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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Folk Lore Notes. Vol. I—
Gujarat
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
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Title: Folk Lore Notes. Vol. I—Gujarat
Author: A. M. T. Jackson
Editor: R. E. Enthoven
Release date: December 7, 2017 [eBook #56144]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/56144
Credits: Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project
Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously
made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOLK LORE
NOTES. VOL. I—GUJARAT ***
Gujarat
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: Folk Lore Notes. Vol. I—Gujarat
Author: A. M. T. Jackson
Editor: R. E. Enthoven
Release date: December 7, 2017 [eBook #56144]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/56144
Credits: Produced by Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net/ for Project
Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously
made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOLK LORE
NOTES. VOL. I—GUJARAT ***
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FOLKLORE NOTES.
VOL. I GUJARAT.
VOL. I GUJARAT.
Page 5
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FOLK LORE NOTES.
Vol. I—GUJARAT.
COMPILED FROM MATERIALS COLLECTED
BY
the late A. M. T. JACKSON, indian civil service.
R. E. ENTHOVEN, c.i.e., i.c.s.
BRITISH INDIA PRESS, MAZGAON BOMBAY.
1914
Vol. I—GUJARAT.
COMPILED FROM MATERIALS COLLECTED
BY
the late A. M. T. JACKSON, indian civil service.
R. E. ENTHOVEN, c.i.e., i.c.s.
BRITISH INDIA PRESS, MAZGAON BOMBAY.
1914
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INTRODUCTION.
The circumstances attending the murder of Mr. A. M. T. Jackson in Nasik in
December 1909 led to the raising of a small subscription among his friends,
to be devoted to a memorial in some shape or form, showing the respect and
affection with which he was regarded in Western India. A large part of the
fund then raised was expended on the purchase of his valuable library,
which now forms a part of the collection owned by the Bombay Branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society. It was subsequently decided that the balance
could not be better spent than in defraying the cost of publishing certain
folklore materials which he had collected and intended, at the time of his
untimely death, to publish in the pages of the Indian Antiquary. These
materials were the result of an enquiry set on foot by him about the year
1900. His plan of operation was to forward, through the agency of the
Education Department, Crooke’s list of folklore questions to schoolmasters
in various parts of the Presidency. The question paper is given below; the
replies form the raw material from which these notes have been compiled.
For convenience they are divided into two series: Gujarat and the Konkan.
I desire at the outset of these introductory remarks to explain that, when at
the request of the memorial committee I undertook the task of seeing these
notes through the press, I did not contemplate any critical handling of the
materials found in the papers made over to me. I had neither the leisure nor
the knowledge to carry out Mr. Jackson’s intention, i.e., to edit the notes
carefully with such criticisms and comparisons as his ripe scholarship
would have suggested. I make no claim, therefore, to have effected more
than to have rescued from the wastepaper basket a number of replies to
questions regarding the beliefs of the people in Gujarat and the Konkan.
The notes as now presented doubtless contain much that is trivial, and
possibly many inaccuracies; but among them students of folklore may on
the other hand discover material of real value—such as they are, they will, I
trust, repay careful study, and perhaps serve one day to form the basis of a
further and more comprehensive examination of the folk-lore of the
The circumstances attending the murder of Mr. A. M. T. Jackson in Nasik in
December 1909 led to the raising of a small subscription among his friends,
to be devoted to a memorial in some shape or form, showing the respect and
affection with which he was regarded in Western India. A large part of the
fund then raised was expended on the purchase of his valuable library,
which now forms a part of the collection owned by the Bombay Branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society. It was subsequently decided that the balance
could not be better spent than in defraying the cost of publishing certain
folklore materials which he had collected and intended, at the time of his
untimely death, to publish in the pages of the Indian Antiquary. These
materials were the result of an enquiry set on foot by him about the year
1900. His plan of operation was to forward, through the agency of the
Education Department, Crooke’s list of folklore questions to schoolmasters
in various parts of the Presidency. The question paper is given below; the
replies form the raw material from which these notes have been compiled.
For convenience they are divided into two series: Gujarat and the Konkan.
I desire at the outset of these introductory remarks to explain that, when at
the request of the memorial committee I undertook the task of seeing these
notes through the press, I did not contemplate any critical handling of the
materials found in the papers made over to me. I had neither the leisure nor
the knowledge to carry out Mr. Jackson’s intention, i.e., to edit the notes
carefully with such criticisms and comparisons as his ripe scholarship
would have suggested. I make no claim, therefore, to have effected more
than to have rescued from the wastepaper basket a number of replies to
questions regarding the beliefs of the people in Gujarat and the Konkan.
The notes as now presented doubtless contain much that is trivial, and
possibly many inaccuracies; but among them students of folklore may on
the other hand discover material of real value—such as they are, they will, I
trust, repay careful study, and perhaps serve one day to form the basis of a
further and more comprehensive examination of the folk-lore of the
Page 9
Bombay Presidency—an examination which should not be too long
deferred, for the old practices and beliefs are yearly tending to decay and
vanish in contact with the spread of education. The field for enquiry is wide
and rich, but workers fail to come forward; and meanwhile the old beliefs
and practices slowly disappear. On the subjects with which these notes deal,
much information of value has already been collected and recorded by
another oriental scholar, the late Sir James Campbell, K.C.I.E., and will be
found partly in the pages of the Bombay Gazetteer, and partly in the notes
on the Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom which he published from time to
time in the Indian Antiquary. The present notes carry striking confirmation
of Sir James Campbell’s theory regarding the extent to which beliefs and
religious practices in this country can be traced to the desire to propitiate
spirit presences. It may be remarked that Campbell’s work in the domain of
Indian folk-lore does not seem to have received the notice that it deserves in
the works of writers on folk-lore generally, possibly because so much of it
is buried in the pages of the Bombay Gazetteer or in scattered numbers of
the Indian Antiquary. The notes would amply repay the labour of
republication, with a summary and suitable index. They deal very fully with
spirit worship and possession, witchcraft and magic, and the evil eye. They
differ from the present notes in being to a large extent comparative,
assembling under the various heads of ancestor worship, spirit haunts, spirit
possession, exorcism, etc., kindred beliefs from all parts of the world.
Doubtless his work to no small extent suggested to Mr. Jackson the line of
enquiry which is contained in the question paper. From the materials
accumulated by these two scholars a comprehensive study of the folk-lore
of western India may one day be compiled.
The notes illustrate very fully the common beliefs in unseen presences
causing mischief of various kinds. They illustrate the common methods of
protection by propitiation, of spirit and disease scaring, and of avoidance of
the effects of the evil eye. A full list will be found (pp. 126–130) of the
lucky and unlucky omens besetting the undertaking of various acts, and
much information is recorded regarding lucky and unlucky numbers, and
spirit scaring names which has not, so far as I am aware, been made public
before. Ceremonies for exorcising spirits that have possessed human beings
are given in some detail. There will also be found an account of the
deferred, for the old practices and beliefs are yearly tending to decay and
vanish in contact with the spread of education. The field for enquiry is wide
and rich, but workers fail to come forward; and meanwhile the old beliefs
and practices slowly disappear. On the subjects with which these notes deal,
much information of value has already been collected and recorded by
another oriental scholar, the late Sir James Campbell, K.C.I.E., and will be
found partly in the pages of the Bombay Gazetteer, and partly in the notes
on the Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom which he published from time to
time in the Indian Antiquary. The present notes carry striking confirmation
of Sir James Campbell’s theory regarding the extent to which beliefs and
religious practices in this country can be traced to the desire to propitiate
spirit presences. It may be remarked that Campbell’s work in the domain of
Indian folk-lore does not seem to have received the notice that it deserves in
the works of writers on folk-lore generally, possibly because so much of it
is buried in the pages of the Bombay Gazetteer or in scattered numbers of
the Indian Antiquary. The notes would amply repay the labour of
republication, with a summary and suitable index. They deal very fully with
spirit worship and possession, witchcraft and magic, and the evil eye. They
differ from the present notes in being to a large extent comparative,
assembling under the various heads of ancestor worship, spirit haunts, spirit
possession, exorcism, etc., kindred beliefs from all parts of the world.
Doubtless his work to no small extent suggested to Mr. Jackson the line of
enquiry which is contained in the question paper. From the materials
accumulated by these two scholars a comprehensive study of the folk-lore
of western India may one day be compiled.
The notes illustrate very fully the common beliefs in unseen presences
causing mischief of various kinds. They illustrate the common methods of
protection by propitiation, of spirit and disease scaring, and of avoidance of
the effects of the evil eye. A full list will be found (pp. 126–130) of the
lucky and unlucky omens besetting the undertaking of various acts, and
much information is recorded regarding lucky and unlucky numbers, and
spirit scaring names which has not, so far as I am aware, been made public
before. Ceremonies for exorcising spirits that have possessed human beings
are given in some detail. There will also be found an account of the
Page 10
interpretation commonly put on such natural phenomena as the rainbow, an
eclipse, thunder, lightning, meteors, comets, &c.
Many examples are given of the beliefs regarding the means for securing
successful pregnancy. The trees and animals worshipped in the country side
are described, with the ceremony that is held to be suitable in each case. An
unusually interesting belief is that which attributes to a certain lake in
Gujarat the power to transform males into females and vice versa (see p.
39). The curing of diseases by the wearing of magic threads and the
application of mantras or holy verses is also dealt with in some detail.
Finally a list is given of the shrines of the country side with the tradition
regarding the holy man in whose honour and to whose memory they have
been erected. They are for the most part worshipped alike by Hindu and
Musalman.
In conclusion, I would refer once more to the fact that no attempt has been
made to edit critically the information embodied in these notes. In the
scanty leisure available after official demands on my time have been met, it
has only been possible to see the materials through the press as they stood,
after translation. The task has been greatly lightened by the generous
assistance received from R. B. P. B. Joshi who undertook the preparation of
the whole of the MSS. of the Konkan series. I am also greatly indebted to
Mr. G. M. Kalelkar for many arduous hours of work on the compilation of
the Gujarat papers. To both these gentlemen my cordial thanks are due for
their co-operation. If the publication of these materials serve to stimulate
interest in the subject of Indian folk-lore, they will not have been printed in
vain. Such as they are, they will, I trust, remain as a small tribute to the
memory of an oriental scholar, of no mean merit, of whose services India
was deprived in so untimely a manner.
R. E. Enthoven.
eclipse, thunder, lightning, meteors, comets, &c.
Many examples are given of the beliefs regarding the means for securing
successful pregnancy. The trees and animals worshipped in the country side
are described, with the ceremony that is held to be suitable in each case. An
unusually interesting belief is that which attributes to a certain lake in
Gujarat the power to transform males into females and vice versa (see p.
39). The curing of diseases by the wearing of magic threads and the
application of mantras or holy verses is also dealt with in some detail.
Finally a list is given of the shrines of the country side with the tradition
regarding the holy man in whose honour and to whose memory they have
been erected. They are for the most part worshipped alike by Hindu and
Musalman.
In conclusion, I would refer once more to the fact that no attempt has been
made to edit critically the information embodied in these notes. In the
scanty leisure available after official demands on my time have been met, it
has only been possible to see the materials through the press as they stood,
after translation. The task has been greatly lightened by the generous
assistance received from R. B. P. B. Joshi who undertook the preparation of
the whole of the MSS. of the Konkan series. I am also greatly indebted to
Mr. G. M. Kalelkar for many arduous hours of work on the compilation of
the Gujarat papers. To both these gentlemen my cordial thanks are due for
their co-operation. If the publication of these materials serve to stimulate
interest in the subject of Indian folk-lore, they will not have been printed in
vain. Such as they are, they will, I trust, remain as a small tribute to the
memory of an oriental scholar, of no mean merit, of whose services India
was deprived in so untimely a manner.
R. E. Enthoven.
Page 11
QUESTIONS ON FOLKLORE.
By W. CROOKE, Late of the Indian Civil Service.
Author of the Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India.
I. NATURE POWERS.
1. Give any indications of the connection of the worship of the Deota or
minor local deities with the lower races, as, for instance, where the village
deity is served by a priest drawn from the lower castes.
2. Give any current beliefs about sun worship. How and at what periodical
feasts is the worship conducted and what form of ritual is adopted?
3. Give any customs of moving round temples or sacred objects in the
course of the sun in the heavens: cases in which women after childbirth are
exposed to the sun: conception believed to be caused by exposure to the
rays of the sun: the use of the Swastika as an emblem.
4. Give any legends or customs connected with moon worship: the spots on
the surface of the moon: the moon as a healer of disease: the custom of
drinking the moon’s rays: any ceremonies at new or full moon.
5. Give any legends and rites connected with eclipses.
6. Similarly for star worship; superstitions connected with the rainbow; the
milky way.
By W. CROOKE, Late of the Indian Civil Service.
Author of the Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India.
I. NATURE POWERS.
1. Give any indications of the connection of the worship of the Deota or
minor local deities with the lower races, as, for instance, where the village
deity is served by a priest drawn from the lower castes.
2. Give any current beliefs about sun worship. How and at what periodical
feasts is the worship conducted and what form of ritual is adopted?
3. Give any customs of moving round temples or sacred objects in the
course of the sun in the heavens: cases in which women after childbirth are
exposed to the sun: conception believed to be caused by exposure to the
rays of the sun: the use of the Swastika as an emblem.
4. Give any legends or customs connected with moon worship: the spots on
the surface of the moon: the moon as a healer of disease: the custom of
drinking the moon’s rays: any ceremonies at new or full moon.
5. Give any legends and rites connected with eclipses.
6. Similarly for star worship; superstitions connected with the rainbow; the
milky way.
Page 12
7. Rites connected with worship of the earth mother: sacred things not to
fall on earth: occasions when people sleep on the earth.
8. Superstitions connected with thunder and lightning.
9. Popular belief regarding earthquakes.
10. Collect instances of and ritual for worship of sacred rivers; springs;
waterfalls; water spirits and goblins: prejudice against saving drowning
people: ceremonies at digging and dedication of wells: well water as a cure
for disease: instances of sacred lakes: palaces under the water.
11. Instances of sacred mountains and legends connected with them: dread
of climbing mountains.
12. Name any deities supposed to control the weather, and describe the
modes of causing or averting rain, of checking storms and hail.
13. Give instances of any rites in which women alone take part or from
which they are excluded: any rites in which the worshipper must be nude.
14. Are there any sacred stones which are believed to influence the rain?
15. Note any superstitions in connection with aerolites and meteors.
II. THE HEROIC GODLINGS.
16. Describe the ritual and any legends or superstitions connected with the
worship of Hanumān, Bhīmsen, Bhīshma.
17. Name and describe the local deities most generally worshipped in your
neighbourhood. What legends are connected with them; who are their
priests; what offerings and on what occasions are offerings made to them?
fall on earth: occasions when people sleep on the earth.
8. Superstitions connected with thunder and lightning.
9. Popular belief regarding earthquakes.
10. Collect instances of and ritual for worship of sacred rivers; springs;
waterfalls; water spirits and goblins: prejudice against saving drowning
people: ceremonies at digging and dedication of wells: well water as a cure
for disease: instances of sacred lakes: palaces under the water.
11. Instances of sacred mountains and legends connected with them: dread
of climbing mountains.
12. Name any deities supposed to control the weather, and describe the
modes of causing or averting rain, of checking storms and hail.
13. Give instances of any rites in which women alone take part or from
which they are excluded: any rites in which the worshipper must be nude.
14. Are there any sacred stones which are believed to influence the rain?
15. Note any superstitions in connection with aerolites and meteors.
II. THE HEROIC GODLINGS.
16. Describe the ritual and any legends or superstitions connected with the
worship of Hanumān, Bhīmsen, Bhīshma.
17. Name and describe the local deities most generally worshipped in your
neighbourhood. What legends are connected with them; who are their
priests; what offerings and on what occasions are offerings made to them?
Page 13
18. How is the local deity of a new settlement selected and installed?
19. What local deity is considered responsible for crops and cattle? When
and how is he worshipped?
20. Describe the worship of Bhairon or Bhairava, Ganesa, the Matris or
Mothers, the deities of the jungle, those who assist parturition.
III. DISEASE DEITIES.
21. Describe the worship of any deities who are believed to have the power
of averting or causing disease, such as cholera, small pox, fever, etc.
22. Is epidemic disease attributed to witchcraft, and, if so, what precautions
are taken? Give particulars of observances in connection with cattle disease.
23. What methods are in vogue for the exorcism of disease? Give examples
of any rural charms used for this purpose.
24. Is dancing used in exorcism? If so, give instances of religious dances.
25. What are the position and functions of the village sorcerer and how is he
appointed?
26. Give examples of the offering of rags, coins, etc., at sacred trees, wells,
etc.
27. Give any methods of transferring disease to another person.
28. Give instances of the use of scapegoats.
19. What local deity is considered responsible for crops and cattle? When
and how is he worshipped?
20. Describe the worship of Bhairon or Bhairava, Ganesa, the Matris or
Mothers, the deities of the jungle, those who assist parturition.
III. DISEASE DEITIES.
21. Describe the worship of any deities who are believed to have the power
of averting or causing disease, such as cholera, small pox, fever, etc.
22. Is epidemic disease attributed to witchcraft, and, if so, what precautions
are taken? Give particulars of observances in connection with cattle disease.
23. What methods are in vogue for the exorcism of disease? Give examples
of any rural charms used for this purpose.
24. Is dancing used in exorcism? If so, give instances of religious dances.
25. What are the position and functions of the village sorcerer and how is he
appointed?
26. Give examples of the offering of rags, coins, etc., at sacred trees, wells,
etc.
27. Give any methods of transferring disease to another person.
28. Give instances of the use of scapegoats.
Page 14
IV. THE WORSHIP OF ANCESTORS AND SAINTS.
29. Give instances of worship of ancestors: the belief that spirits are mortal
and that the spirits of the dead are re-born in children.
30. Give instances of miracle-working tombs, and of saints who have been
deified in modern times.
31. Give instances of Muhammadan saints whose worship has been adopted
by Hindus.
32. Give the rural methods in vogue for the cure of barrenness.
V. THE WORSHIP OF THE MALEVOLENT DEAD.
33. What are the current beliefs as to the cause of dreams and the omens
derived from them?
34. Is it considered possible for the soul to leave the body temporarily? If
so, give instances.
35. What is the popular conception of the character and functions of the
Bhut or disembodied soul?
36. What beliefs are current as to the state of the soul after death; the path to
the other world: the condition of souls in the other world: the possibility of
the soul returning thence?
37. What belief is current as to the souls of those dying by a sudden or
violent death?
38. What are believed to be the appearance and habits of the Bhut?
39. In what way do spirits enter or leave the body?
29. Give instances of worship of ancestors: the belief that spirits are mortal
and that the spirits of the dead are re-born in children.
30. Give instances of miracle-working tombs, and of saints who have been
deified in modern times.
31. Give instances of Muhammadan saints whose worship has been adopted
by Hindus.
32. Give the rural methods in vogue for the cure of barrenness.
V. THE WORSHIP OF THE MALEVOLENT DEAD.
33. What are the current beliefs as to the cause of dreams and the omens
derived from them?
34. Is it considered possible for the soul to leave the body temporarily? If
so, give instances.
35. What is the popular conception of the character and functions of the
Bhut or disembodied soul?
36. What beliefs are current as to the state of the soul after death; the path to
the other world: the condition of souls in the other world: the possibility of
the soul returning thence?
37. What belief is current as to the souls of those dying by a sudden or
violent death?
38. What are believed to be the appearance and habits of the Bhut?
39. In what way do spirits enter or leave the body?
Page 15
40. What is the current theory regarding sneezing and yawning?
41. What is known of the Rakshasa or malevolent demon?
42. Name and describe any other varieties of malignant spirits.
43. Do any evil spirits go about headless?
44. What special evil spirits infest burial or cremation grounds, and what
are the other haunts of such spirits?
45. Does any special class of evil spirit infest mountains, jungles, trees?
46. What fiends attack the young mother and her child?
47. What belief prevails as to the spirits of those killed by tigers or other
wild beasts?
48. What form does the ghost of a woman dying at childbirth or during her
menses assume?
49. Is there any belief that the father has to take special precautions at the
birth of his child?
50. Is there any belief in a connection of the bat or owl with spirits of the
dead?
51. Describe the evil spirits which haunt ruins and guard buried treasure: or
occupy caves and mines.
VI. THE EVIL EYE AND THE SCARING OF GHOSTS.
52. Describe the belief in the Evil eye and the modes of evading it.
41. What is known of the Rakshasa or malevolent demon?
42. Name and describe any other varieties of malignant spirits.
43. Do any evil spirits go about headless?
44. What special evil spirits infest burial or cremation grounds, and what
are the other haunts of such spirits?
45. Does any special class of evil spirit infest mountains, jungles, trees?
46. What fiends attack the young mother and her child?
47. What belief prevails as to the spirits of those killed by tigers or other
wild beasts?
48. What form does the ghost of a woman dying at childbirth or during her
menses assume?
49. Is there any belief that the father has to take special precautions at the
birth of his child?
50. Is there any belief in a connection of the bat or owl with spirits of the
dead?
51. Describe the evil spirits which haunt ruins and guard buried treasure: or
occupy caves and mines.
VI. THE EVIL EYE AND THE SCARING OF GHOSTS.
52. Describe the belief in the Evil eye and the modes of evading it.
Page 16
53. Does the belief in giving opprobrious names to children prevail, and if
so, how is it accounted for?
54. Can you give instances of change of sex?
55. Illustrate the value of the following protection against evil spirits—iron
and other metals: coral and shells: precious stones: blood: incense: spittle:
salt: water: grain: colours: grasses: tattooing: leather: garlic: glass.
56. Describe the amulets generally used.
57. Illustrate the sacred circle as a protective.
58. Illustrate the belief in omens, numbers, lucky and unlucky days.
59. What means are adopted to help the spirit to the other world, to prevent
it from returning and to secure its good-will to the survivors?
60. Illustrate the prevalence of earth burial and cremation: the customs of
shaving the hair: placing food or other articles for the use of the dead.
61. Does the spirit reappear in the form of insects and animals?
62. Are the earthen vessels of the household broken at death: if so, why?
Describe rites connected with mourning.
63. What spirits are benevolent?
64. Illustrate the belief in tree spirits.
65. What spirits are special protectors of crops and cattle?
66. What spirits are invoked to frighten children?
VII. TREE AND SERPENT WORSHIP.
so, how is it accounted for?
54. Can you give instances of change of sex?
55. Illustrate the value of the following protection against evil spirits—iron
and other metals: coral and shells: precious stones: blood: incense: spittle:
salt: water: grain: colours: grasses: tattooing: leather: garlic: glass.
56. Describe the amulets generally used.
57. Illustrate the sacred circle as a protective.
58. Illustrate the belief in omens, numbers, lucky and unlucky days.
59. What means are adopted to help the spirit to the other world, to prevent
it from returning and to secure its good-will to the survivors?
60. Illustrate the prevalence of earth burial and cremation: the customs of
shaving the hair: placing food or other articles for the use of the dead.
61. Does the spirit reappear in the form of insects and animals?
62. Are the earthen vessels of the household broken at death: if so, why?
Describe rites connected with mourning.
63. What spirits are benevolent?
64. Illustrate the belief in tree spirits.
65. What spirits are special protectors of crops and cattle?
66. What spirits are invoked to frighten children?
VII. TREE AND SERPENT WORSHIP.
Page 17
67. Name any sacred groves in your neighbourhood and describe any
prejudice against cutting trees.
68. Are any trees specially connected with any local deity or saint?
69. Name any trees which receive particular respect or devotion and note
any legends or superstitions in connection with them.
70. Does the custom of marrying a bride or bridegroom to a tree prevail?
Any instances of marriage to a god: religious prostitution.
71. Give instances of snake worship and shrines of serpent deities: of
deified snake heroes.
72. Does the belief prevail that snakes guard treasure? Give details.
73. What snake festivals are observed? Describe the ritual.
74. What is the village treatment of snake-bite?
75. The snake has a jewel in his head: he is connected with the rainbow: he
has a palace under the water: he weds mortal girls: he protects the
household—illustrate these beliefs.
VIII. TOTEMISM AND FETISHISM.
76. Can you quote any beliefs which are suggestive of Totemism? Are any
clans named after or do they claim descent from animals or plants? What
animals are treated with special respect by particular tribes? Do special
castes refuse to eat any special food?
77. Are any local deities specially associated with animal worship?
prejudice against cutting trees.
68. Are any trees specially connected with any local deity or saint?
69. Name any trees which receive particular respect or devotion and note
any legends or superstitions in connection with them.
70. Does the custom of marrying a bride or bridegroom to a tree prevail?
Any instances of marriage to a god: religious prostitution.
71. Give instances of snake worship and shrines of serpent deities: of
deified snake heroes.
72. Does the belief prevail that snakes guard treasure? Give details.
73. What snake festivals are observed? Describe the ritual.
74. What is the village treatment of snake-bite?
75. The snake has a jewel in his head: he is connected with the rainbow: he
has a palace under the water: he weds mortal girls: he protects the
household—illustrate these beliefs.
VIII. TOTEMISM AND FETISHISM.
76. Can you quote any beliefs which are suggestive of Totemism? Are any
clans named after or do they claim descent from animals or plants? What
animals are treated with special respect by particular tribes? Do special
castes refuse to eat any special food?
77. Are any local deities specially associated with animal worship?
Page 18
78. Illustrate the worship of stocks and stones. Is any respect shown to
perforated stones?
79. Are there any modern survivals of human sacrifice?
80. Are fetish stones supposed to cure disease or to be the abode of spirits?
81. Are any fetishes peculiar to particular families or castes?
82. Is special respect shown to the corn sieve, the winnowing basket, the
broom, the rice pounder, the plough?
83. Give instances of fire worship. Is the sacred fire maintained in any
shrine? Is fire made by friction for special rites?
IX. ANIMAL WORSHIP.
84. Illustrate from local examples the worship or respect paid to the horse,
ass, lion, tiger, dog, goat, cow, buffalo, antelope, elephant, cat, rat and
mouse, squirrel, bear, jackal, hare, crow, fowl, dove and pigeon, swan, and
other birds, alligators, fish and insects, and give any legend or superstition
in connection with them.
X. WITCHCRAFT.
85. How far does the belief in witches and their powers prevail? Do they
appear as animals and have they special haunts and seasons?
86. What ordeals are used to test a witch and what means to guard against
her witchcraft?
perforated stones?
79. Are there any modern survivals of human sacrifice?
80. Are fetish stones supposed to cure disease or to be the abode of spirits?
81. Are any fetishes peculiar to particular families or castes?
82. Is special respect shown to the corn sieve, the winnowing basket, the
broom, the rice pounder, the plough?
83. Give instances of fire worship. Is the sacred fire maintained in any
shrine? Is fire made by friction for special rites?
IX. ANIMAL WORSHIP.
84. Illustrate from local examples the worship or respect paid to the horse,
ass, lion, tiger, dog, goat, cow, buffalo, antelope, elephant, cat, rat and
mouse, squirrel, bear, jackal, hare, crow, fowl, dove and pigeon, swan, and
other birds, alligators, fish and insects, and give any legend or superstition
in connection with them.
X. WITCHCRAFT.
85. How far does the belief in witches and their powers prevail? Do they
appear as animals and have they special haunts and seasons?
86. What ordeals are used to test a witch and what means to guard against
her witchcraft?
Page 19
XI. GENERAL.
87. Describe the rural ceremonies in connection with ploughing, sowing the
various crops, reaping and harvesting.
88. Rites intended for the protection of cattle; to ensure sunshine and
favourable weather: to scare noxious animals or insects: to protect special
crops: illustrate these from local custom.
89. Are there any rites in which secrecy and silence are essential?
90. Describe the observances at the Holi.
91. Give details of any rites performed when boys or girls attain puberty.
87. Describe the rural ceremonies in connection with ploughing, sowing the
various crops, reaping and harvesting.
88. Rites intended for the protection of cattle; to ensure sunshine and
favourable weather: to scare noxious animals or insects: to protect special
crops: illustrate these from local custom.
89. Are there any rites in which secrecy and silence are essential?
90. Describe the observances at the Holi.
91. Give details of any rites performed when boys or girls attain puberty.
Page 20
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
Nature Powers. Page.
Worship of minor local deities. Sun-worship. Circumambulation round images
and other sacred objects. Exposure of women to the Sun after child-birth. The
Swastika. Moon-worship. Eclipses. Worship of planets and stars. The rainbow.
The milky way. Worship of the earth. Thunder and lightning. Earthquakes.
Worship of sacred rivers, springs and pools. Water spirits and goblins.
Ceremonies at digging of wells. Well water as a cure for disease. Sacred Lakes.
Palaces under the water. Sacred mountains. Deities who control the weather.
Methods of causing or averting rain and of checking storms. Vratas or religious
vows practised only by women. Rites in which women are excluded. Rites in
which the worshipper must be nude. Superstitions in connection with aerolites
and meteors. 1
CHAPTER II.
The Heroic Godlings.
The worship of Hanumān, Bhimsen and Bhishma. Local deities. Installation of
deities in new settlements. Deities responsible for crops and cattle. The worship
of Bhairow, Ganesh, Mātrikās or mothers, the deities of the jungle and the deities
who preside over childbirth. 54
CHAPTER III.
Disease Deities.
Deities who can cause or avert diseases such as cholera, small pox, fever, etc.
Causes of the outbreak of cholera. Remedies adopted to stop cholera. Causes of
the outbreak of small pox. Remedies adopted for the cure of small pox. Causes
CHAPTER I.
Nature Powers. Page.
Worship of minor local deities. Sun-worship. Circumambulation round images
and other sacred objects. Exposure of women to the Sun after child-birth. The
Swastika. Moon-worship. Eclipses. Worship of planets and stars. The rainbow.
The milky way. Worship of the earth. Thunder and lightning. Earthquakes.
Worship of sacred rivers, springs and pools. Water spirits and goblins.
Ceremonies at digging of wells. Well water as a cure for disease. Sacred Lakes.
Palaces under the water. Sacred mountains. Deities who control the weather.
Methods of causing or averting rain and of checking storms. Vratas or religious
vows practised only by women. Rites in which women are excluded. Rites in
which the worshipper must be nude. Superstitions in connection with aerolites
and meteors. 1
CHAPTER II.
The Heroic Godlings.
The worship of Hanumān, Bhimsen and Bhishma. Local deities. Installation of
deities in new settlements. Deities responsible for crops and cattle. The worship
of Bhairow, Ganesh, Mātrikās or mothers, the deities of the jungle and the deities
who preside over childbirth. 54
CHAPTER III.
Disease Deities.
Deities who can cause or avert diseases such as cholera, small pox, fever, etc.
Causes of the outbreak of cholera. Remedies adopted to stop cholera. Causes of
the outbreak of small pox. Remedies adopted for the cure of small pox. Causes
Page 21
of fever. Remedies adopted in cases of fever. Cattle diseases. Remedies practised
by the village people in connection with them. The methods for the exorcism of
disease. Methods of expelling evil spirits from the body. The village sorcerer.
Offerings of rags, coins, etc. at sacred trees and wells. The transferring of disease
from one person to another. Scapegoats. 74
CHAPTER IV.
The worship of ancestors and saints.
Shrāddhas and other ceremonies performed for the propitiation and
emancipation of the deceased. Worship of the founders of religious sects, of
saints, etc. Ghosts. The length of their life. Rebirth of ancestors in the same
family. Miracle-working tombs. Muhammadan saints whose worship has been
adopted by Hindus. Rural methods for the cure of barrenness. 89
CHAPTER V.
The worship of the malevolent dead.
Popular notions about dreams. Auspicious and inauspicious dreams. Temporary
abandonment of the body by the soul. Character and functions of the bhut or
disembodied soul. The state of the soul after death. The rebirth of the soul. The
souls of persons dying a sudden or violent death. The ways by which ghosts
enter and leave the body. Methods of driving away evil spirits from the body.
Beliefs regarding sneezing and yawning. Rākshasa or the malevolent demon.
Mahārākshasas. Other malignant spirits. Evil spirits which go about headless.
The haunts of evil spirits. Ghosts of women dying an unnatural death. Spirits of
persons killed by tigers and other wild beasts. Ghosts of women dying in child-
bed or menses. Precautions taken by parents at the birth of children. Beliefs in
connection with bats and owls. Spirits which haunt ruins, guard buried treasure
and occupy valleys. 102
CHAPTER VI.
The evil eye and the scaring of ghosts.
Effects of the evil eye. Objects liable to be influenced by the evil eye.
Precautions taken to evade the influence of the evil eye. Opprobrious names.
by the village people in connection with them. The methods for the exorcism of
disease. Methods of expelling evil spirits from the body. The village sorcerer.
Offerings of rags, coins, etc. at sacred trees and wells. The transferring of disease
from one person to another. Scapegoats. 74
CHAPTER IV.
The worship of ancestors and saints.
Shrāddhas and other ceremonies performed for the propitiation and
emancipation of the deceased. Worship of the founders of religious sects, of
saints, etc. Ghosts. The length of their life. Rebirth of ancestors in the same
family. Miracle-working tombs. Muhammadan saints whose worship has been
adopted by Hindus. Rural methods for the cure of barrenness. 89
CHAPTER V.
The worship of the malevolent dead.
Popular notions about dreams. Auspicious and inauspicious dreams. Temporary
abandonment of the body by the soul. Character and functions of the bhut or
disembodied soul. The state of the soul after death. The rebirth of the soul. The
souls of persons dying a sudden or violent death. The ways by which ghosts
enter and leave the body. Methods of driving away evil spirits from the body.
Beliefs regarding sneezing and yawning. Rākshasa or the malevolent demon.
Mahārākshasas. Other malignant spirits. Evil spirits which go about headless.
The haunts of evil spirits. Ghosts of women dying an unnatural death. Spirits of
persons killed by tigers and other wild beasts. Ghosts of women dying in child-
bed or menses. Precautions taken by parents at the birth of children. Beliefs in
connection with bats and owls. Spirits which haunt ruins, guard buried treasure
and occupy valleys. 102
CHAPTER VI.
The evil eye and the scaring of ghosts.
Effects of the evil eye. Objects liable to be influenced by the evil eye.
Precautions taken to evade the influence of the evil eye. Opprobrious names.
Page 22
Change of sex. Protection against evil spirits. Amulets. Charmed circles. Omens.
Numbers. Lucky and unlucky days. Rites performed to help the soul to the other
world. Cremation and burial. The customs of shaving the hair. Offerings of food
to the dead. Manifestation of evil spirits in form. The practice of breaking
earthen vessels at death. Rites connected with mourning. Benevolent spirits.
Spirits which haunt trees. The guardian spirits of crops and cattle. Spirits
invoked to frighten children. 120
CHAPTER VII.
Tree and Serpent worship.
Trees connected with deities and saints. Legends and superstitions connected
with them. Marriage of brides and bridegrooms to trees. Snake worship. Shrines
of snake deities. Deified snakes. Snakes guarding treasure. The village treatment
of snake-bite. The jewel in the head of the snake. Its connection with the
rainbow. Weddings of snakes with human beings. Guardian snakes. 136
CHAPTER VIII.
Totemism and Fetishism.
Names derived from animals. Names derived from plants. Clan names derived
from trees and animals. Sacred animals. Deities associated with animal worship.
Worship of stocks and stones. Survivals of human sacrifice. Disease-curing
stones. Respect shown to corn sieves, corn pounders, the broom and the plough.
Fire worship. 144
CHAPTER IX.
Animal worship.
Sacred animals and the legends and superstitions connected with them. 150
CHAPTER X.
Witchcraft.
Numbers. Lucky and unlucky days. Rites performed to help the soul to the other
world. Cremation and burial. The customs of shaving the hair. Offerings of food
to the dead. Manifestation of evil spirits in form. The practice of breaking
earthen vessels at death. Rites connected with mourning. Benevolent spirits.
Spirits which haunt trees. The guardian spirits of crops and cattle. Spirits
invoked to frighten children. 120
CHAPTER VII.
Tree and Serpent worship.
