, been placed in the genus Pleurotus, as P.
nidulans. But because of the pink color of the spores in mass, Peck places it
in the genus Claudopus, where Fries suggested it should go if removed
from Pleurotus. It seems to be identical with Panus dorsalis Bosc. It is
usually sessile and attached to the side of dead branches, logs, etc., in a
shelving manner, or sometimes it is resupinate.

The pileus is sessile, or sometimes narrowed at the base into a short stem,
the caps often numerous and crowded together in an overlapping or
imbricate manner. It is nearly orbicular, or reniform, and 1–5 cm. broad.
The margin is at first involute. The surface is coarsely hairy or tomentose,
or scaly toward the margin, of a rich yellow or buff color. It is soft, but
rather tough in consistency. The gills are broad, orange yellow. The spores,
pink in mass, are smooth, elongated, somewhat curved, 6–8 µ long.

Figure 144 is from plants (No. 2660, C. U. herbarium) collected in woods
near Ithaca.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE OCHRE-SPORED AGARICS.

The spores are ochre yellow, rusty, rusty-brown, or some shade of yellow.
For analytical keys to the genera see Chapter XXIV.

PHOLIOTA Fr.

The genus Pholiota has ferruginous or ferruginous brown spores. It lacks a
volva, but has an annulus; the gills are attached to the stem. It then
corresponds to Armillaria among white-spored agarics, and Stropharia
among the purple-brown-spored ones. There is one genus in the ochre or
yellow-spored plants with which it is liable to be confused on account of the
veil, namely Cortinarius, but in the latter the veil is in the form of loose
threads, and is called an arachnoid veil, that is, the veil is spider-web-like.
Many of the species of Pholiota grow on trunks, stumps, and branches of
trees, some grow on the ground.

Pholiota præcox Pers. Edible.—Agaricus candicans Bull. T. 217, 1770:
Pholiota candicans Schroeter, Krypt, Flora, Schlesien, p. 608, 1889. This
plant occurs during late spring and in the summer, in pastures, lawns and
grassy places, roadsides, open woods, etc. Sometimes it is very common,
especially during or after prolonged or heavy rains. The plants are 6–10 cm.

high, the cap from 5–8 cm. broad, and the stem 3–5 mm. in thickness. The
plants are scattered or a few sometimes clustered.

The pileus is convex, then expanded, whitish to cream color or yellowish,
then leather color, fleshy, the margin at first incurved, moist, not viscid.
Sometimes the pileus is umbonate. The surface is sometimes uneven from
numerous crowded shallow pits, giving it a frothy appearance. In age the
margin often becomes upturned and fluted. The gills are adnate or slightly
decurrent by a tooth, 3–4 mm. broad, a little broader at or near the middle,
crowded, white, then ferruginous brown, edge sometimes whitish. There is
often a prominent angle in the gills at their broadest diameter, not far from
the stem, which gives to them, when the plants are young or middle age, a
sinuate appearance. The spores are ferruginous brown, elliptical. Cystidia
abruptly club-shaped, with a broad apiculus. The stem is stuffed, later
fistulose, even, fragile, striate often above the annulus. The stem is whitish
or sometimes flesh color. The veil is whitish, large, frail, and sometimes
breaks away from the stem and clings in shreds to the margin of the cap.

Plate 46, Figure 145.—Pholiota praecox. Cap whitish, to cream, or leather
color, stem white, gills white then ferruginous brown (natural size). Copyright.

Figure 145 is from plants (No. 2362, C. U. herbarium) collected on the
campus of Cornell University, June, 1898. The taste is often slightly bitter.

Pholiota marginata Batsch.—This is one of the very common species, a
small one, occurring all during the autumn, on decaying trunks, etc., in the
woods. The plants are usually clustered, though appearing also singly. They
are from 4–10 cm. high, the cap 3–4 cm. broad, and the stem 3–5 µ in
thickness.

Plate 47, Figure 146.—Pholiota adiposa. Cap very viscid, saffron-yellow or
burnt umber or wood-brown in center, scales wood-brown to nearly black, stem
whitish then yellowish; gills brownish, edge yellow (natural size, sometimes
larger). Copyright.

The pileus is convex, then plane, tan or leather colored, darker when dry. It
has a watery appearance (hygrophanous), somewhat fleshy, smooth, striate
on the margin. The gills are joined squarely to the stem, crowded, at
maturity dark reddish brown from the spores.

Figure 147.—Pholiota marginata. Cap and stem tan or leather color, gills dark
reddish brown when mature (natural size). Copyright.

The stem is cylindrical, equal, smooth, fistulose, of the same color as the
pileus, becoming darker, and often with whitish fibrils at the base. The
annulus is distant from the apex of the stem, and often disappears soon
after the expansion of the pileus. Figure 147 is from plants (No. 2743, C. U.
herbarium) collected near Ithaca.

Pholiota unicolor Vahl, is a smaller plant which grows in similar situations.
The plants are usually clustered, 3–5 cm. high, and the caps 6–12 mm. in
diameter, the annulus is thin but entire and persistent. The entire plant is bay
brown, becoming ochraceous in color, and the margin of the cap in age is
striate, first bell-shaped, then convex and somewhat umbonate. The gills are
lightly adnexed.

Pholiota adiposa Fr.—The fatty pholiota usually forms large clusters
during the autumn, on the trunks of trees, stumps, etc. It is sometimes of
large size, measuring up to 15 cm. and the pileus up to 17 cm. broad.
Specimens collected at Ithaca during October, 1899, were 8–10 cm. high,

the pileus 4–8 cm. broad, and the stems 5–9 mm. in thickness. The plants
grew eight to ten in a cluster and the bases of the stems were closely
crowded and loosely joined.

The pileus is convex, then expanded, the margin more or less inrolled, then
incurved, prominently umbonate, very viscid when moist, the ground color
a saffron yellow or in the center burnt umber to wood brown. The cuticle of
the pileus is plain or torn into scales which are wood brown, or when close
together they are often darker, sometimes nearly black. The flesh is saffron
yellow, thick at the center of the cap, thinning out toward the margin,
spongy and almost tasteless. The gills are adnate, and sometimes a little
notched, brown (mars brown), and the edge yellow, 6–7 mm. broad. The
spores are 8 × 5 µ. The stem tapers downward, is compact, whitish then
yellow, saffron yellow, flesh vinaceous, viscid, and clothed more or less
with reflexed (pointing downward) scales. The stem is somewhat
cartilaginous, tough, but snapping off in places. The veil is thin floccose
and sometimes with coarse scales, soon disappearing.

Figure 146 is from plants (No. 3295, C. U. herbarium) collected on the
Ithaca flats from a willow trunk, Oct. 10, 1899.

Pholiota aurivella Batsch, which has been found in the United States, is
closely related to P. adiposa.

Pholiota squarrosa Müll., widely distributed and common in the autumn,
both in Europe and America, on stumps and trunks, is a large, clustered,
scaly plant, the scales "squarrose", and abundant over the pileus and on the
stem below the annulus. It is brownish or ferruginous in color.

Pholiota squarrosoides Pk., as its name indicates, is closely related to P.
squarrosa. It has erect, pointed, persistent scales, especially when young,
and has a similar habit to squarrosa, but differs chiefly in the pileus being

viscid, while that of P. squarrosa is dry. P. subsquarrosa Fr., occurring in
Europe, and also closely related to P. squarrosa, is viscid, the scales are
closely appressed to the surface of the cap, while in squarrosa they are
prominent and revolute.

Pholiota cerasina Pk., occurs on decaying trunks of trees during late
summer. The plants grow in tufts. They are 5–12 cm. high, the caps 5–10
cm. in diameter, and the stems 4–8 mm. in thickness. The pileus is smooth,
watery when damp, cinnamon in color when fresh, becoming yellowish in
drying, and the flesh is yellowish. The stem is solid, and equal, the apex
mealy. The annulus is not persistent, and the gills are crowded and notched.
The spores are elliptical, and rugose, 5 × 8 µ.

Plate 48, Figure 148.—Pholiota squarrosoides. Entire plant brownish or reddish
brown; pileus viscid (three-fourths natural size). Copyright.

Plate 49, Figure 149.—Pholiota johnsoniana. Cap yellowish to yellowish
brown, stem whitish, gills grayish then rust-brown (natural size). Copyright.

Pholiota johnsoniana Pk. Edible.—This species was described from
specimens collected at Knowersville, N. Y., in 1889, by Peck, in the 23rd
Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 98, as Agaricus johnsonianus. I found it at
Ithaca, N. Y., for the first time during the summer of 1899, and it was rather
common during September, 1899, in the Blue Ridge Mountains at Blowing
Rock, N. C. It grows in woods or in pastures on the ground. The larger and
handsomer specimens I have found in rather damp but well drained woods.
The plants are 7–15 cm. high, the cap 5–10 cm. broad, and the stem 6–12
mm. in thickness.

The pileus is fleshy, very thick at the center, convex, then expanded and
plane, smooth, sometimes finely striate on the thin margin when moist,

yellowish, or fulvous, the margin whitish. The gills are attached to the stem
by the upper angle (adnexed), rounded, or some of them angled, some
nearly free. In color they are first gray, then rusty brown. They appear
ascending because of the somewhat top-shaped pileus. The spores are
irregularly ovoid, 4–6 × 3–3.5 µ. The stem is cylindrical or slightly tapering
upward, smooth, slightly striate above the annulus, whitish, solid, with a
tendency to become hollow. The veil is thick, and the annulus narrow and
very thick or "tumid," easily breaking up and disappearing. The plant is
quite readily distinguished by the form of the pileus with the ascending gills
and the tumid annulus. Peck says it has a "somewhat nutty flavor."

Figure 149 is from plants (No. 4014, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing
Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

NAUCORIA Fr.

This genus, with ferruginous spores, corresponds with Collybia among the
white-spored agarics. The gills are free or attached, but not decurrent, and
the stem is cartilaginous. The plants grow both on the ground and on wood.
Peck, 23rd Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 91, et seq., gives a synopsis of seven
species.

Naucoria semi-orbicularis Bull. Edible.—This is one of the common and
widely distributed species. It occurs in lawns, pastures, roadsides, etc., in
waste places, from June to autumn, being more abundant in rainy weather.
The plants are 7–10 cm. high, the cap 3–5 cm. broad, and the stem 2–3 mm.
in thickness. The pileus is convex to expanded, and is remarkably
hemispherical, from which the species takes the name of semi-orbicularis.
It is smooth, viscid when moist, tawny, and in age ochraceous, sometimes
the surface is cracked into areas. The gills are attached, sometimes notched,
crowded, much broader than the thickness of the pileus, pale, then reddish

brown. The stem is tough, slender, smooth, even, pale reddish brown,
shining, stuffed with a whitish pith. Peck says that the plants have an oily
flavor resembling beechnuts.

Naucoria vernalis Pk.—Naucoria vernalis was described by Peck in 23rd
Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 91, from plants collected in May. The plants
described here appeared in woods in late autumn. The specimens from
which this description is drawn were found growing from the under side of
a very rotten beech log, usually from deep crevices in the log, so that only
the pileus is visible or exposed well to the view. The plants are 4–8 cm.
high, the cap 2–3 cm. broad, and the stem 4–5 mm. in thickness. The taste is
bitter.

Figure 150.—Naucoria vernalis. Cap hair brown to clay color; gills grayish
brown to wood brown; stem clay color (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex, then the center is nearly or quite expanded, the
margin at first inrolled and never fully expanded, hygrophanous, smooth
(not striate nor rugose), flesh about 5–6 mm. thick at center, thin toward the

margin. The color changes during growth, it is from ochraceous rufus when
young (1–2 mm. broad), then clove brown to hair brown and clay color in
age. The gills are grayish brown to wood brown, at first adnate to slightly
sinuate, then easily breaking away and appearing adnexed. The spores are
wood brown in color, oval to short elliptical and inequilateral 6–8 × 4–5 µ.
Cystidia hyaline, bottle shaped, 40–50 × 8–12 µ. The stem is somewhat
hollow and stuffed, rather cartilaginous, though somewhat brittle, especially
when very damp, breaking out from the pileus easily though with fragments
of the gills remaining attached, not strongly continuous with the substance
of the pileus. The color is buff to pale clay color; the stem being even, not
bulbous but somewhat enlarged below, mealy over the entire length, which
may be washed off by rains, striate at apex either from marks left by the
gills or remnants of the gills as they become freed from the stem. Base of
stem sometimes with white cottony threads, especially in damp situations.
In the original description the stem is said to be "striate sulcate." Figure 150
is from plants (No. 3242, C. U. herbarium) collected in woods near Ithaca,
October 1, 1899.

GALERA Fr.

Galera with ochraceous (ochraceous ferruginous) spores corresponds to
Mycena among the white-spored agarics. The pileus is usually bell-shaped,
and when young the margin fits straight against the stem. The stem is
somewhat cartilaginous, but often very fragile. The genus does not contain
many species. Peck gives a synopsis of five American species in the 23rd
Report N. Y. State Mus., p. 93, et seq., and of twelve species in the 46th
Report, p. 61, et seq. One of the common species is Galera tenera Schaeff.
It occurs in grassy fields or in manured places. The plants are 5–8 cm. high,
the cap 8–16 mm. broad, and the stem 2–3 mm. in thickness. The pileus is
oval to bell-shaped, and tawny in color, thin, smooth, finely striate,

becoming paler when dry. The gills are crowded, reddish-brown, adnexed
and easily separating. The stem is smooth, colored like the pileus but a little
paler, sometimes striate, and with mealy whitish particles above. Galera
lateritia is a related species, somewhat larger, and growing on dung heaps
and in fields and lawns. Galera ovalis Fr., is also a larger plant, somewhat
shorter than the latter, and with a prominent ovate cap when young. Galera
antipoda Lasch., similar in general appearance to G. tenera, has a rooting
base by which it is easily known. Galera flava Pk., occurs among vegetable
mold in woods. The pileus is membraneous, ovate or campanulate, moist or
somewhat watery, obtuse, plicate, striate on the margin, yellow. The plants
are 5–8 cm. high, the caps 12–25 mm. broad, and the stem 2–3 mm. in
thickness. The plant is recognized by the pale yellow color of the caps and
the plicate striate character of the margin. The plicate striate character of the
cap is singular among the species of this genus, and is shared by another
species, G. coprinoides Pk.

FLAMMULA Fr.

In the genus Flammula, the pileus is fleshy, stem fleshy-fibrous, and the
gills adnate to decurrent.

Figure 151.—Flammula polychroa, under view. Cap vinaceous buff to orange
buff, scales lilac, purple or lavender; gills drab to hair brown (natural size).
Copyright.

Flammula polychroa Berk.—This is a beautiful plant with tints of violet,
lavender, lilac and purple, especially on the scales of the pileus, on the veil
and on the stem. It occurs in clusters during late summer and autumn, on
logs, branches, etc., in the woods. The plants occur singly, but more often in
clusters of three to eight or more. The plants are 4–7 cm. high, the cap 3–5
cm. broad, and the stem 4–6 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex, and in the young stage the margin strongly incurved,
later the cap becomes expanded and has a very broad umbo. It is very
viscid. The surface is covered with delicate hairs which form scales, more
prominent during mid-age of the plant, and on the margin of the cap. These
scales are very delicate and vary in color from vinaceous-buff, lilac, wine-
purple, or lavender. The ground color of the pileus is vinaceous-buff or

orange-buff, and toward the margin often with shades of beryl-green,
especially where it has been touched. In the young plants the color of the
delicate hairy surface is deeper, often phlox-purple, the color becoming
thinner as the cap expands.

The gills are notched (sinuate) at the stem, or adnate, sometimes slightly
decurrent, crowded. Before exposure by the rupture of the veil they are
cream-buff in color, then taking on darker shades, drab to hair brown or
sepia with a purple tinge. The stem is yellowish, nearly or quite the color of
the cap, often with a purplish tinge at the base. It is covered with numerous
small punctate scales of the same color, or sulphur yellow above where they
are more crowded and larger. The scales do not extend on the stem above
the point where the veil is attached. The stem is slightly striate above the
attachment of the veil. It is somewhat tough and cartilaginous, solid, or in
age stuffed, or nearly hollow. The veil is floccose and quite thick when the
plant is young. It is scaly on the under side, clinging to the margin of the
pileus in triangular remnants, appearing like a crown. The color of the veil
and of its remnants is the same as the color of the scales of the cap.

The spores in mass are light brown, and when fresh with a slight purple
tinge. (The color of the spores on white paper is near walnut brown or hair
brown of Ridgeway's colors.) Under the microscope they are yellowish,
oval or short oblong, often inequilateral, 6–8 × 4–5 µ.

Figure 151 is from plants (No. 4016, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing
Rock, N. C., September, 1899, on a fallen maple log. The plants sometimes
occur singly. It has been collected at Ithaca, N. Y., and was first described
from plants collected at Waynesville, Ohio.

