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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Liquid Gases" to "Logar"

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THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND
GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XVI SLICE VII

Liquid Gases to Logar

Articles in This Slice

LIQUID GASES LLANWRTYD WELLS
LIQUORICE LLEWELYN
LIQUOR LAWS LLORENTE, JUAN ANTONIO
LIRA LLOYD, EDWARD
LIRI LLOYD, WILLIAM
LIROCONITE LLOYD, WILLIAM WATKISS
LISBON LLOYD GEORGE, DAVID
LISBURN LLOYD’S
LISIEUX LLWYD, EDWARD
LISKEARD LOACH
LISLE, ALICE LOAD; LODE
LISMORE (Scottish island) LOAF
LISMORE (Australian town) LOAM
LISMORE (Irish town) LOAN
LISSA (Austrian island) LOANDA
LISSA (Prussian town) LOANGO
LIST, FRIEDRICH LOBACHEVSKIY, NICOLAS IVANOVICH
LIST LOBANOV-ROSTOVSKI, ALEXIS BORISOVICH

LISTA Y ARAGON, ALBERTO LÖBAU
LISTER, JOSEPH LISTER LOBBY
LISTER, MARTIN LOBBYING
LISTON, JOHN LOBE
LISTON, ROBERT LOBECK, CHRISTIAN AUGUST
LISZT, FRANZ LOBEIRA, JOÃO
LITANY LOBELIA
LITCHFIELD (Connecticut, U.S.A.) LOBENSTEIN
LITCHFIELD (Illinois, U.S.A.) LOBO, FRANCISCO RODRIGUES
LITCHI LOBO, JERONIMO
LITERATURE LOBSTER
LITERNUM LOCAL GOVERNMENT
LITHGOW, WILLIAM LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD
LITHGOW LOCARNO
LITHIUM LOCH, HENRY BROUGHAM LOCH
LITHOGRAPHY LOCHABER
LITHOSPHERE LOCHES
LITHUANIANS and LETTS LOCHGELLY
LITMUS LOCHGILPHEAD
LITOPTERNA LOCHMABEN
LITOTES LOCK, MATTHIAS
LITTER LOCK
LITTLE FALLS (Minnesota, U.S.A.) LOCKE, JOHN
LITTLE FALLS (New York, U.S.A.) LOCKE, MATTHEW
LITTLEHAMPTON LOCKERBIE
LITTLE ROCK LOCKER-LAMPSON, FREDERICK
LITTLETON, EDWARD LOCKHART, GEORGE
LITTLETON, SIR THOMAS DE LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON
LITTRÉ, MAXIMILIEN PAUL ÉMILE LOCKHART, SIR WILLIAM STEPHEN ALEXANDER
LITURGY LOCK HAVEN
LITUUS LOCKPORT (Illinois, U.S.A.)
LIUDPRAND LOCKPORT (New York, U.S.A.)
LIVE OAK LOCKROY, ÉDOUARD
LIVER LOCKWOOD, SIR FRANK
LIVERMORE, MARY ASHTON [RICE] LOCKWOOD, WILTON
LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF LOCKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN
LIVERPOOL LOCLE, LE
LIVERSEDGE LOCMARIAQUER
LIVERY LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA
LIVERY COMPANIES LOCO-WEEDS
LIVIA DRUSILLA LOCRI (people of ancient Greece)

LIVINGSTON, EDWARD LOCRI (Italian city)
LIVINGSTON, ROBERT R. LÖCSE
LIVINGSTON, WILLIAM LOCUS
LIVINGSTONE, DAVID LOCUST
LIVINGSTONE MOUNTAINS LOCUST-TREE
LIVIUS ANDRONĪCUS LODÈVE
LIVNO LODGE, EDMUND
LIVONIA LODGE, HENRY CABOT
LIVY LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH
LIZARD LODGE, THOMAS
LIZARD POINT LODGE
LJUNGGREN, GUSTAF HÅKAN JORDAN LODGER AND LODGINGS
LLAMA LODI
LLANBERIS LODZ
LLANDAFF LOESS
LLANDEILO GROUP LOFFT, CAPEL
LLANDILO LOFOTEN AND VESTERAALEN
LLANDOVERY LOFT
LLANDOVERY GROUP LOFTUS, ADAM
LLANDRINDOD LOG
LLANDUDNO LOGAN, JOHN (American Indian chief)
LLANELLY LOGAN, JOHN (Scottish poet)
LLANES LOGAN, JOHN ALEXANDER
LLANGOLLEN LOGAN, SIR WILLIAM EDMOND
LLANQUIHUE LOGAN (Utah, U.S.A.)
LLANTRISANT LOGANSPORT
LLANTWIT MAJOR LOGAR

LIQUID GASES.1 Though Lavoisier remarked that if the earth were removed to very
cold regions of space, such as those of Jupiter or Saturn, its atmosphere, or at least a portion of its
aeriform constituents, would return to the state of liquid (Œuvres, ii. 805), the history of the
liquefaction of gases may be said to begin with the observation made by John Dalton in his essay
“On the Force of Steam or Vapour from Water and various other Liquids” (1801): “There can
scarcely be a doubt entertained respecting the reducibility of all elastic fluids of whatever kind

into liquids; and we ought not to despair of effecting it in low temperatures and by strong
pressures exerted on the unmixed gases.” It was not, however, till 1823 that the question was
investigated by systematic experiment. In that year Faraday, at the suggestion of Sir Humphry
Davy, exposed hydrate of chlorine to heat under pressure in the laboratories of the Royal
Institution. He placed the substance at the end of one arm of a bent glass tube, which was then
hermetically sealed, and decomposing it by heating to 100° F., he saw a yellow liquid distil to the
end of the other arm. This liquid he surmised to be chlorine separated from the water by the heat
and “condensed into a dry fluid by the mere pressure of its own abundant vapour,” and he
verified his surmise by compressing chlorine gas, freed from water by exposure to sulphuric acid,
to a pressure of about four atmospheres, when the same yellow fluid was produced (Phil. Trans.,
1823, 113, pp. 160-165). He proceeded to experiment with a number of other gases subjected in
sealed tubes to the pressure caused by their own continuous production by chemical action, and
in the course of a few weeks liquefied sulphurous acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid,
euchlorine, nitrous acid, cyanogen, ammonia and muriatic acid, the last of which, however, had
previously been obtained by Davy. But he failed with hydrogen, oxygen, fluoboric, fluosilicic
and phosphuretted hydrogen gases (Phil. Trans., ib. pp. 189-198). Early in the following year he
published an “Historical statement respecting the liquefaction of gases” (Quart. Journ. Sci.,
1824, 16, pp. 229-240), in which he detailed several recorded cases in which previous
experimenters had reduced certain gases to their liquid state.

In 1835 Thilorier, by acting on bicarbonate of soda with sulphuric acid in a closed vessel and
evacuating the gas thus obtained under pressure into a second vessel, was able to accumulate
large quantities of liquid carbonic acid, and found that when the liquid was suddenly ejected into
the air a portion of it was solidified into a snow-like substance (Ann. chim. phys., 1835, 60, pp.
427-432). Four years later J. K. Mitchell in America, by mixing this snow with ether and
exhausting it under an air pump, attained a minimum temperature of 146° below zero F., by the
aid of which he froze sulphurous acid gas to a solid.

Stimulated by Thilorier’s results and by considerations arising out of the work of J. C.
Cagniard de la Tour (Ann. chim. phys., 1822, 21, pp. 127 and 178, and 1823, 22, p. 410), which
appeared to him to indicate that gases would pass by some simple law into the liquid state,
Faraday returned to the subject about 1844, in the “hope of seeing nitrogen, oxygen and
hydrogen either as liquid or solid bodies, and the latter probably as a metal” (Phil. Trans., 1845,
135, pp. 155-157). On the basis of Cagniard de la Tour’s observation that at a certain temperature
a liquid under sufficient pressure becomes a vapour or gas having the same bulk as the liquid, he
inferred that “at this temperature or one a little higher, it is not likely that any increase of
pressure, except perhaps one exceedingly great, would convert the gas into a liquid.” He further
surmised that the Cagniard de la Tour condition might have its point of temperature for oxygen,
nitrogen, hydrogen, &c., below that belonging to the bath of solid carbonic acid and ether, and he
realized that in that case no pressure which any apparatus would be able to bear would be able to

bring those gases into the liquid or solid state, which would require a still greater degree of cold.
To fulfil this condition he immersed the tubes containing his gases in a bath of solid carbonic
acid and ether, the temperature of which was reduced by exhaustion under the air pump to −166°
F., or a little lower, and at the same time he subjected the gases to pressures up to 50 atmospheres
by the use of two pumps working in series. In this way he added six substances, usually gaseous,
to the list of those that could be obtained in the liquid state, and reduced seven, including
ammonia, nitrous oxide and sulphuretted hydrogen, into the solid form, at the same time
effecting a number of valuable determinations of vapour tensions. But he failed to condense
oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, the original objects of his pursuit, though he found reason to
think that “further diminution of temperature and improved apparatus for pressure may very well
be expected to give us these bodies in the liquid or solid state.” His surmise that increased
pressure alone would not suffice to bring about change of state in these gases was confirmed by
subsequent investigators, such as M. P. E. Berthelot, who in 1850 compressed oxygen to 780
atmospheres (Ann. chim. phys., 1850, 30, p. 237), and Natterer, who a few years later subjected
the permanent gases to a pressure of 2790 atmospheres, without result; and in 1869 Thomas
Andrews (Phil. Trans., 11) by his researches on carbonic acid finally established the conception
of the “critical temperature” as that temperature, differing for different bodies, above which no
gas can be made to assume the liquid state, no matter what pressure it be subjected to (see
Condensation of Gases).

About 1877 the problem of liquefying the permanent gases was taken up by L. P. Cailletet and
R. P. Pictet, working almost simultaneously though independently. The former relied on the cold
produced by the sudden expansion of the gases at high compression. By means of a specially
designed pump he compressed about 100 cc. of oxygen in a narrow glass tube to about 200
atmospheres, at the same time cooling it to about −29° C., and on suddenly releasing the pressure
he saw momentarily in the interior of the tube a mist (brouillard), from which he inferred the
presence of a vapour very near its point of liquefaction. A few days later he repeated the
experiment with hydrogen, using a pressure of nearly 300 atmospheres, and observed in his tube
an exceedingly fine and subtle fog which vanished almost instantaneously. At the time when
these experiments were carried out it was generally accepted that the mist or fog consisted of
minute drops of the liquefied gases. Even had this been the case, the problem would not have
been completely solved, for Cailletet was unable to collect the drops in the form of a true stable
liquid, and at the best obtained a “dynamic” not a “static” liquid, the gas being reduced to a form
that bears the same relation to a true liquid that the partially condensed steam issuing from the
funnel of a locomotive bears to water standing in a tumbler. But subsequent knowledge showed
that even this proximate liquefaction could not have taken place, and that the fog could not have
consisted of drops of liquid hydrogen, because the cooling produced by the adiabatic expansion
would give a temperature of only 44° abs., which is certainly above the critical temperature of
hydrogen. Pictet again announced that on opening the tap of a vessel containing hydrogen at a

pressure of 650 atmospheres and cooled by the cascade method (see Condensation of Gases) to
−140° C., he saw issuing from the orifice an opaque jet which he assumed to consist of hydrogen
in the liquid form or in the liquid and solid forms mixed. But he was no more successful than
Cailletet in collecting any of the liquid, which—whatever else it may have been, whether
ordinary air or impurities associated with the hydrogen—cannot have been hydrogen because the
means he employed were insufficient to reduce the gas to what has subsequently been ascertained
to be its critical point, below which of course liquefaction is impossible. It need scarcely be
added that if the liquefaction of hydrogen be rejected a fortiori Pictet’s claim to have effected its
solidification falls to the ground.

After Cailletet and Pictet, the next important names in the history of the liquefaction of gases
are those of Z. F. Wroblewski and K. S. Olszewski, who for some years worked together at
Cracow. In April 1883 the former announced to the French Academy that he had obtained oxygen
in a completely liquid state and (a few days later) that nitrogen at a temperature of −136° C.,
reduced suddenly from a pressure of 150 atmospheres to one of 50, had been seen as a liquid
which showed a true meniscus, but disappeared in a few seconds. But with hydrogen treated in
the same way he failed to obtain even the mist reported by Cailletet. At the beginning of 1884 he
performed a more satisfactory experiment. Cooling hydrogen in a capillary glass tube to the
temperature of liquid oxygen, he expanded it quickly from 100 atmospheres to one, and obtained
the appearance of an instantaneous ebullition. Olszewski confirmed this result by expanding from
a pressure of 190 atmospheres the gas cooled by liquid oxygen and nitrogen boiling under
reduced pressure, and even announced that he saw it running down the walls of the tube as a
colourless liquid.

Wroblewski, however, was unable to observe this phenomenon, and Olszewski himself, when
seven years later he repeated the experiment in the more favourable conditions afforded by a
larger apparatus, was unable to produce again the colourless drops he had previously reported:
the phenomenon of the appearance of sudden ebullition indeed lasted longer, but he failed to
perceive any meniscus such as would have been a certain indication of the presence of a true
liquid. Still, though neither of these investigators succeeded in reaching the goal at which they
aimed, their work was of great value in elucidating the conditions of the problem and in
perfecting the details of the apparatus employed. Wroblewski in particular devoted the closing
years of his life to a most valuable investigation of the isothermals of hydrogen at low
temperatures. From the data thus obtained he constructed a van der Waals equation which
enabled him to calculate the critical temperature, pressure and density of hydrogen with very
much greater certainty than had previously been possible. Liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen and
liquid air—the last was first made by Wroblewski in 1885—became something more than mere
curiosities of the laboratory, and by the year 1891 were produced in such quantities as to be
available for the purposes of scientific research. Still, nothing was added to the general principles
upon which the work of Cailletet and Pictet was based, and the “cascade” method, together with

adiabatic expansion from high compression (see Condensation of Gases), remained the only
means of procedure at the disposal of experimenters in this branch of physics.

In some quarters a certain amount of doubt appears to have arisen as to the sufficiency of these
methods for the liquefaction of hydrogen. Olszewski, for example, in 1895 pointed out that the
succession of less and less condensible gases necessary for the cascade method breaks down
between nitrogen and hydrogen, and he gave as a reason for hydrogen not having been reduced to
the condition of a static liquid the non-existence of a gas intermediate in volatility between those
two. By 1894 attempts had been made in the Royal Institution laboratories to manufacture an
artificial gas of this nature by adding a small proportion of air to the hydrogen, so as to get a
mixture with a critical point of about −200° C. When such a mixture was cooled to that
temperature and expanded from a high degree of compression into a vacuum vessel, the result
was a white mass of solid air together with a clear liquid of very low density. This was in all
probability hydrogen in the true liquid state, but it was not found possible to collect it owing to
its extreme volatility. Whether this artificial gas might ultimately have enabled liquid hydrogen to
be collected in open vessels we cannot say, for experiments with it were abandoned in favour of
other measures, which led finally to a more assured success.

Vacuum Vessels.—The problem involved in the liquefaction of hydrogen was in reality a
double one. In the first place, the gas had to be cooled to such a temperature that the change to
the liquid state was rendered possible. In the second, means had to be discovered for protecting
it, when so cooled, from the influx of external heat, and since the rate at which heat is transferred
from one body to another increases very rapidly with the difference between their temperatures,
the question of efficient heat insulation became at once more difficult and more urgent in
proportion to the degree of cold attained. The second part of the problem was in fact solved first.
Of course packing with non-conducting materials was an obvious expedient when it was not
necessary that the contents of the apparatus should be visible to the eye, but in the numerous
instances when this was not the case such measures were out of the question. Attempts were
made to secure the desired end by surrounding the vessel that contained the cooled or liquid gas
with a succession of other vessels, through which was conducted the vapour given off from the
interior one. Such devices involved awkward complications in the arrangement of the apparatus,
and besides were not as a rule very efficient, although some workers, e.g. Dr Kamerlingh Onnes,
of Leiden, reported some success with their use. In 1892 it occurred to Dewar that the principle
of an arrangement he had used nearly twenty years before for some calorimetric experiments on
the physical constants of hydrogenium, which was a natural deduction from the work of Dulong
and Petit on radiation, might be employed with advantage as well to protect cold substances from
heat as hot ones from cold. He therefore tried the effect of surrounding his liquefied gas with a
highly exhausted space. The result was entirely successful. Experiment showed that liquid air
contained in a glass vessel with two walls, the space between which was a high vacuum,
evaporated at only one fifth the rate it did when in an ordinary vessel surrounded with air at

atmospheric pressure, the convective transference of heat by means of the gas particles being
enormously reduced owing to the vacuum. But in addition these vessels lent themselves to an
arrangement by which radiant heat could still further be cut off, since it was found that when the
inner wall was coated with a bright deposit of silver, the influx of heat was diminished to one-
sixth of the amount existing without the metallic coating. The total effect, therefore, of the high
vacuum and silvering is to reduce the in-going heat to one-thirtieth part. In making such vessels a
mercurial vacuum has been found very satisfactory. The vessel in which the vacuum is to be
produced is provided with a small subsidiary vessel joined by a narrow tube with the main vessel,
and connected with a powerful air-pump. A quantity of mercury having been placed in it, it is
heated in an oil- or air-bath to about 200° C., so as to volatilize the mercury, the vapour of which
is removed by the pump. After the process has gone on for some time, the pipe leading to the
pump is sealed off, the vessel immediately removed from the bath, and the small subsidiary part
immersed in some cooling agent such as solid carbonic acid or liquid air, whereby the mercury
vapour is condensed in the small vessel and a vacuum of enormous tenuity left in the large one.
The final step is to seal off the tube connecting the two. In this way a vacuum may be produced
having a vapour pressure of about the hundred-millionth of an atmosphere at 0° C. If, however,
some liquid mercury be left in the space in which the vacuum is produced, and the containing
part of the vessel be filled with liquid air, the bright mirror of mercury which is deposited on the
inside wall of the bulb is still more effective than silver in protecting the chamber from the influx
of heat, owing to the high refractive index, which involves great reflecting power, and the bad
heat-conducting powers of mercury.

With the discovery of the remarkable power of gas absorption
possessed by charcoal cooled to a low temperature (see below), it
became possible to make these vessels of metal. Previously this could
not be done with success, because gas occluded in the metal gradually
escaped and vitiated the vacuum; but now any stray gas may be
absorbed by means of charcoal so placed in a pocket within the
vacuous space that it is cooled by the liquid in the interior of the
vessel. Metal vacuum vessels (fig. 1), of a capacity of from 2 to 20
litres, may be formed of brass, copper, nickel or tinned iron, with
necks of some alloy that is a bad conductor of heat, silvered glass
vacuum cylinders being fitted as stoppers. Such flasks, when properly
constructed, have an efficiency equal to that of the chemically-
silvered glass vacuum vessels now commonly used in low
temperature investigations, and they are obviously better adapted for Fig. 1.—Metallic
Vacuum Vessel.
transport. The principle of the Dewar vessel is utilized in the Thermos
flasks which are now extensively manufactured and employed for keeping liquids warm in
hospitals, &c.

Thermal Transparency at Low Temperatures.—The proposition, once enunciated by Pictet,
that at low temperatures all substances have practically the same thermal transparency, and are
equally ineffective as non-conductors of heat, is based on erroneous observations. It is true that if
the space between the two walls of a double-walled vessel is packed with substances like carbon,
magnesia, or silica, liquid air placed in the interior will boil off even more quickly than it will
when the space merely contains air at atmospheric pressure; but in such cases it is not so much
the carbon, &c., that bring about the transference of heat, as the air contained in their interstices.
If this air be pumped out such substances are seen to exert a very considerable influence in
stopping the influx of heat, and a vacuum vessel which has the space between its two walls filled
with a non-conducting material of this kind preserves a liquid gas even better than one in which
that space is simply exhausted of air. In experiments on this point double-walled glass tubes, as
nearly identical in shape and size as possible, were mounted in sets of three on a common stem
which communicated with an air-pump, so that the degree of exhaustion in each was equal. In
two of each three the space between the double walls was filled with the powdered material it
was desired to test, the third being left empty and used as the standard. The time required for a
certain quantity of liquid air to evaporate from the interior of this empty bulb being called 1, in
each of the eight sets of triple tubes, the times required for the same quantity to boil off from the
other pairs of tubes were as follows:—

Charcoal 5 Lampblack 5
Magnesia 2 Silica 4
Graphite 1.3 Lampblack 4
Alumina 3.3 Lycopodium 2.5
Calcium carbonate 2.5 Barium carbonate 1.3
Calcium fluoride 1.25 Calcium phosphate 2.7
Phosphorus (amorphous) 1 Lead oxide 2
Mercuric iodide 1.5 Bismuth oxide 6

Other experiments of the same kind made—(a) with similar vacuum vessels, but with the
powders replaced by metallic and other septa; and (b) with vacuum vessels having their walls
silvered, yielded the following results:—

(a) Vacuum space empty 1
Three turns silver paper, bright surface inside 4
Three turns silver paper, bright surfaceoutside 4
Vacuum space empty 1
Three turns black paper, black outside 3

Three turns black paper, black inside 3
Vacuum space empty 1
Three turns gold paper, gold outside 4
Some pieces of goldleaf put in so as to make contact between walls of vacuum-tube 0.3
Vacuum space empty 1
Three turns, not touching, of sheet lead 4
Three turns, not touching, of sheet aluminium 4
(b) Vacuum space empty, silvered on inside surfaces 1
Silica in silvered vacuum space 1.1
Empty silvered vacuum 1
Charcoal in silvered vacuum 1.25

It appears from these experiments that silica, charcoal, lampblack, and oxide of bismuth all
increase the heat insulations to four, five and six times that of the empty vacuum space. As the
chief communication of heat through an exhausted space is by molecular bombardment, the fine
powders must shorten the free path of the gaseous molecules, and the slow conduction of heat
through the porous mass must make the conveyance of heat-energy more difficult than when the
gas molecules can impinge upon the relatively hot outer glass surface, and then directly on the
cold one without interruption. (See Proc. Roy. Inst. xv. 821-826.)

Density of Solids and Coefficients of Expansion at Low Temperatures.—The facility with
which liquid gases, like oxygen or nitrogen, can be guarded from evaporation by the proper use
of vacuum vessels (now called Dewar vessels), naturally suggests that the specific gravities of
solid bodies can be got by direct weighing when immersed in such fluids. If the density of the
liquid gas is accurately known, then the loss of weight by fluid displacement gives the specific
gravity compared to water. The metals and alloys, or substances that can be got in large crystals,
are the easiest to manipulate. If the body is only to be had in small crystals, then it must be
compressed under strong hydraulic pressure into coherent blocks weighing about 40 to 50
grammes. Such an amount of material gives a very accurate density of the body about the boiling
point of air, and a similar density taken in a suitable liquid at the ordinary temperature enables
the mean coefficient of expansion between +15° C. and −185° C. to be determined. One of the
most interesting results is that the density of ice at the boiling point of air is not more than 0.93,
the mean coefficient of expansion being therefore 0.000081. As the value of the same coefficient
between 0° C. and −27° C. is 0.000155, it is clear the rate of contraction is diminished to about
one-half of what it was above the melting point of the ice. This suggests that by no possible
cooling at our command is it likely we could ever make ice as dense as water at 0° C., far less 4°
C. In other words, the volume of ice at the zero of temperature would not be the minimum
volume of the water molecule, though we have every reason to believe it would be so in the case

of the majority of known substances. Another substance of special interest is solid carbonic acid.
This body has a density of 1.53 at −78° C. and 1.633 at −185° C., thus giving a mean coefficient
of expansion between these temperatures of 0.00057. This value is only about 1⁄6 of the
coefficient of expansion of the liquid carbonic acid gas just above its melting point, but it is still
much greater at the low temperature than that of highly expansive solids like sulphur, which at
40° C. has a value of 0.00019. The following table gives the densities at the temperature of
boiling liquid air (−185° C.) and at ordinary temperatures (17° C.), together with the mean
coefficient of expansion between those temperatures, in the case of a number of hydrated salts
and other substances:

Table I.

Mean
coefficient
Density Density
of expansion
at −185° at +17°
between
C. C.
−185° C. and
+17° C.
Aluminium sulphate (18)* 1.7194 1.6913 0.0000811
Sodium biborate (10) 1.7284 1.6937 0.0001000
Calcium chloride (6) 1.7187 1.6775 0.0001191
Magnesium chloride (6) 1.6039 1.5693 0.0001072
Potash alum (24) 1.6414 1.6144 0.0000813
Chrome alum (24) 1.7842 1.7669 0.0000478
Sodium carbonate (10) 1.4926 1.4460 0.0001563
Sodium phosphate (12) 1.5446 1.5200 0.0000787
Sodium thiosulphate (5) 1.7635 1.7290 0.0000969
Potassium ferrocyanide (3) 1.8988 1.8533 0.0001195
Potassium ferricyanide 1.8944 1.8109 0.0002244
Sodium nitro-prusside (4) 1.7196 1.6803 0.0001138
Ammonium chloride 1.5757 1.5188 0.0001820
Oxalic acid (2) 1.7024 1.6145 0.0002643
Methyl oxalate 1.5278 1.4260 0.0003482
Paraffin 0.9770 0.9103 0.0003567
Naphthalene 1.2355 1.1589 0.0003200
Chloral hydrate 1.9744 1.9151 0.0001482
Urea 1.3617 1.3190 0.0001579
Iodoform 4.4459 4.1955 0.0002930

Iodine 4.8943 4.6631 0.0002510
Sulphur 2.0989 2.0522 0.0001152
Mercury 14.382 .. 0.0000881**
Sodium 1.0056 0.972 0.0001810
Graphite (Cumberland) 2.1302 2.0990 0.0000733
* The figures within parentheses refer to the number of molecules
of water of crystallization.
** −189° to −38.85° C.

It will be seen from this table that, with the exception of carbonate of soda and chrome alum, the
hydrated salts have a coefficient of expansion that does not differ greatly from that of ice at low
temperatures. Iodoform is a highly expansive body like iodine, and oxalate of methyl has nearly
as great a coefficient as paraffin, which is a very expansive solid, as are naphthalene and oxalic
acid. The coefficient of solid mercury is about half that of the liquid metal, while that of sodium
is about the value of mercury at ordinary temperatures. Further details on the subject can be
found in the Proc. Roy. Inst. (1895), and Proc. Roy. Soc. (1902).

Density of Gases at Low Temperatures.—The ordinary mode of determining the density of
gases may be followed, provided that the glass flask, with its carefully ground stop-cock sealed
on, can stand an internal pressure of about five atmospheres, and that all the necessary
corrections for change of volume are made. All that is necessary is to immerse the exhausted
flask in boiling oxygen, and then to allow the second gas to enter from a gasometer by opening
the stop-cock until the pressure is equalized. The stop-cock being closed, the flask is now taken
out of the liquid oxygen and left in the balance-room until its temperature is equalized. It is then
weighed against a similar flask used as a counterpoise. Following such a method, it has been
found that the weight of 1 litre of oxygen vapour at its boiling point of 90.5° absolute is 4.420
grammes, and therefore the specific volume is 226.25 cc. According to the ordinary gaseous
laws, the litre ought to weigh 4.313 grammes, and the specific volume should be 231.82 cc. In
other words, the product of pressure and volume at the boiling point is diminished by 2.46%. In a
similar way the weight of a litre of nitrogen vapour at the boiling point of oxygen was found to
be 3.90, and the inferred value for 78° absolute, or its own boiling point, would be 4.51, giving a
specific volume of 221.3.

Regenerative Cooling.—One part of the problem being thus solved and a satisfactory device
discovered for warding off heat in such vacuum vessels, it remained to arrange some practically
efficient method for reducing hydrogen to a temperature sufficiently low for liquefaction. To gain
that end, the idea naturally occurred of using adiabatic expansion, not intermittently, as when gas
is allowed to expand suddenly from a high compression, but in a continuous process, and an
obvious way of attempting to carry out this condition was to enclose the orifice at which

expansion takes place in a tube, so as to obtain a
constant stream of cooled gas passing over it. But
further consideration of this plan showed that
although the gas jet would be cooled near the point
of expansion owing to the conversion of a portion of
its sensible heat into dynamical energy of the
moving gas, yet the heat it thus lost would be
restored to it almost immediately by the destruction
of this mechanical energy through friction and its
consequent reconversion into heat. Thus the net
result would be nil so far as change of temperature
through the performance of external work was
concerned. But the conditions in such an
arrangement resemble that in the experiments of
Thomson and Joule on the thermal changes which
occur in a gas when it is forced under pressure
through a porous plug or narrow orifice, and those
experimenters found, as the former of them had
predicted, that a change of temperature does take
place, owing to internal work being done by the
attraction of the gas molecules. Hence the effective
result obtainable in practice by such an attempt at
continuous adiabatic expansion as that suggested
above is to be measured by the amount of the
“Thomson-Joule effect,” which depends entirely on Fig. 2.—Laboratory Liquid Air Machine.
the internal, not the external, work done by the gas. A, Air or oxygen inlet.
To Linde belongs the credit of having first seen the B, Carbon dioxide inlet.
essential importance of this effect in connexion with C, Carbon dioxide valve.
D, Regenerator coils.
the liquefaction of gases by adiabatic expansion, and F, Air or oxygen expansion valve.
he was, further, the first to construct an industrial G, Vacuum vessel with liquid air or oxygen.
plant for the production of liquid air based on the H, Carbon dioxide and air outlet.
O, Air coil.
application of this principle. O, Carbon dioxide coil.

The change of temperature due to the Thomson-
Joule effect varies in amount with different gases, or rather with the temperature at which the
operation is conducted. At ordinary temperatures oxygen and carbonic acid are cooled, while
hydrogen is slightly heated. But hydrogen also is cooled if before being passed through the
nozzle or plug it is brought into a thermal condition comparable to that of other gases at ordinary
temperatures—that is to say, when it is initially cooled to a temperature having the same ratio to

its critical point as their temperatures have to their critical points—and similarly the more
condensible gases would be heated, and not cooled, by passing through a nozzle or plug if they
were employed at a temperature sufficiently above their critical points. Each gas has therefore a
point of inversion of the Thomson-Joule effect, and this temperature is, according to the theory of
van der Waals, about 6.75 times the critical temperature of the body. Olszewski has determined
the inversion-point in the case of hydrogen, and finds it to be 192.5° absolute, the theoretical
critical point being thus about 28.5° absolute. The cooling effect obtained is small, being for air
about ¼° C. per atmosphere difference of pressure at ordinary temperatures. But the decrement of
temperature is proportional to the difference of pressure and inversely as the absolute
temperature, so that the Thomson-Joule effect increases rapidly by the combined use of a lower
temperature and greater difference of gas pressure. By means of the “regenerative” method of
working, which was described by C. W. Siemens in 1857, developed and extended by Ernest
Solvay in 1885, and subsequently utilized by numerous experimenters in the construction of low
temperature apparatus, a practicable liquid air plant was constructed by Linde. The gas which has
passed the orifice and is therefore cooled is made to flow backwards round the tube that leads to
the nozzle; hence that portion of the gas that is just about to pass through the nozzle has some of
its heat abstracted, and in consequence on expansion is cooled to a lower temperature than the
first portion. In its turn it cools a third portion in the same way, and so the reduction of
temperature goes on progressively until ultimately a portion of the gas is liquefied. Apparatus
based on this principle has been employed not only by Linde in Germany, but also by Tripler in
America and by Hampson and Dewar in England. The last-named experimenter exhibited in
December 1895 a laboratory machine of this kind (fig. 2), which when supplied with oxygen
initially cooled to −79° C., and at a pressure of 100-150 atmospheres, began to yield liquid in
about a quarter of an hour after starting. The initial cooling is not necessary, but it has the
advantage of reducing the time required for the operation. The efficiency of the Linde process is
small, but it is easily conducted and only requires plenty of cheap power. When we can work
turbines or other engines at low temperatures, so as to effect cooling through the performance of
external work, then the economy in the production of liquid air and hydrogen will be greatly
increased.

Fig. 3.—Hydrogen Jet Apparatus. A, Cylinder containing compressed hydrogen. B and C, Vacuum vessels containing
carbonic acid under exhaustion and liquid air respectively. D, Regenerating coil in vacuum vessel. F, Valve. G, Pin-hole
nozzle.

This treatment was next extended to hydrogen. For the reason already
explained, it would have been futile to experiment with this substance at
ordinary temperatures, and therefore as a preliminary it was cooled to the
temperature of boiling liquid air, about −190° C. At this temperature it is still
2½ times above its critical temperature, and therefore its liquefaction in these
circumstances would be comparable to that of air, taken at +60° C., in an
apparatus like that just described. Dewar showed in 1896 that hydrogen cooled
in this way and expanded in a regenerative coil from a pressure of 200
atmospheres was rapidly reduced in temperature to such an extent that after
Fig. 4.—
the apparatus had been working a few minutes the issuing jet was seen to Bottom of
contain liquid, which was sufficiently proved to be liquid hydrogen by the fact Vacuum
Vessel.
that it was so cold as to freeze liquid air and oxygen into hard white solids.
Though with this apparatus, a diagrammatic representation of which is shown in fig. 3, it was
now found possible at the time to collect the liquid in an open vessel, owing to its low specific
gravity and the rapidity of the gas-current, still the general type of the arrangement seemed so
promising that in the next two years there was laid down in the laboratories of the Royal

Institution a large plant—it weighs 2 tons and contains 3000 ft. of pipe—which is designed on
precisely the same principles, although its construction is far more elaborate. The one important
novelty, without which it is practically impossible to succeed, is the provision of a device to
surmount the difficulty of withdrawing the liquefied hydrogen after it has been made. The
desideratum is really a means of forming an aperture in the bottom of a vacuum vessel by which
the contained liquid may be run out. For this purpose the lower part of the vacuum vessel (D in
fig. 3) containing the jet is modified as shown in fig. 4; the inner vessel is prolonged in a fine
tube, coiled spirally, which passes through the outer wall of the vacuum vessel, and thus
sufficient elasticity is obtained to enable the tube to withstand without fracture the great
contraction consequent on the extreme cold to which it is subjected. Such peculiarly shaped
vacuum vessels were made by Dewar’s directions in Germany, and have subsequently been
supplied to and employed by other experimenters.

With the liquefying plant above referred to liquid hydrogen was for the first time collected in
an open vessel on the 10th of May 1898. The gas at a pressure of 180 atmospheres was cooled to
−205° C. by means of liquid air boiling in vacuo, and was then passed through the nozzle of the
regenerative coil, which was enclosed in vacuum vessels in such a way as to exclude external
heat as perfectly as possible. In this way some 20 cc. of the liquid had been collected when the
experiment came to a premature end, owing to the nozzle of the apparatus becoming blocked by
a dense solid—air-ice resulting from the congelation of the air which was present to a minute
extent as an impurity in the hydrogen. This accident exemplifies what is a serious trouble
encountered in the production of liquid hydrogen, the extreme difficulty of obtaining the gas in a
state of sufficient purity, for the presence of 1% of foreign matters, such as air or oxygen, which
are more condensible than hydrogen, is sufficient to cause complete stoppage, unless the nozzle
valve and jet arrangement is of special construction. In subsequent experiments the liquid was
obtained in larger quantities—on the 13th of June 1901 five litres of it were successfully
conveyed through the streets of London from the laboratory of the Royal Institution to the rooms
of the Royal Society—and it may be said that it is now possible to produce it in any desired
amount, subject only to the limitations entailed by expense. Finally, the reduction of hydrogen to
a solid state was successfully undertaken in 1899. A portion of the liquid carefully isolated in
vacuum-jacketed vessels was suddenly transformed into a white mass resembling frozen foam,
when evaporated under an air-pump at a pressure of 30 or 40 mm., and subsequently hydrogen
was obtained as a clear transparent ice by immersing a tube containing the liquid in this solid
foam.

Liquefaction of Helium.—The subjection of hydrogen completed the experimental proof that
all gases can be reduced to the liquid and solid states by the aid of pressure and low temperature,
at least so far as regards those in the hands of the chemist at the beginning of the last decade of
the 19th century. But a year or so before hydrogen was obtained in the liquid form, a substance
known to exist in the sun from spectroscopic researches carried out by Sir Edward Frankland and

Sir J. Norman Lockyer was shown by Sir William Ramsay to exist on the earth in small
quantities. Helium (q.v.), as this substance was named, was found by experiment to be a gas
much less condensable than hydrogen. Dewar in 1901 expanded it from a pressure of 80-100
atmospheres at the temperature of solid hydrogen without perceiving the least indication of
liquefaction. Olszewski repeated the experiment in 1905, using the still higher initial
compression of 180 atmospheres, but he equally failed to find any evidence of liquefaction, and
in consequence was inclined to doubt whether the gas was liquefiable at all, whether in fact it
was not a truly “permanent” gas. Other investigators, however, took a different and more hopeful
view of the matter. Dewar, for instance (Pres. Address Brit. Assoc., 1902), basing his deductions
on the laws established by van der Waals and others from the study of phenomena at much higher
temperatures, anticipated that the boiling-point of the substance would be about 5° absolute, so
that the liquid would be about four times more volatile than liquid hydrogen, just as liquid
hydrogen is four times more volatile than liquid air; and he expressed the opinion that the gas
would succumb on being subjected to the process that had succeeded with hydrogen, except that
liquid hydrogen, instead of liquid air, evaporating under exhaustion must be employed as the
primary cooling agent, and must also be used to surround the vacuum vessel in which the liquid
was collected.

Various circumstances combined to prevent Dewar from actually carrying out the operation
thus foreshadowed, but his anticipations were justified and the sufficiency of the method he
indicated practically proved by Dr H. Kamerlingh Onnes, who, working with the splendid
resources of the Leiden cryogenic laboratory, succeeded in obtaining helium in the liquid state on
the 10th of July 1908. Having prepared 200 litres of the gas (160 litres in reserve) from monazite
sand,2 he cooled it with exhausted liquid hydrogen to a temperature of 15 or 16° abs., and
expanded it through a regenerative coil under a pressure of 50 to 100 atmospheres, making use of
the most elaborate precautions to prevent influx of heat and securing the absence of less volatile
gases that might freeze and block the tubes of the apparatus by including in the helium circuit
charcoal cooled to the temperature of liquid air. Operations began at 5.45 in the morning with the
preparation of the necessary liquid hydrogen, of which 20 litres were ready by 1.30. The
circulation of the helium was started at 4.30 in the afternoon and was continued until the gas had
been pumped round the circuit twenty times; but it was not till 7.30, when the last bottle of liquid
hydrogen had been brought into requisition, that the surface of the liquid was seen, by reflection
of light from below, standing out sharply like the edge of a knife against the glass wall of the
vacuum vessel. Its boiling-point has been determined as being 4° abs., its critical temperature 5°,
and its critical pressure not more than three atmospheres. The density of the liquid is found to be
0.015 or about twice that of liquid hydrogen. It could not be solidified even when exhausted
under a pressure of 2 mm., which in all probability corresponds to a temperature of 2° abs. (see
Communications from the physical laboratory at the University of Leiden, 1908-1909).

The following are brief details respecting some of the more important liquid gases that have
become available for study within recent years. (For argon, neon, krypton, &c., see Argon.)

Oxygen.—Liquid oxygen is a mobile transparent-liquid, possessing a faint blue colour. At
atmospheric pressure it boils at −181.5° C.; under a reduced pressure of 1 cm. of mercury its
temperature falls to −210° C. At the boiling point it has a density of 1.124 according to
Olszewski, or of 1.168 according to Wroblewski; Dewar obtained the value 1.1375 as the mean
of twenty observations by weighing a number of solid substances in liquid oxygen, noting the
apparent relative density of the liquid, and thence calculating its real density, Fizeau’s values for
the coefficients of expansion of the solids being employed. The capillarity of liquid oxygen is
about one-sixth that of water; it is a non-conductor of electricity, and is strongly magnetic. By its
own evaporation it cannot be reduced to the solid state, but exposed to the temperature of liquid
hydrogen it is frozen into a solid mass, having a pale bluish tint, showing by reflection all the
absorption bands of the liquid. It is remarkable that the same absorption bands occur in the
compressed gas. Dewar gives the melting-point as 38° absolute, and the density at the boiling-
point of hydrogen as 1.4526. The refractive index of the liquid for the D sodium ray is 1.2236.

Ozone.—This gas is easily liquefied by the use of liquid air. The liquid obtained is intensely
blue, and on allowing the temperature to rise, boils and explodes about −120° C. About this
temperature it may be dissolved in bisulphide of carbon to a faint blue solution. The liquid ozone
seems to be more magnetic than liquid oxygen.

Nitrogen forms a transparent colourless liquid, having a density of 0.8042 at its boiling-point,
which is −195.5° C. The refractive index for the D line is 1.2053. Evaporated under diminished
pressure the liquid becomes solid at a temperature of −215° C., melting under a pressure of 90
mm. The density of the solid at the boiling-point of hydrogen is 1.0265.

Air.—Seeing that the boiling-points of nitrogen and oxygen are different, it might be expected
that on the liquefaction of atmospheric air the two elements would appear as two separate liquids.
Such, however, is not the case; they come down simultaneously as one homogeneous liquid.
Prepared on a large scale, liquid air may contain as much as 50% of oxygen when collected in
open vacuum-vessels, but since nitrogen is the more volatile it boils off first, and as the liquid
gradually becomes richer in oxygen the temperature at which it boils rises from about −192° C.
to about −182° C. At the former temperature it has a density of about 0.910. It is a non-conductor
of electricity. Properly protected from external heat, and subjected to high exhaustion, liquid air
becomes a stiff transparent jelly-like mass, a magma of solid nitrogen containing liquid oxygen,
which may indeed be extracted from it by means of a magnet, or by rapid rotation of the vacuum
vessel in imitation of a centrifugal machine. The temperature of this solid under a vacuum of
about 14 mm. is −216°. At the still lower temperatures attainable by the aid of liquid hydrogen it
becomes a white solid, having, like solid oxygen, a faint blue tint. The refractive index of liquid
air is 1.2068.

Fluorine, prepared in the free state by Moissan’s method of electrolysing a solution of
potassium fluoride in anhydrous hydrofluoric acid, was liquefied in the laboratories of the Royal
Institution, London, in 1897. Exposed to the temperature of quietly-boiling liquid oxygen, the gas
did not change its state, though it lost much of its chemical activity, and ceased to attack glass.
But a very small vacuum formed over the oxygen was sufficient to determine liquefaction, a
result which was also obtained by cooling the gas to the temperature of freshly-made liquid air
boiling at atmospheric pressure. Hence the boiling-point is fixed at about −187° C. The liquid is
of a clear yellow colour, possessing great mobility. Its density is 1.14, and its capillarity rather
less than that of liquid oxygen. The liquid, when examined in a thickness of 1 cm., does not show
any absorption bands, and it is not attracted by a magnet. Cooled in liquid hydrogen it is frozen
to a white solid, melting at about 40° abs.

Hydrogen.—Liquid hydrogen is the lightest liquid known to the chemist, having a density
slightly less than 0.07 as compared with water, and being six times lighter than liquid marsh-gas,
which is next in order of lightness. One litre weighs only 70 grammes, and 1 gramme occupies a
volume of 14-15 cc. In spite of its extreme lightness, however, it is easily seen, has a well-
defined meniscus and drops well. At its boiling-point the liquid is only 55 times denser than the
vapour it is giving off, whereas liquid oxygen in similar condition is 258 times denser than its
vapour, and nitrogen 177 times. Its atomic volume is about 14.3, that of liquid oxygen being
13.7, and that of liquid nitrogen 16.6, at their respective boiling-points. Its latent heat of
vaporization about the boiling-point is about 121 gramme-calories, and the latent heat of fluidity
cannot exceed 16 units, but may be less. Hydrogen appears to have the same specific heat in the
liquid as in the gaseous state, about 3.4. Its surface tension is exceedingly low, about one-fifth
that of liquid air at its boiling-point, or one-thirty-fifth that of water at ordinary temperatures, and
this is the reason that bubbles formed in the liquid are so small as to give it an opalescent
appearance during ebullition. The liquid is without colour, and gives no absorption spectrum.
Electric sparks taken in the liquid between platinum poles give a spectrum showing the hydrogen
lines C and F bright on a background of continuous spectrum. Its refractive index at the boiling-
point has theoretically the value 1.11. It was measured by determining the relative difference of
focus for a parallel beam of light sent through a spherical vacuum vessel filled successively with
water, liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen; the result obtained was 1.12. Liquid hydrogen is a
non-conductor of electricity. The precise determination of its boiling-point is a matter of some
difficulty. The first results obtained from the use of a platinum resistance thermometer gave
−238° C., while a similar thermometer made with an alloy of rhodium-platinum indicated a value
8 degrees lower. Later, a gold thermometer indicated about −249° C., while with an iron one the
result was only −210° C. It was thus evident that electrical resistance thermometers are not to be
trusted at these low temperatures, since the laws correlating resistance and temperature are not
known for temperatures at and below the boiling-point of hydrogen, though they are certainly not
the same as those which hold good higher up the thermometric scale. The same remarks apply to

the use of thermo-electric junctions at such exceptional temperatures. Recourse was therefore had
to a constant-volume hydrogen thermometer, working under reduced pressure, experiments
having shown that such a thermometer, filled with either a simple or a compound gas (e.g.
oxygen or carbonic acid) at an initial pressure somewhat less than one atmosphere, may be relied
upon to determine temperatures down to the respective boiling-points of the gases with which
they are filled. The result obtained was −252° C. Subsequently various other determinations were
carried out in thermometers filled with hydrogen derived from different sources, and also with
helium, the average value given by the experiments being −252.5° C. (See “The Boiling Point of
Liquid Hydrogen determined by Hydrogen and Helium Gas Thermometers,” Proc. Roy. Soc., 7th
February 1901.) The critical temperature is about 30° absolute (−243° C.), and the critical
pressure about 15 atmospheres. Hydrogen has not only the lowest critical temperature of all the
old permanent gases, but it has the lowest critical pressure. Given a sufficiently low temperature,
therefore, it is the easiest gas to liquefy so far as pressure is concerned. Solid hydrogen has a
temperature about 4° less. By exhaustion under reduced pressure a still lower depth of cold may
be attained, and a steady temperature reached less than 16° above the zero of absolute
temperature. By the use of high exhaustion, and the most stringent precautions to prevent the
influx of heat, a temperature of 13° absolute (−260° C.) may be reached. This is the lowest steady
temperature which can be maintained by the evaporation of solid hydrogen. At this temperature
the solid has a density of about 0.077. Solid hydrogen presents no metallic characteristics, such
as were predicted for it by Faraday, Dumas, Graham and other chemists and neither it nor the
liquid is magnetic.

The Approach to the Absolute Zero.—The achievement of Kamerlingh Onnes has brought
about the realization of a temperature removed only 3° from the absolute zero, and the question
naturally suggests itself whether there is any probability of a still closer approach to that point.
The answer is that if, as is not impossible, there exists a gas, as yet unisolated, which has an
atomic weight one-half that of helium, that gas, liquefied in turn by the aid of liquid helium,
would render that approach possible, though the experimental difficulties of the operation would
be enormous and perhaps prohibitive. The results of experiments bearing on this question and of
theory based on them are shown in table II. The third column shows the critical temperature of
the gas which can be liquefied by continuous expansion through a regenerative cooling
apparatus, the operation being started from the initial temperature shown in the second column,
while the fourth column gives the temperature of the resulting liquid. It will be seen that by the
use of liquid or solid hydrogen as a cooling agent, it should be possible to liquefy a body having
a critical temperature of about 6° to 8° on the absolute scale, and a boiling point of about 4° or
5°, while with the aid of liquid helium at an initial temperature of 5° we could liquefy a body
having a critical temperature of 2° and a boiling point of 1°.

Table II.

Initial Critical
Boiling Points.
Substance. Temperature. Temperature.
Abs. Degrees.
Abs. Degrees. Abs. Degrees.
(Low red heat) 760 304 195 (CO2)
(52° C.) 325 130 86 (Air)
Liquid air under exhaustion 75 30 20 (H)
Liquid hydrogen 20 8 5 (He)
Solid hydrogen 15 6 4
Liquid helium 5 2 1

It is to be remarked, however, that even so the physicist would not have attained the absolute
zero, and he can scarcely hope ever to do so. It is true he would only be a very short distance
from it, but it must be remembered that in a thermodynamic sense one degree low down the
scale, say at 10° absolute, is equivalent to 30° at the ordinary temperature, and as the
experimenter gets to lower and lower temperatures, the difficulties of further advance increase,
not in arithmetical but in geometrical progression. Thus the step between the liquefaction of air
and that of hydrogen is, thermodynamically and practically, greater than that between the
liquefaction of chlorine and that of air, but the number of degrees of temperature that separates
the boiling-points of the first pair of substances is less than half what it is in the case of the
second pair. But the ratio of the absolute boiling-points in the first pair of substances is as 1 to 4,
whereas in the second pair it is only 1 to 3, and it is this value that expresses the difficulty of the
transition.

But though Ultima Thule may continue to mock the physicist’s efforts, he will long find ample
scope for his energies in the investigation of the properties of matter at the temperatures placed at
his command by liquid air and liquid and solid hydrogen. Indeed, great as is the sentimental
interest attached to the liquefaction of these refractory gases, the importance of the achievement
lies rather in the fact that it opens out new fields of research and enormously widens the horizon
of physical science, enabling the natural philosopher to study the properties and behaviour of
matter under entirely novel conditions. We propose to indicate briefly the general directions in
which such inquiries have so far been carried on, but before doing so will call attention to the
power of absorbing gases possessed by cooled charcoal, which has on that account proved itself a
most valuable agent in low temperature research.

Table III.—Gas Absorption by Charcoal.

Volume Volume
absorbed at absorbed at
0° Cent. −185° Cent.

Helium 2 cc. 15 cc.
Hydrogen 4 135
Electrolytic gas 12 150
Argon 12 175
Nitrogen 15 155
Oxygen 18 230
Carbonic oxide 21 190
Carbonic oxide and oxygen 30 195

Gas Absorption by Charcoal.—Felix Fontana was apparently the first to discover that hot
charcoal has the power of absorbing gases, and his observations were confirmed about 1770 by
Joseph Priestley, to whom he had communicated them. A generation later Theodore de Saussure
made a number of experiments on the subject, and noted that at ordinary temperatures the
absorption is accompanied with considerable evolution of heat. Among subsequent investigators
were Thomas Graham and Stenhouse, Faure and Silberman, and Hunter, the last-named showing
that charcoal made from coco-nut exhibits greater absorptive powers than other varieties. In 1874
Tait and Dewar for the first time employed charcoal for the production of high vacua, by using it,
heated to a red heat, to absorb the mercury vapour in a tube exhausted by a mercury pump; and
thirty years afterwards it occurred to the latter investigator to try how its absorbing powers are
affected by cooling it, with the result that he found them to be greatly enhanced. Some of his
earlier observations are given in table III., but it must be pointed out that much larger absorptions
were obtained subsequently when it was found that the quality of the charcoal was greatly
influenced by the mode in which it was prepared, the absorptive power being increased by
carbonizing the coco-nut shell slowly at a gradually increasing temperature. The results in the
table were all obtained with the same specimen of charcoal, and the volumes of the gases
absorbed, both at ordinary and at low temperatures, were measured under standard conditions—
at 0° C., and 760 mm. pressure. It appears that at the lower temperature there is a remarkable
increase of absorption for every gas, but that the increase is in general smaller as the boiling-
points of the various gases are lower. Helium is conspicuous for the fact that it is absorbed to a
comparatively slight extent at both the higher and the lower temperature, but in this connexion it
must be remembered that, being the most volatile gas known, it is being treated at a temperature
which is relatively much higher than the other gases. At −185° (= 88° abs.), while hydrogen is at
about 4½ times its boiling-point (20° abs.), helium is at about 20 times its boiling-point (4.5°
abs.), and it might, therefore, be expected that if it were taken at a temperature corresponding to
that of the hydrogen, i.e. at 4 or 5 times its boiling-point, or say 20° abs., it would undergo much
greater absorption. This expectation is borne out by the results shown in table IV., and it may be
inferred that charcoal cooled in liquid helium would absorb helium as freely as charcoal cooled
in liquid hydrogen absorbs hydrogen. It is found that a given specimen of charcoal cooled in
liquid oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen absorbs about equal volumes of those three gases (about
260 cc. per gramme); and, as the relation between volume and temperature is nearly lineal at the
lowest portions of either the hydrogen or the helium absorption, it is a legitimate inference that at

a temperature of 5° to 6° abs. helium would be as freely absorbed by charcoal as hydrogen is at
its boiling-point and that the boiling-point of helium lies at about 5° abs.

Table IV.—Gas Absorption by Charcoal at Low Temperatures.

Helium. Hydrogen.
Temperature. Vols. of Vols. of
Carbon. Carbon.
−185° C. (boiling-point of liquid air) 2½ 137
−210° C. (liquid air under exhaustion) 5 180
−252° C. (boiling-point of liquid hydrogen) 160 258
−258° C. (solid hydrogen) 195 ..

The rapidity with which air is absorbed by charcoal at −185° C. and under small pressures is
illustrated by table V., which shows the reductions of pressure effected in a tube of 2000 cc.
capacity by means of 20 grammes of charcoal cooled in liquid air.