Trees connected with deities and saints. Legends and superstitions connected
with them. Marriage of brides and bridegrooms to trees. Snake worship. Shrines
of snake deities. Deified snakes. Snakes guarding treasure. The village treatment
of snake-bite. The jewel in the head of the snake. Its connection with the
rainbow. Weddings of snakes with human beings. Guardian snakes. 136
CHAPTER VIII.
Totemism and Fetishism.
Names derived from animals. Names derived from plants. Clan names derived
from trees and animals. Sacred animals. Deities associated with animal worship.
Worship of stocks and stones. Survivals of human sacrifice. Disease-curing
stones. Respect shown to corn sieves, corn pounders, the broom and the plough.
Fire worship. 144
CHAPTER IX.
Animal worship.
Sacred animals and the legends and superstitions connected with them. 150
CHAPTER X.
Witchcraft.
Page 23
Human and ghost by Dākans or witches. 152
CHAPTER XI.
General.
Rural ceremonies connected with agricultural operations. Rites performed for the
protection of cattle. Rites performed for scaring noxious animals and insects.
Rites performed for ensuring sunshine and favourable weather. Rites performed
for the protection of crops. Rites in which secrecy and silence are observed. The
observances at the Holi festival. Rites performed when girls attain puberty.
153
CHAPTER XI.
General.
Rural ceremonies connected with agricultural operations. Rites performed for the
protection of cattle. Rites performed for scaring noxious animals and insects.
Rites performed for ensuring sunshine and favourable weather. Rites performed
for the protection of crops. Rites in which secrecy and silence are observed. The
observances at the Holi festival. Rites performed when girls attain puberty.
153
Page 24
Page 25
THE FOLKLORE OF GUJARAT
Page 26
NATURE POWERS
Page 27
CHAPTER I
Besides the higher-grade deities, whose worship is enjoined and treated of
in the Shāstras and Purānas, numerous other minor deities, none of whom
however find a place in the Scriptures, are worshipped by the lower classes.
The principle underlying the whole fabric of the worship of these minor
deities, who for the most part are the spirits of dead ancestors or heroes, has
more in it of fear for their power of harming than of love for their divine
nature. All untoward occurrences in domestic affairs, all bodily ailments
and unusual natural phenomena, inexplicable to the simple mind of the
villager, are attributed to the malignant action of these nameless and
numerous spirits, hovering over and haunting the habitations of men.1 The
latent dread of receiving injuries from these evil spirits results in the
worship by the low-class people of a number of devas and mātās, as they
are called. The poor villager, surrounded on all sides by hosts of hovering
spirits, ready to take offence, or even to possess him, on the smallest
pretext, requires some tangible protector to save him from such malign
influences.1 He sets up and enshrines the spirit that he believes to have been
beneficent to him, and so deserving of worship, and makes vows in its
honour, often becoming himself the officiating priest. Each such deity has
its own particular thānak (sthāna) or locality. Thus there is hardly a village
which has not a particular deity of its own. But in addition to this deity,
others in far off villages are generally held in high esteem.1
There are a number of ways in which these lower-class deities can be
installed. Their images are made either of wood, stone, or metal.2 No
temples or shrines are erected in their honour.3 An ordinary way of
representing them is by drawing a trident, (trishūl, a weapon peculiar to god
Shiva) in red-lead and oil on an upright slab of stone on a public road, on
any dead wall, on the confines of a village, or a mountain side, or a hill top,
in an underground cellar, or on the bank of a stream.4 Some people paint
tridents in their own houses. The trishūl, or trident, may also be made of
wood, in which case its three points are plastered with red-lead and oil and
Besides the higher-grade deities, whose worship is enjoined and treated of
in the Shāstras and Purānas, numerous other minor deities, none of whom
however find a place in the Scriptures, are worshipped by the lower classes.
The principle underlying the whole fabric of the worship of these minor
deities, who for the most part are the spirits of dead ancestors or heroes, has
more in it of fear for their power of harming than of love for their divine
nature. All untoward occurrences in domestic affairs, all bodily ailments
and unusual natural phenomena, inexplicable to the simple mind of the
villager, are attributed to the malignant action of these nameless and
numerous spirits, hovering over and haunting the habitations of men.1 The
latent dread of receiving injuries from these evil spirits results in the
worship by the low-class people of a number of devas and mātās, as they
are called. The poor villager, surrounded on all sides by hosts of hovering
spirits, ready to take offence, or even to possess him, on the smallest
pretext, requires some tangible protector to save him from such malign
influences.1 He sets up and enshrines the spirit that he believes to have been
beneficent to him, and so deserving of worship, and makes vows in its
honour, often becoming himself the officiating priest. Each such deity has
its own particular thānak (sthāna) or locality. Thus there is hardly a village
which has not a particular deity of its own. But in addition to this deity,
others in far off villages are generally held in high esteem.1
There are a number of ways in which these lower-class deities can be
installed. Their images are made either of wood, stone, or metal.2 No
temples or shrines are erected in their honour.3 An ordinary way of
representing them is by drawing a trident, (trishūl, a weapon peculiar to god
Shiva) in red-lead and oil on an upright slab of stone on a public road, on
any dead wall, on the confines of a village, or a mountain side, or a hill top,
in an underground cellar, or on the bank of a stream.4 Some people paint
tridents in their own houses. The trishūl, or trident, may also be made of
wood, in which case its three points are plastered with red-lead and oil and
Page 28
covered with a thin coating of tin.5 Sometimes carved wooden images in
human shape, daubed over with red-lead and oil, are placed in a small
wooden chariot or in a recess about a foot square. In some shrines two
brooms or whisks of peacock’s feathers are placed on either side of the
image.6 A slight difficulty overcome or a disease remedied by a vow in
honour of any of these deities offers the occasion for an installation, and in
all future emergencies of the same kind similar vows are observed. A mātā
installed to protect a fortress or a street is called a Gadheri Mātā, and the
worshippers of a fortress, or street, mother are known as Pothias.7 At the
time of installation flags are hoisted near the dedicated places. A troop of
dancers with jingling anklets recite holy verses, while the bhuva, exorcist-
priest, performs the ceremonies. Generally installations are frequent during
the Navarātra8 holidays when, if no human-shaped image is set up, a trishūl
at least is drawn in red-lead and oil.9 Some of these evil deities require, at
the time of their installation, the balidān (sacrifice or oblation) of a goat or
a he-buffalo. Also, when a spirit is to be exorcised, the symbol of the
familiar spirit of the exorcist is set up and invoked by him.9 After the
installation, no systematic form of worship is followed in connection with
them.10 Regular forms are prescribed for the real gods of the Purānas. But
upon these the low-caste people are not authorised to attend.
Still, in practice there are two forms of worship: ordinary or sāmānya-pūjā
and special or vishesha-pūjā.11 Ordinary worship is performed by bathing
the deity—which can be done by sprinkling a few drops of water over it—
burning a ghi, or an oil, lamp before it, and by offering a cocoanut and a
pice or a half-anna piece. The last is taken away by the bhuva, or priest,
who returns generally half or three-quarters of the cocoanut as a prasād of
the god.
There are no particular days prescribed for such worship, but Sundays and
Tuesdays would seem to be the most favoured.12 On such days, offerings
are made for the fulfilment of a vow recorded in order to avoid a bādhā, or
impending evil. In the observance of this vow the devotee abstains from
certain things, such as ghi, butter, milk, rice, juvar, betelnut till the period of
the vow expires. When a vow is thus discharged, the devotee offers flowers,
human shape, daubed over with red-lead and oil, are placed in a small
wooden chariot or in a recess about a foot square. In some shrines two
brooms or whisks of peacock’s feathers are placed on either side of the
image.6 A slight difficulty overcome or a disease remedied by a vow in
honour of any of these deities offers the occasion for an installation, and in
all future emergencies of the same kind similar vows are observed. A mātā
installed to protect a fortress or a street is called a Gadheri Mātā, and the
worshippers of a fortress, or street, mother are known as Pothias.7 At the
time of installation flags are hoisted near the dedicated places. A troop of
dancers with jingling anklets recite holy verses, while the bhuva, exorcist-
priest, performs the ceremonies. Generally installations are frequent during
the Navarātra8 holidays when, if no human-shaped image is set up, a trishūl
at least is drawn in red-lead and oil.9 Some of these evil deities require, at
the time of their installation, the balidān (sacrifice or oblation) of a goat or
a he-buffalo. Also, when a spirit is to be exorcised, the symbol of the
familiar spirit of the exorcist is set up and invoked by him.9 After the
installation, no systematic form of worship is followed in connection with
them.10 Regular forms are prescribed for the real gods of the Purānas. But
upon these the low-caste people are not authorised to attend.
Still, in practice there are two forms of worship: ordinary or sāmānya-pūjā
and special or vishesha-pūjā.11 Ordinary worship is performed by bathing
the deity—which can be done by sprinkling a few drops of water over it—
burning a ghi, or an oil, lamp before it, and by offering a cocoanut and a
pice or a half-anna piece. The last is taken away by the bhuva, or priest,
who returns generally half or three-quarters of the cocoanut as a prasād of
the god.
There are no particular days prescribed for such worship, but Sundays and
Tuesdays would seem to be the most favoured.12 On such days, offerings
are made for the fulfilment of a vow recorded in order to avoid a bādhā, or
impending evil. In the observance of this vow the devotee abstains from
certain things, such as ghi, butter, milk, rice, juvar, betelnut till the period of
the vow expires. When a vow is thus discharged, the devotee offers flowers,
Page 29
garlands, incense, food or drink according to the terms of his vow.12 The
dhūpa, i.e., burning incense of gūgal (balsamodendron) is one of the
commonest methods of worship.
The days for special worship are the Navarātra holidays, the second day of
the bright half of Āshādh, the ninth month of the Hindu Calendar,13
Divāsā14 or the fifteenth day of the dark half of Āshādh, and Kālī-chaudas15
or the fourteenth day of the dark half of Āshvin, the last month; besides
other extraordinary occasions when a spirit has to be exorcised out of a sick
person.
The Navarātra days are said to be the most auspicious days for devī-
worship. People believing in the power of the mātās observe fast on these
days. Most of them at least fast on the eighth day of the Navarātra known as
Mātā-ashtamī, taking only a light meal which consists of roots, as a rule,
especially the suran (Amorphophallus campanulatus), and of dates and
milk.16 On the Navarātra days red-lead and oil are applied to the images of
the devis, and a number of oblations, such as loaves, cooked rice, lāpsi17,
vadān18 and bāklā19 are offered.20 The utmost ceremonial cleanliness is
observed in the preparation of these viands. The corn is sifted, cleaned,
ground or pounded, cooked, treated with frankincense, offered to the gods
and lastly partaken of before sunset, and all these operations must be
performed on the same day; for the offerings must not see lamp-light.21
Girls are not allowed to partake of these offerings. All ceremonies should be
conducted with much earnestness and reverence; otherwise the offerings
will fail to prove acceptable to the mātās or devis.21
On Mātā-ashtamī and Kālī-chaudas devotees sometimes offer rams, goats or
buffaloes as victims to the devis or devas in addition to the usual offerings
of lāpsi, vadān and bāklā.21 The night of Kālī-chaudas is believed to be so
favourable for the efficacious recitation (sādhana) of certain mantras,
mysterious incantations possessing sway over spirits, that bhuvas
(exorcists) leave the village and sit up performing certain rites in
cemeteries, on burning-ghats, and in other equally suitable places where
spirits are supposed to congregate.22
dhūpa, i.e., burning incense of gūgal (balsamodendron) is one of the
commonest methods of worship.
The days for special worship are the Navarātra holidays, the second day of
the bright half of Āshādh, the ninth month of the Hindu Calendar,13
Divāsā14 or the fifteenth day of the dark half of Āshādh, and Kālī-chaudas15
or the fourteenth day of the dark half of Āshvin, the last month; besides
other extraordinary occasions when a spirit has to be exorcised out of a sick
person.
The Navarātra days are said to be the most auspicious days for devī-
worship. People believing in the power of the mātās observe fast on these
days. Most of them at least fast on the eighth day of the Navarātra known as
Mātā-ashtamī, taking only a light meal which consists of roots, as a rule,
especially the suran (Amorphophallus campanulatus), and of dates and
milk.16 On the Navarātra days red-lead and oil are applied to the images of
the devis, and a number of oblations, such as loaves, cooked rice, lāpsi17,
vadān18 and bāklā19 are offered.20 The utmost ceremonial cleanliness is
observed in the preparation of these viands. The corn is sifted, cleaned,
ground or pounded, cooked, treated with frankincense, offered to the gods
and lastly partaken of before sunset, and all these operations must be
performed on the same day; for the offerings must not see lamp-light.21
Girls are not allowed to partake of these offerings. All ceremonies should be
conducted with much earnestness and reverence; otherwise the offerings
will fail to prove acceptable to the mātās or devis.21
On Mātā-ashtamī and Kālī-chaudas devotees sometimes offer rams, goats or
buffaloes as victims to the devis or devas in addition to the usual offerings
of lāpsi, vadān and bāklā.21 The night of Kālī-chaudas is believed to be so
favourable for the efficacious recitation (sādhana) of certain mantras,
mysterious incantations possessing sway over spirits, that bhuvas
(exorcists) leave the village and sit up performing certain rites in
cemeteries, on burning-ghats, and in other equally suitable places where
spirits are supposed to congregate.22
Page 30
On Divāsā, the last day of Āshādh, the ninth month, low-caste people bathe
their gods with water and milk, besmear them with red-lead and oil, and
make offerings of cocoanuts, lāpsi, bāklā of adād (Phaseoleus radiatus) or
kansār23. Particular offerings are believed to be favoured by particular
deities: for instance, khichdo (rice and pulse boiled together) and oil, or
tavo (flat unleavened loaves) are favoured by the goddess Meldi, boiled rice
by Shikotar and lāpsi by the goddess Gātrād.24
On these holidays, as well as on the second day of the bright half of Āshādh
the devotees hoist flags in honour of the spirits, and play on certain musical
instruments producing discordant sounds. Meanwhile bhuvas, believed to
be interpreters of the wills of evil spirits, undergo self-torture, with the firm
conviction that the spirits have entered their persons. Sometimes they lash
themselves with iron chains or cotton braided scourges.25 At times a bhuva
places a pan-full of sweet oil over a fire till it boils. He then fries cakes in it,
and takes them out with his unprotected hands, sprinkling the boiling oil
over his hair. He further dips thick cotton wicks into the oil, lights them and
puts them into his mouth and throws red-hot bullets into his mouth,
seemingly without any injury.26 This process secures the confidence of the
sevakas or followers, and is very often used by bhuvas when exorcising
spirits from persons whose confidence the bhuvas wish to gain. A bowl-full
of water is then passed round the head of the ailing person (or animal) to be
charmed, and the contents are swallowed by the exorcist to show that he has
swallowed in the water all the ills the flesh of the patient is heir to.26
In the cure of certain diseases by exorcising the process known as utār is
sometimes gone through. An utār is a sacrificial offering of the nature of a
scapegoat, and consists of a black earthen vessel, open and broad at the top,
and containing lāpsi, vadān, bāklā, a yard of atlas (dark-red silk fabric),
one rupee and four annas in cash, pieces of charcoal, red-lead, sorro (or
surmo-lead ore used as eye-powder), an iron-nail and three cocoanuts.26
Very often a trident is drawn in red-lead and oil on the outer sides of the
black earthen vessel.27 The bhuva carries the utār in his hands with a drawn
sword in a procession, to the noise of the jingling of the anklets of his
companions, the beating of drums and the rattling of cymbals. After placing
their gods with water and milk, besmear them with red-lead and oil, and
make offerings of cocoanuts, lāpsi, bāklā of adād (Phaseoleus radiatus) or
kansār23. Particular offerings are believed to be favoured by particular
deities: for instance, khichdo (rice and pulse boiled together) and oil, or
tavo (flat unleavened loaves) are favoured by the goddess Meldi, boiled rice
by Shikotar and lāpsi by the goddess Gātrād.24
On these holidays, as well as on the second day of the bright half of Āshādh
the devotees hoist flags in honour of the spirits, and play on certain musical
instruments producing discordant sounds. Meanwhile bhuvas, believed to
be interpreters of the wills of evil spirits, undergo self-torture, with the firm
conviction that the spirits have entered their persons. Sometimes they lash
themselves with iron chains or cotton braided scourges.25 At times a bhuva
places a pan-full of sweet oil over a fire till it boils. He then fries cakes in it,
and takes them out with his unprotected hands, sprinkling the boiling oil
over his hair. He further dips thick cotton wicks into the oil, lights them and
puts them into his mouth and throws red-hot bullets into his mouth,
seemingly without any injury.26 This process secures the confidence of the
sevakas or followers, and is very often used by bhuvas when exorcising
spirits from persons whose confidence the bhuvas wish to gain. A bowl-full
of water is then passed round the head of the ailing person (or animal) to be
charmed, and the contents are swallowed by the exorcist to show that he has
swallowed in the water all the ills the flesh of the patient is heir to.26
In the cure of certain diseases by exorcising the process known as utār is
sometimes gone through. An utār is a sacrificial offering of the nature of a
scapegoat, and consists of a black earthen vessel, open and broad at the top,
and containing lāpsi, vadān, bāklā, a yard of atlas (dark-red silk fabric),
one rupee and four annas in cash, pieces of charcoal, red-lead, sorro (or
surmo-lead ore used as eye-powder), an iron-nail and three cocoanuts.26
Very often a trident is drawn in red-lead and oil on the outer sides of the
black earthen vessel.27 The bhuva carries the utār in his hands with a drawn
sword in a procession, to the noise of the jingling of the anklets of his
companions, the beating of drums and the rattling of cymbals. After placing
Page 31
the utār in the cemetery the procession returns with tumultuous shouts of
joy and much jingling of anklets.28
Sometimes bhuvas are summoned for two or three nights preceding the day
of the utār ceremony, and a ceremony known as Dānklān-beswān or the
installation of the dānklā29 is performed. (A dānklā30 is a special spirit
instrument in the shape of a small kettle-drum producing, when beaten by a
stick, a most discordant, and, by long association, a melancholy, gruesome
and ghastly sound—K. B. Fazlullah).
Many sects have special deities of their own, attended upon by a bhuva of
the same order.31 The bhuva holds a high position in the society of his
caste-fellows. He believes himself to be possessed by the devi or mātā
whose attendant he is, and declares, while possessed by her, the will of the
mātā, replying for her to such questions as may be put to him.32 The devis
are supposed to appear in specially favoured bhuvas and to endow them
with prophetic powers.33
The following is a list of some of the inferior local deities of Gujarat and
Kathiawar:—
(1) Suro-pūro.—This is generally the spirit of some brave ancestor who
died a heroic death, and is worshipped by his descendants as a family-god
at his birthplace as well as at the scene of his death, where a pillar (pālio) is
erected to his memory.34
(2) Vachhro, otherwise known by the name of Dādā (sire).—This is said to
have been a Rajput, killed in rescuing the cowherds of some Chārans, who
invoked his aid, from a party of free-booters.35 He is considered to be the
family-god of the Ahirs of Solanki descent, and is the sole village-deity in
Okha and Baradi Districts.36 Other places dedicated to this god are Padānā,
Aniālā, Taluka Mengani,37 Khajurdi, Khirasarā and Anida.38 He is
represented by a stone horse, and Chārans perform priestly duties in front of
him.39 Submission to, and vows in honour of, this god, are believed to cure
rabid-dog-bites.40
joy and much jingling of anklets.28
Sometimes bhuvas are summoned for two or three nights preceding the day
of the utār ceremony, and a ceremony known as Dānklān-beswān or the
installation of the dānklā29 is performed. (A dānklā30 is a special spirit
instrument in the shape of a small kettle-drum producing, when beaten by a
stick, a most discordant, and, by long association, a melancholy, gruesome
and ghastly sound—K. B. Fazlullah).
Many sects have special deities of their own, attended upon by a bhuva of
the same order.31 The bhuva holds a high position in the society of his
caste-fellows. He believes himself to be possessed by the devi or mātā
whose attendant he is, and declares, while possessed by her, the will of the
mātā, replying for her to such questions as may be put to him.32 The devis
are supposed to appear in specially favoured bhuvas and to endow them
with prophetic powers.33
The following is a list of some of the inferior local deities of Gujarat and
Kathiawar:—
(1) Suro-pūro.—This is generally the spirit of some brave ancestor who
died a heroic death, and is worshipped by his descendants as a family-god
at his birthplace as well as at the scene of his death, where a pillar (pālio) is
erected to his memory.34
(2) Vachhro, otherwise known by the name of Dādā (sire).—This is said to
have been a Rajput, killed in rescuing the cowherds of some Chārans, who
invoked his aid, from a party of free-booters.35 He is considered to be the
family-god of the Ahirs of Solanki descent, and is the sole village-deity in
Okha and Baradi Districts.36 Other places dedicated to this god are Padānā,
Aniālā, Taluka Mengani,37 Khajurdi, Khirasarā and Anida.38 He is
represented by a stone horse, and Chārans perform priestly duties in front of
him.39 Submission to, and vows in honour of, this god, are believed to cure
rabid-dog-bites.40
Page 32
(3) Sarmālio commands worship in Gondal, Khokhāri and many other
places. Newly-married couples of many castes loosen the knots tied in their
marriage-scarves as a mark of respect for him.41 Persons bitten by a snake
wear round their necks a piece of thread dedicated to this god.40
(4) Shitalā is a goddess known for the cure of small-pox.—Persons attacked
by this disease observe vows in her honour. Kālāvad and Syādlā are places
dedicated to her.40
(5) Ganāgor.—Virgins who are anxious to secure suitable husbands and
comfortable establishments worship this goddess and observe vows in her
honour.40
(6) Todāliā.—She has neither an idol nor a temple set up in her honour, but
is represented by a heap of stones lying on the village boundary—Pādal or
Jāmpā. All marriage processions, before entering the village (Sānkā) or
passing by the heap, pay homage to this deity and offer a cocoanut, failure
to do which is believed to arouse her wrath. She does not command daily
adoration, but on occasions the attendant, who is a Chumvāliā Koli, and
who appropriates all the presents to this deity, burns frankincense of gugal
(balsamodendron) and lights a lamp before her.42
(7) Buttāya also is represented by a heap of stones on a hillock in the
vicinity of Sānkā. Her worshipper is a Talabdia Koli. A long season of
drought leads to her propitiation by feasting Brāhmans, for which purpose
four pounds of corn are taken in her name from each threshing floor in the
village.42
(8) Surdhan.—This seems to have been some brave Kshatriya warrior who
died on a battlefield. A temple is erected to his memory, containing an
image of Shiva. The attending priest is an Atit.42
(9) Ghogho.—This is a cobra-god worshipped in the village of Bikhijada
having a Bajana (tumbler) for his attending priest.42
places. Newly-married couples of many castes loosen the knots tied in their
marriage-scarves as a mark of respect for him.41 Persons bitten by a snake
wear round their necks a piece of thread dedicated to this god.40
(4) Shitalā is a goddess known for the cure of small-pox.—Persons attacked
by this disease observe vows in her honour. Kālāvad and Syādlā are places
dedicated to her.40
(5) Ganāgor.—Virgins who are anxious to secure suitable husbands and
comfortable establishments worship this goddess and observe vows in her
honour.40
(6) Todāliā.—She has neither an idol nor a temple set up in her honour, but
is represented by a heap of stones lying on the village boundary—Pādal or
Jāmpā. All marriage processions, before entering the village (Sānkā) or
passing by the heap, pay homage to this deity and offer a cocoanut, failure
to do which is believed to arouse her wrath. She does not command daily
adoration, but on occasions the attendant, who is a Chumvāliā Koli, and
who appropriates all the presents to this deity, burns frankincense of gugal
(balsamodendron) and lights a lamp before her.42
(7) Buttāya also is represented by a heap of stones on a hillock in the
vicinity of Sānkā. Her worshipper is a Talabdia Koli. A long season of
drought leads to her propitiation by feasting Brāhmans, for which purpose
four pounds of corn are taken in her name from each threshing floor in the
village.42
(8) Surdhan.—This seems to have been some brave Kshatriya warrior who
died on a battlefield. A temple is erected to his memory, containing an
image of Shiva. The attending priest is an Atit.42
(9) Ghogho.—This is a cobra-god worshipped in the village of Bikhijada
having a Bajana (tumbler) for his attending priest.42
Page 33
(10) Pir.—This is a Musalman saint, in whose honour no tomb is erected,
the special site alone being worshipped by a devotee.42
(11) Raneki is represented by a heap of stones, and is attended upon by
chamārs (tanners). Her favourite resort is near the Dhedvādā (i.e., a quarter
inhabited by sweepers). A childless Girasia is said to have observed a vow
in her honour for a son, and a son being born to him, he dedicated certain
lands to her; but they are no longer in the possession of the attendants.43
(12) Hanuman.—On a mound of earth there is an old worn-out image of
this god. People sometimes light a lamp there, offer cocoanuts and plaster
the image with red-lead and oil. A sādhu of the Māragi sect, a Koli by birth,
acts as pujari.43
(13) Shaktā (or shakti).—This is a Girasia goddess attended upon by a
Chumvāliā Koli. On the Navarātra days, as well as on the following day,
Girasias worship this goddess, and if necessary observe vows in her
name.43
(14) Harsidh.—Gāndhavi in Bardā and Ujjain are the places dedicated to
this goddess. There is a tradition connected with her that her image stood in
a place of worship facing the sea on Mount Koyalo in Gandhavi. She was
believed to sink or swallow all the vessels that sailed by. A Bania named
Jagadusā, knowing this, propitiated her by the performance of religious
austerities. On being asked what boon he wanted from her, he requested her
to descend from her mountain-seat. She agreed on the Bania promising to
offer a living victim for every footstep she took in descending. Thus he
sacrificed one victim after another until the number of victims he had
brought was exhausted. He then first offered his four or five children, then
his wife and lastly himself. In reward for his self-devotion the goddess
faced towards Miani and no mishaps are believed to take place in the
village.44
(15) Hinglaj.—This goddess has a place of worship a hundred and fifty
miles from Karachi in Sind, to which her devotees and believers make
pilgrimage.44
the special site alone being worshipped by a devotee.42
(11) Raneki is represented by a heap of stones, and is attended upon by
chamārs (tanners). Her favourite resort is near the Dhedvādā (i.e., a quarter
inhabited by sweepers). A childless Girasia is said to have observed a vow
in her honour for a son, and a son being born to him, he dedicated certain
lands to her; but they are no longer in the possession of the attendants.43
(12) Hanuman.—On a mound of earth there is an old worn-out image of
this god. People sometimes light a lamp there, offer cocoanuts and plaster
the image with red-lead and oil. A sādhu of the Māragi sect, a Koli by birth,
acts as pujari.43
(13) Shaktā (or shakti).—This is a Girasia goddess attended upon by a
Chumvāliā Koli. On the Navarātra days, as well as on the following day,
Girasias worship this goddess, and if necessary observe vows in her
name.43
(14) Harsidh.—Gāndhavi in Bardā and Ujjain are the places dedicated to
this goddess. There is a tradition connected with her that her image stood in
a place of worship facing the sea on Mount Koyalo in Gandhavi. She was
believed to sink or swallow all the vessels that sailed by. A Bania named
Jagadusā, knowing this, propitiated her by the performance of religious
austerities. On being asked what boon he wanted from her, he requested her
to descend from her mountain-seat. She agreed on the Bania promising to
offer a living victim for every footstep she took in descending. Thus he
sacrificed one victim after another until the number of victims he had
brought was exhausted. He then first offered his four or five children, then
his wife and lastly himself. In reward for his self-devotion the goddess
faced towards Miani and no mishaps are believed to take place in the
village.44
(15) Hinglaj.—This goddess has a place of worship a hundred and fifty
miles from Karachi in Sind, to which her devotees and believers make
pilgrimage.44
Page 34
In the village of Jāsdān, in Kathiawar, there is an ancient shrine of Kālu-Pīr
in whose memory there are two sepulchres covered with costly fabrics, and
a large flag floats over the building. Both Hindus and Musalmans believe45
in this saint, and offer cocoanuts, sweetmeats and money to his soul. A part
of the offering being passed through the smoke of frankincense, burning in
a brazier near the saint’s grave in the shrine, the rest is returned to the
offerer. Every morning and evening a big kettle-drum is beaten in the Pīr’s
honour.46
Other minor deities are Shikotār, believed by sailors to be able to protect
them from the dangers of the deep;47 Charmathvati, the goddess of the
Rabarīs;48 Macho, the god of the shepherds;48 Meldi, in whom Vaghries
(bird-catchers) believe;49 Pithād, the favourite god of Dheds;50 Dhavdi, who
is worshipped by a hajām (barber);51 Khodiar;52 Géla,52 Dādamo,52
Kshetrapāl,52 Chāvad,53 Mongal,53 Avad,53 Pālan,53 Vir Vaital,54 Jālio,54
Gadio,54 Paino,54 Parolio,54 Sevalio,54 Andhario,54 Fulio,54 Bhoravo,54
Ragantio,54 Chod,55 Gātrad,55 Mammai and Verai.56 There are frequent
additions to the number, as any new disease or unusual and untoward
incident may bring a new spirit into existence. The installation of such
deities is not a costly concern,57 and thus there is no serious check on their
recognition.
The sun, the beneficent night-dispelling, light-bestowing great luminary, is
believed to be the visible manifestation of the Almighty God,58 and inspires
the human mind with a feeling of grateful reverence which finds expression
in titles like Savitā, Life-Producer, the nourisher and generator of all life
and activity59.
He is the chief rain-sender60; there is a couplet used in Gujarat illustrative
of this belief. It runs:—“Oblations are cast into the Fire: the smoke carries
the prayers to the sun; the Divine Luminary, propitiated, responds in
sending down gentle showers.” “The sacred smoke, rising from the
sacrificial offerings, ascends through the ethereal regions to the Sun. He
transforms it into the rain-giving clouds, the rains produce food, and food
in whose memory there are two sepulchres covered with costly fabrics, and
a large flag floats over the building. Both Hindus and Musalmans believe45
in this saint, and offer cocoanuts, sweetmeats and money to his soul. A part
of the offering being passed through the smoke of frankincense, burning in
a brazier near the saint’s grave in the shrine, the rest is returned to the
offerer. Every morning and evening a big kettle-drum is beaten in the Pīr’s
honour.46
Other minor deities are Shikotār, believed by sailors to be able to protect
them from the dangers of the deep;47 Charmathvati, the goddess of the
Rabarīs;48 Macho, the god of the shepherds;48 Meldi, in whom Vaghries
(bird-catchers) believe;49 Pithād, the favourite god of Dheds;50 Dhavdi, who
is worshipped by a hajām (barber);51 Khodiar;52 Géla,52 Dādamo,52
Kshetrapāl,52 Chāvad,53 Mongal,53 Avad,53 Pālan,53 Vir Vaital,54 Jālio,54
Gadio,54 Paino,54 Parolio,54 Sevalio,54 Andhario,54 Fulio,54 Bhoravo,54
Ragantio,54 Chod,55 Gātrad,55 Mammai and Verai.56 There are frequent
additions to the number, as any new disease or unusual and untoward
incident may bring a new spirit into existence. The installation of such
deities is not a costly concern,57 and thus there is no serious check on their
recognition.
The sun, the beneficent night-dispelling, light-bestowing great luminary, is
believed to be the visible manifestation of the Almighty God,58 and inspires
the human mind with a feeling of grateful reverence which finds expression
in titles like Savitā, Life-Producer, the nourisher and generator of all life
and activity59.
He is the chief rain-sender60; there is a couplet used in Gujarat illustrative
of this belief. It runs:—“Oblations are cast into the Fire: the smoke carries
the prayers to the sun; the Divine Luminary, propitiated, responds in
sending down gentle showers.” “The sacred smoke, rising from the
sacrificial offerings, ascends through the ethereal regions to the Sun. He
transforms it into the rain-giving clouds, the rains produce food, and food
Page 35
produces the powers of generation and multiplication and plenty. Thus, the
sun, as the propagator of animal life, is believed to be the highest deity.60”
It is pretty generally believed that vows in honour of the sun are highly
efficacious in curing eye-diseases and strengthening the eyesight. Mr.
Damodar Karsonji Pandya quotes from the Bhagvadgītā the saying of
Krishna:
प्रभास्मि शशिसूर्ययोः
“I am the very light of the sun and the moon.61” Being the embodiment or
the fountain of light, the sun imparts his lustre either to the bodies or to the
eyes of his devotees. It is said that a Rajput woman of Gomātā in Gondal
and a Brahman of Rajkot were cured of white leprosy by vows in honour of
the sun.62 Similar vows are made to this day for the cure of the same
disease. Persons in Kathiawar suffering from ophthalmic disorders, venereal
affections, leucoderma and white leprosy are known to observe vows in
honour of the sun.63
The Parmār Rajputs believe in the efficacy of vows in honour of the sun
deity of Māndavrāj, in curing hydrophobia.64
Women believe that a vow or a vrat made to the sun is the sure means of
attaining their desires. Chiefly their vows are made with the object of
securing a son. On the fulfilment of this desire, in gratitude to the Great
Luminary, the child is often called after him, and given such a name as
Suraj-Rām, Bhānu-Shankar, Ravi-Shankar, Adit-Rām.65
Many cradles are received as presents at the temple of Māndavrāj,
indicating that the barren women who had made vows to the deity have
been satisfied in their desire for a son, the vows being fulfilled by the
present of such toy-cradles to the sun. In the case of rich donors, these
cradles are made of precious metal.66
At Mandvara, in the Muli District of Kathiawar, the Parmār Rajputs, as well
as the Kāthis, bow to the image of the sun, on their marriage-day, in
sun, as the propagator of animal life, is believed to be the highest deity.60”
It is pretty generally believed that vows in honour of the sun are highly
efficacious in curing eye-diseases and strengthening the eyesight. Mr.
Damodar Karsonji Pandya quotes from the Bhagvadgītā the saying of
Krishna:
प्रभास्मि शशिसूर्ययोः
“I am the very light of the sun and the moon.61” Being the embodiment or
the fountain of light, the sun imparts his lustre either to the bodies or to the
eyes of his devotees. It is said that a Rajput woman of Gomātā in Gondal
and a Brahman of Rajkot were cured of white leprosy by vows in honour of
the sun.62 Similar vows are made to this day for the cure of the same
disease. Persons in Kathiawar suffering from ophthalmic disorders, venereal
affections, leucoderma and white leprosy are known to observe vows in
honour of the sun.63
The Parmār Rajputs believe in the efficacy of vows in honour of the sun
deity of Māndavrāj, in curing hydrophobia.64
Women believe that a vow or a vrat made to the sun is the sure means of
attaining their desires. Chiefly their vows are made with the object of
securing a son. On the fulfilment of this desire, in gratitude to the Great
Luminary, the child is often called after him, and given such a name as
Suraj-Rām, Bhānu-Shankar, Ravi-Shankar, Adit-Rām.65
Many cradles are received as presents at the temple of Māndavrāj,
indicating that the barren women who had made vows to the deity have
been satisfied in their desire for a son, the vows being fulfilled by the
present of such toy-cradles to the sun. In the case of rich donors, these
cradles are made of precious metal.66
At Mandvara, in the Muli District of Kathiawar, the Parmār Rajputs, as well
as the Kāthis, bow to the image of the sun, on their marriage-day, in
Page 36
company with their newly-married brides.66 After the birth of a son to a
Rajputani, the hair on the boy’s head is shaved for the first time in the
presence of the Māndavrāj deity,67 and a suit of rich clothes is presented to
the image by the maternal uncle of the child.68
The sun is सर्वसाक्षी the observer of all things and nothing can escape his
notice.69 His eye is believed to possess the lustre of the three Vedic lores,
viz., Rigveda, Yajurveda and Sāmaveda, and is therefore known by the
name of वेदत्रयी. The attestation of a document in his name as Sūrya-
Nārāyana-Sākshi is believed to be ample security for the sincerity and good
faith of the parties.70 Oaths in the name of the sun are considered so binding
that persons swearing in his name are held to be pledged to the strictest
truth.71
Virgin girls observe a vrat, or vow, called the ‘tili-vrat’ in the sun’s honour,
for attaining अखंड सौभाग्य—eternal exemption from widowhood. In making
this vrat, or vow, the votary, having bathed and worshipped the sun,
sprinkles wet red-lac drops before him.72
According to Forbes’s Rāsmālā, the sun revealed to the Kāthis the plan of
regaining their lost kingdom, and thus commanded their devout worship
and reverence. The temple named Suraj-deval, near Thān, was set up by the
Kāthis in recognition of this favour. In it both the visible resplendent disc of
the sun and his image are adored.73
People whose horoscopes declare them to have been born under the Sūrya-
dashā, or solar influence, have from time to time to observe vows
prescribed by Hindu astrology.74
Cultivators are said to observe vows in honour of the sun for the safety of
their cattle.75
The following are some of the standard books on sun-worship:—
(1) Aditya-hridaya—literally, the Heart of the Sun. It treats of the glory of
the sun and the mode of worshipping him.