Flammula sapinea Fr., is a common plant growing on dead coniferous
wood. It is dull yellow, the pileus 1–4 cm. in diameter, and with numerous
small scales.

HEBELOMA Fr.

In Hebeloma the gills are either squarely set against the stem (adnate) or
they are notched (sinuate), and the spores are clay-colored. The edge of the
gills is usually whitish, the surface clay-colored. The veil is only seen in the
young stage, and then is very delicate and fibrillose. The stem is fleshy and
fibrous, and somewhat mealy at the apex. The genus corresponds with
Tricholoma of the white-spored agarics. All the species are regarded as
unwholesome, and some are considered poisonous. The species largely
occur during the autumn. Few have been studied in America.

Hebeloma crustuliniforme Bull.—This plant is usually common in some
of the lawns, during the autumn, at Ithaca, N. Y. It often forms rings as it
grows on the ground. It is from 5–7 cm. high, the cap 4–8 cm. in diameter,
and the stem is 4–6 mm. in thickness.

Figure 152.—Hebeloma crustuliniforme, var. minor. Cap whitish or tan color, or
reddish-brown at center; gills clay color (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex and expanded, somewhat umbonate, viscid when
moist, whitish or tan color, darker over the center, where it is often reddish-
brown. The gills are adnexed and rounded near the stem, crowded, whitish,
then clay color and reddish-brown, the edge whitish and irregular. The gills
are said to exude watery drops in wet weather. The stem is stuffed, later
hollow, somewhat enlarged at the base, white, and mealy at the apex. Figure

152 is from plants (No. 2713, C. U. herbarium) collected in lawns on the
Cornell University campus. The plants in this figure seem to represent the
variety minor.

INOCYBE Fr.

In the genus Inocybe there is a universal veil which is fibrillose in character,
and more or less closely joined with the cuticle of the pileus, and the
surface of the pileus is therefore marked with fibrils or is more or less scaly.
Sometimes the margin of the pileus possesses remnants of a veil which is
quite prominent in a few species. The gills are adnate, or sinuate, rarely
decurrent, and in one species they are free. It is thus seen that the species
vary widely, and there may be, after a careful study of the species, grounds
for the separation of the species into several genera. One of the most
remarkable species is Inocybe echinata Roth. This plant is covered with a
universal veil of a sooty color and powdery in nature. The gills are reddish
purple, and the stem is of the same color, the spores on white paper of a
faint purplish red color. Some place in it Psalliota. Collected at Ithaca in
August, 1900.

TUBARIA W. Smith.

In the genus Tubaria the spores are rust-red, or rusty brown (ferruginous or
fuscous-ferruginous), the stem is somewhat cartilaginous, hollow, and, what
is more important, the gills are more or less decurrent, broad next to the
stem, and thus more or less triangular in outline. It is related to Naucoria
and Galera, but differs in the decurrent gills. The pileus is convex, or with
an umbilicus.

Tubaria pellucida Bull.—This species grows by roadsides in grassy places.
The plants are from 3–4 cm. high, and the cap 1–2 cm. in diameter, and the
stem 2–3 mm. in thickness.

Figure 153.—Tubaria pellucida. Dull reddish brown (natural size).

The pileus is conic, then bell-shaped, often expanded and with a slight
umbo; the color is dull, reddish brown, and it has a watery appearance. The
plant is sometimes enveloped with a loose and delicate universal or outer
veil, which remains on the margin of the cap in the form of silky squamules
as shown in the figure. The margin of the pileus is faintly striate. The gills
are only slightly decurrent. Figure 153 is from plants (No. 2360 C. U.
herbarium) collected along a street in Ithaca.

The stem is at first solid, becoming hollow, tapering above, and the apex is
mealy.

CREPIDOTUS Fr.

In Crepidotus the pileus is lateral, or eccentric, and thus more or less
shelving, or it is resupinate, that is, lying flat or nearly so on the wood. The
species are usually of small size, thin, soft and fleshy. The spores are
reddish brown (ferruginous). The genus corresponds to Pleurotus among
the white-spored agarics, or to Claudopus among the rosy-spored ones.
Peck describes eleven species in the 39th Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 69 et
seq., 1886.

Crepidotus versutus Pk.—This little Crepidotus has a pure white pileus
which is covered with a soft, whitish down. The plants grow usually on the
underside of rotten wood or bark, and then the upper side of the cap lies
against the wood, and is said to be resupinate. Sometimes where they grow
toward the side of the log the cap has a tendency to be shelving. In the
resupinate forms the cap is attached usually near one side, and then is
produced more at the opposite side, so that it is more or less lateral or
eccentric. As the plant becomes mature the edge is free from the wood for
some distance, only being attached over a small area. The cap is somewhat
reniform, thin, and from 6–12 cm. in diameter. The gills radiate from the
point where the cap is attached to the substratum, are not crowded, rounded
behind, that is, at the lateral part of the cap where they converge. They are
whitish, then ferruginous from the spores. The spores are sub-elliptical,
sometimes inequilateral, and measure from 8–12 × 4–6 µ.

Figure 154.—Crepidotus versutus. Cap white, downy; gills whitish, then rusty
(twice natural size) Copyright.

Crepidotus herbarum Pk., is a closely related species, separated on
account of the smaller spores. Both species grow either on herbs or
decaying wood. As suggested by Peck they are both closely related to C.
chimonophilus Berk., which has "oblong elliptical" spores. The shape of the
spores does not seem to differ from the specimens which I have taken to be
C. versutus.

Crepidotus applanatus Fr., is a larger species, shelving and often
imbricated. Crepidotus fulvotomentosus Pk., is a pretty species with a
tomentose cap and tawny scales, usually occurring singly. It is closely
related to C. calolepis Fr.

Figure 154 is from plants of Crepidotus versutus Pk., (No. 2732 C. U.
herbarium) collected on rotting wood at Freeville, N. Y., eight miles from

Ithaca. The plants are represented twice natural size.

CORTINARIUS Fr.

The genus Cortinarius is chiefly distinguished from the other genera of the
ochre-spored agarics by the presence of a spider-web-like (arachnoid) veil
which is separate from the cuticle of the pileus, that is, superficial. The gills
are powdered by the spores, that is, the spores fall away with difficulty and
thus give the gills a pulverulent appearance. The plants are fleshy and decay
easily. It is necessary to have plants in the young as well as the old state to
properly get at the characters, and the character of the veil is only seen in
young or half developed specimens. The species are to be distinguished
from other ochre-spored agarics with a cobwebby veil by the fact that the
veil in Cortinarius is superficial and the gills powdery. The number of
species is very large, and they are difficult to determine. They mostly occur
in northern countries and in the autumn or late summer; some species,
however, occur during early summer. Peck, 23d Report, N. Y. State Mus., p.
105–112, describes 21 species.

Cortinarius (Inoloma) violaceus (L.) Fr. Edible.—This species is known
by the violet or dark violet color which pervades all parts of the plant. The
plants are 8–10 cm. high, the pileus 7–15 cm. broad, and the stem is
bulbous, 6–8 mm. in thickness. The veil is single. It occurs in woods and
open places during late summer and in the autumn. The flesh of the plant is
also violet, and this color is imparted to the liquid when the plant is cooked.
The flavor is said to be something like that of Agaricus campestris.

Cortinarius (Myxacium) collinitus (Pers.) Fr. Edible.—This is known as
the smeared cortinarius because of the abundant glutinous substance with
which the plant is smeared during moist or wet weather. It grows in woods.
The plants are 7–10 cm. high, the cap 5–8 cm. in diameter, and the stem is

8–12 mm. in thickness. It is usually known by the smooth, even, tawny cap,
the great abundance of slimy substance covering the entire plant when
moist, and when dry the cracking of the gluten on the stem into annular
patches.

The pileus is convex to expanded, smooth, even, glutinous when wet,
shining when dry, tawny. The gills are adnate with a peculiar bluish gray
tinge when young, and clay color to cinnamon when old. The spores are
nearly elliptical, and 12–15 × 6–7 µ. The stem is cylindrical, even, and with
patches of the cracked gluten when dry.

Cortinarius (Dermocybe) cinnamomeus (L.) Fr. Edible.—The cinnamon
cortinarius is so called because of the cinnamon color of the entire plant,
especially of the cap and stem. It grows in the woods during summer and
autumn. It is a very pretty plant, and varies from 5–8 cm. high, the cap from
2–10 cm. broad, and the stem 4–6 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is conic, or convex, and nearly expanded, sometimes nearly
plane, and again with a prominent blunt or conic umbo. Sometimes the
pileus is abruptly bent downward near the margin as shown in the plants in
Fig. 155, giving the appearance of a "hip-roof." The surface is smooth,
silky, with innate fibrils. Sometimes there are cinnabar stains on parts of the
pileus, and often there are concentric rows of scales near the margin. The
flesh is light yellowish and with stains of cinnabar. The gills are adnate,
slightly sinuate, and decurrent by a tooth, easily separating from the stem,
rather crowded, slightly ventricose. The color of the gills varies greatly;
sometimes they are the same color as the pileus, sometimes reddish brown,
sometimes blood red color, etc. This latter form is a very pretty plant, and is
var. semi-sanguineus Fr.

Figure 155.—Cortinarius cinnamomeus var. semi-sanguineus. Cap and stem
cinnamon, gills blood red color (natural size). Copyright.

Figure 155 is from plants (No. 2883 C. U. herbarium) collected at Ithaca.
The species is widely distributed in this country as well as in Europe.

Plate 50, Figure 156.—Cortinarius ochroleucus. Entire plant pale ochre color,
gills later ochre yellow (natural size). Copyright.

Cortinarius (Dermocybe) ochroleucus (Schaeff.) Fr.—This is a very
beautiful plant because of the soft, silky appearance of the surface of pileus
and stem, and the delicate yellowish white color. It occurs in woods, on the
ground among decaying leaves. The plants are 4–12 cm. high, the cap 4–7
cm. broad, and the stem above is 6–10 mm. in thickness, and below from 2–
3 cm. in thickness.

Plate 51, Figure 157.—Cortinarius ochroleucus. Colors same as in Figure 156,
this represents older plants.

The pileus is convex to nearly expanded, and sometimes a little depressed,
usually, however, remaining convex at the top. It is dry, on the center finely
tomentose to minutely squamulose, sometimes the scales splitting up into
concentric rows around the cap. The cap is fleshy at the center, and thin at
the margin, the color is from cream buff to buff, darker on the center. The
gills are sinuate or adnate, slightly broader in the middle (ventricose) in age,
pale at first, then becoming ochre yellow, and darker when the plant dries.
The spores are tawny in mass, oval, elliptical, minutely tuberculate when
mature, 6–9 × 4–6 µ. The stem is clavate, pale cream buff in color, solid,
becoming irregularly fistulose in age, bulbous or somewhat ventricose
below, the bulb often large and abrupt, 1.5–3 cm. in diameter. The veil is
prominent and attached to the upper part of the stem, the abundant threads
attached over an area 1 cm. in extent and forming a beautiful cortina of the
same color as the pileus and stem, but becoming tawny when the spores fall
on it. The stem varies considerably in length and shape, being rarely

ventricose, and then only at the base; the bulbous forms predominate and
the bulb is often very large.

Figures 156, 157 are from plants (No. 3674 C. U. herbarium) collected at
Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

BOLBITIUS Fries.

The genus Bolbitius contains a few species with yellowish or yellowish
brown spores. The plants are very fragile, more or less mucilaginous when
moist, usually with yellowish colors, and, what is the most characteristic
feature beside the yellowish color of the spores, the gills are very soft, and
at maturity tend to dissolve into a mucilaginous consistency, though they do
not deliquesce, or only rarely dissolve so far as to form drops. The surface
of the gills at maturity becomes covered with the spores so that they appear
powdery, as in the genus Cortinarius, which they also resemble in the color
of the spores. In the mucilaginous condition of the gills the genus
approaches Coprinus. It is believed to occupy an intermediate position
between Coprinus and Cortinarius. The species usually grow on dung or in
manured ground, and in this respect resemble many of the species of
Coprinus. Some of the species are, however, not always confined to such a
substratum, but grow on decaying leaves, etc.

Figure 158.—Bolbitius variicolor. Cap viscid, various shades of yellow, or
smoky olive; gills yellowish, then rusty (natural size).

Bolbitius variicolor Atkinson.—This plant was found abundantly during
May and June, 1898, in a freshly manured grass plat between the side-walk
and the pavement along Buffalo street, Ithaca, N. Y. The season was rainy,
and the plants appeared each day during quite a long period, sometimes
large numbers of them covering a small area, but they were not clustered
nor cespitose. They vary in height from 4–10 cm., the pileus from 2–4 cm.
broad, and the stem is 3–8 mm. in thickness. The colors vary from smoky to
fuliginous, olive and yellow, and the spores are ferruginous.

The pileus is from ovate to conic when young, the margin not at all
incurved, but lies straight against the stem, somewhat unequal. In

expanding the cap becomes convex, then expanded, and finally many of the
plants with the margin elevated and with a broad umbo, and finely striate
for one-half to two-thirds the way from the margin to the center. When
young the pileus has a very viscid cuticle, which easily peels from the
surface, showing the yellow flesh. The cuticle is smoky olive to fuliginous,
darker when young, becoming paler as the pileus expands, but always
darker on the umbo. Sometimes the fibres on the surface of the cap are
drawn into strands which anastomose into coarse reticulations, giving the
appearance of elevated veins which have a general radiate direction from
the center of the cap. As the pileus expands the yellow color of the flesh
shows through the cuticle more and more, especially when young, but
becoming light olive to fuliginous in age. In dry weather the surface of the
pileus sometimes cracks into patches as the pileus expands. The gills are
rounded next the stem, adnate to adnexed, becoming free, first yellow, then
ferruginous. The basidia are abruptly club-shaped, rather distant and
separated regularly by rounded cells, four spored. The spores are
ferruginous, elliptical, 10–15 × 6–8 µ, smooth. The stem is cylindrical to
terete, tapering above, sulphur and ochre yellow, becoming paler and even
with a light brown tinge in age. The stem is hollow, and covered with
numerous small yellow floccose scales which point upward and are formed
by the tearing away of the edges of the gills, which are loosely united with
the surface of the stem in the young stage. The edges of the gills are thus
sometimes finely fimbriate.

At maturity the gills become more or less mucilaginous, depending on the
weather. Plants placed in a moist chamber change to a mucilaginous mass.
When the plants dry the pileus is from a drab to hair brown or sepia color
(Ridgeway's colors). Figure 158 is from plants (No. 2355 C. U. herbarium).

PAXILLUS Fr.

In the genus Paxillus the gills are usually easily separated from the pileus,
though there are some species accredited to the genus that do not seem to
possess this character in a marked degree. The spores are ochre or ochre
brown. Often the gills are forked near the stem or anastomose, or they are
connected by veins which themselves anastomose in a reticulate fashion so
that the meshes resemble the pores of certain species of the family
Polyporaceæ. The pileus may be viscid or dry in certain species, but the
plant lacks a viscid universal veil. The genus is closely related to
Gomphidius, where the gills are often forked and easily separate from the
pileus, but Gomphidius possesses a viscid or glutinous universal veil. Peck
in the Bull. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist. 2: 29–33, describes five species.

Paxillus involutus (Batsch.) Fr. Edible.—This plant is quite common in
some places and is widely distributed. It occurs on the ground in grassy
places, in the open, or in woods, and on decaying logs or stumps. The stem
is central, or nearly so, when growing on the ground, or eccentric when
growing on wood, especially if growing from the side of a log or stump.
The plants are 5–7 cm. high, the cap 3–7 cm. broad, and the stem 1–2 cm.
in thickness. The plant occurs from August to October.

Figure 159.—Paxillus involutus. Cap and stem gray, olive-brown, reddish brown
or tawny (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex to expanded, and depressed in the center. In the young
plant the margin is strongly inrolled, and as the pileus expands it unrolls in
a very pretty manner. The young plant is covered with a grayish, downy
substance, and when the inrolled margin of the cap comes in contact with
the gills, as it does, it presses the gills against this down, and the unrolling
margin is thus marked quite prominently, sometimes with furrows where
the pressure of the gills was applied. The color of the pileus varies greatly.
In the case of plants collected at Ithaca and in North Carolina mountains the
young plant when fresh is often olive umber, becoming reddish or tawny
when older, the margin with a lighter shade. As Dr. Peck states, "it often
presents a strange admixture of gray, ochraceous, ferruginous, and brown
hues." The flesh is yellowish and changes to reddish or brownish where
bruised. The gills are decurrent, when young arcuate, then ascending, and
are more or less reticulated on the stem. They are grayish, then greenish

yellow changing to brown where bruised. The spores are oval, 7–9 × 4–5 µ.
The stem is short, even, and of the same color as the cap.

Plate 52, Figure 160.—Paxillus rhodoxanthus. Cap reddish brown, stem paler,
gills yellow (natural size). Copyright.