Table V.—Velocity of Absorption.

Time of Pressure Time of Pressure
Exhaustion. in mm. Exhaustion. in mm.
0 sec. 2.190 60 sec. 0.347
10 ” 1.271 2 min. 0.153
20 ” 0.869 5 ” 0.0274
30 ” 0.632 10 ” 0.00205
40 ” 0.543 19 ” 0.00025
50 ” 0.435 .. ..

Table VI.

Volume Occlusion Occlusion
of Gas Hydrogen Nitrogen
absorbed. Pressure. Pressure.
cc. mm. mm.
0 0.00003 0.00005
5 0.0228 ..
10 0.0455 ..
15 0.0645 ..
20 0.0861 ..
25 0.1105 ..
30 0.1339 0.00031
35 0.1623 ..
40 0.1870 ..
130 .. 0.00110
500 .. 0.00314

1000 .. 0.01756
1500 .. 0.02920
2500 .. 0.06172

Charcoal Occlusion Pressures.—For measuring the gas concentration, pressure and
temperature, use may be made of an apparatus of the type shown in fig. 5. A mass of charcoal, E,
immersed in liquid air, is employed for the preliminary exhaustion of the McLeod gauge G and
of the charcoal C, which is to be used in the actual experiments, and is then sealed off at S. The
bulb C is then placed in a large spherical vacuum vessel containing liquid oxygen which can be
made to boil at any definite temperature under diminished pressure which is measured by the
manometer R. The volume of gas admitted into the charcoal is determined by the burette D and
the pipette P, and the corresponding occlusion pressure at any concentration and any temperature
below 90° abs. by the gauge G. In presence of charcoal, and for small concentrations, great
variations are shown in the relation between the pressure and the concentration of different gases,
all at the same temperature. Table VI. gives the comparison between hydrogen and nitrogen at the
temperature of liquid air, 25 grammes of charcoal being employed. It is seen that 15 cc. of
hydrogen produce nearly the same pressure (0.0645 mm.) as 2500 cc. of nitrogen (0.06172 mm.).
This result shows how enormously greater, at the temperature of liquid air, is the volatility of
hydrogen as compared with that of nitrogen. In the same way the concentrations, for the same
pressure, vary greatly with temperature, as is exemplified by table VII., even though the
pressures are not quite constant. The temperatures employed were the boiling-points of hydrogen,
oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Fig. 5.

Table VII.

Concentration
Pressure Temperature
Gas. in cc. per grm.
in mm. Absolute.
of Charcoal.
Helium 97 2.2 20°
Hydrogen 397 2.2 20°
Hydrogen 15 2.1 90°
Nitrogen 250 1.6 90°

Oxygen 300 1.0 90°
Carbon dioxide 90 3.6 195°

Table VIII.

Mean
Concentration Molecular
Gas. Temperature.
cc. per grm. Latent Heat.
Absolute.
Helium 97 483.0 18°
Hydrogen 390 524.4 18°
Hydrogen 20 2005.6 78°
Nitrogen 250 3059.0 82°
Oxygen 300 3146.4 82°
Carbon dioxide 90 6099.6 180°

Heat of Occlusion.—In every case when gases are condensed to the liquid state there is
evolution of heat, and during the absorption of a gas in charcoal or any other occluding body, as
hydrogen in palladium, the amount of heat evolved exceeds that of direct liquefaction. From the
relation between occlusion-pressure and temperature at the same concentration, the reaction
being reversible, it is possible to calculate this heat evolution. Table VIII. gives the mean
molecular latent heats of occlusion resulting from Dewar’s experiments for a number of gases,
having concentrations in the charcoal as shown. The concentrations were so regulated as to start
with an initial pressure not exceeding 3 mm. at the respective boiling-points of hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Production of High Vacua.—Exceedingly high vacua can be obtained by the aid of liquid
gases, with or without charcoal. If a vessel containing liquid hydrogen be freely exposed to the
atmosphere, a rain of snow (solid air) at once begins to fall upon the surface of the liquid;
similarly, if one end of a sealed tube containing ordinary air be immersed in the liquid, the same
thing happens, but since there is now no new supply to take the place of the air that has been
solidified and has accumulated in the cooled portion of the tube, the pressure is quickly reduced
to something like one-millionth of an atmosphere, and a vacuum is formed of such tenuity that
the electric discharge can be made to pass only with difficulty. Liquid air can be employed in the
same manner if the tube, before sealing, is filled with some less volatile gas or vapour, such as
sulphurous acid, benzol or water vapour. But if a charcoal condenser be used in conjunction with
the liquid air it becomes possible to obtain a high vacuum when the tube contains air initially. For
instance, in one experiment, with a bulb having a capacity of 300 cc. and filled with air at a

pressure of about 1.7 mm. and at a temperature of 15° C., when an
attached condenser with 5 grammes of charcoal was cooled in liquid
air, the pressure was reduced to 0.0545 mm. of mercury in five
minutes, to 0.01032 mm. in ten minutes, to 0.000139 mm. in thirty
minutes, and to 0.000047 mm. in sixty minutes. The condenser then
being cooled in liquid hydrogen the pressure fell to 0.0000154 mm.
in ten minutes, and to 0.0000058 mm. in a further ten minutes when
solid hydrogen was employed as the cooling agent, and no doubt, had
it not been for the presence of hydrogen and helium in the air, an
even greater reduction could have been effected. Another illustration
of the power of cooled charcoal to produce high vacua is afforded by
a Crookes radiometer. If the instrument be filled with helium at
atmospheric pressure and a charcoal bulb attached to it be cooled in
liquid air, the vanes remain motionless even when exposed to the
concentrated beam of an electric arc lamp; but if liquid hydrogen be
substituted for the liquid air rapid rotation at once sets in. When a
similar radiometer was filled with hydrogen and the attached Fig. 6.

charcoal bulb was cooled in liquid air rotation took place, because
sufficient of the gas was absorbed to permit motion. But when the charcoal was cooled in liquid
hydrogen instead of in liquid air, the absorption increased and consequently the rarefaction
became so high that there was no motion when the light from the arc was directed on the vanes.
These experiments again permit of an inference as to the boiling-point of helium. A fall of 75%
in the temperature of the charcoal bulb, from the boiling-point of air to the boiling-point of
hydrogen, reduced the vanes to rest in the case of the radiometer filled with hydrogen; hence it
might be inferred that a fall of like amount from the boiling-point of hydrogen would reduce the
vanes of the helium radiometer to rest, and consequently that the boiling-point of helium would
be about 5° abs.

The vacua obtainable by means of cooled charcoal are so high that it is difficult to determine
the pressures by the McLeod gauge, and the radiometer experiments referred to above suggested
the possibility of another means of ascertaining such pressures, by determining the pressures
below which the radiometer would not spin. The following experiment shows how the limit of
pressure can be ascertained by reference to the pressures of mercury vapour which have been
very accurately determined through a wide range of temperature. To a radiometer (fig. 6) with
attached charcoal bulb B was sealed a tube ending in a small bulb A containing a globule of
mercury. The radiometer and bulb B were heated, exhausted and repeatedly washed out with pure
oxygen gas, and then the mercury was allowed to distil for some time into the charcoal cooled in
liquid air. On exposure to the electric beam the vanes began to spin, but soon ceased when the
bulb A was cooled in liquid air. When, however, the mercury was warmed by placing the bulb in

liquid water, the vanes began to move again, and in the particular radiometer used this was found
to happen when the temperature of the mercury had risen to −23° C. corresponding to a pressure
of about one fifty-millionth of an atmosphere.

For washing out the radiometer with oxygen the arrangement shown in fig. 7 is convenient.
Here A is a bulb containing perchlorate of potash, which when heated gives off pure oxygen; C is
again the radiometer and B the charcoal bulb. The side tube E is for the purpose of examining the
gas given off by minerals like thorianite or the gaseous products of the transformation of
radioactive bodies.

Analytic Uses.—Another important use of
liquid gases is as analytic agents, and for this
purpose liquid air is becoming an almost essential
laboratory reagent. It is one of the most
convenient agents for drying gases and for their
purification. If a mixture of gases be subjected to
the temperature of liquid air, it is obvious that all
the constituents that are more condensable than air
will be reduced to liquid, while those that are less
condensable will either remain as a gaseous
residue or be dissolved in the liquid obtained. The
bodies present in the latter may be separated by
fractional distillation, while the contents of the
gaseous residue may be further differentiated by
the air of still lower temperatures, such as are
obtainable by liquid hydrogen. An apparatus such Fig. 7.
as the following can be used to separate both the
less and the more volatile gases of the atmosphere, the former being obtained from their solution
in liquid air by fractional distillation at low pressure and separation of the condensable part of the
distillate by cooling in liquid hydrogen, while the latter are extracted from the residue of liquid
air, after the distillation of the first fraction, by allowing it to evaporate gradually at a temperature
rising only very slowly.

In fig. 8, A represents a vacuum-jacketed vessel, containing liquid air; this can be made to boil
at reduced pressure and therefore be lowered in temperature by means of an air-pump, which is
in communication with the vessel through the pipe s. The liquid boiled away is replenished when
necessary from the reservoir C, p being a valve, worked by handle q, by which the flow along r is
regulated. The vessel B, immersed in the liquid air of A, communicates with the atmosphere by
a; hence when the temperature of A falls under exhaustion below that of liquid air, the contents of
B condense, and if the stop-cock m is kept open, and n shut, air from the outside is continuously

sucked in until B is full of liquid, which contains in solution the whole of the most volatile gases
of the atmosphere which have passed in through a. At this stage of the operation m is closed and
n opened, a passage thus being opened along b from A to the remainder of the apparatus seen on
the left side of the figure. Here E is a vacuum vessel containing liquid hydrogen, and d a three-
way cock by which communication can be established either between b and D, between b and e,
the tube leading to the sparking-tube g, or between D and e. If now d is arranged so that there is a
free passage from b to D, and the stop-cock n also opened, the gas dissolved in the liquid in B,
together with some of the most volatile part of that liquid, quickly distils over into D, which is at
a much lower temperature than B, and some of it condenses there in the solid state. When a small
fraction of the contents of B has thus distilled over, d is turned so as to close the passage between
D and b and open that between D and e, with the result that the gas in D is pumped out by the
mercury-pump, shown diagrammatically at F, along the tube e (which is immersed in the liquid
hydrogen in order that any more condensable gas carried along by the current may be frozen out)
to the sparking-tube or tubes g, where it can be examined spectroscopically. When the apparatus
is used to separate the least volatile part of the gases in the atmosphere, the vessel E and its
contents are omitted, and the tube b made to communicate with the pump through a number of
sparking-tubes which can be sealed off successively. The nitrogen and oxygen which make up the
bulk of the liquid in B are allowed to evaporate gradually, the temperature being kept low so as to
check the evaporation of gases less volatile than oxygen. When most of the oxygen and nitrogen
have thus been removed, the stop-cock n is closed, and the tubes partially exhausted by the
pump; spectroscopic examination is made of the gases they contain, and repeated from time to
time as more gas is allowed to evaporate from B. The general sequence of spectra, apart from
those of nitrogen, oxygen and carbon compounds, which are never eliminated by the process of
distillation alone, is as follows: The spectrum of argon first appears, followed by the brightest
(green and yellow) rays of krypton. Then the intensity of the argon spectrum wanes and it gives
way to that of krypton, until, as Runge observed, when a Leyden jar is in the circuit, the capillary
part of the sparking-tube has a magnificent blue colour, while the wide ends are bright pale
yellow. Without a jar the tube is nearly white in the middle and yellow about the poles. As
distillation proceeds, the temperature of the vessel containing the residue of liquid air being
allowed to rise slowly, the brightest (green) rays of xenon begin to appear, and the krypton rays
soon die out, being superseded by those of xenon. At this stage the capillary part of the sparking-
tube is, with a jar in circuit, a brilliant green, and it remains green, though less brilliant, if the jar
is removed.

Fig. 8.—Apparatus for Fractional Distillation.

Fig. 9.—Apparatus for continuous Spectroscopic Examination.

An improved form of apparatus for the fractionation is represented in fig. 9. The gases to be
separated, that is, the least volatile part of atmospheric air, enter the bulb B from a gasholder by

the tube a with stop-cock c. B, which is maintained at a low temperature by being immersed in
liquid hydrogen, A, boiling under reduced pressure, in turn communicates through the tube b and
stop-cock d with a sparking-tube or tubes f, and so on through e with a mercurial pump. To use
the apparatus, stop-cock d is closed and c opened, and gas allowed to pass from the gasholder
into B, where it is condensed in the solid form. Stop-cock c then being closed and d opened, gas
passes into the exhausted tube f, where it is examined with the spectroscope. The vessel D
contains liquid air, in which the tube e is immersed in order to condense vapour of mercury
which would otherwise pass from the pump into the sparking-tube. The success of the operation
of separating all the gases which occur in air and which boil at different temperatures, depends
on keeping the temperature of B as low as possible, as will be understood from the following
consideration:—

The pressure p, of a gas G, above the same material in the liquid state, at temperature T, is
given approximately by the formula

B
log p = A − ,
T

where A and B are constants for the same material. For some other gas G′ the formula will be

B1
log p1 = A1 − ,
T

and

p B1 − B
log = A − A1 + ,
p1 T

Now for argon, krypton and xenon respectively the values of A are 6.782, 6.972 and 6.963, and
those of B are 339, 496.3 and 669.2; so that for these substances and many others A − A1 is
always a small quantity, while (B1 − B)/T is considerable and increases as T diminishes. Hence
the ratio of p to p1 increases rapidly as T diminishes, and by evaporating all the gases from the
solid state, and keeping the solid at as low a temperature as possible, the gas that is taken off by
the mercurial pump first consists mainly of the substance which has the lowest boiling point, in
this case nitrogen, and is succeeded with comparative abruptness by the gas which has the next
higher boiling point. Examination of the spectrum in the sparking-tube easily reveals the change
from one gas to another, and when that is observed the reservoirs into which the gases are
pumped can be changed and the fractions stored separately. Or several sparking-tubes may be
arranged so as to form parallel communications between b and e, and can be successively sealed
off at the desired stages of fractionation.

Fig. 10.

Analytical operations can often be performed still more conveniently with the help of charcoal,
taking advantage of the selective character of its absorption, the general law of which is that the
more volatile the gas the less is it absorbed at a given temperature. The following are some
examples of its employment for this purpose. If it be required to separate the helium which is
often found in the gases given off by a thermal spring, they are subjected to the action of charcoal
cooled with liquid air. The result is the absorption of the less volatile constituents, i.e. all except
hydrogen and helium. The gaseous residue, with the addition of oxygen, is then sparked, and the
water thus formed is removed together with the excess of oxygen, when helium alone remains.
Or the separation may be effected by a method of fractionation as described above. To separate
the most volatile constituents of the atmosphere an apparatus such as that shown in fig. 10 may
be employed. In one experiment with this, when 200 c.c. was supplied from the graduated gas-
holder F to the vessel D, containing 15 grammes of charcoal cooled in liquid air, the residue
which passed on unabsorbed to the sparking-tube AB, which had a small charcoal bulb C
attached, showed the C and F lines of hydrogen, the yellow and some of the orange lines of neon
and the yellow and green of helium. By using a second charcoal vessel E, with stop-cocks at H, I,
J, K and L to facilitate manipulation, considerable quantities of the most volatile gases can be
collected. After the charcoal in E has been saturated, the stop-cock K is closed and I and J are
opened for a short time, to allow the less condensable gas in E to be sucked into the second
condenser D along with some portion of air. The condenser E is then taken out of the liquid air,
heated quickly to 15° C. to expel the occluded air and replaced. More air is then passed in, and
by repeating the operation several times 50 litres of air can be treated in a short time, supplying
sparking-tubes which will show the complete spectra of the volatile constituents of the air.

The less volatile constituents of the atmosphere, krypton and xenon, may be obtained by
leading a current of air, purified by passage through a series of tubes cooled in liquid air, through
a charcoal condenser also cooled in liquid air. The condenser is then removed and placed in solid
carbon dioxide at −78° C. The gas that comes off is allowed to escape, but what remains in the
charcoal is got out by heating and exhaustion, the carbon compounds and oxygen are removed
and the residue, consisting of nitrogen with krypton and xenon, is separated into its constituents

by condensation and fractionation. Another method is to cover a few hundred grammes of
charcoal with old liquid air, which is allowed to evaporate slowly in a silvered vacuum vessel;
the gases remaining in the charcoal are then treated in the manner described above.

Fig. 11. Fig. 12.

Charcoal enables a mixture containing a high percentage of oxygen to be extracted from the
atmosphere. In one experiment 50 grammes of it, after being heated and exhausted were allowed
to absorb air at −185° C.; some 5 or 6 litres were taken up in ten minutes, and it then presumably
contained air of the composition of the atmosphere, i.e. 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen, as shown
in fig. 11. But when more air was passed over it, the portion that was not absorbed was found to
consist of about 98% nitrogen, showing that excess of oxygen was being absorbed, and in the
course of a few hours the occluded gas attained a new and apparently definite composition
exhibited in fig. 12. When the charcoal containing this mixture was transferred to a vacuum
vessel and allowed to warm up slowly, the successive litres of gas when collected and analyzed
separately showed the following composition:—

1st litre 18.5% oxygen
2nd litre 20.6% ”
3rd litre 53.0% ”
4th litre 72.0% ”
5th litre 79.0% ”
6th litre 84.0% ”

Table IX.

Volume of Gas
Liquid Volume
Latent Heat at 0° C. and
Boiling of 1 gram at
Liquid Gases. in gram 760 mm. per
Point. Boiling Point
Calories. gram Calorie
in c.c.
in c.c.
Sulphurous acid + 10°C. 0.7 97.0 3.6
Carbonic acid − 78.0 0.65 (solid) 142.4 3.6
Ethylene −103.0 1.7 119.0 7.0
Oxygen −182.5 0.9 53.0 13.2
Nitrogen −195.6 1.3 50.0 15.9

Hydrogen −252.5 14.3 125.0 88.9
Helium −269.0 7.0 13.0 450.0

Calorimetry.—Certain liquid gases lend themselves conveniently to the construction of a
calorimeter, in which the heat in weighed quantities of any substance with which it is desired to
experiment may be measured by the quantity of liquid gas they are able to evaporate. One
advantage of this method is that a great range of temperature is available when liquid air, oxygen,
nitrogen or hydrogen is employed as the calorimetric substance. Another is the relatively large
quantity of gas yielded by the evaporation, as may be seen from table IX., which shows the
special physical constants of the various gases that are of importance in calorimetry. In
consequence it is easy to detect 1⁄50 gram calorie with liquid air and so little as 1⁄300 gram calorie
with liquid hydrogen.

Fig. 13.—Calorimetric Apparatus.

The apparatus (fig. 13) consists of a large vacuum vessel A, of 2 or 3 litres’ capacity,
containing liquid air, in which is inserted a smaller vacuum vessel B, of 25-30 c.c. capacity,
having sealed to it a long narrow tube G that projects above the mouth of A and is held in place
by some loosely packed cotton wool. To the top of this tube the test tube C, containing the
material under investigation, is connected by a piece of flexible rubber tubing D; this enables C
to be tilted so as to throw a piece or pieces of the contained material into the calorimeter. An
improved form of this receptacle, attached to B by a flexible tube at D′, is shown at C′. In this P
is a wire movable through a cork Q and having at its end a hook by which a piece of the
substance under examination can be pulled up and dropped into B. In the absence of other
arrangements the substance is at the temperature of the room, but when lower initial temperatures
are desired a vacuum vessel H containing solid carbonic acid, liquid ethylene, air or other gas,

can be placed to envelop C or C′, or higher temperatures may be obtained by filling the
surrounding vessel with vapour of water or other liquids. The gas volatilized in B is conveyed by
a side tube E to be collected in a graduated receiver F over water, oil or other liquid. If liquid
hydrogen is to be used as the calorimetric substance the instrument must be so modified as to
prevent the ordinary atmosphere from entering G, and to that end a current of hydrogen supplied
from a Kipp apparatus is arranged to flow continuously through D and E until the moment of
making the experiment, when it is cut off by a suitable stop-cock. In this case the outer vessel
must contain liquid hydrogen instead of liquid air.

Table X.

18° to −78° to −188° to
−78° C., −188° C., −252° C.,
Substance.
or, at or, at or, at
−30° C. −133° C. −220° C.
Diamond 0.0794 0.0190 0.0043
Graphite 0.1341 0.0599 0.0133
Ice 0.463* 0.285 0.146
* This is from −18° to −78° in the ice experiment.

Dewar used pure metallic lead for the purpose of conveying definite amounts of heat to liquid
gas calorimeters of this kind, that metal being selected on the ground of the small variation in its
specific heat at low temperatures. He was thus able to determine the latent heats of evaporation
of liquid oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen directly at their boiling points, and he also ascertained
the specific heats of a large number of inorganic and organic bodies, and of some gases in the
solid state, such as carbon dioxide, sulphurous acid and ammonia. Perhaps his most interesting
results were those which showed the variation in the specific heats of diamond, graphite and ice
as typical bodies (table X.). With Professor Curie he used both the liquid oxygen and the liquid
hydrogen calorimeter for preliminary measurements of the rate at which radium bromide gives
out energy at low temperatures. The quantity of the salt available was 0.42 gram, and the thermal
evolutions were as follows:—

Gas evolved Calories
per minute. per hour.
Liquid oxygen 5.5 cc. 22.8
Liquid hydrogen 51.0 ” 31.6 Crystals.
Melting ice .. 24.1
Liquid oxygen 2.0 ” 8.3 After fusion.
Liquid oxygen 2.5 ” 10.3 Emanation condensed.

The apparent increase of heat evolution at the temperature of liquid hydrogen was probably due
to the calorimeter being too small; hydrogen spray was thus carried away with the gas, making
the volume of gas too great and inferentially also the heat evolved.

Liquid air and liquid hydrogen calorimeters open up an almost unlimited field of research in
the determination of specific heats and other thermal constants, and are certain to become
common laboratory instruments for such purposes.

Chemical Action.—By extreme cold chemical action is enormously reduced, though it may not
in all cases be entirely abolished even at the lowest temperatures yet attained; one reason for this
diminution of activity may doubtless be sought in the fact that in such conditions most substances
are solid, that is, in the state least favourable to chemical combination. Thus an electric pile of
sodium and carbon ceases to yield a current when immersed in liquid oxygen. Sulphur, iron and
other substances can be made to burn under the surface of liquid oxygen if the combustion is
properly established before the sample is immersed, and the same is true of a fragment of
diamond. Nitric oxide in the gaseous condition combines instantly with free oxygen, producing
the highly-coloured gas, nitric peroxide, but in the solid condition it may be placed in contact
with liquid oxygen without showing any signs of chemical action. If the combination of a portion
of the mixture is started by elevation of temperature, then detonation may take place throughout
the cooled mass. The stability of endothermic bodies like nitric oxide and ozone at low
temperatures requires further investigation. The behaviour of fluorine, which may be regarded as
the most active of the elements, is instructive in this respect. As a gas, cooled to −180° C. it loses
the power of attacking glass; similarly silicon, borax, carbon, sulphur and phosphorus at the same
temperature do not become incandescent in an atmosphere of the gas. Passed into liquid oxygen,
the gas dissolves and imparts a yellowish tint to the liquid; if the oxygen has been exposed to the
air for some hours, the fluorine produces a white flocculent precipitate, which if separated by
filtering deflagrates with violence as the temperature rises. It appears to be a hydrate of fluorine.
As a liquid at −210° fluorine attacks turpentine also cooled to that temperature with explosive
force and the evolution of light, while the direction of a jet of hydrogen upon its surface is
immediately followed by combination and a flash of flame. Even when the point of a tube
containing solid fluorine is broken off under liquid hydrogen, a violent explosion ensues.

Photographic Action.—The action of light on photographic plates, though greatly diminished
at −180°, is far from being in abeyance; an Eastman film, for instance, remains fairly sensitive at
−210°. At the still lower temperature of liquid hydrogen the photographic activity is reduced to
about half what it is at that of liquid air; in other words, about 10% of the original sensitivity
remains. Experiments carried out with an incandescent lamp, a Röntgen bulb and the ultra-violet
spark from magnesium and cadmium, to discover at what distances from the source of light the
plates must be placed in order to receive an equal photographic impression, yielded the results
shown in table XI.

Table XI.

Ratio of
Cooled Uncooled
Source of Light. Intensities
Plate. Plate.
at Balance.
16 C.P. lamp 20 in. 50 in. 1 to 6
Röntgen bulb 10 in. 24¾ in. 1 to 6
Ultra-violet spark 22½ in. 90 in. 1 to 16

It appears that the photographic action of both the incandescent lamp and the Röntgen rays is
reduced by the temperature of liquid air to 17% of that exerted at ordinary temperatures, while
ultra-violet radiation retains only 6%. It is possible that the greater dissipation of the latter by the
photographic film at low temperatures than at ordinary ones is due to its absorption and
subsequent emission as a phosphorescent glow, and that if the plate could be developed at a low
temperature it would show no effect, the photographic action taking place subsequently through
an internal phosphorescence in the film during the time it is heating up. With regard to the
transparency of bodies to the Röntgen radiation at low temperatures, small tubes of the same
bore, filled with liquid argon and chlorine, potassium, phosphorus, aluminium, silicon and
sulphur, were exposed at the temperature of liquid air (in order to keep the argon and chlorine
solid), in front of a photographic plate shielded with a sheet of aluminium, to an X-ray bulb. The
sequence of the elements as mentioned represents the order of increasing opacity observed in the
shadows. Sodium and liquid oxygen and air, nitrous and nitric oxides, proved much more
transparent than chlorine. Tubes of potassium, argon and liquid chlorine showed no very marked
difference of density on the photographic plates. It appears that argon is relatively more opaque
to the Röntgen radiation than either oxygen, nitrogen or sodium, and is on a level with potassium,
chlorine, phosphorus, aluminium and sulphur. This fact may be regarded as supporting the view
that the atomic weight of argon is twice its density relative to hydrogen, since in general the
opacity of elements in the solid state increases with the atomic weight.

Phosphorescence.—Phosphorescing sulphides of calcium, which are luminous at ordinary
temperatures, and whose emission of light is increased by heating, cease to be luminous if cooled
to −80° C. But their light energy is merely rendered latent, not destroyed, by such cold, and they
still retain the capacity of taking in light energy at the low temperature, to be evolved again when
they are warmed. At the temperature of liquid air many bodies become phosphorescent which do
not exhibit the phenomenon at all, or only to a very slight extent, at ordinary temperatures, e.g.
ivory, indiarubber, egg-shells, feathers, cottonwool, paper, milk, gelatine, white of egg, &c. Of
definite chemical compounds, the platinocyanides among the inorganic bodies seem to yield the
most brilliant effects. Crystals of ammonium platinocyanide, if stimulated by exposure to the
ultra-violet radiation of the electric arc—or better still of a mercury vapour lamp in quartz—
while kept moistened with liquid air, may be seen in the dark to glow faintly so long as they are
kept cold, but become exceedingly brilliant when the liquid air evaporates and the temperature
rises. Among organic bodies the phenomenon is particularly well marked with the ketonic
compounds and others of the same type. The chloro-, bromo-, iodo-, sulpho- and nitro-

compounds show very little effect as a rule. The activity of the alcohols, which is usually
considerable, is destroyed by the addition of a little iodine. Coloured salts, &c., are mostly
inferior in activity to white ones. When the lower temperature of liquid hydrogen is employed
there is a great increase in phosphorescence under light stimulation as compared with that
observed with liquid air. The radio-active bodies, like radium, which exhibit self-luminosity in
the dark, maintain that luminosity unimpaired when cooled in liquid hydrogen.

Some crystals become for a time self-luminous when placed in liquid hydrogen, because the
high electric stimulation due to the cooling causes actual electric discharges between the crystal
molecules. This phenomenon is very pronounced with nitrate of uranium and some
platinocyanides, and cooling such crystals even to the temperature of liquid air is sufficient to
develop marked electrical and luminous effects, which are again observed, when the crystal is
taken out of the liquid, during its return to normal temperature. Since both liquid hydrogen and
liquid air are good electrical insulators, the fact that electric discharges take place in them proves
that the electric potential generated by the cooling must be very high. A crystal of nitrate of
uranium indeed gets so highly charged electrically that it refuses to sink in liquid air, although its
density is 2.8 times greater, but sticks to the side of the vacuum vessel, and requires for its
displacement a distinct pull on the silk thread to which it is attached. Such a crystal quickly
removes cloudiness from liquid air by attracting all the suspended particles to its surface, just as a
fog is cleared out of air by electrification. It is interesting to observe that neither fused nitrate of
uranium nor its solution in absolute alcohol shows any of the remarkable effects of the crystalline
state on cooling.

Cohesion.—The physical force known as cohesion is greatly increased by low temperatures.
This fact is of much interest in connexion with two conflicting theories of matter. Lord Kelvin’s
view was that the forces that hold together the ultimate particles of bodies may be accounted for
without assuming any other forces than that of gravitation, or any other law than the Newtonian.
An opposite view is that the phenomena of cohesion, chemical union, &c., or the general
phenomena of the aggregation of molecules, depend on the molecular vibrations as a physical
cause (Tolver Preston, Physics of the Ether, p. 64). Hence at the zero of absolute temperature,
this vibrating energy being in complete abeyance, the phenomena of cohesion should cease to
exist and matter generally be reduced to an incoherent heap of “cosmic dust.” This second view
receives no support from experiment. Atmospheric air, for instance, frozen at the temperature of
liquid hydrogen, is a hard solid, the strength of which gives no hint that with a further cooling of
some 20 degrees it would crumble into powder. On the contrary, the lower the scale of
temperature is descended, the more powerful become the forces which hold together the particles
of matter. A spiral of fusible metal, which at ordinary temperatures cannot support the weight of
an ounce without being straightened out, will, when cooled to the temperature of liquid oxygen,
and so long as it remains in that cooled condition, support several pounds and vibrate like a steel
spring. Similarly a bell of fusible metal at −182° C. gives a distinct metallic ring when struck.

Balls of iron, lead, tin, ivory, &c., thus cooled, exhibit an increased rebound when dropped from
a height; an indiarubber ball, on the other hand, becomes brittle, and is smashed to atoms by a
very moderate fall. Tables XII. and XIII., which give the mean results of a large number of
experiments, show the increased breaking stress gained by metals while they are cooled to the
temperature of liquid oxygen.

Table XII.—Breaking Stress in Pounds of Metallic Wires 0.098 inch in diameter.

+15° C. −182° C.
Steel (soft) 420 700
Iron 320 670
Copper 200 300
Brass 310 440
German silver 470 600
Gold 255 340
Silver 330 420

Table XIII.—Breaking Stress in Pounds of Cast Metallic Testpieces; diameter of rod-0.2 inch.

+15° C. −182° C.
Tin 200 390
Lead 77 170
Zinc 35 26
Mercury 0 31
Bismuth 60 30
Antimony 61 30
Solder 300 645
Fusible, metal (Wood) 140 450

In the second series of experiments the test-pieces were 2 in. long and were all cast in the same
mould. It will be noticed that in the cases of zinc, bismuth and antimony the results appear to be
abnormal, but it may be pointed out that it is difficult to get uniform castings of crystalline
bodies, and it is probable that by cooling such stresses are set up in some set of cleavage planes
as to render rupture comparatively easy. In the case of strong steel springs the rigidity modulus
does not appear to be greatly affected by cold, for although a number were examined, no
measurable differences could be detected in their elongation under repeated additions of the same
load. No quantitative experiments have been made on the cohesive properties of the metals at the
temperature of boiling hydrogen (−252°), owing to the serious cost that would be involved. A
lead wire cooled in liquid hydrogen did not become brittle, as it could be bent backwards and
forwards in the liquid.

Electrical Resistivity.—The first experiments on the conductivity of metals at low
temperatures appear to have been made by Wroblewski (Comptes rendus, ci. 160), and by
Cailletet and Bouty (Journ. de phys. 1885, p. 297). The former’s experiments were undertaken to
test the suggestion made by Clausius that the resistivity of pure metals is sensibly proportional to
the absolute temperature; he worked with copper having a conductibility of 98%, and carried out
measurements at various temperatures, the lowest of which was that given by liquid nitrogen
boiling under reduced pressure. His general conclusion was that the resistivity decreases much
more quickly than the absolute temperature, so as to approach zero at a point not far below the
temperature of nitrogen evaporating in vacuo. Cailletet and Bouty, using ethylene as the
refrigerant, and experimenting at temperatures ranging from 0° C. to −100° C. and −123° C.,
constructed formulae intended to give the coefficients of variation in electrical resistance for
mercury, tin, silver, magnesium, aluminium, copper, iron and platinum. Between 1892 and 1896
Dewar and Fleming carried out a large number of experiments to ascertain the changes of
conductivity that occur in metals and alloys cooled in liquid air or oxygen to −200° C. The
method employed was to obtain the material under investigation in the form of a fine regular
wire and to wind it in a small coil; this was then plunged in the liquid and its resistance
determined. The accompanying chart (fig. 14) gives the results in a compendious form, the
temperatures being expressed not in degrees of the ordinary air-thermometer scale, but in
platinum degrees as given by one particular platinum resistance thermometer which was used
throughout the investigation. A table showing the value of these degrees in degrees centigrade
according to Dickson will be found in the Phil. Mag. for June 1898, p. 527; to give some idea of
the relationship, it may be stated here that −100° of the platinum thermometer = −94°.2 C., −150°
plat. = −140°.78 C., and −200° plat. = −185°.53 C. In general, the resistance of perfectly pure
metals was greatly decreased by cold—so much so that, to judge by the course of the curves on
the chart, it appeared probable that at the zero of absolute temperature resistance would vanish
altogether and all pure metals become perfect conductors of electricity. This conclusion,
however, has been rendered very doubtful by subsequent observations by Dewar, who found that
with the still lower temperatures attainable with liquid hydrogen the increases of conductivity
became less for each decrease of temperature, until a point was reached where the curves bent
sharply round and any further diminution of resistance became very small; that is, the
conductivity remained finite. The reduction in resistance of some of the metals at the boiling
point of hydrogen is very remarkable. Thus copper has only 1⁄105th, gold 1⁄30th, platinum 1⁄35th to
⁄ th, silver 1⁄24th the resistance at melting ice, but iron is only reduced to 1⁄8th part of the same
1 17

initial resistance. Table XIV. shows the progressive decrease of resistance for certain metals and
one alloy as the temperature is lowered from that of boiling water down to that of liquid
hydrogen boiling under reduced pressure; it also gives the “vanishing temperature,” at which the
conductivity would become perfect if the resistance continued to decrease in the same ratio with
still lower temperatures, the values being derived from the extrapolation curves of the relation
between resistance and temperature, according to Callendar and Dickson. It will be seen that

many of the substances have actually been cooled to a lower temperature than that at which their
resistance ought to vanish.

Fig. 14.—Chart of the Variation of Electrical Resistance of Pure Metals and Alloys with Temperature. (Dewar and Fleming.)

In the case of alloys and impure metals, cold brings about a much smaller decrease in
resistivity, and the continuations of the curves at no time show any sign of passing through the
zero point. The influence of the presence of impurities in minute quantities is strikingly shown in
the case of bismuth. Various specimens of the metal, prepared with great care by purely chemical
methods, gave in the hands of Dewar and Fleming some very anomalous results, appearing to
reach at −80° C. a maximum of conductivity, and thereafter to increase in resistivity with
decrease of temperature. But when the determinations were carried out on a sample of really pure
bismuth prepared electrolytically, a normal curve was obtained corresponding to that given by
other pure metals. As to alloys, there is usually some definite mixture of two pure metals which
has a maximum resistivity, often greater than that of either of the constituents. It appears too that
high, if not the highest, resistivity corresponds to possible chemical compounds of the two metals
employed, e.g. platinum 33 parts with silver 66 parts = PtAg4; iron 80 with nickel 20 = Fe4Ni;
platinum 80 with iridium 20 = IrPt4; and copper 70 with manganese 30 = Cu2Mn. The product
obtained by adding a small quantity of one metal to another has a higher specific resistance than
the predominant constituent, but the curve is parallel to, and therefore the same in shape as, that
of the latter (cf. the curves for various mixtures of Al and Cu on the chart). The behaviour of
carbon and of insulators like gutta-percha, glass, ebonite, &c., is in complete contrast to the
metals, for their resistivity steadily increases with cold. The thermo-electric properties of metals
at low temperatures are discussed in the article Thermoelectricity.

Table XIV.

Platinum-
Metals. Platinum. rhodium Gold. Silver. Copper. Iron.
Alloy.
Resistance at 100° 39.655 36.87 16.10 8.336 11.572 4.290
Resistance at 0° C 28.851 31.93 11.58 5.990 8.117 2.765
Resistance at carbonic acid 19.620 .. .. .. .. ..
Resistance at liquid oxygen 7.662 22.17 3.380 1.669 1.589 0.633
Resistance at liquid nitrogen .. .. .. .. 1.149 ..
Resistance at liquid oxygen under exhaustion 4.634 20.73 .. .. .. ..
Resistance at liquid hydrogen 0.826 18.96 0.381 0.244 0.077 0.356
Resistance at liquid hydrogen under exhaustion 0.705 18.90 0.298 0.226 0.071 ..
Resistance coefficients 0.003745 0.003607 0.003903 0.003917 0.004257 0.005515
−244.50° −543.39° −257.90° −252.26° −225.62° −258.40°C.
Vanishing temperatures (Centigrade)
−244.15° −530.32° −257.8° −252.25° −226.04° −246.80°D.

Magnetic Phenomena.—Low temperatures have very marked effects upon the magnetic
properties of various substances. Oxygen, long known to be slightly magnetic in the gaseous

state, is powerfully attracted in the liquid condition by a magnet, and the same is true, though to a
less extent, of liquid air, owing to the proportion of liquid oxygen it contains. A magnet of
ordinary carbon steel has its magnetic moment temporarily increased by cooling, that is, after it
has been brought to a permanent magnetic condition (“aged”). The effect of the first immersion
of such a magnet in liquid air is a large diminution in its magnetic moment, which decreases still
further when it is allowed to warm up to ordinary temperatures. A second cooling, however,
increases the magnetic moment, which is again decreased by warming, and after a few repetitions
of this cycle of cooling and heating the steel is brought into a condition such that its magnetic
moment at the temperature of liquid air is greater by a constant percentage than it is at the
ordinary temperature of the air. The increase of magnetic moment seems then to have reached a
limit, because on further cooling to the temperature of liquid hydrogen hardly any further
increase is observed. The percentage differs with the composition of the steel and with its
physical condition. It is greater, for example, with a specimen tempered very soft than it is with
another specimen of the same steel tempered glass hard. Aluminium steels show the same kind of
phenomena as carbon ones, and the same may be said of chrome steels in the permanent
condition, though the effect of the first cooling with them is a slight increase of magnetic
moment. Nickel steels present some curious phenomena. When containing small percentages of
nickel (e.g. 0.84 or 3.82), they behave under changes of temperature much like carbon steel. With
a sample containing 7.65%, the phenomena after the permanent state had been reached were
similar, but the first cooling produced a slight increase in magnetic moment. But steels
containing 18.64 and 29% of nickel behaved very differently. The result of the first cooling was a
reduction of the magnetic moment, to the extent of nearly 50% in the case of the former.
Warming again brought about an increase, and the final condition was that at the temperature of
liquid air the magnetic moment was always less than at ordinary temperatures. This anomaly is
all the more remarkable in that the behaviour of pure nickel is normal, as also appears to be
generally the case with soft and hard iron. Silicon, tungsten and manganese steels are also
substantially normal in their behaviour, although there are considerable differences in the
magnitudes of the variations they display (Proc. Roy. Soc. lx. 57 et seq.; also “The Effect of
Liquid Air Temperatures on the Mechanical and other Properties of Iron and its Alloys,” by Sir
James Dewar and Sir Robert Hadfield, Id. lxxiv. 326-336).

Low temperatures also affect the permeability of iron, i.e. the degree of magnetization it is
capable of acquiring under the influence of a certain magnetic force. With fine Swedish iron,
carefully annealed, the permeability is slightly reduced by cooling to −185° C. Hard iron,
however, in the same circumstances suffers a large increase of permeability. Unhardened steel
pianoforte wire, again, behaves like soft annealed iron. As to hysteresis, low temperatures appear
to produce no appreciable effect in soft iron; for hard iron the observations are undecisive.

Biological Research.—The effect of cold upon the life of living organisms is a matter of great
intrinsic interest as well as of wide theoretical importance. Experiment indicates that moderately

high temperatures are much more fatal, at least to the lower forms of life, than are exceedingly
low ones. Professor M‘Kendrick froze for an hour at a temperature of −182° C. samples of meat,
milk, &c., in sealed tubes; when these were opened, after being kept at blood-heat for a few days,
their contents were found to be quite putrid. More recently some more elaborate tests were
carried out at the Jenner (now Lister) Institute of Preventive Medicine on a series of typical
bacteria. These were exposed to the temperature of liquid air for twenty hours, but their vitality
was not affected, their functional activities remained unimpaired and the cultures which they
yielded were normal in every respect. The same result was obtained when liquid hydrogen was
substituted for air. A similar persistence of life has been demonstrated in seeds, even at the lowest
temperatures; they were frozen for over 100 hours in liquid air at the instance of Messrs Brown
and Escombe, with no other effect than to afflict their protoplasm with a certain inertness, from
which it recovered with warmth. Subsequently commercial samples of barley, peas and
vegetable-marrow and mustard seeds were literally steeped for six hours in liquid hydrogen at the
Royal Institution, yet when they were sown by Sir W. T. Thiselton Dyer at Kew in the ordinary
way, the proportion in which germination occurred was no smaller than with other batches of the
same seeds which had suffered no abnormal treatment. Mr Harold Swithinbank has found that
exposure to liquid air has little or no effect on the vitality of the tubercle bacillus, although by
very prolonged exposures its virulence is modified to some extent; but alternate exposures to
normal and very cold temperatures do have a decided effect both upon its vitality and its
virulence. The suggestion once put forward by Lord Kelvin, that life may in the first instance
have been conveyed to this planet on a meteorite, has been objected to on the ground that any
living organism would have been killed before reaching the earth by its passage through the
intense cold of interstellar space; the above experiments on the resistance to cold offered by
seeds and bacteria show that this objection at least is not fatal to Lord Kelvin’s idea.

At the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine liquid air has been brought into use as an agent
in biological research. An inquiry into the intracellular constituents of the typhoid bacillus,
initiated under the direction of Dr Allan Macfadyen, necessitated the separation of the cell-
plasma of the organism. The method at first adopted for the disintegration of the bacteria was to
mix them with silver-sand and churn the whole up in a closed vessel in which a series of
horizontal vanes revolved at a high speed. But certain disadvantages attached to this procedure,
and accordingly some means was sought to do away with the sand and triturate the bacilli per se.
This was found in liquid air, which, as had long before been shown at the Royal Institution, has
the power of reducing materials like grass or the leaves of plants to such a state of brittleness that
they can easily be powdered in a mortar. By its aid a complete trituration of the typhoid bacilli
has been accomplished at the Jenner Institute, and the same process, already applied with success
also to yeast cells and animal cells, is being extended in other directions.

Industrial Applications.—While liquid air and liquid hydrogen are being used in scientific
research to an extent which increases every day, their applications to industrial purposes are not

so numerous. The temperatures they give used as simple refrigerants are much lower than are
generally required industrially, and such cooling as is needed can be obtained quite satisfactorily,
and far more cheaply, by refrigerating machinery employing more easily condensable gases.
Their use as a source of motive power, again, is impracticable for any ordinary purposes, on the
score of inconvenience and expense. Cases may be conceived of in which for special reasons it
might prove advantageous to use liquid air, vaporized by heat derived from the surrounding
atmosphere, to drive compressed-air engines, but any advantage so gained would certainly not be
one of cheapness. No doubt the power of a waterfall running to waste might be temporarily
conserved in the shape of liquid air, and thereby turned to useful effect. But the reduction of air
to the liquid state is a process which involves the expenditure of a very large amount of energy,
and it is not possible even to recover all that expended energy during the transition of the
material back to the gaseous state. Hence to suggest that by using liquid air in a motor more
power can be developed than was expended in producing the liquid air by which the motor is
worked, is to propound a fallacy worse than perpetual motion, since such a process would have
an efficiency of more than 100%. Still, in conditions where economy is of no account, liquid air
might perhaps, with effectively isolated storage, be utilized as a motive power, e.g. to drive the
engines of submarine boats and at the same time provide a supply of oxygen for the crew; even
without being used in the engines, liquid air or oxygen might be found a convenient form in
which to store the air necessary for respiration in such vessels. But a use to which liquid air
machines have already been put to a large extent is for obtaining oxygen from the atmosphere.
Although when air is liquefied the oxygen and nitrogen are condensed simultaneously, yet owing
to its greater volatility the latter boils off the more quickly of the two, so that the remaining liquid
becomes gradually richer and richer in oxygen. The fractional distillation of liquid air is the
method now universally adopted for the preparation of oxygen on a commercial scale, while the
nitrogen simultaneously obtained is used for the production of cyanamide, by its action on
carbide of calcium. An interesting though minor application of liquid oxygen, or liquid air from
which most of the nitrogen has evaporated, depends on the fact that if it be mixed with powdered
charcoal, or finely divided organic bodies, it can be made by the aid of a detonator to explode
with a violence comparable to that of dynamite. This explosive, which might properly be called
an emergency one, has the disadvantage that it must be prepared on the spot where it is to be used
and must be fired without delay, since the liquid evaporates in a short time and the explosive
power is lost; but, on the other hand, if a charge fails to go off it has only to be left a few minutes,
when it can be withdrawn without any danger of accidental explosion.

For further information the reader may consult W. L. Hardin, Rise and
Development of the Liquefaction of Gases (New York, 1899), and Lefèvre,
La Liquéfaction des gaz et ses applications; also the article Condensation
of Gases. But the literature of liquid gases is mostly contained in scientific
periodicals and the proceedings of learned societies. Papers by Wroblewski
and Olszewski on the liquefaction of oxygen and nitrogen may be found in
the Comptes rendus, vols, xcvi.-cii., and there are important memoirs by the
former on the relations between the gaseous and liquid states and on the
compressibility of hydrogen in Wien. Akad. Sitzber. vols. xciv. and xcvii.;
his pamphlet Comme l’air a été liquéfié (Paris, 1885) should also be
referred to. For Dewar’s work, see Proc. Roy. Inst. from 1878 onwards,
including “Solid Hydrogen” (1900); “Liquid Hydrogen Calorimetry”
(1904); “New Low Temperature Phenomena” (1905); “Liquid Air and
Charcoal at Low Temperatures” (1906); “Studies in High Vacua and Helium
at Low Temperatures” (1907); also “The Nadir of Temperature and Allied
Problems” (Bakerian Lecture), Proc. Roy. Soc. (1901), and the Presidential
Address to the British Association (1902). The researches of Fleming and
Dewar on the electrical and magnetic properties of substances at low
temperatures are described in Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. lx., and Proc. Roy. Inst.
(1896); see also “Electrical Resistance of Pure Metals, Alloys and Non-
Metals at the Boiling-point of Oxygen,” Phil. Mag. vol. xxxiv. (1892);
“Electrical Resistance of Metals and Alloys at Temperatures approaching
the Absolute Zero,” ibid. vol. xxxvi. (1893); “Thermoelectric Powers of
Metals and Alloys between the Temperatures of the Boiling-point of Water
and the Boiling-point of Liquid Air,” ibid. vol. xl. (1895); and papers on the
dielectric constants of various substances at low temperatures in Proc. Roy.
Soc. vols. lxi. and lxii. Optical and spectroscopic work by Liveing and
Dewar on liquid gases is described in Phil. Mag. vols. xxxiv. (1892), xxxvi.
(1893), xxxviii. (1894) and xl. (1895); for papers by the same authors on
the separation and spectroscopic examination of the most volatile and least

volatile constituents of atmospheric air, see Proc. Roy. Soc. vols. lxiv., lxvii.
and lxviii. An account of the influence of very low temperatures on the
germinative power of seeds is given by H. T. Brown and F. Escombe in
Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. lxii., and by Sir W. Thiselton Dyer, ibid. vol. lxv., and
their effect on bacteria is discussed by A. Macfadyen, ibid. vols. lxvi. and
lxxi. (J. Dr.)

1 Figs. 1, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13 in this article are from Proc. Roy. Inst., by permission.

2 It may be noted that now that the commercial production of oxygen is effected by the
liquefaction of air, with separation of its constituents in what is essentially a Coffey still,
the chemist has at his command large quantities not only of the less volatile constituents,
krypton and xenon, but also of the more volatile ones, neon and helium. Roughly a million
volumes of air contain 20 volumes of neon and helium, about 15 of the former to 5 of the
latter, approximately 1 volume of hydrogen being associated with them, so that in view of
the enormous amounts of oxygen that are produced, helium can be obtained in practically
any quantity directly from the atmosphere.

LIQUORICE. The hard and semi-vitreous sticks of paste, black in
colour and possessed of a sweet somewhat astringent taste, known as
liquorice paste or black sugar, are the inspissated juice of the roots of a
leguminous plant, Glycyrrhiza glabra, the radix glycyrrhizae of the
pharmacopoeia. The plant is cultivated throughout the warmer parts of
Europe, especially on the Mediterranean shores, and to some extent in
Louisiana and California. The roots for use are obtained in lengths of 3 or 4
ft., varying in diameter from 1/4 to 1 in.; they are soft, flexible and fibrous,
and internally of a bright yellow colour, with a characteristic, sweet pleasant

taste. To this sweet taste of its root the plant owes its generic name
Glycyrrhiza (γλυκύῤῥιζα, the sweet-root), of which the word liquorice is a
corruption. The roots contain grape-sugar, starch, resin, asparagine, malic
acid and the glucoside glycyrrhizin, C24H36O9, a yellow amorphous powder
with an acid reaction and a distinctive bitter-sweet taste. On hydrolysis,
glycyrrhizin yields glucose and glycyrrhetin.

Stick liquorice is made by crushing and grinding the roots to a pulp,
which is boiled in water over an open fire, and the decoction separated from
the solid residue of the root is evaporated till a sufficient degree of
concentration is attained, after which, on cooling, it is rolled into the form
of sticks or other shapes for the market. The preparation of the juice is a
widely extended industry along the Mediterranean coasts; but the quality
best appreciated in the United Kingdom is made in Calabria, and sold under
the names of Solazzi and Corigliano juice. Liquorice enters into the
composition of many cough lozenges and other demulcent preparations; and
in the form of aromatic syrups and elixirs it has a remarkable effect in
masking the taste of nauseous medicines.

LIQUOR LAWS. In most Western countries the sale of alcoholic
liquor is regulated by law. The original and principal object is to check the
evils arising from the immoderate use of such liquor, in the interest of
public order, morality and health; a secondary object is to raise revenue
from the traffic. The form and the stringency of the laws passed for these

purposes vary very widely in different countries according to the habits of
the people and the state of public opinion. The evils which it is desired to
check are much greater in some countries than in others. Generally
speaking they are greater in northern countries and cold and damp climates
than in southern and more sunny ones. Climate has a marked influence on
diet for physiological reasons over which we have no control. The fact is
attested by universal experience and is perfectly natural and inevitable,
though usually ignored in those international comparisons of economic
conditions and popular customs which have become so common. It holds
good both of food and drink. The inhabitants of south Europe are much less
given to alcoholic excess than those of central Europe, who again are more
temperate than those of the north. There is even a difference between
localities so near together as the east and west of Scotland. The chairman of
the Prison Commissioners pointed out before a British royal commission in
the year 1897 the greater prevalence of drunkenness in the western half, and
attributed it in part to the dampness of the climate on the western coast. But
race also has an influence. The British carry the habit of drinking wherever
they go, and their colonial descendants retain it even in hot and dry
climates. The Slav peoples and the Magyars in central Europe are much
more intemperate than the Teutonic and Latin peoples living under similar
climatic conditions. These natural differences lead, in accordance with the
principle discerned and enunciated by Montesquieu, to the adoption of
different laws, which vary with the local conditions. But social laws of this
character also vary with the state of public opinion, not only in different
countries but in the same country at different times. The result is that the
subject is in a state of incessant flux. There are not only many varieties of
liquor laws, but also frequent changes in them, and new experiments are
constantly being tried. The general tendency is towards increased
stringency, not so much because the evils increase, though that happens in
particular places at particular times, as because public opinion moves

broadly towards increasing condemnation of excess and increasing reliance
on legislative interference. The first is due partly to a general process of
refining manners, partly to medical influence and the growing attention paid
to health; the second to a universal tendency which seems inherent in
democracy.

Liquor laws may be classified in several ways, but the most useful way
for the present purpose will be to take the principal methods of conducting
the traffic as they exist, under four main headings, and after a brief
explanation give some account of the laws in the principal countries which
have adopted them. The four methods are: (1) licensing or commercial sale
for private profit under a legal permit; (2) sale by authorized bodies not for
private profit, commonly known as the Scandinavian or company system;
(3) state monopoly; (4) prohibition. It is not a scientific classification,
because the company system is a form of licensing and prohibition is no
sale at all; but it follows the lines of popular discussion and is more
intelligible than one of a more technical character would be. All forms of
liquor legislation deal mainly with retail sale, and particularly with the sale
for immediate consumption on the spot.