Rajputani, the hair on the boy’s head is shaved for the first time in the
presence of the Māndavrāj deity,67 and a suit of rich clothes is presented to
the image by the maternal uncle of the child.68
The sun is सर्वसाक्षी the observer of all things and nothing can escape his
notice.69 His eye is believed to possess the lustre of the three Vedic lores,
viz., Rigveda, Yajurveda and Sāmaveda, and is therefore known by the
name of वेदत्रयी. The attestation of a document in his name as Sūrya-
Nārāyana-Sākshi is believed to be ample security for the sincerity and good
faith of the parties.70 Oaths in the name of the sun are considered so binding
that persons swearing in his name are held to be pledged to the strictest
truth.71
Virgin girls observe a vrat, or vow, called the ‘tili-vrat’ in the sun’s honour,
for attaining अखंड सौभाग्य—eternal exemption from widowhood. In making
this vrat, or vow, the votary, having bathed and worshipped the sun,
sprinkles wet red-lac drops before him.72
According to Forbes’s Rāsmālā, the sun revealed to the Kāthis the plan of
regaining their lost kingdom, and thus commanded their devout worship
and reverence. The temple named Suraj-deval, near Thān, was set up by the
Kāthis in recognition of this favour. In it both the visible resplendent disc of
the sun and his image are adored.73
People whose horoscopes declare them to have been born under the Sūrya-
dashā, or solar influence, have from time to time to observe vows
prescribed by Hindu astrology.74
Cultivators are said to observe vows in honour of the sun for the safety of
their cattle.75
The following are some of the standard books on sun-worship:—
(1) Aditya-hridaya—literally, the Heart of the Sun. It treats of the glory of
the sun and the mode of worshipping him.
Page 37
(2) Brihadāranyakopanishad and Mandula-Brahmans—portions of
Yajurveda recited by Vedic Brahmans with a view to tender symbolic as
well as mental prayers to the sun.
(3) Bibhrād—the fourth chapter of the Rudri.
(4) A passage in Brāhman—a portion of the Vedas, beginning with the
words स्वयंभूरसि Thou art self-existent—is entirely devoted to Sun-
worship.76
(5) Sūrya-Purāna—A treatise relating a number of stories in glorification of
the sun.
(6) Sūrya-kavacha.77
(7) Sūrya-gīta.
(8) Sūrya-Sahasranama—a list of one thousand names of Sūrya.78
It is customary among Hindus to cleanse their teeth every morning with a
wooden stick, known as dātan79 and then to offer salutations to the sun in
the form of a verse which means: “Oh God, the dātans are torn asunder and
the sins disappear. Oh the penetrator of the innermost parts, forgive us our
sins. Do good unto the benevolent and unto our neighbours.” This prayer is
common in the mouths of the vulgar laity.80
Better educated people recite a shloka, which runs: “Bow unto Savitri, the
sun, the observer of this world and its quarters, the eye of the universe, the
inspirer of all energy, the holder of a three-fold personality (being an
embodiment of the forms of the three gods of the Hindu Trinity, Brahma,
Vishnu and Maheshvar)—the embodiment of the three Vedas, the giver of
happiness and the abode of God.81
After his toilet a high-caste Hindu should take a bath and offer morning
prayers and arghyas to the sun.82 The Trikāla-Sandhyā is enjoined by the
Shāstras on every Brahman, i.e., every Brahman should perform the
Yajurveda recited by Vedic Brahmans with a view to tender symbolic as
well as mental prayers to the sun.
(3) Bibhrād—the fourth chapter of the Rudri.
(4) A passage in Brāhman—a portion of the Vedas, beginning with the
words स्वयंभूरसि Thou art self-existent—is entirely devoted to Sun-
worship.76
(5) Sūrya-Purāna—A treatise relating a number of stories in glorification of
the sun.
(6) Sūrya-kavacha.77
(7) Sūrya-gīta.
(8) Sūrya-Sahasranama—a list of one thousand names of Sūrya.78
It is customary among Hindus to cleanse their teeth every morning with a
wooden stick, known as dātan79 and then to offer salutations to the sun in
the form of a verse which means: “Oh God, the dātans are torn asunder and
the sins disappear. Oh the penetrator of the innermost parts, forgive us our
sins. Do good unto the benevolent and unto our neighbours.” This prayer is
common in the mouths of the vulgar laity.80
Better educated people recite a shloka, which runs: “Bow unto Savitri, the
sun, the observer of this world and its quarters, the eye of the universe, the
inspirer of all energy, the holder of a three-fold personality (being an
embodiment of the forms of the three gods of the Hindu Trinity, Brahma,
Vishnu and Maheshvar)—the embodiment of the three Vedas, the giver of
happiness and the abode of God.81
After his toilet a high-caste Hindu should take a bath and offer morning
prayers and arghyas to the sun.82 The Trikāla-Sandhyā is enjoined by the
Shāstras on every Brahman, i.e., every Brahman should perform the
Page 38
Sandhyā thrice during the day: in the morning, at mid-day and in the
evening. The Sandhyā is the prayer a Brahman offers, sitting in divine
meditation, when he offers three arghyas to the sun and recites the Gāyatrī
mantra 108 times.83
The arghya is an offering of water in a spoon half filled with barley seeds,
sesamum seeds, sandal ointment, rice, and white flowers. In offering the
arghya the right foot is folded below the left, the spoon is lifted to the
forehead and is emptied towards the sun after reciting the Gāyatrī mantra.84
If water is not available for offering the arghyas, sand may serve the
purpose. But the sun must not be deprived of his arghyas.85
The Gāyatrī is the most sacred mantra in honour of the sun, containing, as it
does, the highest laudations of him.85 A Brahman ought to recite this mantra
324 times every day. Otherwise he incurs a sin as great as the slaughter of a
cow.86 Accordingly a Rudrākshmālā, or a rosary of 108 Rudrāksh beads, is
used in connecting the number of Gāyatrīs recited.87 It is exclusively the
right of the twice-born to recite the Gāyatrī. None else is authorised to
recite or even to hear a word of it. Neither females nor Shūdras ought to
catch an echo of even a single syllable of the Gāyatrī mantra88.
A ceremony, called Sūryopasthān, in which a man has to stand facing the
sun with his hands stretched upwards at an angle towards the sun, is
performed as a part of the sandhyā.89
evening. The Sandhyā is the prayer a Brahman offers, sitting in divine
meditation, when he offers three arghyas to the sun and recites the Gāyatrī
mantra 108 times.83
The arghya is an offering of water in a spoon half filled with barley seeds,
sesamum seeds, sandal ointment, rice, and white flowers. In offering the
arghya the right foot is folded below the left, the spoon is lifted to the
forehead and is emptied towards the sun after reciting the Gāyatrī mantra.84
If water is not available for offering the arghyas, sand may serve the
purpose. But the sun must not be deprived of his arghyas.85
The Gāyatrī is the most sacred mantra in honour of the sun, containing, as it
does, the highest laudations of him.85 A Brahman ought to recite this mantra
324 times every day. Otherwise he incurs a sin as great as the slaughter of a
cow.86 Accordingly a Rudrākshmālā, or a rosary of 108 Rudrāksh beads, is
used in connecting the number of Gāyatrīs recited.87 It is exclusively the
right of the twice-born to recite the Gāyatrī. None else is authorised to
recite or even to hear a word of it. Neither females nor Shūdras ought to
catch an echo of even a single syllable of the Gāyatrī mantra88.
A ceremony, called Sūryopasthān, in which a man has to stand facing the
sun with his hands stretched upwards at an angle towards the sun, is
performed as a part of the sandhyā.89
Page 39
Of the days of the week, Ravivar, or Sunday is the most suitable for Sun
worship90. Persons wishing to secure wealth, good-health and a happy
progeny, especially people suffering from disorders caused by heat and
from diseases of the eyes, barren women, and men anxious for victory on
the battlefield, weekly observe vows in honour of the sun, and the day on
which the vow is to be kept is Sunday.91 It is left to the devotee to fix the
number of Sundays on which he will observe the vrat, and he may choose
to observe all the Sundays of the year.92 On such days the devotees undergo
ceremonial purifications by means of baths and the putting on of clean
garments, occupy a reserved clean seat, light a ghi-lamp and recite the
Aditya-hridaya-pātha, which is the prescribed mantra for Sun worship.93
Then follows the Nyāsa, (न्यास) in the recitation of which the devotee has to
make certain gestures (or to perform physical ceremonials). First the tips of
all the four fingers are made to touch the thumb as is done in counting.
Then the tips of the fingers are made to touch the palm of the other hand.
Then one hand is laid over the other. Then the fingers are made to touch the
heart, the head, the eyes, and the hair in regular order. The right hand is then
put round the head and made to smite the left.93 An ashtadala or eight-
cornered figure is drawn in gulal, (red powder) and frankincense, red
ointment and red flowers are offered to the sun.94 Durvā grass is also
commonly used in the process of Sun-worship.95
worship90. Persons wishing to secure wealth, good-health and a happy
progeny, especially people suffering from disorders caused by heat and
from diseases of the eyes, barren women, and men anxious for victory on
the battlefield, weekly observe vows in honour of the sun, and the day on
which the vow is to be kept is Sunday.91 It is left to the devotee to fix the
number of Sundays on which he will observe the vrat, and he may choose
to observe all the Sundays of the year.92 On such days the devotees undergo
ceremonial purifications by means of baths and the putting on of clean
garments, occupy a reserved clean seat, light a ghi-lamp and recite the
Aditya-hridaya-pātha, which is the prescribed mantra for Sun worship.93
Then follows the Nyāsa, (न्यास) in the recitation of which the devotee has to
make certain gestures (or to perform physical ceremonials). First the tips of
all the four fingers are made to touch the thumb as is done in counting.
Then the tips of the fingers are made to touch the palm of the other hand.
Then one hand is laid over the other. Then the fingers are made to touch the
heart, the head, the eyes, and the hair in regular order. The right hand is then
put round the head and made to smite the left.93 An ashtadala or eight-
cornered figure is drawn in gulal, (red powder) and frankincense, red
ointment and red flowers are offered to the sun.94 Durvā grass is also
commonly used in the process of Sun-worship.95
Page 40
Sometimes a hexangular figure is drawn instead of the ashtadal, a copper
disc is placed over it and the sun is worshipped by Panchopachar or the
five-fold ceremonials.96 Of all ceremonials a namaskār is especially dear to
the sun.97 It is said:—
नमस्कारप्रियो भानुर्जलधाराप्रियः शिवः ।
परोपकारप्रियो विष्णुर्ब्राह्मणो भोजनप्रियः ॥
A namaskār or bow is dear to the sun; a stream of water (pouring water in a
small stream over Shiva’s idol) is dear to Shiva: benevolence to Vishnu and
a good dinner to a Brahman.97
In observing vows in the sun’s honour on Sundays, the following special
foods are prescribed in particular months:98—
(1) In Kārtika, the first month, the devotee is to take only three leaves of the
Tulsi or the holy basil plant.
(2) In Mārgashīrsha, the devotee may only lick a few pieces of candied
sugar.
(3) In Pausha, the devotee may chew three stalks of green darbha grass.
(4) In Māgha, a few seeds of sesamum and sugar mixed together may be
swallowed.
(5) In Phālguna, a consecrated draught of curds and sugar may be drunk.
(6) In Chaitra, people should break their fasts with a little ghi and molasses.
(7) In Vaishākha, the only satisfaction allowed to those observing the vrat is
to lick their own palms three times.
(8) In Jyeshtha, the fast is observed simply on three anjalis or palmfuls of
pure water.
(9) In Ashādha, three chillies may be eaten.
disc is placed over it and the sun is worshipped by Panchopachar or the
five-fold ceremonials.96 Of all ceremonials a namaskār is especially dear to
the sun.97 It is said:—
नमस्कारप्रियो भानुर्जलधाराप्रियः शिवः ।
परोपकारप्रियो विष्णुर्ब्राह्मणो भोजनप्रियः ॥
A namaskār or bow is dear to the sun; a stream of water (pouring water in a
small stream over Shiva’s idol) is dear to Shiva: benevolence to Vishnu and
a good dinner to a Brahman.97
In observing vows in the sun’s honour on Sundays, the following special
foods are prescribed in particular months:98—
(1) In Kārtika, the first month, the devotee is to take only three leaves of the
Tulsi or the holy basil plant.
(2) In Mārgashīrsha, the devotee may only lick a few pieces of candied
sugar.
(3) In Pausha, the devotee may chew three stalks of green darbha grass.
(4) In Māgha, a few seeds of sesamum and sugar mixed together may be
swallowed.
(5) In Phālguna, a consecrated draught of curds and sugar may be drunk.
(6) In Chaitra, people should break their fasts with a little ghi and molasses.
(7) In Vaishākha, the only satisfaction allowed to those observing the vrat is
to lick their own palms three times.
(8) In Jyeshtha, the fast is observed simply on three anjalis or palmfuls of
pure water.
(9) In Ashādha, three chillies may be eaten.
Page 41
(10) In Shrāvana, only cow-urine and molasses are tasted.
(11) In Bhādrapada, cow-dung and sugar are partaken of.
(12) In Āshvina, the application of chandan (sandal wood) either in the
form of an ointment or of powder.
Only a few very pious and enthusiastic devotees observe all Sundays in the
above manner. In average cases, the devotee allows himself rice, ghi, sugar,
milk, i.e., white food, the restriction being only as to colour.98
People observing vows in honour of the sun take food only once during the
day, and that too in bājas or dishes made of khākhara (or palāsh) leaves.
This is considered one of the conditions of worship, there being some
mysterious relation between Sūrya and the khākhara.99
If the Pushya Nakshatra happens to fall on a Sunday, the worship of the sun
on that day is believed to be most efficacious in fulfilling the desires of the
devotees.100
Of the days of the month, the seventh day of both the bright and the dark
halves of each month101 and the Amāvāsyā day, i.e., the last day of a Hindu
calendar month,102 are set apart for Sun-worship. The ceremonies of the
worship are the same as those on Sundays. In fact, in almost all the
observances in connection with the sun the same ceremonials are to be gone
through. Very often a Brahman recites the pātha directing his hosts or
hostesses to perform certain ceremonial gestures. On the last of the number
of days which the devotee has decided to observe, the vrat is celebrated and
Brahmans are feasted. This celebration of the vrat is known as
vratujavavun.103
The special occasions for Sun-worship are the Sankrānti days and the solar
eclipses.
In each year there are twelve Sankrānti days on which the sun moves from
one sign of the zodiac to another. Sun-worship is performed on all these
(11) In Bhādrapada, cow-dung and sugar are partaken of.
(12) In Āshvina, the application of chandan (sandal wood) either in the
form of an ointment or of powder.
Only a few very pious and enthusiastic devotees observe all Sundays in the
above manner. In average cases, the devotee allows himself rice, ghi, sugar,
milk, i.e., white food, the restriction being only as to colour.98
People observing vows in honour of the sun take food only once during the
day, and that too in bājas or dishes made of khākhara (or palāsh) leaves.
This is considered one of the conditions of worship, there being some
mysterious relation between Sūrya and the khākhara.99
If the Pushya Nakshatra happens to fall on a Sunday, the worship of the sun
on that day is believed to be most efficacious in fulfilling the desires of the
devotees.100
Of the days of the month, the seventh day of both the bright and the dark
halves of each month101 and the Amāvāsyā day, i.e., the last day of a Hindu
calendar month,102 are set apart for Sun-worship. The ceremonies of the
worship are the same as those on Sundays. In fact, in almost all the
observances in connection with the sun the same ceremonials are to be gone
through. Very often a Brahman recites the pātha directing his hosts or
hostesses to perform certain ceremonial gestures. On the last of the number
of days which the devotee has decided to observe, the vrat is celebrated and
Brahmans are feasted. This celebration of the vrat is known as
vratujavavun.103
The special occasions for Sun-worship are the Sankrānti days and the solar
eclipses.
In each year there are twelve Sankrānti days on which the sun moves from
one sign of the zodiac to another. Sun-worship is performed on all these
Page 42
Sankrāntis, but Makara-Sankrānti, which falls on the 12th or 13th of
January, is considered the most important.104 The Uttarāyana-parvan falls
on this day, i.e., the sun now crosses to his northern course from his
southern, and the time of that Parvan is considered so holy that a person
dying then directly attains salvation.105 On this day, many Hindus go on a
pilgrimage to holy places, offer prayers and sacrifices to the sun, and give
alms to Brahmans in the shape of sesamum seeds, gold, garments and
cows.106 Much secret, as well as open, charity is dispensed,107 grass and
cotton-seeds are given to cows, and lāpsi108 and loaves to dogs.107 Sweet
balls of sesamum seeds and molasses are eaten as a prasād and given to
Brahmans, and dainties such as lāpsi are partaken of by Hindu households,
in company with a Brahman or two, who are given dakshinā after the
meals.109
On solar eclipse days, most of the Hindu sects bathe and offer prayers to
God. During the eclipse the sun is believed to be combating with the demon
Rāhu, prayers being offered for the sun’s success. When the sun has freed
himself from the grasp of the demon and sheds his full lustre on the earth,
the people take ceremonial baths, offer prayers to God with a concentrated
mind, and well-to-do people give in alms as much as they can afford of all
kinds of grain.110
The Chāturmās-vrat, very common in Kathiawar, is a favourite one with
Hindus. The devotee, in performing this vrat, abstains from food on those
days during the monsoons on which, owing to cloudy weather, the sun is
not visible. Even if the sun is concealed by the clouds for days together, the
devout votary keeps fasting till he sees the deity again.111
Barren women, women whose children die, and especially those who lose
their male children, women whose husbands suffer from diseases caused by
heat, lepers, and persons suffering from ophthalmic ailments observe the
vow of the sun in the following manner.112 The vows are kept on Sundays
and Amāvāsyā days, and the number of such days is determined by the
devotee in accordance with the behests of a learned Brahman. The woman
observes a fast on such days, bathes herself at noon when the sun reaches
January, is considered the most important.104 The Uttarāyana-parvan falls
on this day, i.e., the sun now crosses to his northern course from his
southern, and the time of that Parvan is considered so holy that a person
dying then directly attains salvation.105 On this day, many Hindus go on a
pilgrimage to holy places, offer prayers and sacrifices to the sun, and give
alms to Brahmans in the shape of sesamum seeds, gold, garments and
cows.106 Much secret, as well as open, charity is dispensed,107 grass and
cotton-seeds are given to cows, and lāpsi108 and loaves to dogs.107 Sweet
balls of sesamum seeds and molasses are eaten as a prasād and given to
Brahmans, and dainties such as lāpsi are partaken of by Hindu households,
in company with a Brahman or two, who are given dakshinā after the
meals.109
On solar eclipse days, most of the Hindu sects bathe and offer prayers to
God. During the eclipse the sun is believed to be combating with the demon
Rāhu, prayers being offered for the sun’s success. When the sun has freed
himself from the grasp of the demon and sheds his full lustre on the earth,
the people take ceremonial baths, offer prayers to God with a concentrated
mind, and well-to-do people give in alms as much as they can afford of all
kinds of grain.110
The Chāturmās-vrat, very common in Kathiawar, is a favourite one with
Hindus. The devotee, in performing this vrat, abstains from food on those
days during the monsoons on which, owing to cloudy weather, the sun is
not visible. Even if the sun is concealed by the clouds for days together, the
devout votary keeps fasting till he sees the deity again.111
Barren women, women whose children die, and especially those who lose
their male children, women whose husbands suffer from diseases caused by
heat, lepers, and persons suffering from ophthalmic ailments observe the
vow of the sun in the following manner.112 The vows are kept on Sundays
and Amāvāsyā days, and the number of such days is determined by the
devotee in accordance with the behests of a learned Brahman. The woman
observes a fast on such days, bathes herself at noon when the sun reaches
Page 43
the zenith, and dresses herself in clean garments. Facing the sun, she dips
twelve red karan flowers in red or white sandal ointment and recites the
twelve names of Sūrya as she presents one flower after another to the sun
with a bow.113 On each day of the vrat, she takes food only once, in the
shape of lāpsi, in bajas of khākharā or palāsh leaves; white food in the form
of rice, or rice cooked in milk is sometimes allowed. She keeps a ghi-lamp
burning day and night, offers frankincense, and sleeps at night on a bed
made on the floor.114
People who are declared by the Brahmans to be under the evil influence
(dashā) of Sūrya, observe vows in the sun’s honour and go through the
prescribed rites on Sundays. Such persons take special kinds of food and
engage the services of priests to recite holy texts in honour of the sun. If all
goes well on Sunday, Brahmans, Sādhus and other pious persons are
entertained at a feast. This feast is known as vrat-ujavavun. Some persons
have the sun’s image (an ashtadal) engraved on a copper or a golden plate
for daily or weekly worship.115
On the twelfth day after the delivery of a child, the sun is worshipped and
the homa sacrifice is performed.116
If at a wedding the sun happens to be in an unfavourable position according
to the bridegroom’s horoscope, an image of the sun is drawn on gold-leaf
and given away in charity. Charity in any other form is also common on
such an occasion.116
A Nāgar bride performs sun-worship for the seven days preceding her
wedding.117
In Hindu funeral ceremonies three arghyas are offered to the sun, and the
following mantra is chanted118:—
आदित्यो भास्करो भानू रविः सूर्यो दिवाकरः ।
षण्नाम स्मरेन्नित्यं महापातकनाशानम्॥
twelve red karan flowers in red or white sandal ointment and recites the
twelve names of Sūrya as she presents one flower after another to the sun
with a bow.113 On each day of the vrat, she takes food only once, in the
shape of lāpsi, in bajas of khākharā or palāsh leaves; white food in the form
of rice, or rice cooked in milk is sometimes allowed. She keeps a ghi-lamp
burning day and night, offers frankincense, and sleeps at night on a bed
made on the floor.114
People who are declared by the Brahmans to be under the evil influence
(dashā) of Sūrya, observe vows in the sun’s honour and go through the
prescribed rites on Sundays. Such persons take special kinds of food and
engage the services of priests to recite holy texts in honour of the sun. If all
goes well on Sunday, Brahmans, Sādhus and other pious persons are
entertained at a feast. This feast is known as vrat-ujavavun. Some persons
have the sun’s image (an ashtadal) engraved on a copper or a golden plate
for daily or weekly worship.115
On the twelfth day after the delivery of a child, the sun is worshipped and
the homa sacrifice is performed.116
If at a wedding the sun happens to be in an unfavourable position according
to the bridegroom’s horoscope, an image of the sun is drawn on gold-leaf
and given away in charity. Charity in any other form is also common on
such an occasion.116
A Nāgar bride performs sun-worship for the seven days preceding her
wedding.117
In Hindu funeral ceremonies three arghyas are offered to the sun, and the
following mantra is chanted118:—
आदित्यो भास्करो भानू रविः सूर्यो दिवाकरः ।
षण्नाम स्मरेन्नित्यं महापातकनाशानम्॥
Page 44
It means—one should ever recite the six names of the Sun, Aditya, Bhāskar,
Bhānu, Ravi, Surya, Divākar, which destroy sin.
The sun is also worshipped on the thirteenth day after the death of a person,
when arghyas are offered, and two earthen pots, containing a handful of
raw khichedi—rice and pulse—and covered with yellow pieces of cotton
are placed outside the house. This ceremony is called gadāso bharvo.118
Rajahs of the solar race always worship the rising sun. They also keep a
golden image of the sun in their palaces, and engage learned Brahmans to
recite verses in his honour. On Sundays they take only one meal and that of
simple rice (for white food is most acceptable to the sun).119
Circumambulations round images and other holy objects are considered
meritorious and to cause the destruction of sin.120 The subject has been
dwelt on at length in the Dharma-sindhu-grantha, Vratarāja, and
Shodashopachāra among the Dharma-Shāstras of the Hindus.121
The object round which turns are taken is either the image of a god, such as
of Ganpati, Mahādev or Vishnu122 or the portrait of a guru, or his footmarks
engraved or impressed upon some substance, or the agni-kunda (the fire-
pit),123 or the holy cow124, or some sacred tree or plant, such as the Vad
(banyan tree), the Pipal (ficus religiosa),125 the Shami (prosopis spicegera),
the Amba (mango tree), the Asopalava tree (Polyalthea longifolia),126 or the
Tulsi (sweet basil) plant.
It is said to have been a custom of the Brahmans in ancient times to
complete their daily rites before sunrise every morning, and then to take
turns round temples and holy objects. The practice is much less common
now than formerly.127 Still, visitors to a temple or an idol, usually are
careful to go round it a few times at least (generally five or seven). The
usual procedure at such a time is to strike gongs or ring bells after the turns,
to cast a glance at the shikhar or the pinnacle of the temple, and then to
return.128
Bhānu, Ravi, Surya, Divākar, which destroy sin.
The sun is also worshipped on the thirteenth day after the death of a person,
when arghyas are offered, and two earthen pots, containing a handful of
raw khichedi—rice and pulse—and covered with yellow pieces of cotton
are placed outside the house. This ceremony is called gadāso bharvo.118
Rajahs of the solar race always worship the rising sun. They also keep a
golden image of the sun in their palaces, and engage learned Brahmans to
recite verses in his honour. On Sundays they take only one meal and that of
simple rice (for white food is most acceptable to the sun).119
Circumambulations round images and other holy objects are considered
meritorious and to cause the destruction of sin.120 The subject has been
dwelt on at length in the Dharma-sindhu-grantha, Vratarāja, and
Shodashopachāra among the Dharma-Shāstras of the Hindus.121
The object round which turns are taken is either the image of a god, such as
of Ganpati, Mahādev or Vishnu122 or the portrait of a guru, or his footmarks
engraved or impressed upon some substance, or the agni-kunda (the fire-
pit),123 or the holy cow124, or some sacred tree or plant, such as the Vad
(banyan tree), the Pipal (ficus religiosa),125 the Shami (prosopis spicegera),
the Amba (mango tree), the Asopalava tree (Polyalthea longifolia),126 or the
Tulsi (sweet basil) plant.
It is said to have been a custom of the Brahmans in ancient times to
complete their daily rites before sunrise every morning, and then to take
turns round temples and holy objects. The practice is much less common
now than formerly.127 Still, visitors to a temple or an idol, usually are
careful to go round it a few times at least (generally five or seven). The
usual procedure at such a time is to strike gongs or ring bells after the turns,
to cast a glance at the shikhar or the pinnacle of the temple, and then to
return.128
Page 45
Women observing the chāturmās-vrat, or the monsoon vow, lasting from
the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashādh (the ninth month) to the
eleventh day of the bright half of Kārtik (the first month) first worship the
object, round which they wish to take turns, with panchāmrit (a mixture of
milk, curds, sugar, ghi and honey). The number of turns may be either 5, 7,
21 or 108. At each turn they keep entwining a fine cotton thread and place a
pendā129 or a bantāsā130 or a betel-leaf or an almond, a cocoanut, a fig or
some other fruit before the image or the object walked round. These
offerings are claimed by the priest who superintends the ceremony.131
When a sacred tree is circumambulated, water is poured out at the foot of
the tree at each turn.132
During the month of Shrāvan (the tenth month) and during the
Purushottama (or the intercalatory) month, men and women observe a
number of vows, in respect of which, every morning and evening, they take
turns round holy images and objects.133
People observing the chāturmās-vrat (or monsoon vow), called Tulsi-
vivāha (marriage of Tulsi), worship that plant and take turns round it on
every eleventh day of both the bright and the dark halves of each of the
monsoon months.133 The gautrat-vrat (gau = cow) necessitates
perambulations round a cow, and the Vat-Sāvitri-vrat round the Vad or
banyan tree. The banyan tree is also circumambulated on the Kapilashashthi
day (the sixth day of the bright half of Mārgashīrsha, the second month) and
on the Amāvāsyā or the last day of Bhādrapada (the eleventh month).134
Women who are anxious to prolong the lives of their husbands take turns
round the Tulsi plant or the banyan tree. At each turn they wind a fine
cotton thread. At the end of the last turn, they throw red lac and rice over
the tree and place a betelnut and a pice or a half-anna piece before it.135
The Shāstras authorise four pradakshinās (or perambulations) for Vishnu,
three for the goddesses, and a half (or one and a half)136 for Shiva.137 But
the usual number of pradakshinās is either 5, 7, 21 or 108. In taking turns
round the image of Vishnu, one must take care to keep one’s right side
towards the image, while in the case of Shiva, one must not cross the
the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashādh (the ninth month) to the
eleventh day of the bright half of Kārtik (the first month) first worship the
object, round which they wish to take turns, with panchāmrit (a mixture of
milk, curds, sugar, ghi and honey). The number of turns may be either 5, 7,
21 or 108. At each turn they keep entwining a fine cotton thread and place a
pendā129 or a bantāsā130 or a betel-leaf or an almond, a cocoanut, a fig or
some other fruit before the image or the object walked round. These
offerings are claimed by the priest who superintends the ceremony.131
When a sacred tree is circumambulated, water is poured out at the foot of
the tree at each turn.132
During the month of Shrāvan (the tenth month) and during the
Purushottama (or the intercalatory) month, men and women observe a
number of vows, in respect of which, every morning and evening, they take
turns round holy images and objects.133
People observing the chāturmās-vrat (or monsoon vow), called Tulsi-
vivāha (marriage of Tulsi), worship that plant and take turns round it on
every eleventh day of both the bright and the dark halves of each of the
monsoon months.133 The gautrat-vrat (gau = cow) necessitates
perambulations round a cow, and the Vat-Sāvitri-vrat round the Vad or
banyan tree. The banyan tree is also circumambulated on the Kapilashashthi
day (the sixth day of the bright half of Mārgashīrsha, the second month) and
on the Amāvāsyā or the last day of Bhādrapada (the eleventh month).134
Women who are anxious to prolong the lives of their husbands take turns
round the Tulsi plant or the banyan tree. At each turn they wind a fine
cotton thread. At the end of the last turn, they throw red lac and rice over
the tree and place a betelnut and a pice or a half-anna piece before it.135
The Shāstras authorise four pradakshinās (or perambulations) for Vishnu,
three for the goddesses, and a half (or one and a half)136 for Shiva.137 But
the usual number of pradakshinās is either 5, 7, 21 or 108. In taking turns
round the image of Vishnu, one must take care to keep one’s right side
towards the image, while in the case of Shiva, one must not cross the
Page 46
jalādhari138 or the small passage for conducting water poured over the
Shiva-linga.137
Sometimes in pradakshinās the votary repeats the name of the deity round
which the turns are taken while the priest recites the names of the gods in
Shlokas.139 Sometimes the following verse is repeated.140
पापोऽहं पापकर्माऽहं पापात्मा पापसंभवः ।
त्राहि मां पुण्डरीकाक्ष सर्वपापहरो भव ॥
यानि कानि च पापानि जन्मांतरकृ तानि च ।
तानि तानि विनश्यन्तु प्रदक्षिणपदेपदे ॥
‘I am sinful, the doer of sin, a sinful soul and am born of sin. O lotus-eyed
One! protect me and take away all sins from me. Whatever sins I may have
committed now as well as in my former births, may every one of them
perish at each footstep of my pradakshinā.’
The recitation and the turns are supposed to free the soul from the pherā of
lakh-choryasi141. Alms are given many times to the poor after
pradakshinās.142
The reason why pradakshinās are taken during the day is that they have to
be taken in the presence of the sun, the great everlasting witness of all
human actions.143
Shiva-linga.137
Sometimes in pradakshinās the votary repeats the name of the deity round
which the turns are taken while the priest recites the names of the gods in
Shlokas.139 Sometimes the following verse is repeated.140
पापोऽहं पापकर्माऽहं पापात्मा पापसंभवः ।
त्राहि मां पुण्डरीकाक्ष सर्वपापहरो भव ॥
यानि कानि च पापानि जन्मांतरकृ तानि च ।
तानि तानि विनश्यन्तु प्रदक्षिणपदेपदे ॥
‘I am sinful, the doer of sin, a sinful soul and am born of sin. O lotus-eyed
One! protect me and take away all sins from me. Whatever sins I may have
committed now as well as in my former births, may every one of them
perish at each footstep of my pradakshinā.’