At Ithaca, N. Y., the plant is sometimes abundant in late autumn in grassy
places near or in groves. The Figure 159 is from plants (No. 2508 C. U.
herbarium) growing in such a place in the suburbs of Ithaca. At Blowing
Rock, N. C., the plant is often very abundant along the roadsides on the
ground during August and September.

Paxillus rhodoxanthus (Schw.)—This species was first described by de
Schweinitz as Agaricus rhodoxanthus, p. 83 No. 640, Synopsis fungorum
Carolinæ superioris, in Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft 1: 19–
131, 1822. It was described under his third section of Agaricus under the
sub-genus Gymnopus, in which are mainly species now distributed in
Clitocybe and Hygrophorus. He remarks on the elegant appearance of the

plant and the fact that it so nearly resembles Boletus subtomentosus as to
deceive one. The resemblance to Boletus subtomentosus as one looks upon
the pileus when the plant is growing on the ground is certainly striking,
because of the reddish yellow, ochraceous rufus or chestnut brown color of
the cap together with the minute tomentum covering the surface. The
suggestion is aided also by the color of the gills, which one is apt to get a
glimpse of from above without being aware that the fruiting surface has
gills instead of tubes. But as soon as the plant is picked and we look at the
under surface, all suggestion of a Boletus vanishes, unless one looks
carefully at the venation of the surface of the gills and the spaces between
them. The plant grows on the ground in woods. At Blowing Rock, N. C.,
where it is not uncommon, I have always found it along the mountain roads
on the banks. It is 5–10 cm. high, the cap from 3–8 cm. broad, and the stem
6–10 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex, then expanded, plane or convex, and when mature
more or less top-shaped because it is so thick at the middle. In age the
surface of the cap often becomes cracked into small areas, showing the
yellow flesh in the cracks. The flesh is yellowish and the surface is dry. The
gills are not very distant, they are stout, chrome yellow to lemon yellow,
and strongly decurrent. A few of them are forked toward the base, and the
surface and the space between them are marked by anastomosing veins
forming a reticulum suggestive of the hymenium of the Polyporaceæ. This
character is not evident without the use of a hand lens. The surface of the
gills as well as the edges is provided with clavate cystidia which are filled
with a yellow pigment, giving to the gills the bright yellow color so
characteristic. These cystidia extend above the basidia, and the ends are
rounded so that sometimes they appear capitate. The yellow color is not
confined to the cystidia, for the sub-hymenium is also colored in a similar
way. The spores are yellowish, oblong to elliptical or spindle-shaped, and
measure 8–12 × 3–5 µ. The stem is the same color as the pileus, but paler,

and more yellow at the base. It is marked with numerous minute dots of a
darker color than the ground color, formed of numerous small erect tufts of
mycelium.

Figure 160 is from plants (No. 3977 C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing
Rock, N. C., during September, 1899. As stated above, the plant was first
described by de Schweinitz as Agaricus rhodoxanthus in 1822. In 1834
(Synop. fung. Am. Bor. p. 151, 1834) he listed it under the genus Gomphus
Fries (Syst. Mycolog. 319, 1821). Since Fries changed Gomphus to
Gomphidius (Epicrisis, 319, 1836–1838) the species has usually been
written Gomphidius rhodoxanthus Schweinitz. The species lacks one very
important characteristic of the genus Gomphidius, namely, the slimy veil
which envelops the entire plant. Its relationship seems rather to be with the
genus Paxillus, though the gills do not readily separate from the pileus, one
of the characters ascribed to this genus, and possessed by certain species of
Gomphidius in even a better degree. (In Paxillus involutus the gills do not
separate so readily as they do in certain species of Gomphidius.) Berkeley
(Decades N. A. Fungi, 116) has described a plant from Ohio under the name
Paxillus flavidus. It has been suggested by some (see Peck, 29th Report, p.
36; Lloyd, Mycolog. Notes, where he writes it as Flammula rhodoxanthus!)
that Paxillus flavidus Berk., is identical with Agaricus rhodoxanthus Schw.

Paxillus rhodoxanthus seems also to be very near if not identical with
Clitocybe pelletieri Lev. (Gillet, Hymenomycetes 1: 170), and Schroeter
(Cohn's Krypt, Flora Schlesien, 3, 1: 516, 1889) transfers this species to
Paxillus as Paxillus pelletieri. He is followed by Hennings, who under the
same section of the genus, lists P. flavidus Berk., from N. A. The figure of
Clitocybe pelletieri in Gillet Hymenomycetes, etc., resembles our plant very
closely, and Saccardo (Syll. Fung. 5: 192) says that it has the aspect of
Boletus subtomentosus, a remark similar to the one made by de Schweinitz
in the original description of Agaricus rhodoxanthus. Flammula paradoxa

Kalch. (Fung. Hung. Tab. XVII, Fig. 1) seems to be the same plant, as well
as F. tammii Fr., with which Patouillard (Tab. Anal. N. 354) places F.
paradoxa and Clitocybe pelletieri.

Paxillus atro=tomentosus (Batsch) Fr.—This plant is not very common. It
is often of quite large size, 6–15 cm. high, and the cap 5–10 cm. broad, the
stem very short or sometimes long, from 1–2.5 cm. in thickness. The plant
is quite easily recognized by the stout and black hairy stem, and the dark
brown or blackish, irregular and sometimes lateral cap, with the margin
incurved. It grows on wood, logs, stumps, etc., during late summer and
autumn.

Figure 161.—Paxillus atro-tomentosus, form hirsutus. Cap and stem brownish
or blackish (natural size, small specimens, they are often larger). Copyright.

The pileus is convex, expanded, sometimes somewhat depressed, lateral,
irregular, or sometimes with the stem nearly in the center, brownish or
blackish, dry, sometimes with a brownish or blackish tomentum on the
surface. The margin is inrolled and later incurved. The flesh is white, and
the plant is tough. The gills are adnate, often decurrent on the stem, and
easily separable from the pileus, forked at the base and sometimes
reticulate, forming pores. Spores yellowish, oval, 4–6 × 3–4 µ. Stevenson
says that the gills do not form pores like those of P. involutus, but Fig. 161
(No. 3362 C. U. herbarium) from plants collected at Ithaca, shows them
well. There is, as it seems, some variation in this respect. The stem is solid,
tough and elastic, curved or straight, covered with a dense black tomentum,
sometimes with violet shades. On drying the plant becomes quite hard, and
the gills blackish olive.

Paxillus panuoides Fr.—This species was collected during August, 1900,
on a side-walk and on a log at Ithaca. The specimens collected were sessile
and the pileus lateral, somewhat broadened at the free end, or petaloid. The
entire plant is pale or dull yellow, the surface of the pileus fibrous and
somewhat uneven but not scaly. The plants are 2–12 cm. long by 1–8 cm.
broad, often many crowded together in an imbricated manner. The gills are
pale yellow, and the spores are of the same color when caught on white
paper, and they measure 4–5 × 3–4 µ, the size given for European
specimens of this species. The gills are forked, somewhat anastomosing at
the base, and sinuous in outline, though not markedly corrugated as in the
next form. From descriptions of the European specimens the plants are
sometimes larger than these here described, and it is very variable in form
and often imbricated as in the following species.

Paxillus corrugatus Atkinson.—This very interesting species was collected
at Ithaca, N. Y., on decaying wood, August 4, 1899. The pileus is lateral,
shelving, the stem being entirely absent in the specimens found. The pileus

is 2–5 cm. broad, narrowed down in an irregular wedge form to the sessile
base, convex, then expanded, the margin incurved (involute). The color of
the cap is yellow, maize yellow to canary yellow, with a reddish brown
tinge near the base. It is nearly smooth, or very slightly tomentose. The
flesh is pale yellow, spongy. The gills are orange yellow, 2–3 mm. broad,
not crowded, regularly forked several times, thin, blunt, very wavy and
crenulate, easily separating from the hymenophore when fresh; the entire
breadth of the gills is fluted, giving a corrugated appearance to the side. The
spores in these specimens are faintly yellow, minute, oblong, broadly
elliptical, short, sometimes nearly oval, 3 × 1.5–2 µ. The basidia are also
very minute. The spores are olive yellow on white paper. The plant has a
characteristic and disagreeable odor. This odor persists in the dried plant for
several months.

Figure 162 is from the plants (No. 3332 C. U. herbarium) collected as noted
above on decaying hemlock logs in woods. A side and under view is shown
in the figure, and the larger figure is the under-view, from a photograph
made a little more than twice natural size, in order to show clearly the
character of the gills. The two smaller plants are natural size. When dry the
plant is quite hard.

Plate 53, Figure 162.—Paxillus corrugatus. Cap maize yellow to orange yellow,
reddish brown near the base; gills orange yellow. Two lower plants natural size;
upper one 2-1/2 times natural size. Copyright.

Plate 54, Figure 163.—Paxillus panuoides, pale yellow; natural size. Copyright.

PLATE 55.
Fig. 1.—Boletus felleus.
Fig. 2.—B. edulis.
Copyright 1900.

CHAPTER IX.

THE TUBE-BEARING FUNGI. POLYPORACEAE.

The plants belonging to this family are characterized especially by a honey-
combed fruiting surface, that is, the under surface of the plants possesses
numerous tubes or pores which stand close together side by side, and except
in a very few forms these tubes are joined by their sides to each other. In
Fistulina the tubes are free from each other though standing closely side by
side. In Merulius distinct tubes are not present, but the surface is more or
less irregularly pitted, the pits being separated from each other by folds
which anastomose, forming a network. These pits correspond to shallow
tubes.

The plants vary greatly in consistency, some are very fleshy and soft and
putrify readily. Others are soft when young and become firmer as they age,
and some are quite hard and woody. Many of the latter are perennial and
live for several or many years, adding a new layer in growth each year. The
larger number of the species grow on wood, but some grow on the ground;
especially in the genus Boletus, which has many species, the majority grow
on the ground. Some of the plants have a cap and stem, in others the stem is
absent and the cap attached to the tree or log, etc., forms a shelf, or the plant
may be thin and spread over the surface of the wood in a thin patch.

In the genus Dædalea the tubes become more or less elongated horizontally
and thus approach the form of the gills, while in some species the tubes are
more or less toothed or split and approach the spine-bearing fungi at least in
appearance of the fruit-bearing surface. Only a few of the genera and
species will be described.

The following key is not complete, but may aid in separating some of the
larger plants:

Tubes or pores free from each other, though standing closely side by side, Fistulina.
Tubes or pores not free, joined side by side, 1.
1 Plants soft and fleshy, soon decaying, 2.
—
Plants soft when young, becoming firm, some woody or corky, stipitate, Polyporus.
shelving, or spread over the wood,
Tubes or pores shallow, formed by a network of folds or wrinkles, plants thin, Merulius.
sometimes spread over the wood, and somewhat gelatinous,
2 Mass (stratum) of tubes easily separating from the cap when peeled off, cap not Boletus.
— with coarse scales, tubes in some species in radiating lines,
Stratum of tubes separating, but not easily, cap with coarse, prominent scales, Strobilomyces.
Stratum of tubes separating, but not easily, tubes arranged in distinct radiating Boletinus.
lines. In one species (B. porosus) the tubes do not separate from the cap,

This last genus is apt to be confused with certain species of Boletus which
have a distinct radiate arrangement of the tubes. It is questionable whether it
is clearly distinguished from the genus Boletus.

BOLETUS Dill.

Of the few genera in the Polyporaceæ which are fleshy and putrescent,
Boletus contains by far the largest number of species. The entire plant is
soft and fleshy, and decays soon after maturity. The stratum of tubes on the
under side of the cap is easily peeled off and separates as shown in the
portion of a cap near the right hand side of Fig. 169. In the genus Polyporus
the stratum of tubes cannot thus be separated. In the genera Strobilomyces

and Boletinus, two other fleshy genera of this family, the separation is said
to be more difficult than in Boletus, but it has many times seemed to me a
"distinction without a difference."

The larger number of the species of Boletus grow on the ground. Some
change color when bruised or cut, so that it is important to note this
character when the plant is fresh, and the taste should be noted as well.

Boletus edulis Bull. Edible. [Ag. bulbosus Schaeff. Tab. 134, 1763. Boletus
bulbosus (Schaeff.) Schroeter. Cohn's Krypt, Flora. Schlesien, p. 499,
1889].—This plant, which, as its name implies, is edible, grows in open
woods or their borders, in groves and in open places, on the ground. It
occurs in warm, wet weather, from July to September. It is one of the largest
of the Boleti, and varies from 5–12 cm. high, the cap from 8–25 cm. broad,
and the stem 2–4 cm. in thickness.

Plate 56, Figure 164.—Boletus edulis. Cap light brown, tubes greenish yellow
or yellowish; stem in this specimen entirely reticulate (natural size, often larger).
Copyright.

The pileus is convex to expanded, smooth, firm, quite hard when young and
becoming soft in age. The color varies greatly, from buff to dull reddish, to
reddish-brown, tawny-brown, often yellowish over a portion of the cap,
usually paler on the margin. The flesh is white or tinged with yellow,
sometimes reddish under the cuticle. The tubes are white when young and
the mouths are closed (stuffed), the lower surface of the tubes is convex
from the margin of the cap to the stem, and depressed around the stem,
sometimes separating from the stem. While the tubes are white when
young, they become greenish or greenish-yellow, or entirely yellow when
mature. The spores when caught on paper are greenish-yellow, or yellow.
They are oblong to fusiform, 12–15 µ long. The stem is stout, even, or
much enlarged at the base so that it is clavate. The surface usually shows
prominent reticulations on mature plants near the tubes, sometimes over the
entire stem. This is well shown in Fig. 164 from plants (No. 2886, C. U.
herbarium) collected at Ithaca, N. Y.

Plate 57, Figure 165.—Cap light brown, tubes greenish yellow or yellowish;
stem in these specimens not reticulate (2/3 natural size). Copyright.

Figure 165 represents plants (No. 4134, C. U. herbarium) collected at
Blowing Rock, N. C., in September, 1899. The plant is widely distributed
and has long been prized as an esculent in Europe and America. When raw
the plant has an agreeable nutty taste, sometimes sweet. The caps are
sometimes sliced and dried for future use. It is usually recommended to
discard the stems and remove the tubes since the latter are apt to form a
slimy mass on cooking.

Boletus felleus Bull. Bitter.—This is known as the bitter boletus, because
of a bitter taste of the flesh. It usually grows on or near much decayed logs
or stumps of hemlock spruce. It is said to be easily recognized by its bitter
taste. I have found specimens of a plant which seems to have all the
characters of this one growing at the base of hemlock spruce trees, except
that the taste was not bitter. At Ithaca, however, the plant occurs and the
taste is bitter. It is one of the large species of the genus, being from 8–12
cm. high, the cap 7–20 cm. broad, and the stem 1–2.5 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is convex becoming nearly plane, firm, and in age soft, smooth,
the color varying from pale yellow to various shades of brown to chestnut.
The flesh is white, and where wounded often changes to a pink color, but
not always. The tubes are adnate, long, the under surface convex and with a
depression around the stem. The tubes are at first white, but become flesh
color or tinged with flesh color, and the mouths are angular. The stem is
stout, tapering upward, sometimes enlarged at the base, usually reticulated
at the upper end, and sometimes with the reticulations over the entire
surface (Fig. 166). The color is paler than that of the cap. The spores are
oblong to spindle-shaped, flesh color in mass, and single ones measure 12–
18 × 4–5 µ.

The general appearance of the plant is somewhat like that of the Boletus
edulis, and beginners should be cautioned not to confuse the two species. It
is known by its bitter taste and the flesh-colored tubes, while the taste of the
B. edulis is sweet, and the tubes are greenish-yellow, or yellowish or light
ochre.

Plate 55 represents three specimens in color.

Boletus scaber Fr. Edible.—This species is named the rough-stemmed
boletus, in allusion to the rough appearance given to the stem from
numerous dark brown or reddish dots or scales. This is a characteristic
feature, and aids one greatly in determining the species, since the color of
the cap varies much. The cap is sometimes whitish, orange red, brown, or
smoky in color. The plant is 6–15 cm. high, the cap 3–7 cm. broad, and the
stem 8–12 mm. in thickness.

The pileus is rounded, becoming convex, smooth, or nearly so, sometimes
scaly, and the flesh is soft and white, sometimes turning slightly to a reddish
or dark color where bruised. The tubes are small, long, the surface formed
by their free ends is convex in outline, and the tubes are depressed around
the stem. They are first white, becoming darker, and somewhat brownish.
The stem is solid, tapering somewhat upward, and roughened as described
above.

The plant is one of the common species of the genus Boletus. It occurs in
the woods on the ground or in groves or borders of woods in grassy places.
Writers differ as to the excellence of this species for food; some consider it
excellent, while others regard it as less agreeable than some other species. It
is, at any rate, safe, and Peck considers it "first-class."