1. Licensing.—This is by far the oldest and the most widely adopted
method; it is the one which first suggests itself in the natural course of
things. Men begin by making and selling a thing without let or hindrance to
please themselves. Then objections are raised, and when they are strong or
general enough the law interferes in the public interest, at first mildly; it
says in effect—This must not go on in this way or to this extent; there must
be some control, and permission will only be given to duly authorized
persons. Such persons are licensed or permitted to carry on the traffic under
conditions, and there is obviously room for infinite gradations of strictness
in granting permission and infinite variety in the conditions imposed. The
procedure may vary from mere notification of the intention to open an

establishment up to a rigid and minutely detailed system of annual licensing
laid down by the law. But in all cases, even when mere notification is
required, the governing authority has the right to refuse permission or to
withdraw it for reasons given, and so it retains the power of control. At the
same time holders of the permission may be compelled to pay for the
privilege and so contribute to the public revenue. The great merit of the
licensing system is its perfect elasticity, which permits adjustment to all
sorts of conditions and to the varying demands of public opinion. It is in
force in the United Kingdom, which first adopted it, in most European
countries, in the greater part of North America, including both the United
States and Canada, in the other British dominions and elsewhere.

2. The Scandinavian or Company System.—The principle of this method
is the elimination of private profit on the ground that it removes an
incentive to the encouragement of excessive drinking. A monopoly of the
sale of liquor is entrusted to a body of citizens who have, or are supposed to
have, no personal interest in it, and the profits are applied to public
purposes. The system, which is also called “disinterested management,” is
adopted in Sweden and Norway; and the principle has been applied in a
modified form in England and Finland by the operation of philanthropic
societies which, however, have no monopoly but are on the same legal
footing as ordinary traders.

3. State Monopoly.—As the name implies, this system consists in
retaining the liquor trade in the hands of the state, which thus secures all the
profit and is at the same time able to exercise complete control. It is adopted
in Russia, in certain parts of the United States and, in regard to the
wholesale trade, in Switzerland.

4. Prohibition.—This may be general or local; in the latter case it is
called “local option” or “local veto.” The sale of liquor is made illegal in
the hope of preventing drinking altogether or of diminishing it by making it

more difficult. General prohibition has been tried in some American states,
and is still in force in a few; it is also applied to native races, under civilized
rule, both in Africa and North America. Local prohibition is widely in force
in the United States, Canada and Australasia, Sweden and Norway. In
certain areas in other countries, including the United Kingdom, the sale of
liquor is in a sense prohibited, not by the law, but by the owners of the
property who refuse to allow any public-houses. Such cases have nothing to
do with the law, but they are mentioned here because reference is often
made to them by advocates of legal prohibition.

the united kingdom

England has had a very much longer experience of liquor legislation than
any other country, and the story forms an introduction necessary to the
intelligent comprehension of liquor legislation in general. England adopted
a licensing system in 1551, and has retained it, with innumerable
modifications, ever since. The English were notorious for hard drinking for
centuries before licensing was adopted, and from time to time sundry efforts
had been made to check it, but what eventually compelled the interference
of the law was the growth of crime and disorder associated with the public-
houses towards the end of the 15th century. Numbers of men who had
previously been engaged in the civil wars or on the establishment of feudal
houses were thrown on the world and betook themselves to the towns,
particularly London, where they frequented the ale-houses, “dicing and
drinking,” and lived largely on violence and crime. An act was passed in
1495 against vagabonds and unlawful games, whereby justices of the peace
were empowered to “put away common ale-selling in towns and places
where they should think convenient and to take sureties of keepers of ale-
houses in their good behaviour.” That was the beginning of statutory control
of the trade. The act clearly recognized a connexion between public

disorder and public-houses. The latter were ale-houses, for at that time ale
was the drink of the people; spirits had not yet come into common use, and
wine, the consumption of which on the premises was prohibited in 1552,
was only drunk by the wealthier classes.

Early History of Licensing.—The act of 1551-1552, which introduced
licensing, was on the same lines but went further. It confirmed the power of
suppressing common ale-selling, and enacted that no one should be allowed
to keep a common ale-house or “tippling” house without obtaining the
permission of the justices in open session or of two of their number. It
further “directed that the justices should take from the persons whom they
licensed such bond and surety by recognisance as they should think
convenient, and empowered them in quarter session to inquire into and try
breaches by licensed persons of the conditions of their recognisances and
cases of persons keeping ale-houses without licences and to punish the
offenders” (Bonham Carter, Royal Commission on Liquor Licensing Laws,
vol. iii.). This act embodied the whole principle of licensing, and the object
was clearly stated in the preamble: “For as much as intolerable hurts and
troubles to the commonwealth of this realm doth daily grow and increase
through such abuses and disorders as are had and used in common ale-
houses and other places called tippling houses.” The evil was not due
merely to the use of alcoholic liquor but to the fact that these houses, being
public-houses, were the resort of idle and disorderly characters. The
distinction should be borne in mind.

The act seems to have been of some effect, for no further legislation was
attempted for half a century, though there is abundant evidence of the
intemperate habits of all classes. Mr Bonham Carter (loc. cit.) observes:—

“The recognisances referred to in the act were valuable instruments for
controlling the conduct of ale-house keepers. The justices, in exercise of
their discretion, required the recognisances to contain such conditions for

the management and good order of the business as they thought suitable. In
this way a set of regulations came into existence, many of which were
subsequently embodied in acts of Parliament. In some counties general
rules were drawn up, which every ale-house keeper was bound to observe.”

It is interesting to note that among the conditions laid down about this
time were the following: Closing at 9 p.m. and during divine service on
Sunday; in some cases complete closing on Sunday except to travellers; the
licence-holder to notify to the constable all strangers staying for more than
a night and not to permit persons to continue drinking or tippling;
prohibition of unlawful games, receiving stolen goods and harbouring bad
characters; the use of standard measures and prices fixed by law. There was,
however, no uniformity of practice in these respects until the 17th century,
when an attempt was made to establish stricter and more uniform control by
a whole series of acts passed between 1603 and 1627. The evils which it
was sought to remedy by these measures were the existence of unlicensed
houses, the use of ale-houses for mere drinking and the prevalence of
disorder. It was declared that the ancient and proper use of inns and ale-
houses was the refreshment and lodging of travellers, and that they were not
meant for “entertainment and harbouring of lewd and idle people to spend
and consume their money and their time in lewd and drunken manner.”
Regulations were strengthened for the suppression of unlicensed houses,
licences were made annual, and the justices were directed to hold a special
licensing meeting once a year (1618). Penalties were imposed on
innkeepers for permitting tippling, and also on tipplers and drunkards
(1625). In 1634 licensing was first applied to Ireland. Later in the century
heavy penalties were imposed for adulteration.

The next chapter in the history of licensing has to do with spirits, and is
very instructive. Spirits were not a native product like beer; brandy was
introduced from France, gin from the Netherlands and whisky from Ireland;

but down to the year 1690 the consumption was small. The home
manufacture was strictly limited, and high duties on imported spirits
rendered them too dear for the general public unless smuggled.
Consequently the people had not acquired the taste for them. But in 1690
distilling was thrown open to any one on the payment of very trifling duties,
spirits became extremely cheap and the consumption increased with great
rapidity. Regulation of the retail traffic was soon found to be necessary, and
by an act passed in 1700-1701, the licensing requirements already existing
for ale-house keepers were extended to persons selling distilled liquors for
consumption on the premises. A new class of public-houses in the shape of
spirit bars grew up. In the year 1732 a complete and detailed survey of all
the streets and houses in London was carried out by William Maitland,
F.R.S. Out of a total of 95,968 houses he found the following: brew-houses
171, inns 207, taverns 447, ale-houses 5975, brandy-shops 8659; total
number of licensed houses for the retail sale of liquor 15,288, of which
considerably more than one-half were spirit bars. The population was about
three-quarters of a million. About one house in every six was licensed at
this time, and that in spite of attempts made to check the traffic by
restrictive acts passed in 1728-1729. The physical and moral evils caused
by the excessive consumption of spirits were fully recognized; an additional
duty of 5s. a gallon was placed on the distiller, and retailers were compelled
to take out an excise licence of £20 per annum. The object was to make
spirits dearer and therefore less accessible. At the same time, with a view to
lessening the number of houses, the licensing procedure of the justices was
amended by the provision that licences should only be granted at a general
meeting of the justices acting in the division where the applicant resided,
thus abolishing the power conferred by the original licensing act, of any two
justices to grant a licence. This change, effected in 1729, was a permanent
improvement, though it did not prevent the existence of the prodigious
numbers of houses recorded by Maitland in 1732. The attempt to make

spirits dearer by high excise duties, on the other hand, was adjudged a
failure because it led to illicit trade, and the act of 1728 was repealed in
1732. But the evil was so glaring that another and more drastic attempt in
the same direction was made in 1736, when the famous Gin Act was passed
in response to a petition presented to parliament by the Middlesex
magistrates, declaring “that the drinking of geneva and other distilled
waters had for some years past greatly increased; that the constant and
excessive use thereof had destroyed thousands of His Majesty’s subjects;
that great numbers of others were by its use rendered unfit for useful labour,
debauched in morals and drawn into all manner of vice and wickedness....”
The retailing of spirits in quantities of less than 2 gallons was made subject
to a licence costing £50 and the retailer had also to pay a duty of 20s. on
every gallon sold. This experiment in “high licensing” was a disastrous
failure, though energetic attempts were made to enforce it by wholesale
prosecutions and by strengthening the regulations against evasion. Public
opinion was inflamed against it, and the only results were corruptions of the
executive and an enormous increase of consumption through illicit
channels. The consumption of spirits in England and Wales nearly doubled
between 1733 and 1742, and the state of things was so intolerable that after
much controversy the high duties were repealed in 1742 with the object of
bringing the trade back into authorized channels; the cost of a licence was
reduced from £50 to £1 and the retail duty from 20s. to 1d. a gallon.

This period witnessed the high-water mark of intemperance in England.
From various contemporary descriptions it is abundantly clear that the state
of things was incomparably worse than anything in modern times, and that
women, whose participation in the practice of drinking and frequenting
public-houses is recorded by writers in the previous century, were affected
as well as men. The experience is particularly instructive because it includes
examples of excess and deficiency of opportunities and the ill effects of
both on a people naturally inclined to indulgence in drink. It was followed

by more judicious action, which showed the adaptability of the licensing
system and the advantages of a mean between laxity and severity. Between
1743 and 1753 acts were passed which increased control in a moderate way
and proved much more successful than the previous measures. The retail
licence duty was moderately raised and the regulations were amended and
made stricter. The class of houses eligible for licensing was for the first time
taken into account, and the retailing of spirits was only permitted on
premises assessed for rates and, in London, of the annual value of £10;
justices having an interest in the trade were excluded from licensing
functions. Another measure which had an excellent effect made “tippling”
debts—that is, small public-houses debts incurred for spirits—irrecoverable
at law. The result of these measures was that consumption diminished and
the class of houses improved. At the same time (1753) the general licensing
provisions were strengthened and extended. The distinction between new
licences and the renewal of old ones was for the first time recognized;
applicants for new licences in country districts were required to produce a
certificate of character from the clergy, overseers and church-wardens or
from three or four householders. The annual licensing sessions were made
statutory, and the consent of a justice was required for the transfer of a
licence from one person to another during the term for which it was
granted. Penalties for infringing the law were increased, and the licensing
system was extended to Scotland (1755-1756). With regard to wine, it has
already been stated that consumption on the premises was forbidden in
1552, and at the same time the retail sale was restricted to towns of some
importance and the number of retailers, who had to obtain an appointment
from the corporation or the justices, was strictly limited. In 1660
consumption on the premises was permitted under a Crown (excise) licence,
good for a variable term of years; in 1756 this was changed to an annual
excise licence of fixed amount, and in 1792 wine was brought under the
same jurisdiction of the justices as other liquors.

It is clear from the foregoing that a great deal of legislation occurred
during the 18th century, and that by successive enactments, particularly
about the middle of the century, the licensing system gradually became
adjusted to the requirements of the time and took a settled shape. The acts
then passed still form the basis of the law. In the early part of the 19th
century another period of legislative activity set in. A parliamentary inquiry
into illicit trade in spirits took place in 1821, and in 1828 important acts
were passed amending and consolidating the laws for England and for
Scotland; in 1833 a general Licensing Act was passed for Ireland. These are
still the principal acts, though they have undergone innumerable
amendments and additions. The English act of 1828 introduced certain
important changes. A licence from the justices was no longer required for
the sale of liquor for consumption off the premises, and the power of the
justices to suppress public-houses at their discretion (apart from the annual
licensing), which they had possessed since 1495, was taken away. The
removal of this power, which had long been obsolete, was the natural
corollary of the development of the licensing system, its greater stringency
and efficiency and the increase of duties imposed on the trade. Men on
whom these obligations were laid, and who were freshly authorized to carry
on the business every year, could not remain liable to summary deprivation
of the privileges thus granted and paid for. The justices had absolute
discretion to withhold licences from an applicant whether new or old; but
an appeal was allowed to quarter sessions against refusal and also against
conviction for offences under the act. The main points in the law at this
time were the following. The sale of alcoholic liquors for consumption on
the premises was forbidden under penalties except to persons authorized
according to law by the justices. Licences were granted for one year and
had to be renewed annually. The justices held a general meeting each year
at a specified time for the purpose of granting licences; those peculiarly
interested in the liquor trade were disqualified. The licence contained

various provisions for regulating the conduct of the house and maintaining
order, but closing was only required during the hours of divine service on
Sunday. Applicants for new licences and for the transfer of old ones
(granted at a special sessions of the justices) were required to give notice to
the local authorities and to post up notices at the parish church and on the
house concerned.

Excise Licences.—It will be convenient at this point to explain the
relation between that part of the licensing system which is concerned with
the conduct of the traffic and lies in the jurisdiction of the justices and that
part which has to do with taxation or revenue. The former is the earlier and
more important branch of legislative interference; we have traced its history
from 1495 down to 1828. Its object from the beginning was the
maintenance of public order and good conduct, which were impaired by the
misuse of public-houses; and all the successive enactments were directed to
that end. They were attempts to suppress or moderate the evils arising from
the traffic by regulating it. The excise licensing system has nothing to do
with public order or the conduct of the traffic; its object is simply to obtain
revenue, and for a long time the two systems were quite independent. But
time and change gradually brought them into contact and eventually they
came to form two aspects of one unified system. Licensing for revenue was
first introduced in 1660 at the same time as duties on the manufacture of
beer and spirits: but it was of an irregular character and was only applied to
wine, which was not then under the jurisdiction of the justices at all (see
above). In 1710 a small annual tax was imposed on the retailers of beer and
ale and collected by means of a stamp on the justices’ licence. In 1728 an
annual excise licence of £20 was imposed on retailers of spirits, and in 1736
this was raised to £50 (see above). The object of these particular imposts,
however, was rather to check the sale, as previously explained, than to
secure revenue. In 1756 the previous tax on the retail sale of wine for
consumption on the premises was changed to an annual excise licence,

which was in the next year extended to “made wines” and “sweets” (British
wines). Similar licences, in place of the previous stamps, were temporarily
required for beer and ale between 1725 and 1742 and permanently imposed
in 1808. Thus the system of annual excise licences became gradually
applied to all kinds of liquor. In 1825 the laws relating to them were
consolidated and brought into direct relation with the other licensing laws.
It was enacted that excise licences for the retail of liquor should only be
granted to persons holding a justices’ licence or—to use the more correct
term—certificate. The actual permission to sell was obtained on payment of
the proper dues from the excise authorities, but they had no power to
withhold it from persons authorized by the justices. And that was still the
system in 1910.

Licensing since 1828.—There was no change in the form of the British
licensing system between the consolidation of the law in 1825-1828 and the
time (1910) at which we write; but there were a great many changes in
administrative detail and some changes in principle. Only the most
important can be mentioned. In 1830 a bold experiment was tried in
exempting the sale of beer from the requirement of a justice’s licence. Any
householder rated to the parish was entitled, under a bond with sureties, to
take out an excise licence for the sale of beer for consumption on or off the
premises. This measure, which applied to England and was commonly
known as the Duke of Wellington’s Act, had two objects; one was to
encourage the consumption of beer in the hope of weaning the people from
spirits; the other was to counteract the practice of “tieing” public-houses to
breweries by creating free ones. With regard to the first, it was believed that
spirit-drinking was increasing again at the time and was doing a great deal
of harm. The reason appears to have been a great rise in the returns of
consumption, which followed a lowering of the duty on spirits from 11s.
8¼d. to 7s. a gallon in 1825. The latter step was taken because of the
prevalence of illicit distillation. In 1823 the duty had been lowered for the

same reason in Scotland from 6s. 2d. and in Ireland from 5s. 7d. to a
uniform rate of 2s. 4¾d. a gallon, with so much success in turning the trade
from illegal to legal channels that a similar change was thought advisable in
England, as stated. The legal or apparent consumption rose at once from 7
to nearly 13 million gallons; but it is doubtful if there was much or any real
increase. According to an official statement, more than half the spirits
consumed in 1820 were illicit. The facts are of much interest in showing
what had already been shown in the 18th century, that the liquor trade will
not bear unlimited taxation; the traffic is driven underground. It is highly
probable that this accounts for part of the great fall in consumption which
followed the raising of the spirit duty from 11s. to 14s. 9d. under Mr Lloyd
George’s Budget in 1909. With regard to “tied” houses, this is the original
form of public-house. When beer was first brewed for sale a “tap” for retail
purposes was attached to the brewery, and public-houses may still be found
bearing the name “The Brewery Tap.” At the beginning of the 19th century
complaints were made of the increasing number of houses owned or
controlled by breweries and of the dependence of the licence-holders, and
in 1817 a Select Committee inquired into the subject. The Beerhouse Act
does not appear to have checked the practice or to have diminished the
consumption of spirits; but it led to a great increase in the number of beer-
houses. It was modified in 1834 and 1840, but not repealed until 1869,
when beer-houses were again brought under the justices.

Most of the other very numerous changes in the law were concerned with
conditions imposed on licence-holders. The hours of closing are the most
important of these. Apart from the ancient regulations of closing during
divine service on Sunday, there were no restrictions in 1828; but after that
at least a dozen successive acts dealt with the point. The first important
measure was applied in London under a Police Act in 1839; it ordered
licensed houses to be closed from midnight on Saturday to mid-day on
Sunday, and produced a wonderful effect on public order. In 1853 a very

important act (Forbes Mackenzie) was passed for Scotland, by which sale
on Sunday was wholly forbidden, except to travellers and lodgers, and was
restricted on week days to the hours between 8 a.m. and 11 p.m. This act
also introduced a distinction between hotels, public-houses and grocers
licensed to sell liquor, and forbade the sale to children under 14 years,
except as messengers, and to intoxicated persons. In England, after a series
of enactments in the direction of progressive restriction, uniform
regulations as to the hours of opening and closing for licensed premises
were applied in 1874, and are still in force (see below). In 1878 complete
Sunday closing, as in Scotland, was applied in Ireland, with the exemption
of the five largest towns, Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Limerick and Waterford;
and in 1881 the same provision was extended to Wales.

Other changes worthy of note are the following. In 1860 the free sale of
wine for consumption off the premises was introduced by the Wine and
Refreshment Houses Act, which authorized any shopkeeper to take out an
excise licence for this purpose; the licences so created were subsequently
known as grocers’ licences. By the same act refreshment houses were
placed under certain restrictions, but were permitted to sell wine for
consumption on the premises under an excise licence. In 1861 spirit dealers
were similarly authorized to sell spirits by the bottle. The effect of these
measures was to exempt a good deal of the wine and spirit trade from the
control of the justices, and the idea was to wean people from public-house
drinking by encouraging them to take what they wanted at home and in
eating-houses.

In 1869 this policy of directing the habits of the people into channels
thought to be preferable, which had been inaugurated in 1830, was
abandoned for one of greater stringency all round, which has since been
maintained. All the beer and wine retail licences were brought under the
discretion of the justices, but they might only refuse “off” licences and the

renewal of previously existing beer-house “on” licences upon specified
grounds, namely (1) unsatisfactory character, (2) disorder, (3) previous
misconduct, (4) insufficient qualification of applicant or premises. In 1872
an important act further extended the policy of restriction; new licences had
to be confirmed, and the right of appeal in case of refusal was taken away;
penalties for offences were increased and extended, particularly for public
drunkenness, and for permitting drunkenness; the sale of spirits to persons
under 16 was prohibited. In 1876 many of these provisions were extended
to Scotland. In 1886 the sale of liquor for consumption on the premises was
forbidden to persons under 13 years. In 1901 the sale for “off” consumption
was prohibited to persons under 14, except in sealed vessels; this is known
as the Child Messenger Act. These measures for the protection of children
were extended in 1908 by an act which came into operation in April 1909,
excluding children under 14 from the public-house bars altogether. The
progressive protection of children by the law well illustrates the influence
of changing public opinion. The successive measures enumerated were not
due to increasing contamination of children caused by their frequenting the
public-house, but to recognition of the harm they sustain thereby. The
practice of taking and sending children to the public-house, and of serving
them with drink, is an old one in England. A great deal of evidence on the
subject was given before a Select Committee of the House of Commons in
1834; but it is only in recent years, when the general concern for children
has undergone a remarkable development in all directions, that attempts
have been made to stop it. In 1902 clubs, which had been increasing, and
habitual drunkards, were brought under the law.

In 1904 a new principle was introduced into the licensing system in
England, and this, too, was due to change in public opinion. Between 1830
and 1869, under the influence of the legislation described above, a
continuous increase in the number of public-houses took place in England;
but after 1869 they began to diminish through stricter control, and this

process has gone on continuously ever since. Reduction of numbers became
a prime object with many licensing benches; they were reluctant to grant
new licences, and made a point of extinguishing old ones year by year. At
first this was easily effected under the new and stringent provisions of the
legislation of 1869-1872, but it gradually became more difficult as the worst
houses disappeared and the remaining ones were better conducted, and gave
less and less excuse for interference. But the desire for reduction still gained
ground, and a new principle was adopted. Houses against which no ill-
conduct was alleged were said to be “superfluous,” and on that ground
licences were taken away. But this, again, offended the general sense of
justice; it was felt that to take away a man’s living or a valuable property for
no fault of his own was to inflict a great hardship. To meet the difficulty the
principle of compensation was introduced by the act of 1904. It provides
that compensation shall be paid to a licence-holder (also to the owner of the
premises) whose licence is withdrawn on grounds other than misconduct of
the house or unsuitability of premises or of character. The compensation is
paid out of a fund raised by an annual charge on the remaining licensed
houses. This act has been followed by a large reduction of licences.

State of the Law in 1910.—In consequence of the long history and
evolution of legislation in the United Kingdom and of the innumerable
minor changes introduced, only a few of which have been mentioned above,
the law has become excessively complicated. The differences between the
English, Scottish and Irish codes, the distinction between the several kinds
of liquor, between consumption on and off the premises, between new
licences and the renewal of old ones, between premises licensed before
1869 and those licensed since, between excise and justices’ licences—all
these and many other points make the subject exceedingly intricate; and it is
further complicated by the uncertainty of the courts and a vast body of case-
made law. Only a summary of the chief provisions can be given here.

1. The open sale of intoxicating liquor (spirits, wine, sweets, beer, cider)
by retail is confined to persons holding an excise licence, with a few
unimportant exceptions, including medicine.

2. A condition precedent to obtaining such a licence is permission granted
by the justices who are the licensing authority and called a justices’ licence
or certificate. Theatres, passenger boats and canteens are exempted from
this condition; also certain dealers in spirits and wine.

3. Justices’ licences are granted at special annual meetings of the local
justices, called Brewster Sessions. Justices having a pecuniary interest in
the liquor trade of the district, except as railway shareholders, are
disqualified from acting; “bias” due to other interests may also be a
disqualification.

4. Justices’ licences are only granted for one year and must be renewed
annually, with the exception of a particular class, created by the act of 1904
and valid for a term of years. Distinctions are made between granting a new
licence and renewing an old one. The proceedings are stricter and more
summary in the case of a new licence; notice of application must be given
to the local authorities; the premises must be of a certain annual value; a
plan of the premises must be deposited beforehand in the case of an “on”
licence; the justices may impose conditions and have full discretion to
refuse without any right of appeal; the licence, if granted, must be
confirmed by a higher authority. In the case of old licences on the other
hand, no notice is required; they are renewed to the former holders on
application, as a matter of right; unless there is opposition or objection,
which may come from the police or from outside parties or from the justices
themselves. If there is objection the renewal may be refused, but only on
specified grounds—namely misconduct, unfitness of premises or character,
disqualification; otherwise compensation is payable on the plan explained
above. There is a right of appeal to a higher court against refusal. In all

cases, whether the justices have full discretion or not, they must exercise
their discretion in a judicial manner and not arbitrarily.

5. Licences may be transferred from one person to another in case of
death, sickness, bankruptcy, change of tenancy, wilful omission to apply for
renewal, forfeiture or disqualification. Licences may also be transferred
from one house to another in certain circumstances.

6. A licence may be forfeited through the conviction of the holder of
certain specified serious offences.

7. Persons may similarly be disqualified from holding a licence.

8. Liquor may only be sold on the premises specified in the licence and
during the following hours:—week-days; London, 5 a.m. to 12.30 p.m.
(Saturday, midnight); large towns 6 a.m. to 11 p.m.; other places 6 a.m. to 10
p.m.—Sundays; London, 1 p.m. to 3 p.m., 6 p.m. to 11 p.m.; other places 12.30

p.m. (or 1 p.m.) to 2.30 p.m. (or 3 p.m.), 6 p.m. to 10 p.m.; Christmas Day and
Good Friday are counted as Sunday. In Scotland, Wales and Ireland (except
the five chief towns) no sale is permitted on Sunday. Licence holders may
sell during prohibited hours to lodgers staying in the house and to bona-fide
travellers, who must be not less than 3 m. from the place they slept in on the
previous night. Extension of hours of sale may be granted for special
occasions and for special localities (e.g. early markets).

9. The following proceedings are prohibited in licensed premises:
permitting children under 14 to be in a bar, selling any liquor to children
under 14 for consumption on the premises, selling liquor to children under
14 as messengers except in corked and sealed vessels, selling spirits for
consumption on the premises to persons under 16; selling to drunken
persons and to habitual drunkards; permitting drunkenness, permitting
disorder, harbouring prostitutes, harbouring constables, supplying liquor to
constables on duty, bribing constables, permitting betting (persistent) or

gaming, permitting premises to be used as a brothel, harbouring thieves,
permitting seditious meetings; permitting the payment of wagers on
premises; permitting premises to be used for election committee rooms. In
and within 20 m. of London music and dancing are prohibited on licensed
premises except under special licences.

10. The police have the right of entry to licensed premises at any time for
the purpose of preventing or detecting offences.

11. The injurious adulteration of any liquor is prohibited; also the dilution
of beer; but dilution of spirits is not unlawful if the customer’s attention is
drawn to the fact.

12. All clubs in which intoxicating liquor is sold must be registered. If the
liquor is the collective property of the members no licence is required for
retail sale, but no liquor can be sold for consumption off the premises.
Clubs run for profit, known as proprietory clubs, are on the same legal
footing as public-houses.

13. Penalties incurred by licence-holders for offences under the foregoing
provisions. For selling any other kind of liquor than that authorized—first
offence, fine not exceeding £50 or one month’s imprisonment; second
offence, fine not exceeding £100 or 3 months’ imprisonment with forfeiture
of licence and, if ordered, confiscation of liquor and disqualification for five
years; third offence, fine not exceeding £100 or six months’ imprisonment
with forfeiture of licence and, if ordered, confiscation of liquor and
unlimited disqualification. Under the Excise Acts the penalty for selling
without a licence is—for spirits, a fine of £100, confiscation of liquor,
forfeiture of licence and perpetual disqualification; for wine, a fine of £20;
for beer or cider “on” consumption £20, “off” consumption £10. For sale to
children; first offence, fine up to £2, second offence, fine up to £5.
Permitting premises to be used as a brothel, fine of £20, forfeiture of licence

and perpetual disqualification. Other offences, fine up to £10 for first
conviction, up to £20 for second.

14. The following are offences on the part of the public. Being found
drunk on any highway or other public place or on licensed premises;
penalty, fine up to 10s. for first conviction, up to 20s. for second, and up to
40s. for third. Riotous or disorderly conduct while drunk; fine up to 40s.
Falsely pretending to be a traveller or lodger; fine up to £5. Causing
children to be in a bar or sending them for liquor contrary to the law; fine
up to £2 for first and up to £5 for second offence. Attempt to obtain liquor
by a person notified to the police as an habitual drunkard; fine up to 20s. for
first offence, up to 40s. for subsequent ones. Giving drunken persons liquor
or helping them to get it on licensed premises; fine up to 40s. or
imprisonment for a month. Causing children under 11 to sing or otherwise
perform on licensed premises, and causing boys under 14 or girls under 16
to do so between 9 p.m. and 6 a.m.; fine up to £25 or three months’
imprisonment.

The foregoing statement of the law does not in all respects apply to
Scotland and Ireland, where the administration differs somewhat from that
of England. In Scotland the provost and bailies are the licensing authority in
royal and parliamentary burghs, and elsewhere the justices. They hold two
sessions annually for granting licences and have considerably more power
in some respects than in England. The hours of opening are from 8 a.m. to
11 p.m. (week days only), but there is a discretionary power to close at 10
p.m. In Ireland the licensing authority is divided between quarter sessions
and petty sessions. Public-house licences are granted and transferred at
quarter sessions; renewals and other licences are dealt with at petty
sessions. In Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Londonderry and Galway the licensing
jurisdiction of quarter sessions is exercised by the recorder, elsewhere by
the justices assembled and presided over by the county court judge. The

licensing jurisdiction of petty sessions is exercised by two or more justices,
but in Dublin by one divisional justice.

Licence. Old Duty. New Duty 1909-1910.
Manufacturers’ Licences—
Distiller (spirits) £10, 10s. £10 for first 50,000 gallons, £10 for every
additional 25,000 gallons.
Rectifier (spirits) £10, 10s. £15, 15s.
Brewer £1 £1 for first 100 barrels, 12s. for every
additional 50 barrels.
Sweets (British wines) £1 £5, 5s.
Wholesale Dealers’ Licences—
Spirits £10, 10s. £15, 15s.
Beer £3, 6s. 1d. £10, 10s.
Wine £10, 10s. No change.
Sweets £5, 5s. No change.
Retail Licences On—
Full or Publican’s (spirits, £4, 10s. to £60 Half the annual value of premises, with a
beer, wine and cider) according to fixed minimum ranging from £5 in
annual value places with less than 2000 inhabitants
of premises. to £35 in towns having over 100,000
inhabitants.
Beer-house £3, 10s. One-third of annual value of premises,
with a minimum as above ranging
from £3, 10s. to £23, 10s.
Wine (confectioners’) £3, 10s. From £4, 10s. to £12 according to annual
value.
Cider £1, 5s. From £2, 5s. to £6.
Sweets £1, 5s. From £2, 5s. to £6.
Retail Licences Off—
Spirits £3, 3s.
Spirits (grocers’, Scotland) £4, 4s. to From £10 to £50 according to annual
£13, 13s. 6d.
value.
Spirits (grocers’, Ireland) £9, 18s. 5d. to
£14, 6s. 7d.
Beer (England) £1, 5s. £1, 10s. to £10.
Beer (grocers’, Scotland) £2, 10s. and £4, £1, 10s. to £10.
4s.
Wine (grocers’) £2, 10s. 0d. £2, 10s. to £10.

Excise Licences and Taxation.—The excise licences may be divided into
four classes, (1) manufacturers’, (2) wholesale dealers’, (3) retail dealers’
for “on” consumption, (4) retail dealers’ for “off” consumption. Only the
two last classes come under the jurisdiction of the justices, as explained
above. The total number of different excise licences is between 30 and 40,
but several of them are subvarieties and unimportant or are peculiar to
Scotland or Ireland. The duties charged on them were greatly changed and
increased by the Finance Act of 1909-1910, and it seems desirable to state
the changes thus introduced. The table on the previous page gives the
principal kinds of licence with the old and the new duties.

There are in addition “occasional” licences valid for one or more days,
which come under the jurisdiction of the justices; the duty is 2s. 6d. a day
for the full licence (raised to 10s.) and 1s. for beer or wine only (raised to
5s.).

The total amount raised by the excise licences in the United Kingdom for
the financial year ending 31st March 1909 was £2,209,928. Of this amount
£1,712,160, or nearly four-fifths, was derived from the full or publicans’
licence, £126,053 from the wholesale spirit licence and £88,167 from the
beer-house licence; the rest are comparatively unimportant. But the licences
only represent a small part of the revenue derived from liquor. The great
bulk of it is collected by means of duties on manufacture and importation.
The total amount for the year ending March 1909 was £37,428,189, or
nearly 30% of the total taxation revenue of the country. The excise duties on
the manufacture of spirits yielded £17,456,366 and those on beer
£12,691,332; customs duties on importation yielded £5,046,949. The excise
duty on spirits was at the rate of 11s. a gallon, raised at the end of April
1909 to 14s. 9d.; the corresponding duty on beer is 7s. 9d. a barrel (36
gallons). The relative taxation of the liquor trade in the United States, which
has become important as a political argument, is discussed below.

Effects of Legislation.—The only effects which can be stated with
precision and ascribed with certainty to legislation are the increase or
diminution of the number of licences or licensed premises; secondary
effects, such as increase or diminution of consumption and of drunkenness,
are affected by so many causes that only by a very careful, well-informed
and dispassionate examination of the facts can positive conclusions be
drawn with regard to the influence of legislation (see Temperance). There is
no more prolific ground for fallacious statements and arguments, whether
unconscious or deliberate. The course of legislation traced above, however,
does permit the broad conclusion that great laxity and the multiplication of
facilities tend to increase drinking and disorder in a country like the United
Kingdom, and that extreme severity produces the same or worse effects by
driving the trade into illicit channels, which escape control, and thus really
increasing facilities while apparently diminishing them. The most
successful course has always been a mean between these extremes in the
form of restraint judiciously applied and adjusted to circumstances. The
most salient feature of the situation as influenced by the law in recent years
is the progressive reduction in the number of licensed houses since 1869.
Previously they had been increasing in England.

The number of public-houses, including beer-houses for “on”
consumption, in 1831 was 82,466; in 1869 it had risen to 118,602; in 1909
it had fallen again to 94,794. But if the proportion of public-houses to
population be taken there has been a continuous fall since 1831, as the
following table shows:—

England and Wales.

Proportion
No. of
Year. per 10,000 of
“on” Licences.
Population.

1831 82,466 59
1871 112,886 49
1901 101,940 31
1909 94,794 26

The change may be put in another way. In 1831 there was one public-
house to 168 persons; in 1909 the proportion was 1 to 375. The proportional
reduction goes back to the 18th century. In 1732 there was in London one
public-house to every 50 persons (see above).

In Scotland the number of public-houses has been diminishing since
1829, when there were 17,713; in 1909 there were only 7065, while the
population had more than doubled. The number in proportion to population
has therefore fallen far more rapidly than in England, thus—1831, 1 to 134
persons; 1909, 1 to 690 persons. In Ireland the story is different. There has
been a fall in the number of public-houses since 1829, when there were
20,548; but it has not been large or continuous and the population has been
steadily diminishing during the time, so that the proportion to population
has actually increased, thus—1831, 1 to 395 persons; 1909, 1 to 249
persons. As a whole, however, the United Kingdom shows a large and
progressive diminution of public-houses to population; nor is this
counterbalanced by an increase of “off” licences. If we take the whole
number of licences we get the following movement in recent years:—

No. of Retail Licences (“on” and “off”) per 10,000 of Population.

1893. 1903. 1909.
England and Wales 46 42 37
Scotland 37 33 30
Ireland 41 46 45
United Kingdom 45 42 37

The diminution in the number of public-houses in England was markedly
accelerated by the act of 1904, which introduced the principle of
compensation. The average annual rate of reduction in the ten years 1894-
1904 before the act was 359; in the four years 1905-1908; after the act it
rose to 1388. The average annual number of licences suppressed with
compensation was 1137, and the average annual amount of compensation
paid was £1,096,946, contributed by the trade as explained above.

The reduction of public-houses has been accompanied in recent years by
a constant increase in the number of clubs. By the act of 1902, which
imposed registration, they were brought under some control and the number
of legal clubs was accurately ascertained. Previously the number was only
estimated from certain data with approximate accuracy. The following table
gives the official figures:—

Clubs: England and Wales.

1887. 1896. 1904. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909.
Number 1982 3655 6371 6589 6721 6907 7133 7353
Proportion per 10,000 0.7 1.1 1.89 1.93 1.95 1.98 2.02 2.08

Clubs represent alternative channels to the licensed trade and they are
under much less stringent control; they have no prohibited hours and the
police have not the same right of entry. In so far, therefore, as clubs replace
public-houses the reduction of the latter does not mean diminished facilities
for drinking, but the contrary. In the years 1903-1908 the average number
of clubs proceeded against for offences was 74 and the average number
struck off the register was 52. The increase of clubs and the large proportion
struck off the register suggest the need of caution in dealing with the
licensed trade; over-stringent measures defeat their own end.

Persistent attempts have for many years been made to effect radical
changes in the British system of licensing by the introduction of some of the
methods adopted in other countries, and particularly those in the United
States. But it is difficult to engraft new and alien methods, involving violent
change, upon an ancient system consolidated by successive statutory
enactments and confirmed by time and usage. The course of the law and
administration since 1869 has made it particularly difficult. The stringent
conditions imposed on licence-holders have given those who fulfil them a
claim to consideration, and the reduction of licences, by limiting the
market, has enhanced their value. An expectation of renewal, in the absence
of misconduct, has grown up by usage and been confirmed by the law,
which recognizes the distinction between granting a new licence and
renewing an old one, by the treasury which levies death duties on the
assumption that a licence is an enduring property, by local authorities which
assess upon the same assumption, and by the High Courts of Justice, whose
decisions have repeatedly turned on this point. The consequence of all this
is that very large sums have been invested in licensed property, which has
become part of the settled order of society; and to destroy it by some
sudden innovation would cause a great shock. The position is entirely
different in other countries where no such control has ever been exercised.
It is possible to impose a new system where previously there was none, but
not to replace suddenly an old and settled one for something entirely
different. Only the most convincing proof of the need and the advantages of
the change would justify it; and such proof has not been forthcoming. The
British system has the great merit of combining adaptability to different
circumstances and to changing customs with continuity and steadiness of
administration. The advantages of abandoning it for some other are more
than doubtful, the difficulties are real and serious. Over a very long period it
has been repeatedly readjusted in conformity with the movement of public
opinion and of national habits; while under it the executive have gradually

got the traffic well in hand, and a great and progressive improvement in
order and conduct has taken place. The process is gradual but sure, and the
record will compare favourably with that of any other comparable country.
Further readjustment will follow and is desirable. The great defect of the
law is its extreme complexity; it needs recasting and simplification. There
are too many kinds of licence, and the classification does not correspond
with the actual conditions of the traffic. Some licences are obsolete and
superfluous; others make no distinction between branches of the trade
which fulfil entirely different functions and require different treatment. The
full or publican’s licence, which is incomparably the most important, places
on the same legal footing hotels, restaurants, village inns and mere drinking
bars, and the lack of distinction is a great stumbling-block. In the attempt
made in 1908 to introduce new legislation it was found necessary to
incorporate distinctions between different classes of establishment, although
that was not contemplated in the original bill. It will always be found
necessary whenever the subject is seriously approached, because the law
has to deal with things as they actually are. It does not fall within the scope
of this article to discuss the numerous controversial questions which arise in
connexion with various legislative proposals for dealing with the liquor
traffic; but an account of the methods which it has been proposed to adopt
from other countries will be found below.

The United States

The liquor legislation of the United States presents a great contrast to that
of the United Kingdom, but it is not less interesting in an entirely different
way. In place of a single homogeneous system gradually evolved in the
course of centuries it embraces a whole series of different ones based on the
most diverse principles and subject to sudden changes and frequent
experiments. It is not sufficiently understood in Europe that the legislatures

of the several states are sovereign in regard to internal affairs and make
what laws they please subject to the proviso that they cannot over-ride the
Federal law. There is therefore no uniformity in regard to such matters as
liquor legislation, and it is a mistake to speak of any particular system as
representing the whole country. The United States government only
interferes with the traffic to tax it for revenue, and to regulate the sale of
liquor to Indians, to soldiers, etc. The liquor traffic is subject—whether in
the form of manufacture, wholesale or retail trade—to a uniform tax of 25
dollars (£5) per annum imposed on every one engaged in it. Congress,
under the constitution, controls interstate commerce, and the Supreme Court
has decided that without its consent no state can prevent a railway or other
carrying agency from bringing liquor to any point within its borders from
outside. Thus no state can keep out liquor or prevent its consumption, but
any state legislature may make what internal regulations it pleases and may
prohibit the manufacture and sale altogether within its own borders. It may
go further. In 1887 a judgment was delivered by the Supreme Court of the
United States that it is within the discretionary power of a state to protect
public health, safety and morals even by the destruction of property without
compensation, and that the constitution of the United States is not thereby
violated. Use has been made of this power in Kansas, and it appears
therefore that persons who engage in the liquor trade do so at their own risk.
There is in fact no stability at all except in a few states which have
incorporated some principle in their constitutions, and even that does not
ensure continuity of practice, as means are easily found for evading the law
or substituting some other system which amounts to the same thing. As a
whole the control of the liquor traffic oscillates violently between attempted
suppression and great freedom combined with heavy taxation of licensed
houses.

In the great majority of the states some form of licensing exists; it is the
prevailing system and was adopted, no doubt from England, at an early

period. It is exercised in various ways. The licensing authority may be the
municipality or a specially constituted body or the police or a judicial body.
The last, which is the method in Pennsylvania, seems to be exceptional.
According to Mr Fanshawe there is a general tendency, due to the
prevailing corruption, to withdraw from municipal authorities power over
the licensing, and to place this function in the hands of commissioners, who
may be elected or nominated. In New York state the licensing
commissioners used to be nominated in cities by the mayors and elected
elsewhere; but by the Raines law of 1896 the whole administration was
placed under a state commissioner appointed by the governor with the
consent of the Senate. A similar plan is in force in some important cities in
other states. In Boston the licensing is in the hands of a police board
appointed by the governor; in Baltimore and St Louis the authority is vested
in commissioners similarly appointed; and in Washington the licensing
commissioners are appointed by the president. In Pennsylvania, where the
court of quarter sessions is the authority, the vesting of licensing in a
judicial body dates back to 1676 and bears the stamp of English influence.
It is noteworthy that in Philadelphia and Pittsburg (Allegheny county) the
judicial court was for a time given up in favour of commissioners, but the
change was a great failure and abandoned in 1888. The powers of the
licensing authority vary widely; in some cases the only grounds of refusal
are conduct and character, and licences are virtually granted to every
applicant; in others the discretion to refuse is absolute. In Massachusetts the
number of licences allowed bears a fixed ratio to the population, namely 1
to 1000, except in Boston, where it is 1 to 500, but as a rule where licences
are given they are given freely. They are valid for a year and granted on
conditions. The first and most general condition is the payment of a fee or
tax, which varies in amount in different states. Under the “high licence”
system (see below) it generally varies according to the size of the locality
and the class of licence where different classes are recognized. In

Massachusetts there are six licences; three for consumption on the premises
—namely (1) full licence for all liquors, (2) beer, cider, and light wine, (3)
beer and cider; two for consumption off the premises—namely (1) spirits,
(2) other liquors; the sixth is for druggists. In New York state also there are
six classes of licence, though they are not quite the same; but in many states
there appears to be only one licence, and no distinction between on and off
sale, wholesale or retail. Another condition generally imposed in addition to
the tax is a heavy bond with sureties; it varies in amount but is usually not
less than 2000 dollars (£400) and may be as high as 6000 dollars (£1200). A
condition precedent to the granting of a licence imposed in some states is
the deposit of a petition or application some time beforehand, which may
have to be backed by a certain number of local residents or tax-payers. In
Pennsylvania the required number is 12, and this is the common practice
elsewhere; in Missouri a majority of tax-payers is required, and the licence
may even then be refused, but if the petition is signed by two-thirds of the
tax-payers the licensing authority is bound to grant it. This seems to be a
sort of genuine local option. Provision is also generally made for hearing
objectors. Another condition sometimes required (Massachusetts and Iowa)
is the consent of owners of adjoining property. In some states no licences
are permitted within a stated distance of certain institutions; e.g. public
parks (Missouri) and schools (Massachusetts). Regulations imposed on the
licensed trade nearly always include prohibition of sale to minors under 18
and to drunkards, on Sundays, public holidays and election days, and
prohibition of the employment of barmaids. Sunday closing, which is
universal, dates at least from 1816 (Indiana) and is probably much older.
The hours of closing on week days vary considerably but are usually 10 p.m.
or 11 p.m. Other things are often prohibited including indecent pictures,
games and music.

State Prohibition.—In a few states no licences are allowed. State
prohibition was first introduced in 1846 under the influence of a strong

agitation in Maine, and within a few years the example was followed by the
other New England states; by Vermont in 1852, Connecticut in 1854, New
Hampshire in 1855 and later by Massachusetts and Rhode Island. They
have all now after a more or less prolonged trial given it up except Maine.
Other states which have tried and abandoned it are Illinois (1851-1853),
Indiana (1855-1858), Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, South Dakota. The great
Middle states have either never tried it, as in the case of New York (where it
was enacted in 1855 but declared unconstitutional), Pennsylvania and New
Jersey, or only gave it a nominal trial, as with Illinois and Indiana. A curious
position came about in Ohio,1 one of the great industrial states. It did not
adopt prohibition, which forbids the manufacture and sale of liquor; but in
1851 it abandoned licensing, which had been in force since 1792, and
incorporated a provision in the constitution declaring that no licence should
thereafter be granted in the state. The position then was that retail sale
without a licence was illegal and that no licence could be granted. This
singular state of things was changed in 1886 by the “Dow law,” which
authorized a tax on the trade and rendered it legal without expressly
sanctioning or licensing it. There were therefore no licences and no
licensing machinery, but the traffic was taxed and conditions imposed. In
effect the Dow law amounted to repeal of prohibition and its replacement
by the freest possible form of licensing. In Iowa, which early adopted a
prohibitory law, still nominally in force, a law, known as the “mulct law,”
was passed in 1894 for taxing the trade and practically legalizing it under
conditions. The story of the forty years’ struggle in this state between the
prohibition agitation and the natural appetites of mankind is exceedingly
instructive; it is an extraordinary revelation of political intrigue and tortuous
proceedings, and an impressive warning against the folly of trying to coerce
the personal habits of a large section of the population against their will. It
ended in a sort of compromise, in which the coercive principle is preserved
in one law and personal liberty vindicated by another contradictory one.

The result may be satisfactory, but it might be attained in a less expensive
manner. What suffers is the principle of law itself, which is brought into
disrepute.

State prohibition, abandoned by the populous New England and central
states, has in recent years found a home in more remote regions. In 1907 it
was in force in five states—Maine, Kansas, North Dakota, Georgia and
Oklahoma; in January, 1909, it came into operation in Alabama,
Mississippi, and North Carolina; and in July 1909 in Tennessee.

Local Prohibition.—The limited form of prohibition known as local veto
is much more extensively applied. It is an older plan than state prohibition,
having been adopted by the legislature of Indiana in 1832. Georgia followed
in the next year, and then other states took it up for several years until the
rise of state prohibition in the middle of the century caused it to fall into
neglect for a time. But the states which adopted and then abandoned general
prohibition fell back on the local form, and a great many others have also
adopted it. In 1907 it was in force in over 30 states, including all the most
populous and important, with one or two exceptions. But the extent to
which it is applied varies very widely and is constantly changing, as
different places take it up and drop it again. Some alternate in an almost
regular manner every two or three years, or even every year; and periodical
oscillations of a general character occur in favour of the plan or against it as
the result of organized agitation followed by reaction. The wide
discrepancies between the practice of different states are shown by some
statistics collected in 1907, when the movement was running favourably to
the adoption of no licence. In Tennessee the whole state was under
prohibition with the exception of 5 municipalities; Arkansas, 56 out of 75
counties; Florida, 35 out of 46 counties; Mississippi, 56 out of 77 counties;
North Carolina, 70 out of 97 counties; Vermont, 3 out of 6 cities and 208
out of 241 towns. These appear to be the most prohibitive states, and they

are all of a rural character. At the other end of the scale were Pennsylvania
with 1 county and a few towns (“town” in America is generally equivalent
to “village” in England); Michigan, 1 county and a few towns; California,
parts of 8 or 10 counties. New York had 308 out of 933 towns, Ohio, 480
out of 768 towns, Massachusetts, 19 out of 33 cities and 249 out of 321
towns. At the end of 1909 a strong reaction against the prohibition policy
set in, notably in Massachusetts.

There is no more uniformity in the mode of procedure than in the extent
of application. At least five methods are distinguished. In the most complete
and regular form a vote is taken every year in all localities whether there
shall be licences or not in the ensuing year and is decided by a bare
majority. A second method of applying the general vote is to take it at any
time, but not oftener than once in four years, on the demand of one-tenth of
the electorate. A third plan is to apply this principle locally and put the
question to the vote, when demanded, in any locality. A fourth and entirely
different system is to invest the local authority with powers to decide
whether there shall be licences or not; and a fifth is to give residents power
to prevent licences by means of protest or petition. The first two methods
are those most widely in force; but the third plan of taking a local vote by
itself is adopted in some important states, including New York, Ohio and
Illinois. Opinions differ widely with regard to the success of local veto, but
all independent observers agree that it is more successful than state
prohibition, and the preference accorded to it by so many states after
prolonged experience proves that public opinion broadly endorses that
view. Its advantage lies in its adaptability to local circumstances and local
opinion. It prevails mainly in rural districts and small towns; in the larger
towns it is best tolerated where they are in close proximity to “safety
valves” or licensed areas in which liquor can be obtained; the large cities do
not adopt it. On the other hand, it has some serious disadvantages. The
perpetually renewed struggle between the advocates and opponents of

prohibition is a constant cause of social and political strife; and the alternate
shutting up and opening of public houses in many places makes continuity
of administration impossible, prevents the executive from getting the traffic
properly in hand, upsets the habits of the people, demoralizes the trade and
stands in the way of steady improvement.

Public Dispensaries.—This entirely different system of controlling the
traffic has been in general operation in one state only, South Carolina; but it
was also applied to certain areas in the neighbouring states of North
Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. The coloured element is very strong in
these states, especially in South Carolina, where the coloured far exceeds
the white population. The dispensary system was inaugurated there in 1893.
It had been preceded by a licensing system with local veto (adopted in
1882), but a strong agitation for state prohibition brought matters to a crisis
in 1891. The usual violent political struggle, which is the only constant
feature of liquor legislation in the United States, took place, partly on
temperance and partly on economic grounds; and a way out was found by
adopting an idea from the town of Athens in Georgia, where the liquor trade
was run by the municipality through a public dispensary. A law was passed
in 1892 embodying this principle but applying it to the whole state. The
measure was fiercely contested in the courts and the legislature for years
and it underwent numerous amendments, but it survived. Under it the state
became the sole purveyor of liquor, buying wholesale from the
manufacturers and selling retail through dispensaries under public
management and only for consumption off the premises. Many changes
were introduced from time to time without abandoning the principle, but in
1907 the system of state control was replaced by one of county
administration. Local veto is also in force, and thus the localities have the
choice of a dispensary or no sale at all. The regulations are very strict. The
dispensaries are few and only open on week-days and during the day-time;
they close at sunset. Liquor is only sold in bottles and in not less quantities

than half a pint of spirits and a pint of beer, and it must be taken away; bars
are abolished. There is a general consensus of testimony to the effect of the
system in improving public order especially among the coloured
population, who are very susceptible to drink. The law seems to be well
carried out in general, but Charleston and Columbia, the only two
considerable towns, are honeycombed with illicit drink-shops, as the writer
has proved by personal experience. Columbia is the capital and the seat of
cotton manufactures, as are all the larger towns, with the exception of
Charleston, which is the port and business centre. The population of the
state is predominantly rural, and local prohibition obtains in 18 out of 41
counties.

The following statistical comparison, extracted from the United States
Census of 1900 and the Inland Revenue Returns by Mr W. O. Tatum (New
Encyclopedia of Social Reform) and here presented in tabular form, is
highly instructive. It shows the population and number of liquor dealers
paying the United States tax in two prohibition states, one state under what
is considered the best licensing system, and South Carolina.