The recitation and the turns are supposed to free the soul from the pherā of
lakh-choryasi141. Alms are given many times to the poor after
pradakshinās.142
The reason why pradakshinās are taken during the day is that they have to
be taken in the presence of the sun, the great everlasting witness of all
human actions.143
Page 47
As all seeds and vegetation receive their nourishment from solar and lunar
rays, the latter are believed in the same way to help embryonic
development.144
The heat of the sun causes the trees and plants to give forth new sprouts,
and therefore he is called ‘Savita’ or Producer.145 Solar and lunar rays are
also believed to facilitate and expedite delivery.146 The medical science of
the Hindus declares the Amāvāsya (new-moon day) and Pūrnima (full-
moon day) days—on both of which days the influence of the sun and the
moon is most powerful—to be so critical for child-bearing women as to
cause, at times, premature delivery.147 Hence, before delivery, women are
made to take turns in the sunlight and also in moonlight, in order to
invigorate the fœtus, thus securing that their delivery may be easy. [The
assistance rendered by solar rays in facilitating the delivery is said to impart
a hot temperament to the child so born, and that by the lunar rays a cool
one.]148 After delivery, a woman should glance at the sun with her hands
clasped, and should offer rice and red flowers to him.149 Sitting in the sun
after delivery is considered beneficial to women enfeebled by the effort.150
It is a cure for the paleness due to exhaustion,151 and infuses new vigour.152
The Bhils believe that the exposure of a new-born child to the sun confers
upon the child immunity from injury by cold and heat.153
The practice of making recently delivered women sit in the sun does not
seem to be widespread, nor does it prevail in Kathiawar. In Kathiawar, on
the contrary, women are kept secluded from sunlight in a dark room at the
time of child-birth, and are warmed by artificial means.154 On the other
hand, it is customary in many places to bring a woman into the sunlight
after a certain period has elapsed since her delivery. The duration of this
period varies from four days to a month and a quarter. Sometimes a woman
is not allowed to see sunlight after child-birth until she presents the child to
the sun with certain ceremonies, either on the fourth or the sixth day from
the date of her delivery.155
rays, the latter are believed in the same way to help embryonic
development.144
The heat of the sun causes the trees and plants to give forth new sprouts,
and therefore he is called ‘Savita’ or Producer.145 Solar and lunar rays are
also believed to facilitate and expedite delivery.146 The medical science of
the Hindus declares the Amāvāsya (new-moon day) and Pūrnima (full-
moon day) days—on both of which days the influence of the sun and the
moon is most powerful—to be so critical for child-bearing women as to
cause, at times, premature delivery.147 Hence, before delivery, women are
made to take turns in the sunlight and also in moonlight, in order to
invigorate the fœtus, thus securing that their delivery may be easy. [The
assistance rendered by solar rays in facilitating the delivery is said to impart
a hot temperament to the child so born, and that by the lunar rays a cool
one.]148 After delivery, a woman should glance at the sun with her hands
clasped, and should offer rice and red flowers to him.149 Sitting in the sun
after delivery is considered beneficial to women enfeebled by the effort.150
It is a cure for the paleness due to exhaustion,151 and infuses new vigour.152
The Bhils believe that the exposure of a new-born child to the sun confers
upon the child immunity from injury by cold and heat.153
The practice of making recently delivered women sit in the sun does not
seem to be widespread, nor does it prevail in Kathiawar. In Kathiawar, on
the contrary, women are kept secluded from sunlight in a dark room at the
time of child-birth, and are warmed by artificial means.154 On the other
hand, it is customary in many places to bring a woman into the sunlight
after a certain period has elapsed since her delivery. The duration of this
period varies from four days to a month and a quarter. Sometimes a woman
is not allowed to see sunlight after child-birth until she presents the child to
the sun with certain ceremonies, either on the fourth or the sixth day from
the date of her delivery.155
Page 48
A ceremony called the Shashthi-Karma is performed on the sixth day after
the birth of a child, and the Nāmkaran ceremony—the ceremony of giving a
name—on the twelfth day. The mother of the child is sometimes not
allowed to see the sun before the completion of these ceremonies.156
Occasionally, on the eleventh day after child-birth, the mother is made to
take a bath in the sun.157
Exactly a month and a quarter from the date of delivery a woman is taken to
a neighbouring stream to offer prayers to the sun and to fetch water thence
in an earthen vessel. This ceremony is known as Zarmāzaryan.158 Seven
small betel-nuts are used in the ceremony. They are carried by the mother,
and distributed by her to barren women, who believe that, by eating the nuts
from her hand, they are likely to conceive.159
In difficult labour cases, chakrāvā water is sometimes given to women. The
chakrāvā is a figure of seven cross lines drawn on a bell-metal dish, over
which the finest white dust has been spread. This figure is shown to the
woman in labour: water is then poured into the dish and offered her to
drink.160 The figure is said to be a representation of Chitrangad.161 It is also
believed to be connected with a story in the Mahābhāarata.162 Subhadrā, the
sister of god Krishna and the wife of Arjuna, one of the five Pāndavas,
conceived a demon, an enemy of Krishna. The demon would not leave the
womb of Subhadrā even twelve months after the date of her conception, and
began to harass the mother. Krishna, the incarnation of god, knowing of the
demon’s presence and the cause of his delay, took pity on the afflicted
condition of his sister and read chakrāvā, (Chakravyūha) a book consisting
of seven chapters and explaining the method of conquering a labyrinthine
fort with seven cross-lined forts. Krishna completed six chapters, and
promised to teach the demon the seventh, provided he came out. The demon
ceased troubling Subhadrā and emerged from the womb. He was called
Abhimanyu. Krishna never read the seventh chapter for then Abhimanyu
would have been invincible and able to take his life. This ignorance of the
seventh chapter cost Abhimanyu his life on the field of Kuru-kshetra in
conquering the seven cross-lined labyrinthine forts. As the art of conquering
a labyrinthine fort when taught to a demon in the womb facilitated the
the birth of a child, and the Nāmkaran ceremony—the ceremony of giving a
name—on the twelfth day. The mother of the child is sometimes not
allowed to see the sun before the completion of these ceremonies.156
Occasionally, on the eleventh day after child-birth, the mother is made to
take a bath in the sun.157
Exactly a month and a quarter from the date of delivery a woman is taken to
a neighbouring stream to offer prayers to the sun and to fetch water thence
in an earthen vessel. This ceremony is known as Zarmāzaryan.158 Seven
small betel-nuts are used in the ceremony. They are carried by the mother,
and distributed by her to barren women, who believe that, by eating the nuts
from her hand, they are likely to conceive.159
In difficult labour cases, chakrāvā water is sometimes given to women. The
chakrāvā is a figure of seven cross lines drawn on a bell-metal dish, over
which the finest white dust has been spread. This figure is shown to the
woman in labour: water is then poured into the dish and offered her to
drink.160 The figure is said to be a representation of Chitrangad.161 It is also
believed to be connected with a story in the Mahābhāarata.162 Subhadrā, the
sister of god Krishna and the wife of Arjuna, one of the five Pāndavas,
conceived a demon, an enemy of Krishna. The demon would not leave the
womb of Subhadrā even twelve months after the date of her conception, and
began to harass the mother. Krishna, the incarnation of god, knowing of the
demon’s presence and the cause of his delay, took pity on the afflicted
condition of his sister and read chakrāvā, (Chakravyūha) a book consisting
of seven chapters and explaining the method of conquering a labyrinthine
fort with seven cross-lined forts. Krishna completed six chapters, and
promised to teach the demon the seventh, provided he came out. The demon
ceased troubling Subhadrā and emerged from the womb. He was called
Abhimanyu. Krishna never read the seventh chapter for then Abhimanyu
would have been invincible and able to take his life. This ignorance of the
seventh chapter cost Abhimanyu his life on the field of Kuru-kshetra in
conquering the seven cross-lined labyrinthine forts. As the art of conquering
a labyrinthine fort when taught to a demon in the womb facilitated the
Page 49
delivery of Subhadrā, a belief spread that drinking in the figure of the seven
cross-lined labyrinthine fort would facilitate the delivery of all women who
had difficulties in child-birth.162
The figure Swastika (literally auspicious), drawn as shown below, is an
auspicious sign, and is believed to be a mark of good luck and a source of
blessings. It is one of the sixteen line-marks on the sole of the lotus-like feet
of the god Ishwar, the Creator of the Universe.163 The fame of the good
effects of the Swastika figure is said to have been first diffused throughout
society by Nārad-Muni, as instructed by the god Brahma.164
Various conjectures have been made concerning the origin of this figure.
The following explanation is found in a work named Siddhāntsar. The
Eternal Sat or Essence, that has neither beginning nor end nor any maker,
exhibits all the religious principles in a chakra or a wheel-form. This round
shape has no circumference; but any point in it is a centre; which being
specified, the explanation of the whole universe in a circle is easy. Thus the
figure ☉ indicates the creation of the universe from Sat or Essence. The
centre with the circumference is the womb, the place of creation of the
universe. The centre then expanding into a line, the diameter thus formed
represents the male principle, linga-rūp, that is the producer, through the
medium of activity in the great womb or mahā-yoni. When the line assumes
the form of a cross, it explains the creation of the universe by an
unprecedented combination of the two distinct natures, animate and
inanimate. The circumference being removed, the remaining cross
represents the creation of the world. The Swastika, or Sathia, as it is
cross-lined labyrinthine fort would facilitate the delivery of all women who
had difficulties in child-birth.162
The figure Swastika (literally auspicious), drawn as shown below, is an
auspicious sign, and is believed to be a mark of good luck and a source of
blessings. It is one of the sixteen line-marks on the sole of the lotus-like feet
of the god Ishwar, the Creator of the Universe.163 The fame of the good
effects of the Swastika figure is said to have been first diffused throughout
society by Nārad-Muni, as instructed by the god Brahma.164
Various conjectures have been made concerning the origin of this figure.
The following explanation is found in a work named Siddhāntsar. The
Eternal Sat or Essence, that has neither beginning nor end nor any maker,
exhibits all the religious principles in a chakra or a wheel-form. This round
shape has no circumference; but any point in it is a centre; which being
specified, the explanation of the whole universe in a circle is easy. Thus the
figure ☉ indicates the creation of the universe from Sat or Essence. The
centre with the circumference is the womb, the place of creation of the
universe. The centre then expanding into a line, the diameter thus formed
represents the male principle, linga-rūp, that is the producer, through the
medium of activity in the great womb or mahā-yoni. When the line assumes
the form of a cross, it explains the creation of the universe by an
unprecedented combination of the two distinct natures, animate and
inanimate. The circumference being removed, the remaining cross
represents the creation of the world. The Swastika, or Sathia, as it is
Page 50
sometimes called, in its winged form (卍) suggests the possession of
creative powers by the opposite natures, animate and inanimate.165
Another theory is that an image of the eight-leaved lotus, springing from the
navel of Vishnu, one of the Hindu Trinity, was formerly drawn on
auspicious occasions as a sign of good luck. The exact imitation of the
original being difficult, the latter assumed a variety of forms, one of which
is the Swastika.166
Some people see an image of the god Ganpati in the figure. That god being
the master and protector of all auspicious ceremonies has to be invoked on
all such occasions. The incapacity of the devotees to draw a faithful picture
of Ganpati gave rise to a number of forms which came to be known by the
name of Swastika.167
There are more ways than one of drawing the Swastika, as shown below,
but the original form was of the shape of a cross. The first consonant of the
Gujarati alphabet, ka, now drawn thus ક, was also originally drawn in the
form of a cross (+). Some persons therefore suppose that the Swastika may
creative powers by the opposite natures, animate and inanimate.165
Another theory is that an image of the eight-leaved lotus, springing from the
navel of Vishnu, one of the Hindu Trinity, was formerly drawn on
auspicious occasions as a sign of good luck. The exact imitation of the
original being difficult, the latter assumed a variety of forms, one of which
is the Swastika.166
Some people see an image of the god Ganpati in the figure. That god being
the master and protector of all auspicious ceremonies has to be invoked on
all such occasions. The incapacity of the devotees to draw a faithful picture
of Ganpati gave rise to a number of forms which came to be known by the
name of Swastika.167
There are more ways than one of drawing the Swastika, as shown below,
but the original form was of the shape of a cross. The first consonant of the
Gujarati alphabet, ka, now drawn thus ક, was also originally drawn in the
form of a cross (+). Some persons therefore suppose that the Swastika may
Page 51
be nothing more than the letter ક (ka), written in the old style and standing
for the word kalyān or welfare.168
Though the Swastika is widely regarded as the symbol of the sun, some
people ascribe the figure to different deities, viz., to Agni,169 to Ganpati,170
to Laxmi,171 to Shiva,172 besides the sun. It is also said to represent Swasti,
the daughter of Brahma, who received the boon from her father of being
worshipped on all auspicious occasions.173 Most persons, however, regard
the Swastika as the symbol of the sun. It is said that particular figures are
prescribed as suitable for the installation of particular deities: a triangle for
one, a square for another, a pentagon for a third, and the Swastika for the
sun.174 The Swastika is worshipped in the Ratnagiri district, and regarded as
the symbol as well as the seat of the Sun-god.175 The people of the Thana
district believe the Swastika to be the central point of the helmet of the sun;
and a vow, called the Swastika-vrat, is observed by women in its honour.
The woman draws a figure of the Swastika and worships it daily during the
Chāturmās (the four months of the rainy season), at the expiration of which
she presents a Brahman with a golden or silver plate with the Swastika
drawn upon it.176
A number of other ideas are prevalent about the significance of the
Swastika. Some persons believe that it indicates the four directions;177
some think that it represents the four mārgas—courses or objects of human
desires—viz., (1) Dharma, religion; (2) Artha, wealth; (3) Kām, love; (4)
Moksha, salvation.178 Some again take it to be an image of the ladder
leading to the heavens.179 Others suppose it to be a representation of the
terrestrial globe, and the four piles of corn placed in the figure, as shown
below (p. 16) represent the four mountains, Udayāchala, Astāchal, Meru
and Mandārāchala.180 The Swastika is also believed to be the foundation-
stone of the universe.181
The Swastika is much in favour with the gods as a seat or couch, and as
soon as it is drawn it is immediately occupied by some deity.182 It is
customary therefore to draw the Swastika on most auspicious and festive
occasions, such as marriage and thread ceremonies, the first pregnancy
for the word kalyān or welfare.168
Though the Swastika is widely regarded as the symbol of the sun, some
people ascribe the figure to different deities, viz., to Agni,169 to Ganpati,170
to Laxmi,171 to Shiva,172 besides the sun. It is also said to represent Swasti,
the daughter of Brahma, who received the boon from her father of being
worshipped on all auspicious occasions.173 Most persons, however, regard
the Swastika as the symbol of the sun. It is said that particular figures are
prescribed as suitable for the installation of particular deities: a triangle for
one, a square for another, a pentagon for a third, and the Swastika for the
sun.174 The Swastika is worshipped in the Ratnagiri district, and regarded as
the symbol as well as the seat of the Sun-god.175 The people of the Thana
district believe the Swastika to be the central point of the helmet of the sun;
and a vow, called the Swastika-vrat, is observed by women in its honour.
The woman draws a figure of the Swastika and worships it daily during the
Chāturmās (the four months of the rainy season), at the expiration of which
she presents a Brahman with a golden or silver plate with the Swastika
drawn upon it.176
A number of other ideas are prevalent about the significance of the
Swastika. Some persons believe that it indicates the four directions;177
some think that it represents the four mārgas—courses or objects of human
desires—viz., (1) Dharma, religion; (2) Artha, wealth; (3) Kām, love; (4)
Moksha, salvation.178 Some again take it to be an image of the ladder
leading to the heavens.179 Others suppose it to be a representation of the
terrestrial globe, and the four piles of corn placed in the figure, as shown
below (p. 16) represent the four mountains, Udayāchala, Astāchal, Meru
and Mandārāchala.180 The Swastika is also believed to be the foundation-
stone of the universe.181
The Swastika is much in favour with the gods as a seat or couch, and as
soon as it is drawn it is immediately occupied by some deity.182 It is
customary therefore to draw the Swastika on most auspicious and festive
occasions, such as marriage and thread ceremonies, the first pregnancy
Page 52
ceremonies and the Divali holidays.183 In the Konkan the Swastika is
always drawn on the Antarpāt, or the piece of cloth which is held between
the bride and the bridegroom at the time of a Hindu wedding.184 And at the
time of the Punyāha-wāchan, a ceremony which precedes a Hindu wedding,
the figure is drawn in rice and is worshipped.184 Throughout the Chāturmās
some persons paint the auspicious Swastikas, either on their thresholds or at
their doors, every morning.185
On the sixth day from the date of a child’s birth, a piece of cloth is marked
with a Swastika in red lac, the cloth is stretched on a bedstead and the child
is placed upon it.186 An account of this ceremony is to be found in the
treatises Jayantishastra, Jātakarma, and Janakālaya.186
Before joining the village-school, little boys are made to worship Saraswati,
the goddess of learning, after having installed her on a Swastika, in order
that the acquisition of learning may be facilitated.187
A Brahman host, inviting a party of brother-Brahmans to dinner, marks the
figure one (૧) against the names of those who are eligible for dakshinā, and
a Swastika against the names of those who are not eligible. These latter are
the yajamāns or patrons of the inviting Brahman, who is himself their
pūjya, i.e., deserving to be worshipped by them. A bindu or dot, in place of
the Swastika, is considered inauspicious.188
The Swastika is used in calculating the number of days taken in pilgrimage
by one’s relations, one figure being painted on the wall each day from the
date of separation.188
It is said that the Swastika when drawn on a wall is the representation of
Jogmāya. Jogmāya is a Natural Power, bringing about the union of two
separated beings.189
The Jains paint the Swastika in the way noted below and explain the figure
in the following manner:—The four projectors indicate four kinds of souls:
viz., (1) Manushya or human, (2) Tiryach or of lower animals, (3) Deva or
divine, (4) Naraki or hellish. The three circular marks denote the three
always drawn on the Antarpāt, or the piece of cloth which is held between
the bride and the bridegroom at the time of a Hindu wedding.184 And at the
time of the Punyāha-wāchan, a ceremony which precedes a Hindu wedding,
the figure is drawn in rice and is worshipped.184 Throughout the Chāturmās
some persons paint the auspicious Swastikas, either on their thresholds or at
their doors, every morning.185
On the sixth day from the date of a child’s birth, a piece of cloth is marked
with a Swastika in red lac, the cloth is stretched on a bedstead and the child
is placed upon it.186 An account of this ceremony is to be found in the
treatises Jayantishastra, Jātakarma, and Janakālaya.186
Before joining the village-school, little boys are made to worship Saraswati,
the goddess of learning, after having installed her on a Swastika, in order
that the acquisition of learning may be facilitated.187
A Brahman host, inviting a party of brother-Brahmans to dinner, marks the
figure one (૧) against the names of those who are eligible for dakshinā, and
a Swastika against the names of those who are not eligible. These latter are
the yajamāns or patrons of the inviting Brahman, who is himself their
pūjya, i.e., deserving to be worshipped by them. A bindu or dot, in place of
the Swastika, is considered inauspicious.188
The Swastika is used in calculating the number of days taken in pilgrimage
by one’s relations, one figure being painted on the wall each day from the
date of separation.188
It is said that the Swastika when drawn on a wall is the representation of
Jogmāya. Jogmāya is a Natural Power, bringing about the union of two
separated beings.189
The Jains paint the Swastika in the way noted below and explain the figure
in the following manner:—The four projectors indicate four kinds of souls:
viz., (1) Manushya or human, (2) Tiryach or of lower animals, (3) Deva or
divine, (4) Naraki or hellish. The three circular marks denote the three
Page 53
Ratnas or jewels, viz., (1) Jnān or knowledge, (2) Darshana or faith, (3)
Charita or good conduct; and the semi-circular curve, at the top of the three
circles, indicates salvation.190
Every Jain devotee, while visiting the images of his gods, draws a Sathia
(Swastika)191 before them and places a valuable object over it. The sign is
held so sacred that a Jain woman has it embroidered on the reticule or
kothali in which she carries rice to holy places.192
‘I am the very light of the sun and the moon,’ observes Lord Krishna in his
dialogue with Arjuna,193 and the moon also receives divine honours like the
sun. Moon-worship secures wealth, augments progeny, and betters the
condition of milch-cattle.194 The suitable days for such worship are the
second and the fourth days of the bright half of every month (Dwitīya or Bīj
and Chaturthi or Choth, respectively) and every full-moon day (Purnima or
Punema). On either of these days the devotees of Chandra (the moon) fast
for the whole of the day and take their food only after the moon has risen
and after they have seen and worshipped her.195 Some dainty dish such as
kansār,196 or plantains and puris,197 is specially cooked for the occasion.
A sight of the moon on the second day of the bright half of every month is
considered auspicious. After seeing the moon on this day some people also
Charita or good conduct; and the semi-circular curve, at the top of the three
circles, indicates salvation.190
Every Jain devotee, while visiting the images of his gods, draws a Sathia
(Swastika)191 before them and places a valuable object over it. The sign is
held so sacred that a Jain woman has it embroidered on the reticule or
kothali in which she carries rice to holy places.192
‘I am the very light of the sun and the moon,’ observes Lord Krishna in his
dialogue with Arjuna,193 and the moon also receives divine honours like the
sun. Moon-worship secures wealth, augments progeny, and betters the
condition of milch-cattle.194 The suitable days for such worship are the
second and the fourth days of the bright half of every month (Dwitīya or Bīj
and Chaturthi or Choth, respectively) and every full-moon day (Purnima or
Punema). On either of these days the devotees of Chandra (the moon) fast
for the whole of the day and take their food only after the moon has risen
and after they have seen and worshipped her.195 Some dainty dish such as
kansār,196 or plantains and puris,197 is specially cooked for the occasion.
A sight of the moon on the second day of the bright half of every month is
considered auspicious. After seeing the moon on this day some people also
Page 54
look at silver and gold coins for luck.198 The belief in the value of this
practice is so strong that, immediately after seeing the moon, people refrain
from beholding any other object. Their idea is that silver, which looks as
bright as the moon, will be obtained in abundance if they look at a silver
piece immediately after seeing the moon.199 Moon worship on this day is
also supposed to guarantee the safety of persons at sea.200 In the south, milk
and sugar is offered to the moon after the usual worship, and learned
Brahmans are invited to partake of it. What remains after satisfying the
Brahmans is divided among the community.199 On this day, those who keep
cattle do not churn whey nor curd milk nor sell it, but consume the whole
supply in feasts to friends and neighbours.201 The Ahirs and Rabaris
especially are very particular about the use of milk in feasts only: for they
believe that their cattle are thereby preserved in good condition.202
The fourth day of the dark half of every month is the day for the observance
of the chaturthi-vrat (or choth-vrat). This vrat is observed in honour of the
god Ganpati and by men only. The devotees fast on this day, bathe at night
after seeing the moon, light a ghi lamp, and offer prayers to the moon. They
also recite a pāth containing verses in honour of Ganpati, and, after
worshipping that god, take their food consisting of some specially prepared
dish. This vrat is said to fulfil the dreams of the devotees.203
The day for the chaturthi-vrat in the month of Bhādrapad (the 11th month
of the Gujarati Hindus) is the fourth day of the bright half instead of the
fourth day of the dark half,204 and on this day (Ganesh Chaturthi205) the
moon is not worshipped. The very sight of her is regarded as ominous, and
is purposely avoided.206 The story is that once upon a time the gods went
out for a ride in their respective conveyances. It so happened that the god
Ganpati fell off his usual charger, the rat, and this awkward mishap drew a
smile from Chandra (the moon). Ganpati, not relishing the joke, became
angry and cursed Chandra saying that no mortal would care to see his face
on that day (which happened to be the fourth day of the bright half of
Bhādrapad). If any one happens to see the moon even unwittingly on this
day, he may expect trouble very soon.207 There is one way, however, out of
the difficulty, and that is to throw stones on the houses of neighbours. When
practice is so strong that, immediately after seeing the moon, people refrain
from beholding any other object. Their idea is that silver, which looks as
bright as the moon, will be obtained in abundance if they look at a silver
piece immediately after seeing the moon.199 Moon worship on this day is
also supposed to guarantee the safety of persons at sea.200 In the south, milk
and sugar is offered to the moon after the usual worship, and learned
Brahmans are invited to partake of it. What remains after satisfying the
Brahmans is divided among the community.199 On this day, those who keep
cattle do not churn whey nor curd milk nor sell it, but consume the whole
supply in feasts to friends and neighbours.201 The Ahirs and Rabaris
especially are very particular about the use of milk in feasts only: for they
believe that their cattle are thereby preserved in good condition.202
The fourth day of the dark half of every month is the day for the observance
of the chaturthi-vrat (or choth-vrat). This vrat is observed in honour of the
god Ganpati and by men only. The devotees fast on this day, bathe at night
after seeing the moon, light a ghi lamp, and offer prayers to the moon. They
also recite a pāth containing verses in honour of Ganpati, and, after
worshipping that god, take their food consisting of some specially prepared
dish. This vrat is said to fulfil the dreams of the devotees.203
The day for the chaturthi-vrat in the month of Bhādrapad (the 11th month
of the Gujarati Hindus) is the fourth day of the bright half instead of the
fourth day of the dark half,204 and on this day (Ganesh Chaturthi205) the
moon is not worshipped. The very sight of her is regarded as ominous, and
is purposely avoided.206 The story is that once upon a time the gods went
out for a ride in their respective conveyances. It so happened that the god
Ganpati fell off his usual charger, the rat, and this awkward mishap drew a
smile from Chandra (the moon). Ganpati, not relishing the joke, became
angry and cursed Chandra saying that no mortal would care to see his face
on that day (which happened to be the fourth day of the bright half of
Bhādrapad). If any one happens to see the moon even unwittingly on this
day, he may expect trouble very soon.207 There is one way, however, out of
the difficulty, and that is to throw stones on the houses of neighbours. When
Page 55
the neighbours utter abuse in return, the abuse atones for the sin of having
looked at the moon on the forbidden night. The day is therefore called (in
Gujarat) Dagad-choth, i.e., the Choth of stones.208
On the fourth day of the dark half of Phālgun (the 5th month of Gujarati
Hindus) some villagers fast for the whole of the day and remain standing
from sunset till the moon rises. They break their fast after seeing the moon.
The day is, therefore, called ubhi (i.e., standing) choth.209
Virgins sometimes observe a vow on Poshi-Punema or the full-moon day of
Pausha (the 3rd month of the Gujarati Hindus). On this day a virgin
prepares her evening meal with her own hands on the upper terrace of her
house. She then bores a hole through the centre of a loaf, and observes the
moon through it, repeating while doing so a verse210 which means: O
Poshi-Punemadi, khichadi (rice and pulse mixed together) is cooked on the
terrace, and the sister of the brother takes her meal.211 The meal usually
consists either of rice and milk or of rice cooked in milk and sweetened
with sugar, or of kansār. She has to ask the permission of her brother or
brothers before she may take her food; and if the brother refuses his
permission, she has to fast for the whole of the day.212 The whole ceremony
is believed to prolong the lives of her brothers and her future husband. The
moon is also worshipped at the time of griha-shānti, i.e., the ceremonies
performed before inhabiting a newly-built house.213
If the moon is unfavourable to a man born under a particular constellation,
on account of his occupying either the 6th, the 8th or the 12th square in a
kundali214 (see below) prayers are offered to the moon; and if the occasion
is a marriage, a bell-metal dish, full of rice, is presented to Brahmans.215
looked at the moon on the forbidden night. The day is therefore called (in
Gujarat) Dagad-choth, i.e., the Choth of stones.208
On the fourth day of the dark half of Phālgun (the 5th month of Gujarati
Hindus) some villagers fast for the whole of the day and remain standing
from sunset till the moon rises. They break their fast after seeing the moon.
The day is, therefore, called ubhi (i.e., standing) choth.209
Virgins sometimes observe a vow on Poshi-Punema or the full-moon day of
Pausha (the 3rd month of the Gujarati Hindus). On this day a virgin
prepares her evening meal with her own hands on the upper terrace of her
house. She then bores a hole through the centre of a loaf, and observes the
moon through it, repeating while doing so a verse210 which means: O
Poshi-Punemadi, khichadi (rice and pulse mixed together) is cooked on the
terrace, and the sister of the brother takes her meal.211 The meal usually
consists either of rice and milk or of rice cooked in milk and sweetened
with sugar, or of kansār. She has to ask the permission of her brother or
brothers before she may take her food; and if the brother refuses his
permission, she has to fast for the whole of the day.212 The whole ceremony
is believed to prolong the lives of her brothers and her future husband. The
moon is also worshipped at the time of griha-shānti, i.e., the ceremonies
performed before inhabiting a newly-built house.213
If the moon is unfavourable to a man born under a particular constellation,
on account of his occupying either the 6th, the 8th or the 12th square in a
kundali214 (see below) prayers are offered to the moon; and if the occasion
is a marriage, a bell-metal dish, full of rice, is presented to Brahmans.215
Page 56
The appearance of the moon and the position of the horns of her crescent at
particular times are carefully watched as omens of future events. Cultivators
believe that if the moon is visible on the second day of the bright half of
Āshādh (the 9th month of Gujarati Hindus), the sesamum crops of that
season will be abundant; but if the moon be hidden from sight on that day,
the weather will be cloudy during the whole of Āshādh, and will prove
unfavourable to vegetable growth.216 If the moon appears reddish on a Bīj
day (or the second day of the bright half of a month), and if the northern
horn of the crescent be high up, prices in the market are believed to rise; if,
on the other hand, it is low, it prognosticates a fall in prices. If the two horns
are on a level, current prices will continue.216
Similarly, the northern horn of the crescent, if it is high up on the Bīj day of
Āshādh, augurs abundant rainfall; if it is low, it foreshadows a season of
drought.217
If the moon presents a greenish aspect on the full-moon day of Āshādh,
excessive rains may be expected in a few days; if on that day she rises quite
clear and reddish, there is very little hope of good rains; if she is partly
covered by clouds when she rises and then gets clear of the clouds, and then
again disappears in the clouds in three ghadis,218 three pohors,218 or three
days, rain is sure to fall.219
particular times are carefully watched as omens of future events. Cultivators
believe that if the moon is visible on the second day of the bright half of
Āshādh (the 9th month of Gujarati Hindus), the sesamum crops of that
season will be abundant; but if the moon be hidden from sight on that day,
the weather will be cloudy during the whole of Āshādh, and will prove
unfavourable to vegetable growth.216 If the moon appears reddish on a Bīj
day (or the second day of the bright half of a month), and if the northern
horn of the crescent be high up, prices in the market are believed to rise; if,
on the other hand, it is low, it prognosticates a fall in prices. If the two horns
are on a level, current prices will continue.216
Similarly, the northern horn of the crescent, if it is high up on the Bīj day of
Āshādh, augurs abundant rainfall; if it is low, it foreshadows a season of
drought.217
If the moon presents a greenish aspect on the full-moon day of Āshādh,
excessive rains may be expected in a few days; if on that day she rises quite
clear and reddish, there is very little hope of good rains; if she is partly
covered by clouds when she rises and then gets clear of the clouds, and then
again disappears in the clouds in three ghadis,218 three pohors,218 or three
days, rain is sure to fall.219
Page 57
If on the 5th day of the bright half of Chaitra, the moon appears to the west
of the Rohini constellation, the prices of cotton are believed to rise; if to the
east, they are said to fall; and if in the same line, the current rates are
believed to be likely to continue.220
The Bīj (2nd day) and the ninth day of Āshādh (the 9th month of the
Gujaratis and the 4th month of the Hindus of the Deccan) falling on a
Sunday is a combination that foretells excessive heat. If they fall on
Wednesday, intense cold is said to be the result. Their occurring on a
Tuesday, threatens absence of rains, and on a Monday, a Thursday or a
Friday, foreshadows excessive rainfall.221
Thunder on Jeth-Sud-Bīj, or the second day of the bright half of Jyeshtha, is
a bad omen and threatens famine.222
The spots on the moon have given rise to numerous beliefs, mythological as
well as fanciful. One of them is that they are the result of a curse,
pronounced by the sage Gautama on Chandra. Indra, the god of rain, was
infatuated with the charms of Ahalyā, the wife of Gautama, and with the
help of Chandra laid a cunning plot to gain his ignoble object. Accordingly,
one night, Chandra set earlier than usual, when Indra assumed the form of a
cock and crowed at midnight in order to deceive Gautama into the belief
that it was dawn, and therefore his time for going to the Ganges to perform
his religious services. The trick was successful, and the holy sage being thus
got rid of, Indra assumed the form of Gautama himself and approached
Ahalyā, who was surprised to see her husband (as she thought) so quickly
returned. The wily god allayed her suspicions by explaining that it was not
yet time for the morning ceremonies, and thus enjoyed the favours due to
her husband. Gautama, in the meanwhile, finding the water of the Ganges
cool and placid, and discovering that it was not yet dawn, returned to his
hermitage. On reaching home he detected the treachery of Indra, who tried
to escape in the disguise of a tom-cat. The exasperated sage then cursed
Indra, Chandra and his wife: Indra to have a thousand sores on his person,
Ahalyā to turn into a stone, and Chandra to have a stain on his fair face.223
of the Rohini constellation, the prices of cotton are believed to rise; if to the
east, they are said to fall; and if in the same line, the current rates are
believed to be likely to continue.220
The Bīj (2nd day) and the ninth day of Āshādh (the 9th month of the
Gujaratis and the 4th month of the Hindus of the Deccan) falling on a
Sunday is a combination that foretells excessive heat. If they fall on
Wednesday, intense cold is said to be the result. Their occurring on a
Tuesday, threatens absence of rains, and on a Monday, a Thursday or a
Friday, foreshadows excessive rainfall.221
Thunder on Jeth-Sud-Bīj, or the second day of the bright half of Jyeshtha, is
a bad omen and threatens famine.222
The spots on the moon have given rise to numerous beliefs, mythological as
well as fanciful. One of them is that they are the result of a curse,
pronounced by the sage Gautama on Chandra. Indra, the god of rain, was
infatuated with the charms of Ahalyā, the wife of Gautama, and with the
help of Chandra laid a cunning plot to gain his ignoble object. Accordingly,
one night, Chandra set earlier than usual, when Indra assumed the form of a
cock and crowed at midnight in order to deceive Gautama into the belief
that it was dawn, and therefore his time for going to the Ganges to perform
his religious services. The trick was successful, and the holy sage being thus
got rid of, Indra assumed the form of Gautama himself and approached
Ahalyā, who was surprised to see her husband (as she thought) so quickly
returned. The wily god allayed her suspicions by explaining that it was not
yet time for the morning ceremonies, and thus enjoyed the favours due to
her husband. Gautama, in the meanwhile, finding the water of the Ganges
cool and placid, and discovering that it was not yet dawn, returned to his
hermitage. On reaching home he detected the treachery of Indra, who tried
to escape in the disguise of a tom-cat. The exasperated sage then cursed
Indra, Chandra and his wife: Indra to have a thousand sores on his person,
Ahalyā to turn into a stone, and Chandra to have a stain on his fair face.223
Page 58
Another mythological story is that Daksha Prajāpati, the son of Brahmā,
gave all his twenty-seven daughters in marriage to Chandra, who was
inspired with love for one of them only, named Rohini, the most beautiful
of them all. The slighted twenty-six sisters complained to their father,
Daksha, of Chandra’s preference for Rohini. Daksha in anger cursed
Chandra to be attacked by consumption (which is supposed to be the reason
of the waning of the moon) and his face to be marred by a stain.224
The curse of Gautama and the curse of Daksha are also supposed to be
reasons of the waxing and the waning of the moon.
Another belief regarding the moon-spots is that when the head of Ganpati
was severed by Shiva’s trident, it flew off and fell into the chariot of the
moon. The spots are either the head itself225 or are due to drops of blood
fallen from the flying severed head.226
The spots are also said to be explained by the fact of the image of god
Krishna or Vishnu227 residing in the heart of the moon who, as a devotee of
Vishnu, holds his image dear to his heart.228
The moon is often called mrigānka (lit. deer-marked) and mriga-lānchhana
(lit. deer-stained); and a further explanation of the spots in this connection
is that the moon-god took into his lap a strayed deer, out of compassion, and
thus his lap became stained.229 Jains believe that in the nether parts of the
moon’s vimān or vehicle, there is an image of a deer whose shadow is seen
in the spots.230
Some persons declare the spots to be a shami tree (prosopis spicigera).231
The belief of the masses in Gujarat is said to be that the spot on the moon’s
disc is the seat of an old woman, who sits spinning her wheel with a goat
tethered near her.232 If the droppings of the goat were to fall on earth,
departed souls would return to the earth.233
It is said that a child and a tree are never seen to grow except during the
night. Such growth is therefore held to be due to lunar rays.234 As all trees,
plants, etc., thrive owing to the influence of the moon, the moon-god is
gave all his twenty-seven daughters in marriage to Chandra, who was
inspired with love for one of them only, named Rohini, the most beautiful
of them all. The slighted twenty-six sisters complained to their father,
Daksha, of Chandra’s preference for Rohini. Daksha in anger cursed
Chandra to be attacked by consumption (which is supposed to be the reason
of the waning of the moon) and his face to be marred by a stain.224
The curse of Gautama and the curse of Daksha are also supposed to be
reasons of the waxing and the waning of the moon.