Boletus retipes B. & C.—This species was first collected in North Carolina
by Curtis, and described by Berkeley. It has since been reported from Ohio,

Wisconsin, and New England (Peck, Boleti of the U. S.). Peck reported it
from New York in the 23d Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 132. Later he
recognized the New York plant as a new species which he called B.
ornatipes (29th Report, N. Y. State Mus., p. 67). I collected the species in
the mountains of North Carolina, at Blowing Rock, in August, 1888. During
the latter part of August and in September, 1899, I had an opportunity of
seeing quite a large number of specimens in the same locality, for it is not
uncommon there, and two specimens were photographed and are
represented here in Fig. 167. The original description published in Grevillea
1: 36, should be modified, especially in regard to the size of the plant, its
habit, and the pulverulent condition of the pileus. The plants are 6–15 cm.
high, the cap 5–10 cm. broad, and the stem 0.5–1.5 cm. in thickness.

Plate 58, Figure 166.—Boletus felleus. Cap light brown, tubes flesh color, stem
in this specimen entirely reticulate (natural size, often larger). Copyright.

Figure 167.—Boletus retipes. Cap yellowish brown, to olive-brown or nearly
black, stem yellow, beautifully reticulate, tubes yellow (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex, thick, soft and somewhat spongy, especially in large
plants. The cap is dry and sometimes, especially when young, it is powdery;
at other times, and in a majority of cases according to my observations, it is
not powdery. It is smooth or minutely tomentose, sometimes the surface
cracked into small patches, but usually even. The color varies greatly
between yellowish brown to olive brown, fuliginous or nearly black. The
tubes are yellow, adnate, the tube surface plane or convex. The spores are
yellowish or ochraceous, varying somewhat in tint in different specimens.
The stem is yellow, yellow also within, and beautifully reticulate, usually to

the base, but sometimes only toward the apex. It is usually more strongly
reticulate over the upper half. The stem is erect or ascending.

The plant grows in woods, in leaf mold or in grassy places. It is usually
single, that is, so far as my observations have gone at Blowing Rock.
Berkeley and Curtis report it as cespitose. I have never seen it cespitose,
never more than two specimens growing near each other.

Boletus ornatipes Pk., does not seem to be essentially different from B.
retipes. Peck says (Boleti U. S., p. 126) that "the tufted mode of growth, the
pulverulent pileus and paler spores separate this species" (retipes) "from the
preceding one" (ornatipes). Inasmuch as I have never found B. retipes
tufted, and the fact that the pileus is not always pulverulent (the majority of
specimens I collected were not), and since the tint of the spores varies as it
does in some other species, the evidence is strong that the two names
represent two different habits of the same species. The tufted habit of the
plants collected by Curtis, or at least described by Berkeley, would seem to
be a rather unusual condition for this species, and this would account for the
smaller size given to the plants in the original description, where the pileus
does not exceed 5 cm. in diameter, and the stem is only 5 cm. long, and 6–
12 mm. in thickness. Plants which normally occur singly do on some
occasions occur tufted, and then the habit as well as the size of the plant is
often changed.

A good illustration of this I found in the case of Boletus edulis during my
stay in the North Carolina mountains. The plant usually occurs singly and
more or less scattered. I found one case where there were 6–8 plants in a
tuft, the caps were smaller and the stems in this case considerably longer
than in normal specimens. A plant which agrees with the North Carolina
specimens I have collected at Ithaca, and so I judge that B. retipes occurs in
New York.

Boletus chromapes Frost.—This is a pretty boletus, and has been reported
from New England and from New York State. During the summer of 1899 it
was quite common in the Blue Ridge mountains, North Carolina. The plant
grows on the ground in woods. It is 6–10 cm. high, the cap is 5–10 cm. in
diameter, and the stem is 8–12 mm. in thickness. It is known by the
yellowish stem covered with reddish glandular dots.

Plate 59, Figure 168.—Boletus chromapes. Cap pale red, rose or pink, tubes
flesh color, then brown, stem yellowish either above or below, the surface with
reddish or pinkish dots (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex to nearly expanded, pale red, rose pink to vinaceous
pink in color, and sometimes slightly tomentose. The flesh is white, and
does not change when cut or bruised. The tube surface is convex, and the
tubes are attached slightly to the stem, or free. They are white, then flesh
color, and in age become brown. The stem is even, or it tapers slightly
upward, straight or ascending, whitish or yellow above, or below,
sometimes yellowish the entire length. The flesh is also yellowish,
especially at the base. The entire surface is marked with reddish or pinkish
dots.

Plate 60, Figure 169.—Boletus vermiculosus. Cap brown to gray or buff; tubes
yellowish with reddish brown mouths; flesh quickly changes to blue where
wounded (natural size, sometimes larger). Copyright.

Figure 168 is from plants (No. 4085 C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing
Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

Boletus vermiculosus Pk.—This species was named B. vermiculosus
because it is sometimes very "wormy." This is not always the case,
however. It grows in woods on the ground, in the Eastern United States. It is
from 6–12 cm. high, the cap from 7–12 cm. broad, and the stem 1–2 cm. in
thickness.

The pileus is thick, convex, firm, smooth, and varies in color from brown to
yellowish brown, or drab gray to buff, and is minutely tomentose. The flesh
quickly changes to blue where wounded, and the bruised portion,
sometimes, changing to yellowish. The tubes are yellowish, with reddish-
brown mouths, the tube surface being rounded, free or nearly so, and the
tubes changing to blue where wounded. The stem is paler than the pileus,
often dotted with short, small, dark tufts below, and above near the tubes

abruptly paler, and sometimes the two colors separated by a brownish line.
The stem is not reticulated. Figure 169 is from a photograph of plants (No.
4132 C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September,
1899.

Boletus obsonium (Paul.) Fr.—This species was not uncommon in the
woods at Blowing Rock, N. C., during the latter part of August and during
September, 1899. It grows on the ground, the plants usually appearing
singly. It is from 10–15 cm. high, the cap 8–13 cm. broad, and the stem 1–2
cm. in thickness, considerably broader at the base than at the apex.

The pileus is convex to expanded, vinaceous cinnamon, to pinkish
vinaceous or hazel in color. It is soft, slightly tomentose, and when old the
surface frequently cracks into fine patches showing the pink flesh beneath.
The thin margin extends slightly beyond the tubes, so that it is sterile. The
flesh does not change color on exposure to the air. The tubes are plane,
adnate, very slightly depressed around the stem or nearly free, yellowish
white when young, becoming dark olive green in age from the color of the
spores. The tube mouths are small and rotund. The spores caught on white
paper are dark olive green. They are elliptical usually, with rounded ends,
12–15 × 4–5 µ. The stem is white when young, with a tinge of yellow
ochre, and pale flesh color below. It is marked with somewhat parallel
elevated lines, or rugæ below, where it is enlarged and nearly bulbous. In
age it becomes flesh color the entire length and is more plainly striate
rugose with a yellowish tinge at the base. The stem tapers gradually and
strongly from the base to the apex, so that it often appears long conic.

The plant is often badly eaten by snails, so that it is sometimes difficult to
obtain perfect specimens. Figure 170 is from a photograph of plants (No.
4092 C. U. herbarium) from Blowing Rock, N. C.

Boletus americanus Pk.—This species occurs in woods and open places,
growing on the ground in wet weather. It occurs singly or clustered,
sometimes two or three joined by their bases, but usually more scattered. It
is usually found under or near pine trees. The plant is 3–6 cm. high, the cap
2–7 cm. broad, and the stem is 4–8 mm. in thickness. It is very slimy in wet
weather, the cap is yellow, streaked or spotted with faint red, and the stem is
covered with numerous brown or reddish brown dots.

The pileus is rounded, then convex, becoming nearly expanded and
sometimes with an umbo. It is soft, very slimy or viscid when moist,
yellow. When young the surface gluten is often mixed with loose threads,
more abundant on the margin, and continuous with the veil, which can only
be seen in the very young stage. As the pileus expands the margin is
sometimes scaly from remnants of the veil and of loose hairs on the surface.
The cap loses its bright color as it ages, and is then sometimes streaked or
spotted with red. The tube surface is nearly plane, and the tubes join
squarely against the stem. The tubes are rather large, angular, yellowish,
becoming dull ochraceous. The stem is nearly equal, yellow, and covered
with numerous brownish or reddish brown glandular dots. No ring is
present.

This species grows in the same situations as the B. granulatus, sometimes
both species are common over the same area. Figure 171 is from plants (No.
3991 C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899.
The species is closely related to B. flavidus Fr., and according to some it is
identical with it.

Boletus granulatus L. Edible.—This species is one of the very common
and widely distributed ones. It grows in woods and open places on the
ground. Like B. americanus, it is usually found under or near pines. It
occurs during the summer and autumn, sometimes appearing very late in

the season. The plants are 3–6 cm. high, the cap is 4–10 cm. broad, and the
stem is 8–12 mm. in thickness. The plants usually are clustered, though not
often very crowded.

Plate 61, Figure 170.—Boletus obsonium. Cap cinnamon to pink or hazel in
color, slightly tomentose; stem white, then pale flesh color (natural size).
Copyright.

The pileus is convex to nearly expanded, flat. When moist it is very viscid
and reddish brown, paler and yellowish when it is dry, but very variable in
color, pink, red, yellow, tawny, and brown shades. The flesh is pale yellow.
The tubes are joined squarely to the stem, short, yellowish, and the edges of
the tubes, that is, at the open end (often called the mouth), are dotted or
granulated. The stem is dotted in the same way above. The spores in mass
are pale yellow; singly they are spindle-shaped.

Figure 171.—Boletus americanus. Cap slimy, yellow, sometimes with reddish
spots, tubes yellowish (natural size). Copyright.

The species is edible, though some say it should be regarded with suspicion.
Peck has tried it, and I have eaten it, but the viscid character of the plant did
not make it a relish for me. There are several species closely related to the
granulated Boletus. B. brevipes Pk., is one chiefly distinguished by the short
stem, which entirely lacks the glandular dots. It grows in sandy soil, in pine
groves and in woods.

Boletus punctipes Pk.—This species has been reported from New York
State by Peck. During September, 1899, I found it quite common in the
Blue Ridge mountains of North Carolina, at an elevation of between 4000
and 5000 feet. It grows on the ground in mixed woods. The plants are 5–8
cm. high, the caps 5–7 cm. broad, and the stem 6–10 mm. in thickness.

Figure 172.—Boletus punctipes. Cap viscid when moist, reddish brown, pink,
yellow, tawny, etc., tubes yellowish, stem dark punctate (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex, sometimes becoming nearly plane, and it is quite
thick in the center, more so than the granulated boletus, while the margin is
thin, and when young with a minute gray powder. The margin often
becomes upturned when old; the cap is viscid when moist, dull yellow. The
tubes are short, their lower surface plane, and they are set squarely against
the stem. They are small, the mouths rounded, brownish, then dull
ochraceous, and dotted with glandules. The stem is rather long,
proportionately more so than in the granulated boletus. It distinctly tapers
upwards, is "rhubarb yellow," and dotted with glandules. This character of
the stem suggested the name of the species. The spores are 8–10 × 4–5 µ.
Figure 172 is from plants (No. 4067 C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing
Rock, N. C. It is closely related to B. granulatus and by some is considered
the same.

Boletus luteus Linn. (B. subluteus Pk.) This species is widely distributed in
Europe and America, and grows in sandy soil, in pine or mixed woods or
groves. The plants are 5–8 cm. high, the cap 3–12 cm. in diameter, and the
stem 6–10 mm. in thickness. The general color is dull brown or yellowish
brown, and the plants are slimy in moist weather, the stem and tubes more
or less dotted with dark points. These characters vary greatly under different
conditions, and the fact has led to some confusion in the discrimination of
species.

Figure 173.—Boletus luteus. Cap viscid when moist, dull yellowish to reddish
brown, tubes yellowish, stem punctate both above and below the annulus
(natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is convex, becoming nearly plane, viscid or glutinous when
moist, dull yellowish to reddish brown, sometimes with the color irregularly
distributed in streaks. The flesh is whitish or dull yellowish. The tube
surface is plane or convex, the tubes set squarely against the stem (adnate),
while the tubes are small, with small, nearly rounded, or slightly angular
mouths. The color of the tubes is yellowish or ochre colored, becoming
darker in age, and sometimes nearly brown or quite dark. The stem is pale
yellowish, reddish or brownish, and more or less covered with glandular

dots, which when dry give a black dotted appearance to the stem. In the
case of descriptions of B. luteus the stem is said to be dotted only above the
annulus, while the description of B. subluteus gives the stem as dotted both
above and below the annulus. The spores are yellowish brown or some
shade of this color in mass, lighter yellowish brown under the microscope,
fusiform or nearly so, and 7–10 × 2–4 µ. The annulus is very variable,
sometimes collapsing as a narrow ring around the stem as in Fig. 173, from
plants collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., September, 1899 (B. subluteus
Pk.), and sometimes appearing as a broad, free collar, as in Fig. 174. The
veil is more or less gelatinous, and in an early stage of the plant may cover
the stem as a sheath. The lower part of the stem is sometimes covered at
maturity with the sheathing portion of the veil, the upper part only
appearing as a ring. In this way, the lower part of the stem being covered,
the glandular dots are not evident, while the stem is seen to be dotted above
the annulus. But in many cases the veil slips off from the lower portion of
the stem at an early stage, and then in its slimy condition collapses around
the upper part of the stem, leaving the stem uncovered and showing the dots
both above and below the ring (B. subluteus).

Plate 62, Figure 174.—Boletus luteus. Cap drab to hair-brown with streaks of
the latter, viscid when moist, tubes tawny olive to walnut-brown, stem black
dotted both above and below the broad, free annulus (natural size). Copyright.

An examination of the figures of the European plant shows that the veil
often slips off from the lower portion of the stem in B. luteus, especially in
the figures given by Krombholtz, T. 33. In some of these figures the veil
forms a broad, free collar, and the stem is then dotted both above and below,
as is well shown in the figures. In other figures where the lower part of the
veil remains as a sheath over the lower part of the stem, the dots are hidden.
I have three specimens of the B. luteus of Europe from Dr. Bresadola,
collected at Trento, Austria-Hungary: one of them has the veil sheathing the
lower part of the stem, and the stem only shows the dots above the annulus;
a second specimen has the annulus in the form of a collapsed ring near the
upper end of the stem, and the stem dotted both above and below the
annulus; in the third specimen the annulus is in the form of a broad, free
collar, and the stem dotted both above and below. The plants shown in Fig.
174 (No. 4124, C. U. herbarium) were collected at Blowing Rock, N. C.,
during September, 1899. They were found in open woods under Kalmia
where the sun had an opportunity to dry out the annulus before it became
collapsed or agglutinated against the stem, and the broad, free collar was
formed. My notes on these specimens read as follows: "The pileus is
convex, then expanded, rather thick at the center, the margin thin,
sometimes sterile, incurved. In color it runs from ecru drab to hair-brown
with streaks of the latter, and it is very viscid when moist. When dried the
surface of the pileus is shining. The tubes are plane or concave, adnate,
tawny-olive to walnut-brown. The tubes are small, angular, somewhat as in
B. granulatus, but smaller, and they are granulated with reddish or brownish
dots. The spores are walnut brown, oblong to elliptical, 8–10 × 2–3 µ. The
stem is cylindrical, even, olive yellow above, and black dotted both above
and below the annulus."

Figure 175.—Boletinus pictus. Cap reddish, tinged with yellowish between the
scales, stem same color, tubes yellow, often changing to reddish brown where
bruised (natural size). Copyright.

Boletinus pictus Pk.—This very beautiful plant is quite common in damp
pine woods. It is easily recognized by the reddish cottony layer of
mycelium threads which cover the entire plant when young, and form a veil
which covers the gills at this time. As the plant expands the reddish outer
layer is torn into scales of the same color, showing the yellowish, or
pinkish, flesh beneath, and the flesh often changes to pink or reddish where
wounded. The tubes are first pale yellow, but become darker in age, often
changing to pinkish, with a brown tinge where bruised. The stem is solid,
and is thus different from a closely related species, B. cavipes Kalchb. The
stem is covered with a coat like that on the pileus and is similarly colored,
though often paler. The spores are ochraceous, 15–18 × 6–8 µ. The plants
are 5–8 cm. high, the caps 5–8 cm. broad, and the stems 6–12 mm. in
thickness.

Figure 175 is from plants collected in the Blue Ridge mountains, Blowing
Rock, N. C., September, 1899.

Boletinus porosus (Berk.) Pk.—This very interesting species is widely
distributed in the Eastern United States. It resembles a Polyporus, though it

is very soft like a Boletus, but quite tenacious. The plants are dull reddish-
brown, viscid when moist, and shining. The cap is more or less irregular
and the stem eccentric, the cap being sometimes more or less lobed. The
plants are 4–6 cm. high, the cap 5–12 cm. broad, and the short stem 8–12
mm. in thickness. It occurs in damp ground in woods.