Wholesale Retail
State. Population. Liquor Liquor
Dealers. Dealers.
Maine (Prohibition) 694,466 51 1366
Kansas (Prohibition) 1,470,495 129 3125
Massachusetts (Licence) 2,805,346 617 5092
S. Carolina (Dispensary) 1,340,316 13 534

This table may be said to epitomize the results of the United States
restrictive liquor laws. It presents examples of three different systems; the
proportion of retail liquor sellers to population is—under complete
prohibition, 1 to 508 and 1 to 475; under licence and local prohibition, 1 to

530; under dispensary and local prohibition, 1 to 2509. But the remarkable
thing is the enormous amount of illicit traffic existing under all three
systems. It is incomparably greatest under complete prohibition because the
whole of the traffic in these states is illicit. In South Carolina one of the
wholesale dealers and 388 of the 534 retailers were illicit. In Massachusetts
the number cannot be stated, but it is very large. If the whole state were
under licence the total legal number of licences, which is limited in
proportion to population (see above), would be 3400; and in that case there
would be some 1700 illicit retailers. But a large part of the state, probably
more than half, is under local prohibition, so that the majority of the 5000
retail dealers must be illicit. These facts, which are typical and not
exceptional, reveal the failure of the laws to control the traffic; only partial
or spasmodic attempts are made to enforce them and to a great extent they
are ignored by common consent. The illegal trade is carried on so openly
that the United States revenue officers have no difficulty in collecting the
federal tax. It is not a satisfactory state of things, or one which countries
where law is respected would care to imitate. The example is a good lesson
in what to avoid.

Taxation.—Mention has been made above of the federal and state
taxation imposed on the liquor trade. The former is uniform; the latter
varies greatly, even in those states which have adopted the “high licence.”
This system is intended to fulfil two purposes; to act as an automatic check
on the number of licences and to produce revenue. It was introduced in
Nebraska in 1881, when a tax of 1000 dollars (£200) was placed on saloons
(public houses) in large towns, and half that amount in smaller ones. The
practice gradually spread and has now been adopted by a large number of
states, noticeably the populous and industrial north-eastern and central
states. In Massachusetts, where the high licence was adopted in 1874 when
the state returned to licensing after a trial of prohibition, the fees are
exceptionally high, the minimum for a fully licensed on and off house being

1300 dollars (£260); in Boston the average tax is £310. In New York state it
ranges from 150 dollars (£30) in sparsely populated districts to 1200 dollars
(£240), and in Pennsylvania it is much the same. In New Jersey, on the
other hand, it ranges from £20 to £60; in Connecticut from £50 to £90; in
Rhode Island from £40 to £80. In Missouri, which has a special system of
its own and a sort of sliding scale, great variations occur and in some cases
the tax exceeds £500. In Michigan it is uniform at £100. The mean for the
large cities is £133. The revenue derived from this source is distributed in
many ways, but is generally divided in varying proportions between the
state, the county and the municipality; sometimes a proportion goes to the
relief of the poor, to road-making or some other public purpose. The
amount levied in the great cities is very large. It will be seen from the
foregoing that the taxation of licences is much heavier in the United States
than in the United Kingdom. The total yield was ascertained by a special
inquiry in 1896 and found to be rather less than 12 millions sterling; in the
same year the yield from the same source in the United Kingdom was just
under 2 millions. Allowing for difference of population the American rate of
taxation was 3¼ times as great as the British. It has been inferred that the
liquor trade is much more highly taxed in the United States and that it
would bear largely increased taxation in the United Kingdom; that argument
was brought forward in support of Mr Lloyd George’s budget of 1909. But
it only takes account of the tax on licences and leaves out of account the tax
on liquor which is the great source of revenue in the United Kingdom, as
has been shown above. The scales are much lower in the United States,
especially on spirits, which are only taxed at the average rate of 5s. 8d. a
gallon against 11s. (raised to 14s. 9d. in 1909) in the United Kingdom. Mr
Frederic Thompson has calculated out the effect of the two sets of rates and
shown that if British rates were applied to the United States the average
yield in the three years ending 1908 would be raised from 44 millions to 76
millions; and conversely if American rates were applied to the United

Kingdom the average yield would be lowered from 36 millions to 23
millions. Taking licences and liquor taxation together he finds that the
application of the British standards for both would still raise the total yield
in the United States by 39%; and that even the exceptionally high rates
prevailing in Massachusetts would, if applied to the United Kingdom,
produce some 4 millions less revenue than the existing taxation. Other
calculations based on the consumption and taxation per head lead to the
same conclusion that the trade is actually taxed at a considerably higher rate
in the United Kingdom. In the three years ending 1908 the average amount
paid per head in taxation was 13s. 8¾d. in the United States and 17s. 6¾d.
in the United Kingdom. It may be added that the method of taxing licences
heavily has certain disadvantages; it stimulates that illicit trade which is the
most outstanding feature of the traffic in the United States, and combined
with the extreme insecurity of tenure involved in local option it gives
licence-holders additional inducements to make as much money as possible
by any means available, while they have the opportunity, for no
compensation is ever paid for sudden dispossession. The notion that the
trade will stand an indefinite amount of taxation is a dangerous and oft-
proved fallacy.

European Countries.

With the exception of Sweden, Norway and Russia, which have special
systems of their own, the continental countries of Europe have as yet paid
comparatively little legislative attention to the subject of the liquor traffic,
which is recognized by the law but for the most part freely permitted with a
minimum of interference. Differences exist, but, generally speaking,
establishments may be opened under a very simple procedure, which
amounts to an elementary form of licensing, and the permission is only
withdrawn for some definite and serious offence. Regulations and

conditions are for the most part left to the discretion of the local authority
and the police and are not burdensome. The reason for such freedom as
compared with the elaborate and stringent codes of the United Kingdom
and the United States is not less concern for public welfare but the simple
fact that the traffic gives less trouble and causes less harm through the
abuse of drink; the habits of the people are different in regard to the
character of the drinks consumed, the mode of consumption and the type of
establishment. Cafés, restaurants and beer-gardens are much more common,
and mere pot-houses less so than in the English-speaking countries. Where
trouble arises and engages the attention of the authorities and the
legislature, it is almost invariably found to be associated with the
consumption of spirits. In several of the wine-producing countries, which
are generally marked by the temperate habits of the people, the widespread
havoc among the vines caused some years ago by the phylloxera led to an
increased consumption of spirits which had a bad effect and aroused
considerable anxiety. This was notably the case in France, where an anti-
alcohol congress, held in 1903, marked the rise of public and scientific
opinion on the subject. Temperance societies have become active, and in
some countries there is a movement towards stricter regulations or at least a
demand for it; but in others the present law is a relaxation of earlier ones.

France.—The present law governing the licensing of establishments
where liquor is sold for consumption on the premises was passed in 1880; it
abrogated the previous decree of 1851, by which full discretion was vested
in the local authorities, and freed the traffic from arbitrary restrictions. It
provides that any person desiring to open a café, cabaret or other place for
retailing liquor must give notice to the authorities, with details concerning
himself, the establishment and the proprietor, at least 15 days beforehand;
the authority in Paris is the préfecture of police and elsewhere the mairie.
Transfers of proprietorship or management must be notified within 15 days,
and intended transference of location 8 days beforehand. The penalty for

infraction is a fine of 16 francs to 100 francs. Legal minors and persons
convicted of certain crimes and offences—theft, receiving stolen goods,
various forms of swindling, offences against morality, the sale of
adulterated articles—are prohibited; in the case of crimes, forever; in the
case of offences, for five years. Otherwise permission cannot be refused,
subject to conditions which the local authority has power to lay down
regulating the distance of such establishments from churches, cemeteries,
hospitals, schools and colleges. But persons engaged in the trade, who are
convicted of the offences mentioned above and of infraction of the law for
the suppression of public drunkenness, are disabled, as above. The law
practically amounts to free trade and the number of houses has increased
under it; in 1900 there was one to every 81 persons. This proportion is only
exceeded by Belgium. Under the Local Government Act of 1884 municipal
authorities are empowered, for the maintenance of public order, to fix hours
of closing, regulate dancing, forbid the employment of girls and the
harbouring of prostitutes and make other regulations. The hours of closing
differ considerably but usually they are 11 p.m., midnight or 1 a.m. The trade
is lightly taxed; retailers pay from 15 to 50 francs a year; wholesale dealers,
125 francs; breweries the same in most departments, distilleries 25 francs.
The excise revenue from liquor amounted to £20,000,000 in 1900.

Germany.—The German law and practice are broadly similar to the
French, but the several states vary somewhat in detail. Under the imperial
law of 1879 inns or hotels and retail trade in spirits for on or off
consumption may not be carried on without a permit or licence from the
local authority which, however, can only be refused on the ground of
character or of unsuitability of premises. This is the general law of the
empire; but the state governments are empowered to make the granting of a
licence for retailing spirits dependent on proof that it is locally required, and
also to impose the same condition on inn-keeping and the retailing of other
drinks in places with less than 15,000 inhabitants and in larger ones which

obtain a local statute to that effect. Before a licence is granted the opinion
of the police and other executive officers is to be taken. The licensing
authority is the mayor in towns and the chairman of the district council in
rural areas. The provisions with regard to the dependence of a licence on
local requirements have been adopted by Prussia and other states, but
apparently little or no use is made of them. Permits are very freely granted,
and the number of licensed houses, though not so great as in France, is very
high in proportion to population. Three classes of establishment are
recognized—(1) Gast-wirthschaft, (2) Schank-wirthschaft, (3) Klein-
handel. Gast-wirthschaft is inn-keeping, or the lodging of strangers in an
open house for profit, and includes “pensions” of a public character; the
imperial law provides that a licence may be limited to this function and
need not include the retailing of liquor. Schank-wirthschaft is the retailing
for profit of all sorts of drinks, including coffee and mineral waters; it
corresponds to café in France and refreshment house in England; but the
mere serving of food does not come under the law with which we are here
concerned. Klein-handel is retail sale either for on or off consumption, and
the liquor for which a licence is required in this connexion is described as
branntwein or spiritus, and is defined as distilled alcoholic liquor, whether
by itself or in combination. A licence for Schank-wirthschaft includes Klein-
handel, but not vice-versa; none is required for the retail sale of wine which
is the seller’s own produce. Licences may be withdrawn for offences
against the law. Licensed houses are under the supervision of the police,
who fix the hours of closing; it is usually 10 p.m., but is commonly extended
to 11 p.m. or midnight in the larger towns and still later in the case of
particular establishments. Some cafés in Berlin do not close till 3 a.m. and
some never close at all. Persons remaining on the premises in forbidden
hours after being ordered to leave by the landlord are liable to punishment.
Serving drunkards and persons of school age is forbidden. Drunkards, in
addition to fines or imprisonment for disorderly conduct, are liable to be

deprived of control of their affairs and placed under guardianship. For
music and dancing special permits are required. With regard to taxation, in
Prussia all business establishments beyond a certain value pay an annual tax
and licensed houses are on the same footing as the rest. Businesses
producing less than £75 a year or of less than £150 capital value are free;
the rest are arranged in four classes on a rising scale. In the three lower
classes the tax ranges from a minimum of 4s. to a maximum of £24; in the
highest class, which represents businesses producing £2500 and upwards
(or a capital value of £50,000 and upwards) the tax is 1% of the profits.
There is also a stamp duty on the licence ranging from 1s. 6d. to £5. The
latter goes to the local revenue, the business tax to the government. Beer
and spirits are also subject to an excise tax, from which the imperial
revenue derived £7,700,000 in 1901; but the total taxation of the liquor
trade could only be calculated from the returns of all the federated states.

The laws of France and Germany are fairly representative of the
European states, with some minor variations. In Holland the number of
licensed spirit retailers is limited in proportion to population (1 to 500), and
the taxation, which is both national and local, ranges from 10 to 25% of the
annual value.

In Austria-Hungary and Rumania the licence duty is graduated according
to the population of the place, as used to be the case in Prussia. In 1877 a
severe police law was applied to Galicia in order to check the excesses of
spirit-drinking. The Poles, it may be observed, are spirit-drinkers, and the
exceptional treatment of this part of the Austrian empire is one more
illustration of the trouble arising from that habit, which forces special
attempts to restrain it. The law, just mentioned, in Holland is another
instance; and the particular cases of Russia and Scandinavia, described
below, enforce the same lesson. Where the drink of the people is confined
to wine and beer there is comparatively little trouble. In Switzerland the

manufacture and wholesale sale of spirits has been a federal monopoly
since 1887, but the retailing is a licensed trade, as elsewhere, and is less
restricted than formerly. Before federation in 1874 the cantons used to
direct local authorities to restrict the number of licences in proportion to
population; but under the new constitution the general principle of free
trade was laid down, and the Federal Council intimated to the cantonal
authorities that it was no longer lawful to refuse a licence on the ground that
it was not needed.

Russia.—In 1895 Russia entered upon an experiment in regard to the
spirit traffic and began to convert the previously existing licence system
into a state monopoly. The experiment was held to be successful and was
gradually extended to the whole country. Under this system, which to some
extent resembles that of South Carolina but is much less rigid, the
distilleries remain in private hands but their output is under government
control. The retail sale is confined to government shops, which sell only in
sealed bottles for consumption off the premises, and to commercial
establishments which sell on commission for the government. Spirit bars
are abolished and only in a few high class restaurants are spirits sold by the
glass; in ordinary eating-houses and at railway refreshment rooms they are
sold in sealed government bottles but may be consumed on the premises.
The primary object was to check the excesses of spirit-drinking which were
very great in Russia among the mass of the people. The effect has been a
very large reduction in the number of liquor shops, which has extended also
to the licensed beer-houses though they are not directly affected as such.
Presumably when they could no longer sell spirits it did not pay them to
take out a licence for beer.

Sweden and Norway.—In these countries the celebrated “Gothenburg” or
company system is in force together with licensing and local veto. Like the
Russian state monopoly the company system applies only to spirits, and for

the same reason; spirits are or were the common drink of the people and
excessive facilities in the early part of the 19th century produced the usual
result. The story is very similar to that of England in the 18th century, given
above. From 1774 to 1788 distilling in Sweden was a crown monopoly, but
popular opposition and illicit trade compelled the abandonment of this plan
in favour of general permission granted to farmers, innkeepers and
landowners. At the beginning of the 19th century the right to distil belonged
to every owner and cultivator of land on payment of a trifling licence duty,
and it was further extended to occupiers. In 1829 the number of stills
paying licence duty was 173,124 or 1 to every 16 persons; the practice was
in fact universal and the whole population was debauched with spirits. The
physical and moral results were the same as those recorded in England a
hundred years before. The supply was somewhat restricted by royal
ordinance in 1835, but the traffic was not effectively dealt with until 1855
when a law was passed which practically abolished domestic distilling by
fixing a minimum daily output of 200 gallons, with a tax of about 10d. a
gallon. This turned the business into a manufacture and speedily reduced
the number of stills. At the same time the retail sale was subjected to drastic
regulations. A licensing system was introduced which gave the local
authority power to fix the number of licences and put them up to auction or
to hand over the retail traffic altogether to a company formed for the
purpose of carrying it on. The latter idea, which is the Gothenburg system,
was taken from the example of Falun and Jönköping which had a few years
ago voluntarily adopted the plan. The law of 1855 further gave rural
districts the power of local veto. Four-fifths of the population live in rural
districts, and the great majority of them immediately took advantage of the
provision. The company system, on the other hand, was not applied by the
towns until 1865, when Gothenburg adopted it.

In Norway the course of events was very similar. There, too, distilling
and spirit-drinking were practically universal in the early part of the century

under the laws of 1816, but were checked by legislation a few years sooner
than in Sweden. In 1845 a special licensing system was introduced, giving
the local authority power to fix the number of licences, and in 1848 the
small and domestic stills were stopped. The Gothenburg system was not
adopted in Norway until 1871 and then with some modification. The
essence of this method of conducting the retail traffic is that the element of
private gain is eliminated. A monopoly is granted to a company consisting
of a number of disinterested citizens of standing with a capital, and they
manage the sale both for “on” and “off” consumption in the public interest.
The profits, after payment of 5% on the capital, originally went in Sweden
mainly to the municipality in relief of rates, in Norway to objects of public
utility. The latter was considered preferable because it offers less temptation
to make the profits as high as possible. Fault has, however, been found with
both methods, and payment of profits to the state is now preferred. In 1894
a law was passed in Norway providing for the following distribution: 65%
to the state, 20% to the company, and 15% to the municipality. In 1907
Sweden adopted a law in the same direction. The intention is to eliminate
more completely the motive of gain from the traffic. In 1898 the net profits
of the companies exceeded half a million sterling in Sweden and reached
£117,500 in Norway.

The company system had in 1910 had more than half a century’s trial; it
had gone through some vicissitudes and been subjected to much criticism,
which was balanced by at least as much eulogy. It had held its own in
Sweden, where 101 towns had adopted it in 1906. In Norway at the same
date it was in force in 32 towns while 29 had adopted local veto, which was
extended from the country districts, where it had previously been optional,
to the towns by the law of 1894.

As we have already said, it only applies to spirits. In both countries the
sale of beer and wine for “on” consumption is carried on in the ordinary

way under a licensing system; the sale of beer in bottles for consumption
off the premises is practically free. The beer traffic is regarded by some as a
“safety valve” and by others as a defect in the system. The consumption has
greatly increased in Sweden; in Norway it increased up to 1900 and has
since declined. But other more deleterious substitutes for spirits have come
into use in the shape of concocted “wines” and methylated spirits. The
company management has had the following effects: it has greatly reduced
the number of spirit bars, improved their character and conduct, added
eating-rooms, where good and cheap meals are served, stopped drinking on
credit and by persons under 18 years of age, shortened the hours of sale,
raised the price and lowered the strength of spirits. But the restrictions
placed on the sale for consumption on the premises has stimulated the retail
bottle trade and home drinking.

British Dominions.

Canada.—Liquor legislation in Canada has been much influenced by the
proximity and example of the United States. Licensing, modified by local
veto, prevails throughout the Dominion except in the Indian settlements; but
the several provinces have their own laws, which vary in stringency. As a
whole the licensing system rather resembles the American than the British
type. The licensing authority is either a board of commissioners or the
municipality, and there has been the same tendency as in the United States
to substitute the former for the latter. In British Columbia no new hotel
licence is granted in cities except on the request of two-thirds of the owners
and occupiers of the adjoining property, but their consent is not necessary
for renewal. In other provinces the municipal authority has power to limit as
well as regulate the licensed trade. Sunday closing is the rule; on week-days
the usual closing hour in the large towns is 11 p.m. The power of locally
prohibiting licensed houses by vote was introduced by the Canada

Temperance Act, a federal law passed in 1875 and commonly known as the
Scott Act. Extensive use has been made of it, especially in the maritime
provinces, where the temperance sentiment is very strong, but in recent
years it has rather lost ground. In 1908 it was in force in 22 counties or
cities, of which ten were in Nova Scotia, ten in New Brunswick and two in
Manitoba; it was nowhere in force in the remaining provinces. Three
elections were held under the act in 1907-1908, two in Nova Scotia and one
in New Brunswick, and in the first two prohibition was defeated. In 1910
Nova Scotia, apparently dissatisfied with the progress of local prohibition
under the Scott Act, passed a prohibitory law for the whole province,
exempting Halifax, the capital and only considerable town, but making
provision for its subsequent inclusion by a referendum to the ratepayers.
There is in Canada the same oscillation of public opinion as in the United
States, and the same toleration of evasion of the law. The writer has stayed
in hotels in several prohibition towns, where there was not only a regular
bar but a printed wine list from which anything could be ordered at meals
without any concealment at all. The chief difference between the conduct of
hotels under prohibition and under licensing is that under licensing the bar
is closed at the legal hour, which is usually 11 o’clock, and under
prohibition it remains open as long as there are any customers to serve. The
law is nominally respected by imposing a periodical fine. In small towns
and rural districts local prohibition is much more effective. In short the
experience of Canada confirms that of the United States. In addition to the
federal law, the local authorities have power, in Quebec, to prohibit as well
as to regulate the trade. The high licence system has not been adopted in
Canada. The total revenue derived by the Dominion government in 1908
from taxation of the liquor trade, including duties and licence fees, was
£1,800,000.

Australia.—The licensing laws of Australia are less repressive and the
practice more resembles the British model. Queensland has adopted local

prohibition, but it is not applied. New South Wales has a limited form of
veto applying only to new licences; South Australia has the same together
with a provision for the optional reduction of licences; Victoria, on the other
hand, allows an option both ways, for reducing or increasing the licences;
West Australia and Tasmania merely give the local ratepayers the right of
protest; in West Australia it holds good against new licences only and if a
majority object the licence is refused; in Tasmania protest may be made
against renewals and transfers also, but the decision lies with the licensing
authority. There is practically no prohibition in the Commonwealth.

New Zealand.—This state has a licensing system with local option
provisions of its own. The licensing authority is a local committee, and
there are seven kinds of licence, of which two are for consumption on the
premises. The fees range from £1 for a wine licence to £40 for a full
publican’s licence in towns, or £45 for one permitting an additional hour’s
sale at night; the fees go to the revenue of the local authority. In 1907 the
total number of licences granted was 2179 and the fees paid amounted to
£45,865. Of the whole number, 1367, or 1 to every 666 persons, were
houses licensed for on consumption. The closing hour is 10 p.m. except for
houses specially licensed to be open till 11 p.m. In 1893 local option was
introduced by the Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Act, which provided for
the taking of a poll on the question of licences. The electoral districts for the
purpose are the same as for the House of Representatives, except that the
cities of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin each form a
single district for the licensing poll. It is taken at the same time as the
election of members of the House of Representatives, and three questions
are propounded—(1) continuance of existing licences, (2) reduction, (3) no
licences. A voter may vote for two proposals but not more. An absolute
majority of all the votes recorded carries (1); an absolute majority of all the
votes recorded carries (2), whereupon the licensing committee reduces the
licences by any number from 5 to 25% of the total. But if three-fifths of all

the votes cast are in favour of no licence then that supersedes (1) and (2).
The poll taken in December 1905 gave the following results: of the 68
districts 40 carried no proposal (which is equivalent to continuance of
existing licences), 18 carried continuance, 4 reduction, 6 no licence,
including 3 which had previously adopted no licence. Women, it must be
remembered, vote as well as men. The aggregate vote in favour of no
licence shows a large proportional increase since the first poll in the present
system in 1896.

Authorities.—Royal Commission on Liquor Licensing Laws 1896-1899,
Reports and Appendices; Licensing Statistics of England and Wales, annual.
Canada Year-book; New Zealand Year-book; Code de Commerce, France;
Gewerbeordnung, German Empire; Hand-book of Canada (British
Association); New Encyclopedia of Social Reform; Brewers’ Almanack;
Committee of Fifty (New York), The Liquor Problem in its Legislative
Aspects (F. H. Wines and J. Koren); E. L. Fanshawe, Liquor Legislation in
the United States and Canada; E.R.L. Gould, The Gothenburg System
(Special Report of the United States Commissioner of Labor); E. A. Pratt,
Licensing and Temperance in Sweden, Norway and Denmark; J. Rowntree
and A. Sherwell, The Temperance Problem and Social Reform; The
Taxation of the Liquor Trade; A. Shadwell, Drink, Temperance and
Legislation; Strauss und Torney, Schanks-Konzessionswesen; F. W.
Thompson, High Licence. See also Temperance. (A. Sl.)

1 In 1908 local option was adopted in Ohio.

LIRA, the Italian name (Lat. libra, pound) for a silver coin, the Italian
unit of value in the Latin Monetary Union, corresponding to the French,
Swiss and Belgian franc (q.v.), and the drachma of Greece, &c. The name is
sometimes used of the Turkish pound, medjidie.

LIRI, or Garigliano (anc. Liris), a river of central Italy, which rises at
Cappadocia, 7 m. W. of Avezzano, and traverses a beautiful valley between
lofty mountains, running S.S.E. as far as Arce. This valley is followed by
the railway from Avezzano to Roccasecca. At Isola del Liri are two fine
waterfalls. Below Ceprano, the ancient Fregellae, after it has issued from
the mountains, the Liri is joined by the Sacco (anc. Trerus) formed by the
union of several torrents between Palestrina and Segni, and the Melfa from
the mountains N.E. of Atina, and runs E. through a broader valley. It then
turns S. again through the mountains S.W. of the Via Latina (the line of
which is followed by the modern railway to Naples), keeping W. of Rocca
Monfina, and falls into the sea just below Minturnae, after a course of 104
m. It is not navigable at any point.

LIROCONITE, a rare mineral consisting of hydrous basic copper
and aluminium arsenate, with the probable formula
Cu9Al4(OH)15(AsO4)5·20H2O. It crystallizes in the monoclinic system,
forming flattened octahedra almost lenticular in shape (hence the German
name Linsenkupfer). Characteristic is the bright sky-blue colour, though
sometimes, possibly owing to differences in chemical composition, it is
verdigris-green. The colour of the streak or powder is rather paler; hence
the name liroconite, from the Gr. λειρός, pale, and κονία, powder. The
hardness is 2½, and the specific gravity 2.95. The mineral was found at the
beginning of the 19th century in the copper mines near Gwennap in
Cornwall, where it was associated with other copper arsenates in the upper,
oxidized portions of the lodes.
(L. J. S.)

LISBON (Lisboa), the capital of the kingdom of Portugal and of the
department of Lisbon; on the right bank of the river Tagus, near its entrance
into the Atlantic Ocean, in 38° 42′ 24″ N. and 9° 11′ 10″ W. Pop. (1900)
356,009. Lisbon, the westernmost of European capitals, is built in a

succession of terraces up the sides of a range of low hills, backed by the
granite mountains of Cintra. It fronts the Tagus, and the view from the river
of its white houses, and its numerous parks and gardens, is comparable in
beauty with the approach to Naples or Constantinople by sea. The lower
reaches of the estuary form a channel (Entrada do Tejo) about 2 m. wide
and 8 m. long, which is partially closed at its mouth by a bar of silt. Owing
to the reclamation of the foreshore on the right, and the consequent
narrowing of the waterway, the current flows very swiftly down this
channel, which is the sole outlet for the immense volume of water
accumulated in the Rada de Lisboa—a tidal lake formed by the broadening
of the estuary in its upper part to fill a basin 11 m. long with an average
breadth of nearly 7 m. The southern or left shore of the channel rises
sharply from the water’s edge in a line of almost unbroken though not lofty
cliffs; the margin of the lake is flat, marshy and irregular. Lisbon extends
for more than 5 m. along the shores of both channel and lake, and for more
than 3 m. inland. Its suburbs, which generally terminate in a belt of
vineyards, parks or gardens, interspersed with villas and farms, stretch in
some cases beyond the Estrada Militar, or Estrada da Nova Circumvallação,
an inner line of defence 25 m. long, supplementary to the forts and other
military works at the mouth of the Tagus, on the heights of Cintra and
Alverca, and at Caxias, Sacavem, Monsanto and Ameixoeira. The climate
of Lisbon is mild and equable, though somewhat oppressive in summer.
Extreme cold is so rare that in the twenty years 1856-1876 snow fell only
thrice; and in the 18th and early 19th centuries Lisbon was justly esteemed
as a winter health-resort. The mean annual temperature is 60.1° F., the mean
for winter 50.9°, the average rainfall 29.45 in. As in 1906, when no rain fell
between April and September, long periods of drought are not uncommon,
although the proximity of the Atlantic and the frequency of sea-fogs keep
the atmosphere humid; the mean atmospheric moisture is nearly 71 (100 =
saturation). There is a good water supply, conveyed to the city by two vast

aqueducts. The older of these is the Aqueducto das Aguas Livres, which
was built in the first half of the 18th century and starts from a point near
Bellas, 15 m. W.N.W. Its conduits, which are partly underground, are
conveyed across the Alcantara valley through a magnificent viaduct of
thirty-five arches, exceeding 200 ft. in height. At the Lisbon end of the
aqueduct is the Mae d’Agua (i.e. “Mother of Water”), containing a huge
stone hall in the midst of which is the reservoir. The Alviella aqueduct,
opened in 1880, brings water from Alviella near Pernes, 70 m. N.N.E.
Numerous fountains are among the means of distribution. Sewage is
discharged into the Tagus, and the sanitation of the city is good, except in
the older quarters.

Divisions of the City.—The four municipal districts (bairros) into which
Lisbon is divided are the Alfama, or old town, in the east; the Cidade Baixa,
or lower town, which extends inland from the naval arsenal and custom
house; the Bairro Alto, comprising all the high ground west of the Cidade
Baixa; and the Alcantara, or westernmost district, named after the small
river Alcantara, which flows down into the Tagus. Other names commonly
used, though unofficial, are “Lisboa Oriental” as an alternative for Alfama;
“Lisboa Occidental” for the slopes which lead from the Cidade Baixa to the
Bairro Alto; “Buenos Ayres” (originally so named from the number of its
South American residents) for the Bairro Alto S.W. of the Estrella Gardens
and E. of the Necessidades Park; “Campo de Ourique” and “Rato” for the
suburbs respectively N.W. and N.E. of Buenos Ayres.

The Alfama.—The Alfama, which represents Roman and Moorish
Lisbon, is less rich in archaeological interest than its great antiquity might
suggest, although parts of a Roman temple, baths, &c., have been
disinterred. But as the earthquake of 1755 did comparatively little damage
to this quarter, many of its narrow, steep and winding alleys retain the
medieval aspect which all other parts of the city have lost; and almost rival

the slums of Oporto in picturesque squalor. The most conspicuous feature of
the Alfama is the rocky hill surmounted by the Castello de São Jorge, a
Moorish citadel which has been converted into a fort and barracks. The Sé
Patriarchal, a cathedral founded in 1150 by Alphonso I., is said by tradition
to have been a Moorish mosque. It was wrecked by an earthquake in 1344
and rebuilt in 1380, but the earthquake of 1755 shattered the dome, the roof
and belfry were subsequently burned, and after the work of restoration was
completed the choir and façade were the only parts of the 14th-century
Gothic church unspoiled. In one of the side chapels is the tomb of St
Vincent (d. 304), patron saint of Lisbon; a pair of ravens kept within the
cathedral precincts are popularly believed to be the same birds which,
according to the legend, miraculously guided the saint’s vessel to the city.
The armorial bearings of Lisbon, representing a ship and two ravens,
commemorate the legend. Other noteworthy buildings in the Alfama are the
12th-century church of São Vicente de Fóra, originally, as its name implies,
“outside” the city; the 13th-century chapel of Nossa Senhora do Monte; the
16th-century church of Nossa Senhora da Graça, which contains a reputed
wonder-working statue of Christ and the tomb of Alphonso d’Albuquerque
(1453-1515); and a secularized Augustinian monastery, used as the
archbishop’s palace.

Modern Lisbon.—West of the Alfama the city dates chiefly from the
period after the great earthquake. Its lofty houses, arranged in long straight
streets, its gardens and open spaces, a few of its public buildings, and
almost all its numerous statues and fountains, will bear comparison with
those of any European capital. The centre of social and commercial activity
is the district which comprises the Praça do Commercio, Rua Augusta,
Rocío, and Avenida da Liberdade, streets and squares occupying the valley
of a vanished tributary of the Tagus. The Praça do Commercio is a spacious
square, one side of which faces the river, while the other three sides are
occupied by the arcaded buildings of the custom house, post office and

other government property. In the midst is a bronze equestrian statue of
Joseph I., by J. M. de Castro, which was erected in 1775 and gives point to
the name of “Black Horse Square” commonly applied to the Praça by the
British. A triumphal arch on the north side leads to Rua Augusta, originally
intended to be the cloth-merchants’ street; for the plan upon which Lisbon
was rebuilt after 1755 involved the restriction of each industry to a
specified area. This plan succeeded in the neighbouring Rua Aurea and Rua
da Prata, still, as their names indicate, famous for goldsmiths’ and
silversmiths’ shops. Rua Augusta terminates on the north in the Rocío or
Praça de Dom Pedro Quarto, a square paved with mosaic of a curious
undulatory pattern and containing two bronze fountains, a lofty pillar
surmounted by a statue of Pedro IV., and the royal national theatre (Teatro
de Dona Maria Segunda), erected on the site which the Inquisition buildings
occupied from 1520 to 1836. The narrow Rua do Principe, leading past the
central railway station, a handsome Mauresque building, connects the Rocío
with the Avenida da Liberdade, one of the finest avenues in Europe. The
central part of the Avenida, a favourite open-air resort of Lisbon society, is
used for riding and driving; on each side of it are paved double avenues of
trees, with flower-beds, statues, ponds, fountains, &c., and between these
and the broad pavements are two roadways for trams and heavy traffic.
Thus the Avenida has the appearance of three parallel streets, separated by
avenues of trees instead of houses. Its width exceeds 300 ft. It owes its
name to an obelisk 98 ft. high, erected in 1882 at its southern end, to
commemorate the liberation of Portugal from Spanish rule (December,
1640). North and north-east of the Avenida are the Avenida Park, the
Edward VII. Park (so named in memory of a visit paid to Lisbon by the
king of England in 1903), Campo Grande, with its finely wooded walks,
and Campo Pequeno, with the bull-ring. Other noteworthy public gardens
are the Passeio da Estrella, commanding magnificent views of the city and
river, the Largo do Principe Real, planted with bananas and other tropical

trees, the Tapada das Necessidades, originally the park of one of the royal
residences, and the Botanical Gardens of the polytechnic school, with a fine
avenue of palms and collections of tropical and subtropical flora hardly
surpassed in Europe. There are large Portuguese cemeteries east and west of
Lisbon, a German cemetery, and an English cemetery, known also as Os
Cyprestes from the number of its cypresses. This was laid out in 1717 at the
cost of the British and Dutch residents and contains the graves of Henry
Fielding (1707-1754), the novelist, and Dr Philip Doddridge (1702-1751),
the Nonconformist divine.

Lisbon is the seat of an archbishop who since 1716 has borne ex officio
the honorary title of patriarch; he presides over the House of Peers and is
usually appointed a cardinal. The churches of modern Lisbon are generally
built in the Italian style of the 18th century; the interiors are overlaid with
heavy ornament. Perhaps the finest is the Estrella church, with its white
marble dome and twin towers visible for many miles above the city. The
late Renaissance church of São Roque contains two beautiful chapels dating
from the 18th century, one of which is inlaid with painted tiles, while the
other was constructed in Rome of coloured marbles, and consecrated by the
pope before being shipped to Lisbon. Its mosaics and lapis lazuli pillars are
exceptionally fine. The 14th-century Gothic Igreja do Carmo was shattered
by the great earthquake. Only the apse, pillared aisles and outer walls
remain standing, and the interior has been converted into an archaeological
museum. The church of Nossa Senhora da Conceição has a magnificent
Manoeline façade.

The Palacio das Cortes, in which both Houses of Parliament sit, is a 16th-
century Benedictine convent, used for its present purpose since 1834. It
contains the national archives, better known as the Torre do Tombo
collection, because in 1375 the archives were first stored in a tower of that
name. The royal palace, or Paço das Necessidades, west of Buenos Ayres, is

a vast 18th-century mansion occupying the site of a chapel dedicated to
Nossa Senhora das Necessidades (i.e. “Our Lady who helps at need”).

The Suburbs of Ajuda and Belem.—In the extreme west of Lisbon,
beyond the Alcantara valley, are Belem (i.e. “Bethlehem”), beside the
Tagus, and Ajuda, on the heights above. The Paço de Belem, built in 1700
for the counts of Aveiro, became the chief royal palace under John V. (1706-
1750). The Torre de Belem, on the foreshore, is a small tower of beautiful
design, built in 1520 for the protection of shipping. The finest ecclesiastical
building in Portugal except the monasteries of Alcobaça and Batalha also
fronts the river. It is the Convento dos Jeronymos, a Hieronymite convent
and church, founded in 1499 to commemorate the discovery of the sea-
route to India by Vasco da Gama. It was built of white limestone by João de
Castilho (d. 1581), perhaps the greatest of Manoeline architects. Its cloisters
form a square with blunted corners, surrounded by a two-storeyed arcade,
every available portion of which is covered with exquisite sculptures. Parts
of the building have been restored, but the cloisters and the beautiful central
gateway remain unspoiled. The interior contains many royal tombs,
including that of Catherine of Braganza (d. 1705), the wife of Charles II. of
England. The supposed remains of Camoens and Vasco da Gama were
interred here in 1880. In 1834, when the convent was secularized, its
buildings were assigned to the Casa Pia, an orphanage founded by Maria I.
Since 1903 they have contained the archaeological collections of the
Portuguese Ethnological Museum. The royal Ajuda palace, begun (1816-
1826) by John VI. but left unfinished, derives its name from the chapel of
N. S. de Ajuda (“Our Lady of Aid”). It contains some fine pictures and
historical trophies. In the coach-house there is an unsurpassed collection of
state coaches, the cars upon which figures of saints are borne in procession,
sedan chairs, old cabriolets and other curious vehicles.

The Environs of Lisbon.—The administrative district of Lisbon has an
area of 3065 sq. m., with a population of 709,509 in 1900. It comprises the
lower parts of the Tagus and Sado; the sea-coast from 5 m. S. of Cape
Carvoeiro to within 3 m. of the bluff called the Escarpa do Rojo; and a strip
of territory extending inland for a mean distance of 30 m. This region
corresponds with the southern part of Estremadura (q.v.). Its more important
towns, Setubal, Cintra, Torres Vedras and Mafra, are described in separate
articles. Sines, a small seaport on Cape Sines, was the birthplace of Vasco
da Gama. On the left bank of the Tagus, opposite Lisbon, are the small
towns of Almada, Barreiro, Aldeia Gallega and Seixal, and the hamlet of
Trafaria, inhabited by fishermen. The beautiful strip of coast west of Oeiras
and south of Cape Roca is often called the “Portuguese Riviera.” Its fine
climate, mineral springs and sea-bathing attract visitors at all seasons to the
picturesque fortified bay of Cascaes, or to Estoril, Mont’ Estoril and São
João do Estoril, modern towns consisting chiefly of villas, hotels and
gardens. The Boca do Inferno (“Mouth of Hell”) is a cavity in the rocks at
Cascaes resembling the Bufador at Peñiscola (q.v.). The villages of
Carcavellos, Bucellas, Lumiar and Collares produce excellent wines; at
Carcavellos is the receiving station for cables, with a large British staff, and
a club and grounds where social and athletic meetings are held by the
British colony. Alhandra, on the right bank of the Tagus, above Lisbon, was
the birthplace of Albuquerque; fighting bulls for the Lisbon arena are bred
in the adjacent pastures.

Railways, Shipping and Commerce.—Lisbon has five railway stations—
the central (Lisboa-Rocío), for the lines to Cintra, northern and central
Portugal, and Madrid via Valencia de Alcántara; the Santa Apolonia or Caes
dos Soldados, at the eastern extremity of the quays, for the same lines
(excluding Cintra) and for southern Portugal and Andalusia; the Caes do
Sodré and Santos, farther west along the quays, for Cascaes; and the
Barreiro, on the left bank of the Tagus, for southern Portugal. In 1902 the

railways north and south of the Tagus were connected near Lisbon by a
bridge. In the previous year an extensive system of electric tramways
replaced the old-fashioned cable cars and mule trams. Electric and
hydraulic lifts are used where the streets are too steep for trams. Lisbon is
lighted by both electricity and gas; it has an admirable telephone service,
and is connected by the Carcavellos cable-station with Cornwall (England),
Vigo in Galicia, Gibraltar, the Azores and Madeira.

Ships of the largest size can enter the Tagus, and the Barreiro inlet is
navigable at low water by vessels drawing 16 ft. There are extensive quays
along the right bank, with hydraulic cranes, two graving docks, a slipway,
warehouses and lines of railway. The government and private docks are on
the left bank. Loading and discharging are principally effected by means of
lighters. The exports are wines, oil, fruit, tinned fish, salt, colonial produce,
cork, pitwood, leather and wool. The imports include cotton and woollen
goods, linen, ale and porter, butter, tea, hardware, tin plates, coal, iron,
machinery, chemical manure, &c., from Great Britain; grain and petroleum
from the United States; dried codfish from Norway and Newfoundland;
silks, perfumery and fancy goods from France; hemp, flax, grain, petroleum
and cloth from Russia; linen, machinery, hardware, sugar, &c., from
Germany and Holland, iron, steel, timber, pitch and salt fish from the
Baltic; cocoa, coffee, wax and rubber from the Portuguese colonies.
Towards the close of the 19th century the tourist traffic from Great Britain
and Germany attained considerable importance, and Lisbon has long been
one of the principal ports of debarcation for passengers from Brazil and of
embarcation for emigrants to South America. Shipbuilding, including the
construction of vessels for the national navy, is a growing industry. The
fisheries have always been important, and in no European fishmarket is the
produce more varied. Sardines and tunny are cured and tinned for export. In
addition to a fleet of about 600 sailing boats, the Tagus is the headquarters
of a small fleet of steam trawlers. The industries of Lisbon include dyeing,

distillation of spirits and manufactures of woollen, cotton, silk and linen
fabrics, of pottery, soap, paper, chemicals, cement, corks, tobacco,
preserved foods and biscuits.

Education and Charity.—Although the seat of the only university in
Portugal was fixed at Coimbra in 1527, Lisbon is the educational centre of
the Portuguese world, including Brazil. Its chief learned societies are the
Society of Medical Sciences, the Geographical Society, the Royal Academy
of Sciences, the Academy of Fine Arts, the Royal Conservatory of Music
and the Propaganda de Portugal. The museum of the Academy of Fine Arts
contains the largest collection of pictures and statues by native and foreign
artists in Portugal. The Geographical Society has gained an international
reputation; it possesses a valuable library and museum. The National
Library, founded in 1796, contains over 400,000 printed books, and
upwards of 9000 MSS. There are also colonial, naval, artillery, natural
history and commercial museums, meteorological and astronomical
observatories, zoological gardens and an aquarium. Purely educational
institutions include the medical, polytechnic, military and naval schools,
commercial, agricultural and industrial institutes, a school of art, a central
lyceum, a school for teachers, &c. The English college for British Roman
Catholics dates from 1628. The Irish Dominicans have a seminary, and
Portuguese ecclesiastical schools are numerous. There are hospitals for
women, and for contagious diseases, almshouses, orphanages, a foundling
hospital and a very large quarantine station on the south bank of the Tagus,
founded in 1857 after an outbreak of yellow fever had devastated the city.
Foremost among the theatres, circuses and other places of amusement is the
royal opera-house of São Carlos, built in 1792-1793 on the model of the
Scala at Milan.

Population.—The population of Lisbon, 187,4041 in 1878, rose to
301,206 in 1890 and 356,009 in 1900. It includes a large foreign colony,

composed chiefly of Spaniards, British, Germans, French, Brazilians and
immigrants from the Portuguese colonies, among whom are many half-
castes. The majority of the Spaniards are domestic servants and labourers
from Galicia, whose industry and easily gained knowledge of the kindred
Portuguese language enables them to earn a better livelihood here than in
their own homes. The British, German and French communities control a
large share of the foreign trade. The Brazilians and colonial immigrants are
often merchants and landowners who come to the mother-country to spend
their fortunes in a congenial social environment.

The street life of the city is full of interest. The bare-footed, ungainly
fishwives, dressed in black and bearing flat trays of fish on their heads; the
Galician water-carriers, with their casks; the bakers, bending beneath a
hundredweight of bread slung in a huge basket from their shoulders; the
countrymen, with their sombreros, sashes and hardwood quarter-staves,
give colour and animation to their surroundings; while the bag-pipes played
by peasants from the north, the whistles of the knife-grinders, and the
distinctive calls of the vendors of fruit, lottery tickets, or oil and vinegar,
contribute a babel of sound. For church festivals and holidays the country-
folk come to town, the women riding on pillions behind the men, adorned in
shawls, aprons and handkerchiefs of scarlet or other vivid hues, and
wearing the strings of coins and ornaments of exquisite gold and silver
filigree which represent their savings or dowries. The costumes and
manners of all classes may be seen at their best in the great bull-ring of
Campo Pequeno, a Mauresque building which holds many thousands of
spectators. A Lisbon bullfight is a really brilliant exhibition of athletic skill
and horsemanship, in which amateurs often take part, and neither horses nor
bulls are killed. There is a Tauromachic Club solely for amateurs.

History.—The name Lisbon is a modification of the ancient name
Olisipo, also written Ulyssippo under the influence of a mythical story of a

city founded by Odysseus (Ulysses) in Iberia, which, however, according to
Strabo, was placed by ancient tradition rather in the mountains of
Turdetania (the extreme south of Spain). Under the Romans Olisipo became
a municipium with the epithet of Felicitas Julia, but was inferior in
importance to the less ancient Emerita Augusta (Mérida). From 407 to 585
it was occupied by Alaric, and thenceforward by the Visigoths until 711,
when it was taken by the Moors. Under the Moors the town bore in Arabic
the name of Al Oshbūna or Lashbūna. It was the first point of Moslem
Spain attacked by the Normans in 844. When Alphonso I. of Portugal took
advantage of the decline and fall of the Almoravid dynasty to incorporate
the provinces of Estremadura and Alemtejo in his new kingdom, Lisbon
was the last city of Portugal to fall into his hands, and yielded only after a
siege of several months (21st October 1147), in which he was aided by
English and Flemish crusaders on their way to Syria. In 1184 the city was
again attacked by the Moslems under the powerful caliph Abu Yakub, but
the enterprise failed. In the reign of Ferdinand I., the greater part of the
town was burned by the Castilian army under Henry II. (1373), and in 1384
the Castilians again besieged Lisbon, but without success. Lisbon became
the seat of an archbishop in 1390, the seat of government in 1422. During
the 16th century it gained much in wealth and splendour from the
establishment of a Portuguese empire in India and Africa. From 1580 to
1640 Lisbon was a provincial town under Spanish rule, and it was from this
port that the Spanish Armada sailed in 1588. In 1640 the town was captured
by the duke of Braganza, and the independence of the kingdom restored.

For many centuries the city had suffered from earthquakes, and on the 1st
of November 1755 the greater part of it was reduced almost in an instant to
a heap of ruins. A tidal wave at the same time broke over the quays and
wrecked the shipping in the Tagus; fire broke out to complete the work of
destruction; between 30,000 and 40,000 persons lost their lives; and the
value of the property destroyed was about £20,000,000. The shock was felt

from Scotland to Asia Minor. Careful investigation by Daniel Sharpe, an
English geologist, has delimited the area in and near Lisbon to which its full
force was confined. Lisbon is built in a geological basin of Tertiary
formation, the upper portion of which is loose sand and gravel destitute of
organic remains, while below these are the so-called Almada beds of yellow
sand, calcareous sandstone and blue clay rich in organic remains. The
Tertiary deposits, which altogether cover an area of more than 2000 sq. m.,
are separated near Lisbon from rocks of the Secondary epoch by a great
sheet of basalt. The uppermost of these Secondary rocks is the hippurite
limestone. It was found that no building on the blue clay escaped
destruction, none on any of the Tertiary deposits escaped serious injury, and
all on the hippurite limestone and basalt were undamaged. The line at which
the earthquake ceased to be destructive thus corresponded exactly with the
boundary of the Tertiary deposits.

At the beginning of the 19th century the French invasion, followed by the
removal of the court to Rio de Janeiro, the Peninsular War, the loss of Brazil
and a period of revolution and dynastic trouble, resulted in the utter
decadence of Lisbon, from which the city only recovered after 1850 (see
Portugal: History).

Bibliography.—Every book which deals with the topography, trade or
history of Portugal as a whole necessarily devotes a portion of its space to
the capital; see Portugal: Bibliography. The following treat more
exclusively of Lisbon: A. Dayot, Lisbonne (No. ix. of the “Capitales du
monde” series) (Paris, 1892); Freire de Oliveira, Elementos para a historia
do municipio de Lisboa (9 vols., Lisbon, 1885-1898); J. de Castilho, Lisboa
antiga (7 vols., Lisbon, 1890), and (by the same author) A Ribeira de
Lisboa (Lisbon, 1893).

1 This figure represents the population of a smaller area than that of modern Lisbon, for
the civic boundaries were extended by a decree dated the 23rd of December 1886.

LISBURN, a market town, and cathedral city of Co. Antrim, Ireland,
situated in a beautiful and fertile district on the Lagan, and on the Great
Northern railway, 8 m. S.S.W. of Belfast. Pop. (1901) 11,461. Christ Church
(1622) which possesses a fine octagonal spire, is the cathedral church of the
united Protestant dioceses of Down, Connor and Dromore, and contains a
monument to Jeremy Taylor, who was bishop of the see. The public park
was presented to the town by Sir Richard Wallace (d. 1890), and after his
death the castle gardens were also given to the town. The staple
manufacture is linen, especially damasks and muslins, originally introduced
by Huguenots. There are also bleaching and dyeing works, and a
considerable agricultural trade. The town is governed by an urban district
council. The ruins of Castle Robin, 2 m. N. of the town, stand on a summit
of the White Mountains, and the building dates from the time of Queen
Elizabeth. At Drumbo, 3½ m. E. of Lisburn, is one of the finest examples of
early fortification in Ireland, known as the Giant’s Ring, with a cromlech in
the centre. Here are also a round tower and the remains of a church ascribed
to St Patrick.

In the reign of James I., Lisburn, which was then known as Lisnegarvy
(Gambler’s Fort), was an inconsiderable village, but in 1627 it was granted
by Charles I. to Viscount Conway, who erected the castle for his residence,
and laid the foundation of the prosperity of the town by the introduction of
English and Welsh settlers. In November 1641 the town was taken by the
insurgents, who on the approach of superior numbers set fire to it. The

troops of Cromwell gained a victory near the town in 1648, and the castle
surrendered to them in 1650. The church was constituted a cathedral in
1662 by Charles II., from whom the town received the privilege of
returning two members to parliament, but after the Union it returned only
one and in 1885 ceased to be a parliamentary borough. Lisburn gives the
titles of earl and viscount to the family of Vaughan.

LISIEUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Calvados, 30 m. E. of Caen by rail.
Pop. (1906) 15,194. Lisieux is prettily situated in the valley of the Touques
at its confluence with the Orbiquet. Towers of the 16th century, relics of the
old fortifications, remain, and some of the streets, bordered throughout by
houses of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, retain their medieval aspect.
The church of St Peter, formerly a cathedral, is reputed to be the first Gothic
church built in Normandy. Begun in the latter half of the 12th century it was
completed in the 13th and 16th centuries. There is a lantern-tower over the
crossing and two towers surmount the west façade, one only of which has a
spire, added towards the end of the 16th century. In the interior there is a
Lady-Chapel, restored in the 15th century by Bishop Pierre Cauchon, one of
the judges of Joan of Arc. The church of St Jacques (late 15th century)
contains beautiful glass of the Renaissance, some remarkable stalls and old
frescoes, and a curious picture on wood, restored in 1681. The church of St
Désir (18th century) once belonged to a Benedictine abbey. The old
episcopal palace near the cathedral is now used as a court-house, museum,
library and prison, and contains a beautiful hall called the salle dorée.
Lisieux is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, a board of trade arbitrators
and a communal college. Its manufactures of woollens are important, and
bleaching, wool and flax-spinning, tanning, brewing, timber-sawing, metal-

founding, and the manufacture of machinery, hosiery and boots and shoes
are carried on; there is trade in grain, cattle and cheese.

In the time of Caesar, Lisieux, under the name of Noviomagus, was the
capital of the Lexovii. Though destroyed by the barbarians, by the 6th
century it had become one of the most important towns of Neustria. Its
bishopric, suppressed in 1802, dates from that period. In 877 it was pillaged
by the Normans; and in 911 was included in the duchy of Normandy by the
treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte. Civil authority was exercised by the bishop as
count of the town. In 1136 Geoffrey Plantagenet laid siege to Lisieux,
which had taken the side of Stephen of Blois. The town was not reduced till
1141, by which time both it and the neighbourhood had been brought to the
direst extremities of famine. In 1152 the marriage of Henry II. of England
to Eleanor of Guienne, which added so largely to his dominions, was
celebrated in the cathedral. Thomas à Becket took refuge here, and some
vestments used by him are shown in the hospital chapel. Taken by Philip
Augustus and reunited to France in 1203, the town was a frequent subject of
dispute between the contending parties during the Hundred Years’ War, the
religious wars, and those of the League.

LISKEARD, a market town and municipal borough in the Bodmin
parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 15 m. W.N.W. of Plymouth,
on the Great Western and the Liskeard and Looe railways. Pop. (1901)
4010. It lies high, above two small valleys opening to that of the Looe river,

in a hilly, picturesque district. The Perpendicular church of St Martin, with
a tower of earlier date, having a Norman arch, is one of the largest
ecclesiastical buildings in the county. The site of a castle built by Richard,
brother of Henry III. and earl of Cornwall, is occupied by public gardens.
At the grammar school, which formerly occupied a building in those
gardens, Dr John Wolcot, otherwise known as Peter Pindar, was educated.
Liskeard was formerly an important mining centre. Its manufactures include
leather and woollen goods, and there are iron foundries. The borough is
under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2704 acres.