Another belief regarding the moon-spots is that when the head of Ganpati
was severed by Shiva’s trident, it flew off and fell into the chariot of the
moon. The spots are either the head itself225 or are due to drops of blood
fallen from the flying severed head.226
The spots are also said to be explained by the fact of the image of god
Krishna or Vishnu227 residing in the heart of the moon who, as a devotee of
Vishnu, holds his image dear to his heart.228
The moon is often called mrigānka (lit. deer-marked) and mriga-lānchhana
(lit. deer-stained); and a further explanation of the spots in this connection
is that the moon-god took into his lap a strayed deer, out of compassion, and
thus his lap became stained.229 Jains believe that in the nether parts of the
moon’s vimān or vehicle, there is an image of a deer whose shadow is seen
in the spots.230
Some persons declare the spots to be a shami tree (prosopis spicigera).231
The belief of the masses in Gujarat is said to be that the spot on the moon’s
disc is the seat of an old woman, who sits spinning her wheel with a goat
tethered near her.232 If the droppings of the goat were to fall on earth,
departed souls would return to the earth.233
It is said that a child and a tree are never seen to grow except during the
night. Such growth is therefore held to be due to lunar rays.234 As all trees,
plants, etc., thrive owing to the influence of the moon, the moon-god is
Page 59
called the lord of herbs. The moon is also a reservoir of nectar and is called
Sudhākar, i.e., one having nectarine rays.235 As the lord of herbs, the moon-
god is supposed to have the power of removing all diseases that are curable
by drugs, and of restoring men to health.236
Persons suffering from white leprosy, black leprosy, consumption and
diseases of the eyes are believed to be cured by the observance of the Bīj
and Punema vows.237 Consumption in its incipient and latter stages is also
said to be cured by exposure to the rays of the moon.238 Constant glimpses
of the moon add to the lustre of the eyes.239 On the Sharad-Punema, or the
15th day of the bright half of Ashvin (the last month of the Gujaratis and the
7th month of the Deccani Hindus), tailors pass a thread through their
needles in the belief that they will thereby gain keener eyesight.240
A cotton-wick is exposed to the moon on Sharad-Punema, and is afterwards
lighted in oil poured over the image of Hanūmān. The soot, which is thus
produced, if used on the Kali-chaudas day—the fourteenth day of the dark
half of Ashvin—is said to possess much efficacy in strengthening the
eyesight and also in preserving the eyes from any disease during the
ensuing year.241
Sweetened milk or water is exposed to moonlight during the whole of the
night of Sharad-punema (the full-moon day of Ashvin) in order to absorb
the nectarine rays of the moon, and is drunk next morning. Drinking in the
rays of the moon in this manner is believed to cure diseases caused by heat
as well as eye-diseases, and it similarly strengthens the eyesight and
improves the complexion.242 Sugar-candy thus exposed and preserved in an
air-tight jar is partaken of in small quantities every morning to gain strength
and to improve the complexion.243 The absorption of the lunar rays through
the open mouth or eyes is also believed to be of great effect in achieving
these objects.244
Once upon a time the gods and demons, by their united efforts, churned the
ocean and obtained therefrom fourteen ratnas or precious things.245 These
were distributed among them. Lakshmi, the kaustubha jewel, the Shārnga
Sudhākar, i.e., one having nectarine rays.235 As the lord of herbs, the moon-
god is supposed to have the power of removing all diseases that are curable
by drugs, and of restoring men to health.236
Persons suffering from white leprosy, black leprosy, consumption and
diseases of the eyes are believed to be cured by the observance of the Bīj
and Punema vows.237 Consumption in its incipient and latter stages is also
said to be cured by exposure to the rays of the moon.238 Constant glimpses
of the moon add to the lustre of the eyes.239 On the Sharad-Punema, or the
15th day of the bright half of Ashvin (the last month of the Gujaratis and the
7th month of the Deccani Hindus), tailors pass a thread through their
needles in the belief that they will thereby gain keener eyesight.240
A cotton-wick is exposed to the moon on Sharad-Punema, and is afterwards
lighted in oil poured over the image of Hanūmān. The soot, which is thus
produced, if used on the Kali-chaudas day—the fourteenth day of the dark
half of Ashvin—is said to possess much efficacy in strengthening the
eyesight and also in preserving the eyes from any disease during the
ensuing year.241
Sweetened milk or water is exposed to moonlight during the whole of the
night of Sharad-punema (the full-moon day of Ashvin) in order to absorb
the nectarine rays of the moon, and is drunk next morning. Drinking in the
rays of the moon in this manner is believed to cure diseases caused by heat
as well as eye-diseases, and it similarly strengthens the eyesight and
improves the complexion.242 Sugar-candy thus exposed and preserved in an
air-tight jar is partaken of in small quantities every morning to gain strength
and to improve the complexion.243 The absorption of the lunar rays through
the open mouth or eyes is also believed to be of great effect in achieving
these objects.244
Once upon a time the gods and demons, by their united efforts, churned the
ocean and obtained therefrom fourteen ratnas or precious things.245 These
were distributed among them. Lakshmi, the kaustubha jewel, the Shārnga
Page 60
bow and the conch-shell fell to the share of Vishnu, and the poison, Halāhal
visha, was disposed of to Shiva. Only two things remained, sudhā, or
nectar, and surā or liquor. To both gods and demons the nectar was the most
important of all the prizes. A hard contest ensuing between them for the
possession of it, the demons, by force, snatched the bowl of nectar from the
gods. In this disaster to the gods, Vishnu came to their help in the form of
Mohini—a most fascinating woman—and proposed to the demons that the
distribution of the immortalising fluid should be entrusted to her. On their
consent, Vishnu or Mohini, made the gods and the demons sit in opposite
rows and began first to serve the nectar to the gods. The demon Rāhu, the
son of Sinhikā, fearing lest the whole of the nectar might be exhausted
before the turn of the demons came, took the shape of a god and placed
himself amongst them between Chandra (the moon) and Sūrya (the sun).
The nectar was served to him in turn, but on Chandra and Sūrya detecting
the trick, the demon’s head was cut off by Vishnu’s discus, the sudarshana-
chakra. Rāhu however did not die: for he had tasted the nectar, which had
reached his throat. The head and trunk lived and became immortal, the
former being named Rāhu, and the latter Ketu. Both swore revenge on
Chandra and Sūrya. At times, therefore, they pounce upon Chandra and
Sūrya with the intention of devouring them. In the fight that ensues,
Chandra and Sūrya are successful only after a long contest, with the
assistance of the gods, and by the merit of the prayers that men offer.246
The reason of the eclipse is either that Chandra and Sūrya bleed in the fight
with Rāhu and their forms get blackened247; or that the demon Rāhu comes
between the two luminaries and this earth, and thus causes an eclipse248; or
because Rāhu obstructs the sun and the moon in their daily course, and this
intervention causes an eclipse249; or because Rāhu swallows the sun and the
moon, but his throat being open, they escape, their short disappearance
causing an eclipse.250
Besides the mythological story, there is a belief in Gujarat that a bhangi
(scavenger or sweeper), creditor of the sun and the moon, goes to recover
his debts due from them, and that his shadow falling against either of them
causes an eclipse.251
visha, was disposed of to Shiva. Only two things remained, sudhā, or
nectar, and surā or liquor. To both gods and demons the nectar was the most
important of all the prizes. A hard contest ensuing between them for the
possession of it, the demons, by force, snatched the bowl of nectar from the
gods. In this disaster to the gods, Vishnu came to their help in the form of
Mohini—a most fascinating woman—and proposed to the demons that the
distribution of the immortalising fluid should be entrusted to her. On their
consent, Vishnu or Mohini, made the gods and the demons sit in opposite
rows and began first to serve the nectar to the gods. The demon Rāhu, the
son of Sinhikā, fearing lest the whole of the nectar might be exhausted
before the turn of the demons came, took the shape of a god and placed
himself amongst them between Chandra (the moon) and Sūrya (the sun).
The nectar was served to him in turn, but on Chandra and Sūrya detecting
the trick, the demon’s head was cut off by Vishnu’s discus, the sudarshana-
chakra. Rāhu however did not die: for he had tasted the nectar, which had
reached his throat. The head and trunk lived and became immortal, the
former being named Rāhu, and the latter Ketu. Both swore revenge on
Chandra and Sūrya. At times, therefore, they pounce upon Chandra and
Sūrya with the intention of devouring them. In the fight that ensues,
Chandra and Sūrya are successful only after a long contest, with the
assistance of the gods, and by the merit of the prayers that men offer.246
The reason of the eclipse is either that Chandra and Sūrya bleed in the fight
with Rāhu and their forms get blackened247; or that the demon Rāhu comes
between the two luminaries and this earth, and thus causes an eclipse248; or
because Rāhu obstructs the sun and the moon in their daily course, and this
intervention causes an eclipse249; or because Rāhu swallows the sun and the
moon, but his throat being open, they escape, their short disappearance
causing an eclipse.250
Besides the mythological story, there is a belief in Gujarat that a bhangi
(scavenger or sweeper), creditor of the sun and the moon, goes to recover
his debts due from them, and that his shadow falling against either of them
causes an eclipse.251
Page 61
A third explanation of the eclipse is that the sun and the moon revolve
round the Meru mountain, and the shadow of the mountain falling upon
either of them causes an eclipse.252
It is believed amongst Hindus that eclipses occur when too much sin
accumulates in this world.253 Most Hindus regard an eclipse as ominous,
and consider the eclipse period to be unholy and inauspicious. The contact
of the demon Rāhu with the rays of the sun and the moon pollutes
everything on earth. Great precautions therefore become necessary to avoid
pollution.254 A period of three pohors255 (prahars) in the case of the moon,
and of four in the case of the sun, before the actual commencement of an
eclipse, is known as vedha, i.e., the time when the luminaries are already
under the influence of the demon. During this period and during the time of
an eclipse people observe a strict fast. Anyone taking food within the
prohibited period is considered sutaki or ceremonially impure, as if a death
had happened in his family.256 An exception is, however, made in the case
of children, pregnant women and suckling mothers who cannot bear the
privation of a strict fast. From the beginning of an eclipse to its end,
everything in the house is believed to be polluted, if touched.256
As the sun and the moon are believed to be in trouble during an eclipse,
people offer prayers to God from the beginning of the vedha for their
release. It is the custom to visit some holy place on an eclipse-day, to take a
bath there, and to read holy passages from the Shāstras. Some people,
especially Brahmans, sit devoutly on river-banks and offer prayers to the
sun.256 Much secret as well as open charity is given at the time of an
eclipse. But the receivers of charity during the actual period of an eclipse
are the lowest classes only, such as bhangis, mahārs and māngs. When an
eclipse is at its full, these people go about the streets giving vent to such
cries as āpó dān chhuté chānd (give alms for the relief of the moon!).257
Among the gifts such people receive are cotton clothes, cash, grain such as
sesamum seeds, udad, pulses, and salt.258 The gift of a pair of shoes is
much recommended.259 Sometimes a figure of the eclipsed sun or moon is
drawn in juari seeds and given away to a bhangi.260
round the Meru mountain, and the shadow of the mountain falling upon
either of them causes an eclipse.252
It is believed amongst Hindus that eclipses occur when too much sin
accumulates in this world.253 Most Hindus regard an eclipse as ominous,
and consider the eclipse period to be unholy and inauspicious. The contact
of the demon Rāhu with the rays of the sun and the moon pollutes
everything on earth. Great precautions therefore become necessary to avoid
pollution.254 A period of three pohors255 (prahars) in the case of the moon,
and of four in the case of the sun, before the actual commencement of an
eclipse, is known as vedha, i.e., the time when the luminaries are already
under the influence of the demon. During this period and during the time of
an eclipse people observe a strict fast. Anyone taking food within the
prohibited period is considered sutaki or ceremonially impure, as if a death
had happened in his family.256 An exception is, however, made in the case
of children, pregnant women and suckling mothers who cannot bear the
privation of a strict fast. From the beginning of an eclipse to its end,
everything in the house is believed to be polluted, if touched.256
As the sun and the moon are believed to be in trouble during an eclipse,
people offer prayers to God from the beginning of the vedha for their
release. It is the custom to visit some holy place on an eclipse-day, to take a
bath there, and to read holy passages from the Shāstras. Some people,
especially Brahmans, sit devoutly on river-banks and offer prayers to the
sun.256 Much secret as well as open charity is given at the time of an
eclipse. But the receivers of charity during the actual period of an eclipse
are the lowest classes only, such as bhangis, mahārs and māngs. When an
eclipse is at its full, these people go about the streets giving vent to such
cries as āpó dān chhuté chānd (give alms for the relief of the moon!).257
Among the gifts such people receive are cotton clothes, cash, grain such as
sesamum seeds, udad, pulses, and salt.258 The gift of a pair of shoes is
much recommended.259 Sometimes a figure of the eclipsed sun or moon is
drawn in juari seeds and given away to a bhangi.260
Page 62
Although the period of an eclipse is considered inauspicious, it is valued by
those who profess the black art. All mantras, incantations, and prayogas,
applications or experiments, which ordinarily require a long time to take
effect, produce the wished for result without delay if performed during the
process of an eclipse.261
If a man’s wife is pregnant, he may not smoke during the period of an
eclipse lest his child become deformed.262 Ploughing a farm on a lunar-
eclipse day is supposed to cause the birth of Chāndrā-children, i.e., children
afflicted by the moon.262
After an eclipse Hindus bathe, perform ablution ceremonies, and dress
themselves in clean garments. The houses are cleansed by cowdunging the
floors, vessels are rubbed and cleansed, and clothes are washed, in order to
get rid of the pollution caused by the eclipse.263 Unwashed clothes of
cotton, wool, silk or hemp, according to popular belief, do not become
polluted.263 The placing of darbha grass on things which are otherwise
liable to pollution is also sufficient to keep them unpolluted.264
Brahmans cannot accept anything during the impious time of an eclipse, but
after it is over, alms are freely given to them in the shape of such costly
articles as fine clothes, gold, cattle and the like.265
After an eclipse Hindus may not break their fast till they have again seen
the full disc of the released sun or the moon. It sometimes happens that the
sun or the moon sets gherāyalā (while still eclipsed), and people have then
to fast for the whole of the night or the day after, until the sun or the moon
is again fully visible.266
There is a shloka in the Jyotish-Shāstra to the effect that Rāhu would surely
devour Chandra if the nakshatra, or constellation of the second day of the
dark half of a preceding month, were to recur on the Purnima (full-moon
day) of the succeeding month. Similarly, in solar eclipses, a similar
catastrophe would occur if the constellation of the second day of the bright
half of a month were to recur on the Amāvāsya (the last day) of that
those who profess the black art. All mantras, incantations, and prayogas,
applications or experiments, which ordinarily require a long time to take
effect, produce the wished for result without delay if performed during the
process of an eclipse.261
If a man’s wife is pregnant, he may not smoke during the period of an
eclipse lest his child become deformed.262 Ploughing a farm on a lunar-
eclipse day is supposed to cause the birth of Chāndrā-children, i.e., children
afflicted by the moon.262
After an eclipse Hindus bathe, perform ablution ceremonies, and dress
themselves in clean garments. The houses are cleansed by cowdunging the
floors, vessels are rubbed and cleansed, and clothes are washed, in order to
get rid of the pollution caused by the eclipse.263 Unwashed clothes of
cotton, wool, silk or hemp, according to popular belief, do not become
polluted.263 The placing of darbha grass on things which are otherwise
liable to pollution is also sufficient to keep them unpolluted.264
Brahmans cannot accept anything during the impious time of an eclipse, but
after it is over, alms are freely given to them in the shape of such costly
articles as fine clothes, gold, cattle and the like.265
After an eclipse Hindus may not break their fast till they have again seen
the full disc of the released sun or the moon. It sometimes happens that the
sun or the moon sets gherāyalā (while still eclipsed), and people have then
to fast for the whole of the night or the day after, until the sun or the moon
is again fully visible.266
There is a shloka in the Jyotish-Shāstra to the effect that Rāhu would surely
devour Chandra if the nakshatra, or constellation of the second day of the
dark half of a preceding month, were to recur on the Purnima (full-moon
day) of the succeeding month. Similarly, in solar eclipses, a similar
catastrophe would occur if the constellation of the second day of the bright
half of a month were to recur on the Amāvāsya (the last day) of that
Page 63
month.267 The year in which many eclipses occur is believed to prove a bad
year for epidemic diseases.268
The Jains do not believe in the Hindu theory of grahana (or the eclipse).269
Musalmans do not perform the special ceremonies beyond the recital of
special prayers; and even these are held to be supererogatory.270
With the exception that some people believe that the stars are the abodes of
the gods,271 the popular belief about the heavenly bodies seems to be that
they are the souls of virtuous and saintly persons, translated to the heavens
for their good deeds and endowed with a lustre proportionate to their
merits.272 And this idea is illustrated in the traditions that are current about
some of the stars. The seven bright stars of the constellation Saptarshi (or
the Great Bear) are said to be the seven sages, Kashyapa, Atri, Bhāradwāj,
Vishwāmitra, Gautama, Jāmadagni and Vasishtha, who had mastered
several parts of the Vedas, and were considered specialists in the branches
studied by each, and were invested with divine honours in reward for their
proficiency.273 Another story relates how a certain hunter and his family,
who had unconsciously achieved great religious merit, were installed as the
constellation Saptarshi274 (or the Great Bear). A hunter, it is narrated in the
Shivarātri-māhātmya, was arrested for debt on a Shivrātri275 day, and while
in jail heard by chance the words ‘Shiva, Shiva’ repeated by some devotees.
Without understanding their meaning, he also began to repeat the same
words, even after he was released in the evening. He had received no food
during the day, and had thus observed a compulsory fast. In order to obtain
food for himself and his family, he stationed himself behind a Bel276 tree,
hoping to shoot a deer or some other animal that might come to quench its
thirst at a neighbouring tank. While adjusting an arrow to his bowstring, he
plucked some leaves out of the thick foliage of the tree and threw them
down. The leaves, however, chanced to fall on a Shiva-linga which
happened to stand below, and secured for him the merit of having
worshipped god Shiva with Bel-leaves on a Shivrātri day. He was also all
the while repeating the god’s name and had undergone a fast. The result was
that not only were his past sins forgiven, but he was placed with his family
in heaven.277
year for epidemic diseases.268
The Jains do not believe in the Hindu theory of grahana (or the eclipse).269
Musalmans do not perform the special ceremonies beyond the recital of
special prayers; and even these are held to be supererogatory.270
With the exception that some people believe that the stars are the abodes of
the gods,271 the popular belief about the heavenly bodies seems to be that
they are the souls of virtuous and saintly persons, translated to the heavens
for their good deeds and endowed with a lustre proportionate to their
merits.272 And this idea is illustrated in the traditions that are current about
some of the stars. The seven bright stars of the constellation Saptarshi (or
the Great Bear) are said to be the seven sages, Kashyapa, Atri, Bhāradwāj,
Vishwāmitra, Gautama, Jāmadagni and Vasishtha, who had mastered
several parts of the Vedas, and were considered specialists in the branches
studied by each, and were invested with divine honours in reward for their
proficiency.273 Another story relates how a certain hunter and his family,
who had unconsciously achieved great religious merit, were installed as the
constellation Saptarshi274 (or the Great Bear). A hunter, it is narrated in the
Shivarātri-māhātmya, was arrested for debt on a Shivrātri275 day, and while
in jail heard by chance the words ‘Shiva, Shiva’ repeated by some devotees.
Without understanding their meaning, he also began to repeat the same
words, even after he was released in the evening. He had received no food
during the day, and had thus observed a compulsory fast. In order to obtain
food for himself and his family, he stationed himself behind a Bel276 tree,
hoping to shoot a deer or some other animal that might come to quench its
thirst at a neighbouring tank. While adjusting an arrow to his bowstring, he
plucked some leaves out of the thick foliage of the tree and threw them
down. The leaves, however, chanced to fall on a Shiva-linga which
happened to stand below, and secured for him the merit of having
worshipped god Shiva with Bel-leaves on a Shivrātri day. He was also all
the while repeating the god’s name and had undergone a fast. The result was
that not only were his past sins forgiven, but he was placed with his family
in heaven.277
Page 64
Similarly, Dhruva, the son of king Uttānapād, attained divine favour by
unflagging devotion, and was given a constant place in the heavens as the
immovable pole-star.278
According to Hindu astrology, there are nine grahas279 or planets, twelve
rāshis280 or signs of the zodiac, and twenty-seven nakshatras281 or
constellations. Books on astrology explain the distinct forms of the
nakshatras. For instance, the Ashvini constellation consists of two stars and
presents the appearance of a horse. It ascends the zenith at midnight on the
purnima (the 15th day of the bright half) of Ashvin (the first month of the
Gujarati Hindus). The constellation of Mrig consists of seven stars, four like
the legs of a sofa and three others under them in a line. All these twenty-
seven groups of stars reach the zenith at midnight on particular days in
particular months; and the months of the Hindu calendar are named after
them.282
All planets influence the life of a person, one way or the other, according to
their position in the heavens at the time of his birth. A kundali, i.e., a figure
like the one shown here, is drawn by astrologers to illustrate the respective
positions of the planets. The twelve squares of the diagram represent the
twelve signs of the zodiac, and the positions of the planets in different
squares influence persons in different ways. Ravi (the Sun), Budha
(Mercury) and Shukra (Venus) occupy one rāshi for one month; Chandra
(the Moon) occupies a rāshi for 135 ghadis,283 i.e., two days and a quarter;
Mangal (Mars) for one month and a half; Guru (Jupiter) for thirteen
months; Shani (Saturn) for two years and a half, and Rāhu for a year and a
half. This is their normal and ordinary motion. But if they take an abnormal
course and move either too fast or too slow, they finish their revolution
through a rāshi within a shorter or a longer period.284
unflagging devotion, and was given a constant place in the heavens as the
immovable pole-star.278
According to Hindu astrology, there are nine grahas279 or planets, twelve
rāshis280 or signs of the zodiac, and twenty-seven nakshatras281 or
constellations. Books on astrology explain the distinct forms of the
nakshatras. For instance, the Ashvini constellation consists of two stars and
presents the appearance of a horse. It ascends the zenith at midnight on the
purnima (the 15th day of the bright half) of Ashvin (the first month of the
Gujarati Hindus). The constellation of Mrig consists of seven stars, four like
the legs of a sofa and three others under them in a line. All these twenty-
seven groups of stars reach the zenith at midnight on particular days in
particular months; and the months of the Hindu calendar are named after
them.282
All planets influence the life of a person, one way or the other, according to
their position in the heavens at the time of his birth. A kundali, i.e., a figure
like the one shown here, is drawn by astrologers to illustrate the respective
positions of the planets. The twelve squares of the diagram represent the
twelve signs of the zodiac, and the positions of the planets in different
squares influence persons in different ways. Ravi (the Sun), Budha
(Mercury) and Shukra (Venus) occupy one rāshi for one month; Chandra
(the Moon) occupies a rāshi for 135 ghadis,283 i.e., two days and a quarter;
Mangal (Mars) for one month and a half; Guru (Jupiter) for thirteen
months; Shani (Saturn) for two years and a half, and Rāhu for a year and a
half. This is their normal and ordinary motion. But if they take an abnormal
course and move either too fast or too slow, they finish their revolution
through a rāshi within a shorter or a longer period.284
Page 65
If the planet Guru (Jupiter) occupies either the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th,
or 12th, square of a kundali, it is said to bring about a rupture with friends,
pecuniary wants, and an increase in the number of enemies.285
If Shani (Saturn) occupies the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th, 9th, or the 12th
square in a man’s kundali, it causes despondency of mind, family quarrels,
imminent injuries from foes, and pecuniary wants.286
The presence of Mangal (Mars) in the 3rd, the 6th, or the 11th square is
auspicious.286
Of the nine planets, Budha, Guru, and Chandra are benevolent, Mangal and
Ravi are neither benevolent nor baneful; and Shani, Rāhu, and Ketu are
downright malevolent.287 Each planet has a story connected with it
concerning its benevolence or malevolence, and showing also the way to
secure its propitiation. For instance, the malevolence of Shani drove King
Vikrama to unknown countries, and subjected him to grave calamities. On
the advice of a wise man, however, he observed the Saturday-vows and thus
overcame his difficulties.288
When a planet is unfavourable to a person, it has to be propitiated by vows,
and the person who is under its evil influence often lays upon himself the
or 12th, square of a kundali, it is said to bring about a rupture with friends,
pecuniary wants, and an increase in the number of enemies.285
If Shani (Saturn) occupies the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th, 9th, or the 12th
square in a man’s kundali, it causes despondency of mind, family quarrels,
imminent injuries from foes, and pecuniary wants.286
The presence of Mangal (Mars) in the 3rd, the 6th, or the 11th square is
auspicious.286
Of the nine planets, Budha, Guru, and Chandra are benevolent, Mangal and
Ravi are neither benevolent nor baneful; and Shani, Rāhu, and Ketu are
downright malevolent.287 Each planet has a story connected with it
concerning its benevolence or malevolence, and showing also the way to
secure its propitiation. For instance, the malevolence of Shani drove King
Vikrama to unknown countries, and subjected him to grave calamities. On
the advice of a wise man, however, he observed the Saturday-vows and thus
overcame his difficulties.288
When a planet is unfavourable to a person, it has to be propitiated by vows,
and the person who is under its evil influence often lays upon himself the
Page 66
obligation of abstaining from particular articles of food or from wearing
certain articles of clothing for a certain number of days.289 Particular days
of the week are set apart as appropriate for the worship of particular planets,
and, on such days, the person keeping the vow observes a fast and worships
the planet through the medium of a Brāhman.290 For instance, vrats or vows
are observed on Tuesdays in honour of Mangal (Mars), when an image of
the planet, engraved on a golden dish, is worshipped, and the person
observing the vow takes food consisting of wheat only, and that too, only
once during the day. This mode of fasting is followed for a number of
consecutive Tuesdays prescribed by an astrologer; and on the last Tuesday,
when pūrnāhuti291 is offered, Brāhmans are feasted and dakshina is given
to them. A piece of red cloth and some corn are used in the installation of
the planet; these and the golden engraving are carried away by the priest.288
Similarly, in propitiating Rāhu and Ketu the same ceremonies are gone
through: only, instead of wheat, mug (Phaseolus mungo) is eaten by the
devotee. In the same way Shani (Saturn) is said to favour the diet of adād
(or lentils): Guru (Jupiter) inclines to chana (or gram), while Shukra
(Venus) favours cholā (dolichos sinensis).288
Certain forms or figures, called mandals, are favoured by particular grahās,
and are drawn in their honour in worshipping them. Different things, too,
are given in charity in honour of different planets.292
All the nine grahas and the twenty-seven nakshatras are worshipped on the
occasion of the Griha-Shanti ceremony, which is performed before
occupying a newly erected building.287
It is considered inauspicious to hold a marriage ceremony while Shukra
(Venus) is invisible. In such a case, however, the ceremony may be
performed after setting up and worshipping a small golden image of the
planet.
Of the stars, the constellation of saptarshi is perhaps the one most often
worshipped. Its worship forms a part of the ceremonies performed on the
occasion of investing boys with the sacred thread293 and also of the
certain articles of clothing for a certain number of days.289 Particular days
of the week are set apart as appropriate for the worship of particular planets,
and, on such days, the person keeping the vow observes a fast and worships
the planet through the medium of a Brāhman.290 For instance, vrats or vows
are observed on Tuesdays in honour of Mangal (Mars), when an image of
the planet, engraved on a golden dish, is worshipped, and the person
observing the vow takes food consisting of wheat only, and that too, only
once during the day. This mode of fasting is followed for a number of
consecutive Tuesdays prescribed by an astrologer; and on the last Tuesday,
when pūrnāhuti291 is offered, Brāhmans are feasted and dakshina is given
to them. A piece of red cloth and some corn are used in the installation of
the planet; these and the golden engraving are carried away by the priest.288
Similarly, in propitiating Rāhu and Ketu the same ceremonies are gone
through: only, instead of wheat, mug (Phaseolus mungo) is eaten by the
devotee. In the same way Shani (Saturn) is said to favour the diet of adād
(or lentils): Guru (Jupiter) inclines to chana (or gram), while Shukra
(Venus) favours cholā (dolichos sinensis).288
Certain forms or figures, called mandals, are favoured by particular grahās,
and are drawn in their honour in worshipping them. Different things, too,
are given in charity in honour of different planets.292
All the nine grahas and the twenty-seven nakshatras are worshipped on the
occasion of the Griha-Shanti ceremony, which is performed before
occupying a newly erected building.287
It is considered inauspicious to hold a marriage ceremony while Shukra
(Venus) is invisible. In such a case, however, the ceremony may be
performed after setting up and worshipping a small golden image of the
planet.
Of the stars, the constellation of saptarshi is perhaps the one most often
worshipped. Its worship forms a part of the ceremonies performed on the
occasion of investing boys with the sacred thread293 and also of the
Page 67
ceremonies of marriage. The worship of the saptarshi on marriage
occasions is believed to be an attestation of the marriage, and to secure the
benign care of the saptarshi for the couple. The form of worship is
sometimes as follows: a red and white piece of cloth is stretched on the
ground, bearing an image of the saptarshi over it; wheat and rice are
scattered over the cloth, a ghi-lamp is lighted, and red lac and flowers are
offered to the image.294 Another form of worship is to mark seven red-lac-
dots on a pātla or a wooden stool, and to place seven pice and seven betel-
nuts thereon. After worshipping the seven pice, the bridal pair are made to
take four turns round the stool, touching the stool with their great toes at
every turn. A proverb runs to the effect that, whatever may happen to the
couple, still the seven pice of satpati (i.e., the ceremony described) are
secure.295 A third process is to form seven small piles of kamod,296 on each
of which, successively, the bride places her right foot while the bridegroom
removes each pile one by one.297
The fifth day of the bright half of Bhādrapad (the eleventh month of the
Gujarati Hindus) is observed as a day of worship in honour of the saptarshi
group. People observe a fast on that day. Brāhmans set up seven chāts298 in
honour of the seven sages, adding an eighth in honour of Arundhatī, the
wife of Vasishtha, and worship them by shodashopachār (i.e. sixteen-fold
ceremonial). The worship is said to secure felicity for departed souls.299
The saptarshi are also annually worshipped by Brāhmans on cocoanut-day
(the 15th day of the bright half of Shrāvan) on the occasion of changing
their sacred threads. Hindu seamen also worship the constellation on the
same day.300
In the performance of the Nīl-parvān ceremony, which is held to propitiate
the spirits of departed ancestors, and which requires a calf and a heifer to be
married, an entertainment being simultaneously given to one hundred and
eight Brāhmans, and on the occasion of Vastu or the ceremonies performed
before or at the time of occupying a newly-built house, burnt offerings and
worship are offered to the saptarshi.301
occasions is believed to be an attestation of the marriage, and to secure the
benign care of the saptarshi for the couple. The form of worship is
sometimes as follows: a red and white piece of cloth is stretched on the
ground, bearing an image of the saptarshi over it; wheat and rice are
scattered over the cloth, a ghi-lamp is lighted, and red lac and flowers are
offered to the image.294 Another form of worship is to mark seven red-lac-
dots on a pātla or a wooden stool, and to place seven pice and seven betel-
nuts thereon. After worshipping the seven pice, the bridal pair are made to
take four turns round the stool, touching the stool with their great toes at
every turn. A proverb runs to the effect that, whatever may happen to the
couple, still the seven pice of satpati (i.e., the ceremony described) are
secure.295 A third process is to form seven small piles of kamod,296 on each
of which, successively, the bride places her right foot while the bridegroom
removes each pile one by one.297
The fifth day of the bright half of Bhādrapad (the eleventh month of the
Gujarati Hindus) is observed as a day of worship in honour of the saptarshi
group. People observe a fast on that day. Brāhmans set up seven chāts298 in
honour of the seven sages, adding an eighth in honour of Arundhatī, the
wife of Vasishtha, and worship them by shodashopachār (i.e. sixteen-fold
ceremonial). The worship is said to secure felicity for departed souls.299
The saptarshi are also annually worshipped by Brāhmans on cocoanut-day
(the 15th day of the bright half of Shrāvan) on the occasion of changing
their sacred threads. Hindu seamen also worship the constellation on the
same day.300
In the performance of the Nīl-parvān ceremony, which is held to propitiate
the spirits of departed ancestors, and which requires a calf and a heifer to be
married, an entertainment being simultaneously given to one hundred and
eight Brāhmans, and on the occasion of Vastu or the ceremonies performed
before or at the time of occupying a newly-built house, burnt offerings and
worship are offered to the saptarshi.301
Page 68
Every Brāhman must offer arghyas302 to, and worship, the agastya
constellation, in a hut of darbha303 and kāsada,303 within seven days from
the date of its appearance. Failure to make this offering brings pollution on
him for seven months, and disqualifies him from performing any of the rites
or ceremonies prescribed by the Shastras.301
Married couples are made to look at the Pole star immediately after the
Hymenal knot is tied by the priest, in the hope that they may be as long-
lived or as inflexible or unmoved by the ups and downs of life.295
The twelfth day after the death of a person, known as Tārā-bāras (or the
star-twelfth) is kept as the day of star-worship by the relatives of the
deceased, when one member of the family observes a fast on that day in
honour of the deceased, and takes food only after worshipping the stars at
night. It is customary on this day to give up the use of bronze vessels and to
give them away in charity.304
Just as persons carrying or accompanying a corpse to the cemetery are
considered sutaki (under ceremonial impurity), so those who witness this
rite are also considered unclean: but they are purified by a sight of the
stars.305
Young girls watching the starry sky at night recite a verse which means, “I
worshipped the star-spangled firmament first and then my lover Ābhlā
dabhlā Kankunā dābhlā306—“Ye stars! blind the prowling thief and seize
him if he tries to steal away, and your blessings on my lord confer!”307
The Rohini and Krittika constellations, popularly known as Gadli, are
supposed to indicate the rise and fall in the cotton-market.308
The dimmest star of the saptarshi group foretells the death of a person
within six months from the date on which it becomes invisible to him.309
Again, if a man cannot perceive the saptarshi or the galaxy in the sky, it is
considered such a bad omen that his end is believed to be near at hand.310
constellation, in a hut of darbha303 and kāsada,303 within seven days from
the date of its appearance. Failure to make this offering brings pollution on
him for seven months, and disqualifies him from performing any of the rites
or ceremonies prescribed by the Shastras.301
Married couples are made to look at the Pole star immediately after the
Hymenal knot is tied by the priest, in the hope that they may be as long-
lived or as inflexible or unmoved by the ups and downs of life.295
The twelfth day after the death of a person, known as Tārā-bāras (or the
star-twelfth) is kept as the day of star-worship by the relatives of the
deceased, when one member of the family observes a fast on that day in
honour of the deceased, and takes food only after worshipping the stars at
night. It is customary on this day to give up the use of bronze vessels and to
give them away in charity.304
Just as persons carrying or accompanying a corpse to the cemetery are
considered sutaki (under ceremonial impurity), so those who witness this
rite are also considered unclean: but they are purified by a sight of the
stars.305
Young girls watching the starry sky at night recite a verse which means, “I
worshipped the star-spangled firmament first and then my lover Ābhlā
dabhlā Kankunā dābhlā306—“Ye stars! blind the prowling thief and seize
him if he tries to steal away, and your blessings on my lord confer!”307
The Rohini and Krittika constellations, popularly known as Gadli, are
supposed to indicate the rise and fall in the cotton-market.308
The dimmest star of the saptarshi group foretells the death of a person
within six months from the date on which it becomes invisible to him.309
Again, if a man cannot perceive the saptarshi or the galaxy in the sky, it is
considered such a bad omen that his end is believed to be near at hand.310
Page 69
The rainbow is believed to be the bow of Indra,311 the god of rains, and is
therefore called ‘Indra-dhanushya.’ We see it when Indra draws his bow to
release the rains from the rākshasas (demons);312 or, when successful in
bringing down rain, Indra manifests his glory by drawing a bow;313 or when
in the struggle for supremacy between Summer and the rainy season, Indra
draws his bow to defeat Summer.314
It is also believed that when Rāmachandra, the hero of the Rāmāyana,
adjusted an arrow to the bow of Shiva, to compete for the hand of Sītā in
the swayamvara (or maiden’s-choice marriage) celebrated by her, the bow
was split into three pieces, which ever since present themselves as rainbows
in the sky.315
The rainbow is popularly regarded as an indication of good or bad rainfall
according as it appears at particular hours and in particular directions. If a
rainbow appears in the east a speedy rainfall is expected; if on the other
hand it is seen in the west, rainfall is apprehended to be distant.316 Some
people, however, believe the contrary, i.e., they regard the appearance of a
rainbow in the west as an indication of good rains, and in the east as a sign
of scarce rainfall.317 Perhaps both ideas are reconciled by a third belief
according to which the appearance of a rainbow in a direction facing the
sun, indicates the proximity of rain.318
If a rainbow is seen at sunset or sunrise just before the commencement of
rain the fall of rain will be excessive; but if it appears after rainfall, the rain
will probably cease.319 According to some persons the appearance of a
rainbow in the morning portends a drought.320 There is, however, a popular
saying to the effect that were the kachbi, i.e., the rainbow, to be seen at
sunrise in the west, it foretells great floods before nightfall.314
The sight of a rainbow is sometimes regarded as a bad omen. Some believe
that it shortens a man’s life and brings misfortunes to him.310 Others believe
that it is calamitous to a man’s relations by marriage, especially to the
mother-in-law, who is sure to lose her power of hearing.321 People
sometimes clash earthen vessels against one another to avert the evils which
therefore called ‘Indra-dhanushya.’ We see it when Indra draws his bow to
release the rains from the rākshasas (demons);312 or, when successful in
bringing down rain, Indra manifests his glory by drawing a bow;313 or when
in the struggle for supremacy between Summer and the rainy season, Indra
draws his bow to defeat Summer.314
It is also believed that when Rāmachandra, the hero of the Rāmāyana,
adjusted an arrow to the bow of Shiva, to compete for the hand of Sītā in
the swayamvara (or maiden’s-choice marriage) celebrated by her, the bow
was split into three pieces, which ever since present themselves as rainbows
in the sky.315
The rainbow is popularly regarded as an indication of good or bad rainfall
according as it appears at particular hours and in particular directions. If a
rainbow appears in the east a speedy rainfall is expected; if on the other
hand it is seen in the west, rainfall is apprehended to be distant.316 Some
people, however, believe the contrary, i.e., they regard the appearance of a
rainbow in the west as an indication of good rains, and in the east as a sign
of scarce rainfall.317 Perhaps both ideas are reconciled by a third belief
according to which the appearance of a rainbow in a direction facing the
sun, indicates the proximity of rain.318
If a rainbow is seen at sunset or sunrise just before the commencement of
rain the fall of rain will be excessive; but if it appears after rainfall, the rain
will probably cease.319 According to some persons the appearance of a
rainbow in the morning portends a drought.320 There is, however, a popular
saying to the effect that were the kachbi, i.e., the rainbow, to be seen at
sunrise in the west, it foretells great floods before nightfall.314
The sight of a rainbow is sometimes regarded as a bad omen. Some believe
that it shortens a man’s life and brings misfortunes to him.310 Others believe
that it is calamitous to a man’s relations by marriage, especially to the
mother-in-law, who is sure to lose her power of hearing.321 People
sometimes clash earthen vessels against one another to avert the evils which
Page 70
are to be feared from a rainbow.322 It is also said that the sight of the whole
of the rainbow is a good omen: but the sight of a part, however large, is
inauspicious.323
According to the Purānas, the milky way or ākāsh-ganga is the celestial
River Ganga which was brought down by Bhagīrath to the earth.324 King
Sagar once performed an ashwa-medha325 sacrifice, when, according to
custom, he let loose a horse, and sent his sixty thousand sons with it. Indra,
jealous of the growing power of Sagar, stole the horse and concealed it in
the hermitage of Kapila, when the sage was deeply absorbed in religious
meditation. The sixty thousand sons of Sagar followed it to this asylum,
where they taunted and insulted the sage, believing him to be the thief.