The pileus is fleshy, thick at the middle, and thin at the margin. The tubes
are arranged in prominently radiating rows, the partitions often running
radiately in the form of lamellæ, certain ones of them being more prominent
than others as shown in Fig. 176. These branch and are connected by cross
partitions of less prominence. This character of the hymenium led Berkeley
to place the plant in the genus Paxillus, with which it does not seem to be so
closely related as with the genus Boletus. The stratum of tubes, though very
soft, is very tenacious, and does not separate from the flesh of the pileus,
thus resembling certain species of Polyporus. Figure 176 is from plants
collected at Ithaca.

Plate 63, Figure 176.—Boletinus porosus. Viscid when moist, dull reddish
brown (natural size). Copyright.

Strobilomyces strobilaceus Berk. Edible.—This plant has a peculiar
name, both the genus and the species referring to the cone-like appearance
of the cap with its coarse, crowded, dark brown scales, bearing a fancied
resemblance to a pine cone. It is very easily distinguished from other
species of Boletus because of this character of the cap. The plant has a very
wide distribution though it is not usually very common. The plant is 8–14
cm. high, the cap 5–10 cm. broad, and the stem 1–2 cm. in thickness.

The pileus is hemispherical to convex, shaggy from numerous large
blackish, coarse, hairy, projecting scales. The margin of the cap is fringed
with scales and fragments of the veil which covers the tubes in the young
plants. The flesh is whitish, but soon changes to reddish color, and later to
black where wounded or cut. The tubes are adnate, whitish, becoming
brown and blackish in the older plants. The mouths of the tubes are large
and angular, and change color where bruised, as does the flesh of the cap.
The stem is even, or sometimes tapers upward, often grooved near the apex,
very tomentose or scaly with soft scales of the same color as the cap. The
spores are in mass dark brown, nearly globose, roughened, and 10–12 µ
long. Figs. 177–179 are from plants collected at Ithaca, N. Y. Another
European plant, S. floccopus Vahl, is said by Peck to occur in the United
States, but is much more rare. The only difference in the two noted by Peck
in the case of the American plants is that the tubes are depressed around the
stem in S. floccopus.

Plate 64, Figure 177.—Strobilomyces strobilaceus. Scales of cap dark brown or
black, flesh white but soon changing to reddish and later to black where
wounded, stem same color but lighter (natural size). Copyright.

Figure 178.—Strobilomyces strobilaceus. Sections of plants. Copyright.

Figure 179.—Strobilomyces strobilaceus. Under view. Copyright.

FISTULINA Bull.

In the genus Fistulina the tubes, or pores, are crowded together, but stand
separately, that is, they are not connected together, or grown together into a
stratum as in Boletus and other genera of the family Polyporaceæ. When
the plant is young the tubes are very short, but they elongate with age.

Fistulina hepatica Fr. Edible.—This is one of the largest of the species in
the genus and is the most widely distributed and common one. It is of a
dark red color, very soft and juicy. It has usually a short stem which
expands out into the broad and thick cap. When young the upper side of the
cap is marked by minute elevations of a different color, which suggest the
papillæ on the tongue; in age the tubes on the under surface have also some
such suggestive appearance. The form, as it stands outward in a shelving
fashion from stumps or trees, together with the color and surface characters,
has suggested several common names, as beef tongue, beef-steak fungus,

oak or chestnut tongue. The plant is 10–20 cm. long, and 8–15 cm. broad,
the stem very short and thick, sometimes almost wanting, and again quite
long. I have seen some specimens growing from a hollow log in which the
stems were 12–15 cm. long.

The pileus is very thick, 2 cm. or more in thickness, fleshy, soft, very juicy,
and in wet weather very clammy and somewhat sticky to the touch. When
mature there are lines of color of different shades extending out radially on
the upper surface, and in making a longitudinal section of the cap there are
quite prominent, alternating, dark and light red lines present in the flesh.
The tubes, short at first, become 2–3 mm. long, they are yellowish or tinged
with flesh color, becoming soiled in age. The spores are elliptical,
yellowish, and 5–6 µ long.

The plant occurs on dead trunks or stumps of oak, chestnut, etc., in wet
weather from June to September. I have usually found it on chestnut.

The beef-steak fungus is highly recommended by some, while others are
not pleased with it as an article of food. It has an acid flavor which is
disagreeable to some, but this is more marked in young specimens and in
those not well cooked. When it is sliced thin and well broiled or fried, the
acid taste is not marked.

PLATE 65.
Fig. 1.—Fistulina hepatica.
Fig. 2.—F. pallida.
Copyright 1900.

Fistulina pallida B. & Rav. (Fistulina firma Pk.)—This rare and interesting
species was collected by Mrs. A. M. Hadley, near Manchester, New
Hampshire, October, 1898, and was described by Dr. Peck in the Bulletin of
the Torrey Botanical Club, 26: 70, 1899, as Fistulina firma. But two plants
were then found, and these were connected at the base. During August and
September it was quite common in a small woods near Ithaca, N. Y., and
was first collected growing from the roots of a dead oak stump, August 4

(No. 3227 C. U. herbarium), and afterward during October. During
September I collected it at Blowing Rock, N. C., in the Blue Ridge
mountains, at an elevation of nearly 5000 feet, growing from the roots of a
dead white oak tree. It was collected during September, 1899, by Mr. Frank
Rathbun at Auburn, N. Y. It was collected by Ravenel in the mountains of
South Carolina, around a white oak stump by Peters in Alabama, and was
first described by Berkeley in 1872, in Grev. 1: 71, Notices of N. A. F. No.
173. Growing from roots or wood underneath the surface of the ground, the
plant has an erect stem, the length of the stem depending on the depth at
which the root is buried, just as in the case of Polyporus radicatus, which
has a similar habitat. The plants are 5–12 cm. high, the cap is 3–7 cm.
broad, and the stem 6–8 mm. in thickness.

Plate 66, Figure 180.—Fistulina pallida. Cap wood-brown to fawn or clay
color, tubes and lower part of the stem whitish (natural size). Copyright.

The pileus is wood brown to fawn, clay color or isabelline color. It is nearly
semi-circular to reniform in outline, and the margin broadly crenate, or
sometimes lobed. The stem is attached at the concave margin, where the cap
is auriculate and has a prominent boss or elevation, and bent at right angles
with a characteristic curve. The pileus is firm, flexible, tough and fibrous,
flesh white. The surface is covered with a fine and dense tomentum. The
pileus is 5–8 mm. thick at the base, thinning out toward the margin. The
tubes are whitish, 2–3 mm. long and 5–6 in the space of a millimeter. They
are very slender, tubular, the mouth somewhat enlarged, the margin of the

tubes pale cream color and minutely mealy or furfuraceous, with numerous
irregular, roughened threads. The tubes often stand somewhat separated,
areas being undeveloped or younger, so that the surface of the under side is
not regular. The tubes are not so crowded as is usual in the Fistulina
hepatica. They are not decurrent, but end abruptly near the stem. The
spores are subglobose, 3 µ in diameter. The stem tapers downward, is
whitish below, and near the pileus the color changes rather abruptly to the
same tint as the pileus. The stem is sometimes branched, and two or three
caps present, or the caps themselves may be joined, as well as the stems, so
that occasionally very irregular forms are developed, but there is always the
peculiar character of the attachment of the stem to the side of the cap.

Figure 180 is from plants (No 3676, C. U. herbarium) collected at Blowing
Rock, N. C., September, 1899. Figures on the colored plate represent this
plant.

Polyporus frondosus Fr. Edible.—This plant occurs in both Europe and
America, and while not very common seems to be widely distributed. It
grows about old stumps or dead trees, from roots, often arising from the
roots below the surface of the ground, and also is found on logs. The plant
represents a section of the genus Polyporus, in which the body, both the
stem and the cap, are very much branched. In this species the stem is stout
at the base, but it branches into numerous smaller trunks, which continue to
branch until finally the branches terminate in the expanded and leaf-like
caps as shown in Figs. 181–182. The plants appear usually during late
summer and in the autumn. The species is often found about oak stumps.
Some of the specimens are very large, and weigh 10 to 20 pounds, and the
mass is sometimes 30 to 60 cm. (1–2 feet) in diameter.

The plant, when young and growing, is quite soft and tender, though it is
quite firm. It never becomes very hard, as many of the other species of this

family. When mature, insects begin to attack it, and not being tough it soon
succumbs to the ravages of insects and decay, as do a number of the softer
species of the Polyporaceæ. The caps are very irregular in shape, curved,
repand, radiately furrowed, sometimes zoned; gray, or hair-brown in color,
with a perceptibly hairy surface, the hairs running in lines on the surface.
Sometimes they are quite broad and not so numerous as in Plate 67, and in
other plants they are narrow and more numerous, as in Plate 68. The tubes
are more or less irregular, whitish, with a yellowish tinge when old. From
the under side of the cap they extend down on the stem. When the spores
are mature they are sometimes so numerous that they cover the lower caps
and the grass for quite a distance around as if with a white powder.

This species is edible, and because of the large size which it often attains,
the few plants which are usually found make up in quantity what they lack
in numbers. Since the plant is quite firm it will keep several days after being
picked, in a cool place, and will serve for several meals. A specimen which
I gathered was divided between two families, and was served at several
meals on successive days. When stewed the plant has for me a rather
objectionable taste, but the stewing makes the substance more tender, and
when this is followed by broiling or frying the objectionable taste is
removed and it is quite palatable. The plants represented in Plates 67 and 68
were collected at Ithaca.

Plate 67, Figure 181.—Polyporus frondosus. Caps hair-brown or grayish, tubes
white (1/3 natural size, masses often 20–40 cm. in breadth). The caps in this
specimen are quite broad, often they are narrower as in Fig. 182. Copyright.

Plate 68, Figure 182.—Polyporus frondosus. Side and under view of a larger
cluster (1/3 natural size). Copyright.

There are several species which are related to the frondose polyporus which
occur in this country as well as in Europe. Polyporus intybaceus Fr., is of
about the same size, and the branching, and form of the caps is much the
same, but it is of a yellowish brown or reddish brown color. It grows on
logs, stumps, etc., and is probably edible. It is not so common at Ithaca as
the frondose polyporus.

Figure 183.—Polyporus umbellatus. Caps hair-brown (natural size, often much
larger). Copyright.

Polyporus umbellatus Fr.—This species is also related to the frondose
polyporus, but is very distinct. It is more erect, the branching more open,
and the caps at the ends of the branches are more or less circular and
umbilicate. The branches are long, cylindrical and united near the base. The
spreading habit of the branching, or the form of the caps, suggests an umbel
or umbrella, and hence the specific name umbellatus.

The tufts occur from 12–20 cm. in diameter, and the individual caps are
from 1–4 cm. in diameter. It grows from underground roots and about
stumps during summer. It is probably edible, but I have never tried it.
Figure 183 is from a plant (No. 1930, C. U. herbarium) collected in
Cascadilla woods, Ithaca.

Polyporus sulphureus (Bull.) Fr. Edible. (Boletus caudicinus Schaeff. T.
131, 132: Polyporus caudicinus Schroeter, Cohn's Krypt. Flora, Schlesien,
p. 471, 1899).—The sulphur polyporus is so-called because of the bright
sulphur color of the entire plant. It is one of the widely distributed species,
and grows on dead oak, birch, and other trunks, and is also often found
growing from wounds or knot-holes of living trees of the oak, apple,
walnut, etc. The mycelium enters at wounds where limbs are broken off,
and grows for years in the heart wood, disorganizing it and causing it to
decay. In time the mycelium has spread over a considerable area, from
which nutriment enough is supplied for the formation of the fruiting
condition. The caps then appear from an open wound when such an exit is
present.

The color of the plant is quite constant, but varies of course in shades of
yellow to some extent. In form, however, it varies greatly. The caps are
usually clustered and imbricated, that is, they overlap. They may all arise
separately from the wood, and yet be overlapping, though oftener several of
them are closely joined or united at the base, so that the mass of caps arises
from a common outgrowth from the wood as shown in Fig. 184. The
individual caps are flattened, elongate, and more or less fan-shaped. When
mature there are radiating furrows and ridges which often increase the fan-
like appearance of the upper surface of the cap. Sometimes also there are
more or less marked concentric furrows. The caps may be convex, or the
margin may be more or less upturned so that the central portion is

depressed. When young the margin is thick and blunt and of course lighter
in color, but as the plant matures the edge is usually thinner.

In some forms of the plant the caps are so closely united as to form a large
rounded or tubercular mass, only the blunt tips of the individual caps being
free. This is well represented in Fig. 185, from a photograph of a large
specimen growing from a wound in a butter-nut tree in Central New York.
The plant was 30 cm. in diameter. The plants represented in Plate 69 grew
on an oak stump. The tree was affected by the fungus while it was alive,
and the heart wood became so weakened that the tree broke, and later the
fruit form of the fungus appeared from the dead stump.

Plate 69, Figure 184.—Polyporus sulphureus, on oak stump. Entirely sulphur-
yellow (1/6 natural size). Copyright.

The tubes are small, and the walls thin and delicate, and are sometimes
much torn, lacerated, and irregular. When the mycelium has grown in the
interior of a log for a number of years it tends to grow in sheets along the
line of the medullary rays of the wood or across in concentric layers
corresponding to the summer wood. Also as the wood becomes more
decomposed, cracks and rifts appear along these same lines. The mycelium
then grows in abundance in these rifts and forms broad and extensive sheets
which resemble somewhat chamois skin and is called "punk." Similar punk
is sometimes formed in conifers from the mycelium of Fomes pinicola.

Plate 70, Figure 185.—Polyporus sulphureus. Caps joined in a massive tubercle
(1/2 natural size).

Polyporus sulphureus has long been known as an edible fungus, but from
its rather firm and fibrous texture it requires a different preparation from the

fleshy fungi to prepare it for the table, and this may be one reason why it is
not employed more frequently as an article of food. It is common enough
during the summer and especially during the autumn to provide this kind of
food in considerable quantities.

Plate 71, Figure 186.—Polyporus brumalis. Cap and stem brown, tubes white.
Lower three plants natural size, upper one enlarged twice natural size. Copyright.

Polyporus brumalis (Pers.) Fr.—This pretty plant is found at all seasons of
the year, and from its frequency during the winter was named brumalis,
from bruma, which means winter. It grows on sticks and branches, or on
trunks. It usually occurs singly, sometimes two or three close together. The

plants are 3–6 cm. high, the cap 2–6 cm. in diameter, and the stem is 3–6
mm. in thickness.

The cap is convex, then plane, and sometimes depressed at the center or
umbilicate. When young it is somewhat fleshy and pliant, then it becomes
tough, coriaceous, and hard when dry. During wet weather it becomes pliant
again. Being hard and firm, and tough, it preserves long after mature, so
that it may be found at any season of the year. The cap is smoky in color,
varying in shade, sometimes very dark, almost black, and other specimens
being quite light in color. The surface is hairy and the margin is often
fimbriate with coarse hairs. The stem is lighter, hairy or strigose. The tubes
are first white, then become yellowish. The tubes are very regular in
arrangement.

Figure 186 represents well this species, three plants being grouped rather
closely on the same stick; two show the under surface and one gives a side
view. The upper portion of the plate represents two of the plants enlarged,
the three lower ones being natural size. The plant is very common and
widely distributed over the world. Those illustrated in the plate were
collected at Ithaca. This species is too tough for food.

Many of the thin and pliant species of Polyporus are separated by some into
the genus Polystictus. The species are very numerous, as well as some of
the individuals of certain species. They grow on wood or on the ground,
some have a central stem, and others are shelving, while some are spread
out on the surface of the wood. One very pretty species is the Polystictus
perennis Fr. This grows on the ground and has a central stem. The plant is
2–3 cm. high, and the cap 1–4 cm. broad. The pileus is thin, pliant when
fresh and somewhat brittle when dry. It is minutely velvety on the upper
surface, reddish brown or cinnamon in color, expanded or umbilicate to
nearly funnel-shaped. The surface is marked beautifully by radiations and

fine concentric zones. The stem is also velvety. The tubes are minute, the
walls thin and acute, and the mouths angular and at last more or less torn.
The margin of the cap is finely fimbriate, but in old specimens these hairs
are apt to become rubbed off. The left hand plant in Fig. 187 is Polyporus
perennis.

Polystictus cinnamomeus (Jacq.) Sacc., (P. oblectans Berk. Hook. Jour. p.
51, 1845, Dec. N. A. F. No. 35: P. splendens Pk., 26th Report N. Y. State
Mus., p. 26) is a closely related species with the same habit, color, and often
is found growing side by side with P. perennis. The margin of the cap is
deeply and beautifully lacerate, as shown in the three other plants in Fig.
187. Polystictus connatus Schw., grows in similar situations and one
sometimes finds all three of these plants near each other on the ground by
roadsides. P. connatus has much larger pores than either of the other two,
and it is a somewhat larger plant. Figure 187 is from a photograph of plants
collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

Figure 187.—Left-hand plant Polystictus perennis; right-hand three plants
Polystictus cinnamomeus. All natural size. Copyright.