Liskeard (Liscarret) was at the time of the Domesday Survey an
important manor with a mill rendering 12d. yearly and a market rendering
4s. By the Conqueror it had been given to the count of Mortain by whom it
was held in demesne. Ever since that time it has passed with the earldom or
duchy of Cornwall. The fertility of its soil and the river Looe probably led
to early settlement at Liskeard. Richard, king of the Romans, recognized its
natural advantages and built the manor house or castle and resided there
occasionally. In 1240 he constituted Liskeard a free borough and its
burgesses freemen with all the liberties enjoyed by the burgesses of
Launceston and Helston. In 1266 he granted fairs at the Feasts of the
Assumption and St Matthew. His son Edmund earl of Cornwall in 1275
granted to the burgesses for a yearly rent of £18 (sold by William III. to
Lord Somers) the borough in fee farm with its mills, tolls, fines and pleas,
pleas of the crown excepted. Liskeard was made a coinage town for tin in
1304. Edward the Black Prince secured to the burgesses in 1355 immunity
from pleas outside their franchise for trespass done within the borough.
Queen Elizabeth granted a charter of incorporation in 1580 under which
there were to be a mayor, recorder and eight councillors. This charter was
surrendered to Charles II. in 1680 and a new one granted by his brother
under which the corporation became a self-elected body. From 1295 to
1832 Liskeard sent two members to the House of Commons. The

parliamentary franchise, at first exercised by the burgesses, was vested by
James’ charter in the corporation and freemen. By determining to admit no
new freemen the voters became reduced to between 30 and 60. Sir Edward
Coke was returned for this borough in 1620, and Edward Gibbon the
historian in 1774. In 1832 Liskeard was deprived of one of its members and
in 1885 it became merged in the county.

Besides the fairs already mentioned a third was added by Elizabeth’s
charter to be held on Ascension Day. These are still among the most
considerable cattle fairs in the county. The same charter ratified a market on
Mondays and provided for another on Saturdays. The latter is now held
weekly, the former twice a month. The flour mill at Lamellion mentioned in
the charter of 1275, and probably identical with the mill of the Domesday
Survey, is still driven by water.

LISLE, ALICE (c. 1614-1685), commonly known as Lady Alice
Lisle, was born about 1614. Her father, Sir White Beckenshaw, was
descended from an old Hampshire family; her husband, John Lisle (d.
1664), had been one of the judges at the trial of Charles I., and was
subsequently a member of Cromwell’s House of Lords—hence his wife’s
courtesy title. Lady Lisle seems to have leaned to Royalism, but with this
attitude she combined a decided sympathy with religious dissent. On the
20th of July 1685, a fortnight after the battle of Sedgemoor, the old lady
consented to shelter John Hickes, a well-known Nonconformist minister, at

her residence, Moyles Court, near Ringwood. Hickes, who was a fugitive
from Monmouth’s army, brought with him Richard Nelthorpe, also a
partizan of Monmouth, and under sentence of outlawry. The two men
passed the night at Moyles Court, and on the following morning were
arrested, and their hostess, who had denied their presence in the house, was
charged with harbouring traitors. Her case was tried by Judge Jeffreys at the
opening of the “Bloody Assizes” at Winchester. She pleaded that she had no
knowledge that Hickes’s offence was anything more serious than illegal
preaching, that she had known nothing previously of Nelthorpe (whose
name was not included in the indictment, but was, nevertheless, mentioned
to strengthen the case for the Crown), and that she had no sympathy with
the rebellion. The jury reluctantly found her guilty, and, the law recognizing
no distinction between principals and accessories in treason, she was
sentenced to be burned. Jeffreys ordered that the sentence should be carried
out that same afternoon, but a few days’ respite was subsequently granted,
and James II. allowed beheading to be substituted for burning. Lady Lisle
was executed in Winchester market-place on the 2nd of September 1685.
By many writers her death has been termed a judicial murder, and one of
the first acts of parliament of William and Mary reversed the attainder on
the ground that the prosecution was irregular and the verdict injuriously
extorted by “the menaces and violences and other illegal practices” of
Jeffreys. It is, however, extremely doubtful whether Jeffreys, for all his
gross brutality, exceeded the strict letter of the existing law.

See Howell, State Trials; H. B. Irving, Life of Judge Jeffreys; Stephen,
History of the Criminal Law of England.

LISMORE, an island in the entrance to Loch Linnhe, Argyllshire,
Scotland, 5 m. N.W. of Oban. Pop. (1901) 500. It lies S.W. and N.E., is 9½
m. long and 1¾ m. broad, and has an area of 9600 acres. It divides the
lower end of the loch into two channels, the Lynn of Morvern on the W. and
the Lynn of Lome on the E. The name is derived from the Gaelic lios mòr,
“great garden.” Several ruined castles stand on the coast, and the highest
point of the island is 500 ft. above the sea. The inhabitants raise potatoes,
oats, cattle and horses, and these, with dairy produce, form the bulk of the
trade. Steamers call at Auchnacrosan. A Columban monastery was founded
in Lismore by St Moluag about 592. About 1200 the see of Argyll was
separated from Dunkeld by Bishop John, “the Englishman,” and Lismore
soon afterwards became the seat of the bishop of Argyll, sometimes called
“Episcopus Lismoriensis,” quite distinct from the bishop of the Isles
(Sudreys and Isle of Man), called “Episcopus Sodoriensis” or “Insularum,”
whose see was divided in the 14th century into the English bishopric of
Sodor and Man and the Scottish bishopric of the Isles. The Rev. John
Macaulay (d. 1789), grandfather of Lord Macaulay, the historian, and the
Rev. Donald M’Nicol (1735-1802), who took up the defence of the
Highlands against Dr Johnson, were ministers of Lismore.

For the Book of the Dean of Lismore see Celt: Scottish Gaelic Literature.

LISMORE, a town of Rous county, New South Wales, Australia,
320 m. direct N. by E. of Sydney. Pop. (1901) 4378. It is the principal town
of the north coast district, and the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop. The
surrounding country is partly pastoral, and partly agricultural, the soil being
very fertile. The town has a cathedral, school of art, and other public
buildings, while its industrial establishments include saw-mills, sugar-mills,
butter factories and an iron foundry. Standing at the head of navigation of
the Richmond river, Lismore has a large export trade in dairy produce,
poultry, pigs, and pine and cedar timber.

LISMORE, a market town and seat of a diocese in Co. Waterford,
Ireland, 43 m. W.S.W. of Waterford by the Waterford and Mallow branch of
the Great Southern & Western Railway. Pop. (1901) 1583. It is beautifully
situated on a steep eminence rising abruptly from the Blackwater. At the
verge of the rock on the western side is the old baronial castle, erected by
King John in 1185, which was the residence of the bishops till the 14th
century. It was besieged in 1641 and 1643, and in 1645 it was partly

destroyed by fire. The present fabric is largely modern; while the portico
was designed by Inigo Jones. To the east, on the summit of the height, is the
cathedral of St Carthagh, of various dates. There are portions probably of
the 12th and 13th centuries, but the bulk of the building is of the 17th
century, and considerable additions, including the tower and spire, were
made in the 19th. There are a grammar school, a free school and a number
of charities. Some trade is carried on by means of the river, and the town is
the centre of a salmon fishery district.

The original name of Lismore was Maghsciath. A monastery founded
here by St Carthagh in 633 became so celebrated as a seat of learning that it
is said no fewer than twenty churches were erected in its vicinity. The
bishopric, which is said to have originated with this foundation, was united
to that of Waterford in 1363. In the 9th and beginning of the 10th centuries
the town was repeatedly plundered by the Danes, and in 978 the town and
abbey were burned by the men of Ossory. Henry II., after landing at
Waterford, received in Lismore castle the allegiance of the archbishops and
bishops of Ireland. In 1518 the manor was granted to Sir Walter Raleigh,
from whom it passed to Sir Richard Boyle, afterwards earl of Cork. From
the earls of Cork it descended by marriage to the dukes of Devonshire. It
was incorporated as a municipal borough in the time of Charles I., when it
also received the privilege of returning members to parliament, but at the
Union in 1800 it was disfranchised and also ceased to exercise its municipal
functions.

LISSA (Serbo-Croation Vis; Lat. Issa), an island in the Adriatic sea,
forming part of Dalmatia, Austria. Lissa lies 31 m. S. by W. of Spalato, and
is the outermost island of the Dalmatian Archipelago. Its greatest length is
10½ m.; its greatest breadth 4½ m. In shape it is a long, roughly drawn
parallelogram, surrounded by a wall of rock, which incloses the fertile
central plain, and is broken, on the north, west and east by natural harbours.
Its culminating point is Mount Hum (1942 ft.), on the south-west. The
island, which belongs to the administrative district of Lesina, is divided
between two communes, named after the chief towns, Lissa (Vis), on the
north, and Comisa (Komia), on the west. Lissa, the capital, has a strongly
fortified harbour. It contains the palace of the old Venetian counts
Gariboldi, the former residence of the English governor, the monastery of
the Minorites and at a little distance to the west the ruins of the ancient city
of Issa. The islanders gain their livelihood by viticulture, for which Issa was
once famous, by sardine fishing and by the distillation of rosemary oil. Pop.
(1900) 9918, of whom 5261 belonged to the town and commune of Lissa,
and 4657 to Comisa.

Issa is said to have been settled by people from Lesbos, the Issa of the
Aegean. The Parians, assisted by Dionysius the Elder of Syracuse,
introduced a colony in the 4th century b.c. During the First Punic War (265-
241 b.c.) the Issaeans with their beaked ships helped the Roman Duilius;
and the great republic, having defended their island against the attacks of
Agron of Illyria and his queen Teuta, again found them serviceable allies in
the war with Philip of Macedon (c. 215-211). As early as 996 the Venetians
ruled the island, and, though they retired for a time before the Ragusans,
their power was effectually established in 1278. Velo Selo, then the chief
settlement, was destroyed by Ferdinand of Naples in 1483 and by the Turks
in 1571. The present city arose shortly afterwards. During the Napoleonic
wars, the French held Lissa until 1811, and during this period the island
prospered greatly, its population increasing from 4000 to 12,000 between

1808 and 1811. In the latter year the French squadron was defeated by the
British (see below); though in the same year a French fleet, flying British
colours, entered Lissa, and only retired after burning 64 merchantmen.
Thenceforward the island gained a valuable trade in British goods, which,
being excluded from every port under French control, were smuggled into
Dalmatia. In 1812 the British established an administrative system, under
native officials, in Lissa and the adjoining islands of Curzola and Lagosta.
All three were ceded to Austria in 1815.

Battles of Lissa.—Two naval actions have been fought in modern times
near this island. The first took place on the 13th of March 1811, and was
fought between a Franco-Venetian squadron, under the command of an
officer named Dubourdieu (of whom little or nothing else is known), and
Captain (afterwards Sir) William Hoste with a small British force. The
Franco-Venetian squadron (Venice was then part of the dominions of the
emperor Napoleon) consisted of six frigates, of which four were of forty
guns, and of five corvettes or small craft. The British squadron was
composed of three frigates, the “Amphion,” 32 (Captain William Hoste),
the “Cerberus” (Captain Henry Whitby) and the “Active,” 38 (Captain
James A. Gordon). With them was the “Volage,” 22 (Captain Phipps
Hornby). The action has a peculiar interest because the French captain
imitated the method of attack employed by Nelson at Trafalgar. He came
down from windward in two lines parallel to one another, and at an angle to
the British squadron. Captain Hoste was not compelled to lie still as the
allies did at Trafalgar. He stood on, and as the two French lines had to
overtake him as he slipped away at an angle to their course, one of them got
in the way of the other. Captain Hoste materially forwarded the success of
his manœuvre by leading the foremost French ship, the “Favorite,” 40, on to
a reef, which was known to himself, but not to the enemy. Both squadrons
then turned, and the Franco-Venetians falling into great confusion were

defeated in spite of the gallant fighting of the individual ships. Two prizes
were taken and Dubourdieu was killed.

The second naval battle of Lissa was fought between the Austrian and
Italian navies on the 20th of July 1866. The island, then in possession of the
Austrians, was attacked by an Italian squadron from Ancona of 12 ironclads
and 22 wooden vessels. One of the ironclads was damaged in a
bombardment of the forts, and two were detached on other service, when an
Austrian squadron of 7 ironclads, one unarmoured warship the “Kaiser” and
a number of small craft which had left Fasano under the command of
Admiral Tegethoff came to interrupt their operations. The Italian admiral
Persano arranged his ships in a single long line ahead, which allowing for
the necessary space between them meant that the Italian formation stretched
for more than 2 m. Just before the action began Admiral Persano shifted his
flag from the “Ré d’Italia,” the fourth ship in order from the van, to the ram
“Affondatore,” the fifth. This made it necessary for the “Affondatore” and
the ships astern to shorten speed, and, as the leading vessels stood on, a gap
was created in the Italian line. Admiral Tegethoff, who was on the port bow
of the Italians, attacked with his squadron in three divisions formed in
obtuse angles. The Italians opened a very rapid and ill-directed fire at a
distance of 1000 yds. The Austrians did not reply till they were at a distance
of 300 yds. Under Tegethoff’s vigorous leadership, and aided by the
disorder in the Italian line, the Austrians brought on a brief, but to the
Italians destructive, mêlée. They broke through an interval between the
third and fourth Italian ships. The unarmed Austrian ships headed to attack
the unarmed Italians in the rear. At this point an incident occurred to which
an exaggerated importance was given. The Italian ironclad “Ré di
Portogallo” of 5600 tons, in the rear of the line, stood out to cover the
unarmoured squadron by ramming the Austrians. She was herself rammed
by the wooden “Kaiser” (5000 tons), but received little injury, while the
Austrian was much injured. The “Kaiser” and the wooden vessels then

made for the protection of fort San Giorgio on Lissa unpursued. In the
centre, where the action was hottest, the Austrian flagship “Ferdinand Max”
of 5200 tons rammed and sank the “Ré d’Italia.” The Italian “Palestro” of
2000 tons was fired by a shell and blew up. By midday the Italians were in
retreat, and Tegethoff anchored at San Giorgio. His squadron had suffered
very little from the wild fire of the Italians. The battle of the 20th July was
the first fought at sea by modern ironclad steam fleets, and therefore
attracted a great deal of attention. The sinking of the “Ré d’Italia” and the
ramming of the “Portogallo” by the “Kaiser” gave an immense impulse to
the then popular theory that the ram would be a leading, if not the principal,
weapon in modern sea warfare. This calculation has not been borne out by
more recent experience, and indeed was not justified by the battle itself, in
which the attempts to ram were many and the successes very few. The “Ré
d’Italia” was struck only because she was suddenly and most injudiciously
backed, so that she had no way on when charged by the “Ferdinand Max.”

For the first battle of Lissa see James’s Naval History, vol. v. (1837). A
clear account of the second battle will be found in Sir S. Eardley-Wilmot’s
Development of Navies (London, 1892); see also H. W. Wilson’s Ironclads
in Action (London, 1896).
(D. H.)

LISSA (Polish Lézno), a town in the Prussian province of Posen, 25
m. N.E. from Glogau by rail and at the junction of lines to Breslau, Posen
and Landsberg. Pop. (1905) 16,021. The chief buildings are the handsome

palace, the medieval town-hall, the four churches and the synagogue. Its
manufactures consist chiefly of shoes, machinery, liqueurs and tobacco; it
also possesses a large steam flour-mill, and carries on a brisk trade in grain
and cattle.

Lissa owes its rise to a number of Moravian Brothers who were banished
from Bohemia by the emperor Ferdinand I. in the 16th century and found a
refuge in a village on the estate of the Polish family of Leszczynski. Their
settlement received municipal rights in 1561. During the Thirty Years’ War
the population was reinforced by other refugees, and Lissa became an
important commercial town and the chief seat of the Moravian Brothers in
Poland. Johann Amos Comenius was long rector of the celebrated Moravian
school here. In 1656 and 1707 Lissa was burned down.

See Voigt, Aus Lissas erster Blütezeit (Lissa, 1905), and Sanden,
Geschichte der Lissaer Schule (Lissa, 1905).

LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846), German economist, was born at
Reutlingen, Württemberg, on the 6th of August 1789. Unwilling to follow
the occupation of his father, who was a prosperous tanner, he became a
clerk in the public service, and by 1816 had risen to the post of ministerial
under-secretary. In 1817 he was appointed professor of administration and
politics at the university of Tübingen, but the fall of the ministry in 1819
compelled him to resign. As a deputy to the Württemberg chamber, he was
active in advocating administrative reforms. He was eventually expelled

from the chamber and in April 1822 sentenced to ten months’ imprisonment
with hard labour in the fortress of Asperg. He escaped to Alsace, and after
visiting France and England returned in 1824 to finish his sentence, and was
released on undertaking to emigrate to America. There he resided from
1825 to 1832, first engaging in farming and afterwards in journalism. It was
in America that he gathered from a study of Alexander Hamilton’s work the
inspiration which made him an economist of his pronounced “National”
views. The discovery of coal on some land which he had acquired made
him financially independent, and he became United States consul at Leipzig
in 1832. He strongly advocated the extension of the railway system in
Germany, and the establishment of the Zollverein was due largely to his
enthusiasm and ardour. His latter days were darkened by many misfortunes;
he lost much of his American property in a financial crisis, ill-health also
overtook him, and he brought his life to an end by his own hand on the 30th
of November 1846.

List holds historically one of the highest places in economic thought as
applied to practical objects. His principal work is entitled Das Nationale
System der Politischen Ökonomie (1841). Though his practical conclusions
were different from those of Adam Müller (1779-1829), he was largely
influenced not only by Hamilton but also by the general mode of thinking
of that writer, and by his strictures on the doctrine of Adam Smith. It was
particularly against the cosmopolitan principle in the modern economical
system that he protested, and against the absolute doctrine of free trade,
which was in harmony with that principle. He gave prominence to the
national idea, and insisted on the special requirements of each nation
according to its circumstances and especially to the degree of its
development.

He refused to Smith’s system the title of the industrial, which he thought
more appropriate to the mercantile system, and designated the former as

“the exchange-value system.” He denied the parallelism asserted by Smith
between the economic conduct proper to an individual and to a nation, and
held that the immediate private interest of the separate members of the
community would not lead to the highest good of the whole. That the nation
was an existence, standing between the individual and humanity, and
formed into a unity by its language, manners, historical development,
culture and constitution. That this unity must be the first condition of the
security, wellbeing, progress and civilization of the individual; and private
economic interests, like all others, must be subordinated to the maintenance,
completion and strengthening of the nationality. The nation having a
continuous life, its true wealth must consist—and this is List’s fundamental
doctrine—not in the quantity of exchange-values which it possesses, but in
the full and many-sided development of its productive powers. Its economic
education should be more important than the immediate production of
values, and it might be right that one generation should sacrifice its gain
and enjoyment to secure the strength and skill of the future. In the sound
and normal condition of a nation which has attained economic maturity, the
three productive powers of agriculture, manufactures and commerce should
be alike developed. But the two latter factors are superior in importance, as
exercising a more effective and fruitful influence on the whole culture of
the nation, as well as on its independence. Navigation, railways, all higher
technical arts, connect themselves specially with these factors; whilst in a
purely agricultural state there is a tendency to stagnation. But for the growth
of the higher forms of industry all countries are not adapted—only those of
the temperate zones, whilst the torrid regions have a natural monopoly in
the production of certain raw materials; and thus between these two groups
of countries a division of labour and confederation of powers spontaneously
takes place.

List then goes on to explain his theory of the stages of economic
development through which the nations of the temperate zone, which are

furnished with all the necessary conditions, naturally pass, in advancing to
their normal economic state. These are (1) pastoral life, (2) agriculture, (3)
agriculture united with manufactures; whilst in the final stage agriculture,
manufactures and commerce are combined. The economic task of the state
is to bring into existence through legislative and administrative action the
conditions required for the progress of the nation through these stages. Out
of this view arises List’s scheme of industrial politics. Every nation,
according to him, should begin with free trade, stimulating and improving
its agriculture by intercourse with richer and more cultivated nations,
importing foreign manufactures and exporting raw products. When it is
economically so far advanced that it can manufacture for itself, then a
system of protection should be employed to allow the home industries to
develop themselves fully, and save them from being overpowered in their
earlier efforts by the competition of more matured foreign industries in the
home market. When the national industries have grown strong enough no
longer to dread this competition, then the highest stage of progress has been
reached; free trade should again become the rule, and the nation be thus
thoroughly incorporated with the universal industrial union. What a nation
loses for a time in exchange values during the protective period she much
more than gains in the long run in productive power—the temporary
expenditure being strictly analogous, when we place ourselves at the point
of view of the life of the nation, to the cost of the industrial education of the
individual. The practical conclusion which List drew for Germany was that
she needed for her economic progress an extended and conveniently
bounded territory reaching to the sea-coast both on north and south, and a
vigorous expansion of manufactures and commerce, and that the way to the
latter lay through judicious protective legislation with a customs union
comprising all German lands, and a German marine with a Navigation Act.
The national German spirit, striving after independence and power through
union, and the national industry, awaking from its lethargy and eager to

recover lost ground, were favourable to the success of List’s book, and it
produced a great sensation. He ably represented the tendencies and
demands of his time in his own country; his work had the effect of fixing
the attention, not merely of the speculative and official classes, but of
practical men generally, on questions of political economy; and his ideas
were undoubtedly the economic foundation of modern Germany, as applied
by the practical genius of Bismarck.

See biographies of List by Goldschmidt (Berlin, 1878) and Jentsch
(Berlin, 1901), also Fr. List, ein Vorläufer und ein Opfer für das Vaterland
(Anon., 2 vols., Stuttgart, 1877); M. E. Hirst’s Life of Friedrich List
(London, 1909) contains a bibliography and a reprint of List’s Outlines of
American Political Economy (1827).

LIST (O.E. liste, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lijst, Ger. Leiste, adapted in
Ital. lista and Fr. liste), properly a border or edging. The word was thus
formerly used of a geographical boundary or frontier and of the lobe of the
ear. In current usage “list” is the term applied to the “selvage” of a piece of
cloth, the edging, i.e. of a web left in an unfinished state or of different
material from the rest of the fabric, to be torn or cut off when it is made up,
or used for forming a seam. A similar edging prevents unravelling. The
material, cut off and collected, is known as “list,” and is used as a soft
cheap material for making slippers, padding cushions, &c. Until the
employment of rubber, list was used to stuff the cushions of billiard tables.
The same word probably appears, in a plural form “lists,” applied to the

barriers or palisades enclosing a space of ground set apart for tilting (see
Tournament). It is thus used of any place of contest, and the phrase “to
enter the lists” is frequently used in the sense of “to challenge.” The word in
this application was taken directly from the O. Fr. lisse, modern lice, in
Med. Lat. liciae. This word is usually taken to be a Romanic adaptation of
the Teutonic word. In medieval fortifications the lices were the palisades
forming an outwork in front of the main walls of a castle or other fortified
place, and the word was also used of the space enclosed between the
palisades and the enceinte; this was used for exercising troops, &c. From a
transference of “list,” meaning edge or border, to a “strip” of paper,
parchment, &c., containing a “list” of names, numbers, &c., comes the use
of the word for an enumeration of a series of names of persons or things
arranged in order for some specific purpose. It is the most general word for
such an enumeration, other words, such as “register,” “schedule,”
“inventory,” “catalogue,” having usually some particular connotation. The
chief early use of list in this meaning was of the roll containing the names
of soldiers; hence to “list a soldier” meant to enter a recruit’s name for
service, in modern usage “to enlist” him. There are numerous particular
applications of “list,” as in “civil list” (q.v.), “active or retired list” in the
navy or army. The term “free list” is used of an enumeration of such
commodities as may at a particular time be exempt from the revenue laws
imposing an import duty.

The verb “to list,” most commonly found in the imperative, meaning
“hark!” is another form of “listen,” and is to be referred, as to its ultimate
origin, to an Indo-European root klu-, seen in Gr. κλύειν, to hear, κλέος,
glory, renown, and in the English “loud.” The same root is seen in Welsh
clûst and Irish clûas, ear. Another word “list,” meaning pleasure, delight, or,
as a verb, meaning “to please, choose,” is chiefly found in such phrases as
“the wind bloweth where it listeth.” This is from the O.E. lystan, cf. Dut.
lusten, Ger. lüsten, to take pleasure in, and is also found in the English

doublet “lust,” now always used in the sense of an evil or more particularly
sexual desire. It is probably an application of this word, in the sense of
“inclination,” that has given rise to the nautical term “list,” for the turning
over of a ship on to its side.

LISTA Y ARAGON, ALBERTO (1775-1848), Spanish poet
and educationalist, was born at Seville on the 15th of October 1775. He
began teaching at the age of fifteen, and when little over twenty was made
professor of elocution and poetry at Seville university. In 1813 he was
exiled, on political grounds, but pardoned in 1817. He then returned to
Spain and, after teaching for three years at Bilbao, started a critical review
at Madrid. Shortly afterwards he founded the celebrated college of San
Mateo in that city. The liberal character of the San Mateo educational
system was not favoured by the government, and in 1823 the college was
closed. Lista after some time spent in Bayonne, Paris and London was
recalled to Spain in 1833 to edit the official Madrid Gazette. He was one of
the founders of the Ateneo, the free university of Madrid, and up till 1840
was director of a college at Cadiz. All the leading spirits of the young
generation of Spaniards, statesmen, writers, soldiers and diplomatists came
under his influence. He died at Seville on the 5th of October 1848.

LISTER, JOSEPH LISTER, 1st Baron (1827- ), English
surgeon, was born at Upton, in Essex, on the 5th of April 1827. His father,
Joseph Jackson Lister, F.R.S., was eminent in science, especially in optical
science, his chief claim to remembrance being that by certain improvements
in lenses he raised the compound microscope from the position of a
scientific toy, “distorting as much as it magnified,” to its present place as a
powerful engine of research. Other members of Lord Lister’s family were
eminent in natural science. In his boyhood Joseph Lister was educated at
Quaker schools; first at Hitchin in Hertfordshire, and afterwards at
Tottenham, near London. In 1844 he entered University College, London,
as a student in arts, and took his B.A. degree at the University of London in
1847. He continued at University College as a medical student, and became
M.B. and F.R.C.S. in 1852. The keen young student was not long in
bringing his faculties to bear upon pathology and the practice of medicine.
While house-surgeon at University College Hospital, he had charge of
certain cases during an outbreak of hospital gangrene, and carefully
observed the phenomena of the disease and the effects of treatment upon it.
He was thus early led to suspect the parasitic nature of the disorder, and
searched with the microscope the material of the spreading sore, in the hope
of discovering in it some invading fungus; he soon convinced himself of the
cardinal truth that its causes were purely local. He also minutely
investigated cases of pyaemia, another terrible scourge of hospitals at that

time, and made camera lucida sketches of the appearances revealed by the
microscope.

To realize Lister’s work it is necessary to remember the condition of
surgical practice at that date. About the middle of the 19th century the
introduction of anaesthetics had relieved the patient of much of the horror
of the knife, and the surgeon of the duty of speed in his work. The agony of
the sufferer had naturally and rightly compelled the public to demand rapid
if not slap-dash surgery, and the surgeon to pride himself on it. Within
decent limits of precision, the quickest craftsman was the best. With
anaesthetics this state of things at any rate was changed. The pain of the
operation itself no longer counted, and the surgeon was enabled not only to
be as cautious and sedulous as dexterous, but also to venture upon long,
profound and intricate operations which before had been out of the
question. Yet unhappily this new enfranchisement seemed to be but an
ironical liberty of Nature, who with the other hand took away what she had
given. Direct healing of surgical wounds (“by first intention”), far from
being the rule, was a piece of luck too rare to enter into the calculations of
the operator; while of the graver surgical undertakings, however successful
mechanically, the mortality by sepsis was ghastly. Suppuration, phagedaena
and septic poisonings of the system carried away even the most promising
patients and followed even trifling operations. Often, too, these diseases
rose to the height of epidemic pestilences, so that patients, however extreme
their need, dreaded the very name of hospital, and the most skilful surgeons
distrusted their own craft. New hospitals or new wards were built, yet after
a very short time the new became as pestiferous as the old; and even
scrupulous care in ventilation and housemaids’ cleanliness failed to prevent
the devastation. Surgery had enlarged its freedom, but only to find the
weight of its new responsibilities more than it could bear.

When Lister was appointed to the chair of surgery in Glasgow the
infirmary of that city was a hotbed of septic disease; so much so that his
hospital visits evidently distressed him greatly. Windows were widely
opened, piles of clean towels were supplied, but still the pestilence stalked
through the wards. The building stands to-day as it stood then, with no
substantial alteration; but by the genius of Lister its surgical wards are now
as free from septic accidents as the most modern hospital in the land. James
Simpson, early in the ’sixties, pathetically denounced the awful mortality of
operations in hospitals, and indeed uttered desperate protests against the
hospital system itself; yet, not long afterwards, Lister came to prove that it
was not in the hospital that the causes of that mortality lay hidden, but in
the operator himself, his tools and his assistants. Happily this beneficent
discovery was made in time to preserve the inestimable boon of the hospital
system from the counsels of despair. When Lister took up the task
speculation was on the wrong tack; the oxygen of the air was then supposed
to be the chief cause of the dissolution of the tissues, and to prevent access
of air was impossible. For instance, a simple fracture, as of a bone of the
leg, would do perfectly well, while in the very next bed a compound
fracture—one, that is, where the skin is lacerated, and access to the seat of
injury opened out—would go disastrously wrong. If the limb were
amputated, a large proportion of such cases of amputation succumbed to
septic poisoning.

On graduation as bachelor of medicine, Lister went to Edinburgh, where
he soon afterwards became house-surgeon to Mr Syme; and he was much
impressed by the skill and judgment of this great surgeon, and also by the
superiority of his method of dressing recent wounds with dry lint, as
compared with the “water dressing” in use at University College. Yet under
these more favourable conditions the amelioration was only one of degree;
in most wounds indeed “union by first intention” was rendered impossible
by the presence of the silk ligatures employed for arresting bleeding, for

these could come away only by a process of suppuration. On the expiry of
his house-surgeoncy in Edinburgh, Lister started in that city an extra-
academical course of lectures on surgery; and in preparation for these he
entered on a series of investigations into inflammation and allied subjects.
These researches, which were detailed fully in three papers in Phil. Trans.
(1859), and in his Croonian lecture to the Royal Society in 1863, testified to
an earnestness of purpose, a persevering accuracy of observation and
experiment and an insight of scientific conception which show that if Lister
had never developed the aseptic method of surgery, he would have taken a
very high place in pathology. In his speech in Paris at the Thirteenth
International Congress of Medicine in 1900, Lord Lister said that he had
done no more than seize upon Pasteur’s discoveries and apply them to
surgery. But though Lister saw the vast importance of the discoveries of
Pasteur, he saw it because he was watching on the heights; and he was
watching there alone. From Pasteur Lister derived no doubt two fruitful
ideas: first, that decomposition in organic substances is due to living
“germs”; and, secondly, that these lowly and minute forms of vegetable life
spring always, like higher organisms, from parents like themselves, and
cannot arise de novo in the animal body. After his appointment to the
Glasgow chair in 1860, Lister had continued his researches on
inflammation; and he had long been led to suspect that decomposition of
the blood in the wound was the main cause of suppuration. The two great
theories established by Pasteur seemed to Lister to open out the possibility
of what had before appeared hopeless—namely, the prevention of
putrefaction in the wound, and consequently the forestalling of suppuration.
To exclude the oxygen of the air from wounds was impossible, but it might
be practicable to protect them from microbes.

The first attempt to realize this idea was made upon compound fractures;
and the means first employed was carbolic acid, the remarkable efficacy of
which in deodorizing sewage made Lister regard it as a very powerful

germicide. It was applied to the wound undiluted, so as to form with the
blood a dense crust, the surface of which was painted daily with the acid till
all danger had passed. The results, after a first failure, were in the highest
degree satisfactory, so that, as Lister said in his presidential address to the
British Association in Liverpool, he “had the joy of seeing these formidable
injuries follow the same safe and tranquil course as simple fractures.” The
caustic property of undiluted carbolic acid, though insignificant in
comparison with the far greater evils to be avoided in compound fracture,
made it unsuited for general surgery. To make it applicable to the treatment
of abscesses and incised wounds, it was necessary to mitigate its action by
blending it with some inert body; and the endeavour to find the best
medium for this purpose, such as to combine perfect antiseptic efficiency
with the least possible irritation of the tissues, formed the subject of
experiments continued for many years in the laboratory and in the ward. At
one stage in these inquiries an attempt was made to provide an atmosphere
free from living organisms by means of a fine spray of a watery solution of
carbolic acid; for it was then supposed by Lister to be necessary not only to
purify the surgeon’s hands and instruments and the skin of the patient about
the seat of operation, but also to wage war with the microbes which, as
Pasteur had shown, people every cubic inch of the air of an inhabited room.
Under the use of the spray better results were obtained than ever before, and
this success encouraged its use. But researches carried on for several years
into the relations of the blood to micro-organisms led Lister to doubt the
harmfulness of the atmospheric dust. At the London Congress in 1881 he
narrated experiments which proved that the serum of the blood is a very
unfavourable soil for the development of the bacteria diffused through the
air, and others which showed that the cells of an organizing blood-clot have
a very remarkable power of disposing of microbes and of limiting their
advance. Hence he considered it probable that in surgical operations the
atmosphere might be disregarded altogether.1 As long, however, as this was

only a matter of probability, he did not dare to discard the spray. But at
length, at the Berlin Congress in 1890, he was able to announce that the
certainty he had so long desired had been arrived at. A careful consideration
of the physical constitution of the spray had shown him that the microbes of
the dust involved in its vortex could not possibly have their vitality
destroyed or even impaired by it. Such being the case, the uniform success
obtained when he had trusted the spray implicitly as an aseptic atmosphere,
abandoning completely certain other precautions which he had before
deemed essential, proved conclusively to his mind that the air might safely
be left entirely out of consideration in operating.2 Thus he learnt that not the
spray only, but all antiseptic irrigations or washings of the wound also, with
their attendant irritation of the cut surfaces, might be dispensed with—a
great simplification, indirectly due to experiments with the spray. The spray
had also served a very useful purpose by maintaining a pure condition of
the entourage of the operation; not indeed in the way for which it was
devised, but as a very mild form of irrigation. And Lister took care to
emphasize the necessity for redoubled vigilance on the part of the surgeon
and his assistants when this “unconscious caretaker,” as he called it, had
been discarded.

The announcement that he had given up the spray was absurdly
interpreted in some quarters to mean that he had virtually abandoned his
theory and his antiseptic methods. The truth is that the spray was only one
of many devices tried for a while in the course of the long-continued
endeavour to apply the antiseptic principle to the best advantage, and
abandoned in favour of something better. Two main objects were always
kept steadily in view by him—during the operation to guard the wound
against septic microbes by such means as existing knowledge indicated, and
afterwards to protect it against their introduction, avoiding at the same time
all needless irritation of the tissues by the antiseptic. Upon the technical
methods of attaining these ends this is not the place to enlarge; suffice it to

say that the endowments and the industry of the discoverer, as seen in the
rapidity and flexibility of mind with which he seized upon and selected the
best means, were little less remarkable than the activity of the same
faculties in his original ideas.

To illustrate this opinion, his work on the ligature may be taken. It had
long been the universal practice of surgeons to employ threads of silk or
flax for tying arteries, long ends being left to provide escape of the pus
(invariably formed during the tedious process of the separation of the
ligature) together with the portion of the arterial coats included in the knot.
Lister hoped that if, by antiseptic means, the thread were deprived of living
microbes, it would no longer cause suppuration, but might be left with short
cut ends to become embedded permanently among the tissues of the wound,
which thus would be allowed to heal by primary union throughout. A trial
of this method upon the carotid artery of a horse having proved perfectly
successful, he applied it in a case of aneurysm in the human subject; and
here again the immediate results were all that could be desired. But a year
later, the patient having died from other causes, the necropsy showed
remnants of the silk thread incompletely absorbed, with appearances around
them which seemed to indicate that they had been acting as causes of
disturbance. Thus was suggested to him the idea of employing for the
ligature some material susceptible of more speedy absorption; and the
antiseptic treatment of contused wounds having shown that dead tissue, if
protected from putrefaction, is removed by the surrounding structures
without the intervention of suppuration, he resolved to try a thread of some
such nature. Catgut, which is prepared from one of the constituents of the
small intestine of the sheep, after steeping in a solution of carbolic acid, was
used in a preliminary trial upon the carotid artery of a calf. The animal was
killed a month later, when, on dissection, a very beautiful result was
disclosed. The catgut, though removed, had not been simply absorbed; pari
passu with its gradual removal, fibrous tissue of new formation had been

laid down, so that in place of the dead catgut was seen a living ligature
embracing the artery and incorporated with it. The wound meanwhile had
healed without a trace of suppuration. This success appeared to justify the
use of the catgut ligature in the human subject, and for a while the results
were entirely satisfactory. But though this was the case with the old samples
of catgut first employed, which, as Lister was afterwards led to believe, had
been “seasoned” by long keeping, it was found that when catgut was used
fresh as it comes from the makers, it was unsuited in various ways for
surgical purposes. The attempt by special preparation to obtain an article in
all respects trustworthy engaged his attention from time to time for years
afterwards. To quote the words of Sir Hector Cameron, who was for several
years assistant to Lord Lister, it required “labour and toilsome investigation
and experiment of which few can have any adequate idea.”

In 1869 Lister succeeded his father-in-law, Syme, in the chair of clinical
surgery of Edinburgh. In 1877 he accepted an invitation to the chair of
surgery at King’s College, London, in the anticipation that here he would be
more centrally placed for communication with the surgical world at home
and abroad, and might thus exercise his beneficent mission to more
immediate advantage. In 1896 Lister retired from practice, but not from
scientific study. From 1895 to 1900 he was President of the Royal Society.
In 1883 he was created a baronet, and in 1897 he was raised to the peerage
as Baron Lister of Lyme Regis. Among the Coronation honours in 1902, he
was nominated an original member of the new Order of Merit.

In England Lister’s teaching was slow in making its way. The leading
surgeons of Germany were among the first to seize upon the new idea with
avidity and practical success; so early as 1875, in the course of a tour he
made on the Continent, great festivals were held in his honour in Munich
and Leipzig. The countrymen of Pasteur did not lag far behind; and it is no

exaggeration to speak of Lister’s appearances in foreign countries at this
time as triumphal.

The relation of Semmelweiss to Lister is of historical importance.
Lister’s work on the antiseptic system began in 1864; his first publication
on the subject was in March 1867. At this date, and for long afterwards,
Semmelweiss was unknown, or ignored, not only by French and Germans,
but also by his own Hungarian people; and this neglect broke his heart. The
French Academy pronounced against his opinions, and so did the highest
pathological authority in Germany. In England, till long after his death,
probably his name was not so much as mentioned. In the early ’seventies
Lister’s method was in full operation in Hungary as elsewhere, yet none of
the surgeons of Budapest ever mentioned Semmelweiss; not even when, in
1883, they gave a great banquet to Lister. It was after this occasion that Dr
Duka, a Hungarian physician practising in London, wrote a biography of
Semmelweiss, which he sent to Lister, and thus brought Semmelweiss
before him for the first time. Thenceforth Lister generously regarded
Semmelweiss as in some measure his forerunner; though Semmelweiss was
not aware of the microbic origin of septic poisons, nor were his methods,
magnificent as was their success in lying-in hospitals, suitable for surgical
work.

In public Lord Lister’s speeches were simple, clear and graceful,
avoiding rhetorical display, earnest for the truth, jealous for his science and
art, forgetful of himself. His writings, in like manner plain, lucid and
forcible, scarcely betray the labour and thought of their production. With
the courtesy and serenity of his carriage he combined a passionate
humanity, so often characteristic of those who come of the Society of
Friends, and a simple love of truth which showed itself in his generous
encouragement of younger workers.
(T. C. A.)

1 See Trans. of the International Medical Congress (1881), vol. ii. p. 373.

2 See Verhandlungen des X internationalen Congresses, Bd. i. p. 33.

LISTER, MARTIN (c. 1638-1712), English naturalist and
physician, was born at Radclive, near Buckingham. He was nephew of Sir
Matthew Lister, physician to Anne, queen of James I., and to Charles I. He
was educated at St John’s College, Cambridge, 1655, graduated in 1658/9,
and was elected a fellow in 1660. He became F.R.S. in 1671. He practised
medicine at York until 1683, when he removed to London. In 1684 he
received the degree of M.D. at Oxford, and in 1687 became F.R.C.P. He
contributed numerous articles on natural history, medicine and antiquities to
the Philosophical Transactions. His principal works were Historiae
animalium Angliae tres tractatus (1678); Historiae Conchyliorum (1685-
1692), and Conchyliorum Bivalvium (1696). As a conchologist he was held
in high esteem, but while he recognized the similarity of fossil mollusca to
living forms, he regarded them as inorganic imitations produced in the
rocks. In 1683 he communicated to the Royal Society (Phil. Trans., 1684),
An ingenious proposal for a new sort of maps of countries; together with
tables of sands and clays, such as are chiefly found in the north parts of
England. In this essay he suggested the preparation of a soil or mineral map
of the country, and thereby is justly credited with being the first to realize
the importance of a geological survey. He died at Epsom on the 2nd of
February 1712.

LISTON, JOHN (c. 1776-1846), English comedian, was born in
London. He made his public début on the stage at Weymouth as Lord
Duberley in The Heir-at-law. After several dismal failures in tragic parts,
some of them in support of Mrs Siddons, he discovered accidentally that his
forte was comedy, especially in the personation of old men and country
boys, in which he displayed a fund of drollery and broad humour. An
introduction to Charles Kemble led to his appearance at the Haymarket on
the 10th of June 1805 as Sheepface in the Village Lawyer, and his
association with this theatre continued with few interruptions until 1830.
Paul Pry, the most famous of all his impersonations, was first presented on
the 13th of September 1825, and soon became, thanks to his creative
genius, a real personage. Liston remained on the stage till 1837; during his
last years his mind failed, and he died on the 22nd of March 1846. He had
married in 1807 Miss Tyrer (d. 1854), a singer and actress.

Several pictures of Liston in character are in the Garrick Club, London,
and one as Paul Pry in the South Kensington Museum.

LISTON, ROBERT (1794-1847), Scottish surgeon, was born on
the 28th of October 1794 at Ecclesmachan, Linlithgow, where his father
was parish minister. He began the study of anatomy under Dr John Barclay
(1758-1826) at Edinburgh in 1810, and soon became a skilful anatomist.
After eight years’ study, he became a lecturer on anatomy and surgery in the
Edinburgh School or Medicine; and in 1827 he was elected one of the
surgeons to the Royal Infirmary. In 1835 he was chosen professor of
clinical surgery in University College, London, and this appointment he
held until his death, which occurred in London on the 7th of December
1847. Liston was a teacher more by what he did than by what he said. He
taught simplicity in all operative procedures; fertile in expedients, of great
nerve and of powerful frame, he is remembered as an extraordinarily bold,
skilful and rapid operator. He was the author of The Elements of Surgery
(1831-1832) and Practical Surgery (1837), and made several improvements
in methods of amputation, and in the dressing of wounds.

LISZT, FRANZ (1811-1886), Hungarian pianist and composer,
was born on the 22nd of October 1811, at Raiding, in Hungary. His appeal
to musicians was made in a threefold capacity, and we have, therefore, to
deal with Liszt the unrivalled pianoforte virtuoso (1830-1848); Liszt the
conductor of the “music of the future” at Weimar, the teacher of Tausig,
Bülow and a host of lesser pianists, the eloquent writer on music and
musicians, the champion of Berlioz and Wagner (1848-1861); and Liszt the
prolific composer, who for some five-and-thirty years continued to put forth

pianoforte pieces, songs, symphonic orchestral pieces, cantatas, masses,
psalms and oratorios (1847-1882). As virtuoso he held his own for the
entire period during which he chose to appear in public; but the militant
conductor and prophet of Wagner had a hard time of it, and the composer’s
place is still in dispute. Liszt’s father, a clerk to the agent of the Esterhazy
estates and an amateur musician of some attainment, was Hungarian by
birth and ancestry, his mother an Austrian-German. The boy’s gifts attracted
the attention of certain Hungarian magnates, who furnished 600 gulden
annually for some years to enable him to study music at Vienna and Paris.
At Vienna he had lessons in pianoforte playing from Carl Czerny of
“Velocity” fame, and from Salieri in harmony and analysis of scores. In his
eleventh year he began to play in public there, and Beethoven came to his
second concert in April 1823. During the three years following he played in
Paris, the French provinces and Switzerland, and paid three visits to
England. In Paris he had composition lessons from Paër, and a six months’
course of lessons in counterpoint from Reicha. In the autumn of 1825 the
handsome and fascinating enfant gâté of the salons and ateliers—“La
Neuvième Merveille du monde”—had the luck to get an operetta (Don
Sancho) performed three times at the Académie Royale. The score was
accidentally destroyed by fire, but a set of studies à la Czerny and Cramer,
belonging to 1826 and published at Marseilles as 12 Études, op. i., is extant,
and shows remarkable precocity. After the death of his father in 1828 young
Liszt led the life of a teacher of the pianoforte in Paris, got through a good
deal of miscellaneous reading, and felt the influence of the religious,
literary and political aspirations of the time. He attended the meetings of the
Saint-Simonists, lent an ear to the romantic mysticism of Père Enfantin and
later to the teaching of Abbé Lamennais. He also played Beethoven and
Weber in public—a very courageous thing in those days. The appearance of
the violinist Paganini in Paris, 1831, marks the starting-point of the supreme
eminence Liszt ultimately attained as a virtuoso. Paganini’s marvellous

technique inspired him to practise as no pianist had ever practised before.
He tried to find equivalents for Paganini’s effects, transcribed his violin
caprices for the piano, and perfected his own technique to an extraordinary
degree. After Paganini he received a fresh impulse from the playing and the
compositions of Chopin, who arrived in 1831, and yet another impulse of
equal force from a performance of Berlioz’s “Symphonie Fantastique,
épisode de la vie d’un artiste,” in 1832. Liszt transcribed this work, and its
influence ultimately led him to the composition of his “Poèmes
symphoniques” and other examples of orchestral programme-music.

From 1833 to 1848—when he gave up playing in public—he was greeted
with frantic applause as the prince of pianists. Five years (1835-1840) were
spent in Switzerland and Italy, in semi-retirement in the company of
Madame la comtesse d’Agoult (George Sand’s friend and would-be rival,
known in literary circles as “Daniel Stern,” by whom Liszt had three
children, one of them afterwards Frau Cosima Wagner): these years were
devoted to further study in playing and composition, and were interrupted
only by occasional appearances at Geneva, Milan, Florence and Rome, and
by annual visits to Paris, when a famous contest with Thalberg took place in
1837. The enthusiasm aroused by Liszt’s playing and his personality—the
two are inseparable—reached a climax at Vienna and Budapest in 1839-
1840, when he received a patent of nobility from the emperor of Austria,
and a sword of honour from the magnates of Hungary in the name of the
nation. During the eight years following he was heard at all the
principalcentres—including London, Leipzig, Berlin, Copenhagen, St
Petersburg, Moscow, Warsaw, Constantinople, Lisbon and Madrid. He
gained much money, and gave large sums in charity. His munificence with
regard to the Beethoven statue at Bonn made a great stir. The subscriptions
having come in but sparsely, Liszt took the matter in hand, and the
monument was completed at his expense, and unveiled at a musical festival
conducted by Spohr and himself in 1845. In 1848 he settled at Weimar with

Princess Sayn-Wittgenstein (d. 1887), and remained there till 1861. During
this period he acted as conductor at court concerts and on special occasions
at the theatre, gave lessons to a number of pianists, wrote articles of
permanent value on certain works of Berlioz and the early operas of
Wagner, and produced those orchestral and choral pieces upon which his
reputation as a composer mainly depends. His ambition to found a school of
composers as well as a school of pianists met with complete success on the
one hand and partial failure on the other. His efforts on behalf of Wagner,
who was then an exile in Switzerland, culminated in the first performance
of Lohengrin on the 28th of August 1850, before a special audience
assembled from far and near. Among the works produced for the first time
or rehearsed with a view to the furtherance of musical art were Wagner’s
Tannhäuser, Der fliegende Holländer, Das Liebesmahl der Apostel, and
Eine Faust Overtüre, Berlioz’s Benvenuto Cellini, the Symphonie
Fantastique, Harold en Italie, Roméo et Juliette, La Damnation de Faust,
and L’Enfance du Christ—the last two conducted by the composer—
Schumann’s Genoveva, Paradise and the Peri, the music to Manfred and to
Faust, Weber’s Euryanthe, Schubert’s Alfonso und Estrella, Raff’s König
Alfred, Cornelius’s Der Barbier von Baghdad and many more. It was
Liszt’s habit to recommend novelties to the public by explanatory articles or
essays, which were written in French (some for the Journal des débats and
the Gazette musicale of Paris) and translated for the journals of Weimar and
Leipzig—thus his two masterpieces of sympathetic criticism, the essays
Lohengrin et Tannhäuser à Weimar and Harold en Italie, found many
readers and proved very effective. They are now included, together with
articles on Schumann and Schubert, and the elaborate and rather high-flown
essays on Chopin and Des Bohémiens et de leur musique en Hongrie (the
latter certainly, and the former probably, written in collaboration with
Madame de Wittgenstein), in his Gesammelte Schriften (6 vols., Leipzig).
The compositions belonging to the period of his residence at Weimar

comprise two pianoforte concertos, in E flat and in A, the “Todtentanz,” the
“Concerto pathétique” for two pianos, the solo sonata “An Robert
Schumann,” sundry “Études,” fifteen “Rhapsodies Hongroises,” twelve
orchestral “Poèmes symphoniques,” “Eine Faust Symphonie,” and “Eine
Symphonie zu Dante’s ‘Divina Commedia,’” the “13th Psalm” for tenor
solo, chorus and orchestra, the choruses to Herder’s dramatic scenes
“Prometheus,” and the “Missa solennis” known as the “Graner Fest Messe.”
Liszt retired to Rome in 1861, and joined the Franciscan order in 1865.1
From 1869 onwards Abbé Liszt divided his time between Rome and
Weimar, where during the summer months he received pupils—gratis as
formerly—and, from 1876 up to his death at Bayreuth on the 31st of July
1886, he also taught for several months every year at the Hungarian
Conservatoire of Budapest.

About Liszt’s pianoforte technique in general it may be said that it
derives its efficiency from the teaching of Czerny, who brought up his pupil
on Mozart, a little Bach and Beethoven, a good deal of Clementi and
Hummel, and a good deal of his (Czerny’s) own work. Classicism in the
shape of solid, respectable Hummel on the one hand, and Carl Czerny, a
trifle flippant, perhaps, and inclined to appeal to the gallery, on the other,
these gave the musical parentage of young Liszt. Then appears the Parisian
Incroyable and grand seigneur—“Monsieur Lits,” as the Parisians called
him. Later, we find him imitating Paganini and Chopin, and at the same
time making a really passionate and deep study of Beethoven, Weber,
Schubert, Berlioz. Thus gradually was formed the master of style—whose
command of the instrument was supreme, and who played like an inspired
poet. Liszt’s strange musical nature was long in maturing its fruits. At the
pianoforte his achievements culminate in the two books of studies, twice
rewritten, and finally published in 1852 as Études d’exécution
transcendante, the Études de concert and the Paganini Studies; the two
concertos and the Todtentanz, the Sonata in B minor, the Hungarian

Rhapsodies and the fine transcriptions of Beethoven’s symphonies (the 9th
for two pianofortes as well as solo), and of Berlioz’s Symphonie fantastique,
and the symphony, Harold en Italie. In his orchestral pieces of Liszt appears
—next to Berlioz—as the most conspicuous and most thorough-going
representative of programme music, i.e. instrumental music expressly
contrived to illustrate in detail some poem or some succession of ideas or
pictures. It was Liszt’s aim to bring about a direct alliance or amalgamation
of instrumental music with poetry. To effect this he made use of the means
of musical expression for purposes of illustration, and relied on points of
support outside the pale of music proper. There is always danger of failure
when an attempt is thus made to connect instrumental music with
conceptions not in themselves musical, for the order of the ideas that serve
as a programme is apt to interfere with the order which the musical
exposition naturally assumes—and the result in most cases is but an
amalgam of irreconcilable materials. In pieces such as Liszt’s “Poèmes
symphoniques,” Ce qu’on entend sur la montagne (1848-1856), after a
poem by Victor Hugo, and Die Ideale (1853-1857), after a poem by
Schiller, the hearer is bewildered by a series of startling orchestral effects
which succeed one another apparently without rhyme or reason. The music
does not conform to any sufficiently definite musical plan—it is hardly
intelligible as music without reference to the programme. Liszt’s
masterpiece in orchestral music is the Dante Symphony (1847-1855), the
subject of which was particularly well suited to his temperament, and
offered good chances for the display of his peculiar powers as a master of
instrumental effect. By the side of it ranks the Faust Symphony (1854-
1857), in which the moods of Goethe’s characters—Faust, Gretchen and
Mephistopheles—are depicted in three instrumental movements, with a
chorus of male voices, supplying a kind of comment, by way of close. The
method of presentation in both symphonies is by means of representative
themes (Leitmotif), and their combination and interaction. Incidents of the

poem or the play are illustrated or alluded to as may be convenient, and the
exigencies of musical form are not unfrequently disregarded for the sake of
special effects. Of the twelve Poèmes symphoniques, Orphée is the most
consistent from a musical point of view, and is exquisitely scored.
Melodious, effective, readily intelligible, with a dash of the commonplace,
Les Préludes, Tasso, Mazeppa and Fest-Klänge bid for popularity. In these
pieces, as in almost every production of his, in lieu of melody Liszt offers
fragments of melody—touching and beautiful, it may be, or passionate, or
tinged with triviality; in lieu of a rational distribution of centres of harmony
in accordance with some definite plan, he presents clever combinations of
chords and ingenious modulations from point to point; in lieu of musical
logic and consistency of design, he is content with rhapsodical
improvisation. The power of persistence seems wanting. The musical
growth is spoilt, the development of the themes is stopped, or prevented, by
some reference to extraneous ideas. Everywhere the programme stands in
the way. In much of Liszt’s vocal music, particularly in the songs and choral
pieces written to German words, an annoying discrepancy is felt to exist
between the true sound of the words and the musical accents. The music is
generally emotional, the expression direct and passionate; there is no lack
of melodic charm and originality, yet the total effect is frequently
disappointing. In the choral numbers of the five masses, and in the oratorios
Die Heilige Elisabeth and Christus, the rarity of fugal polyphony acts as a
drawback. Its almost complete absence in some of these works makes for
monotony and produces a sense of dullness, which may not be inherent in
all the details of the music, but is none the less distinctly present.