Kapila, who was ignorant of the theft, opened his long-closed eyes in anger,
emitting sparks of flame from them, and destroyed the sons of Sagar
together with the whole of their army. Bhagīrath, the grandson of Sagar,
propitiated the sage, and on his advice practised religious austerities in
honour of Shiva for the purpose of bringing down the River Ganga from
heaven. Through the kindness of God Shiva, Bhagīrath was at last
successful in bringing the celestial river down to this world; and with the
water of the river he revived the sons of Sagar. The River Ganga (i.e., the
Ganges) in this world is therefore also known by the name of Bhāgirathi. It
is this heavenly river which we see as the milky way.326 Like the sacred
Ganges on the earth, the River Ganga in the celestial regions is held in great
respect by the gods327 and purifies the heavenly bodies, just as the earthly
Ganges washes away the worst sins of mortals.323
Some people, however, believe the milky way to be the track by which the
holy Ganges descended from heaven to earth.328
Another belief is that the God Vishnu, at the time of his Vāman (or Dwarf)
incarnation, touched the ina (i.e., the Egg) in his third footstep and thus
caused a flow of waters, which is known as ākāsh-ganga.329 Some suppose
the milky way to be a ladder leading to the heavens.330 Astrologers call it
Vatsa, a fictitious creature with numerous horns, mouths, and tails.331
According to another belief, the milky way consists of two rekhās—lines—
of the rainbow is a good omen: but the sight of a part, however large, is
inauspicious.323
According to the Purānas, the milky way or ākāsh-ganga is the celestial
River Ganga which was brought down by Bhagīrath to the earth.324 King
Sagar once performed an ashwa-medha325 sacrifice, when, according to
custom, he let loose a horse, and sent his sixty thousand sons with it. Indra,
jealous of the growing power of Sagar, stole the horse and concealed it in
the hermitage of Kapila, when the sage was deeply absorbed in religious
meditation. The sixty thousand sons of Sagar followed it to this asylum,
where they taunted and insulted the sage, believing him to be the thief.
Kapila, who was ignorant of the theft, opened his long-closed eyes in anger,
emitting sparks of flame from them, and destroyed the sons of Sagar
together with the whole of their army. Bhagīrath, the grandson of Sagar,
propitiated the sage, and on his advice practised religious austerities in
honour of Shiva for the purpose of bringing down the River Ganga from
heaven. Through the kindness of God Shiva, Bhagīrath was at last
successful in bringing the celestial river down to this world; and with the
water of the river he revived the sons of Sagar. The River Ganga (i.e., the
Ganges) in this world is therefore also known by the name of Bhāgirathi. It
is this heavenly river which we see as the milky way.326 Like the sacred
Ganges on the earth, the River Ganga in the celestial regions is held in great
respect by the gods327 and purifies the heavenly bodies, just as the earthly
Ganges washes away the worst sins of mortals.323
Some people, however, believe the milky way to be the track by which the
holy Ganges descended from heaven to earth.328
Another belief is that the God Vishnu, at the time of his Vāman (or Dwarf)
incarnation, touched the ina (i.e., the Egg) in his third footstep and thus
caused a flow of waters, which is known as ākāsh-ganga.329 Some suppose
the milky way to be a ladder leading to the heavens.330 Astrologers call it
Vatsa, a fictitious creature with numerous horns, mouths, and tails.331
According to another belief, the milky way consists of two rekhās—lines—
Page 71
one of sin and the other of good and meritorious actions. The length of one
line compared to the other betokens the predominance of good or evil as the
case may be.332 The milky way is also supposed to be the track left by the
rath or car of Rāmachandra.333
Ākāsh-ganga or the milky way is said to consist of one crore and eighty lacs
of stars.334 If a man cannot perceive the milky way in the sky, his end is
believed to be near at hand.335
The Musalmāns declare the milky way to be the track formed by the
footstep of the horse of the Prophet Muhammad, on the occasion of his
night-journey to Heaven.330
The occasion for earth-worship most frequently arises when anything is to
be built upon its surface. At the time of setting the manek-stambha, or the
first pillar of a marriage-bower or a bower for a thread-ceremony,336 before
commencing the construction of wells, reservoirs, and tanks336 and in
laying the foundation-stone of a house, a temple, or a sacrificial pit,337 or of
a street, a fortress, a city, or a village,338 or of any constructive work raised
upon or made under the ground, certain ceremonies, called khat-muhūrt or
khat-puja, are performed. The earth-mother is then worshipped in the
manner prescribed in the Shastras, to propitiate her against interruptions in
the completion of the work undertaken. The owner or the person interested
in the new construction pours a little water on the earth where the
foundation-pit is to be dug, sprinkles red lac and gulal (red powder), places
a betel-nut and a few precious coins, and digs out the first clod of earth
himself.339 Some of the things offered to the earth at the time of khat-puja
are panchāmrit,340 betel-nuts, betel-leaves, pancha-ratna (or the five kinds
of precious things, namely, gold, silver, copper, coral, and pearls), a bowl
and green garments.337 Under the influence of particular rāshis (signs of the
zodiac), particular corners of the building under construction are required to
be dug in the khat-muhūrt ceremonies.338 For instance, a little digging in
the north-west corner is believed to be favourable to the constructor who
happens to be under the influence of Sinha (Leo), Kanya (Virgo) and Tula
(Libra): in the north-east corner, if under the influence of Vrishchika
line compared to the other betokens the predominance of good or evil as the
case may be.332 The milky way is also supposed to be the track left by the
rath or car of Rāmachandra.333
Ākāsh-ganga or the milky way is said to consist of one crore and eighty lacs
of stars.334 If a man cannot perceive the milky way in the sky, his end is
believed to be near at hand.335
The Musalmāns declare the milky way to be the track formed by the
footstep of the horse of the Prophet Muhammad, on the occasion of his
night-journey to Heaven.330
The occasion for earth-worship most frequently arises when anything is to
be built upon its surface. At the time of setting the manek-stambha, or the
first pillar of a marriage-bower or a bower for a thread-ceremony,336 before
commencing the construction of wells, reservoirs, and tanks336 and in
laying the foundation-stone of a house, a temple, or a sacrificial pit,337 or of
a street, a fortress, a city, or a village,338 or of any constructive work raised
upon or made under the ground, certain ceremonies, called khat-muhūrt or
khat-puja, are performed. The earth-mother is then worshipped in the
manner prescribed in the Shastras, to propitiate her against interruptions in
the completion of the work undertaken. The owner or the person interested
in the new construction pours a little water on the earth where the
foundation-pit is to be dug, sprinkles red lac and gulal (red powder), places
a betel-nut and a few precious coins, and digs out the first clod of earth
himself.339 Some of the things offered to the earth at the time of khat-puja
are panchāmrit,340 betel-nuts, betel-leaves, pancha-ratna (or the five kinds
of precious things, namely, gold, silver, copper, coral, and pearls), a bowl
and green garments.337 Under the influence of particular rāshis (signs of the
zodiac), particular corners of the building under construction are required to
be dug in the khat-muhūrt ceremonies.338 For instance, a little digging in
the north-west corner is believed to be favourable to the constructor who
happens to be under the influence of Sinha (Leo), Kanya (Virgo) and Tula
(Libra): in the north-east corner, if under the influence of Vrishchika
Page 72
(Scorpio), Dhanu (Sagittarius) and Makar (Capricornus): in the south-east
corner if under the sway of Kumbha (Aquarius), Mīn (Pisces) and Mesha
(Aries): in the south-west corner in the case of Vrishabh (Taurus), Mithun
(Gemini) and Kark (Cancer).338 After the worship of the earth-mother,
sugar or molasses is distributed among neighbours, bystanders and
relatives, in token of the auspiciousness of the occasion.341 An image of
Ganpati is worshipped in a copper-dish, this is buried underground, and a
brick is laid on it when starting the work of construction.338 In setting up
the manek-stambha on marriage occasions, a small earthen bowl is filled
with milk, curds, turmeric, dūrvā-sprouts342 and mag seeds (Phaseolus
mungo), and buried in the ground after being sprinkled over with red lac
and rice.343
The ceremonies appertaining to khat-muhūrt are treated of at length in a
book called Dharma-sindhu.344 They are believed to secure durability of
construction.339
On the Dasarā345 day or the 10th day of the bright half of Ashvin (the last
month), Rājās go out in state with their ministers and subjects to worship
the earth-mother and the holy shami tree (prosopis spicegera). A wetted plot
of ground is first dug over with pikes, javālā (tender wheat plants) and
shami leaves are then mixed with the muddy earth, and small balls of the
mixture are made. A pice and betel-nut are placed in each ball, and they are
presented to the worshipper as a mark of good luck. Travellers carry such
balls with them on their journeys for luck. Kings carry the same to obtain
success on the battle-field. The Pāndavas had such balls with them on the
field of Kurukshetra when they obtained a victory over the Kauravas.346
The balls are also used as pastānā.347 The javālā in the balls are taken out
and allowed to grow in an earthen vessel filled with clay and manure till
they reach a span in height, when they are taken up and used.348
Earth-worship is performed before burying treasure underground, and also
when a marriage-procession, at the time of returning, reaches the limits of
the bridegroom’s village.349
corner if under the sway of Kumbha (Aquarius), Mīn (Pisces) and Mesha
(Aries): in the south-west corner in the case of Vrishabh (Taurus), Mithun
(Gemini) and Kark (Cancer).338 After the worship of the earth-mother,
sugar or molasses is distributed among neighbours, bystanders and
relatives, in token of the auspiciousness of the occasion.341 An image of
Ganpati is worshipped in a copper-dish, this is buried underground, and a
brick is laid on it when starting the work of construction.338 In setting up
the manek-stambha on marriage occasions, a small earthen bowl is filled
with milk, curds, turmeric, dūrvā-sprouts342 and mag seeds (Phaseolus
mungo), and buried in the ground after being sprinkled over with red lac
and rice.343
The ceremonies appertaining to khat-muhūrt are treated of at length in a
book called Dharma-sindhu.344 They are believed to secure durability of
construction.339
On the Dasarā345 day or the 10th day of the bright half of Ashvin (the last
month), Rājās go out in state with their ministers and subjects to worship
the earth-mother and the holy shami tree (prosopis spicegera). A wetted plot
of ground is first dug over with pikes, javālā (tender wheat plants) and
shami leaves are then mixed with the muddy earth, and small balls of the
mixture are made. A pice and betel-nut are placed in each ball, and they are
presented to the worshipper as a mark of good luck. Travellers carry such
balls with them on their journeys for luck. Kings carry the same to obtain
success on the battle-field. The Pāndavas had such balls with them on the
field of Kurukshetra when they obtained a victory over the Kauravas.346
The balls are also used as pastānā.347 The javālā in the balls are taken out
and allowed to grow in an earthen vessel filled with clay and manure till
they reach a span in height, when they are taken up and used.348
Earth-worship is performed before burying treasure underground, and also
when a marriage-procession, at the time of returning, reaches the limits of
the bridegroom’s village.349
Page 73
In some places, virgins worship the plot of ground on which the Holi is
lighted, for about ten or twelve days after the Holi holiday.350
Another occasion for earth-worship is the third day of the bright half of
Chaitra (the sixth month), on which day Vishnu saved the earth in his
Varāha (or Boar) incarnation, when it was being carried to the nether
regions by the demon Shankhāsur.351
On the eighth day of the bright half of Māgh and also of Āshvin (the fourth
and the last month respectively), naivedya (an oblation of food) is offered to
the earth-mother, and is then used as her prasād (gift). No cooked food is
allowed to fall on the ground on this day: even the leavings after meals are
given away to cows.352
When any ceremony is to be performed on the earth’s surface, as much of
the spot as is required for the ceremony is cleansed by watering it and
plastering it with cow-dung. A betel-nut and a pice are then placed on it as
the Chādā or rent of the spot.353
On those occasions when dakshina is given to Brāhmans outside the village
limits, worship of the earth-mother is performed by pouring milk on the
ground, and by placing seven betel-nuts and seven single copper-pieces
thereon.354
Some ambitious Brāhmans dig earth from near the roots of a banyan tree
after offering prayer to the earth, and out of it, make an image of
Parthishwar—Lord of the Earth—hoping thereby to obtain wealth. The
same ceremony, if observed near the roots of a pipal tree (ficus religiosa), is
believed to confer wealth and male issue.348
When Vishnu killed the demons Madhur and Kaitabha, the earth was strewn
with their flesh and marrow (meda). Therefore the earth is called medini,
and for the same reason is unclean, and no holy objects are allowed to touch
it.355 Another explanation is that the earth was rendered unclean because
blood was shed on its surface in the combat of the demon Vritrāsur with the
god Indra.356
lighted, for about ten or twelve days after the Holi holiday.350
Another occasion for earth-worship is the third day of the bright half of
Chaitra (the sixth month), on which day Vishnu saved the earth in his
Varāha (or Boar) incarnation, when it was being carried to the nether
regions by the demon Shankhāsur.351
On the eighth day of the bright half of Māgh and also of Āshvin (the fourth
and the last month respectively), naivedya (an oblation of food) is offered to
the earth-mother, and is then used as her prasād (gift). No cooked food is
allowed to fall on the ground on this day: even the leavings after meals are
given away to cows.352
When any ceremony is to be performed on the earth’s surface, as much of
the spot as is required for the ceremony is cleansed by watering it and
plastering it with cow-dung. A betel-nut and a pice are then placed on it as
the Chādā or rent of the spot.353
On those occasions when dakshina is given to Brāhmans outside the village
limits, worship of the earth-mother is performed by pouring milk on the
ground, and by placing seven betel-nuts and seven single copper-pieces
thereon.354
Some ambitious Brāhmans dig earth from near the roots of a banyan tree
after offering prayer to the earth, and out of it, make an image of
Parthishwar—Lord of the Earth—hoping thereby to obtain wealth. The
same ceremony, if observed near the roots of a pipal tree (ficus religiosa), is
believed to confer wealth and male issue.348
When Vishnu killed the demons Madhur and Kaitabha, the earth was strewn
with their flesh and marrow (meda). Therefore the earth is called medini,
and for the same reason is unclean, and no holy objects are allowed to touch
it.355 Another explanation is that the earth was rendered unclean because
blood was shed on its surface in the combat of the demon Vritrāsur with the
god Indra.356
Page 74
The things polluted by a contact with the earth are either objects which are
to be dedicated to gods, such as sandal-wood ointment, panchāmrit,357 the
leaves of the bel tree (Aegle marmelos), tulsi leaves (leaves of the holy or
sweet basil plant), betel-leaves and flowers;358 or objects which are sacred
because of their having been dedicated to the gods, including tīrtha359 or
water used in bathing the images of gods360; or things which are by nature
so holy that it is improper to place them on the bare earth; for instance,
images of deities, water of the sacred Ganges or the Jumna,361 any holy
writ,362 a conch-shell and even gold.363 Cooked food also deserves respect,
as it supports the lives of men, and it is sinful in a Hindu to let it lie on the
bare ground. Any irregular conduct in this respect arouses the wrath of the
Annadeva (or the food deity).364
It is, however, maintained by some that the reason why certain things, such
as materials of worship, are not allowed to touch the earth, is that the earth
itself being a deity, such things would be dedicated to this deity by a contact
with the earth and would thus become incapable of any further use, as
things that are dedicated to one deity cannot again be offered to another.365
During the course of the recitation of mantras (holy hymns) in honour of
Vishnu and Mahādeva; on the occasion of offering prayers to the grahas
(planets) for their propitiation; and on occasions like Vishnuyāga,366
Mahārudra,366 Shatachandi366, Gāyatri-purashcharan367 and Brāhmana-
varana368 the devotee or the sacrificer and the priest sleep on darbha grass
or on clean woollen blankets, spread on the bare ground.358
Other occasions for sleeping on the floor are the days of the observance of
certain vrats or vows; such as, the Divāsa or the 15th day of the dark half of
Āshādh (the ninth month), the Janmāshtami or the 8th day of the dark half
of Shrāvana (the tenth month), the days of Goatrad, a vrat lasting from the
11th day to the 15th day of the bright half of Bhādrapad, Mahāshivarātri or
the 14th day of the dark half of Māgh, the Ekādashi day or the 11th day of
both the bright and dark halves of a month,362 the Navrātra days or the first
nine days of Āshvin, eclipse days, and the day of Jāgran or the 15th day of
the bright half of Āshādh,364 besides, sometimes, the whole of the months
to be dedicated to gods, such as sandal-wood ointment, panchāmrit,357 the
leaves of the bel tree (Aegle marmelos), tulsi leaves (leaves of the holy or
sweet basil plant), betel-leaves and flowers;358 or objects which are sacred
because of their having been dedicated to the gods, including tīrtha359 or
water used in bathing the images of gods360; or things which are by nature
so holy that it is improper to place them on the bare earth; for instance,
images of deities, water of the sacred Ganges or the Jumna,361 any holy
writ,362 a conch-shell and even gold.363 Cooked food also deserves respect,
as it supports the lives of men, and it is sinful in a Hindu to let it lie on the
bare ground. Any irregular conduct in this respect arouses the wrath of the
Annadeva (or the food deity).364
It is, however, maintained by some that the reason why certain things, such
as materials of worship, are not allowed to touch the earth, is that the earth
itself being a deity, such things would be dedicated to this deity by a contact
with the earth and would thus become incapable of any further use, as
things that are dedicated to one deity cannot again be offered to another.365
During the course of the recitation of mantras (holy hymns) in honour of
Vishnu and Mahādeva; on the occasion of offering prayers to the grahas
(planets) for their propitiation; and on occasions like Vishnuyāga,366
Mahārudra,366 Shatachandi366, Gāyatri-purashcharan367 and Brāhmana-
varana368 the devotee or the sacrificer and the priest sleep on darbha grass
or on clean woollen blankets, spread on the bare ground.358
Other occasions for sleeping on the floor are the days of the observance of
certain vrats or vows; such as, the Divāsa or the 15th day of the dark half of
Āshādh (the ninth month), the Janmāshtami or the 8th day of the dark half
of Shrāvana (the tenth month), the days of Goatrad, a vrat lasting from the
11th day to the 15th day of the bright half of Bhādrapad, Mahāshivarātri or
the 14th day of the dark half of Māgh, the Ekādashi day or the 11th day of
both the bright and dark halves of a month,362 the Navrātra days or the first
nine days of Āshvin, eclipse days, and the day of Jāgran or the 15th day of
the bright half of Āshādh,364 besides, sometimes, the whole of the months
Page 75
of Shrāvana and the Purushottam or intercalary month; and the chāturmās,
i.e., the four months of the rainy season.369
A Brāhman in his brahmacharya (or the period of his life which, according
to the Shāstras, should be devoted to the acquirement of learning, and
which commences from the date of his being invested with the sacred
thread and terminates at the age of twenty-three) and a widow are not
allowed by the Shāstras to sleep elsewhere than on beds made on the
ground.362
Women, while in menstruation, sleep on the floor for four days.359 Some
women, when they are separated from their husbands, also sleep in this
fashion.369
A dying person, two or three minutes before his death, is placed on the
ground, which is first purified with cow-dung-plaster.370 For ten days after
a death, the members of the deceased’s household and his relatives sleep on
beds spread on the bare ground.371 If the demise be very affecting, the
nearest relatives sleep on the floor for periods which may extend to three
months, six months, or even for a year, and sometimes the penance lasts for
their whole lives.370
It is customary, among some sects, not to allow the sātharā—i.e., the spot
lately occupied by a corpse in the house—to be suna or unoccupied for a
single night. Someone must sleep on the spot for twelve consecutive days
from the date of demise.372
Pilgrims,373 after pilgrimage, abandon sensual pleasures, take their meals
only once every day, and sleep on the floor.370 It is customary to sleep
always on the ground while in holy places. Devotees, ascetics, sādhus, and
their disciples sleep on the ground.371
The God Indra has twelve meghas or clouds under his control, and he
directs each of them to pour out their waters wherever he likes. When in the
least irritated in the execution of his orders, Indra’s voice is heard in this
world in thunder-claps which rise to a terrible pitch if the deity becomes
i.e., the four months of the rainy season.369
A Brāhman in his brahmacharya (or the period of his life which, according
to the Shāstras, should be devoted to the acquirement of learning, and
which commences from the date of his being invested with the sacred
thread and terminates at the age of twenty-three) and a widow are not
allowed by the Shāstras to sleep elsewhere than on beds made on the
ground.362
Women, while in menstruation, sleep on the floor for four days.359 Some
women, when they are separated from their husbands, also sleep in this
fashion.369
A dying person, two or three minutes before his death, is placed on the
ground, which is first purified with cow-dung-plaster.370 For ten days after
a death, the members of the deceased’s household and his relatives sleep on
beds spread on the bare ground.371 If the demise be very affecting, the
nearest relatives sleep on the floor for periods which may extend to three
months, six months, or even for a year, and sometimes the penance lasts for
their whole lives.370
It is customary, among some sects, not to allow the sātharā—i.e., the spot
lately occupied by a corpse in the house—to be suna or unoccupied for a
single night. Someone must sleep on the spot for twelve consecutive days
from the date of demise.372
Pilgrims,373 after pilgrimage, abandon sensual pleasures, take their meals
only once every day, and sleep on the floor.370 It is customary to sleep
always on the ground while in holy places. Devotees, ascetics, sādhus, and
their disciples sleep on the ground.371
The God Indra has twelve meghas or clouds under his control, and he
directs each of them to pour out their waters wherever he likes. When in the
least irritated in the execution of his orders, Indra’s voice is heard in this
world in thunder-claps which rise to a terrible pitch if the deity becomes
Page 76
downright angry.370 Thunder is also said to be the loud laughter of Indra
when in a happy mood.374
Another belief is that during the rainy season, Indra plays gedi-dānda375,
and the strokes given to the gedi in the course of the game, produce what
we call thunder;376 or, that the clouds are god’s footballs, and thunder is
produced by his foot striking them, while at play during the rainy season.371
Some believe thunder to be due to the loud sounds produced by various
musical instruments which are played upon the occasion of the marriage-
ceremony of Indra.377 According to others, thunder is produced by the
cannon of Indra;378 or, as some again say, by the trumpetings of Airāvat, the
elephant of Indra379; or, we hear thunder when Indra draws his bow and
adjusts an arrow to the bow-string, in order to bring about the fall of rain.380
A further belief attributes thunder to the very rapid pace of the chariot of
Bhagwān.381 Some people, however, say that it is produced when Bhīma
(one of the five Pāndavas) wields his prodigious club or bludgeon.382 In the
opinion of others, Vidyut or Tanyatun, the offspring of Lambā, the daughter
of Daksha, and the wife of Dharmarāj thunders in the rainy season.383 It is
also suggested that the god of rains shakes the heavens and thus produces
thunder.372 The Shāstras, it is said, declare that thunder is caused by the
sounds of the dundubhi—or kettledrums—beaten by the gods in delight at
the sight of rain.384 There is also a popular belief in the Surat district that an
old hag causes thunder either when she grinds corn or when she rolls stones
in the clouds.385
The prevalent belief about lightning seems to be that it is the girl whom
Kansa tried to dash against a stone, but who escaped and went up to the sky.
Kansa, the tyrant king of Mathura, was informed by a heavenly voice, by
way of prophecy, that a son would be born to his sister who would cause his
destruction. Kansa thereupon confined his sister Devaki and her husband
Vasudeva in prison, loaded them with fetters, and kept the strictest watch
over them. He took from Devaki, and slew, every child of hers as soon as it
was born. In this way he disposed of her first six children. On the seventh
occasion, however, on which Devaki gave birth to a son named Krishna, a
when in a happy mood.374
Another belief is that during the rainy season, Indra plays gedi-dānda375,
and the strokes given to the gedi in the course of the game, produce what
we call thunder;376 or, that the clouds are god’s footballs, and thunder is
produced by his foot striking them, while at play during the rainy season.371
Some believe thunder to be due to the loud sounds produced by various
musical instruments which are played upon the occasion of the marriage-
ceremony of Indra.377 According to others, thunder is produced by the
cannon of Indra;378 or, as some again say, by the trumpetings of Airāvat, the
elephant of Indra379; or, we hear thunder when Indra draws his bow and
adjusts an arrow to the bow-string, in order to bring about the fall of rain.380
A further belief attributes thunder to the very rapid pace of the chariot of
Bhagwān.381 Some people, however, say that it is produced when Bhīma
(one of the five Pāndavas) wields his prodigious club or bludgeon.382 In the
opinion of others, Vidyut or Tanyatun, the offspring of Lambā, the daughter
of Daksha, and the wife of Dharmarāj thunders in the rainy season.383 It is
also suggested that the god of rains shakes the heavens and thus produces
thunder.372 The Shāstras, it is said, declare that thunder is caused by the
sounds of the dundubhi—or kettledrums—beaten by the gods in delight at
the sight of rain.384 There is also a popular belief in the Surat district that an
old hag causes thunder either when she grinds corn or when she rolls stones
in the clouds.385
The prevalent belief about lightning seems to be that it is the girl whom
Kansa tried to dash against a stone, but who escaped and went up to the sky.
Kansa, the tyrant king of Mathura, was informed by a heavenly voice, by
way of prophecy, that a son would be born to his sister who would cause his
destruction. Kansa thereupon confined his sister Devaki and her husband
Vasudeva in prison, loaded them with fetters, and kept the strictest watch
over them. He took from Devaki, and slew, every child of hers as soon as it
was born. In this way he disposed of her first six children. On the seventh
occasion, however, on which Devaki gave birth to a son named Krishna, a
Page 77
girl was born at the same hour to Nanda in Mathura; and Vasudeva secretly
interchanged the two children in spite of the vigilance of Kansa. When
Kansa knew of his sister having been delivered, he seized the infant girl and
tried to dash her against a stone. The little one immediately flew away to
the skies, where she still dwells in the form of Vijli or lightning.386
The Shāstras describe Vijli as the distinctive weapon of Indra, just as
pashupatākā is peculiar to Shiva and the Gāndīva bow to Arjuna.387
Other beliefs about lightning are that Vijli is the sister of Megharāja, the god
of rains, and appears to announce his approach:388 that Vijli is a goddess
who rests upon winds, fire, and rains:389 that Vijli is but the thunderbolt of
Indra:390 that lightnings are the flashes of the bright weapon of Indra:391
that lightning is the lustre of the fireworks and the lamps lighted by the
gods in honour of the nuptials of Indra:392 that lightning is produced by the
sparks caused by the friction of the gedi and the dāndā of Indra when the
god plays the game.393 Vijli is also known as Saudāmini, i.e., one residing
on Mount Sudāma.394
The occurrence of thunder and the appearance of lightning on particular
days and in particular directions are regarded as signs of the abundance or
scarcity of rain during the season.
Thunder during the Rohini nakshatra395 is a bad omen: it foreshadows
either a famine,396 or a Boterun, i.e., complete cessation of rains for
seventy-two days after the thunder-claps are heard.391 According to another
view, if the Rohini nakshatra lasts for a fortnight and if the sky is clear
during the period and yet lightning and thunder occur, a Boterun will be the
consequence; but if lightning and thunder were to accompany the clouds in
the same nakshatra, heavy and plentiful rains may be confidently
expected.397 Lightning without clouds in the same nakshatra is believed to
be the cause of what is popularly called Rohinī-dāzi, i.e., the burning heat
of Rohini.398
interchanged the two children in spite of the vigilance of Kansa. When
Kansa knew of his sister having been delivered, he seized the infant girl and
tried to dash her against a stone. The little one immediately flew away to
the skies, where she still dwells in the form of Vijli or lightning.386
The Shāstras describe Vijli as the distinctive weapon of Indra, just as
pashupatākā is peculiar to Shiva and the Gāndīva bow to Arjuna.387
Other beliefs about lightning are that Vijli is the sister of Megharāja, the god
of rains, and appears to announce his approach:388 that Vijli is a goddess
who rests upon winds, fire, and rains:389 that Vijli is but the thunderbolt of
Indra:390 that lightnings are the flashes of the bright weapon of Indra:391
that lightning is the lustre of the fireworks and the lamps lighted by the
gods in honour of the nuptials of Indra:392 that lightning is produced by the
sparks caused by the friction of the gedi and the dāndā of Indra when the
god plays the game.393 Vijli is also known as Saudāmini, i.e., one residing
on Mount Sudāma.394
The occurrence of thunder and the appearance of lightning on particular
days and in particular directions are regarded as signs of the abundance or
scarcity of rain during the season.
Thunder during the Rohini nakshatra395 is a bad omen: it foreshadows
either a famine,396 or a Boterun, i.e., complete cessation of rains for
seventy-two days after the thunder-claps are heard.391 According to another
view, if the Rohini nakshatra lasts for a fortnight and if the sky is clear
during the period and yet lightning and thunder occur, a Boterun will be the
consequence; but if lightning and thunder were to accompany the clouds in
the same nakshatra, heavy and plentiful rains may be confidently
expected.397 Lightning without clouds in the same nakshatra is believed to
be the cause of what is popularly called Rohinī-dāzi, i.e., the burning heat
of Rohini.398
Page 78
Some persons expect a Boterun after kadakas or crashing thunder. Others
apprehend a famine if they hear thunder on the second day of the bright half
of Jyeshtha (the eighth month).391
Thunder or lightning in the Hasta399 nakshatra foretells good harvests and a
prosperous year.400 Thunder in the same nakshatra is believed to muzzle
the jaws of serpents and other noxious creatures, and to achieve this object,
also, a sāmelu (or a log of wood) is struck against a mobhārā (or a hollow
stone used for threshing corn).401 If thunder is not heard during this
nakshatra, mosquitoes and other insects and vermin are believed to be
likely to multiply.402
If thunder is heard during the Ārdrā nakshatra, the rainfall will be delayed
for a month.403
Lightning is commonly seen on the second and the fifth day of the bright
half of Āshādh, and is considered a sign of good rainfall, while its absence
indicates a probable scarcity of rain.404 Its appearance on the fifth day of
Āshādh is believed by some to foretell an early fall of rain.400 Since the
rainfall, and therefore the state of the crops during the ensuing year, are
suggested by lightning on this day, corn-dealers settle a rise or fall in the
price of corn according as lightning is or is not seen on that occasion.405
Thunder in the east predicts a speedy fall of rain.400 If flashes of lightning
are seen in the north-east or the north, rain will fall within three days.400
Lightning in the south-east or the south foretells extreme heat.406
Long-continued thunder shows that the rainfall is distant. Similarly,
continued flashes of lightning intimate danger to the lives and property of
people.406 Sudden thunder portends an immediate cessation of rain.400
Thunder or lightning out of season threatens calamity to the country.407
Vijli or lightning is said to be fettered on the fifth day of the bright half of
Āshādh—(or, as some say, on the second day of Shrāvan)401—after which
date no apprehensions of its destructive powers need be entertained.408 Till
apprehend a famine if they hear thunder on the second day of the bright half
of Jyeshtha (the eighth month).391
Thunder or lightning in the Hasta399 nakshatra foretells good harvests and a
prosperous year.400 Thunder in the same nakshatra is believed to muzzle
the jaws of serpents and other noxious creatures, and to achieve this object,
also, a sāmelu (or a log of wood) is struck against a mobhārā (or a hollow
stone used for threshing corn).401 If thunder is not heard during this
nakshatra, mosquitoes and other insects and vermin are believed to be
likely to multiply.402
If thunder is heard during the Ārdrā nakshatra, the rainfall will be delayed
for a month.403
Lightning is commonly seen on the second and the fifth day of the bright
half of Āshādh, and is considered a sign of good rainfall, while its absence
indicates a probable scarcity of rain.404 Its appearance on the fifth day of
Āshādh is believed by some to foretell an early fall of rain.400 Since the
rainfall, and therefore the state of the crops during the ensuing year, are
suggested by lightning on this day, corn-dealers settle a rise or fall in the
price of corn according as lightning is or is not seen on that occasion.405
Thunder in the east predicts a speedy fall of rain.400 If flashes of lightning
are seen in the north-east or the north, rain will fall within three days.400
Lightning in the south-east or the south foretells extreme heat.406
Long-continued thunder shows that the rainfall is distant. Similarly,
continued flashes of lightning intimate danger to the lives and property of
people.406 Sudden thunder portends an immediate cessation of rain.400
Thunder or lightning out of season threatens calamity to the country.407
Vijli or lightning is said to be fettered on the fifth day of the bright half of
Āshādh—(or, as some say, on the second day of Shrāvan)401—after which
date no apprehensions of its destructive powers need be entertained.408 Till
Page 79
then, however, it is free and is likely to injure those persons409 who have
not cut or shaved their hair from their birth.410
The occurrence of lightning is believed to cause the delivery and sometimes
even the death of pregnant women.411
Any period marked by the occurrence of lightning is considered
inauspicious.412
The Puranas speak of fourteen worlds—the seven swargas (celestial
regions) and the seven pātāls (nether regions)413. Underneath the seventh
pātāl414 lies Shesha (the divine cobra) who supports all the fourteen worlds
on one of his one thousand hoods. On account of the heavy burden, the
serpent-god sometimes gets tired, and tries to change his position. The
result of the movement is an earth-quake.408 According to another version,
an earthquake occurs when Shesha changes his posture in sleep,415 or is the
result of a hair falling from the body of Shesha.416 Some people say that
ordinarily Shesha does not feel the weight of the fourteen worlds on his
head; he bears the load as if it were only a single sesamum seed. But when
too much sin accumulates in any of the regions, the burden becomes
unbearable for him: he begins to shake under it, and an earthquake
occurs.417
Some believe that there is a tortoise under the divine cobra who supports
the world;418 others go further, and add a frog below the tortoise:419 and it
is said that the slightest motion on the part of either the tortoise or the cobra
is the cause of an earthquake.