Polystictus versicolor (L.) Fr., is a very common plant growing on trunks
and branches. It is more or less shelving, with a leaf-like pileus, marked by
concentric bands of different colors. P. hirsutus Fr., is a somewhat thicker

and more spongy plant, whitish or grayish in color, with the upper surface
tomentose with coarse hairs. P. cinnabarinus (Jacq.) Fr., is shelving,
spongy, pliant, rather thick, cinnabar colored. It grows on dead logs and
branches. It is sometimes placed in the genus Trametes under the same
specific name. Polystictus pergamenus Fr., is another common one
growing on wood of various trees. It is thin and very pliant when fresh,
somewhat tomentose above when young, with faint bands, and the tubes are
often violet or purple color, and they soon become deeply torn and lacerate
so that they resemble the teeth of certain of the hedgehog fungi.

Plate 72, Figure 188.—Polyporus lucidus. Caps bright red or chestnut color,
with a hard shiny crust (1/6 natural size). Copyright.

Polyporus lucidus (Leys.) Fr. [Fomes lucidus (Leys.) Fr.]—This species is
a very striking one because of the bright red or chestnut color, the hard and
brittle crust over the surface of the cap, which has usually the appearance of
having been varnished. It grows on trunks, logs, stumps, etc., in woods or
groves. The cap is 5–20 cm. in diameter, and the stem is 5–20 cm. long, and
1–2 cm. in thickness. The stem is attached to one side of the pileus so that
the pileus is lateral, though the stem is more or less ascending.

The cap is first yellowish when young, then it becomes blood red, then
chestnut color. The stem is the same color, and the tubes are not so bright
in color, being a dull brown. The substance of the plant is quite woody and
tough when mature. When dry it is soon attacked and eaten by certain
insects, which are fond of a number of fungi, so that they are difficult to
preserve in good condition in herbaria without great care.

The surface of the pileus is quite uneven, wrinkled, and coarsely grooved,
the margin sometimes crenate, especially in large specimens. Figure 188
represents the plant growing on a large hemlock spruce stump in the woods.
The surface character of the caps and the general form can be seen. This
photograph was taken near Ithaca, N. Y.

Polyporus applanatus (Pers.) Fr. [Fomes applanatus (Pers.) Wallr.]—This
plant is also one of the very common woody Polyporaceæ. It grows on dead
trunks, etc., and sometimes is found growing from the wounds of living
trees. It is very hard and woody. It has a hard crust, much harder than that of
the Polyporus lucidus. The surface is more or less marked by concentric
zones which mark off the different years' growth, for this plant is perennial.
At certain seasons of the year the upper surface is covered with a powdery
substance of a reddish brown color, made up of numerous colored spores or
conidia which are developed on the upper surface of this plant in addition to
the smaller spores developed in the tubes on the under surface.

The plant varies in size from 5–20 cm. or more in diameter, and 1–10 cm. in
thickness, according to the rapidity of growth and the age of the fungus.
The fruiting surface is white, and the tubes are very minute. They scarcely
can be seen with the unaided eye. Bruises of the tubes turn brown, and
certain "artists" often collect these plants and sketch with a pointed
instrument on the tube surface. For other peculiarities of this plant see page
15. The age of the plant can usually be told by counting the number of the

broader zones on the upper surface, or by making a section through the
plant and counting the number of tube strata on the lower surface of the cap
at its base.

Polyporus leucophæus Mont., is said to differ from this species in being
more strongly zonate, and in the crust being whitish instead of reddish
brown.

Polyporus fomentarius (L.) Fr. [Fomes fomentarius (L.) Fr.,] is hoof-
shaped, smoky in color, or gray, and of various shades of dull brown. It is
strongly zoned and sulcate, marking off each year's growth. The margin is
thick and blunt, and the tube surface concave, the tubes having quite large
mouths so that they can be readily seen, the color when mature being
reddish brown. Sections of the plant show that the tubes are very long, the
different years' growth not being marked off so distinctly as in P.
applanatus and leucophæus. The plant grows on birch, beech, maple, etc.
The inner portion was once used as tinder.

Polyporus pinicola (Swartz.) Fr. [Fomes pinicola (Swartz.) Fr.] occurs on
dead pine, spruce, balsam, hemlock spruce, and other conifers. The cap is
about the width of the F. applanatus, but it is stouter, and does not have the
same hard crust. The young growth at the margin, which is very thick, is
whitish yellow, while the old zones are reddish. The tubes are yellowish,
and sections show that they are in strata corresponding to the years' growth.
Polyporus igniarius (L.) Fr. [Fomes igniarius (L.) Fr.] is a black species,
more or less triangular, or sometimes hoof-shaped. The yearly zones are
smaller, become much cracked, and the tubes are dark brown. One of these
plants which I found on a birch tree in the Adirondacks was over 80 years
old.

The genus Merulius has a fruiting surface of irregular folds or wrinkles,
forming shallow, irregular pits instead of a deeply honey-combed surface.

Merulius lacrymans (Jacq.) Fr., the "weeping" merulius, or "house
fungus," often occurs in damp cellars, buildings, conduit pipes, etc. It is
very destructive to buildings in certain parts of Europe (see Figs. 189, 190).
Merulius tremellosus Schrad., is very common in woods during autumn. It
is of a gelatinous consistency, and spread on the under surface of limbs or
forms irregular shelves from the side (see Figs. 191, 192).

Plate 73.—Merulius lacrymans. Figure 189.—Upper plant in conduit pipe
leading from wash room, Gymnasium C. U., Autumn, 1899. Figure 190.—
Lower plant from under surface decaying hemlock spruce log in woods near
Freeville, N. Y., October, 1899. Margin of plants white, fruiting surface a
network of irregular folds, golden brown, or brown. Copyright.

Plate 74.—Merulius Figure 192.—Enlarged to show character of fruiting surface.
tremellosus. Figure 191.— Fruiting surface yellowish; margin and upper surface in shelving
Natural size. forms, white, hairy. Copyright.

Plate 75, Figure 193.—Phlebia merismoides. On rotting log, woods near Ithaca,
November 23, 1898 (No. 2634 C. U. herbarium). Various shades of orange,
yellow or yellow brown when old. Copyright.

Plate 76, Figure 194.—Phlebia merismoides. Portion of a plant 2-1/2 times
natural size, to show interrupted folds of fruiting surface. For colors see Fig. 193.
Copyright.

CHAPTER X.

HEDGEHOG FUNGI: HYDNACEAE.

The plants belonging to this family vary greatly in size, form, and
consistency. Some of them are very large, some quite small, some are fleshy
in consistency, some are woody, corky; some membranaceous; and if we
include plants formerly classed here, some are gelatinous, though there is a
tendency in recent years on the part of some to place the gelatinous ones
among the trembling fungi. The special character which marks the members
of this family is the peculiarity of the fruiting surface, just as a number of
the other families are distinguished by some peculiarity of the fruiting
surface. In the Hydnaceæ it covers the surface of numerous processes in the
form of spines, teeth, warts, coarse granules, or folds which are interrupted
at short intervals. These spines or teeth always are directed toward the earth
when the plant is in the position in which it grew. In this way the members
of the family can be distinguished from certain members of the club fungi
belonging to the family Clavariaceæ, for in the latter the branches or free
parts of the plant are erect.

In form the Hydnaceæ are shelving, growing on trees; or growing on the
ground they often have a central or eccentric stem, and a more or less
circular cap; some of them are rounded masses, growing from trees, with
very long spines extending downward; others have ascending branches
from which the spines depend; and still others form thin sheets which are

spread over the surface of logs and sticks, the spines hanging down from
the surface, or roughened with granules or warts, or interrupted folds (see
Phlebia, Figs. 193, 194). In one genus there is no fruit body, but the spines
themselves extend downward from the rotten wood, the genus Mucronella.
This is only distinguished, so far as its family position is concerned, from
such a species as Clavaria mucida by the fact that the plant grows
downward from the wood, while in C. mucida it grows erect.

HYDNUM Linn.

The only species of the Hydnaceæ described here are in the genus Hydnum.
In this genus the fruiting surface is on spine, or awl-shaped processes,
which are either simple or in some cases the tips are more or less branched.
The plants grow on the ground or on wood. The species vary greatly in
form. Some are provided with a more or less regular cap and a stem, while
others are shelving or bracket shaped, and still others are spread out over
the surface of the wood (resupinate).

Figure 195.—Hydnum coralloides. Entirely white (natural size). Copyright.

Hydnum coralloides Scop. Edible.—Among the very beautiful species of
the genus Hydnum is the coral one, Hydnum coralloides. It grows in woods
forming large, beautiful, pure white tufts on rotten logs, branches, etc. The
appearance of one of these tufts is shown in Fig. 195. There is a common
stem which arises from the wood, and this branches successively into long,
ascending, graceful shoots. The spines are scattered over the entire under
side of these branches and hang down for 3–6 mm. They are not clustered at
the ends of the branches, as in the bear's head hydnum, and the species can
be easily distinguished by giving attention to the form of the branching and
the distribution of the spines on the under side of the branches. Figure 195
represents a plant collected at Ithaca, and it is natural size. They grow,

however, much larger than this specimen. The species is widely distributed,
and not uncommon. It is excellent for food.

Plate 77, Figure 196.—Hydnum caput-ursi. Entirely white (natural size).
Copyright.

Hydnum caput-ursi Fr. Edible.—This plant is also a beautiful one. It is
more common than the coral hydnum so far as my observation goes. It is
known by the popular name of "bear's head hydnum" in allusion to the
groups of spines at the ends of the branches. It occurs in woods with a
similar habit of growing on trunks, branches, etc. This plant also arises from
the wood with a single stout stem, which then branches successively, the
ends of the branches having groups of long pendant spines appearing like
numerous heads. Sometimes the spines on the top of the group are twisted
or curled in a peculiar way. Large tufts are sometimes formed, varying from

12–20 or more centimeters in diameter. Figure 196 is from a plant collected
at Ithaca.

Figure 197.—Hydnum erinaceus. Entirely white (natural size, often larger).

Hydnum caput-medusæ Bull. Edible.—The medusa's head hydnum is a
rarer species than either of the above in this country. It forms a large,
tubercular mass which does not branch like the coral hydnum or the bear's
head, but more like the Satyr's beard hydnum, though the character of the
spines will easily separate it from the latter. The spines cover a large part of
this large tubercle, and hang downward. The plant is known by the

additional character, that, on the upper part of the tubercle, the spines are
twisted and interwoven in a peculiar fashion.

Hydnum erinaceus Bull. Edible.—This plant is sometimes called "Satyr's
beard." It grows on dead trunks in the woods or groves, and is often found
growing from wounds in living trees. It forms a large, tubercular mass
which does not branch. The spines are very long and straight and hang
downward in straight parallel lines from the sides of the mass. The spines
are from 1–2 cm. or more long. Figure 197 represents one of the plants,
showing the long spines.

Hydnum repandum L. Edible.—This plant is not uncommon, and it is
widely distributed. It grows usually in woods, on the ground. It varies
greatly in size, from very small specimens, 1–2 cm. high to others 10–12
cm. high. The cap is 2–18 cm. broad, and the stem 6–12 mm. in thickness.

Plate 78, Figure 198.—Hydnum repandum. Cap whitish or yellowish, or pale
yellowish brown; spines whitish or yellowish (natural size, often smaller).
Copyright.

It is entirely white or the cap varies to buff, dull yellow reddish or dull
brown. It is very brittle, and must be handled with the utmost care if one
wishes to preserve the specimen intact. The pileus is more or less irregular,
the stem being generally eccentric, so that the pileus is produced more on
one side than on the other, sometimes entirely lateral at the end of the stem.
The margin is more or less wavy or repand. The spines are white, straight,
and very brittle. The stem is even or clavate. Figure 198 is from plants
collected at Ithaca during August, 1899, and represents one of the large

specimens of the species. In one plant the pileus is entirely lateral on the
end of the long clavate stem, and is somewhat reniform, the stem being
attached at the sinus. In the other plant the stem is attached near the center.
This species is considered one of the best mushrooms for the table.

Plate 79, Figure 199.—Hydnum putidum. Caps whitish then buff, then
brownish or nearly black in older parts, edge white (natural size). Copyright.

Hydnum imbricatum L. Edible.—This is a very variable species both in
size and in the surface characters of the pileus. It occurs in woods, groves,
or in open places under trees. The plants are 3–7 cm. high, and the pileus
varies from 5–15 cm. broad, the stem from .5–2.5 cm. in thickness. The
pileus is convex and nearly expanded, fleshy, thinner at the margin, regular
or very irregular. The color is grayish in the younger and smaller plants to
umber or quite dark in the larger and older ones. The surface is cracked and
torn into triangular scales, showing the whitish color of the flesh between
the scales. The scales are small in the younger plants and larger in the older
ones. Figure 200 is from plants collected at Ithaca, and the pileus in these
specimens is irregular. The species is edible, but bitter to the taste.

Figure 200.—Hydnum imbricatum. Caps brownish, spines whitish (natural size,
often larger).

Hydnum putidum Atkinson.—This plant grows on the ground in woods,
and was collected in the Blue Ridge mountains at Blowing Rock, N. C., at
an elevation of about 4000 feet. It is remarkable for its peculiar odor,
resembling, when fresh, that of an Ethiopian; for its tough, zonate pileus
with a prominent white edge, and the stout irregular stem, resembling the
stem of Hydnum velutinum. The plants are 8–12 cm. high, the cap 8–12 cm.
broad, and the stem 2–4 cm. in thickness. The plants grow singly, or
sometimes a few close together, and then two or more may be conjoined.

The pileus is first umbilicate or depressed, becoming depressed or
infundibuliform, irregular, eccentric, the margin repand, and sometimes
lobed, and lobes appearing at times on the upper surface of the cap. The
surface is first tomentose or pubescent, becoming smooth, with prominent
concentric zones probably marked off by periodical growth; the color is
first white, so that the edge is white, becoming cream color to buff, and in
age dull brown and sometimes blackish brown in the center of the old
plants. The pubescence disappears from the old portions of the cap, so that
it is smooth. The pubescence or tomentum is more prominent on the

intermediate zones. The margin is rather thick, somewhat acute or blunt, the
upper portion of the flesh is spongy and the middle portion tough and
coriaceous, and darker in color. The pileus is somewhat pliant when moist
or wet, and firm when dry, the dark inner stratum hard.

The spines are first white or cream color, in age changing through salmon
color, or directly into grayish or grayish brown. The spines when mature are
long, slender, crowded, and decurrent on the upper part of the stem. The
spores are white, globose, echinulate, 3–4 µ. The stem is stout and
irregular, very closely resembling the stem of Hydnum velutinum, with a
thick, spongy, outer layer and a central hard core.

The odor, which resembles that of a perspiring darkey, before the plant is
dry, disappears after drying, and then the plant has the same agreeable odor
presented by several different species of Hydnum. The odor suggests H.
graveolens, but the characters of the stem and surface of the pileus separate
it from that species, while the tough and pliant character of the cap
separates it from H. fragile. Figure 199 is from plants (No. 4334, C. U.
herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

CHAPTER XI.

CORAL FUNGI: CLAVARIACEAE.

This family is a very characteristic one, and very interesting from the large
number of beautiful species in one genus, the genus Clavaria. The plants all
are more or less erect, or at least stand out from the substratum, that is, the
substance on which they are growing. The fruiting surface covers the entire
upper part of the plant, all but the bases of the stems. Some of the branched
species of the Thelephoraceæ resemble the branched species of the
Clavariaceæ, but in the former there is a more or less well defined upper
portion on the tips of the branches which is flat, or truncate, and sterile, that
is, lacks the fruiting surface. Some of the species are simple, elongate and
clavate bodies. Some stand singly, others are clustered, or others are joined
by their bases, and others still are very much branched. All of the species
are said to be edible, that is, they are not poisonous. A few are rather tough,
but they are mostly the small species which would not be thought of for
food. The spores are borne on club-shaped basidia, as in the common
mushrooms.

Plate 80, Figure 201.—Clavaria formosa. Yellowish, red tipped when young,
red disappearing in age (natural size, sometimes twice this size). Copyright.

CLAVARIA Vaill.

The genus Clavaria is one of the most common ones in the family, and is
one of the most attractive from the variety and beauty of several of the
species. All of the plants are more or less erect, and at least stand out from
the substratum on which they grow. They are either long and simple and
more or less club-shaped, as the name implies, or they are branched, some
but a few times, while others are very profusely branched. The plants vary
in color, some are white, some yellow, some red, and some are red-tipped,
while others are brownish in color.

Figure 202.—Clavaria botrytes. Branches red tipped (natural size).