Omitting trifles and all publications that have been cancelled, the
following list of compositions may be taken as fairly comprehensive:—

Pianoforte Pieces.—Études d’exécution transcendante; Études de
concert; Zwei Etuden, Waldesrauschen, Gnomentanz; Ab Irato; Paganini

Studies; Années de Pélerinage, 3 sets; Harmonies poétiques et religieuses,
1-10; Consolations, 1-6; Ave Maria in E; Sonata in B minor; Konzert-Solo
in E minor; Scherzo und Marsch; Ballades, I. II.; Polonaises, I. II.;
Apparitions, 1-3; Berceuse; Valse impromptu; Mazurka brillant; 3 Caprices
Valses; Galop chromatique; Mephisto-Walzer, I., II., III. and Polka; Zwei
Legenden, “Die Vogelpredigt,” “Der heilige Franciscus auf den Wogen
schreitend”; “Der Weihnachtsbaum,” 1-12; Sarabande und Chaconne
(“Almira”); Elegies, I., II. and III.; La lugubre Gondola; Dem Andenken
Petöfi’s; Mosonyi’s Grabgeleit; Romance oubliée; Valses oubliées, 1-3;
Liebesträume, 1-3 (originally songs); Hexameron; Rhapsodies Hongroises,
1-18.

Pieces for Two Pianos.—Concerto pathétique (identical with the
Konzert-Solo in E minor); Dante symphony; Faust symphony; Poèmes
symphoniques, 1-12; Beethoven’s 9th symphony.

Pianoforte with Orchestra.—Concertos I. in E flat, II. in A; Todtentanz;
Fantasie ueber Motif aus Beethoven’s “Ruinen von Athen”; Fantasie ueber
Ungarische National Melodien; Schubert’s Fantasia in C; Weber’s Polacca
in E.

Fantaisies de Concert for Piano Solo.—Don Juan; Norma; Sonnambula;
I Puritani; Lucia, I., II.; Lucrezia, I., II.; La Juive; Robert le Diable; Les
Huguenots; Le Prophète, 1-4. Paraphrases, Auber, Tarantella di bravura
(Masaniello); Verdi, Rigoletto, Ernani, Il Trovatore; Mendelssohn,
“Hochzeitsmarsch und Elfenreigen”; Gounod, Valse de Faust, Les Adieux
de Roméo et Juliette; Tschaikowsky, Polonaise; Dargomiyski, Tarantelle;
Cui, Tarantella; Saint-Saëns, Danse macabre; Schubert, Soirées de Vienne,
Valses caprices, 1-9.

Transcriptions.—Beethoven’s Nine Symphonies; Berlioz’s “Symphonie
fantastique,” “Harold en Italie”; Bénédiction et Serment (Benvenuto

Cellini); Danse des Sylphes (Damnation de Faust); Weber’s overtures, Der
Freischütz, Euryanthe, Oberon, Jubilee; Beethoven’s and Hummel’s
Septets; Schubert’s Divertissement à la Hongroise; Beethoven’s Concertos
in C minor, G and E flat (orchestra for a second piano); Wagner’s
Tannhäuser overture, march, romance, chorus of pilgrims; Lohengrin,
Festzug und Brautlied, Elsa’s Brautgang, Elsa’s Traum, Lohengrin’s
Verweiss an Elsa; Fliegender Holländer, Spinnlied; Rienzi, Gebet;
Rheingold, Walhall; Meistersinger, “Am stillen Herd”; Tristan, Isolde’s
Liebestod; Chopin’s six Chants Polonais; Meyerbeer’s Schillermarsch;
Bach’s six organ Preludes and Fugues; Prelude and Fugue in G minor;
Beethoven, Adelaide; 6 miscellaneous and 6 Geistliche Lieder; Liederkreis;
Rossini’s Les Soirées musicales; Schubert, 59 songs; Schumann, 13 songs;
Mendelssohn, 8 songs; Robert Franz, 13 songs.

Organ Pieces.—Missa pro organo; Fantasia and Fugue, “Ad nos, ad
salutarem undam”; B-A-C-H Fugue; Variations on Bach’s Basso continuo,
“Weinen, Klagen”; Bach’s Introduction and Fugue, “Ich hatte viel
Bekümmerniss”; Bach’s Choral Fugue, “Lob und Ehre”; Nicolai’s
Kirchliche Festouvertüre, “Ein feste Burg”; Allegri’s Miserere; Mozart’s
Ave Verum; Arcadelt’s Ave Maria; Lasso’s Regina Coeli.

Orchestral Pieces.—Eine Symphonie zu Dante’s “Divina Commedia”;
Eine Faust Symphonie; Poèmes symphoniques: 1. “Ce qu’on entend sur la
montagne”; 2. Tasso; 3. Les Préludes; 4. Orphée; 5. Prométhée; 6.
Mazeppa; 7. Fest-Klänge; 8. Héroïde funèbre; 9. Hungaria; 10. Hamlet; 11.
Hunnenschlacht; 12. Die Ideale; Zwei Episoden aus Lenau’s Faust: I. Der
nächtliche Zug, II. Der Tanz in der Dorfschenke; Marches, Rakoczy,
Goethe, Huldigung, “Vom Fels zum Meer” (for a military band);
Ungarischer, Heroischer and Sturmmarsch; Le Triomphe funèbre du Tasse;
“Von der Wiege bis zum Grab”; six Hungarian rhapsodies; four marches;
four songs, and Die Allmacht, by Schubert.

Vocal Music.—Oratorios: “Die Legende von der Heiligen Elisabeth,”
“Christus,” “Stanislaus” (unfinished). Masses: Missa solennis for the
inauguration of the cathedral at Gran; Ungarische Krönungs-messe; Missa
choralis (with organ); Missa and Requiem for male voices (with organ);
Psalms, 13, 137, 23 and 18; 12 Kirchen-Chor-Gesänge (with organ).
Cantatas: Prometheus-chöre; “Beethoven Cantata”; “An die Künstler”; Die
Glocken des Strassburger Münsters; 12 Chöre für Männergesang; Songs, 8
books; Scena, Jeanne d’Arc au bûcher.

Melodramatic Pieces for Declamation, with Pianoforte Accompaniment.
—Leonore (Bürger); Der traurige Mönch (Lenau); Des todten Dichter’s
Liebe (Jokai); Der blinde Sänger (Tolstoy).

Editions, Text and Variants.—Beethoven’s Sonatas; Weber’s
Concertstück and Sonatas; Schubert Fantasia, 4 Sonatas, Impromptus,
Valses and Moments musicaux.

See also L. Ramaun, Fr. Liszt als Künstler und Mensch (1880-1894); E.
Dannreuther, Oxford Hist. of Music, vol. vi.(1905). (E. Da.)

1 It is understood that, in point of fact, the Princess Wittgenstein was determined to
marry Liszt; and as neither he nor her family wished their connexion to take this form,
Cardinal Hohenlohe quietly had him ordained.—[Ed. E.B.].

LITANY. This word (λιτανεία), like λιτή (both from λίτομαι), is used
by Eusebius and Chrysostom, commonly in the plural, in a general sense, to

denote a prayer or prayers of any sort, whether public or private; it is
similarly employed in the law of Arcadius (Cod. Theod. xvi. tit. 5, leg. 30),
which forbids heretics to hold assemblies in the city “ad litaniam
faciendam.” But some trace of a more technical meaning is found in the
epistle (Ep. 63) of Basil to the church of Neocaesarea, in which he argues,
against those who were objecting to certain innovations, that neither were
“litanies” used in the time of Gregory Thaumaturgus. The nature of the
recently introduced litanies, which must be assumed to have been practised
at Neocaesarea in Basil’s day, can only be conjectured; probably they had
many points in common with the “rogationes,” which, according to
Sidonius Apollinaris, had been coming into occasional use in France about
the beginning of the 5th century, especially when rain or fine weather was
desired, and, so far as the three fast days before Ascension were concerned,
were first fixed, for one particular district at least, by Mamertus or
Mamercus of Vienne (a.d. c. 450). We gather that they were penitential and
intercessory prayers offered by the community while going about in
procession, fasting and clothed in sackcloth. In the following century the
manner of making litanies was to some extent regulated for the entire
Eastern empire by one of the Novels of Justinian, which forbade their
celebration without the presence of the bishops and clergy, and ordered that
the crosses which were carried in procession should not be deposited
elsewhere than in churches, nor be carried by any but duly appointed
persons. The first synod of Orleans (a.d. 511) enjoins for all Gaul that the
“litanies” before Ascension be celebrated for three days; on these days all
menials are to be exempt from work, so that every one may be free to attend
divine service. The diet is to be the same as in Quadragesima; clerks not
observing these rogations are to be punished by the bishop. In a.d. 517 the
synod of Gerunda provided for two sets of “litanies”; the first were to be
observed for three days (from Thursday to Saturday) in the week after
Pentecost with fasting, the second for three days from November 1. The

second council of Vaison (529), consisting of twelve bishops, ordered the
Kyrie eleison—now first introduced from the Eastern Church—to be sung
at matins, mass and vespers.

A synod of Paris (573) ordered litanies to be held for three days at the
beginning of Lent, and the fifth synod of Toledo (636) appointed litanies to
be observed throughout the kingdom for three days from December 14. The
first mention of the word litany in connexion with the Roman Church goes
back to the pontificate of Pelagius I. (555), but implies that the thing was at
that time already old. In 590 Gregory I., moved by the pestilence which had
followed an inundation, ordered a “litania septiformis,” sometimes called
litania major, that is to say, a sevenfold procession of clergy, laity, monks,
virgins, matrons, widows, poor and children. It must not be confused with
the litania septena used in church on Easter Even. He is said also to have
appointed the processions or litanies of April 25 (St Mark’s day), which
seem to have come in the place of the ceremonies of the old Robigalia. In
747 the synod of Cloveshoe ordered the litanies or rogations to be gone
about on April 25 “after the manner of the Roman Church,” and on the three
days before Ascension “after the manner of our ancestors.” The latter are
still known in the English Church as Rogation Days. Games, horse racing,
junkettings were forbidden; and in the litanies the name of Augustine was to
be inserted after that of Gregory. The reforming synod of Mainz in 813
ordered the major litany to be observed by all for three days in sackcloth
and ashes, and barefoot. The sick only were exempted.

As regards the form of words prescribed for use in these “litanies” or
“supplications,” documentary evidence is defective. Sometimes it would
appear that the “procession” or “litany” did nothing else but chant Kyrie
eleison without variation. There is no reason to doubt that from an early
period the special written litanies of the various churches all showed the
common features which are now regarded as essential to a litany, in as far

as they consisted of (1) invocations, (2) deprecations, (3) intercessions, (4)
supplications. But in details they must have varied immensely. The offices
of the Roman Catholic Church at present recognize two litanies, the
“Litaniae majores” and the “Litaniae breves,” which differ from one
another chiefly in respect of the fulness with which details are entered upon
under the heads mentioned above. It is said that in the time of Charlemagne
the angels Orihel, Raguhel, Tobihel were invoked, but the names were
removed by Pope Zacharias as really belonging to demons. In some
medieval litanies there were special invocations of S. Fides, S. Spes, S.
Charitas. The litanies, as given in the Breviary, are at present appointed to
be recited on bended knee, along with the penitential psalms, in all the six
week-days of Lent when ordinary service is held. Without the psalms they
are said on the feast of Saint Mark and on the three rogation days. A litany
is chanted in procession before mass on Holy Saturday. The “litany” or
“general supplication” of the Church of England, which is appointed “to be
sung or said after morning prayer upon Sundays, Wednesdays and Fridays,
and at other times when it shall be commanded by the ordinary,” closely
follows the “Litaniae majores” of the Breviary, the invocations of saints
being of course omitted. A similar German litany will be found in the works
of Luther. In the Roman Church there are a number of special litanies
peculiar to particular localities or orders, such as the “Litanies of Mary” or
the “Litanies of the Sacred Name of Jesus.”

There was originally a close connexion between the litany and the liturgy
(q.v.). The ninefold Kyrie eleison at the beginning of the Roman Mass is a
relic of a longer litany of which a specimen may still be seen in the Stowe
missal. In the Ambrosian liturgy, the threefold Kyrie eleison or Lesser
Litany occurs thrice, after the Gloria in excelsis, after the gospel and at the
end of Mass; and on the first five Sundays in Lent a missal litany is placed
before the Oratio super populum, and on the same five Sundays in the
Mozarabic rite before the epistle. In Eastern liturgies litanies are a

prominent feature, as in the case of the deacon’s litany at the beginning of
the Missa fidelium in the Clementine liturgy, immediately before the
Anaphora in the Greek liturgy of St James, &c.
(F. E. W.)

LITCHFIELD, a township and the county-seat of Litchfield
county, Connecticut, U.S.A., about 28 m. W. of Hartford, and including the
borough of the same name. Pop. of the township (1890) 3304; (1900) 3214;
(1910) 3005; of the borough (1890) 1058; (1900) 1120; (1910) 903. Area of
the township, 48.6 sq. m. The borough is served by the New York, New
Haven & Hartford railroad. It is situated on elevated land, and is one of the
most attractive of southern New England summer resorts. The principal
elevation in the township is Mt. Prospect, at the base of which there is a
vein of pyrrhotite, with small quantities of nickel and copper. On the
southern border of the borough is Lake Bantam (about 900 acres, the largest
lake in the state) whose falls, at its outlet, provide water power for factories
of carriages and electrical appliances. Dairying is the most important
industry, and in 1899 the county ranked first among the counties of the state
in the value of its dairy products—$1,373,957, from 3465 farms, the value
of the product for the entire state being $7,090,188.

The lands included in the township of Litchfield (originally called
Bantam) were bought from the Indians in 1715-1716 for £15. the Indians
reserving a certain part for hunting. The township was incorporated in 1719,
was named Litchfield, after Lichfield in England, and was settled by

immigrants from Hartford, Windsor, Wethersfield, Farmington and Lebanon
(all within the state) in 1720-1721. In 1751 it became the county-seat of
Litchfield county, and at the same time the borough of Litchfield
(incorporated in 1879) was laid out. From 1776 to 1780 two depôts for
military stores and a workshop for the Continental army were maintained,
and the leaden statue of George III., erected in Bowling Green, New York
City, in 1770, and torn down by citizens on the 9th of July 1776, was cut up
and taken to Litchfield, where, in the house (still standing) of Oliver
Wolcott it was melted into bullets for the American army by Wolcott’s
daughter and sister. Aaron Burr, whose only sister married Tapping Reeve
(1744-1823), lived in Litchfield with Reeve in 1774-1775. In 1784 Reeve
established here the Litchfield Law School, the first institution of its kind in
America. In 1798 he associated with himself James Gould (1770-1838),
who, after Reeve’s retirement in 1820, continued the work, with the
assistance of Jabez W. Huntington (1788-1847), until 1833. The school was
never incorporated, it had no buildings, and the lectures were delivered in
the law offices of its instructors, but among its 1000 or more students were
many who afterwards became famous, including John C. Calhoun; Levi
Woodbury (1789-1851), United States senator from New Hampshire in
1825-1831 and in 1841-1845, secretary of the navy in 1831-1834 and of the
treasury in 1834-1841, and a justice of the United States Supreme Court
from 1845; John Y. Mason; John M. Clayton; and Henry Baldwin (1780-
1844), a justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1830. In 1792 Mrs
Sarah Pierce made one of the first efforts toward the higher education of
women in the United States by opening in Litchfield her Female Seminary,
which had an influential career of about forty years, and numbered among
its alumnae Harriet Beecher Stowe, Mrs Marshall O. Roberts, Mrs Cyrus W.
Field and Mrs Hugh McCulloch. Litchfield was the birthplace of Ethan
Allen; of Henry Ward Beecher; of Harriet Beecher Stowe, whose novel,
Poganuc People, presents a picture of social conditions in Litchfield during

her girlhood; of Oliver Wolcott, Jr. (1760-1833); of John Pierpont (1785-
1866), the poet, preacher and lecturer; and of Charles Loring Brace, the
philanthropist. It was also the home, during his last years, of Oliver Wolcott
(1726-1797); of Colonel Benjamin Tallmadge (1774-1835), an officer on
the American side in the War of Independence and later (from 1801 to
1817) a Federalist member of Congress; and of Lyman Beecher, who was
pastor of the First Congregational church of Litchfield from 1810 to 1826.

See Payne K. Kilbourne, Sketches and Chronicles of the Town of
Litchfield, Connecticut (Hartford, Conn., 1859); George C. Boswell, The
Litchfield Book of Days (Litchfield, 1900); and for an account of the
Litchfield Female Seminary, Emily N. Vanderpoel, Chronicles of a Pioneer
School (Cambridge, Mass., 1903).

LITCHFIELD, a city of Montgomery county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
about 50 m. N. E. of St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1900) 5918; (1910) 5971. Its
principal importance is as a railway and manufacturing centre; it is served
by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & Alton, the Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Illinois Central, the Wabash, and the
Litchfield & Madison railways, and by electric lines connecting with St
Louis and the neighbouring towns. In the vicinity are deposits of
bituminous coal, fire-clay and moulding sand. There are various
manufactures in the city. Litchfield was incorporated as a town in 1856, and
was first chartered as a city in 1859.

LITCHI, or Lee-Chee, the fruit of Nephelium Litchi, a small tree,
native of southern China and one of the most important indigenous fruits. It
is also cultivated in India. The tree bears large compound leaves with two to
four pairs of leathery lanceolate pointed leaflets about 3 in. long, and
panicles of small flowers without petals. The fruits are commonly roundish,
about 1½ in. in diameter, with a thin, brittle, red shell which bears rough
protuberances. In the fresh state they are filled with a sweet white pulp
which envelops a large brown seed, but in the dried condition the pulp
forms a blackish fleshy substance. The pulp is of the nature of an aril, that
is, an additional seed-coat.

Nephelium Longana, the longan tree, also a native of southern China, is
cultivated in that country, in the Malay Peninsula, India and Ceylon for its
fruit, which is smaller than that of the litchi, being half an inch to an inch in
diameter with a nearly smooth yellowish-brown brittle skin, and containing
a pulpy aril resembling that of the litchi in flavour. Another species, N.
lappaceum, a tall tree native of the Malay Peninsula, where it is known
under the names Rambutan or Rambosteen, is also cultivated for its
pleasantly acid pulpy aril. The fruit is oval, bright red in colour, about 2 in.
long and covered with long fleshy hairs.

Nephelium belongs to the natural order Sapindaceae, and contains about
twenty-two species.

LITERATURE, a general term which, in default of precise
definition, may stand for the best expression of the best thought reduced to
writing. Its various forms are the result of race peculiarities, or of diverse
individual temperaments, or of political circumstances securing the
predominance of one social class which is thus enabled to propagate its
ideas and sentiments. In early stages of society, the classes which first attain
a distinct literary utterance are priests who compile the chronicles of tribal
religious development, or rhapsodes who celebrate the prowess of tribal
chiefs. As man feels before he reasons, so poetry generally precedes prose.
It embodies more poignantly the sentiment of unsophisticated man. Hence
sacred books and war-songs are everywhere the earliest literary monuments,
and both are essentially poetic compositions which have received a
religious or quasi-religious sanction. The recitation of the Homeric poems
at the Panathenaea corresponds to the recitation elsewhere of the sacred
texts in the temple; the statement of Phemios (Odyssey, xxii. 347) that a god
inspired his soul with all the varied ways of song expresses the ordinary
belief of early historical times. Versicles of the sacred chronicles, or
fragments of epic poems, were learned by heart and supplied a standard of
popular literary taste. The public declamation of long chosen passages by
priests, and still more by contending rhapsodes, served to evoke the latent
sense of literary criticism; and, at a later stage, the critical spirit was still
further stimulated by the performance of dramatic pieces written by
competing poets. The epical record of the past was supplemented by the

lyrical record of contemporary events, and as the Homeric poets had
immortalized the siege of Troy, so Pindar commemorated Salamis. Prose of
any permanent value would first show itself in the form of oratory, and the
insertion of speeches by early historians indicates a connexion with
rhetoric. The development of abstract reasoning would tend to deprive
prose of its superfluous ornament and to provide a simpler and more
accurate instrument.

No new genre has been invented since the days of Plato. The evolution of
literature is completed in Greece, and there its subdivisions may best be
studied. Epic poetry is represented by the Homeric cycle, lyrical poetry by
Tyrtaeus, dramatic poetry by Aeschylus, history by Herodotus, oratory by
Pericles, philosophy by Plato, and criticism by Zoilus, the earliest of
slashing reviewers; and in each department there is a long succession of
illustrious names. Roughly speaking, all subsequent literature is imitative.
Ennius transplanted Greek methods to Rome; his contemporary L. Fabius
Pictor, the earliest Roman historian, wrote in Greek; and the later Roman
poets from Lucretius to Horace abound in imitations of Greek originals. The
official adoption of Christianity as the state religion changed the spirit of
literature, which became more and more provincial after the downfall of the
empire. Literature did not perish during the “dark ages” which extend from
the sixth century to the beginning of the 11th, but it was subordinate to
scholarship. The dissolution of Latin was not complete till about the middle
of the 9th century, and the new varieties of Romance did not become ripe
for literary purposes till a hundred years later. Meanwhile, not a single
literary masterpiece was produced in western Europe for five centuries; by
comparison only do Boëthius and Venantius Fortunatus seem to be
luminous points in the prolonged night; the promise of a literary renaissance
at the court of Charlemagne was unfulfilled, and the task of creating a new
literature devolved upon the descendants of the barbarians who had
destroyed the old. The Celtic and Teutonic races elaborated literary methods

of their own; but the fact that the most popular form of Irish verse is
adopted from Latin prosody is conclusive evidence that the influence of
Roman—and therefore of Greek—models persisted in the literature of the
outlying provinces which had attained political independence. The real
service rendered to literature by the provincials lay in the introduction and
diffusion of legends freighted with a burden of mystery which had
disappeared with Pan, and these new valuable materials went to form the
substance of the new poetry.

The home of modern European literature must be sought in France,
which assimilated the best elements in Celtic and Teutonic literature. From
the 11th to the 14th century, France was the centre of intellectual life in
Europe, as Greece and Rome had been before, and as Italy was to be
afterwards. The chansons de geste, inspired by the sense of patriotism and
the yearning for religious unity, inculcate feudal and Catholic doctrine, and
as society in the western world was universally committed to feudalism and
Catholicism, these literary expressions of both theories were widely
accepted and copied. The Germanic origin of the French epic is lost sight
of, and imitators are attracted by the French execution, and by the creative
power of the chansons de geste. Again, France takes the stories of the
Arthurian court from Welsh texts or from the lips of Welsh settlers,
rehandles the romantic element, and, through Marie de France and Chrétien
de Troyes, imparts to the whole a touch of personal artistry which is absent
from the chansons de geste. The matière de Bretagne goes forth to Italy,
Germany and England—later to Portugal and Spain—bearing the imprint of
the French genius. Thus France internationalizes local subjects, and first
assumes a literary function which, with few interruptions, she has since
discharged. She further gives to Europe models of allegory in the Roman de
la rose, founds the school of modern history through Villehardouin,
inaugurates the religious drama and the secular theatre. She never again
dominated the literatures of Europe so absolutely.

The literary sceptre passed from France to Italy during the 14th century.
Brunetto Latini, who wrote in French as well as in Italian, is the connecting
link between the literatures of the two countries; but Italy owes its
eminence not so much to a general diffusion of literary accomplishment as
to the emergence of three great personalities. Dante, Boccacio and Petrarch
created a new art of poetry and of prose. England yielded to the fascination
in the person of Chaucer, Spain in the person of her chancellor López de
Ayala, and France in the person of Charles d’Orléans, the son of an Italian
mother. Petrarch, once ambassador in France, alleged that there were no
poets out of Italy, and indeed there were no living poets to compare with
him elsewhere. But in all countries he raised up rivals—Chaucer, Marot,
Garcilaso de la Vega—as Sannazaro did a century and a half later.
Sannazaro’s Arcadia captured the Portuguese Montemôr, whose pastoral
novel the Diana, written in Spanish, inspired d’Urfé no less than Sidney,
and, as d’Urfé’s Astrée is considered the starting-point of the modern
French novel, the historical importance of the Italian original cannot be
exaggerated. Spain never obtained any intellectual predominance
corresponding to that exercised by France and Italy, or to her political
authority during the 16th and 17th centuries. This may be attributed partly
to her geographical position which lies off the main roads of Europe, and
partly to the fact that her literature is essentially local. Cervantes, indeed,
may be said to have influenced all subsequent writers of fiction, and the
influence of Spanish literature is visible in the body of European picaresque
tales; but, apart from Corneille and a few other dramatists who preceded
Molière in France, and apart from the Restoration drama in England, the
influence of the Spanish drama was relatively small. In some respects it was
too original to be imitated with success. Much the same may be said of
England as of Spain. Like Spain, she lies outside the sphere of continental
influence; like Spain, she has innumerable great names in every province of
literature, and, in both cases, to Europe at large these long remained names

and nothing more; like Spain, she is prone to reproduce borrowed materials
in shapes so transformed and rigid as to be unrecognizable and unadaptable.
Moreover, the Reformation isolated England from literary commerce with
the Latin races, and till the 18th century Germany was little more than a
geographical expression. Even when Germany recovered her literary
independence, Lessing first heard of Shakespeare through Voltaire. Neither
Shakespeare nor Milton was read in France before the 18th century—the
first translated by Ducis, the second by Dupré de Saint-Maur—and they
were read with curiosity rather than with rapture. On the other hand,
Boileau, Rapin and Le Bossu were regarded as oracles in England, and
through them French literature produced the “correctness” of Queen Anne’s
reign. Horace Walpole is half a Frenchman, Hume imitates Montesquieu’s
cold lucidity, Gibbon adapts Bossuet’s majestic periods to other purposes.
On the other hand Voltaire takes ideas from Locke, but his form is always
intensely personal and inimitably French. After the 16th century English
literature, as a whole, is refractory to external influence. Waves of
enthusiasm pass over England—for Rousseau, for Goethe—but leave no
abiding trace on English literature. During the latter half of the 18th century
France resumed something of her old literary supremacy; the literatures of
Italy and Spain at this period are purely derivative, and French influence
was extended still further on the continent as the result of the Romantic
movement. Since that impulse was exhausted, literature everywhere has
been in a state of flux: it is less national, and yet fails to be cosmopolitan.
All writers of importance, and many of no importance, are translated into
other European languages; the quick succession of diverse and violent
impressions has confused the scheme of literature. Literature suffers
likewise from the competition of the newspaper press, and as the press has
multiplied it has grown less literary. The diversities of modern interests, the
want of leisure for concentrated thought, suggest that literature may become
once more the pleasure of a small caste. But the desire for the one just form

which always inspires the literary artist visits most men sometimes, and it
cannot be doubted that literature will continue to accommodate itself to new
conditions.
(J. F.-K.)

LITERNUM, an ancient town of Campania, Italy, on the low sandy
coast between Cumae and the mouth of the Volturnus. It was probably once
dependent on Cumae. In 194 b.c. it became a Roman colony. It is mainly
famous as the residence of the elder Scipio, who withdrew from Rome and
died here. His tomb and villa are described by Seneca. Augustus is said to
have conducted here a colony of veterans,1 but the place never had any
great importance, and the lagoons behind it made it unhealthy, though the
construction of the Via Domitiana through it must have made it a posting
station. It ceased to exist in the 8th century. No remains are visible.

See J. Beloch, Campanien, ed. ii. (Breslau, 1890), 377.

1 Mommsen in C.I.L. x. 343 does not accept this statement, but an inscription found in
1885 confirms it.

LITHGOW, WILLIAM (1582-? 1650), Scottish traveller and
writer, was born and educated in Lanark. He was caught in a love-
adventure, mutilated of his ears by the brothers of the lady (hence the
sobriquet “Cut-lugged Willie”), and forced to leave Scotland. For nineteen
years he travelled, mostly on foot, through Europe, the Levant, Egypt and
northern Africa, covering, according to his estimate, over 36,000 m. The
story of his adventures may be drawn from The Totall Discourse of the Rare
Adventures and painfull Peregrinations of long nineteene Yeares (London,
1614; fuller edition, 1632, &c.); A True and Experimentall Discourse upon
the last siege of Breda (London, 1637); and a similar book giving an
account of the siege of Newcastle and the battle of Marston Moor
(Edinburgh, 1645). He is the author of a Present Surveigh of London
(London, 1643). He left six poems, written between 1618 and 1640
(reprinted by Maidment, Edinburgh, 1863). Of these “Scotland’s Welcome
to King Charles, 1633” has considerable antiquarian interest. His writing
has no literary merit; but its excessively aureate style deserves notice.

The best account of Lithgow and his works is by F. Hindes Groome in
the Dict. Nat. Biog. The piece entitled Scotland’s Paraenesis to King
Charles II. (1660), ascribed to him in the catalogue of the Advocates’
Library, Edinburgh, cannot, from internal evidence, be his.

LITHGOW, a town of Cook county, New South Wales, Australia, 96
m. W.N.W. of Sydney by rail. Pop. (1901) 5268. The town is situated at an

altitude of 3000 ft., in a valley of the Blue Mountains. It has pottery and
terra-cotta works, breweries, a tweed factory, iron-works, saw-mills, soap-
works and brickfields. Coal, kerosene shale, iron ore and building stone are
found in the district.

LITHIUM [symbol Li, atomic weight 7.00 (O = 16)], an alkali metal,
discovered in 1817 by J. A. Arfvedson (Ann. chim. phys. 10, p. 82). It is
only found in combination, and is a constituent of the minerals petalite,
triphyline, spodumene and lepidolite or lithia mica. It occurs in small
quantities in sea, river and spring water, and is also widely but very
sparingly distributed throughout the vegetable kingdom. It may be obtained
(in the form of its chloride) by fusing lepidolite with a mixture of barium
carbonate and sulphate, and potassium sulphate (L. Troost, Comptes rendus,
1856, 43, p. 921). The fused mass separates into two layers, the upper of
which contains a mixture of potassium and lithium sulphates; this is
lixiviated with water and converted into the mixed chlorides by adding
barium chloride, the solution evaporated and the lithium chloride extracted
by a mixture of dry alcohol and ether. The metal may be obtained by
heating dry lithium hydroxide with magnesium (H. N. Warren, Chem. News,
1896, 74, p. 6). L. Kahlenberg (Jour. phys. Chem., 3, p. 601) obtained it by
electrolysing the chloride in pyridine solution, a carbon anode and an iron
or platinum cathode being used. O. Ruff and O. Johannsen (Zeit.
elektrochem., 1906, 55, p. 537) electrolyse a mixture of bromide and
chloride which melts at 520°. It is a soft, silvery-white metal, which readily

tarnishes on exposure. Its specific gravity is 0.59, and it melts at 180° C. It
burns on ignition in air, and when strongly heated in an atmosphere of
nitrogen it forms lithium nitride, Li3N. It decomposes water at ordinary
temperature, liberating hydrogen and forming lithium hydroxide.

Lithium hydride, LiH, obtained by heating the metal in a current of
hydrogen at a red heat, or by heating the metal with ethylene to 700° C. (M.
Guntz, Comptes rendus, 1896, 122, p. 244; 123, p. 1273), is a white solid
which inflames when heated in chlorine. With alcohol it forms lithium
ethylate, LiOC2H5, with liberation of hydrogen. Lithium oxide, Li2O, is
obtained by burning the metal in oxygen, or by ignition of the nitrate. It is a
white powder which readily dissolves in water to form the hydroxide,
LiOH, which is also obtained by boiling the carbonate with milk of lime. It
forms a white caustic mass, resembling sodium hydroxide in appearance. It
absorbs carbon dioxide, but is not deliquescent. Lithium chloride LiCl,
prepared by heating the metal in chlorine, or by dissolving the oxide or
carbonate in hydrochloric acid, is exceedingly deliquescent, melts below a
red heat, and is very soluble in alcohol. Lithium carbonate, Li2CO3,
obtained as a white amorphous precipitate by adding sodium carbonate to a
solution of lithium chloride, is sparingly soluble in water. Lithium
phosphate, Li3PO4, obtained by the addition of sodium phosphate to a
soluble lithium salt in the presence of sodium hydroxide, is almost insoluble
in water. Lithium ammonium, LiNH3, is obtained by passing ammonia gas
over lithium, the product being heated to 70° C. in order to expel any excess
of ammonia. It turns brown-red on exposure to air, and is inflammable. It is
decomposed by water evolving hydrogen, and when heated in vacuo at
50°-60° C. it gives lithium and ammonia. With ammonia solution it gives
hydrogen and lithiamide, LiNH2 (H. Moissan, ibid., 1898, 127, p. 685).
Lithium carbide, Li2C2, obtained by heating lithium carbonate and carbon
in the electric furnace, forms a transparent crystalline mass of specific

gravity 1.65, and is readily decomposed by cold water giving acetylene (H.
Moissan, ibid., 1896, 122, p. 362).

Lithium is detected by the faint yellow line of wave-length 6104, and the
bright red line of wave-length 6708, shown in its flame spectrum. It may be
distinguished from sodium and potassium by the sparing solubility of its
carbonate and phosphate. The atomic weight of lithium was determined by
J. S. Stas from the analysis of the chloride, and also by conversion of the
chloride into the nitrate, the value obtained being 7.03 (O = 16).

The preparations of lithium used in medicine are: Lithii Carbonis, dose 2
to 5 grs.; Lithii Citras, dose 5 to 10 grs.; and Lithii Citras effervescens, a
mixture of citric acid, lithium citrate, tartaric acid and sodium bicarbonate,
dose 60 to 120 grs. Lithium salts render the urine alkaline and are in virtue
of their action diuretic. They are much prescribed for acute or chronic gout,
and as a solvent to uric acid calculi or gravel, but their action as a solvent of
uric acid has been certainly overrated, as it has been shown that the addition
of medicinal doses of lithium to the blood serum does not increase the
solubility of uric acid in it. In concentrated or large doses lithium salts cause
vomiting and diarrhoea, due to a gastro-enteritis set up by their action. In
medicinal use they should therefore be always freely diluted.

LITHOGRAPHY (Gr. λίθος, a stone, and γράφειν, to write), the
process of drawing or laying down a design or transfer, on a specially
prepared stone or other suitable surface, in such a way that impressions may

be taken therefrom. The principle on which lithography is based is the
antagonism of grease and water. A chemically pure surface having been
secured on some substance that has an equal affinity for both grease and
water, in a method hereafter to be described, the parts intended to print are
covered with an unctuous composition and the rest of the surface is
moistened, so that when a greasy roller is applied, the portion that is wet
resists the grease and that in which an affinity for grease has been set up
readily accepts it; and from the surface thus treated it will be seen that it is
an easy thing to secure an impression on paper or other material by
applying suitable pressure.

The inventor of lithography was Alois Senefelder (1771-1834); and it is
remarkable what a grip he at once seemed to get of his invention, for
whereas the invention of printing seems almost a matter of evolution,
lithography seems to come upon the scene fully equipped for the battle of
life, so that it would be a bold craftsman at the present day who would
affirm that he knew more of the principles underlying his trade than
Senefelder (q.v.) did within thirty years of its invention. Of course practice
has led to dexterity, and the great volume of trade has induced many
mechanical improvements and facilities, but the principles have not been
taken any further, while some valuable methods have been allowed to fall
into desuetude and would well repay some experimentally disposed person
to revive.

Lithography may be divided into two main branches—that which is
drawn with a greasy crayon (rather illogically called “chalk”) on a grained
stone, and that which is drawn in “ink” on a polished stone. Whatever may
be thought in regard to the original work of the artists of various countries
who have used lithography as a means of expression, there can be little
doubt that in the former method the English professed lithographer has

always held the pre-eminence, while French, German and American artists
have surpassed them in the latter.

Chalk lithography subdivides itself into work in which the black
predominates, although it may be supported by 5 or 6 shades of modified
colour—this branch is known as “black and tint” work—and that in which
the black is only used locally like any other colour. Frequently this latter
class of work will require a dozen or more colours, while some of the finest
examples have had some twenty to thirty stones employed in them. Work of
this description is known as chromo-lithography. Each colour requires a
separate stone, and work of the highest quality may want two or three blues
with yellows, reds, greys and browns in proportion, if it is desired to secure
a result that is an approximate rendering of the original painting or drawing.
The question may perhaps be asked: “If the well-known three-colour
process” (see Process) “can give the full result of the artist’s palette, why
should it take so many more colours in lithography to secure the same
result?” The answer is that the stone practically gives but three gradations—
the solid, the half tint and the quarter tint, so that the combination of three
very carefully prepared stones will give a very limited number of
combinations, while a moderate estimate of the shades on a toned block
would be six; so that a very simple mathematical problem will show the far
greater number of combinations that the three blocks will give. Beyond this,
the chromo-lithographer has to exercise very great powers of colour
analysis; but the human mind is quite unable to settle offhand the exact
proportion of red, blue and yellow necessary to produce some particular
class say of grey, and this the camera with the aid of colour filters does with
almost perfect precision.

Notwithstanding these disadvantages, lithography has these strong
points: (1) its utility for small editions on account of its, at present, smaller
prime cost; (2) its suitability for subjects of large size; (3) its superiority for

subjects with outlines, for in such cases the outline can be done in one
colour, whereas to secure this effect by the admixture of the three colours
requires marvellously good registration, the absence of which would
produce a very large proportion of “waste” or faulty copies; (4) capacity for
printing on almost any paper, whereas, at the time of writing, the tri-colour
process is almost entirely limited to printing on coated papers that are very
heavy and not very enduring.

With regard to the two branches of chalk lithography, the firms that
maintained the English supremacy for black and tint work in the early days
were Hulemandel, Day and Haghe and Maclure, while the best chromo-
lithographic work in the same period was done by Vincent Brooks, the
brothers Hanhart, Thomas Kell and F. Kell. In reference to the personal
work of professed lithographers during the same period, the names of Louis
Haghe, J. D. Harding, J. Needham, C. Baugniet, L. Ghemar, William
Simpson, R. J. Lane, J. H. Lynch, A. Maclure and Rimanozcy stand for
black and tint work; while in chromo-lithography J. M. Carrick, C. Risdon,
William Bunney, W. Long, Samuel Hodson, Edwin Buckman and J. Lewis
have been conspicuous among those who have maintained the standard of
their craft. In the foregoing list will be recognized the names of several who
have had admirable works on the walls of the Royal Academy and other
exhibitions; Mr Lane, who exhibited lithographs from 1824 to 1872, was
for many years the doyen of lithographers, and the only one of their number
to attain academic rank, but Lynch and John Cardwell Bacon were his
pupils, and Bacon’s son, the painter John H. F. Bacon, was elected to the
Royal Academy in 1903. In the first decade of the 20th century the number
of firms doing high-class work, and the artists who aided them in doing it,
were more numerous than ever, and scarcely less able, but it would be
outside the present purpose to differentiate between them.

The raison d’être of “stipple” work is its capacity for retransferring
without serious loss of quality, for it can scarcely be contended that it is as
artistic as the methods just described. Retransferring is the process of
pulling impressions from the original stones with a view to making up a
large sheet of one or more small subjects, or where it is desired to print a
very large number without deterioration of the original or matrix stone. The
higher class work in this direction has been done in France, Germany and
the United States, where for many years superiority has been shown in
regard to the excellence and rapidity of retransferring. To this cause may be
attributed the fact that the box tops and Christmas cards on the English
market were so largely done abroad until quite recent times. The work of
producing even a small face in the finest hand stipple is a lengthy and
tedious affair, and the English craftsman has seldom shown the patience
necessary for this work; but since the American invention known as Ben
Day’s shading medium was introduced into England the trade has largely
taken it up, and thereby much of the tedium has been avoided, so that it has
been found possible by its means to introduce a freedom into stipple work
that had not before been found possible, and a very much better class of
work has since been produced in this department.

About the year 1868 grained paper was invented by Maclure, Macdonald
& Co. This method consists in impressing on ordinary Scotch transfer or
other suitable paper a grain closely allied to that of the lithographic stone. It
appears to have been rather an improvement than a new invention, for
drawing paper and even canvas had been coated previously with a material
that adhered to a stone and left on the stone the greasy drawing that had
been placed thereon; but still from this to the beautifully prepared paper that
was placed on the market by the firm of which the late Andrew Maclure
was the head was a great advance, and although the first use was by the
ordinary craftsman it was not long before artists of eminence saw that a new
and convenient mode of expression was opened up to them.

On the first introduction of lithography the artists of every nation
hastened to avail themselves of it, but soon the cumbrous character of the
stone, and the fact that their subjects had to be drawn backwards in order
that they might appear correctly on the paper, wore down their newly-born
zeal, and it was only when the grained paper system was perfected, by
which they could make their drawings in the comfort of their studios
without reversing, that any serious revival took place. Although excellent
work on grained paper had been done by Andrew Maclure, Rimanozcy,
John Cardwell Bacon, Rudofsky and other craftsmen, the credit for its
furtherance among artists must be given to Thomas Way and his son T. R.
Way, who did much valuable pioneer work in this direction. The adhesion
of such artists of eminence as Whistler, Legros, Frank Short, Charles
Shannon, Fantin Latour, William Strang, Will Rothenstein, Herbert Railton
and Joseph Pennell, did not a little to aid lithography in resisting the
encroachments of other methods into what may still be considered its
sphere. As a means of reproducing effects which an artist would otherwise
get by pencil or crayon, it remains entirely unequalled, and it is of obvious
advantage to art that twenty-five or fifty copies of an original work should
exist, which, without the aid of lithography, might have only been
represented by a single sketch, perhaps stowed away among the possessions
of one private collector.

In regard to grained paper work, undue stress has often been placed upon
the rapid deterioration of the stone, some contending that only a few dozen
first-class proofs can be taken; this has led to the feeling that it is unsuited
to book illustration, and damage has been done to the trade of lithography
thereby. It may be mentioned that quite recently about 100 auto-lithographs
in black and three colours, the combined work of Mr and Mrs Herbert
Railton, have been treated by the Eberle system of etching described below,
and although an infinitesimal loss of quality may have arisen, such as
occurs when a copper etching is steel faced, some 2000 to 3000 copies were

printed without further deterioration, and an edition of vignetted sketches
was secured, far in advance of anything that could have been attained from
the usual screen or half-toned blocks.

Grained paper is much used in the ordinary lithographic studio for work
such as the hill shading of maps that can be done without much working up,
but the velvety effects that in the hands of Louis Haghe and his
contemporaries were so conspicuous, cannot be secured by this method.
The effects referred to were obtained by much patient work of a “tinter,”
who practically laid a ground on which the more experienced and artistic
craftsman did his work either by scraping or accentuation. Where fine rich
blacks are needed, artists will do well to read the notes on the “aquatint”
and “wash” methods described by Senefelder in his well-known treatise,
and afterwards practised with great skill by Hulemandel.

Lithography is of great service in educational matters, as its use for
diagrams, wall pictures and maps is very general; nor does the influence
end with schooldays, for in the form of pictures at a moderate price it brings
art into homes and lives that need brightening, and even in the form of
posters on the much-abused hoardings does something for those who have
to spend much of their time in the streets of great cities.

According to the census of 1901, 14,686 people in the United Kingdom
found their occupation within the trade, while according to a Home Office
return (1906), 20,367 persons other than lithographic printers were
employed by the firms carrying on the business. As it may be assumed that
an equal number are employed in France, Germany, the United States of
America and the world at large, it is clear that a vast industrial army is
employed in a trade that, like letterpress printing, has a very beneficial
influence upon those engaged in it.

Technical Details.—The following description of the various methods of
lithography is such as may be considered of interest to the general reader,
but the serious student who will require formulas and more precise
directions will do well to consult one of the numerous text-books on the
subject.

Stone and Stone Substitutes.—The quality of stone first used by Alois
Senefelder, and discovered by him at the village of Solenhofen in Bavaria,
still remains unsurpassed. This deposit, which covers a very large area and
underlies the villages of Solenhofen, Moernsheim and Langenaltheim, has
often been described, sometimes for interested motives, as nearly
exhausted; but a visit in 1906 revealed that the output—considerable as it
had been during a period little short of a century—was very unimportant
when compared to the great mass of carbonaceous limestone existing in the
neighbourhood. The strong point in favour of this source of supply, in
addition to its unrivalled quality, is the evenness of its stratification, and the
fact that after the removal of the surface deposits, which are very thin, the
stones come out of large size, in thickness of 3 to 5 in., and thus just suited
for lithographic purposes and needing only to be wrought in the vertical
direction. Other deposits of suitable stone have been found in France,
Spain, Italy and Greece, but transit and the absence of suitable stratification
have restricted them to little more than local use. Beyond this, few of the
deposits other than in the neighbourhood of Solenhofen have been of the
exact degree of density necessary, and the heavier varieties do not receive
the grease with sufficient readiness. The desire to find other sources of
supply has been stimulated by the social conditions existing in southern
Bavaria, for the quarries are largely owned by peasant proprietors, who
have very well-defined business habits of their own which make
transactions difficult. Among other things, they will seldom supply the
highest grades and the largest sizes to those who will not take their
proportion of lower quality and smaller sizes; and this, in view of the very

expensive transit down the Rhine to Rotterdam, with a railway journey at
one end and a sea journey at the other, is a source of difficulty to the
importer in other countries.

The earliest substitute for lithographic stone was zinc, which has been
used from early days and is now more in demand than ever; it requires very
careful printing as the grease only penetrates the material to a very slight
extent, and the same must be said in regard to the water. From this cause,
when not in experienced hands, trouble is likely to arise; and when this has
occurred, remedial methods are much more difficult than with stones. When
put away for storage, a dry place is very essential, as corrosion is easily set
up. At first the plates were quite thick, and almost invariably grained by a
zinc “muller” and acid; now a bath of acid is more generally used, and the
operation is known as “passing,” while the plates are quite thin, which
renders them suitable for bending round the cylinders of rotary machines.

So far we have been dealing with plain zinc, but variations are caused,
either by the oxidization of the surface or by coating the plate with a
composition closely allied to lithographic stone and applied in a form of
semi-solution. This class of plate was first invented by Messrs C. & E.
Layton, and a modification was invented by Messrs Wezel and Naumann of
Leipzig, who brought its use to a high pitch of perfection for transferred
work such as Christmas cards. A treatment of iron plates by exposing them
to a high temperature has recently been patented, and has had some measure
of success, while the Parker printing plate, which is practically a sheet of
zinc so treated as to secure greater porosity and freedom from oxidization,
is rapidly securing a good position as a stone substitute.

Preparation of the Stones.—In this department the cleanliness so
necessary right through the lithographic process must be carefully observed,
and a leading point is to secure a level surface and to ensure that the front
and back of the stone are strictly parallel, i.e. that the stones stand the test of

both the straight edge and the callipers. A good plan to ensure evenness on
the surface is to mark the front with two diagonal lines of some non-greasy
substance till the top stone (which should not be too small, and should be
constantly revolved on the larger one) has entirely removed them. The
application of the straight edge from time to time will end in securing the
desired flatness, on which so much of the future printing quality depends.
The usual method is to rub out with sand, and then rub with pumice and
polish with water of Ayr or snake stone. For chalk work, the further work of
graining has to be done by revolving a small stone muller on the surface
with exceedingly fine sand or powdered glass. Many appliances (some very
expensive) have been devised for doing the principal part of this work by
machine—none more effective than those methods by which a disk of about
12 in. is kept revolving on a rod attached to the ceiling, guided by hand over
all parts of the stone; but for large surfaces the ceiling needs to be rather
high so as to allow of a long expanding rod reaching the surface at a
moderate angle. When this machine is fitted with friction disk driving, very
wide variations of speed are possible, and the machine can be driven so
slowly and evenly as to secure a very fair (but not first class) grain, in
addition to speedy rubbing out, which is the chief aim of the apparatus.

Preparing a Subject in Chalk or Chalk and Tints.—This branch of work
is much less in demand than formerly. A grey stone having been selected
and finely grained with sand or powdered glass passed through a sieve of 80
to 120 meshes to the lineal inch, and the artist having made his tracing, this
tracing is reversed upon the stone with the interposition of a piece of paper
coated with red chalk, and the chalk side towards the surface; the lines on
the tracing are then gone over with a tracing point, so that a reproduction in
red chalk is left upon the stone. It will then be desirable to secure a stock of
pointed Lemercier chalks of at least two grades, hard and soft: the pointing
is a matter that requires experience, and is done by the worker drawing a
sharp pen-knife towards him in a slicing manner as though trying to put a

point upon a piece of cheese. Care should be taken that the falling pieces
are gathered into a box, or they may do irreparable mischief to the work.
The work of outlining is done with No. 1 or hard chalk, and until
experience is gained it will be well to depend chiefly on this grade, securing
rich dark effects by tinting or going over the stone in various directions and
then finishing with lithographic ink where absolute blacks are required.
This ink (Vanhymbeck’s or Lemercier’s are two good makes) needs careful
preparation, the method being to warm a saucer and rub the ink dry upon it,
then add a little distilled water and incorporate with the finger. It is of great
importance not to use any ink left over for the next day, but always to have
a fresh daily supply.

When the drawing is thus completed, it will require what is termed
etching, by which the parts intended to receive the printing ink, and already
protected by an acid-resisting grease, will be left above the unprotected
surface. The acid and gum mixture varies in accordance with the quality of
the work and the character of the stone. A patiently executed specimen will,
for instance, stand more etching than a hastily drawn one; while a grey
stone will require more of the nitric acid than a yellow one. This is one of
the most important tasks that a lithographer has to perform. A proportion of
1.5 parts of acid to 100 parts of a strong solution of gum arabic will be
found to be approximately what is required, but the exact proportion must
be settled by experience, a safe course being to watch the action that occurs
when a small quantity is placed on the unused margin of the stone. Many
put the etching mixture on with a flat camel-hair brush, which should be of
good width to avoid streaks. The present writer’s own preference is to pour
the mixture on to the stone when it is in a slanting position; or it is perhaps
better to have an etching trough, a strong box lined with pitch, with bearers
at the bottom to prevent the stone coming in contact with it, and a hole
through which the diluted acid may pass away for subsequent use. The
etching is then done with acid and water poured over the stone while in a

sloping position, and the subsequent pouring of a solution of gum arabic
completes the preparation. The late Mr William Simpson, whose Crimean
lithographs are well known, once stated at the Society of Arts that in his
opinion Mr Louis Haghe’s reproduction of David Robert’s great picture of
“The Taking of Jerusalem” was the most important piece of chalk
lithography ever executed, and that he well remembered that it took two
years to execute it, and that all the combined talent of Messrs Day &
Haghe’s establishment was utilized in its etching. He stated that,
notwithstanding every precaution, it was under-etched, and that after half a
dozen impressions the great beauty and brilliancy of the work had departed.
This incident indicates sufficiently the serious nature of this part of the
lithographer’s work.

If the chalk drawing has to have tints, it will be necessary to make as
many dusted offsetts as there are colours to be used; in this class of work
there are generally only two,—one warm or sandy shade and the other a
quiet blue—and these, with the black and the neutral colour secured by the
superposition of the two shades, give an excellent result, of which Haghe’s
sketches in Belgium may be taken as a leading example.

In making such subjects suitable for present-day printing in the machine,
the paper will require to be of a good “rag” quality, free from size and
damped before printing. To secure accuracy of register the paper must be
kept in a damp cloth to prevent the edges drying, and other machines should
be kept available for each of the tints so that all work printed in black in the
morning may be completed the same night. In this way large editions might
be printed of either original or retransferred work at prices rendering the
prints suitable for high-class magazines.