Another belief is that earthquakes occur whenever there is tyranny or
injustice on the part of a king, or whenever immorality spreads in society,
because the earth is unable to bear the sin, and trembles at the sight of it.420
According to a different opinion, the earth is supported by the Pothia or the
favourite bull of Shiva on one of his horns. An earthquake is caused
whenever he transfers the earth from one horn to another in order to relieve
the former from the constant pressure of the burden.421
not cut or shaved their hair from their birth.410
The occurrence of lightning is believed to cause the delivery and sometimes
even the death of pregnant women.411
Any period marked by the occurrence of lightning is considered
inauspicious.412
The Puranas speak of fourteen worlds—the seven swargas (celestial
regions) and the seven pātāls (nether regions)413. Underneath the seventh
pātāl414 lies Shesha (the divine cobra) who supports all the fourteen worlds
on one of his one thousand hoods. On account of the heavy burden, the
serpent-god sometimes gets tired, and tries to change his position. The
result of the movement is an earth-quake.408 According to another version,
an earthquake occurs when Shesha changes his posture in sleep,415 or is the
result of a hair falling from the body of Shesha.416 Some people say that
ordinarily Shesha does not feel the weight of the fourteen worlds on his
head; he bears the load as if it were only a single sesamum seed. But when
too much sin accumulates in any of the regions, the burden becomes
unbearable for him: he begins to shake under it, and an earthquake
occurs.417
Some believe that there is a tortoise under the divine cobra who supports
the world;418 others go further, and add a frog below the tortoise:419 and it
is said that the slightest motion on the part of either the tortoise or the cobra
is the cause of an earthquake.
Another belief is that earthquakes occur whenever there is tyranny or
injustice on the part of a king, or whenever immorality spreads in society,
because the earth is unable to bear the sin, and trembles at the sight of it.420
According to a different opinion, the earth is supported by the Pothia or the
favourite bull of Shiva on one of his horns. An earthquake is caused
whenever he transfers the earth from one horn to another in order to relieve
the former from the constant pressure of the burden.421
Page 80
There is also a belief that deities of some strange species reside in the
nether regions, and the earth is shaken whenever these beings fight among
themselves.419
According to the Varāha-sanhita, an earthquake is always the precursor of
some unprecedented calamity.422 The prevalent belief in the popular mind
seems to be that an earthquake is the result of immorality and sin, and
further that it forebodes some dire calamity, such as famine, pestilence, an
outbreak of fire, a revolution, or a great war.423 The phenomenon is,
therefore, regarded with great fear; and when it occurs, people endeavour to
avoid the contingent evils by such meritorious acts as the giving of alms,
and generally by leading a virtuous life.424
The most popular of the holy rivers are the Ganges, the Jumna (or Jamuna),
the Narbadā, the Saraswati (near Sidhpur), the Kāveri, the Godāvari, the
Gandaki, the Sarayu, the Dāmodari, the Sindhu (or Indus), the Mahānad,
the Gomati (near Dwārka), the Brahmaputra, the Sābarmati, the Ghels (near
Gaddheda), the Tungabhadra, the Suvarnabhadrā, the Bhadrashitā, the
Jambuvati, the Phalaku (or Phalgu), the Kaushiki, the Tāmraparni, the Sita
and the Alakanandā. Any point where three rivers meet is also a sacred
place. Most of the holy rivers are the subject of many traditions, and books
have been written to celebrate their merits.
The Ganges, the Jumna, and the Godāvari are said to be the holiest of all
rivers.423 There are a number of beliefs about the origin of the Ganges. One
of them is that the Ganges is the stream caused by King Bali washing the
feet of Vāman (the Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu).425 Another story relates
that the god Brahma was exhausted by overwork at the time of the marriage
of Shiva and Pārvati. The gods, therefore, created water from their own
lustres, and gave it to Brahma in a gourd, to be used in a similar
contingency. When Vishnu in his Vāman avatār (or Dwarf incarnation)
bestrode the heavens with a single step, Brahma washed his toe in the water
from this gourd. A stream was thus created called Swarga-ganga and
brought down to the earth by Bhagīrath, the grandson of Sagar. When the
Ganges fell from the heavens, it was supported and held fast by God Shiva
in his jatā or matted hair. It was released by his loosening the hair, and in its
nether regions, and the earth is shaken whenever these beings fight among
themselves.419
According to the Varāha-sanhita, an earthquake is always the precursor of
some unprecedented calamity.422 The prevalent belief in the popular mind
seems to be that an earthquake is the result of immorality and sin, and
further that it forebodes some dire calamity, such as famine, pestilence, an
outbreak of fire, a revolution, or a great war.423 The phenomenon is,
therefore, regarded with great fear; and when it occurs, people endeavour to
avoid the contingent evils by such meritorious acts as the giving of alms,
and generally by leading a virtuous life.424
The most popular of the holy rivers are the Ganges, the Jumna (or Jamuna),
the Narbadā, the Saraswati (near Sidhpur), the Kāveri, the Godāvari, the
Gandaki, the Sarayu, the Dāmodari, the Sindhu (or Indus), the Mahānad,
the Gomati (near Dwārka), the Brahmaputra, the Sābarmati, the Ghels (near
Gaddheda), the Tungabhadra, the Suvarnabhadrā, the Bhadrashitā, the
Jambuvati, the Phalaku (or Phalgu), the Kaushiki, the Tāmraparni, the Sita
and the Alakanandā. Any point where three rivers meet is also a sacred
place. Most of the holy rivers are the subject of many traditions, and books
have been written to celebrate their merits.
The Ganges, the Jumna, and the Godāvari are said to be the holiest of all
rivers.423 There are a number of beliefs about the origin of the Ganges. One
of them is that the Ganges is the stream caused by King Bali washing the
feet of Vāman (the Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu).425 Another story relates
that the god Brahma was exhausted by overwork at the time of the marriage
of Shiva and Pārvati. The gods, therefore, created water from their own
lustres, and gave it to Brahma in a gourd, to be used in a similar
contingency. When Vishnu in his Vāman avatār (or Dwarf incarnation)
bestrode the heavens with a single step, Brahma washed his toe in the water
from this gourd. A stream was thus created called Swarga-ganga and
brought down to the earth by Bhagīrath, the grandson of Sagar. When the
Ganges fell from the heavens, it was supported and held fast by God Shiva
in his jatā or matted hair. It was released by his loosening the hair, and in its
Page 81
course, inundated the sacrificial ground of King Jahnu. The latter, being
angry, drank up its waters. On the entreaties of Bhagīrath, he released the
stream by tearing off his thigh.426 The river then flowed to the spot where
the sixty thousand sons of Sagar were burnt to ashes; and it is said by some
that one of the sixty thousand was saved at the end of each year up to the
year 1955 of the Samvat era (corresponding to A. D. 1899), by the end of
which period all the sixty thousand had attained salvation. From the earth
the Ganges went to the nether regions. Thus flowing in the heavens, on the
earth and in the Pātāl, the Ganges is called Tripathaga (i.e., flowing in three
courses). In its divine form, the Ganges is the wife of Shiva. Owing to the
curse of Brahma, she was born in human form in this world and was
married to Shantanu, by whom she became the mother of Bhishma, the
heroic uncle of the Kauravas and the Pāndavas.427
It is customary among Hindu pilgrims, when they visit Kāshi (Benares) to
take with them copper-vessels filled with Gangājal (water of the Ganges),
and to worship the Gangā when they reach their homes after the pilgrimage.
A figure is drawn in seven different kinds of corn; the bowl is placed on it;
abil gulāl (red powder), frankincense, and naivedya (an oblation of food)
are offered: a ghi lamp is lighted: a Brahman woman is dressed as Uma, the
wife of Shiva, and Brahmans are entertained at a feast, dakshina being
given to them.428
The water of the Ganges, as well as that of the Jumna, is believed to be so
pure that it cannot be affected by microbes, even if kept for years in the
house. This quality is believed to be a manifestation of its divine nature. It
is further called patit-pāvan (lit. purifier of the fallen), and exculpates the
sinful from their sins, either by a single draught or by bathing in it.429
Gangājal is kept in most Hindu families, a draught of it taken by a dying
person being believed to secure moksha or eternal salvation for the soul.430
A vow is observed by women, in honour of the Ganges, for the first ten
days of the month of Jyeshtha. On these days they rise early in the morning
and bathe in the holy waters of the Ganges.431
angry, drank up its waters. On the entreaties of Bhagīrath, he released the
stream by tearing off his thigh.426 The river then flowed to the spot where
the sixty thousand sons of Sagar were burnt to ashes; and it is said by some
that one of the sixty thousand was saved at the end of each year up to the
year 1955 of the Samvat era (corresponding to A. D. 1899), by the end of
which period all the sixty thousand had attained salvation. From the earth
the Ganges went to the nether regions. Thus flowing in the heavens, on the
earth and in the Pātāl, the Ganges is called Tripathaga (i.e., flowing in three
courses). In its divine form, the Ganges is the wife of Shiva. Owing to the
curse of Brahma, she was born in human form in this world and was
married to Shantanu, by whom she became the mother of Bhishma, the
heroic uncle of the Kauravas and the Pāndavas.427
It is customary among Hindu pilgrims, when they visit Kāshi (Benares) to
take with them copper-vessels filled with Gangājal (water of the Ganges),
and to worship the Gangā when they reach their homes after the pilgrimage.
A figure is drawn in seven different kinds of corn; the bowl is placed on it;
abil gulāl (red powder), frankincense, and naivedya (an oblation of food)
are offered: a ghi lamp is lighted: a Brahman woman is dressed as Uma, the
wife of Shiva, and Brahmans are entertained at a feast, dakshina being
given to them.428
The water of the Ganges, as well as that of the Jumna, is believed to be so
pure that it cannot be affected by microbes, even if kept for years in the
house. This quality is believed to be a manifestation of its divine nature. It
is further called patit-pāvan (lit. purifier of the fallen), and exculpates the
sinful from their sins, either by a single draught or by bathing in it.429
Gangājal is kept in most Hindu families, a draught of it taken by a dying
person being believed to secure moksha or eternal salvation for the soul.430
A vow is observed by women, in honour of the Ganges, for the first ten
days of the month of Jyeshtha. On these days they rise early in the morning
and bathe in the holy waters of the Ganges.431
Page 82
Sometimes ghi lamps are placed upon the waters of the Ganges or the
Jumna, and vessels of metal, pice, and cocoanuts are cast into the stream. At
such a time, when many people are standing on the banks offering prayers
with folded hands, or engaged in the arati,432 the river presents a very
picturesque scene, the numerous lights being reflected in the water.433
The Jamuna or Yamuna is the daughter of the Sun, and the sister of Yama,
the god of Death. The banks of the Jumna are well known as the scene of
the amorous sports of God Krishna.434 The story of the defeat of the demon
Kāliya Nāg who was ejected from the Jumna by Krishna is well-known.
It is said that those who have bathed in the Jumnā or have once tasted its
water, need not be afraid of Yama, the god of Death.435 It is considered
meritorious among the Hindus to bathe the image of god Shiva in water
from the holy Jumnā or the Ganges or the Godāvari.436 There is a popular
shloka in honour of the Jumnā which runs:—“Victory to thee! Oh Yamunā,
flowing through the Madhu-vana (the Madhu woods), the bearer of shining
waters, the companion of Jāhnavi, the daughter of Sindhu, the ornament of
the enemy of Madhu (viz., Krishna), the appeaser of Mādhava, the dispeller
of the danger of Gokal, the destroyer of the sins of the world, the giver of
intellect, the scene of the amorous sports of Keshava. Victory to thee! O
remover of difficulties, purify me.”437
The banks of the Godāvari are known as the site of the hermitage of
Gautama. When the planet Brihaspati (Jupiter) enters the Sinha-rāshi (the
constellation Leo)438 the holy Ganges goes to the Godāvari, and remains
there for one year. During that year, all the gods are believed to bathe in this
river. Thousands of pilgrims visit Nasik to offer prayers to the Godāvari,
and after bathing in the river, give alms to Brahmans. Similarly, on the
Kapilāshashti day, on which six jogs or conjunctive incidents occur
simultaneously, the virtue of all tīrthas or holy places is believed to be
concentrated in the Godāvari at Nasik.437
The mere sight of the Narbadā has the same effect as a bath in the Ganges
or the Jumnā.439 It is said that the Narbadā is the image of Shiva, and that
Jumna, and vessels of metal, pice, and cocoanuts are cast into the stream. At
such a time, when many people are standing on the banks offering prayers
with folded hands, or engaged in the arati,432 the river presents a very
picturesque scene, the numerous lights being reflected in the water.433
The Jamuna or Yamuna is the daughter of the Sun, and the sister of Yama,
the god of Death. The banks of the Jumna are well known as the scene of
the amorous sports of God Krishna.434 The story of the defeat of the demon
Kāliya Nāg who was ejected from the Jumna by Krishna is well-known.
It is said that those who have bathed in the Jumnā or have once tasted its
water, need not be afraid of Yama, the god of Death.435 It is considered
meritorious among the Hindus to bathe the image of god Shiva in water
from the holy Jumnā or the Ganges or the Godāvari.436 There is a popular
shloka in honour of the Jumnā which runs:—“Victory to thee! Oh Yamunā,
flowing through the Madhu-vana (the Madhu woods), the bearer of shining
waters, the companion of Jāhnavi, the daughter of Sindhu, the ornament of
the enemy of Madhu (viz., Krishna), the appeaser of Mādhava, the dispeller
of the danger of Gokal, the destroyer of the sins of the world, the giver of
intellect, the scene of the amorous sports of Keshava. Victory to thee! O
remover of difficulties, purify me.”437
The banks of the Godāvari are known as the site of the hermitage of
Gautama. When the planet Brihaspati (Jupiter) enters the Sinha-rāshi (the
constellation Leo)438 the holy Ganges goes to the Godāvari, and remains
there for one year. During that year, all the gods are believed to bathe in this
river. Thousands of pilgrims visit Nasik to offer prayers to the Godāvari,
and after bathing in the river, give alms to Brahmans. Similarly, on the
Kapilāshashti day, on which six jogs or conjunctive incidents occur
simultaneously, the virtue of all tīrthas or holy places is believed to be
concentrated in the Godāvari at Nasik.437
The mere sight of the Narbadā has the same effect as a bath in the Ganges
or the Jumnā.439 It is said that the Narbadā is the image of Shiva, and that
Page 83
fragments of the stony bow of Shiva are to be found in its bed.440 The
stones in the bed of this river have the same sanctity as the images of god
Shiva.441 Shāligram stones, which are worshipped as the images of Vishnu,
are found in this river.441 It is an act of high merit among Hindus to take a
pradakshinā round the Narbadā, i.e., to travel along the banks of the river,
inhabited as the region is by many Sādhus and other holy persons.442
Ashvatthāmā, the immortal son of Drona, is believed to reside on the banks
of this river and to pay occasional visits to the Bhils in the
neighbourhood.442 The Shukla-tīrtha, situated on the Narbadā, is visited by
numerous pilgrims, and a fair is held there on every sixtieth year.442
The sage Kapila instructed his mother Devahūti with divine knowledge on
the banks of the Saraswati. Since then, the river is held sacred and funeral
ceremonies—Shrāddhas—are performed on its banks in honour of departed
female ancestors.440 Similarly Shrāddhas in honour of male ancestors are
performed at the confluence of the Ganges, the Jumnā, and the Saraswati at
Allahabad.443444
Of the Gandaki it is said that it contains as many shankars (images of
Shiva) as there are sankars (stones). The shāligram stone is found in this
river also. The Saryu is sacred as the scene of the childish sports of
Rāmachandra, the hero of the Rāmāyana. On the banks of the Phalaku or
Phalgu, Rāmachandra performed Shrāddha ceremonies in honour of his
father Dasharath.440
A bath in the waters of a holy river washes away the sins of the bather.445 It
is also meritorious to repeat the names of the several holy rivers.446 The
performance of Shrāddha ceremonies on the banks of a holy river secures
the felicity of deceased ancestors in heaven.445 At the time of performing
Shrāddhas at a holy place, Hindus shave their moustaches, bathe in the
sacred waters, and then go through the necessary ceremonies, in the course
of which pindas are offered to the Pitars (spirits of dead ancestors).
Brahmans are feasted after the ceremonies, and dakshinā is given to
them.447 Tarpan or an offering of water with flowers, ointment, red lac,
cocoanuts, and betel, is frequently made to the river on the banks of which
stones in the bed of this river have the same sanctity as the images of god
Shiva.441 Shāligram stones, which are worshipped as the images of Vishnu,
are found in this river.441 It is an act of high merit among Hindus to take a
pradakshinā round the Narbadā, i.e., to travel along the banks of the river,
inhabited as the region is by many Sādhus and other holy persons.442
Ashvatthāmā, the immortal son of Drona, is believed to reside on the banks
of this river and to pay occasional visits to the Bhils in the
neighbourhood.442 The Shukla-tīrtha, situated on the Narbadā, is visited by
numerous pilgrims, and a fair is held there on every sixtieth year.442
The sage Kapila instructed his mother Devahūti with divine knowledge on
the banks of the Saraswati. Since then, the river is held sacred and funeral
ceremonies—Shrāddhas—are performed on its banks in honour of departed
female ancestors.440 Similarly Shrāddhas in honour of male ancestors are
performed at the confluence of the Ganges, the Jumnā, and the Saraswati at
Allahabad.443444
Of the Gandaki it is said that it contains as many shankars (images of
Shiva) as there are sankars (stones). The shāligram stone is found in this
river also. The Saryu is sacred as the scene of the childish sports of
Rāmachandra, the hero of the Rāmāyana. On the banks of the Phalaku or
Phalgu, Rāmachandra performed Shrāddha ceremonies in honour of his
father Dasharath.440
A bath in the waters of a holy river washes away the sins of the bather.445 It
is also meritorious to repeat the names of the several holy rivers.446 The
performance of Shrāddha ceremonies on the banks of a holy river secures
the felicity of deceased ancestors in heaven.445 At the time of performing
Shrāddhas at a holy place, Hindus shave their moustaches, bathe in the
sacred waters, and then go through the necessary ceremonies, in the course
of which pindas are offered to the Pitars (spirits of dead ancestors).
Brahmans are feasted after the ceremonies, and dakshinā is given to
them.447 Tarpan or an offering of water with flowers, ointment, red lac,
cocoanuts, and betel, is frequently made to the river on the banks of which
Page 84
the ceremonies are performed.448 The bones of a deceased person, left
unburnt after cremation of the body, are gathered together and thrown into
holy rivers such as the Ganges, the Jumnā, and the Godāvari, for the
purification of his soul.449
When heavy floods threaten a village or a city with serious injury, the king
or the headman should go in procession to propitiate the river with flowers,
cocoanuts, and other offerings in order that the floods may subside.450 A
story is related of the occurrence of heavy floods in a village in the Jatalpur
taluka, when a certain lady placed an earthen vessel (ordinarily used for
curdling milk), containing a ghi lamp, afloat on the floods, whereupon the
waters were at once seen to recede.451
Besides the holy rivers, there are numerous kunds or sacred pools which are
regarded with equal reverence, and in which a bath has the same efficacy
for destroying sin. Similarly, they are equally suitable places for the
performance of Shrāddha ceremonies. These kunds are the subject of
numerous beliefs, and each of them has a certain māhātmya or peculiar
merit of its own. Six miles to the east of Dwārkā, near the sea-coast, there is
a kund called Pind-tārak, where many persons go to perform the Shrāddha
and the Nārāyan-bali ceremonies. They first bathe in the kund: then, with its
water, they prepare pindas, and place them in a metal dish: red lac is
applied to the pindas, and a piece of cotton thread wound round them; the
metal dish being then dipped in the kund, when the pindas, instead of
sinking, are said to remain floating on the water. The process is believed to
earn a good status for the spirits of departed ancestors in heaven.445 It is
further said that physical ailments brought on by the avagati—degradation
or fallen condition—of ancestors in the other world, are remedied by the
performance of Shrāddha on this kund.452
The Dāmodar kund is situated near Junāgadh. It is said that if the bones of a
deceased person which remain unburnt after his cremation are dipped in this
kund, the soul of that person obtains moksha (or final emancipation).445
There is a vāv or reservoir on Mount Girnār, known as Rasakūpikā-vāv. It is
believed that the body of a person bathing in it becomes as hard as marble,
unburnt after cremation of the body, are gathered together and thrown into
holy rivers such as the Ganges, the Jumnā, and the Godāvari, for the
purification of his soul.449
When heavy floods threaten a village or a city with serious injury, the king
or the headman should go in procession to propitiate the river with flowers,
cocoanuts, and other offerings in order that the floods may subside.450 A
story is related of the occurrence of heavy floods in a village in the Jatalpur
taluka, when a certain lady placed an earthen vessel (ordinarily used for
curdling milk), containing a ghi lamp, afloat on the floods, whereupon the
waters were at once seen to recede.451
Besides the holy rivers, there are numerous kunds or sacred pools which are
regarded with equal reverence, and in which a bath has the same efficacy
for destroying sin. Similarly, they are equally suitable places for the
performance of Shrāddha ceremonies. These kunds are the subject of
numerous beliefs, and each of them has a certain māhātmya or peculiar
merit of its own. Six miles to the east of Dwārkā, near the sea-coast, there is
a kund called Pind-tārak, where many persons go to perform the Shrāddha
and the Nārāyan-bali ceremonies. They first bathe in the kund: then, with its
water, they prepare pindas, and place them in a metal dish: red lac is
applied to the pindas, and a piece of cotton thread wound round them; the
metal dish being then dipped in the kund, when the pindas, instead of
sinking, are said to remain floating on the water. The process is believed to
earn a good status for the spirits of departed ancestors in heaven.445 It is
further said that physical ailments brought on by the avagati—degradation
or fallen condition—of ancestors in the other world, are remedied by the
performance of Shrāddha on this kund.452
The Dāmodar kund is situated near Junāgadh. It is said that if the bones of a
deceased person which remain unburnt after his cremation are dipped in this
kund, the soul of that person obtains moksha (or final emancipation).445
There is a vāv or reservoir on Mount Girnār, known as Rasakūpikā-vāv. It is
believed that the body of a person bathing in it becomes as hard as marble,
Page 85
and that if a piece of stone or iron is dipped in the vāv, it is instantly
transformed into gold. But the vāv is only visible to saints and sages who
are gifted with a supernatural vision.453
Kāshīpuri (Benares) contains a vāv called Gyān-vāv, in which there is an
image of Vishweshwar (the Lord of the universe, i.e., Shiva). A bath in the
water from this vāv is believed to confer upon a person the gift of divine
knowledge.445
In the village of Chunval, a few miles to the north of Viramgām, there is a
kund known as Loteshwar, near which stands a pipal tree. Persons
possessed by ghosts or devils, are freed from possession by pouring water at
the foot of the tree and taking turns round it, remaining silent the while.454
A bath in the Mān-sarovar near Bahucharāji is said to cause the wishes of
the bather to be fulfilled. There is a local tradition455 that a Rajput woman
was turned into a male Rajput of the Solanki class by a bath in its waters.454
There is a kund called Zilāka near Zinzuwādā with a temple of Naleshwar
Mahādev near it. The kund is said to have been built at the time of King
Nala. It is believed locally that every year, on the 15th day of the bright half
of Bhādrapad, the holy Ganges visits the kund by an underground route. A
great fair is held there on that day, when people bathe in the kund and give
alms to the poor.456 There is also another kund close by, known as Bholava,
where the river Saraswati is believed to have halted and manifested herself
on her way to the sea.457
There is a kund in Baladāna near Wadhwan, dedicated to Hol, the favourite
mātā of the Chārans. In this kund, black or red gagar bedinus—pieces of
cotton thread—are sometimes seen floating in the water. They appear only
for a moment, and sink if any one endeavours to seize them. The
appearance of black pieces forebodes famine: but the red ones foretell
prosperity.458
In Bhadakon near Chudā there is a kund called Garigavo. The place is
celebrated as the spot of the hermitage of the sage Bhrigu and a fair is held
transformed into gold. But the vāv is only visible to saints and sages who
are gifted with a supernatural vision.453
Kāshīpuri (Benares) contains a vāv called Gyān-vāv, in which there is an
image of Vishweshwar (the Lord of the universe, i.e., Shiva). A bath in the
water from this vāv is believed to confer upon a person the gift of divine
knowledge.445
In the village of Chunval, a few miles to the north of Viramgām, there is a
kund known as Loteshwar, near which stands a pipal tree. Persons
possessed by ghosts or devils, are freed from possession by pouring water at
the foot of the tree and taking turns round it, remaining silent the while.454
A bath in the Mān-sarovar near Bahucharāji is said to cause the wishes of
the bather to be fulfilled. There is a local tradition455 that a Rajput woman
was turned into a male Rajput of the Solanki class by a bath in its waters.454
There is a kund called Zilāka near Zinzuwādā with a temple of Naleshwar
Mahādev near it. The kund is said to have been built at the time of King
Nala. It is believed locally that every year, on the 15th day of the bright half
of Bhādrapad, the holy Ganges visits the kund by an underground route. A
great fair is held there on that day, when people bathe in the kund and give
alms to the poor.456 There is also another kund close by, known as Bholava,
where the river Saraswati is believed to have halted and manifested herself
on her way to the sea.457
There is a kund in Baladāna near Wadhwan, dedicated to Hol, the favourite
mātā of the Chārans. In this kund, black or red gagar bedinus—pieces of
cotton thread—are sometimes seen floating in the water. They appear only
for a moment, and sink if any one endeavours to seize them. The
appearance of black pieces forebodes famine: but the red ones foretell
prosperity.458
In Bhadakon near Chudā there is a kund called Garigavo. The place is
celebrated as the spot of the hermitage of the sage Bhrigu and a fair is held
Page 86
there annually on the last day of Bhādrapad.458
Persons anxious to attain heaven, bathe in the Mrigi kund on Mount Girnār;
and a bath in the Revati kund, which is in the same place, confers male
issue on the bather.459 There is also a kund of the shape of an elephant’s
footprint Pagahein on Mount Girnār. It never empties and is held most
sacred by pilgrims.460 People bathe in the Gomati kund near Dwārkā and
take a little of the earth from its bed, for the purification of their souls.461 In
the village of Bābarā, Babhruvāhan, the son of Arjun, is said to have
constructed several kunds, all of which are believed to be holy.460
The Lasundra kund near Lasundra in the Kaira District462 and the Tulsi-
shyāma kund on Mount Girnār463 contain hot waters. There is also a hot
kund called Devki-unai, about thirty miles to the south of Surat.462 There
the waters remain hot throughout the whole of the year, except on the
fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra. On this day, the waters cool, and
people can bathe in the kund. Many pilgrims visit the place on this
occasion, to offer money, cocoanuts, and red lac to the unai mātā, whose
temple stands near the kund. It is said that King Rāma built this kund while
performing a local sacrifice, and brought water up from the pātāl (nether
regions) by shooting an arrow into the earth.464
Other holy kunds are: the Bhīm kund, the Gomukhi-gangā, and the
Kamandalu kund on Mount Girnār near the temple of Bhimnāth Mahādeo;
the Rādhā kund, the Lalita kund, and the Krishna-sarovar in Dwārkā; the
Rāma-sarovar, the Sītā kund and the Devki-unai kund in Ayodhya
(Oudh);465 and the Suraj kund466 and the Hanumāndhāra467 kund on Mount
Girnār.
Waterfalls are not very familiar to the people of Gujarāt. There is a belief,
however, that barren couples obtain issue if they bathe in a waterfall, and
offer a cocoanut.468
If a river source issues from an opening, in the shape of a go-mukh (cow’s-
mouth), the stream is called dhodh, and is considered as sacred as the holy
Persons anxious to attain heaven, bathe in the Mrigi kund on Mount Girnār;
and a bath in the Revati kund, which is in the same place, confers male
issue on the bather.459 There is also a kund of the shape of an elephant’s
footprint Pagahein on Mount Girnār. It never empties and is held most
sacred by pilgrims.460 People bathe in the Gomati kund near Dwārkā and
take a little of the earth from its bed, for the purification of their souls.461 In
the village of Bābarā, Babhruvāhan, the son of Arjun, is said to have
constructed several kunds, all of which are believed to be holy.460
The Lasundra kund near Lasundra in the Kaira District462 and the Tulsi-
shyāma kund on Mount Girnār463 contain hot waters. There is also a hot
kund called Devki-unai, about thirty miles to the south of Surat.462 There
the waters remain hot throughout the whole of the year, except on the
fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra. On this day, the waters cool, and
people can bathe in the kund. Many pilgrims visit the place on this
occasion, to offer money, cocoanuts, and red lac to the unai mātā, whose
temple stands near the kund. It is said that King Rāma built this kund while
performing a local sacrifice, and brought water up from the pātāl (nether
regions) by shooting an arrow into the earth.464
Other holy kunds are: the Bhīm kund, the Gomukhi-gangā, and the
Kamandalu kund on Mount Girnār near the temple of Bhimnāth Mahādeo;
the Rādhā kund, the Lalita kund, and the Krishna-sarovar in Dwārkā; the
Rāma-sarovar, the Sītā kund and the Devki-unai kund in Ayodhya
(Oudh);465 and the Suraj kund466 and the Hanumāndhāra467 kund on Mount
Girnār.
Waterfalls are not very familiar to the people of Gujarāt. There is a belief,
however, that barren couples obtain issue if they bathe in a waterfall, and
offer a cocoanut.468
If a river source issues from an opening, in the shape of a go-mukh (cow’s-
mouth), the stream is called dhodh, and is considered as sacred as the holy
Page 87
Ganges. A bath in such a dhodh has the same efficacy for absolving persons
from their sins.469
When a person dies an accidental death and before the fulfilment of his
worldly desires, his soul receives avagati (i.e., passes into a degraded or
fallen condition), and it is not released from this state till Shrāddhas have
been duly performed in its name, and the objects of its desire dedicated to it
with proper ritual. The same fate befalls those souls which do not receive
the funeral pindas with the proper obsequies. Such fallen souls become
ghosts and goblins,470 and are to be found where water is, i.e., near a well, a
tank, or a river.471
Those who meet death by drowning become goblins, residing near the
scene of their death, and are a source of danger to all who approach the
water; for instance, in Monāpuri and Sāsai, there are two ghunas
(mysterious watery pits) haunted by bhuts (ghosts) which take the lives of
one or two buffaloes every year.472 Mātās473 and Shankhinis also haunt
wells, springs, and tanks and either drown, or enter the persons of those
who go near their resorts.
Persons who are possessed in this manner, can be freed by bhuvas,473 who
give them a magic thread to wear.474
There is a vāv called Nīlkanth vāv near Movaiya, in which a Pinjari (a
female cotton-carder) is said to have been drowned, and to have been turned
into a ghost, in which form she occasionally presents herself to the
people.475
Another ghost haunts an old vāv, called Madhā, in Vadhwān and drowns
one human being every third year as a victim. But a male spirit named
Kshetrapāl resides in the kotha (or entrance) of the vāv, and saves those
who fall near the entrance. A person is, however, sure to be drowned if he
falls in any other part of the vāv.476 A ghost also resides in the vāv at
Hampar near Dhrāngadhrā and terrifies the people at times.476
from their sins.469
When a person dies an accidental death and before the fulfilment of his
worldly desires, his soul receives avagati (i.e., passes into a degraded or
fallen condition), and it is not released from this state till Shrāddhas have
been duly performed in its name, and the objects of its desire dedicated to it
with proper ritual. The same fate befalls those souls which do not receive
the funeral pindas with the proper obsequies. Such fallen souls become
ghosts and goblins,470 and are to be found where water is, i.e., near a well, a
tank, or a river.471
Those who meet death by drowning become goblins, residing near the
scene of their death, and are a source of danger to all who approach the
water; for instance, in Monāpuri and Sāsai, there are two ghunas
(mysterious watery pits) haunted by bhuts (ghosts) which take the lives of
one or two buffaloes every year.472 Mātās473 and Shankhinis also haunt
wells, springs, and tanks and either drown, or enter the persons of those
who go near their resorts.