Clavaria formosa Pers. Edible.—This is one of the handsomest of the
genus. It is found in different parts of the world, and has been collected in
New England and in the Carolinas in this country. It is usually from 15–20
cm. high, and because of the great number of branches is often broader in
extent. There is a stout stem from 2–4 cm. in diameter, deep in the ground.
This branches into a few stout trunks, which then rapidly branch into
slender and longer branches, terminating into numerous tips. The entire
plant is very brittle, and great care is necessary to prevent its breaking, both
before drying and afterward. When the plant is young and is just pushing
out of the ground, the branches, especially the tips, are bright colored, red,

pink, or orange, the color usually brighter when young in the younger
plants. As the plant becomes older the color fades out, until at maturity the
pink or red color has in many cases disappeared, and then the entire plant is
of a light yellowish, or of a cream buff color. The spores are in mass light
yellow, and the spores on the surface of the plant probably give the color to
the plant at this stage. The spores are long, oval or oblong, 10–15 × 2.5–3 µ,
and are minutely spiny. Figure 201 is from a plant (No. 4343, C. U.
herbarium) collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., in September, 1899. The plant
is very common in the mountain woods of North Carolina.

Figure 203.—Clavaria pistillaris. Dull whitish, tan or reddish (natural size).

Specimens of this Clavaria were several times prepared for table use during
my stay in the mountains, but the flavor was not an agreeable one, possibly
due to the fact that it needs some special preparation and seasoning.

Clavaria botrytes Pers. Edible.—This plant is much smaller than C.
formosa, but has much the same general habit and color, especially when C.
formosa is young. The plant has a stout stem which soon dissolves into
numerous branches, which are red tipped. The spores are white, and in this
way it may be distinguished from C. formosa, or from Clavaria aurea
(Schaeff.), which has yellow or ochre spores, and which has also much the
same habit as C. botrytes, and is nearer in size.

Figure 204.—Clavaria mucida. White (natural size). Copyright.

Clavaria pistillaris Linn. Edible.—This plant is a characteristic one
because of its usually large size and simple form. It is merely a club-shaped
body, growing from the ground. It has a wide range, both in Europe and
North America, but does not seem to be common, though I have found it
more common in the mountain woods of North Carolina than in New York.
The plant is 5–20 cm. high, and 1–3 cm. thick at the upper end. It is smooth,
though often irregularly grooved and furrowed, due probably to unequal
tensions in growth. The apex in typical specimens is rounded and blunt. It is
dull white or tan color or rufescent. The flesh is white, and very spongy,

especially in age, when it is apt to be irregularly fistulose. Figure 203 is
from plants collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., during September 1899.

There is what seems to be an abnormal form of this species figured by
Schaeffer, Table 290, which Fries separated as a distinct species and placed
in the genus Craterellus, one of the Thelephoraceæ, and called by him
Craterellus pistillaris. This plant has been found at Ithaca, and the only
difference between this and the Clavaria pistillaris L., seems to be in the
fact that in Craterellus pistillaris the end is truncate or in some specimens
more or less concave. The spores seem to be the same, and the color and
general habit of the two plants are the same. It is probably only a form of
Clavaria pistillaris.

Clavaria mucida Pers.—This is one of the smallest species of the genus
Clavaria. It grows on rotten wood, and appears throughout the year. It is
usually simple and clavate, but sometimes branched. The plant is white, or
yellowish, or sometimes rose color, and measures from 0.5 to 2 cm. in
height, though I have usually found it from 0.5–1 cm. in height. It is soft
and watery. Figure 204 is from plants (No. 4998, C. U. herbarium) collected
at Ithaca in October, 1899.

CHAPTER XII.

THE TREMBLING FUNGI: TREMELLINEAE.

These fungi are called the trembling fungi because of their gelatinous
consistency. The colors vary from white, yellow, orange, reddish, brownish,
etc., and the form is various, often very irregular, leaf-like, or strongly
folded and uneven. They are when fresh usually very soft, clammy to the
touch, and yielding like a mass of gelatine. They usually grow on wood, but
some species grow on the ground, and some are parasitic. The fruit surface
usually covers the entire outer surface of the plant, but in some it is
confined to one side of the plant. The basidia are peculiar to the order, are
deeply seated in the substance of the plant, rounded or globose, and divided
into four cells in a cruciate manner. From each one of these cells of the
basidium a long, slender process (sterigma) grows out to the surface of the
plant and bears the spore. A few species only are treated of here.

TREMELLA Dill.

In this genus the plants are gelatinous or cartilaginous. The form of the
plant is usually very much contorted, fold-like or leaf-like, and very much
branched. The fruiting surface extends over the entire upper surface of the
plant.

Figure 205.—Tremella mycetophila, on Collybia dryophila (natural size).

Tremella lutescens Pers.—This plant is entirely yellow, and occurs on
branches. It is 2–5 cm. in diameter, and is strongly folded, somewhat like
the folds of a brain (gyrose). It is very soft and inclined to be watery and
fluid, and is of a bright yellow color, spread out on the surface of rotten
wood. It is of world-wide distribution, and appears from mid-summer to
late autumn.

Tremella mycetophila Pk.—This plant is interesting from the fact that it is
parasitic on a mushroom, Collybia dryophila. It grows on the stem or on the
top of the cap of the Collybia, and it is white, or yellowish, very much

contorted (gyrose-plicate), nearly rounded, and 8–16 mm. in diameter.
Figure 205 represents this Tremella growing on the Collybia dryophila,
from plants collected at Freeville woods near Ithaca.

Figure 206.—Tremella frondosa. Pinkish yellow or pinkish vinaceous (natural
size). Copyright.

Tremella frondosa Fr.—This is said to be the largest species of the genus.
It grows on rotten wood. It occurs in Europe, has been collected in New
York State, and the Fig. 206 is from a plant (No. 4339, C. U. herbarium)
collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., in September, 1899. The plant figured
here was 10 cm. long and about 8 cm. high. It is very much twisted and
contorted, leaf-like, and the middle and base all united. It is of a pinkish
yellow color, one plant being vinaceous pink and another cream buff in
color. When young the leaf-like lobes do not show well, but as it expands
they become very prominent.

Several other species of Tremella are probably more common than the ones
illustrated here. One of the commonest of the Tremellineæ probably is the
Exidia glandulosa, which in dry weather appears as a black incrustation on

dead limbs, but during rains it swells up into a large, black, very soft,
gelatinous mass. It is commonly found on fallen limbs of oak, and occurs
from autumn until late spring. It is sometimes called "witch's butter."

Figure 207.—Tremella fuciformis. Entirely white (natural size). Copyright.

Tremella fuciformis Berk.—This is a very beautiful white tremella
growing in woods on leaf mold close to the ground. It forms a large white
tubercular mass resting on the ground, from the upper surface of which
numerous stout, short, white processes arise which branch a few times in a
dichotomous manner. The masses are 10–15 cm. in diameter, and nearly or
quite as high. The flesh is very soft, and the parts are more or less hollow.
The basidia are like those of the genus, globose, sunk in the substance of
the plant, and terminate with four long, slender, sterigmata which rise to the
surface and bear the spores. The spores are white, nearly ovoid, but
inequilateral and somewhat reniform, continuous, 7–9 × 5–6 µ.

Figure 207 is from a plant collected in a woods near Ithaca, in August,
1897.

GYROCEPHALUS Pers.

The genus Gyrocephalus differs from the other Tremellineæ in having the
fruiting surface on the lower side of the fruit body, while the upper side is
sterile.

Figure 208.—Gyrocephalus rufus. Reddish or reddish yellow (natural size).
Copyright.

Gyrocephalus rufus (Jacq.) Bref.—This species is sometimes very
abundant. It grows on the ground, generally from buried wood, or from
dead roots. It is erect, stout at the base, and the upper end flattened and
thinner. It is more or less spatulate, the upper side somewhat concave, and

the lower somewhat convex. In some plants the pileus is more regular and
there is then a tendency to the funnel form. It is reddish, or reddish yellow
in color, smooth, clammy, watery, and quite gelatinous. When dry it is very
hard. Figure 208 represents the form of the plant well, from plants collected
at Ithaca. The plant is quite common in the damp glens and woods at Ithaca
during the autumn.

CHAPTER XIII.

THELEPHORACEAE.

Many of the species of the Thelephoraceæ to which the following two
species belong are too tough for food. A large number of these grow on
wood. They are known by their hard or membranaceous character and by
the fruiting surface (under surface when in the position in which they grew)
being smooth, or only slightly uneven, or cracked.

Craterellus cantharellus (Schw.) Fr., is an edible species. In general
appearance it resembles the Cantharellus cibarius. The color is the same,
and the general shape, except that the former is perhaps more irregular in
form. It may, however, be in most cases easily distinguished from C.
cibarius by the absence of folds on the under or fruiting surface, since the
fruiting surface is smooth, especially when the plants are young or middle
age. However, when the plants get quite large and old, in some cases the
fruiting surface becomes very uneven from numerous folds and wrinkles,
which, however, are more irregular than the folds of C. cibarius.

Craterellus cornucopioides (L.) Pers., is another edible species. It grows
on the ground in woods. It is of a dusky or dark smoky color, and is deeply
funnel-shaped, resembling a "horn of plenty," though usually straight. The
fruiting surface is somewhat uneven.

The genus Stereum is a very common one on branches, etc., either entirely
spread out on the wood, or with the margin or a large part of the pileus free.
Hymenochæte is like Stereum, but has numerous small black spines in the
fruiting surface, giving it a velvety appearance. Corticium is very thin and
spread over the wood in patches.

Plate 81, Figure 209.—Lycoperdon cyathiforme (natural size).

CHAPTER XIV.

PUFF-BALLS: LYCOPERDACEAE.

This is not the place for a discussion of the different genera of the puff-
balls, etc., but it might be well to say that in recent years the old genus
Lycoperdon has been divided into several genera. The giant puff-ball, and
the L. cyathiforme, where the wall or peridium ruptures irregularly, have
been placed in a genus called Calvatia; certain other species which are
nearly globose, and in which the wall is of a papery texture at maturity, are
placed in the genus Bovista. There is one genus belonging to the same
family as the lycoperdons, the species of which are very interesting on
account of the peculiar way in which the wall is ruptured. This is the genus
Geaster, that is, "earth star." The wall, or peridium, is quite thick in the
members of this genus, and when it matures it separates into several layers
which need not all be discussed here. A thick outer portion which separates
from a thinner inner portion further splits radially into several star-like
divisions, which spread outward and give to the plant the form of a star.
Since the plants lie on the earth the name earth star was applied to them.
This opens out in dry weather, even curving around under the plant, so that
the plant is raised above the ground. Then in wet weather it closes up again.
The inner portion of the wall opens at the apex in various ways, in the
different species, so that the spores may escape. A closely related genus has

several small perforations like a pepper box in the upper surface of the inner
wall, Myriostoma.

LYCOPERDON Tourn.

To this genus belong most of the "puff-balls," as they are commonly called,
or, as they are denominated in the South, "Devil's snuff box." All, or a large
portion, of the interior of the plant at maturity breaks down into a powdery
substance, which with the numerous spores is very light, and when the plant
is squeezed or pressed, clouds of this dust burst out at the opening through
the wall. The wall of the plant is termed the peridium. In this genus the wall
is quite thin, and at maturity opens differently in different species. In
several species it opens irregularly, the entire wall becoming very brittle and
cracking up into bits, as in the giant puff-ball. In the remaining species it
opens by a distinct perforation at the apex, and the remainder of the wall is
more or less pliant and membranous. All of the puff-balls are said to be
edible, at least are harmless, if eaten when the flesh is white. They should
not be eaten when the flesh is dark, or is changing from the white color.

Lycoperdon giganteum Batsch. Edible.—This, the giant puff-ball, is the
largest species of the genus. Sometimes it reaches immense proportions,
two to three or even four feet, but these large sizes are rare. It is usually 20
to 40 cm. (8–16 in.) in diameter. It grows on the ground in grassy places
during late summer and in the autumn. It is a large rounded mass, resting on
the ground, and near or at the center of the under side, it is attached to the
cords of mycelium in the ground. It is white in color until it is ripe, that is,
when the spores are mature, and it should be gathered for food before it is
thus ripe. When it is maturing it becomes yellowish, then dusky or smoky in
color. The flesh, which is white when young, changes to greenish yellow
and finally brownish, with usually an olivaceous tinge, as the spores ripen.

The plant is so large that it may be sliced, and should be sliced before
broiling. A single specimen often forms enough for a meal for a large
family, and some of the larger ones would serve for several meals.

Lycoperdon cyathiforme Bosc. Edible.—This is called the beaker-shaped
puff-ball because the base of the plant, after the spores have all been
scattered, resembles to some extent a beaker, or a broad cup with a stout,
stem-like base. These old sterile bases of the plant are often found in the
fields long after the spores have disappeared. The plants are somewhat pear-
shaped, rounded above, and tapering below to the stout base. They are 7–15
cm. in diameter, and white when young. At maturity the spore mass is
purplish, and by this color as well as by the sterile base the plant is easily
recognized. Of course these characters cannot be recognized in the young
and growing plant at the time it is wanted for food, but the white color of
the interior of the plant would be a sufficient guarantee that it was edible,
granted of course that it was a member of the puff-ball family. Sometimes,
long before the spores mature, the outer portion of the plant changes from
white to pinkish, or brownish colors. At maturity the wall, or peridium,
breaks into brittle fragments, which disappear and the purplish mass of the
spores is exposed. The plant grows in grassy places or even in cultivated
fields.

Lycoperdon gemmatum Batsch. Edible.—This puff-ball is widely
distributed throughout the world and is very common. It grows in the
woods, or in open places on the ground, usually. It is known from its
characteristic top shape, the more or less erect scales on the upper surface
intermingled with smaller ones, the larger ones falling away and leaving
circular scars over the surface, which gives it a reticulate appearance. The
plants are white, becoming dark gray or grayish brown when mature. They
vary in size from 3–7 cm. high to 2–5 cm. broad. They are more or less top-
shaped, and the stem, which is stout, is sometimes longer than the rounded

portion, which is the fruiting part. The outer part of the wall (outer
peridium) when quite young separates into warts or scales of varying size,
large ones arranged quite regularly with smaller ones between. These warts
are well shown in the two plants at the left in Fig. 210, and the third plant
from the left shows the reticulations formed of numerous scars on the inner
peridium where the larger scales have fallen away.

Figure 210.—Lycoperdon gemmatum. Entirely white except when old (natural
size). Copyright.

The plant at the extreme right is mature, and the inner peridium has
ruptured at the apex to permit the escape of the spores. The spore mass,
together with brownish threads which are intermingled, are greenish yellow
with an olive tinge, then they become pale brown. The spores are rounded,
3.5–4.5 µ in diameter, smooth or minutely warted.

Another small puff-ball everywhere common in woods is the Lycoperdon
pyriforme, so called because of its pear shape. It grows on very rotten wood
or on decaying logs in woods or groves, or in open places where there is
rotting wood. It is somewhat smaller than the gem-bearing lycoperdon, is
almost sessile, sometimes many crowded very close together, and especially
is it characterized by prominent root-like white strands of mycelium which
are attached to the base where the plant enters the rotten wood. While these
small species of puff-balls are not injurious to eat, they do not seem to

possess an agreeable flavor. There are quite a number of species in this
country which cannot be enumerated here.

Related to the puff-balls, and properly classed with them, are the species of
Scleroderma. This name is given to the genus because of the hard peridium,
the wall being much firmer and harder than in Lycoperdon. There are two
species which are not uncommon, Scleroderma vulgare and S. verrucosum.
They grow on the ground or on very rotten wood, and are sessile, often
showing the root-like white strands attached to their base. They vary in size
from 2–6 cm. and the outer wall is cracked into numerous coarse areas, or
warts, giving the plant a verrucose appearance, from which one of the
species gets its specific name.

Calostoma cinnabarinum Desv.—This is a remarkably beautiful plant
with a general distribution in the Eastern United States. It has often been
referred to in this country under the genus name Mitremyces, and
sometimes has been confused with a rarer and different species, Calostoma
lutescens (Schw.) Burnap. It grows in damp woods, usually along the banks
of streams and along mountain roads. It is remarkable for the brilliant
vermilion color of the inner surface of the outer layer of the wall
(exoperidium), which is exposed by splitting into radial strips that curl and
twist themselves off, and by the vermilion color of the edges of the teeth at
the apex of the inner wall (endoperidium). The plant is 2–8 cm. high, and
1–2 cm. in diameter. When mature the base or stem, which is formed of
reticulated and anastomosing cords, elongates and lifts the rounded or oval
fruiting portion to some distance above the surface of the ground, when the
gelatinous volva ruptures and falls to the ground or partly clings to the
stem, exposing the peridium, the outer portion of which then splits in the
manner described.

When the plant is first seen above the ground it appears as a globose or
rounded body, and in wet weather has a very thick gelatinous layer
surrounding it. This is the volva and is formed by the gelatinization of the
outer layer of threads which compose it. This gelatinous layer is thick and
also viscid, and when the plants are placed on paper to dry, it glues them
firmly to the sheet. When the outer layer of the peridium splits, it does so by
splitting from the base toward the apex, or from the apex toward the base.
Of the large number of specimens which I have seen at Blowing Rock, N.
C., the split more often begins at the apex, or at least, when the slit is
complete, the strips usually stand out loosely in a radiate manner, the tips
being free. At this stage the plant is a very beautiful object with the crown
of vermilion strips radiating outward from the base of the fruit body at the
top of the stem, and the inner peridium resting in the center and terminated
by the four to seven teeth with vermilion edges. At this time also the light
yellow spore mass is oozing out from between the teeth. The spores are
oblong to elliptical, marked with very fine points, and measure 15–18 × 8–
10 µ.