Preparing a Chromo Lithograph.—For this purpose the proceedings will
be much the same as those suggested for the black and tint work, but the
preliminary tracing will be done in lithographic ink on tracing transfer

paper or scratched on gelatine, the lines being subsequently filled in with
transfer ink, and will be used as a “key,” a guide stone that will not be
printed; and the number of stones necessary will probably be much more
numerous. The initial point will be to consider if the work is to have the
edition printed from it, or whether it has to be transferred after proving and
before printing; generally speaking, large subjects such as diagrams or
posters will be worked direct, while Christmas cards, postcards, handbills or
labels, will be repeated many times on larger stones. For the former class a
much wider range of methods is possible, but many of these are difficult to
transfer, and the deterioration that arises makes it desirable to limit their use
when transferring is contemplated. Therefore, chalk-rubbed tints, varnish
tints, stumping, wash, air brush, are the methods for original work, while
work that has to be transferred is limited to ink work in line or stipple on a
polished stone with the aid of “mediums” as before described, and ink
“spluttered” on to the stone from a tooth brush. It should be mentioned that
work done on grained paper is more suitable for retransfer than ordinary
chalk work, and so is often very useful when a chalk effect is desired from a
polished stone. In proving, opaque colours will be got on first, and it will
often be found a good plan to put the black on early, for it gives a good idea
of how the work is proceeding, and the strength of the touches (for the
black should generally be used sparingly) is often pleasantly softened by the
semi-opaque colours which should come on next. It is desirable to pull
impressions of each colour on thoroughly white paper, and beyond this in
important work there should be a progressive colour pattern that will show
how the work looked when two, three or more colours were on, for this may
at the finish be invaluable to show where error has crept in, and is in any
event an immense aid to the machine minder.

In regard to paper, a description made of rag or rag and esparto is most
desirable for all work on grained stones, but for work in ink and

consequently from polished stone a good coated paper with sufficient “size”
in it is frequently desirable; this paper is generally called “chromo” paper.

There is at the present time very little encouragement for the high class of
chromo-lithography that was so much in evidence from 1855 to 1875, but
there is little doubt that the work could be done equally well by the present-
day craftsmen if the demand revived. Belonging to the period mentioned,
distinguished examples of chromo-lithography are “Blue Lights,” after
Turner, by Carrick; “Spanish Peasants” and the Lumley portrait of
Shakespeare, by Risdon; “Queen Victoria receiving the Guards,” by W.
Bunney, after John Gilbert; and the series of chromos after John Leech,
produced under the general direction of Vincent Brooks. A small proportion
only of the Arundel Society’s prints were executed in England, but many
reproductions of water-colours after Birket Foster, Richardson, Wainwright
and others were executed by Samuel Hodson, James Lewis and others.
Perhaps the most consistently good work of modern times has been the
reproduction of Pellegrini’s and Leslie Ward’s drawings for Vanity Fair,
which from 1870 to 1906 were with very few exceptions executed by the
firm of Vincent Brooks, Day & Son.

Transfers.—A very large proportion of work is got on to the stone by
transfer, and there is no more important part of the business perhaps at the
present time. When there is so much original lithography done on grained
paper by artists of eminence, the transferring of grained paper drawings is
the most important. The stone most desirable for this purpose will be
neither a grey nor a light yellow, but one that stands mid-way between the
two; it should be very carefully polished so as to be quite free from
scratches, and brought to blood-heat by being gradually heated in an iron
cupboard prepared with the necessary apparatus. The methods that
sometimes prevail of pouring boiling water over the stone, heating with the
flame of an ordinary plumber’s lamp, or even heating the surface in front of

a fire, are ineffective substitutes, for the surface may thus become unduly
hot and spread the work, and there is no increased tendency for the chalk to
enter into the stone and thus give the work a long life. If there are no
colours or registration troubles to be considered, it is well to place the
transfer in a damping book till the composition adheres firmly to the finger,
before placing it on the stone; it should then be pulled through twice, after
which it should be damped on the back and pulled through several times;
after this has again been well damped the paper will be found to peel easily
off the stone, leaving the work and nearly all the composition attached; the
latter should then be very gently washed away.

In cases where the work for some reason must not stretch, such as the
hills on a map, it will be necessary to keep the transfer dry and put it on a
wet stone, but a piece of the margin of the paper should be tested to see that
it is of a class that will adhere to the stone the first time it is pulled through.
Unless the adhesion is very complete it may not be safe to pull it through
more than once. For a small number of copies a very moderate “etch” is
desirable, but for a long run, where the object is to secure a good edition
rather than a few good proofs, the Eberle system may be adopted. This
method consists in protecting the work with finely powdered resin and then
applying the flame of an ordinary plumber’s lamp; this will melt the
protecting medium round the base of each grain of work and allow of a very
vigorous “etch” being applied. As before stated it is not unusual to secure
2000 to 3000 good copies in the machine after this treatment; but the
rollers, the ink and the superintendence must be of the best.

When the artist who is not a professed lithographer desires to make tints
to his work, a reversed offset on grained paper should be made for each
colour; this is done by pulling an impression in the usual way on a hard
piece of paper, and while it is yet wet this should be faced with a piece of
grained paper and pulled through again, when the grained paper will be

found to have received the greater portion of the ink; this should be
immediately dusted with offset powder of a red shade to prevent the grease
passing into the paper, and the drawing of the tints should then be
proceeded with in the usual way. Another method of transfer work is to pull
impressions from copper or steel plates in transfer ink; it is in such way that
simple etchings like those of Cruikshank, Phiz and others are produced, and
nearly all commercial work such as maps, bill heads, &c., are prepared in
the same manner.

Beyond this, much work is done in lithographic ink on what is called
writing transfer paper, such as circulars, law writing for abstracts,
specifications and plans.

Machinery.—The chief items are the hand presses and the machines,
whether flat bed or rotary, the principal places of manufacture being Leeds,
Otley and Edinburgh. Stimulated by American competition, the standard of
excellence in the United Kingdom has been very considerably raised of late
years. The rotary machines have only been possible since the more frequent
use of aluminium and zinc, but these materials are more suitable to receive
transfer than for the general use of an office, the chief reason being that
corrections on stone are more easily accomplished and more lasting when
done. Preliminary work is therefore frequently done on the stone and
transferred to plates for the machine.

The question is very frequently asked as to how the necessary registration
of the colours is secured; it may be stated for the benefit of the amateur that
in hand printing this is generally done by pricking with a pair of needles
through printed marks present on each stone; but in the machine this has
been done in different ways, although in quite early days “pointing” or
“needling” was done even on the machine. On modern machines this
registration depends on the accurate cutting of the edge of the paper, of
which at least one corner must be an absolute right angle. The paper is then

laid on a sloping board in such a way that the longest of the two true edges
gravitates into the gripper of the machine, the stops of which move slightly
forward as the gripper closes; simultaneously what is called the “side lay”
moves forward automatically to a given extent, and in this way at the
critical moment the sheet is always in the same position in regard to the
stone, which has already been firmly secured in the bed of the machine.

Quite recently a new method has come into use that is probably destined
to be a great aid to the craft in its competition with other methods. This is
known as offset printing; it is more a matter of evolution than invention,
and proceeds from the method adopted in tin-plate decoration so much used
for box-making and lasting forms of advertisement. It consists in bringing a
sheet of rubber into contact with the charged stone and then setting-off the
impression so obtained upon card, paper, pegamoid, cloth or other material,
the elasticity of the rubber making it possible to print upon rough surfaces
that have been previously unsuited to lithographic printing. Both flat bed
and rotary machines are available for this system, the latter being restricted
to zinc or aluminium plates, but giving a high speed, while the former can
use both stones and metal plates and may be more effective for the highest
grade of colour work; by both classes of machines the finest engraved note
headings can be printed on rough paper, and colour work that has for so
long been confined to coated or burnished papers will be available on
surfaces such as the artists themselves use.

The following treatises may be referred to with advantage by those in
search of more detailed information: A Complete Course of Lithography, by
Alois Senefelder (R. Ackermann, London, 1819); The Grammar of
Lithography, by W. D. Richmond (13th edition, E. Menken, London);
Handbook of Lithography, by David Cumming (London, A. & C. Black).
The first of these will only be found in libraries of importance; the others
are present-day text-books.

( )

LITHOSPHERE (Gr. λίθος, a stone, and σφαῖρα, a sphere), the
crust of the earth surrounding the earth’s nucleus. The superficial soil, a layer
of loose earthy material from a few feet to a few hundreds of feet in thickness,
lies upon a zone of hard rock many thousands of feet in thickness but varying
in character, and composed mainly of sandstones, shales, clays, limestones
and metamorphic rocks. These two layers form the lithosphere. All the
tectonic movements of the solid nucleus produce changes in the mobile
lithosphere. Volcanic and seismic activity is manifested, mountains are folded,
levels change, fresh surfaces are exposed to denudation, erosion and
deposition. The crust is thus subject to constant change while retaining its
more or less permanent character.

LITHUANIANS and LETTS, two kindred peoples of Indo-
European origin, which inhabit several western provinces of Russia and the
north-eastern parts of Poland and Prussia, on the shores of the Baltic Sea, and
in the basins of the Niemen and of the Duna. Large colonies of Lithuanian and
Lettic emigrants have been established in the United States. The two races
number about 3,500,000, of whom 1,300,000 are Letts. Little is known about

their origin, and nothing about the time of their appearance in the country they
now inhabit. Ptolemy mentions (iii. 5) two clans, the Galindae and Sudeni,
who probably belonged to the western subdivision of this racial group, the
Borussians. In the 10th century the Lithuanians were already known under the
name of Litva, and, together with two other branches of the same stem—the
Borussians and the Letts—they occupied the south-eastern coast of the Baltic
Sea from the Vistula to the Duna, extending north-east towards the Lakes
Vierzi-järvi and Peipus, south-east to the watershed between the affluents of
the Baltic and those of the Black Sea, and south to the middle course of the
Vistula (Brest Litovsk)—a tract bounded by Finnish tribes in the north, and by
Slavs elsewhere.

Inhabiting a forested, marshy country the Lithuanians have been able to
maintain their national character, notwithstanding the vicissitudes of their
history. Their chief priest, Krive-Kriveyto (the judge of the judges), under
whom were seventeen classes of priests and elders, worshipped in the forests;
the Waidelots brought their offerings to the divinities at the foot of oaks; even
now, the veneration of great oaks is a widely spread custom in the villages of
the Lithuanians, and even of the Letts.

Even in the 10th century the Lithuanian stem was divided into three main
branches:—the Borussians or Prussians; the Letts (who call themselves
Latvis, whilst the name under which they are known in Russian chronicles,
Letygola, is an abbreviation of Latvin-galas, “the confines of Lithuania”); and
the Lithuanians, or rather Lituanians, Litva or Letuvininkaï,—these last being
subdivided into Lithuanians proper, and Zhmud’ (Zmudz, Samogitians or
Zemailey), the “Lowlanders.” To these main branches must be added the
Yatvyags, or Yadzvings, a warlike, black-haired people who inhabited the
forests at the upper tributaries of the Niemen and Bug, and the survivors of
whom are easily distinguishable as a mixture with White-Russians and
Mazurs in some parts of Grodno, Plotsk, Lomza and Warsaw. Nestor’s
chronicle distinguishes also the Zhemgala, who later became known under the

name of Semigallia, and in the 10th century inhabited the left bank of the
Duna. Several authors consider also as Lithuanians the Kors of Russian
chronicles, or Courons of Western authors, who inhabited the peninsula of
Courland, and the Golad, a clan settled on the banks of the Porotva, tributary
of the Moskva river, which seems to have been thrown far from the main stem
during its migration to the north. The Krivichi, who inhabited what is now the
government of Smolensk, seem to belong to the same stem. Their name recalls
the Krive-Kriveyto, and their ethnological features recall the Lithuanians; but
they are now as much Slavonic as Lithuanian.

All these peoples are only ethnographical subdivisions, and each of them
was subdivided into numerous independent clans and villages, separated from
one another by forests and marshes; they had no towns or fortified places. The
Lithuanian territory thus lay open to foreign invasions, and the Russians as
well as the German crusaders availed themselves of the opportunity. The
Borussians soon fell under the dominion of Germans, and ceased to constitute
a separate nationality, leaving only their name to the state which later became
Prussia. The Letts were driven farther to the north, mixing there with Livs and
Ehsts, and fell under the dominion of the Livonian order. Only the Lithuanians
proper, together with Samogitians, succeeded in forming an independent state.
The early history of this state is imperfectly known. During the continuous
petty war carried on against Slavonic invasions, the military chief of one of
the clans, Ryngold, acquired, in the first half of the 13th century, a certain
preponderance over other clans of Lithuania and Black Russia (Yatvyags), as
well as over the republics of Red Russia. At this time, the invasions of the
Livonian order becoming more frequent, and always extending southward,
there was a general feeling of the necessity of some organization to resist
them, and Ryngold’s son, Mendowg, availed himself of this opportunity to
pursue the policy of his father. He made different concessions to the order,
ceded to it several parts of Lithuania, and even agreed to be baptized, in 1250,
at Novograd Litovsk, receiving in exchange a crown from Innocent IV., with
which he was crowned king of Lithuanians. He also ceded the whole of

Lithuania to the order in case he should die without leaving offspring. But he
had accepted Christianity only to increase his influence among other clans;
and, as soon as he had consolidated a union between Lithuanians, Samogitians
and Cours, he relapsed, proclaiming, in 1260, a general uprising of the
Lithuanian people against the Livonian order. The yoke was shaken off, but
internal wars followed, and three years later Mendowg was killed. About the
end of the 13th century a new dynasty of rulers of Lithuania was founded by
Lutuwer, whose second son, Gedymin (1316-1341), with the aid of fresh
forces he organized through his relations with Red Russia, established
something like regular government; he at the same time extended his
dominions over Russian countries—over Black Russia (Novogrodok, Zditov,
Grodno, Slonim and Volkovysk) and the principalities of Polotsk, Tourovsk,
Pinsk, Vitebsk and Volhynia. He named himself Rex Lethowinorum et
multorum Ruthenorum. In 1325 he concluded a treaty with Poland against the
Livonian order, which treaty was the first step towards the union of both
countries realized two centuries later. The seven sons of Gedymin considered
themselves as quite independent; but two of them, Olgierd and Keistut, soon
became the more powerful. They represented two different tendencies which
existed at that time in Lithuania. Olgierd, whose family relations attracted him
towards the south, was the advocate of union with Russia; rather politician
than warrior, he increased his influence by diplomacy and by organization.
His wife and sons being Christians, he also soon agreed to be baptized in the
Greek Church. Keistut represented the revival of the Lithuanian nationality.
Continually engaged in wars with Livonia, and remaining true to the national
religion, he became the national legendary hero. In 1345 both brothers agreed
to re-establish the great principality of Lithuania, and, after having taken
Vilna, the old sanctuary of the country, all the brothers recognized the
supremacy of Olgierd. His son, Jagiello, who married the queen of Poland,
Yadviga, after having been baptized in the Latin Church, was crowned, on the
14th of February 1386, king of Poland. At the beginning of the 15th century
Lithuania extended her dominions as far east as Vyazma on the banks of the

Moskva river, the present government of Kaluga, and Poutivl, and south-east
as far as Poltava, the shores of the Sea of Azov, and Haji-bey (Odessa), thus
including Kiev and Lutsk. The union with Poland remained, however, but
nominal until 1569, when Sigismund Augustus was king of Poland. In the
16th century Lithuania did not extend its power so far east and south-east as
two centuries before, but it constituted a compact state, including Polotsk,
Moghilev, Minsk, Grodno, Kovno, Vilna, Brest, and reaching as far south-east
as Chernigov. From the union with Poland, the history of Lithuania becomes a
part of Poland’s history, Lithuanians and White-Russians partaking of the fate
of the Polish kingdom (see Poland: History). After its three partitions, they
fell under the dominion of the Russian empire. In 1792 Russia took the
provinces of Moghilev and Polotsk, and in 1793 those of Vilna, Troki,
Novgorod-Syeversk, Brest and Vitebsk. In 1797 all these provinces were
united together, constituting the “Lithuanian government” (Litovskaya
Gubernia). But the name of Lithuanian provinces was usually given only to
the governments of Vilna and Kovno, and, though Nicholas I. prohibited the
use of this name, it is still used, even in official documents. In Russia, all the
White-Russian population of the former Polish Lithuania are usually
considered as Lithuanians, the name of Zhmud being restricted to Lithuanians
proper.

The ethnographical limits of the Lithuanians are undefined, and their
number is variously estimated. The Letts occupy a part of the Courland
peninsula of Livonia and of Vitebsk, a few other settlements being spread also
in the governments of Kovno, St Petersburg and Moghilev. The Lithuanians
proper inhabit the governments of Kovno, Vilna, Suvalki and Grodno; while
the Samogitians or Zhmud inhabit the governments of Kovno and Suvalki. To
these must be added about 200,000 Borussians, the whole number of
Lithuanians and Letts in Russia being, according to the census of 1897,
3,094,469. They are slowly extending towards the south, especially the Letts;
numerous emigrants have penetrated into Slavonic lands as far as the
government of Voronezh.

The Lithuanians are well built; the face is mostly elongated, the features
fine; the very fair hair, blue eyes and delicate skin distinguish them from Poles
and Russians. Their dress is usually plain in comparison with that of Poles,
and the predominance in it of greyish colours has been frequently noticed.
Their chief occupation is agriculture. The trades in towns are generally carried
on by men of other races—mostly by Germans, Jews or Poles. The only
exception is afforded to some extent by the Letts. The Samogitians are good
hunters, and all Lithuanians are given to apiculture and cattle breeding. But
the Lithuanians, as well in the Baltic provinces as in the central ones, were not
until the most recent time proprietors of the soil they tilled. They have given a
few families to the Russian nobility, but the great mass of the people became
serfs of foreign landowners, German and Polish, who reduced them to the
greatest misery. Since the Polish insurrection of 1863, the Russian government
has given to the Lithuanians the land of the Polish proprietors on much easier
terms than in central Russia; but the allotments of soil and the redemption
taxes are very unequally distributed; and a not insignificant number of
peasants (the chinsheviki) were even deprived of the land they had for
centuries considered their own. The Letts remain in the same state as before,
and are restrained from emigrating en masse only by coercive measures.

The Letts of Courland, with the exception of about 50,000 who belong to
the Greek Church, are Lutherans. Nearly all can read. Those of the
government of Vitebsk, who were under Polish dominion, are Roman
Catholics, as well as the Lithuanians proper, a part of whom, however, have
returned to the Greek Church, in which they were before the union with
Poland. The Samogitians are Roman Catholics; they more than other
Lithuanians have conserved their national features. But all Lithuanians have
maintained much of their heathen practices and creed; the names of pagan
divinities, very numerous in the former mythology, are continually mentioned
in songs, and also in common speech.

Bibliography.—Schiemann, Russland, Polen und Livland bis ins 17te
Jahrhundert (2 vols., Berlin, 1886-1887); S. Daukantas, Lietuvos Istorija
(Plymouth, Pa., 1893); J. de Brye, Étude historique sur la Lithuanie (Paris,
1894); P. D. Bryantsev, Istorija Litovskago Gosudarstva (Vilna, 1899).
(P. A. K.)

Language and Literature.—The Lithuanian, Lettic or Lettish and Borussian
or Old Prussian languages together constitute a distinct linguistic subdivision,
commonly called the Baltic subdivision, within the Indo-European family.
They have many affinities to the Slavonic languages, and are sometimes
included with them in a single linguistic group, the Balto-Slavic. In their
phonology, however, though not in their structure the Baltic languages appear
to be more primitive than the Slavonic. Lithuanian, for example, retains the
archaic diphthongs which disappear in Slavonic—Lith. véidas, “face,” Gr.
εἶδος, O.S. vidŭ. Among other noteworthy phonological characteristics of
Lithuanian are the conversion of k into a sibilant, the loss of h and change of
all aspirates into tenues and the retention of primitive consonantal noun-
terminations, e.g. the final s in Sans. Vṛkás, Lith. vīlkas, O.S. vŭlkŭ. Lettic is
phonologically less archaic than Lithuanian, although in a few cases it has
preserved Indo-European forms which have been changed in Lithuanian, e.g.
the s and z which have become Lith. sz (sh) and ž (zh). The accent in
Lithuanian is free; in Lettic, and apparently in Old Prussian, it ultimately
became fixed on the first syllable.

In its morphology Lettic represents a later stage of development than
Lithuanian, their mutual relationship being analogous to that between Old
High German and Gothic. Both languages have preserved seven out of the
eight Indo-European cases; Lithuanian has three numbers, but Lettic has lost
the dual (except in diwi, “two” and abbi, “both”); the neuter gender, which
still appears in Lithuanian pronouns, has also been entirely lost in Lettic; in
Lithuanian there are four simple tenses (present, future, imperfect, preterite),
but in Lettic the imperfect is wanting. In both languages the number of
periphrastic verb-forms and of diminutives is large; in both there are traces of

a suffix article; and both have enriched their vocabularies with many words of
foreign, especially German, Russian and Polish origin. The numerous
Lithuanian dialects are commonly divided into High or Southern, which
changes ty and dy into cz, dz, and Low or Northern, which retains ty, dy. Lettic
is divided into High (the eastern dialects), Low (spoken in N.W. Courland)
and Middle (the literary language). Old Prussian ceased to be a spoken
language in the 17th century; its literary remains, consisting chiefly of three
catechisms and two brief vocabularies, date almost entirely from the period
1517-1561 and are insufficient to permit of any thorough reconstruction of the
grammar.

The literary history of the Lithuanians and Letts dates from the Reformation
and comprises three clearly defined periods. (1) Up to 1700 the chief printed
books were of a liturgical character. (2) During the 18th century a vigorous
educational movement began; dictionaries, grammars and other instructive
works were compiled, and written poems began to take the place of songs
preserved by oral tradition. (3) The revival of national sentiment at the
beginning of the 19th century resulted in the establishment of newspapers and
the collection and publication of the national folk-poetry. In both literatures,
works of a religious character predominate, and both are rich in popular
ballads, folk-tales and fables.

The first book printed in Lithuanian was a translation of Luther’s shorter
Catechism (Königsberg, 1547); other translations of devotional or liturgical
works followed, and by 1701 59 Lithuanian books had appeared, the most
noteworthy being those of the preacher J. Bretkun (1535-1602). The spread of
Calvinism led to the publication, in 1701, of a Lithuanian New Testament. The
first dictionary was printed in 1749. But perhaps the most remarkable work of
the second period was The Four Seasons, a pastoral poem in hexameters by
Christian Donalitius (1714-1780), which was edited by Nesselmann
(Königsberg, 1869) with a German translation and notes. In the 19th century
various collections of fables and folk-tales were published, and an epic, the

Onikshta Grove, was written by Bishop Baranoski. But it was in journalism
that the chief original work of the third period was done. F. Kelch (1801-
1877) founded the first Lithuanian newspaper, and between 1834 and 1895 no
fewer than 34 Lithuanian periodicals were published in the United States
alone.

Luther’s Catechism (Königsberg, 1586) was the first book printed in Lettic,
as in the sister speech. In the 17th century various translations of psalms,
hymns and other religious works were published, the majority being
Calvinistic in tone. The educational movement of the 18th century was
inaugurated by G. F. Stender (1714-1796), author of a Lettic dictionary and
grammar, of poems, tales and of a Book of Wisdom which treats of elementary
science and history. Much educational work was subsequently done by the
Lettic Literary Society, which publishes a magazine (Magazin, Mitau, from
1827), and by the “Young Letts,” who published various periodicals and
translations of foreign classics, and endeavoured to free their language and
thought from German influences. Somewhat similar tasks were undertaken by
the “Young Lithuanians,” whose first magazine the Auszra (“Dawn”) was
founded in 1883. From 1890 to 1910 the literature of both peoples was
marked by an ever-increasing nationalism; among the names most prominent
during this period may be mentioned those of the dramatist Steperman and the
poet Martin Lap, both of whom wrote in Lettic.

Bibliography.—Lithuanian dictionaries: Nesselmann, Wörterbuch der
litauischen Sprache (Königsberg, 1851); Kurschat, Wörterbuch der
litauischen Sprache (Halle, 1870-1883); A. Juszkiewicz, Litovskiy Slovar (St
Petersburg, 1897, &c.); P. Saurusaitis, An Abridged Dictionary of the English-
Lithuanian Languages, 2 pts. (Waterbury, Conn., 1899-1900); A. Lalis,
Dictionary of the Lithuanian and English Languages (Chicago, 1903, &c.).
Grammar and Linguistic: Schleicher, Handbuch der litauischen Sprache
(Prague, 1856-1857); O. Wiedemann, Handbuch der litauischen Sprache
(Strassburg, 1897); A. Bezzenberger, Beiträge zur Geschichte der litauischen

Sprache (Göttingen, 1877); J. Schiekopp, Gramatyka litewska poczatkowa
(Cracow, 1902). Literature: Nesselmann, Litauische Volkslieder (Berlin,
1853); A. Juszkiewicz, Lietùwiškos Dajnos Uzrasytos, &c. (Kazan, 1881); A.
Leskien and C. Brugman, Litauische Volkslieder (Strassburg, 1882); C.
Bartsch, Melodieen litauischer Volkslieder (Heidelberg, 1886); A.
Juszkiewicz, Melodje ludowe litewskie (Cracow, 1900, &c.); E. A. Voi’ter,
Litovskaya Khrestomatiya (St Petersburg, 1901, &c.).

Lettic dictionaries and grammars: Bielenstein, Die Lettische Sprache
(Berlin, 1863-1864); id., Lettische Grammatik (Mitau, 1863); Ulmann and
Brasche, Lettisches Wörterbuch (Riga, 1872-1880); A. Bezzenberger, Über
die Sprache der preussischen Letten and lettische Dialekt-Studien (Göttingen,
1885); Bielenstein, Grenzen des lettischen Volksstammes und der lettischen
Sprache (St Petersburg, 1892); Literature: Bielenstein Tausend lettische
Räthsel (Mitau, 1881); T. Treuland, Latyshskiya Narodnyya Skazki (Moscow,
1887, &c.); K. Baron and H. Wissendorff, Latwju dainas (Mitau, 1894, &c.);
V. Andreyanov, Lettische Volkslieder und Mythen (Halle, 1896).

Old Prussian: Nesselmann, Die Sprache der alten Preussen (Berlin, 1845);
id., Thesaurus linguae prussicae (Berlin, 1873); Berneker, Die preussische
Sprache (Strassburg, 1896); M. Schultze, Grammatik der altpreussischen
Sprache (Leipzig, 1897).

LITMUS (apparently a corruption of lacmus, Dutch lacmoes, lac, lac,
and moes, pulp, due to association with “lit,” an obsolete word for dye, colour;
the Ger. equivalent is Lackmus, Fr. tournesol), a colouring matter which

occurs in commerce in the form of small blue tablets, which, however, consist
mostly, not of the pigment proper, but of calcium carbonate and sulphate and
other matter devoid of tinctorial value. Litmus is extensively employed by
chemists as an indicator for the detection of free acids and free alkalis. An
aqueous infusion of litmus, when exactly neutralized by an acid, exhibits a
violet colour, which by the least trace of free acid is changed to red, while free
alkali turns it to blue. The reagent is generally used in the form of test paper—
bibulous paper dyed red, purple or blue by the respective kind of infusion.
Litmus is manufactured in Holland from the same kinds of lichens (species of
Roccella and Lecanora) as are used for the preparation of archil (q.v.).

LITOPTERNA, a suborder of South American Tertiary ungulate
mammals typified by Macrauchenia, and taking their name (“smooth-heel”)
from the presence of a flat facet on the heel-bone, or calcaneum for the
articulation of the fibula. The more typical members of the group were
digitigrade animals, recalling in general build the llamas and horses; they have
small brains, and a facet on the calcaneum for the fibula. The cheek-dentition
approximates more or less to the perissodactyle type. Both the terminal faces
of the cervical vertebrae are flat, the femur carries a third trochanter, the bones
of both the carpus and tarsus are arranged in linear series, and the number of
toes, although commonly three, varies between one and five, the third or
middle digit being invariably the largest.

Of the two families, the first is the Proterotheriidae, which exhibits, in
respect of the reduction of the digits, a curious parallelism to the equine line

among the Perissodactyla; in this feature, as well as in the reduction of the
teeth, it is more specialized than the second family.

The molar teeth approximate to the Palaeotherium type, but have a more or
less strongly developed median longitudinal cleft. The three-toed type is
represented by Diadiaphorus, in which the dental formula is i.½, c.0⁄1, p.4⁄5,
m.3⁄8, and the feet are very like those of Hipparion. The cervical vertebrae are
of normal form, the orbit (as in the second family) is encircled by bone, the
last molar has a third lobe, the single pair of upper incisors are somewhat
elongated, and have a gap between and behind them, while the outer lower
incisors are larger than the inner pair, the canines being small. The skull has a
short muzzle, with elongated nasals. Remains of this and the other
representatives of the group are found in the Patagonian Miocene. In
Proterotherium, which includes smaller forms having the same, or nearly the
same, dental formula, the molar teeth differ from those of Diadiaphorus by
the deeper median longitudinal cleft, which completely divides the crown into
an inner and an outer moiety, the two cones of the inner half being united.
According to the description given by Argentine palaeontologists, this genus
is also three-toed, the single-toed representative of the family being
Thoatherium, in which the lateral metapodials, or splint-bones, are even more
reduced than in the Equidae.

In the second family—Macraucheniidae—the dentition is complete (forty-
four) and without a gap, the crowns of nearly all the teeth being of nearly
uniform height, while the upper molars are distinguished from those of the
Proterotheriidae by a peculiar arrangement of their two inner cones, and the
elevation of the antero-posterior portion of the cingulum so as to form an extra
pit on the crown. To describe this arrangement in detail is impossible here, but
it may be stated that the two inner cones are closely approximated, and
separated by a narrow V-shaped notch on the inner side of the crown. The
elongated cervical vertebrae are peculiar in that the arch is perforated by the
artery in the same manner as in the llamas.

In the Santa Cruz beds of Patagonia the family is represented by the
generalized genus Oxyodontotherium (in which Theosodon may apparently be
included). It comprises animals ranging up to the size of a tapir, in which the
nostrils were more or less in the normal anterior position, and the cheek-teeth
short-crowned, with the inner cones of the upper molars well developed and
separated by a notch, and the pits of moderate depth. The last upper premolar
is simpler than the molars, and the canine, which may be double-rooted, is
like the earlier premolars. The radius and ulna, like the tibia and fibula, are
distinct, and the metapodials rudimentary. On the other hand, in
Macrauchenia, which was a much larger llama-like animal, the skull is
elongated and narrow, with rudimentary nasals, and the aperture of the nose
placed nearly on the line of the eyes and directed upwards, the muzzle not
improbably terminating in a short trunk. Deep pits on the forehead probably
served for the attachment of special muscles connected with the latter. Very
curious is the structure of the cheek-teeth, which are high-crowned, with the
two inner cones reduced to mere points, and the pits on the crown-surface
large and funnel-shaped. In fact, the perissodactyle type is almost lost. The
cervical vertebrae and limb-bones are very long, the radius and ulna being
completely, and the tibia and fibula partially, united. The typical M.
patagonica is a Pleistocene form as large as a camel, ranging from Patagonia
to Brazil, but remains of smaller species have been found in the Pliocene (?)
of Bolivia and Argentina.

The imperfectly known Scalabrinia of the Argentine Pliocene appears to
occupy a position intermediate between Oxyodontotherium and
Macrauchenia, having the nasal aperture situated in the middle of the length
of the skull, and the crowns of the cheek-teeth nearly as tall as in the latter, but
the lower molars furnished with a projecting process in the hinder valley,
similar to one occurring in those of the former.

In this place may be mentioned another strange ungulate from the Santa
Cruz beds of Patagonia, namely, Astrapotherium, sometimes regarded as

typifying a suborder by itself. This huge ungulate had cheek-teeth singularly
like those of a rhinoceros, and an enormous pair of tusk-like upper incisors,
recalling the upper canines of Machaerodus on an enlarged scale. In the lower
jaw are two large tusk-like canines between which are three pairs of curiously-
formed spatulate incisors, and in both jaws there is a long diastema. The
dental formula appears to be i.1⁄3, c.0⁄1, p.2⁄1, m.3⁄3.

Next Astrapotherium may be provisionally placed the genus
Homalodontotherium, of which the teeth have much lower crowns, and are of
a less decidedly rhinocerotic type than in Astrapotherium, and the whole
dentition forms an even and unbroken series. The bodies of the cervical
vertebrae are short, with flattened articular surfaces, the humerus has an
enormous deltoid crest, suggestive of fossorial powers, and the femur is
flattened, with a third trochanter. According to the Argentine palaeontologists,
the carpus is of the alternating type, and the terminal phalanges of the
pentedactyle feet are bifid, and very like those of Edentata. Indeed, this type
of foot shows many edentate resemblances. The astragalus is square and
flattened, articulating directly with the navicular, although not with the
cuboid, and having a slightly convex facet for the tibia. From the structure of
the above-mentioned type of foot, which is stated to have been found in
association with the skull, it has been suggested that Homalodontotherium
should be placed in the Ancylopoda (q.v.), but, to say nothing of the different
form of the cheek-teeth, all the other South American Santa Cruz ungulates
are so distinct from those of other countries that this seems unlikely. It may be
suggested that we have rather to deal with an instance of parallelism—a view
supported by the parallelism to the Equidae presented by certain members of
the Proterotheriidae.
(R. L.*)

LITOTES (Gr. λιτότης, plainness, λιτός, plain, simple, smooth), a
rhetorical figure in which emphasis is secured for a statement by turning it
into a denial of the contrary, e.g. “a citizen of no mean city,” i.e. a citizen of a
famous city, “A. is not a man to be neglected.” Litotes is sometimes used for
what should be more strictly called “meiosis” (Gr. μείωσις, lessening,
diminution, μείων, lesser), where the expressions used apparently are weak or
understated, but the effect is to intensify.

LITTER (through O. Fr. litere or litiere, mod. litière from Med. Lat.
lectaria, classical lectica, lectus, bed, couch), a word used of a portable couch,
shut in by curtains and borne on poles by bearers, and of a bed of straw or
other suitable substance for animals; hence applied to the number of young
produced by an animal at one birth, and also to any disordered heap of waste
material, rubbish, &c. In ancient Greece, prior to the influence of Asiatic
luxury after the Macedonian conquest, the litter (φορεῖον) was only used by
invalids or by women. The Romans, when the lectica was introduced,
probably about the latter half of the 2nd century b.c. (Gellius x. 3), used it
only for travelling purposes. Like the Greek or Asiatic litter, it had a roof of

skin (pellis) and side curtains (vela, plagae). Juvenal (iv. 20) speaks of
transparent sides (latis specularibus). The slaves who bore the litter on their
shoulders (succollare) were termed lecticarii, and it was a sign of luxury and
wealth to employ six or even eight bearers. Under the Empire the litter began
to be used in the streets of Rome, and its use was restricted and granted as a
privilege (Suet. Claudius). The travelling lectica must be distinguished from
the much earlier lectica funebris or feretrum, the funeral bier on which the
dead were carried to their burial-place.

LITTLE FALLS, a city and the county-seat of Morrison county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., on both banks of the Mississippi river, about 88 m. N.W.
of Minneapolis. Pop. (1890) 2354; (1900) 5774, of whom 1559 were foreign-
born, chiefly Germans and Swedes; (1905) 5856; (1910) 6078. It is served by
the Northern Pacific railway. The city is situated in a prosperous farming
region, and has excellent water-power and various manufactures. Little Falls
was settled about 1850, was chartered as a city in 1889 and adopted a new
charter in 1902. Here was buried the Chippewa chief, Hole-in-the-Day (c.
1827-1868), or Bagwunagijik, who succeeded his father, also named Hole-in-
the-Day, as head chief of the Chippewas in 1846. Like his father, the younger
Hole-in-the-Day led his tribe against the Sioux, and he is said to have
prevented the Chippewas from joining the Sioux rising in 1862. His body was
subsequently removed by his relatives.

LITTLE FALLS, a city of Herkimer county, New York, U.S.A., on
the Mohawk river, 21 m. E.S.E. of Utica. Pop. (1890) 8783; (1900) 10,381, of
whom 1915 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 12,273. It is served by the New
York Central & Hudson River, the West Shore, the Utica & Mohawk Valley
(electric), and the Little Falls & Dolgeville railways (the last named being 13
m. long and running only to Salisbury Center and by the Erie canal). The
Mohawk river falls here by a series of rapids 45 ft. in less than a mile,
furnishing water power. Among the manufactures are cotton yarn, hosiery and
knit goods, leather, &c. In 1905 the city’s factory products were valued at
$4,471,080. The city has one of the largest cheese-markets in the United
States. The manufacture of flour and grist-mill products was formerly an
important industry; a mill burned in 1782 by Tories and Indians had supplied
almost the entire Mohawk Valley, and particularly Forts Herkimer and
Dayton. Near the city is the grave of General Nicholas Herkimer, to whom a
monument was erected in 1896. Little Falls was settled by Germans in 1782,
and was almost immediately destroyed by Indians and Tories. It was resettled
in 1790, and was incorporated as a village in 1811 and as a city in 1895.

See George A. Hardin, History of Herkimer County (Syracuse, 1893).

LITTLEHAMPTON, a seaport and watering-place in the
Chichester parliamentary division of Sussex, England, at the mouth of the
Arun, 62 m. S. by W. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7363. There is a beach of firm sand. The
harbour is easily accessible in all weathers, and has a small general trade.

LITTLE ROCK, the capital of Arkansas, U.S.A., and the county-seat
of Pulaski county, situated near the centre of the state and on the S. bank of
the Arkansas river, at the E. edge of the Ozark foothills. Pop. (1890) 25,874;
(1900) 38,307, of whom 14,694 were of negro blood, and 2099 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 45,941. Little Rock is served by the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific, the St Louis South Western, and the St Louis, Iron Mountain &
Southern railways and by river boats. It occupies a comparatively level site of
11 sq. m. at an altitude of 250 to 400 ft. above sea-level and 50 ft. or more
above the river, which is crossed here by three railway bridges and by a
county bridge. The city derived its name (originally “le Petit Roche” and “The
Little Rock”) from a rocky peninsula in the Arkansas, distinguished from the
“Big Rock” (the site of the army post, Fort Logan H. Roots), 1 m. W. of the

city, across the river. The Big Rock is said to have been first discovered and
named “Le Rocher Français” in 1722 by Sieur Bernard de la Harpe, who was
in search of an emerald mountain; the Little Rock is now used as an abutment
for a railway bridge. The state capitol, the state insane asylum, the state deaf
mute institute, the state school for the blind, a state reform school, the
penitentiary, the state library and the medical and law departments of the state
university are at Little Rock; and the city is also the seat of the United States
court for the eastern district of Arkansas, of a United States land office, of
Little Rock College, of the St Mary’s Academy, of a Roman Catholic
orphanage and a Roman Catholic convent, and of two schools for negroes—
the Philander Smith College (Methodist Episcopal, 1877), co-educational, and
the Arkansas Baptist College. The city is the seat of Protestant Episcopal and
Roman Catholic bishops. Little Rock has a Carnegie library (1908), an old
ladies’ home, a Florence Crittenton rescue home, a children’s home, St
Vincent’s infirmary, a city hospital, a Catholic hospital, a physicians’ and
surgeons’ hospital and the Arkansas hospital for nervous diseases. A municipal
park system includes City, Forest, Wonderland and West End parks.
Immigration from the northern states has been encouraged, and northern men
control much of the business of the city. In 1905 the value of factory products
was $4,689,787, being 38.8% greater than the value in 1900. Cotton and
lumber industries are the leading interests; the value of cotton-seed oil and
cake manufactured in 1905 was $967,043, of planing mill products $835,049,
and of lumber and timber products $342,134. Printing and publishing and the
manufacture of foundry and machine shop products and of furniture are other
important industries. Valuable deposits of bauxite are found in Pulaski county,
and the mines are the most important in the United States.

Originally the site of the city was occupied by the Quapaw Indians. The
earliest permanent settlement by the whites was about 1813-1814; the county
was organized in 1818 while still a part of Missouri Territory; Little Rock was
surveyed in 1821, was incorporated as a town and became the capital of
Arkansas in 1821, and was chartered as a city in 1836. In 1850 its population

was only 2167, and in 1860 3727; but in 1870 it was 12,380. Little Rock was
enthusiastically anti-Union at the outbreak of the Civil War. In February 1861,
the United States Arsenal was seized by the state authorities. In September
1863 the Federal generals William Steele (1819-1885) and John W. Davidson
(1824-1881), operating against General Sterling Price, captured the city, and it
remained throughout the rest of the war under Federal control. Constitutional
conventions met at Little Rock in 1836, 1864, 1868 and 1874, and also the
Secession Convention of 1861. The Arkansas Gazette, established at Arkansas
Post in 1819 and soon afterwards removed to the new capital, was the first
newspaper published in Arkansas and one of the first published west of the
Mississippi.

LITTLETON (or Lyttelton), EDWARD, Baron (1589-1645),
son of Sir Edward Littleton (d. 1621) chief-justice of North Wales, was born at
Munslow in Shropshire; he was educated at Oxford and became a lawyer,
succeeding his father as chief-justice of North Wales. In 1625 he became a
member of parliament and acted in 1628 as chairman of the committee of
grievances upon whose report the Petition of Right was based. As a member
of the party opposed to the arbitrary measures of Charles I. Littleton had
shown more moderation than some of his colleagues, and in 1634, three years
after he had been chosen recorder of London, the king attached him to his own
side by appointing him solicitor-general. In the famous case about ship-money
Sir Edward argued against Hampden. In 1640 he was made chief-justice of the
common pleas and in 1641 lord keeper of the great seal, being created a peer
as Baron Lyttelton. About this time, the lord keeper began to display a certain

amount of indifference to the royal cause. In January 1642 he refused to put
the great seal to the proclamation for the arrest of the five members and he
also incurred the displeasure of Charles by voting for the militia ordinance.
However, he assured his friend Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon,
that he had only taken this step to allay the suspicions of the parliamentary
party who contemplated depriving him of the seal, and he undertook to send
this to the king. He fulfilled his promise, and in May 1642 he himself joined
Charles at York, but it was some time before he regained the favour of the
king and the custody of the seal. Littleton died at Oxford on the 27th of
August 1645; he left no sons and his barony became extinct. His only
daughter, Anne, married her cousin Sir Thomas Littleton, Bart. (d. 1681), and
their son Sir Thomas Littleton (c. 1647-1710), was speaker of the House of
Commons from 1698 to 1700, and treasurer of the navy from 1700 to 1710.
Macaulay thus sums up the character of Speaker Littleton and his relations to
the Whigs: “He was one of their ablest, most zealous and most steadfast
friends; and had been, both in the House of Commons and at the board of
treasury, an invaluable second to Montague” (the earl of Halifax).

LITTLETON, SIR THOMAS DE (c. 1407-1481), English
judge and legal author, was born, it is supposed, at Frankley Manor House,
Worcestershire, about 1407. Littleton’s surname was that of his mother, who
was the sole daughter and heiress of Thomas de Littleton, lord of Frankley.
She married one Thomas Westcote. Thomas was the eldest of four sons of the
marriage, and took the name of Littleton, or, as it seems to have been more
commonly spelt, Luttelton. The date of his birth is uncertain; a MS. pedigree

gives 1422, but it was probably earlier than this. If, as is generally accepted,
he was born at Frankley Manor, it could not have been before 1407, in which
year Littleton’s grandfather recovered the manor from a distant branch of the
family. He is said by Sir E. Coke to have “attended one of the universities,”
but there is no corroboration of this statement. He was probably a member of
the Inner Temple, and lectured there on the statute of Westminster II., De
Donis Conditionalibus. His name occurs in the Paston Letters (ed. J. Gairdner,
i. 60) about 1445 as that of a well-known counsel and in 1481/2 he received a
grant of the manor of Sheriff Hales, Shropshire, from a Sir William Trussel as
a reward for his services as counsel. He appears to have been recorder of
Coventry in 1450; he was made escheator of Worcestershire, and in 1447/8
was under-sheriff of the same county; he became serjeant-at-law in 1453 and
was afterwards a justice of assize on the northern circuit. In 1466 he was made
a judge of the common pleas, and in 1475 a knight of the Bath. He died,
according to the inscription on his tomb in Worcester cathedral, on the 23rd of
August 1481. He married, about 1444, Joan, widow of Sir Philip Chetwind of
Ingestrie in Staffordshire, and by her had three sons, through whom he
became ancestor of the families holding the peerages of Cobham (formerly
Lyttelton, q.v.) and Hatherton.

His Treatise on Tenures was probably written after he had been appointed to
the bench. It is addressed to his second son Richard, who went to the bar, and
whose name occurs in the year books of the reign of Henry VII. The book,
both historically and from its intrinsic merit, may be characterized as the first
text-book upon the English law of property. The law of property in Littleton’s
time was mainly concerned with rights over land, and it was the law relating
to this class of rights which Littleton set himself to digest and classify. The
time was ripe for the task. Ever since the Conquest regular courts of justice
had been at work administering a law which had grown out of an admixture of
Teutonic custom and of Norman feudalism. Under Henry II. the courts had
been organized, and the practice of keeping regular records of the proceedings
had been carefully observed. The centralizing influence of the royal courts and

of the justices of assize, working steadily through three centuries, had made
the rules governing the law of property uniform throughout the land; local
customs were confined within certain prescribed limits, and were only
recognized as giving rise to certain well-defined classes of rights, such, for
instance, as the security of tenure acquired by villeins by virtue of the custom
of the manor, and the rights of freeholders, in some towns, to dispose of their
land by will. Thus, by the time of Littleton (Henry VI. and Edward IV.), an
immense mass of material had been acquired and preserved in the rolls of the
various courts. Reports of important cases were published in the “year books.”
A glance at Statham’s Abridgment, the earliest digest of decided cases,
published nearly at the same time as Littleton’s Tenures, is sufficient to show
the enormous bulk which reported cases had already attained as materials for
the knowledge of English law.

Littleton’s treatise was written in that peculiar dialect compounded of
Norman-French and English phrases called law French. Although it had been
provided by a statute of 36 Edward III. that viva voce proceedings in court
should no longer be conducted in the French tongue, “which was much
unknown in the realm,” the practice of reporting proceedings in that language,
and of using it in legal treatises, lingered till a much later period, and was at
length prohibited by a statute passed in the time of the Commonwealth in
1650. Unlike the preceding writers on English law, Glanville, Bracton and the
authors of the treatises known by the names of Britton and Fleta, Littleton
borrows nothing from the sources of Roman law or the commentators. He
deals exclusively with English law.

The book is written on a definite system, and is the first attempt at a
scientific classification of rights over land. Littleton’s method is to begin with
a definition, usually clearly and briefly expressed, of the class of rights with
which he is dealing. He then proceeds to illustrate the various characteristics
and incidents of the class by stating particular instances, some of which refer
to decisions which had actually occurred, but more commonly they are

hypothetical cases put by way of illustration of his principles. He occasionally
refers to reported cases. His book is thus much more than a mere digest of
judicial decisions; to some extent he pursues the method which gave to
Roman law its breadth and consistency of principle. In Roman law this result
was attained through the practice of putting to jurisconsults hypothetical cases
to be solved by them. Littleton, in like manner, is constantly stating and
solving by reference to principles of law cases which may or may not have
occurred in actual practice.

In dealing with freehold estates Littleton adopts a classification which has
been followed by all writers who have attempted to systematize the English
law of land, especially Sir M. Hale and Sir William Blackstone. It is indeed
the only possible approach to a scientific arrangement of the intricate “estates
in land” known to English law. He classifies estates in land by reference to
their duration, or in other words by reference to the differences between the
persons who are entitled to succeed upon the death of the person in possession
or “tenant.” First of all, he describes the characteristics of tenancy in fee
simple. This is still as it was in Littleton’s time the largest interest in land
known to the law. Next in order comes tenancy in fee tail, the various classes
of which are sketched by Littleton with brevity and accuracy, but he is silent
as to the important practice, which first received judicial recognition shortly
before his death, of “suffering a recovery,” whereby through a series of
judicial fictions a tenant in tail was enabled to convert his estate tail into a fee
simple, thus acquiring full power of alienation. After discussing in their
logical order other freehold interests in land, he passes to interests in land
called by later writers interests less than freehold, namely, tenancies for terms
of years and tenancies at will. With the exception of tenancy from year to
year, now so familiar to us, but which was a judicial creation of a date later
than the time of Littleton, the first book is a complete statement of the
principles of the common law, as they for the most part still exist, governing
and regulating interests in lands. The first book concludes with a very
interesting chapter on copyhold tenures, which marks the exact point at which

the tenant by copy of court roll, the successor of the villein, who in his turn
represented the freeman reduced to villenage by the growth of the manorial
system, acquired security of tenure.

The second book relates to the reciprocal rights and duties of lord and
tenant, and is mainly of historical interest to the modern lawyer. It contains a
complete statement of the law as it stood in Littleton’s time relating to
homage, fealty and escuage, the money compensation to be paid to the lord in
lieu of military service to be rendered to the king, a peculiar characteristic of
English as distinguished from Continental feudalism.

Littleton then proceeds to notice the important features of tenure by
knight’s service with its distinguishing incidents of the right of wardship of
the lands and person of the infant heir or heiress, and the right of disposing of
the ward in marriage. The non-military freehold tenures are next dealt with;
we have an account of “socage tenure,” into which all military tenures were
subsequently commuted by a now unrecognized act of the Long Parliament in
1650, afterwards re-enacted by the well-known statute of Charles II. (1660),
and of “frankalmoign,” or the spiritual tenure by which churchmen held. In
the description of burgage tenure and tenure in villenage, the life of which
consists in the validity of ancient customs recognized by law, we recognize
survivals of a time before the iron rule of feudalism had moulded the law of
land in the interests of the king and the great lords. Finally he deals with the
law of rents, discussing the various kinds of rents which may be reserved to
the grantor upon a grant of lands and the remedies for recovery of rent,
especially the remedy by distress.1

The third and concluding book of Littleton’s treatise deals mainly with the
various ways in which rights over land can be acquired and terminated in the
case of a single possessor or several possessors. This leads him to discuss the
various modes in which several persons may simultaneously have rights over
the same land, as parceners:—daughters who are co-heiresses, or sons in
gavelkind; joint tenants and tenants in common. Next follows an elaborate

discussion upon what are called estates upon condition—a class of interests
which occupied a large space in the early common law, giving rise on one side
to estates tail, on another to mortgages. In Littleton’s time a mortgage, which
he carefully describes, was merely a conveyance of land by the tenant to the
mortgagee, with a condition that, if the tenant paid to the mortgagee a certain
sum on a certain day, he might re-enter and have the land again. If the
condition was not fulfilled, the interest of the mortgagee became absolute, and
Littleton gives no indication of any modification of this strict rule, such as
was introduced by courts of equity, permitting the debtor to redeem his land
by payment of all that was due to the mortgagee although the day of payment
had passed, and his interest had become at law indefeasible. The remainder of
the work is occupied with an exposition of a miscellaneous class of modes of
acquiring rights of property, the analysis of which would occupy too large a
space.

The work is thus a complete summary of the common law as it stood at the
time. It is nearly silent as to the remarkable class of rights which had already
assumed vast practical importance—equitable interests in lands. These are
only noticed incidentally in the chapter on “Releases.” But it was already clear
in Littleton’s time that this class of rights would become the most important of
all. Littleton’s own will, which has been preserved, may be adduced in proof
of this assertion. Although nothing was more opposed to the spirit of Norman
feudalism than that a tenant of lands should dispose of them by will, we find
Littleton directing by his will the feoffees of certain manors to make estates to
the persons named in his will. In other words, in order to acquire over lands
powers unknown to the common law, the lands had been conveyed to
“feoffees” who had full right over them according to the common law, but
who were under a conscientious obligation to exercise those rights at the
direction and for the exclusive benefit of the person to whose “use” the lands
were held. This conscientious obligation was recognized and enforced by the
chancellor, and thus arose the class of equitable interests in lands. Littleton is

the first writer on English law after these rights had risen into a prominent
position, and it is curious to find to what extent they are ignored by him.

Bibliography.—The work of Littleton occupies a place in the history of
typography as well as of law. The earliest printed edition seems to be that by
John Lettou and William de Machlinia, two printers who probably came from
the Continent, and carried on their business in partnership, as their note to the
edition of Littleton states, “in civitate Londoniarum, juxta ecclesiam omnium
sanctorum.” The date of this edition is uncertain, but the most probable
conjecture, based on typographical grounds, places it about the latter part of
1481. The next edition is one by Machlinia alone, probably about two or three
years later than the former. Machlinia was then in business alone “juxta
pontem quae vulgo dicitur Fleta brigge.” Next came the Rohan or Rouen
edition, erroneously stated by Sir E. Coke to be the earliest, and to have been
printed about 1533. It was, however, of a much earlier date. Tomlins, the latest
editor of Littleton, gives reasons for thinking that it cannot have been later
than 1490. It is stated in a note to have been printed at Rouen by William le
Tailleur “ad instantiam Richardi Pynson.” Copies of all these editions are in
the British Museum. In all these editions the work is styled Tenores Novelli,
probably to distinguish it from the “Old Tenures.”

There are three early MSS. of Littleton in the University Library at
Cambridge. One of these formerly contained a note on its first page to the
effect that it was bought in St Paul’s Churchyard on July 20, 1480. It was
therefore in circulation in Littleton’s lifetime. The other two MSS. are of a
somewhat later date; but one of them contains what seems to be the earliest
English translation of the Tenures, and is probably not later than 1500.

In the 16th century editions of Littleton followed in rapid succession from
the presses of Pynson, Redmayne, Berthelet, Tottyl and others. The practice of
annotating the text caused several additions to be introduced, which, however,
are easily detected by comparison of the earlier copies. In 1581 West divided
the text into 746 sections, which have ever since been preserved. Many of

these editions were printed with large margins for purposes of annotation,
specimens of which may be seen in Lincoln’s Inn Library.

The practice of annotating Littleton was very general, and was adopted by
many eminent lawyers besides Sir E. Coke, amongst others by Sir M. Hale.
One commentary of this kind, by an unknown hand of earlier date than Sir E.
Coke’s, was edited by Cary in 1829. Following the general practice of dealing
with Littleton as the great authority on the law of England, “the most perfect
and absolute work that ever was written in any human science,” Sir E. Coke
made it in 1628 the text of that portion of his work which he calls the first part
of the institutes of the law of England, in other words, the law of property.

The first printed English translation of Littleton was by Rastell, who seems
to have combined the professions of author, printer and serjeant-at-law,
between 1514 and 1533. Many English editions by various editors followed,
the best of which is Tottyl’s in 1556. Sir E. Coke adopted some translation
earlier than this, which has since gone by the name of Sir E. Coke’s
translation. He, however, throughout comments not on the translation but on
the French text; and the reputation of the commentary has to some extent
obscured the intrinsic merit of the original.

See E. Wambaugh, Littleton’s Tenures in English (Washington, D.C., 1903).

1 These two books are stated, in a note to the table at the conclusion of the work, to have
been made for the better understanding of certain chapters of the Antient Book of Tenures. This
refers to a tract called The Old Tenures, said to have been written in the reign of Edward III.
By way of distinguishing it from this work, Littleton’s book is called in all the early editions
“Tenores Novelli.”

LITTRÉ, MAXIMILIEN PAUL ÉMILE (1801-1881),
French lexicographer and philosopher, was born in Paris on the 1st of
February 1801. His father had been a gunner, and afterwards sergeant-major
of marine artillery, in the French navy, and was deeply imbued with the
revolutionary ideas of the day. Settling down as a collector of taxes, he
married Sophie Johannot, a free-thinker like himself, and devoted himself to
the education of his son Émile. The boy was sent to the Lycée Louis-le-Grand,
where he had for friends Hachette and Eugène Burnouf. After he had
completed his course at school, he hesitated for a time as to what profession
he should adopt, and meanwhile made himself master, not only of the English
and German languages, but of the classical and Sanskrit literature and
philology. At last he determined to study medicine, and in 1822 entered his
name as a student of medicine. He passed all his examinations in due course,
and had only his thesis to prepare in order to obtain his degree as doctor when
in 1827 his father died, leaving his mother absolutely without resources. He at
once renounced his degree, and, while attending the lectures of P. F. O. Rayer
and taking a keen interest in medicine, began teaching Latin and Greek for a
livelihood. He carried a musket on the popular side in the revolution of
February 1830, and was one of the national guards who followed Charles X.
to Rambouillet. In 1831 he obtained an introduction to Armand Carrel, the
editor of the National, who gave him the task of reading the English and
German papers for excerpts. Carrel by chance, in 1835, discovered the ability
of his reader, who from that time became a constant contributor, and
eventually director of the paper. In 1836 Littré began to contribute articles on

all sorts of subjects to the Revue des deux mondes; in 1837 he married; and in
1839 appeared the first volume of his edition of the works of Hippocrates. The
value of this work was recognized by his election the same year into the
Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. At this epoch he came across the
works of Auguste Comte, the reading of which formed, as he himself said,
“the cardinal point of his life,” and from this time onward appears the
influence of positivism on his own life, and, what is of more importance, his
influence on positivism, for he gave as much to positivism as he received
from it. He soon became a friend of Comte, and popularized his ideas in
numerous works on the positivist philosophy. At the same time he continued
his edition of Hippocrates, which was not completed till 1862, published a
similar edition of Pliny’s Natural History, and after 1844 took Fauriel’s place
on the committee engaged on the Histoire littéraire de la France, where his
knowledge of the early French language and literature was invaluable.

It was about 1844 that he started working on his great Dictionnaire de la
langue française, which was, however, not to be completed till thirty years
after. In the revolution of July 1848 he took part in the repression of the
extreme republican party in June 1849. His essays, contributed during this
period to the National, were collected together and published under the title of
Conservation, révolution et positivisme in 1852, and show a thorough
acceptance of all the doctrines propounded by Comte. However, during the
later years of his master’s life, he began to perceive that he could not wholly
accept all the dogmas or the more mystic ideas of his friend and master, but he
concealed his differences of opinion, and Comte failed to perceive that his
pupil had outgrown him, as he himself had outgrown his master Saint-Simon.
Comte’s death in 1858 freed Littré from any fear of embittering his master’s
later years, and he published his own ideas in his Paroles de la philosophie
positive in 1850, and at still greater length in his work in Auguste Comte et la
philosophie positive in 1863. In this book he traces the origin of Comte’s ideas
through Turgot, Kant and Saint-Simon, then eulogizes Comte’s own life, his
method of philosophy, his great services to the cause and the effect of his

works, and finally proceeds to show where he himself differs from him. He
approved wholly of Comte’s philosophy, his great laws of society and his
philosophical method, which indeed he defended warmly against J. S. Mill,
but declared that, while he believed in a positivist philosophy, he did not
believe in a religion of humanity. About 1863, after completing his
Hippocrates and his Pliny, he set to work in earnest on his French dictionary.
In the same year he was proposed for the Académie Française, but rejected,
owing to the opposition of Mgr. Dupanloup, bishop of Orleans, who
denounced him in his Avertissement aux pères de famille as the chief of the
French materialists. He also at this time started with G. Wyrouboff the
Philosophie Positive, a review which was to embody the views of modern
positivists. His life was thus absorbed in literary work till the overthrow of the
empire called on him to take a part in politics. He felt himself too old to
undergo the privations of the siege of Paris, and retired with his family to
Britanny, whence he was summoned by M. Gambetta to Bordeaux, to lecture
on history, and thence to Versailles to take his seat in the senate to which he
had been chosen by the department of the Seine. In December 1871 he was
elected a member of the Académie Française in spite of the renewed
opposition of Mgr. Dupanloup, who resigned his seat rather than receive him.
Littré’s Dictionary was completed in 1873. An authoritative interpretation is
given of the use of each word, based on the various meanings it had held in
the past. In 1875 Littré was elected a life senator. The most notable of his
productions in these years were his political papers attacking and unveiling
the confederacy of the Orleanists and legitimists, and in favour of the
republic, his republication of many of his old articles and books, among others
the Conservation, révolution et positivisme of 1852 (which he reprinted word
for word, appending a formal, categorical renunciation of many of the Comtist
doctrines therein contained), and a little tract Pour la dernière fois, in which
he maintained his unalterable belief in materialism. When it became obvious
that the old man could not live much longer, his wife and daughter, who had
always been fervent Catholics, strove to convert him to their religion. He had

long interviews with Père Millériot, a celebrated controversialist, and was
much grieved at his death; but it is hardly probable he would have ever been
really converted. Nevertheless, when on the point of death, his wife had him
baptized, and his funeral was conducted with the rites of the Catholic Church.
He died on the 2nd of June 1881.

The following are his most important works: his editions of Hippocrates
(1839-1861), and of Pliny’s Natural History (1848-1850); his translation of
Strauss’s Vie de Jésus (1839-1840), and Müller’s Manuel de physiologie
(1851); his edition of the works of Armand Carrel, with notes (1854-1858);
the Histoire de la langue française, a collection of magazine articles (1862);
and his Dictionnaire de la langue française (1863-1872). In the domain of
science must be noted his edition, with Charles Robin, of Nysten’s
Dictionnaire de médicine, de chirurgie, &c. (1855); in that of philosophy, his
Analyse raisonnée du cours de philosophie positive de M. A. Comte (1845);
Application de la philosophie positive au gouvernement (1849); Conservation,
révolution et positivisme (1852, 2nd ed., with supplement, 1879); Paroles de
la philosophie positive (1859); Auguste Comte et la philosophie positive
(1863); La Science au point de vue philosophique (1873); Fragments de
philosophie et de sociologie contemporaine (1876); and his most interesting
miscellaneous works, his Études et glanures (1880); La Verité sur la mort
d’Alexandre le grand (1865); Études sur les barbares et le moyen âge (1867);
Médecine et médecins (1871); Littérature et histoire (1875); and Discours de
réception à l’Académie française (1873).

For his life consult C. A. Sainte-Beuve, Notice sur M. Littré, sa vie et ses
travaux (1863); and Nouveaux Lundis, vol. v.; also the notice by M. Durand-
Gréville in the Nouvelle Revue of August 1881; E. Caro, Littré et le
positivisme (1883); Pasteur, Discours de réception at the Academy, where he
succeeded Littré, and a reply by E. Renan.
(H. M. S.)

LITURGY (Low Lat. liturgia; Gr. λεῖτος, public, and ἔργον, work;
λειτουργός, a public servant), in the technical language of the Christian
Church, the order for the celebration and administration of the Eucharist. In
Eastern Christendom the Greek word λειτουργία is used in this sense
exclusively. But in English-speaking countries the word “liturgy” has come to
be used in a more popular sense to denote any or all of the various services of
the Church, whether contained in separate volumes or bound up together in
the form of a Book of Common Prayer. In this article the liturgy is treated in
the former and stricter sense. (For the ancient Athenian λειτουργίαι, as forms
of taxation, see Finance.)

In order to understand terms and references it will be convenient to give the
tabular form the chief component parts of a liturgy, selecting the Liturgy of
Rome as characteristic of Western, and that of Constantinople as characteristic
of Eastern, Christendom; at the same time appending an explanation of some
of the technical words which must be employed in enumerating those parts.

Order of the Roman Liturgy

Ordinary of the Mass.

1. Introit, or as it is always called in the Sarum rite, “Office,” a Psalm or
part of a Psalm sung at the entry of the priest, or clergy and choir.

2. Kyrie eleison, ninefold, and sometimes lengthily farsed representing an
older, now obsolete, litany.

3. Collect, i.e. the collect for the day.

4. Prophetic lection, now obsolete, except on the Wednesday and Saturday
Ember Days, Good Friday and Easter Even, and Wednesday after fourth and
sixth Sundays in Lent.

5. Epistle.

6. Gradual. A few verses from the Psalms, the shrunken remainder of a
whole Psalm.

7. Sequence. A hymn now obsolete except on Feast of the Seven Dolours,
Easter, Pentecost, Corpus Christi and at Masses for the dead.

8. Gospel.

9. Creed.

10. Collect, now obsolete, though the unanswered invitation, “Let us pray,”
still survives.

11. Offertory. A verse or verses from the Psalms sung at the offering of the
elements.

12. Secret. A prayer or prayers said at the conclusion of the Offertory.

13. Sursum Corda. “Lift up your hearts,” with following versicles.

14. Preface. There are now ten proper or special prefaces and one common
preface. In older missals they were extremely numerous, almost every Sunday
and Holy-day having one assigned to it. Many of them were very beautiful. In
older missals, Nos. 13, 14 and 15 were sometimes arranged not as the
concluding part of the Ordinary, but as the opening part of the Canon of the
mass.

15. Sanctus, or Tersanctus, or Triumphal Hymn, “Holy, Holy, Holy,” &c.,
ending with the Benedictus, “Blessed is he that cometh,” &c.

Canon of the Mass.

1. Introductory prayer for acceptance. Te igitur, &c.

2. Intercession for the living. Memento, Domine famulorum, &c.

3. Commemoration of apostles and martyrs. Communicantes et memoriam,
&c.

4. Prayer for acceptance and consecration of offering. Hanc igitur
oblationem, &c.

5. Recital of words of institution. Qui pridie quam pateretur, &c.

6. Oblation. Unde et memores, &c.

7. Invocation. A passage difficult of interpretation, but apparently meant to
be equivalent to the Eastern Epiklesis or invocation of the Holy Ghost.
Supplices te rogamus, &c.

8. Intercession for the dead. Memento etiam, Domine, famulorum, &c.

9. Lord’s Prayer, with a short introduction and the expansion of the last
petition into a prayer known as the “Embolismus.”

10. Fraction, i.e. breaking of the host into three parts, to symbolize the
death and passion of Christ.

11. Commixture, i.e. placing a small portion of the consecrated bread into
the chalice symbolizing the reunion of Christ’s body and soul at the
resurrection.

12. Agnus Dei, i.e. a three-fold petition to the Lamb of God.

13. Pax, i.e. the kiss of peace. The ancient ritual of the Pax has become
almost obsolete.

14. Three prayers, accompanying the Pax and preliminary to communion.

15. Communion of priest and people (if any), a short anthem called
“Communio” being sung meanwhile.

16. Ablution of paten and chalice.

17. Post-communion, i.e. a concluding prayer.

18. Dismissal.

The Canon of the Mass strictly ends with No. 9; Nos. 10-18 being an
appendix to it.

Liturgy of Constantinople

Mass of the Catechumens. After preparation and vesting.

1. The Deacon’s Litany.

2. Three Anthems with accompanying prayers.

3. Little Entrance, i.e. ceremonial bringing in of the Book of the Gospels.

4. The Trisagion, i.e. an anthem with an accompanying prayer different
from the Latin Sanctus or Tersanctus.

5. Epistle.

6. Gospel with a prayer preceding it.

7. Bidding prayer.

8. Prayer for catechumens.

9. Dismissal of catechumens.

10. Spreading of the corporal.

Mass of the Faithful.

11. Prayers of the faithful.

12. Cherubic Hymn, “Let us who mystically represent the Cherubim, &c.”
not represented in the Latin liturgy.

13. Great Entrance, i.e. of the unconsecrated elements with incense and
singing and intercessions.

14. Kiss of Peace.

15. Creed.

16. The Benediction, i.e. 2 Cor. xiii. 14.

17. Sursum corda.

18. Preface.

19. Sanctus, or Tersanctus, or “Triumphal Hymn.”

20. Recital of Words of Institution, prefaced by recital of the Redemption.

21. The oblation.

22. The invocation or Epiklesis.

23. Intercession for the dead.

24. Intercession for the living.

25. The Lord’s Prayer.

26. Prayer of humble access (a) for people (b) for priest.

27. Elevation with the invitation “Holy things to holy people.”

28. Fraction.

29. Commixture.

30. Thanksgiving.

31. Benediction.

In both these lists many interesting features of ceremonial, the use of
incense, the infusion of warm water (Byzantine only), &c., have not been
referred to. The lists must be regarded as skeletons only.

There are six main families or groups of liturgies, four of them being of
Eastern and two of them of Western origin and use. They are known either by
the names of the apostles with whom they are traditionally connected, or by
the names of the countries or cities in which they have been or are still in use.

Group I. The Syrian Rite (St James).—The principal liturgies to be
enumerated under this group are the Clementine liturgy, so called from being
found in the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitutions, which claim in their
title, though erroneously, to have been compiled by St Clement, the 1st-
century bishop of Rome; the Greek liturgy of St James; the Syriac liturgy of St
James. Sixty-four more liturgies of this group have existed, the majority being
still in existence. Their titles are given in F. E. Brightman’s Liturgies, Eastern
and Western (1896), pp. lviii.-lxi.

Group II. The Egyptian Rite (St Mark).—This group includes the Greek
liturgies of St Mark, St Basil and St Gregory, and the Coptic liturgies of St
Basil, St Gregory, St Cyril or St Mark; together with certain less known
liturgies the titles of which are enumerated by Brightman (op. cit. pp. lxxiii.

lxxiv.). The liturgy of the Ethiopian church ordinances and the liturgy of the
Abyssinian Jacobites, known as that of the Apostles, fall under this group.

Group III. The Persian Rite (SS. Adaeus and Maris).—This Nestorian rite is
represented by the liturgy which bears the names of SS. Adaeus and Maris
together with two others named after Theodore of Mopsuestia and Nestorius.
This group has sometimes been called “East-Syrian.” The titles of three more
of its now lost liturgies have been preserved, namely those of Narses,
Barsumas and Diodorus of Tarsus. The liturgy of the Christians of St Thomas,
on the Malabar coast of India, formerly belonged to this group, but it was
almost completely assimilated to the Roman liturgy by Portuguese Jesuits at
the synod of Diamper in 1599.

Group IV. The Byzantine Rite.—The Greek liturgies of St Chrysostom, St
Basil and St Gregory Dialogus, or The Presanctified, also extant in other
languages, are the living representatives of this rite. The Greek liturgy of St
Peter is classified under this group, but it is merely the Roman canon of the
Mass &c., inserted in a Byzantine framework, and seems to have been used at
one time by some Greek communities in Italy. To this group also belongs the
Armenian liturgy, of which ten different forms have existed in addition to the
liturgy now in general use named after St Athanasius.

We now come to the two western groups of liturgies, which more nearly
concern the Latin-speaking nations of Europe, and which, therefore, must be
treated of more fully.

Group V. The Hispano-Gallican Rite (St John).—This group of Latin
liturgies, which once prevailed very widely in Western Europe, has been
almost universally superseded by the liturgy of the Church of Rome. Where it
survives, it has been more or less assimilated to the Roman pattern. It
prevailed once throughout Spain, France, northern Italy, Great Britain and
Ireland. The term “Ephesine” has been applied to this group or family of
liturgies, chiefly by English liturgiologists, and the names of St John and of

Ephesus, his place of residence, have been pressed into service in support of a
theory of Ephesine origin, which, however, lacks proof and may now be
regarded as a discarded hypothesis. Other theories represent the Gallican to be
a survival of the original Roman liturgy, or as an importation into Western
Europe from the east through a Milanese channel. The latter is Duchesne’s
theory (Christian Worship, London, 1904, 2nd ed., p. 94).

We must be content with mentioning these theories without attempting to
discuss them.

The chief traces of oriental influence and affinity lie in the following points:
—(1) various proclamations made by the deacon, including that of “Silentium
facite” before the epistle (Migne, Pat. Lat. tom. lxxxv. col. 534); (2) the
presence of a third lesson preceding the epistle, taken from the Old Testament;
(3) the occasional presence of “preces” a series of short intercessions
resembling the Greek “Ektené” or deacon’s litany; (4) the position of the kiss
of peace at an early point in the service, before the canon, instead of the
Roman position after consecration; (5) the exclamation “Sancta sanctis”
occurring in the Mozarabic rite, being the counterpart of the Eastern “Τὰ ἄγια
τοῖς ἁγίοις,” that is “holy things to holy people”; (6) traces of the presence of
the “Epiklesis,” that is to say, the invocation of the Holy Spirit, in its Eastern
position after the words of institution, as in the prayer styled the Post-pridie in
the Mozarabic service for the second Sunday after the octave of the Epiphany:
“We beseech thee that thou wouldest sanctify this oblation with the
permixture of thy Spirit, and conform it with full transformation into the body
and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ.” (Migne, Pat. Lat. tom. lxxxv. col. 250).
On the other hand the great variableness of its parts, and the immense number
of its proper prefaces, ally it to the Western family of liturgies.

We proceed now to give a more detailed account of the chief liturgies of
this group.

1. The Mozarabic Liturgy.—This was the national liturgy of the Spanish
church till the close of the 11th century, when the Roman liturgy was forced
upon it. Its use, however, lingered on, till in the 16th century Cardinal
Jimenes, anxious to prevent its becoming quite obsolete, had its books
restored and printed, and founded a college of priests at Toledo to perpetuate
its use. It survives now only in several churches in Toledo and in a chapel at
Salamanca, and even there not without certain Roman modifications of its
original text and ritual.

Its date and origin, like the date and origin of all existing liturgies, are
uncertain, and enveloped in the mists of antiquity. It is not derived from the
present Roman liturgy. Its whole structure, as well as separate details disprove
such a parentage, and therefore it is strange to find St Isidore of Seville (Lib.
de Eccles. Offic. i. 15) attributing it to St Peter. No proof is adduced, and the
only value which can be placed upon such an unsupported assertion is that it
shows that a very high and even apostolic antiquity was claimed for it. A
theory, originating with Pinius, that it may have been brought by the Goths
from Constantinople when they invaded Spain, is as improbable as it is
unproven. It may have been derived from Gaul. The Gallican sister stood to it
in the relation of twin-sister, if it could not claim that of mother. The
resemblance was so great that when Charles the Bald (843-877) wished to get
some idea of the character of the already obsolete Gallican rite, he sent to
Toledo for some Spanish priests to perform Mass according to the Mozarabic
rite in his presence. But there is no record of the conversion of Spain by
Gallican missionaries. Christianity existed in Spain from the earliest times.
Probably St Paul travelled there (Rom. xv. 24). It may be at least conjectured
that its liturgy was Pauline rather than Petrine or Johannine.

2. Gallican Liturgy.—This was the ancient and national liturgy of the
church in France till the commencement of the 9th century, when it was
suppressed by order of Charlemagne, who directed the Roman missal to be
everywhere substituted in its place. All traces of it seemed for some time to

have been lost until three Gallican sacramentaries were discovered and
published by Thomasius in 1680 under the titles of Missale Gothicum, Missale
Gallicum and Missale Francorum, and a fourth was discovered and published
by Mabillon in 1687 under the title of Missale Gallicanum. Fragmentary
discoveries have been made since. Mone discovered fragments of eleven
Gallican masses and published them at Carlsruhe in 1850. Other fragments
from the library at St Gall have been published by Bunsen (Analecta Ante-
Nicaena, iii. 263-266), and from the Ambrosian library at Milan by Cardinal
Mai (Scriptt. Vet. Vat. Coll. iii. 2. 247). A single page was discovered in
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, published in Zeitschrift für Kath.
Theologie, vi. 370.

These documents, illustrated by early Gallican canons, and by allusions in
the writings of Sulpicius Severus, Caesarius of Arles, Gregory of Tours,
Germanus of Paris and other authors, enable us to reconstruct the greater part
of this liturgy. The previously enumerated signs of Eastern origin and
influence are found here as well as in the Mozarabic liturgy, together with
certain other more or less minute peculiarities, which would be of interest to
professed liturgiologists, but which we must not pause to specify here. They
are the origin of the Ephesine theory that the Gallican liturgy was introduced
into use by Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (c. 130-200) who had learned it in the
East from St Polycarp, the disciple of the apostle St John.

3. Ambrosian Liturgy.—Considerable variety of opinion has existed among
liturgical writers as to the proper classification of the “Ambrosian” or
“Milanese” liturgy. If we are to accept it in its present form and to make the
present position of the great intercession for quick and dead the test of its
genus, then we must classify it as “Petrine” and consider it as a branch of the
Roman family. If, on the other hand, we consider the important variations
from the Roman liturgy which yet exist, and the traces of still more marked
variation which confront us in the older printed and MS. copies of the
Ambrosian rite, we shall detect in it an original member of the Hispano-

Gallican group of liturgies, which for centuries underwent a gradual but ever-
increasing assimilation to Rome. We know this as a matter of history, as well
as a matter of inference from changes in the text itself. Charlemagne adopted
the same policy towards the Milanese as towards the Gallican church. He
carried off all the Ambrosian church books which he could obtain, with the
view of substituting Roman books in their place, but the completion of his
intentions failed, partly through the attachment of the Lombards to their own
rites, partly through the intercession of a Gallican bishop named Eugenius
(Mabillon, Mus. Ital. tom. i. Pars. ii. p. 106). It has been asserted by Joseph
Vicecomes that this is an originally independent liturgy drawn up by St
Barnabas, who first preached the Gospel at Milan (De Missae Rit. 1 capp. xi.
xii.), and this tradition is preserved in the title and proper preface for St
Barnabas Day in the Ambrosian missal (Pamelius, Liturgicon, i. 385, 386), but
it has never been proved.

We can trace the following points in which the Ambrosian differs from the
Roman liturgy, many of them exhibiting traces of Eastern influence. Some of
them are no longer found in recent Ambrosian missals and only survive in
earlier MSS. such as those published by Pamelius (Liturgicon, tom. i. p. 293),
Muratori (Lit. Rom. Vet. i. 132) and Ceriani (in his edition, 1881, of an ancient
MS. at Milan). (a) The prayer entitled “oratio super sindonem” corresponding
to the prayer after the spreading of the corporal; (b) the proclamation of
silence by the deacon before the epistle; (c) the litanies said after the Ingressa
(Introit) on Sundays in Lent, closely resembling the Greek Ektené; (d) varying
forms of introduction to the Lord’s Prayer, in Coena Domini (Ceriani p. 116)
in Pascha (Ib. p. 129); (e) the presence of passages in the prayer of
consecration which are not part of the Roman canon and one of which at least
corresponds in import and position though not in words to the Greek
Invocation: Tuum vero, est, omnipotens Pater, mittere, &c. (Ib. p. 116); (f) the
survival of a distinctly Gallican formula of consecration in the Post-sanctus
“in Sabbato Sancto.” Vere sanctus, vere benedictus Dominus noster, &c. (Ib. p.
125); (g) the varying nomenclature of the Sundays after Pentecost; (h) the

position of the fraction or ritual breaking of bread before the Lord’s Prayer; (i)
the omission of the second oblation after the words of institution (Muratori,
Lit. Rom. Vet. i. 133); (k) a third lection or Prophetia from the Old Testament
preceding the epistle and gospel; (l) the lay offering of the oblations and the
formulae accompanying their reception (Pamelius, Liturgicon, i. 297); (m) the
position of the ablution of the hands in the middle of the canon just before the
words of institution; (n) the position of the “oratio super populum,” which
corresponds in matter but not in name to the collect for the day, before the
Gloria in Excelsis.

4. Celtic Liturgy.—We postpone the consideration of this liturgy till after
we have treated of the next main group.

VI. The Roman Rite (St Peter).—There is only one liturgy to be enumerated
under this group, viz. the present liturgy of the Church of Rome, which,
though originally local in character and circumscribed in use, has come to be
nearly co-extensive with the Roman Catholic Church, sometimes superseding
earlier national liturgies, as in Gaul and Spain, sometimes incorporating more
or less of the ancient ritual of a country into itself and producing from such
incorporation a sub-class of distinct Uses, as in England, France and
elsewhere. Even these subordinate Uses have for the most part become, or are
rapidly becoming, obsolete.

The date, origin and early history of the Roman liturgy are obscure. The
first Christians at Rome were a Greek-speaking community, and their liturgy
must have been Greek, and is possibly represented in the so-called Clementine
liturgy. But the date when such a state of things ceased, when and by whom
the present Latin liturgy was composed, whether it is an original composition,
or, as its structure seems to imply, a survival of some intermediate form of
liturgy—all these are questions which are waiting for solution.

One MS. exists which has been claimed to represent the Roman liturgy as it
existed in the time of Leo I., 440-461. It was discovered at Verona by

Bianchini in 1735 and assigned by him to the 8th century and published under
the title of Sacramentarium Leonianum; but this title was from the first
conjectural, and is in the teeth of the internal evidence which the MS. itself
affords. The question is discussed at some length by Muratori (Lit. Rom. Vet.
tom. i. cap. i. col. 16). Assemani published it under the title of
Sacramentarium Veronense in tom. vi. of his Codex Liturg. Eccles. Univ.

A MS. of the 7th or 8th century was found at Rome by Thomasius and
published by him in 1680 under the title of Sacramentarium Gelasianum. But
it was written in France and is certainly not a pure Gelasian codex; and
although there is historical evidence of Pope Gelasius I. (492-496) having
made some changes in the Roman liturgy, and although MSS. have been
published by Gerbertus and others, claiming the title of Gelasian, we neither
have nor are likely to have genuine and contemporary MS. evidence of the
real state of the liturgy in that pope’s time. The most modern and the best
edition of the Gelasian Sacramentary is that by H. A. Wilson (Oxford, 1894).

The larger number of MSS. of this group are copies of the Gregorian
Sacramentary, that is to say, MSS. representing or purporting to represent, the
state of Roman liturgy in the days of Pope Gregory the Great. But they cannot
be accepted as certain evidence for the following reasons: not one of them was
written earlier than the 9th century, not one of them was written in Italy, but
every one north of the Alps; every one contains internal evidence of a post-
Gregorian date in the shape of masses for the repose or for the intercession of
St Gregory and in various other ways.

The Roman liturgy seems to have been introduced into England in the 7th,
into France in the 9th and into Spain in the 11th century, though no doubt it
was known in both France and Spain to some extent before these dates. In
France certain features of the service and certain points in the ritual of the
ancient national liturgy became interwoven with its text and formed those
many varying medieval Gallican Uses which are associated with the names of
different French sees.

The chief distinguishing characteristics of the Roman rite are these: (a) the
position of the great intercession for quick and dead within the canon, the
commemoration of the living being placed just before and the
commemoration of the departed just after the words of institution; (b) the
absence of an “Epiklesis” or invocation of the Holy Ghost upon the elements;
(c) the position of the “Pax” or “Kiss of Peace after the consecration” and
before the communion, whereas in other liturgies it occurs at a much earlier
point in the service.

Liturgies of the British Islands.

Period I. The Celtic Church.—Until recently almost nothing was known of
the character of the liturgical service of the Celtic church which existed in
these islands before the Anglo-Saxon Conquest, and continued to exist in
Ireland, Scotland, Wales and Cornwall for considerable though varying
periods of time after that event. But in recent times a good deal of light has
been thrown on the subject, partly by the publication or republication of the
few genuine works of Patrick, Columba, Columbanus, Adamnan and other
Celtic saints; partly by the discovery of liturgical remains in the Scottish Book
of Deer and in the Irish Books of Dimma and Mulling and the Stowe Missal,
&c.; partly by the publication of medieval Irish compilations, such as the
Lebar Brecc, Liber Hymnorum, Martyrology of Oengus, &c., which contain
ecclesiastical kalendars, legends, treatises, &c., of considerable but very
varying antiquity. The evidence collected from these sources is sufficient to
prove that the liturgy of the Celtic church was of the Gallican type. In central
England the churches, with everything belonging to them, were destroyed by
the heathen invaders at the close of the 5th century; but the Celtic church in
the remoter parts of England, as well as in the neighbouring kingdoms of
Scotland and Ireland, retained its independence for centuries afterwards.

An examination of its few extant service-books and fragments of service-
books yields the following evidence of the Gallican origin and character of the
Celtic liturgy: (a) the presence of collects and anthems which occur in the
Gallican or Mozarabic but not in the Roman liturgy; (b) various formulae of
thanksgiving after communion; (c) frequent biddings or addresses to the
people in the form of Gallican Praefationes; (d) the Gallican form of
consecration, being a prayer called “Post-Sanctus” leading up to the words of
institution; (e) the complicated rite of “fraction” or “the breaking of bread,” as
described in the Irish treatise at the end of the Stowe Missal, finds its only
counterpart in the elaborate ceremonial of the Mozarabic church; (f) the
presence of the Gallican ceremonial of Pedilavium or “Washing of feet” in the
earliest Irish baptismal office.

For a further description of these and other features which are characteristic
of or peculiar to the Celtic liturgy the reader is referred to F. E. Warren’s
Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church (Oxford, 1881).

Period II. The Anglo-Saxon Church.—We find ourselves here on firmer
ground, and can speak with certainty as to the nature of the liturgy of the
English church after the beginning of the 7th century. Information is drawn
from liturgical allusions in the extant canons of numerous councils, from the
voluminous writings of Bede, Alcuin and many other ecclesiastical authors of
the Anglo-Saxon period, and above all from a considerable number of service-
books written in England before the Norman Conquest. Three of these books
are missals of more or less completeness: (1) the Leofric Missal, a composite
10th- to 11th-century MS. presented to the cathedral of Exeter by Leofric, the
first bishop of that see (1046-1072), now in the Bodleian library at Oxford;
edited by F. E. Warren (Oxford, 1883); (2) the missal of Robert of Jumièges,
archbishop of Canterbury (1051-1052), written probably at Winchester and
presented by Archbishop Robert to his old monastery of Jumièges in the
neighbourhood of Rouen, in the public library of which it now lies; edited by
H. A. Wilson (London, 1896); (3) the Red Book of Derby, a MS. missal of the

second half of the 11th century, now in the library of Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge.

A perusal of these volumes proves what we should have expected a priori,
that the Roman liturgy was in use in the Anglo-Saxon church. This was the
case from the very first. That church owed its foundation to a Roman pontiff,
and to Roman missionaries, who brought, as we are told by Bede, their native
liturgical codices with them (Hist. Eccles. lib. ii. cap. 28). Accordingly, when
we speak of an Anglo-Saxon missal, we mean a Roman missal only exhibiting
one or more of the following features, which would differentiate it from an
Italian missal of the same century. (a) Rubrics and other entries of a
miscellaneous character written in the vernacular language of the country. (b)
The commemoration of national or local saints in the kalendar, in the canon of
the mass and in the litanies which occur for use on Easter Even and in the
baptismal offices. (c) The presence of a few special masses in honour of those
local saints, together with a certain number of collects of a necessarily local
character, for the rulers of the country, for its natural produce, &c. (d) The
addition of certain peculiarities of liturgical structure and arrangement
interpolated into the otherwise purely Roman service from an extraneous
source. There are two noteworthy examples of this in Anglo-Saxon service-
books. Every Sunday and festival and almost every votive mass has its proper
preface, although the number of such prefaces in the Gregorian sacramentary
of the same period had been reduced to eight. There was a large but not quite
equal number of triple episcopal benedictions to be pronounced by the bishop
after the Lord’s Prayer and before the communion. This custom must either
have been perpetuated from the old Celtic liturgy or directly derived from a
Gallican source.

Period III. Anglo-Norman Church.—The influx of numerous foreigners,
especially from Normandy and Lorraine, which preceded, accompanied and
followed the Conquest, and the occupation by them of the highest posts in
church as well as state had a distinct effect on the liturgy of the English

church. These foreign ecclesiastics brought over with them a preference for
and a habit of using certain features of the Gallican liturgy and ritual, which
they succeeded in incorporating into the service-books of the church of
England. One of the Norman prelates, Osmund, count of Séez, earl of Dorset,
chancellor of England, and bishop of Salisbury (1078-1099), is credited with
having undertaken the revision of the English service-books; and the missal
which we know as the Sarum Missal, or the Missal according to the Use of
Sarum, practically became the liturgy of the English church. It was not only
received into use in the province of Canterbury, but was largely adopted
beyond those limits—in Ireland in the 12th and in various Scottish dioceses in
the 12th and 13th centuries.

It would be beyond our scope here to give a complete list of the numerous
and frequently minute differences between a medieval Sarum and the earlier
Anglo-Saxon or contemporaneous Roman liturgy. They lie mainly in
differences of collects and lections, variations of ritual on Candlemass, Ash
Wednesday and throughout Holy Week; the introduction into the canon of the
mass of certain clauses and usages of Gallican character or origin; the
wording of rubrics in the subjunctive or imperative tense; the peculiar “Preces
in prostratione”; the procession of Corpus Christi on Palm Sunday; the forms
of ejection and reconciliation of penitents, &c. The varying episcopal
benedictions as used in the Anglo-Saxon church were retained, but the
numerous proper prefaces were discarded, the number being reduced to ten.

Besides the famous and far-spreading Use of Sarum, other Uses, more local
and less known, grew up in various English dioceses. In virtue of a recognized
diocesan independence, bishops were able to regulate or alter their ritual, and
to add special masses or commemorations for use within the limits of their
jurisdiction. The better known and the more distinctive of these Uses were
those of York and Hereford, but we also find traces of or allusions to the Uses
of Bangor, Lichfield, Lincoln, Ripon, St Asaph, St Paul’s, Wells and
Winchester.

Service-books.—The Eucharistie service was contained in the volume
called the Missal (q.v.), as the ordinary choir offices were contained in the
volume known as the Breviary (q.v.). But besides these two volumes there
were a large number of other service-books. Mr W. Maskell has enumerated
and described ninety-one such volumes employed by the Western Church
only. It must be understood, however, that many of these ninety-one names are
synonyms (Mon. Rit. Eccles. Anglic. 1882, vol. i. p. ccxxx.). The list might be
increased, but it will be possible here only to name and briefly describe a few
of the more important of them. (1) The Agenda is the same as the Manual, for
which see below. (2) The Antiphonary contained the antiphons or anthems,
sung at the canonical hours, and certain other minor parts of the service. (3)
The Benedictional contained those triple episcopal benedictions previously
described as used on Sundays and on the chief festivals throughout the year.
(4) The Collectarium contained the collects for the season, together with a few
other parts of the day offices. It was an inchoate breviary. (5) The
Epistolarium contained the epistles, and the Evangelistarium the gospels for
the year. (7) The Gradual contained the introit, gradual, sequences, and the
other portions of the communion service which were sung by the choir at nigh
mass. (8) The Legenda contained the lections which were read at matins and
at other times, and may be taken as a generic term to include the Homiliarium,
Passional and other volumes. (9) The Manual was the name usually employed
in England to denote the Ritual, which contained the baptismal, matrimonial
and other offices which might be performed by the parish priest. (10) The
Pontifical contained the orders of consecration, ordination, and such other
rites as could, ordinarily, only be performed by a bishop. To these we must
add a book which was not strictly a church office book, but a handy book for
the use of the laity, and which was in very popular use and often very highly
embellished from the 14th to the 16th century, the Book of Hours, or Horae
Beatae Mariae Virginis, also known as the Prymer or Primer. It contained
portions of the canonical hours, litanies, the penitential Psalms, and other
devotions of a miscellaneous and private character. Detailed information

about all these and other books is to be found in C. Wordsworth and H.
Littlehales’, The Old Service Books of the English Church.

The Eastern Church too possessed and still possesses numerous and
voluminous service-books, of which the chief are the following: (1) The
Euchologian, containing the liturgy itself with the remaining sacramental
offices bound up in the same volume. (2) The Horologion, containing the
unvarying portion of the Breviary. (3) The Menaea, being equivalent to a
complete Breviary. (4) The Menologion or Martyrology. (5) The Octoechus
and (6) The Paracletice, containing Troparia and answering to the Western
antiphonary. (7) The Pentecostarion, containing the services from Easter Day
to All Saints’ Sunday. (8) The Triodion, containing those from Septuagesima
Sunday to Easter Even. (9) The Typicum is a general book of rubrics
corresponding to the Ordinale or the Pie of Western Christendom.

Period IV. The Reformed Church.—The Anglican liturgy of Reformation
and post-Reformation times is described under the heading of Prayer, Book
of Common, but a brief description may be added here of the liturgies of other
reformed churches.

The Liturgy of the Scottish Episcopal Church.—This liturgy in nearly its
present form was compiled by Scottish bishops in 1636 and imposed—or, to
speak more accurately, attempted to be imposed—upon the Scottish people by
the royal authority of Charles I. in 1637. The prelates chiefly concerned in it
were Spottiswood, bishop of Glasgow; Maxwell, bishop of Ross; Wedderburn,
bishop of Dunblane; and Forbes, bishop of Edinburgh. Their work was
approved and revised by certain members of the English episcopate,
especially Laud, archbishop of Canterbury; Juxon, bishop of London; and
Wren, bishop of Ely. This liturgy has met with varied fortune and has passed
through several editions. The present Scottish office dates from 1764. It is
now used as an alternative form with the English communion office in the
Scottish Episcopal Church.

The general arrangements of its parts approximates more closely to that of
the first book of Edward VI. than to the present Anglican Book of Common
Prayer. Among its noteworthy features are (a) the retention in its integrity and
in its primitive position after the words of institution of the invocation of the
Holy Spirit. That invocation runs thus: “And we most humbly beseech thee, O
merciful Father, to hear us and of thy almighty goodness vouchsafe to bless
and sanctify with thy word and Holy Spirit these thy gifts and creatures of
bread and wine that they may become the body and blood of thy most dearly
beloved Son” (edit. 1764). This kind of petition thus placed is found in the
Eastern but not in the Roman or Anglican liturgies. (b) The reservation of the
sacrament is permitted, by traditional usage, for the purpose of
communicating the absent or the sick. (c) The minimum number of
communicants is fixed at one or two instead of three or four.

For fuller information see Bishop J. Dowden, The Annotated Scottish
Communion Service (Edinburgh, 1884).

American Liturgy.—The Prayer Book of “the Protestant Episcopal Church”
in America was adopted by the general convention of the American church in
1789. It is substantially the same as the English Book of Common Prayer, but
among important variations we may name the following: (a) The arrangement
and wording of the order for Holy Communion rather resembles that of the
Scottish than that of the English liturgy, especially in the position of the
oblation and invocation immediately after the words of institution. (b) The
Magnificat, Nunc dimittis and greater part of Benedictus were disused; but
these were reinstated among the changes made in the Prayer Book in 1892. (c)
Ten selections of Psalms are appointed for use as alternatives for the Psalms
of the day. (d) Gloria in excelsis is allowed as a substitute for Gloria Patri at
the end of the Psalms at morning and evening prayer. In addition to these there
are many more both important and unimportant variations from the English
Book of Common Prayer.

The Irish Prayer Book.—The Prayer Book in use in the Irish portion of the
United Church of England and Ireland was the Anglican Book of Common
Prayer, but after the disestablishment of the Irish church several changes were
introduced into it by a synod held at Dublin in 1870. These changes included
such important points as: (a) the excision of all lessons from the Apocrypha,
(b) of the rubric ordering the recitation of the Athanasian Creed, (c) of the
rubric ordering the vestments of the second year of Edward VI., (d) of the
form of absolution in the office for the visitation of the sick, (e) the addition to
the Catechism of a question and answer bringing out more clearly the spiritual
character of the real presence.

The Presbyterian Church.—The Presbyterian churches of Scotland at
present possess no liturgy properly so called. Certain general rules for the
conduct of divine service are contained in the “Directory for the Public
Worship of God” agreed upon by the assembly of divines at Westminster, with
the assistance of commissioners from the Church of Scotland, approved and
established by an act of the general assembly, and by an act of parliament,
both in 1645. In 1554 John Knox had drawn up an order of liturgy closely
modelled on the Genevan pattern for the use of the English congregation to
which he was then ministering at Frankfort. On his return to Scotland this
form of liturgy was adopted by an act of the general assembly in 1560 and
became the established form of worship in the Presbyterian church until the
year 1645, when the Directory of Public Worship took its place. Herein
regulations are laid down for the conduct of public worship, for the reading of
Scripture and for extempore prayer before and after the sermon, and in the
administration of the sacrament of baptism and the Lord’s Supper, for the
solemnization of marriage, visitation of the sick and burial of the dead, for the
observance of days of public fasting and public thanksgiving, together with a
form of ordination and a directory for family worship. In all these cases,
though the general terms of the prayer are frequently indicated, the wording of
it is left to the discretion of the minister, with these exceptions: At the act of
baptism this formula must be used—“I baptize thee in the name of the Father,

and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost”; and for the Lord’s Supper these forms
are suggested, but with liberty to the minister to use “other the like, used by
Christ or his apostles upon this occasion”—“According to the holy institution,
command, and example of our blessed Saviour, Jesus Christ, I take this bread,
and having given thanks, break it, and give it unto you. Take ye, eat ye; this is
the body of Christ which is broken for you; do this in remembrance of him.”
And again “According to the institution, command and example of our Lord
Jesus Christ, I take this cup and give it unto you; this cup is the New
Testament in the blood of Christ, which is shed for the remission of the sins of
many; drink ye all of it.”

There is also an unvarying form of words directed to be used before the
minister by the man to the woman, and by the woman to the man in the case
of the solemnization of matrimony. The form of words on all other occasions,
including ordination, is left to the discretion of the officiating minister or of
the presbytery.

European Protestant Churches. The Calvinistic Churches.—Rather more of
the liturgical element in the shape of a set form of words enters into the
service of the French and German Calvinistic Protestants. The Sunday
morning service as drawn up by Calvin was to open with a portion of Holy
Scripture and the recitation of the ten commandments. Afterwards the
minister, inviting the people to accompany him, proceeded to a confession of
sins and supplication for grace. Then one of the Psalms of David was sung.
Then came the sermon, prefaced by an extempore prayer and concluding with
the Lord’s Prayer, creed and benediction. The communion service began with
an exhortation leading up to the apostles’ creed; then followed a long
exhortation, after which the bread and wine were distributed to the people,
who advanced in reverence and order, while a Psalm was being sung, or a
suitable passage of Scripture was being read. After all had communicated a set
form of thanksgiving was said by the minister. Then the Song of Simeon was
sung by the congregation, who were then dismissed with the blessing. This

form of service has been modified in various ways from time to time, but it
remains substantially the type of service in use among the reformed
Calvinistic churches of Germany, Switzerland and France.

The Lutheran Church.—Luther was far more conservative than the rest of
the Protestant reformers and his conservatism appeared nowhere more than in
the service-books which he drew up for the use of the church which bears his
name. In 1523 he published a treatise Of the Order of the Service in the
Congregation and in 1526 he published the German Mass. Except that the
vernacular was substituted for the Latin language, the old framework and
order of the Roman missal were closely followed, beginning with the
Confiteor, Introit, Kyrie eleison, still always sung in Greek, Gloria in excelsis,
&c. The text of this and other Lutheran services is given in Agende für
christliche Gemeinden des Lutherischen Bekenntnisses (Nördlingen, 1853). At
the same time Luther was tolerant and expressed a hope that different portions
of the Lutheran church would from time to time make such changes or
adaptations in the order of service as might be found convenient. The
Lutheran churches of northern Europe have not been slow to avail themselves
of this advice and permission. Most of them have drawn up liturgies for
themselves, sometimes following very closely, sometimes differing
considerably from the original service composed by Luther himself. In 1822,
on the union of the Lutheran and Reformed (Calvinistic) churches of Prussia,
a new liturgy was published at Berlin. It is used in its entirety in the chapel
royal, but great liberty as to its use was allowed to the parochical clergy, and
considerable variations of text appear in the more recent editions of this
service-book.

The Church of the New Jerusalem (Swedenborgians) and the Catholic
Apostolic Church (Irvingites) and other Protestant bodies have drawn up
liturgies for themselves, but they are hardly of sufficient historical importance
to be described at length here.

The Old Catholics, lastly, published a Rituale in 1875 containing the
occasional offices for baptism, matrimony, burial, &c., and a form for
reception of Holy Communion, in the German language. This latter is for use
in the otherwise unaltered service of the mass, corresponding in purpose to the
order of Communion in English published the 8th of March 1548 and in use
till Whitsunday 1549. (F. E. W.)

LITUUS, the cavalry trumpet of the Romans, said by Macrobius
(Saturn. lib. vi.) to have resembled the crooked staff borne by the Augurs. The
lituus consisted of a cylindrical tube 4 or 5 ft. long, having a narrow bore, and
terminating in a conical bell joint turned up in such a manner as to give the
instrument the outline of the letter “J.” Unlike the buccina, cornu and tuba, the
other military service instruments of the Romans, the lituus has not been
traced during the middle ages, the medieval instrument most nearly
resembling it being the cromorne or tournebout, which, however, had lateral
holes and was played by means of a reed mouthpiece. A lituus found in a
Roman warrior’s tomb at Cervetri (Etruria) in 1827 is preserved in the
Vatican. Victor Mahillon gives its length as 1 m. 60, and its scale as in unison
with that of the trumpet in G (Catalogue descriptif, 1896, pp. 29-30).
(K. S.)

LIUDPRAND (Liutprand, Luitprand) (c. 922-972), Italian historian
and author, bishop of Cremona, was born towards the beginning of the 10th
century, of a good Lombard family. In 931 he entered the service of King
Hugo of Italy as page; he afterwards rose to a high position at the court of
Hugo’s successor Berengar, having become chancellor, and having been sent
(949) on an embassy to the Byzantine court. Falling into disgrace with
Berengar on his return, he attached himself to the emperor Otto I., whom in
961 he accompanied into Italy, and by whom in 962 he was made bishop of
Cremona. He was frequently employed in missions to the pope, and in 968 to
Constantinople to demand for the younger Otto (afterwards Otto II.) the hand
of Theophano, daughter of the emperor Nicephorus Phocas. His account of
this embassy in the Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana is perhaps the
most graphic and lively piece of writing which has come down to us from the
10th century. The detailed description of Constantinople and the Byzantine
court is a document of rare value—though highly coloured by his ill reception
and offended dignity. Whether he returned in 971 with the embassy to bring
Theophano or not is uncertain. Liudprand died in 972.

He wrote (1) Antapodoseos, seu rerum per Europam gestarum, Libri VI, an
historical narrative, relating to the events from 887 to 949, compiled with the
object of avenging himself upon Berengar and Willa his queen; (2) Historia
Ottonis, a work of greater impartiality and merit, unfortunately covering only
the years from 960 to 964; and (3) the Relatio de Legatione
Constantinopolitana (968-969). All are to be found in the Monum. Germ. Hist.
of Pertz, and in the Rer. Ital. Script. of Muratori; there is an edition by E.

Dümmler (1877), and a partial translation into German, with an introduction
by W. Wattenbach, is given in the second volume of the Geschichtsschreiber
der deutschen Vorzeit (1853). Compare Wattenbach, Deutschlands
Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter. Three other works, entitled Adversaria,
Chronicon, 606-960, and Opusculum de vitis Romanorum pontificum, are
usually, but wrongly, assigned to Liudprand. An English translation of the
embassy to Constantinople is in Ernest Henderson’s Select Documents of the
Middle Ages (Bohn series, 1896). A complete bibliography is in A. Potthast’s
Bibl. Hist. Medii Aevi (Berlin, 1896).

LIVE OAK, a city and the county-seat of Suwannee county, Florida,
U.S.A., 81 m. by rail W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890) 687; (1900) 1659;
(1905) 7200; (1910) 3450. Live Oak is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the
Seaboard Air Line, the Live Oak, Perry & Gulf and the Florida railways.
There are extensive areas of pine lands in the vicinity, and large quantities of
sea-island cotton are produced in the county. Lumber and naval stores are also
important products. The first settlement on the site of the city was made in
1865 by John Parshley, of Massachusetts, who erected a large saw-mill here.
Live Oak was first incorporated as a town in 1874, and in 1903 was chartered
as a city.

LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger. Leber, Swed.
lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora, &c.; the Teut. word has
been connected with Gr. ἧπαρ and Lat. jecur), in anatomy, a large reddish-
brown digestive gland situated in the upper and right part of the abdominal
cavity. When hardened in situ its shape is that of a right-angled, triangular
prism showing five surfaces—superior, anterior, inferior, posterior and right
lateral which represents the base of the prism. It weighs about three pounds or
one-fortieth of the body Weight.

Although the liver is a fairly solid organ, it is plastic, and moulds itself to
even hollow neighbouring viscera rather than they to it. The superior surface
is in contact with the diaphragm, but has peritoneum between (see Coelom
and Serous Membranes). At its posterior margin the peritoneum of the great

sac is reflected on to the diaphragm to form the anterior layer of the coronary
ligament. Near the mid line of the body, and at right angles to the last, another
reflection, the falciform ligament, runs forward, and the line of attachment of
this indicates the junction of the right and left lobes of the liver. The anterior
surface is in contact with the diaphragm and the anterior abdominal wall. The
attachment of the falciform ligament is continued down it. The posterior
surface is more complicated (see fig. 1); starting from the right and working
toward the left, a large triangular area, uncovered by peritoneum and in direct
contact with the diaphragm, is seen. This is bounded on the left by the inferior
vena cava, which is sunk into a deep groove in the liver, and into the upper
part of this the hepatic veins open. Just to the right of this and at the lower part
of the bare area is a triangular depression for the right suprarenal body. To the

left of the vena cava is the Spigelian lobe, which lies in front of the bodies of
the tenth and eleventh thoracic vertebrae, the lesser sac of peritoneum,
diaphragm and thoracic aorta intervening. To the left of this is the fissure for
the ductus venosus, and to the left of this again, the left lobe, in which a broad
shallow groove for the oesophagus may usually be seen. Sometimes the left
lobe stretches as far as the left abdominal wall, but more often it ends below
the apex of the heart, which is 3½ in. to the left of the mid line of the body.
The relations of the lower surface can only be understood if it is realized that
it looks backward and to the left as well as downward (see fig. 1). Again
starting from the right side, two impressions are seen; the anterior one is for
the hepatic flexure of the colon, and the posterior for the upper part of the
right kidney. To the left of the colic impression is a smaller one for the second
part of the duodenum. Next comes the gall bladder, a pear-shaped bag, the
fundus of which is in front and below, the neck behind and above. From the
neck passes the cystic duct, which is often twisted into the form of an S. To
the left of the gall bladder is the quadrate lobe, which is in contact with the
pylorus of the stomach. To the left of this is the left lobe of the liver, separated
from the quadrate lobe by the umbilical fissure in which lies the round
ligament of the liver, the remains of the umbilical vein of the foetus.
Sometimes this fissure is partly turned into a tunnel by a bridge of liver
substance known as the pons hepatis. The under surface of the left lobe is
concave for the interior surface of the stomach (see Alimentary Canal:
Stomach Chamber), while a convexity, known as the tuber omentale, fits into
the lesser curvature of that organ. The posterior boundary of the quadrate lobe
is the transverse fissure, which is little more than an inch long and more than
half an inch wide. This fissure represents the hilum of the liver, and contains
the right and left hepatic ducts and the right and left branches of the hepatic
artery and portal vein, together with nerves and lymphatics, the whole being
enclosed in some condensed subperitoneal tissue known as Glisson’s capsule.
Behind the transverse fissure the lower end of the Spigelian lobe is seen as a
knob called the tuber papillare, and from the right of this a narrow bridge runs