Plate 82, Figure 211.—Calostoma cinnabarinum. See text for colors (natural
size).

Figure 211 is from plants collected at Blowing Rock, N. C., in September,
1899. The Mytremyces lutescens reported in my list of "Some Fungi of
Blowing Rock, N. C.," in Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 9: 95–107, 1892, is
this Calostoma cinnabarinum.

CHAPTER XV.

THE STINK-HORN FUNGI: PHALLOIDEAE Fries.

Most of the stink-horn fungi are characterized by a very offensive odor.
Some of them at maturity are in shape not unlike that of a horn, and the
vulgar name is applied because of this form and the odor. The plants grow
in the ground, or in decaying organic matter lying on the ground. The
spawn or mycelium is in the form of rope-like strands which are usually
much branched and matted together. From these cords the fruit form arises.
During its period of growth and up to the maturity of the spores, the fruit
body is oval, that is, egg form, and because of this form and the quite large
size of these bodies they are often called "eggs." The outer portion of the
egg forms the volva. It is always thick, and has an outer thin coat or
membrane, and an inner membrane, while between the two is a thick layer
of gelatinous substance, so that the wall of the volva is often 3–6 mm. in
thickness, and is very soft. The outline of the volva can be seen in Fig. 215,
which shows sections of three eggs in different stages. Inside of the volva is
the short stem (receptacle) which is in the middle portion, and covering the
upper portion and sides of this short stem is the pileus; the fruit-bearing
portion, which is divided into small chambers, lies on the outside of the
pileus. In the figure there can be seen cross lines extending through this part
from the pileus to the wall of the volva. These represent ridges or crests
which anastomose over the pileus, forming reticulations. The stem or

receptacle is hollow through the center, and this hollow opens out at the end
so that there is a rounded perforation through the upper portion of the
pileus.

The spores are borne on club-shaped basidia within the chambers of the
fruit-bearing portion (gleba), and at maturity of the spores the stem or
receptacle begins to elongate. This pushes the gleba and the upper part of
the receptacle through the apex of the volva, leaving this as a cup-shaped
body at the base, much as in certain species of Amanita, while the gleba is
borne aloft on the much elongated stem. During this elongation of the
receptacle a large part of the substance of the gleba dissolves into a thick
liquid containing the spores. This runs off and is washed off by the rains,
leaving the inner surface of the gleba exposed, and showing certain
characters peculiar to the various genera.

Among the stink-horns are a number of genera which are very interesting
from the peculiarities of development; and some of which are very beautiful
and curious objects, although they do possess offensive odors. In some of
the genera, the upper part of the plant expands into leaf-like—or petal-like,
bodies, which are highly colored and resemble flowers. They are sometimes
called "fungus flowers."

DICTYOPHORA Desvaux.

Dictyophora means "net bearer," and as one can see from Fig. 212 it is not
an inappropriate name. The stem or receptacle, as one can see from the
illustrations of the two species treated of here, possesses a very coarse
mesh, so that not only the surface but the substance within is reticulated,
pitted and irregularly perforated. In the genus Dictyophora an outer layer of
the receptacle or stem is separated as it elongates, breaks away from the

lower part of the stem, is carried aloft, and hangs as a beautiful veil. This
veil is very conspicuous in some species and less so in others.

Dictyophora duplicata (Bosc.) Ed. Fischer.—This species is illustrated in
Fig. 212, made from plants collected at Ithaca. The plants are from 15–22
cm. high, the cap about 5 cm. in diameter, and the stem 2–3 cm. in
thickness. According to Burt (Bot. Gaz. 22: 387, 1896) it is a common
species in the Eastern United States. The cap is more or less bell-shaped and
the sculptured surface is marked in a beautiful manner with the
reticulations.

Plate 83, Figure 212.—Dictyophora duplicata. White (natural size). Copyright.

Plate 84, Figure 213.—Dictyophora ravenelii. Mature plants showing volva at
base; elongated receptacle, cap at the top, and veil surrounding the receptacle
under the cap (natural size). Copyright.

Figure 214.—Dictyophora ravenelii. Egg stage, caps just bursting through the
volva (natural size). Copyright.

Figure 215.—Dictyophora ravenelii. Sections of eggs, and showing cords of
mycelium (natural size). Copyright.

Dictyophora ravenelii (B. & C.) Burt.—This plant also has a wide
distribution in the Eastern United States. The stem is more slender than in
the other species, D. duplicata, the pileus more nearly conic, and the
surface of the pileus is merely granular or minutely wrinkled after the
disappearance of the gleba, and does not present the strong reticulating
ridges and crests which that species shows. The plants are from 10 to 18
cm. high. It grows in woods and fields about rotting wood, and in sawdust.
The veil is very thin and delicate, forming simply a membrane, and does not
possess the coarse meshes present in the veil of D. duplicata. The Figs. 214,
215 represent the different stages in the elongation of the receptacle of this
plant, and the rupture of the volva. This elongation takes place quite rapidly.
While photographing the plant as it was bursting through the volva, I had
considerable difficulty in getting a picture, since the stem elongated so
rapidly that the plant would show that it had moved perceptibly, and the
picture would be blurred.

In a woods near Ithaca a large number of these plants have appeared from
year to year in a pile of sawdust. One of the most vile smelling plants of this
family is the Ithyphallus impudicus.

CHAPTER XVI.

MORELS, CUP-FUNGI, HELVELLAS, ETC.:
DISCOMYCETES.

The remaining fungi to be considered belong to a very different group of
plants than do the mushrooms, puff-balls, etc. Nevertheless, because of the
size of several of the species and the fact that several of them are excellent
for food, some attention will be given to a few. The entire group is
sometimes spoken of as Discomycetes or cup-fungi, because many of the
plants belonging here are shaped something like a disk, or like a cup. The
principal way in which they differ from the mushrooms, the puff-balls, etc.,
is found in the manner in which the spores are borne. In the mushrooms,
etc., the spores, we recollect, are borne on the end of a club-shaped body,
usually four spores on one of these. In this group, however, the spores are
borne inside of club-shaped bodies, called sacs or asci (singular, ascus).
These sacs, or asci, are grouped together, lying side by side, forming the
fruiting surface or hymenium, much as the basidia form the fruiting surface
in the mushrooms. In the case of the cup or disk forms, the upper side of the
disk, or the upper and inner surface of the cap, is covered with these sacs,
standing side by side, so that the free ends of the sacs form the outer
surface. In the case of the morel the entire outer surface of the upper portion
of the plant, that where there are so many pits, is covered with similar sacs.
Since so few of the genera and species of the morels and cup-fungi will be

treated of here, I shall not attempt to compare the genera or even to give the
characters by which the genera are known. In most cases the illustrations
will serve this purpose so far as it is desirable to accomplish it in such a
work as the present. Certain of the species will then be described and
illustrated.

Plate 85, Figure 216.—Morchella esculenta (natural size). Copyright.

MORCHELLA Dill.

The morels are all edible and they are usually easy to recognize. The plant
consists of two distinct, prominent parts, the cap and the stem. The cap

varies in form from rounded, ovate, conic or cylindrical, or bell-shaped, but
it is always marked by rather broad pits, covering the entire outer surface,
which are separated from each other by ridges forming a network. The color
of the plants does not differ to any perceptible extent in our species. The
cap is usually buff or light ochre yellow, becoming darker with age and in
drying.

The stem in all our species is usually quite stout, though it varies to some
extent in some of the different species, in proportion to the thickness of the
cap. The stem is marked in some of the species by large wrinkles or folds
extending irregularly but with considerable uniformity over the surface. The
surface is further minutely roughened by whitish or grayish elevations,
giving it a granular appearance. Sometimes these granules are quite evenly
distributed over the surface, and in some species they are more or less
separated into small areas by narrow lines.

The morels appear early in the season, during May and June. They grow
usually in damp situations, and are more abundant during rainy weather.
Three species are illustrated here.

Morchella esculenta Pers. Edible.—The name of this species, the esculent
morel, indicates that it has been long known as an edible plant, especially
since the man who named it lived a century ago. The plant is from 5–15 cm.
high, the stem is 1–3 cm. in thickness, and the cap is broader than the stem.
The cap is somewhat longer than broad, and is more or less oval or rounded
in outline. The arrangement of the pits on the surface of the cap is regarded
by some as being characteristic of certain species. In this species the pits are
irregularly arranged, so that they do not form rows, and so that the ridges
separating them do not run longitudinally from the base toward the apex of
the cap, but run quite irregularly. This arrangement can be seen in Fig. 216,
which is from a photograph of this species. The stem is hollow.

Morchella conica Pers. Edible.—This species is very closely related to the
preceding one, and is considered by some to be only a form of the
Morchella esculenta. The size is about the same, the only difference being
in the somewhat longer cap and especially in the arrangement of the pits.
These are arranged more or less in distinct rows, so that the ridges
separating them run longitudinally and parallel from the base of the cap to
the apex, with connecting ridges extending across between the pits. The cap
is also more or less conic, but not necessarily so. Figure 217 illustrates this
species. The plant shown here is branched, and this should not be taken to
be a character of the species, for it is not, this form being rather rare.

Figure 217.—Morchella conica (natural size). Copyright.

Plate 86, Figure 218.—Morchella crassipes (natural size). Copyright.

Morchella crassipes (Vent.) Pers. Edible.—This species differs from the
two preceding in the fact that the stem is nearly equal in width with the cap.
Figure 218 illustrates a handsome specimen which was 17 cm. high. The
granular surface and the folds of the stem show very distinctly and
beautifully. Collected at Ithaca.

Morchella deliciosa Fr. Edible, has the cap cylindrical or nearly so. It is
longer than the stem, and is usually two or three times as long as it is broad.
The plant is smaller than the preceding, though large ones may equal in size
small ones of those two. The plant is from 4–8 cm. high.

Morchella semilibera DC., and M. bispora Sor., [Verpa bohemica
(Kromb.) Schroet.] occur in this country, and are interesting from the fact
that the cap is bell-shaped, the lower margin being free from the stem. In
the latter species there are only two spores in an ascus.

HELVELLA L.

The helvellas are pretty and attractive plants. They are smaller than the
morels, usually. They have a cap and stem, the cap being very irregular in
shape, often somewhat lobed or saddle-shaped. It is smooth, or nearly so, at
least it is not marked by the large pits present in the cap of the morel, and
this is one of the principal distinguishing features of the helvellas as
compared with the morels. In one species the thin cap has its lower margin
free from the stem. This is Helvella crispa Fr., and it has a white or whitish
cap, and a deeply furrowed stem. It occurs in woods during the summer and
autumn, and is known as the white helvella.

Figure 219.—Helvella lacunosa (natural size). Copyright.

Another species which has a wide range is the Helvella lacunosa, so called
because of the deep longitudinal grooves in the stem. The cap is thin, but
differs from the H. crispa in that the lower margin is connected with the
stem. This species is illustrated in Fig. 219 from plants collected at Blowing
Rock, N. C., during September, 1899.

The genus Gyromitra is very closely related to Helvella, and is only
distinguished by the fact that the cap is marked by prominent folds and
convolutions, resembling somewhat the convolutions of the brain. Its name
means convoluted cap. The Gyromitra esculenta Fr., is from 5–10 cm.

high, and the cap from 5–7 cm. broad. While this species has long been
reported as an edible one, and has been employed in many instances as food
with no evil results, there are known cases where it has acted as a poison. In
many cases where poisoning has resulted the plants were quite old and
probably in the incipient stages of decay. However, it is claimed that a
poisonous principle, called helvellic acid, has been isolated by a certain
chemist, which acts as a violent poison. This principle is very soluble in hot
water, and when care is used to drain off first water in which they have been
cooked, squeezing the water well from the plants, they are pronounced
harmless. The safer way would be to avoid such suspicious species.

Figure 220.—Spathularia velutipes (natural size). Copyright.

Spathularia velutipes Cooke & Farlow.—This species represents another
interesting genus of the Discomycetes. It is in the form of a "spatula," and
from this shape of the plant the genus takes its name. There are several
species known in this country, and this one is quite common. The stem
extends the entire length of the plant, running right through the cap, or
perhaps it would be better to say that the cap or fruiting portion forms two
narrow blades or wings on opposite sides of the upper part of the stem.
These wing-like expansions of the cap on the opposite sides of the stem
give the spathulate form to the plant. Figure 220 is from plants collected in
the woods near Ithaca.

Figure 221.—Leotia lubrica (natural size). Copyright.

Leotia lubrica Pers.—The genus Leotia is quite readily recognized by its
form, and because the plants are usually slimy. This species is called lubrica
because of the slippery character of the entire plant. It is dull yellowish or
olive yellow in color. The cap, as can be seen from the figure (221), is
irregularly rounded, and broader than the stem. The plant is illustrated
natural size from specimens collected near Ithaca.

THE TRUE CUP-FUNGI.

By far the larger number of the Discomycetes are cup-shaped, and are
popularly called "cup-fungi." They vary from plants of very minute size, so
small that they can be just seen with the eye, or some of the larger ones are
several inches in breadth. They grow on the ground, on leaves, wood, etc.
The variety of form and color is great. They may be sessile, that is, the cup
rests immediately on the ground or wood, or leaves, or they may possess a
short, or rather long stalk. The only species illustrated here has a
comparatively long stalk, and the cap is deep cup-shaped, almost like a
beaker. This plant is technically known as Sarcoscypha floccosa. It is
represented here natural size (Fig. 222). The stem is slender, and the rim of
the cup is beset with long, strigose hairs. The inner surface of the cup is
lined with the sacs (asci) and sterile threads (paraphyses), spoken of on a
former page, when treating of the fruiting character of the morels and cup-
fungi. In this plant the color of the inside of the cup is very beautiful, being
a bright red. Another species, Sarcoscypha coccinea, the scarlet
sarcoscypha, is a larger plant which appears in very early spring, soon after
the frost is out of the ground. It grows on rotting logs and wood in the
woods or in groves. The inside of the cup in this species is a rich scarlet,
and from this rich color the species takes its name.

Figure 222.—Sarcoscypha floccosa (natural size). Copyright.

CHAPTER XVII.

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION OF THE FLESHY
FUNGI.

In the collection of the higher fungi it is of the utmost importance that
certain precautions be employed in obtaining all parts of the plant, and
furthermore that care be exercised in handling, in order not to remove or
efface delicate characters. Not only is it important for the beginner, but in
many instances an "expert" may not be able to determine a specimen which
may have lost what undoubtedly seem, to some, trivial marks. The
suggestions given here should enable one to collect specimens in such a
way as to protect these characters while fresh, to make notes of the
important evanescent characters and to dry and preserve them properly for
future study. For collecting a number of specimens under a variety of
conditions the following list of "apparatus" is recommended:

One or two oblong or rectangular hand baskets, capacity from 8–12 quarts.

Or a rectangular zinc case with a closely fitting top (not the ordinary
botanical collecting case).

Half a dozen or so tall pasteboard boxes, or tins, 3 × 3, or 4 × 4, × 5 inches
deep, to hold certain species in an upright position.

A quantity of tissue paper cut 8 × 10 or 6 × 8 inches.

Smaller quantity of waxed tissue paper for wrapping viscid or sticky plants.

Trowel; a stout knife; memorandum pad and pencil.

Collecting.—During the proper season, and when rains are abundant, the
mushrooms are to be found in open fields, waste places, groves and woods.
They are usually more abundant in the forests. Especially in dry weather are
specimens more numerous in rather damp woods, along ravines or streams.
In collecting specimens which grow on the ground the trowel should be
used to dig up the plant carefully, to be sure that no important part of the
plant is left in the ground. After one has become familiar with the habit of
the different kinds the trowel will not be necessary in all cases. For
example, most species of Russula, Lactarius, Tricholoma, Boletus, etc., are
not deeply seated in the soil, and careful hand-picking will in most cases
secure specimens properly, especially if one does not object to digging in
the soil with the fingers. But in the case of most species of Amanita, certain
species of Lepiota, Collybia, etc., a trowel is necessary to get up the base of
the plant in such a way as to preserve essential characters. Even then it is
possible, if the ground is not too hard, to dig them out with the fingers, or
with a stout knife, but I have often found specimens which could only be
taken up with a trowel or spade.

Species growing on sticks or leaves are easily collected by taking a portion
of the substratum on which they grow. Specimens on the larger limbs or
trunks or stumps can sometimes be "picked," but until one is accustomed to
certain individualities of the plant it is well to employ the knife and to cut
off a portion of the wood if necessary, to avoid cutting off the base of the
stem.