Persons who are possessed in this manner, can be freed by bhuvas,473 who
give them a magic thread to wear.474
There is a vāv called Nīlkanth vāv near Movaiya, in which a Pinjari (a
female cotton-carder) is said to have been drowned, and to have been turned
into a ghost, in which form she occasionally presents herself to the
people.475
Another ghost haunts an old vāv, called Madhā, in Vadhwān and drowns
one human being every third year as a victim. But a male spirit named
Kshetrapāl resides in the kotha (or entrance) of the vāv, and saves those
who fall near the entrance. A person is, however, sure to be drowned if he
falls in any other part of the vāv.476 A ghost also resides in the vāv at
Hampar near Dhrāngadhrā and terrifies the people at times.476
Page 88
The goddess Rainadevi resides in water, and is worshipped by virgins on
the fifteenth day of the bright half of Āshādh, when they grow javārās
(tender wheat-plants) in an earthen vessel and present them to her,
remaining awake for the whole of the night to sing songs in her honour.469
Daryā-Pir, the patron of Luvānās (merchants) and Khārvās (sailors), resides
in the sea; and vows are observed in his honour by these people on the
second day of the bright half of every month, when they pass a little water
through his sieve.477
It is well known that a drowning person clings fast to anyone who tries to
save him, and endangers the lives of both himself and his saviour.478 It is
also believed by some people that the messengers of Varuna (the lord of all
waters) seize those persons who bathe in a river earlier than the usual hour
in the morning; and the act of saving a drowning person thus deprives
Varuna of his victim, and brings down the wrath of that deity.479
Sometimes, for the sake of moksha, a person takes samādhi (i.e., drowns
himself with a religious motive) in a holy river, such as the Ganges or the
Jumnā. In such a case the relatives and other persons refrain from
interference, and do not try to rescue the person.478
When a well is to be dug, an expert is first called to select a likely spot on
which to dig. A Brahman is then consulted as to the auspicious hour on
which the work of digging should be commenced.480 For this purpose,
Tuesdays and those days on which the earth sleeps are to be avoided. The
earth is supposed to be asleep on the following six days in every month,
namely: the 1st, the 7th, the 9th, the 10th, the 14th and the 24th days
following a sankrānti (i.e., the day on which the sun crosses from one
constellation to another). Excluding these days, a date is generally fixed on
which the Chandra-graha (or the planet moon) is favourable to the
constructor of the well.481
On the appointed day, the expert, the constructor of the well, the Brahman
priest, and the labourers go to the place where the well is to be dug, and an
image of the god Ganpati—the protector of all auspicious ceremonies—is
the fifteenth day of the bright half of Āshādh, when they grow javārās
(tender wheat-plants) in an earthen vessel and present them to her,
remaining awake for the whole of the night to sing songs in her honour.469
Daryā-Pir, the patron of Luvānās (merchants) and Khārvās (sailors), resides
in the sea; and vows are observed in his honour by these people on the
second day of the bright half of every month, when they pass a little water
through his sieve.477
It is well known that a drowning person clings fast to anyone who tries to
save him, and endangers the lives of both himself and his saviour.478 It is
also believed by some people that the messengers of Varuna (the lord of all
waters) seize those persons who bathe in a river earlier than the usual hour
in the morning; and the act of saving a drowning person thus deprives
Varuna of his victim, and brings down the wrath of that deity.479
Sometimes, for the sake of moksha, a person takes samādhi (i.e., drowns
himself with a religious motive) in a holy river, such as the Ganges or the
Jumnā. In such a case the relatives and other persons refrain from
interference, and do not try to rescue the person.478
When a well is to be dug, an expert is first called to select a likely spot on
which to dig. A Brahman is then consulted as to the auspicious hour on
which the work of digging should be commenced.480 For this purpose,
Tuesdays and those days on which the earth sleeps are to be avoided. The
earth is supposed to be asleep on the following six days in every month,
namely: the 1st, the 7th, the 9th, the 10th, the 14th and the 24th days
following a sankrānti (i.e., the day on which the sun crosses from one
constellation to another). Excluding these days, a date is generally fixed on
which the Chandra-graha (or the planet moon) is favourable to the
constructor of the well.481
On the appointed day, the expert, the constructor of the well, the Brahman
priest, and the labourers go to the place where the well is to be dug, and an
image of the god Ganpati—the protector of all auspicious ceremonies—is
Page 89
first installed on the spot and worshipped with panchāmrit.482483 A green
coloured piece of atlas (silk cloth), about two feet long, is then spread on
the spot, and a pound and a quarter of wheat, a cocoanut, betels, dates and
copper coin are placed on it. A copper bowl containing some silver or gold
coins and filled with water, is also placed there; the mouth of the bowl is
covered with the leaves of the Ashoka tree (Jinesia Asoka) and a cocoanut
is placed over the leaves. After this, the priest recites sacred hymns and asks
his host to perform the khāt484 ceremonies.485 Among favourite offerings to
Ganpati and the earth in the course of worship and in the performance of
the khāt ceremonies are: curds, milk, honey, molasses, cocoanuts, dhanā (a
kind of spices), leaves of nāgarvel (a kind of creeper) and red lac.480 The
expert who is called to choose a proper site for the well offers frankincense
and a cocoanut to the spot, and lights a lamp thereon. After the khāt486
ceremonies are over, the host distributes sugar or molasses among the
bystanders, and offers a sum of money to the expert, who usually refuses it,
asking the host to spend it in charity. Those who accept money give away a
part of it in alms to the poor.480
Sometimes, to secure the unobstructed completion of the work, the god
Ganpati and the goddess Jaladevi are installed and worshipped daily, till
water appears in the well.481 Some people, however, install the goddess
Jaladevi after the appearance of water, when a stone is taken out from the
bottom of the well and is plastered with red-lead to represent the goddess
and is ceremoniously worshipped. When the construction of the well is
complete, vāstu, i.e., the ceremony in vogue after the completion of a new
building, or jalotsava (the water-festival) is celebrated, Brahmans being
entertained at a feast, with dakshinā given.487
The water of the Krukalas well in the island of Shankhodwār is believed to
cure fever and diseases caused by morbid heat. A draught of the water of the
Gomukhi-gangā near Girnār, makes one proof against an attack of
cholera.488
The water of a gozarā well (i.e., a well which is polluted on account of a
person bring drowned in it) cures children of bronchitis and cough.489490
coloured piece of atlas (silk cloth), about two feet long, is then spread on
the spot, and a pound and a quarter of wheat, a cocoanut, betels, dates and
copper coin are placed on it. A copper bowl containing some silver or gold
coins and filled with water, is also placed there; the mouth of the bowl is
covered with the leaves of the Ashoka tree (Jinesia Asoka) and a cocoanut
is placed over the leaves. After this, the priest recites sacred hymns and asks
his host to perform the khāt484 ceremonies.485 Among favourite offerings to
Ganpati and the earth in the course of worship and in the performance of
the khāt ceremonies are: curds, milk, honey, molasses, cocoanuts, dhanā (a
kind of spices), leaves of nāgarvel (a kind of creeper) and red lac.480 The
expert who is called to choose a proper site for the well offers frankincense
and a cocoanut to the spot, and lights a lamp thereon. After the khāt486
ceremonies are over, the host distributes sugar or molasses among the
bystanders, and offers a sum of money to the expert, who usually refuses it,
asking the host to spend it in charity. Those who accept money give away a
part of it in alms to the poor.480
Sometimes, to secure the unobstructed completion of the work, the god
Ganpati and the goddess Jaladevi are installed and worshipped daily, till
water appears in the well.481 Some people, however, install the goddess
Jaladevi after the appearance of water, when a stone is taken out from the
bottom of the well and is plastered with red-lead to represent the goddess
and is ceremoniously worshipped. When the construction of the well is
complete, vāstu, i.e., the ceremony in vogue after the completion of a new
building, or jalotsava (the water-festival) is celebrated, Brahmans being
entertained at a feast, with dakshinā given.487
The water of the Krukalas well in the island of Shankhodwār is believed to
cure fever and diseases caused by morbid heat. A draught of the water of the
Gomukhi-gangā near Girnār, makes one proof against an attack of
cholera.488
The water of a gozarā well (i.e., a well which is polluted on account of a
person bring drowned in it) cures children of bronchitis and cough.489490
Page 90
There is a well near Ramdorana, of which the water is effective against
cough,491 and the water of the Bhamaria well near Vasāwad possesses the
same virtue.492
The water of the Mrigi kund near Junāgadh remedies leprosy.491
The Pipli well near Zālāwād and the Detroja-vāv near Kolki are well-known
for the stimulative effect of their waters on the digestion.493
If a dark stone is found in the course of digging a well, the water of that
well is believed to have medicinal properties.494
The birth of a child under the mul nakshatra endangers the life of its father:
but the misfortune is averted if the child and its parents bathe in water
drawn from one hundred and eight wells.488 Such water, if swallowed, is
said to cure sanipāt or delirium.495
In the island of Shial there is a vāv called Thān-vāv, where mothers, who
cannot suckle their children for want of milk, wash their bodices. When
they afterwards wear these bodices, these are believed to be able to cause
the due secretion of milk.496
The most famous of the sacred lakes are Pampa497, Bindu498, Pushkar and
Sāmbhar near Ajmere, Mān-sarovar near Bahucharāji, Nārāyan-sarovar in
Cutch, Rāvanrhad in the Himālayas, and Rāmarhad. The following popular
myth is related about Mān-sarovar.
Two kings once agreed that the two children that should first be born to
them should marry each other. But it happened that both the kings had
daughters. One of them, however, concealed the fact, and gave out that the
child born to him was a son. So that when the children attained a
marriageable age, they were married to each other according to the
agreement.
But the wife found out the secret when she went to stay with her supposed
husband, and disclosed it to her parents, who invited the counterfeit son-in-
cough,491 and the water of the Bhamaria well near Vasāwad possesses the
same virtue.492
The water of the Mrigi kund near Junāgadh remedies leprosy.491
The Pipli well near Zālāwād and the Detroja-vāv near Kolki are well-known
for the stimulative effect of their waters on the digestion.493
If a dark stone is found in the course of digging a well, the water of that
well is believed to have medicinal properties.494
The birth of a child under the mul nakshatra endangers the life of its father:
but the misfortune is averted if the child and its parents bathe in water
drawn from one hundred and eight wells.488 Such water, if swallowed, is
said to cure sanipāt or delirium.495
In the island of Shial there is a vāv called Thān-vāv, where mothers, who
cannot suckle their children for want of milk, wash their bodices. When
they afterwards wear these bodices, these are believed to be able to cause
the due secretion of milk.496
The most famous of the sacred lakes are Pampa497, Bindu498, Pushkar and
Sāmbhar near Ajmere, Mān-sarovar near Bahucharāji, Nārāyan-sarovar in
Cutch, Rāvanrhad in the Himālayas, and Rāmarhad. The following popular
myth is related about Mān-sarovar.
Two kings once agreed that the two children that should first be born to
them should marry each other. But it happened that both the kings had
daughters. One of them, however, concealed the fact, and gave out that the
child born to him was a son. So that when the children attained a
marriageable age, they were married to each other according to the
agreement.
But the wife found out the secret when she went to stay with her supposed
husband, and disclosed it to her parents, who invited the counterfeit son-in-
Page 91
law to their house with the object of ascertaining the truth. The alleged son,
however, suspected the design and fled, with a mare and a bitch. On
arriving near Mān-sarovar, the animals went into the lake in order to refresh
themselves, when there was an immediate transformation; and the bitch and
the mare came out a horse and a dog. On observing this miracle, their
mistress followed their example and was also turned into a male. The story
is still sung by girls in a garabi (song) during the Navarātra holidays.499
There is a belief that the ancient golden city of Dwārkā, the capital of god
Krishna, still exists in the sea, although it is invisible to the eyes of
mortals.494 A story is told of a man named Pipo Bhagat, who, once
perceiving a golden bowl floating in the sea, plunged into the water and saw
the golden palaces of Dwārkā and god Krishna resting therein. It is said that
he returned with the tide and related his experience to several people.500
Similarly, the golden Lanka of Rāvan is still believed to exist under the sea,
ruled over by Bibhishan, the brother of Rāvan, and visible only to the eyes
of saints and holy persons.501 It is a common belief that the nether regions
are inhabited by a species of semi-divine beings, half men and half serpents,
called Nāgs, who possess magnificent palaces under the water.502 The story
of Kāliya Nāg, who resided at the bottom of the Jumnā and was driven from
that place by Krishna, is well known.503 There are a number of
mythological traditions in the Purānas of kings and princes having visited
these palaces in watery regions, and of their having brought back beautiful
Nāgakanyās (daughters of Nāgs) therefrom.504 For instance, Arjuna married
a Nāgakanyā named Ulupi when he was living in exile with his brothers.
He also stayed for some time with the Nāgs.
Ghosts and demons sometimes inhabit palaces under the water. Deep
waters, unfrequented by men, are the favourite resorts of such beings.505
The god Varuna resides in the waters, and is said to have once carried off
Nand (the adoptive father of Krishna) to his watery abode, for having
bathed in the Jumnā before dawn.503
however, suspected the design and fled, with a mare and a bitch. On
arriving near Mān-sarovar, the animals went into the lake in order to refresh
themselves, when there was an immediate transformation; and the bitch and
the mare came out a horse and a dog. On observing this miracle, their
mistress followed their example and was also turned into a male. The story
is still sung by girls in a garabi (song) during the Navarātra holidays.499
There is a belief that the ancient golden city of Dwārkā, the capital of god
Krishna, still exists in the sea, although it is invisible to the eyes of
mortals.494 A story is told of a man named Pipo Bhagat, who, once
perceiving a golden bowl floating in the sea, plunged into the water and saw
the golden palaces of Dwārkā and god Krishna resting therein. It is said that
he returned with the tide and related his experience to several people.500
Similarly, the golden Lanka of Rāvan is still believed to exist under the sea,
ruled over by Bibhishan, the brother of Rāvan, and visible only to the eyes
of saints and holy persons.501 It is a common belief that the nether regions
are inhabited by a species of semi-divine beings, half men and half serpents,
called Nāgs, who possess magnificent palaces under the water.502 The story
of Kāliya Nāg, who resided at the bottom of the Jumnā and was driven from
that place by Krishna, is well known.503 There are a number of
mythological traditions in the Purānas of kings and princes having visited
these palaces in watery regions, and of their having brought back beautiful
Nāgakanyās (daughters of Nāgs) therefrom.504 For instance, Arjuna married
a Nāgakanyā named Ulupi when he was living in exile with his brothers.
He also stayed for some time with the Nāgs.
Ghosts and demons sometimes inhabit palaces under the water. Deep
waters, unfrequented by men, are the favourite resorts of such beings.505
The god Varuna resides in the waters, and is said to have once carried off
Nand (the adoptive father of Krishna) to his watery abode, for having
bathed in the Jumnā before dawn.503
Page 92
Kālindi, the daughter of the king of the Kalingas, practised religious
austerities in a palace under the waters of the Jumnā with the object of
securing a suitable husband. Krishna, on being informed of this by Arjuna,
went to the place and married her.506
There is a story in the Purānas that a king, named Nandrāj, used to bury his
treasures in the sea with the assistance of a mani (jewel) which furnished a
safe passage through the water. The mani was in the end burnt by the queen
of Nandrāj and the treasure still lies hidden in the waters of the sea.507
It is narrated in the fourth chapter of Bhāgvat-purān that the ten thousand
sons of Prachetas used to reside in palaces built under water.508
Mountains are held to be sacred in a variety of circumstances; thus, some
are valued for possessing medicinal drugs: some are revered as the
birthplaces of the gods, or as the residences of saints: some for possessing
many tīrthas (holy spots): some because they were visited by Rāma or the
Pāndavas: some serve as guardians of the four quarters: and some contain
the sources of holy rivers.
Both the important ranges of the Presidency, the Sahyādri and the Sātpuda,
are subjects of veneration in the popular mind. The Himālayas, the Vindhyā
Mountains, and the Nilgiris command special respect. Other sacred
mountains are Girnār and Shetrunja in Kāthiāwār, Mount Ābu, Pāvāgad
near Baroda, Brahmagiri Ārāsur, Tryambak near Nasik, Koyalo, Govardhan
near Mathurā, Revatāchal near Dwārkā, and Hinglaj in Sind.
It is said that in ancient times there were deep miry ditches where Girnār
and Ābu stand at present. One day a cow belonging to the sage Vasishtha
fell into one of them and was found by Kacha, the son of Brihaspati, after a
long search. When the incident was brought to the notice of Vasishtha, he
requested Meru (a mythical mountain) to send his two sons Girnār and Ābu
to occupy and fill the ditches. Girnār required sixty-eight tīrthas to
accompany him; and the boon was granted by the gods.509
austerities in a palace under the waters of the Jumnā with the object of
securing a suitable husband. Krishna, on being informed of this by Arjuna,
went to the place and married her.506
There is a story in the Purānas that a king, named Nandrāj, used to bury his
treasures in the sea with the assistance of a mani (jewel) which furnished a
safe passage through the water. The mani was in the end burnt by the queen
of Nandrāj and the treasure still lies hidden in the waters of the sea.507
It is narrated in the fourth chapter of Bhāgvat-purān that the ten thousand
sons of Prachetas used to reside in palaces built under water.508
Mountains are held to be sacred in a variety of circumstances; thus, some
are valued for possessing medicinal drugs: some are revered as the
birthplaces of the gods, or as the residences of saints: some for possessing
many tīrthas (holy spots): some because they were visited by Rāma or the
Pāndavas: some serve as guardians of the four quarters: and some contain
the sources of holy rivers.
Both the important ranges of the Presidency, the Sahyādri and the Sātpuda,
are subjects of veneration in the popular mind. The Himālayas, the Vindhyā
Mountains, and the Nilgiris command special respect. Other sacred
mountains are Girnār and Shetrunja in Kāthiāwār, Mount Ābu, Pāvāgad
near Baroda, Brahmagiri Ārāsur, Tryambak near Nasik, Koyalo, Govardhan
near Mathurā, Revatāchal near Dwārkā, and Hinglaj in Sind.
It is said that in ancient times there were deep miry ditches where Girnār
and Ābu stand at present. One day a cow belonging to the sage Vasishtha
fell into one of them and was found by Kacha, the son of Brihaspati, after a
long search. When the incident was brought to the notice of Vasishtha, he
requested Meru (a mythical mountain) to send his two sons Girnār and Ābu
to occupy and fill the ditches. Girnār required sixty-eight tīrthas to
accompany him; and the boon was granted by the gods.509
Page 93
Girnār is one of the seven great mountains which once possessed
wings.510511 It is also known as the place where the sage Dattātraya
performed religious austerities.512 The place is so holy that any person
dying within a radius of twelve gaus513 from it is believed to attain
moksha.514 A visit to the temples on Girnār absolves one from all sins; and
taking a turn round Girnār and Shetrunja is said to bring good fortune.515
Bhagwān manifests himself to those who ascend the Bhairavajaya summit
on Girnār. There is a rock on this mountain of which it is said that those
who cast themselves from it directly attain heaven.516
Pāvāgad is known for the temple of Mahākāli Mātā. It is said that King
Patai once propitiated her by austerities, and on being desired to demand a
boon, asked the goddess to accompany him to his palace. The goddess was
highly incensed at this request, and promptly destroyed him.516
Hanūmān, the monkey-god, once promised to take the Mountain Govardhan
to meet Rāma. It is well known how the monkey allies of Rāma constructed
a bridge of rocks across the sea to Laṅkā, and how Hanūmān supplied the
requisite material by fetching huge mountains. Whilst engaged on this
work, he was one day carrying the Govardhan mountain to the site of the
bridge, when Rāma issued an order that all monkeys who were fetching
mountains should deposit their burdens at the spot where they stood at the
moment of the order. Hanūmān could not disobey the order of his lord, and
he had accordingly to drop the Govardhan mountain near Mathurā. In order
to fulfil Hanūmān’s promise, however, Vishnu held the mountain over his
head for seven days, at the time of his Krishna incarnation.516
It is said that the inhabitants of the districts round Govardhan formerly
revered and adored Indra. But Krishna condemned this custom, and
introduced the worship of Govardhan. Indra was exasperated at this
conduct, and poured tremendous rains on Gokal in order to drown Krishna
and his followers. But Krishna held up the Govardhan mountain on his little
finger and sheltered all his people under its cover. The mountain was
supported in this manner for seven days, by the end of which the rains
subsided and Indra confessed himself vanquished. Even now Vaishnavas
wings.510511 It is also known as the place where the sage Dattātraya
performed religious austerities.512 The place is so holy that any person
dying within a radius of twelve gaus513 from it is believed to attain
moksha.514 A visit to the temples on Girnār absolves one from all sins; and
taking a turn round Girnār and Shetrunja is said to bring good fortune.515
Bhagwān manifests himself to those who ascend the Bhairavajaya summit
on Girnār. There is a rock on this mountain of which it is said that those
who cast themselves from it directly attain heaven.516
Pāvāgad is known for the temple of Mahākāli Mātā. It is said that King
Patai once propitiated her by austerities, and on being desired to demand a
boon, asked the goddess to accompany him to his palace. The goddess was
highly incensed at this request, and promptly destroyed him.516
Hanūmān, the monkey-god, once promised to take the Mountain Govardhan
to meet Rāma. It is well known how the monkey allies of Rāma constructed
a bridge of rocks across the sea to Laṅkā, and how Hanūmān supplied the
requisite material by fetching huge mountains. Whilst engaged on this
work, he was one day carrying the Govardhan mountain to the site of the
bridge, when Rāma issued an order that all monkeys who were fetching
mountains should deposit their burdens at the spot where they stood at the
moment of the order. Hanūmān could not disobey the order of his lord, and
he had accordingly to drop the Govardhan mountain near Mathurā. In order
to fulfil Hanūmān’s promise, however, Vishnu held the mountain over his
head for seven days, at the time of his Krishna incarnation.516
It is said that the inhabitants of the districts round Govardhan formerly
revered and adored Indra. But Krishna condemned this custom, and
introduced the worship of Govardhan. Indra was exasperated at this
conduct, and poured tremendous rains on Gokal in order to drown Krishna
and his followers. But Krishna held up the Govardhan mountain on his little
finger and sheltered all his people under its cover. The mountain was
supported in this manner for seven days, by the end of which the rains
subsided and Indra confessed himself vanquished. Even now Vaishnavas
Page 94
form an image of Govardhan out of mud and worship it on the Janmāshtamī
day (i.e., the eighth day of the dark half of Shrāvan).517
The Oshama Hill near Pātanvāv (in the jurisdiction of Gondal) is noted for
the beautiful temples of Tapakeshwar Mahādev, and Mātari Mātā. It is said
that Bhīma518 the second of the five Pāndavas, first met the giantess
Hidimbā, on this hill.519 The charcoal-like stones which are dug out in
numbers from this hill are believed by the people to have been blackened by
the blood of the giant Hidimb, the brother of Hidimbā who was killed by
Bhīma.520
Mount Shetrunja (or Shatruñjaya) possesses numerous Jain shrines and
attracts thousands of pilgrims every year. The hearts of all pilgrims are
believed to be purified from the moment they come within six miles of the
mountain.521
Mount Ābu possesses the temple of Ambā Mātā where Krishna’s hair was
clipped for the first time.522 Tryambak is known for the temple of
Tryambakeshwar and the source of the holy Godāvari.523 About Revatāchal,
it is said that the mountain was golden in ancient times.524 In the Vindhya
Mountains is situated the famous temple of Omkār Mandhātā.525 The
hermitage of Kākbhushundi in the Nilgiris was visited by Rāma when he
listened to the religious stories read out by that sage. The sage Agatsya also
is said to have resided in these mountains.526
The temple of Hinglaj stands on a hill, which is situated at a distance of
eighteen days’ journey by road from Karachi. The Mātā is ministered to by
a Musalman and the place is mostly visited by Atits, Bāvās, Khatris,
Chhipās, Mochis, and other low-caste Hindus. On occasions the doors of
the temple spontaneously open, and after the devotees have visited the
Mātā, they again shut in the same mysterious manner.525
As the abode of Shiva and as containing the sources of the holiest of rivers,
the Himālayas are the most sacred of all mountains, and possess many holy
places of pilgrimage, such as Badrinārāyan, Kedārnāth, Hardwār, etc.
Badrinārāyan is the favourite resort of those who have relinquished the
day (i.e., the eighth day of the dark half of Shrāvan).517
The Oshama Hill near Pātanvāv (in the jurisdiction of Gondal) is noted for
the beautiful temples of Tapakeshwar Mahādev, and Mātari Mātā. It is said
that Bhīma518 the second of the five Pāndavas, first met the giantess
Hidimbā, on this hill.519 The charcoal-like stones which are dug out in
numbers from this hill are believed by the people to have been blackened by
the blood of the giant Hidimb, the brother of Hidimbā who was killed by
Bhīma.520
Mount Shetrunja (or Shatruñjaya) possesses numerous Jain shrines and
attracts thousands of pilgrims every year. The hearts of all pilgrims are
believed to be purified from the moment they come within six miles of the
mountain.521
Mount Ābu possesses the temple of Ambā Mātā where Krishna’s hair was
clipped for the first time.522 Tryambak is known for the temple of
Tryambakeshwar and the source of the holy Godāvari.523 About Revatāchal,
it is said that the mountain was golden in ancient times.524 In the Vindhya
Mountains is situated the famous temple of Omkār Mandhātā.525 The
hermitage of Kākbhushundi in the Nilgiris was visited by Rāma when he
listened to the religious stories read out by that sage. The sage Agatsya also
is said to have resided in these mountains.526
The temple of Hinglaj stands on a hill, which is situated at a distance of
eighteen days’ journey by road from Karachi. The Mātā is ministered to by
a Musalman and the place is mostly visited by Atits, Bāvās, Khatris,
Chhipās, Mochis, and other low-caste Hindus. On occasions the doors of
the temple spontaneously open, and after the devotees have visited the
Mātā, they again shut in the same mysterious manner.525
As the abode of Shiva and as containing the sources of the holiest of rivers,
the Himālayas are the most sacred of all mountains, and possess many holy
places of pilgrimage, such as Badrinārāyan, Kedārnāth, Hardwār, etc.
Badrinārāyan is the favourite resort of those who have relinquished the
Page 95
world and who only wish to meditate on the Divine Being. The sages Nara
and Nārāyan are said to have performed religious austerities in this place,
and eighty-eight thousand rishis (sages) are believed to be similarly
occupied there to-day. Owing to the excessive cold, the place is extremely
difficult to reach. Pilgrims carry burning hearths with them to protect
themselves against cold. Besides, it is necessary to cross the Pathar-nadi (or
stony river), of which the water, if touched, turns one into stone. The
method of crossing this river is to suspend sikāns or slings above its water
and to swing from one sling to another.527
A hill called Swargārohan is believed to be twenty miles to the north of
Badrikedārnāth and is said to lead to heaven. In ancient times the Pāndavas
had repaired to this place in order to do penance for the sin of having killed
their kinsmen in the Great War. But when they tried to ascend to heaven by
the Swargārohan Hill, only Yudhishthir and his faithful dog were able to
reach their goal: the rest were frozen in the snow.527
Mount Kailāsa, the abode of Shiva, is supposed to be situated in the
northern part of the Himālayas. The mountain is described as always
covered with verdure and full of beautiful gardens and of palaces made of
jewels, with roads paved with golden dust and sphatika-mani (crystal
stone).527 It is said that Rāvan, the king of Lankā, once uprooted this
mountain and held it on the palm of his hand, in order to display his
prowess. The demon Bhasmāsur, who was enamoured of the goddess
Pārvati, is said to have performed the same feat in order to frighten
Shiva.523
Another mythical mountain is Meru, which is supposed to occupy the
centre of the earth.528 The sun, the moon, and all the planets revolve round
this mountain, and it therefore plays an important part in the causation of
day and night. For night falls on one side of the earth when the sun goes to
the other side of Meru; and the day begins when the sun emerges from that
side of the mountain. Meru is sixty-eight thousand yojans529 in height, and
penetrates the earth to the depth of sixteen thousand yojans. Its eastern side
appears white, the southern is yellow, the western is black, and the northern
red. The mountain is also believed to consist of gold and gems. The Ganges,
and Nārāyan are said to have performed religious austerities in this place,
and eighty-eight thousand rishis (sages) are believed to be similarly
occupied there to-day. Owing to the excessive cold, the place is extremely
difficult to reach. Pilgrims carry burning hearths with them to protect
themselves against cold. Besides, it is necessary to cross the Pathar-nadi (or
stony river), of which the water, if touched, turns one into stone. The
method of crossing this river is to suspend sikāns or slings above its water
and to swing from one sling to another.527
A hill called Swargārohan is believed to be twenty miles to the north of
Badrikedārnāth and is said to lead to heaven. In ancient times the Pāndavas
had repaired to this place in order to do penance for the sin of having killed
their kinsmen in the Great War. But when they tried to ascend to heaven by
the Swargārohan Hill, only Yudhishthir and his faithful dog were able to
reach their goal: the rest were frozen in the snow.527
Mount Kailāsa, the abode of Shiva, is supposed to be situated in the
northern part of the Himālayas. The mountain is described as always
covered with verdure and full of beautiful gardens and of palaces made of
jewels, with roads paved with golden dust and sphatika-mani (crystal
stone).527 It is said that Rāvan, the king of Lankā, once uprooted this
mountain and held it on the palm of his hand, in order to display his
prowess. The demon Bhasmāsur, who was enamoured of the goddess
Pārvati, is said to have performed the same feat in order to frighten
Shiva.523
Another mythical mountain is Meru, which is supposed to occupy the
centre of the earth.528 The sun, the moon, and all the planets revolve round
this mountain, and it therefore plays an important part in the causation of
day and night. For night falls on one side of the earth when the sun goes to
the other side of Meru; and the day begins when the sun emerges from that
side of the mountain. Meru is sixty-eight thousand yojans529 in height, and
penetrates the earth to the depth of sixteen thousand yojans. Its eastern side
appears white, the southern is yellow, the western is black, and the northern
red. The mountain is also believed to consist of gold and gems. The Ganges,
Page 96
in her fall from the heavens, is said to have descended first on the top of this
mountain and then to have flowed in four streams in four directions. The
southern stream is known as the Ganges; the northern, in Tartary, is called
Bhadrasoma; the eastern is the same as the Sitā; and the western is named
Chax or the Oxus. The top of this mountain is believed to be inhabited by
gods, gandharvas (celestial musicians) and rishis (sages).530 According to
the Yoga-vāsishtha, there is a kalpa-vriksha531 on the Lalmani summit of
Meru, where a rishi named Bhushundkāk is engaged in devotional prayers
since time immemorial.532 The Purānas declare that Vaivaswat Manu, the
first man, resided near Meru, and that his descendants migrated to Ayodhyā
to found there a kingdom which was afterwards ruled over by Rāma.530
It is believed by some people that mountain-tops are inhabited by a class of
recluses, called Aghori-bāvās, who devour human beings.533 The Kālikā hill
near Girnār is believed to be frequented by Joganis (female harpies) who
take the lives of visitors to the hill, and it is said that none who visits the
place is ever known to return.534 Persons who visit the temple of
Kālikāmātā on Mount Girnār always lose one of their party, who falls a
victim to the goddess.535
The changes in the seasons are attributed by some to Brahma, Vishnu, and
Mahesha (Shiva), the gods of the Hindu Trinity. Brahma sends down the
rains and produces corn, grass, etc., Vishnu protects and nourishes the
harvests in winter, and Shiva causes the heat of the summer.536 There is also
a belief that these three gods go down in turns to the pātāl (nether regions)
and stay there for four months. Vishnu descends on the eleventh day of the
bright half of Āshādh, and on that day the rainy season begins. When
Vishnu comes up and Shiva takes his place, people experience the cold of
winter: but as this god always keeps a dhuni537 burning near him, the waters
under the surface of the earth, such as those in the wells, remain hot during
this period. Such waters are cooled when Shiva returns and Brahma goes
down to the pātāl: but the return of Shiva causes summer on the earth.538
According to another belief, the sequence of the seasons is controlled by the
sun-god.539 There are six ritus or seasons: and the changes in the ritus
mountain and then to have flowed in four streams in four directions. The
southern stream is known as the Ganges; the northern, in Tartary, is called
Bhadrasoma; the eastern is the same as the Sitā; and the western is named
Chax or the Oxus. The top of this mountain is believed to be inhabited by
gods, gandharvas (celestial musicians) and rishis (sages).530 According to
the Yoga-vāsishtha, there is a kalpa-vriksha531 on the Lalmani summit of
Meru, where a rishi named Bhushundkāk is engaged in devotional prayers
since time immemorial.532 The Purānas declare that Vaivaswat Manu, the
first man, resided near Meru, and that his descendants migrated to Ayodhyā
to found there a kingdom which was afterwards ruled over by Rāma.530
It is believed by some people that mountain-tops are inhabited by a class of
recluses, called Aghori-bāvās, who devour human beings.533 The Kālikā hill
near Girnār is believed to be frequented by Joganis (female harpies) who
take the lives of visitors to the hill, and it is said that none who visits the
place is ever known to return.534 Persons who visit the temple of
Kālikāmātā on Mount Girnār always lose one of their party, who falls a
victim to the goddess.535
The changes in the seasons are attributed by some to Brahma, Vishnu, and
Mahesha (Shiva), the gods of the Hindu Trinity. Brahma sends down the
rains and produces corn, grass, etc., Vishnu protects and nourishes the
harvests in winter, and Shiva causes the heat of the summer.536 There is also
a belief that these three gods go down in turns to the pātāl (nether regions)
and stay there for four months. Vishnu descends on the eleventh day of the
bright half of Āshādh, and on that day the rainy season begins. When
Vishnu comes up and Shiva takes his place, people experience the cold of
winter: but as this god always keeps a dhuni537 burning near him, the waters
under the surface of the earth, such as those in the wells, remain hot during
this period. Such waters are cooled when Shiva returns and Brahma goes
down to the pātāl: but the return of Shiva causes summer on the earth.538
According to another belief, the sequence of the seasons is controlled by the
sun-god.539 There are six ritus or seasons: and the changes in the ritus
Page 97
depend upon the position of the sun in the twelve rāshis or signs of the
Zodiac.540 Each ritu lasts for a period of two months, during which time the
sun travels through two rāshis. Vasant-ritu is the period which the sun takes
to pass through the Min (Pisces) and Mesha (Aries) rāshis. Grishma-ritu
corresponds to the time during which the sun passes through Vrishabha
(Taurus) and Mithun (Gemini). During Varshā-ritu the sun moves through
the signs Karka (Cancer) and Sinha (Leo), and during Sharad-ritu through
Kanyā (Virgo) and Tulā (Libra). Hemant-ritu is the time which the sun
takes to travel through Vrishchika (Scorpio) and Dhanu (Sagittarius).
Shishir-ritu occurs when the sun stands in the Makar (Capricornus) and
Kumbha (Aquarius) rāshis.541
Indra (the god of rain), Varuna (the lord of all waters), Vāyu (the god of
wind), Agni (the god of fire), and the moon-god are also believed by some
to have power over the seasons.542
The belief is as old as the Vedas that demons sometimes obstruct the fall of
rain, and confine the waters of the clouds. It is Indra who fights with them
and breaks through their castles by means of his thunderbolt, sending down
showers of rain for the benefit of his worshippers. So, whenever there is an
unusual drought, people still invoke the aid of this god, and celebrate a
festival in his honour, called Ujjani or Indramahotsava. Homas543 are
performed to propitiate the god, and Brahmans are entertained at a feast.
Sometimes the festival is celebrated outside the village, where people go in
large parties to dine together. The usual dish on such an occasion is
Meghlādu or sweet balls of wheat-flour fried in ghi.
Another favourite ceremony supposed to cause rain to fall is the submersion
of the image of Shiva in water, by blocking up the khāl or passage in the
Shiva-linga by which water poured over the image usually runs off.542 This
ceremony is known as Jala-jātrā. Rudrābhisheka, or the ceremony of
pouring water in a constant stream over the image of Shiva for eleven
consecutive days and nights, is sometimes performed with the same
object.544
Zodiac.540 Each ritu lasts for a period of two months, during which time the
sun travels through two rāshis. Vasant-ritu is the period which the sun takes
to pass through the Min (Pisces) and Mesha (Aries) rāshis. Grishma-ritu
corresponds to the time during which the sun passes through Vrishabha
(Taurus) and Mithun (Gemini). During Varshā-ritu the sun moves through
the signs Karka (Cancer) and Sinha (Leo), and during Sharad-ritu through
Kanyā (Virgo) and Tulā (Libra). Hemant-ritu is the time which the sun
takes to travel through Vrishchika (Scorpio) and Dhanu (Sagittarius).
Shishir-ritu occurs when the sun stands in the Makar (Capricornus) and
Kumbha (Aquarius) rāshis.541
Indra (the god of rain), Varuna (the lord of all waters), Vāyu (the god of
wind), Agni (the god of fire), and the moon-god are also believed by some
to have power over the seasons.542
The belief is as old as the Vedas that demons sometimes obstruct the fall of
rain, and confine the waters of the clouds. It is Indra who fights with them
and breaks through their castles by means of his thunderbolt, sending down
showers of rain for the benefit of his worshippers. So, whenever there is an
unusual drought, people still invoke the aid of this god, and celebrate a
festival in his honour, called Ujjani or Indramahotsava. Homas543 are
performed to propitiate the god, and Brahmans are entertained at a feast.
Sometimes the festival is celebrated outside the village, where people go in
large parties to dine together. The usual dish on such an occasion is
Meghlādu or sweet balls of wheat-flour fried in ghi.
Another favourite ceremony supposed to cause rain to fall is the submersion
of the image of Shiva in water, by blocking up the khāl or passage in the
Shiva-linga by which water poured over the image usually runs off.542 This
ceremony is known as Jala-jātrā. Rudrābhisheka, or the ceremony of
pouring water in a constant stream over the image of Shiva for eleven
consecutive days and nights, is sometimes performed with the same
object.544
Page 98
Sometimes the assistance of Shringhi rishi is invoked to bring about a fall
of rain. The rishi is installed in water, mantras are recited, and prayers are
offered before a sacrificial fire. This ceremony, called Parjanya-shānti, is
said to have been performed within recent years in Bombay, and to have
been successful in bringing rain.545
It is also said that rainfall can be caused by singing a song or a sacred hymn
to the malār tune. There is a tradition that the well-known saint Narsinha
Mehta once sang this tune on the occasion of the celebration of the first
pregnancy of his daughter, and the performance was immediately followed
by a shower of rain. Rain, which is brought down in this manner, can be put
a stop to by singing to a different tune.546
Low-caste women have recourse to the following expedient to bring rain.
Five or six of them place a quantity of muddy earth on a wooden stool,
which is carried by one of them. The lump of mud is covered with leaves of
the Gidotān or Tindotān creeper, and is called mehulo or meghalo. The
whole party then sing songs, and visit every house in the village. A bowl of
water is poured over the mehulo and the women receive some corn for their
trouble.547
Some believe that when the worship of the village-gods is neglected and
when the people grow corrupt, ill-treat the saints and are given to the killing
of cows and Brahmans, Yama, the God of Death, directs his colleagues,
Indra and Varuna, to threaten the world with a drought. The rainfall returns
only when the people revert to righteous ways, and after Indra and Varuna
have been conciliated by offerings.
The lower classes of the people believe a prolonged cessation of rain to be
due to the wrath of local minor deities, aroused by the neglect of their
worship. In such a contingency, therefore, they prepare bāklan548 of uḍad
(lentils), lāpsi,549 vadān550 and other dishes, and offer them to the local
gods for their propitiation.551
To stop an incessant fall of rain, people often observe the Āladrā vow. The
patel or headman issues a proclamation that on a particular day none should
of rain. The rishi is installed in water, mantras are recited, and prayers are
offered before a sacrificial fire. This ceremony, called Parjanya-shānti, is
said to have been performed within recent years in Bombay, and to have
been successful in bringing rain.545
It is also said that rainfall can be caused by singing a song or a sacred hymn
to the malār tune. There is a tradition that the well-known saint Narsinha
Mehta once sang this tune on the occasion of the celebration of the first
pregnancy of his daughter, and the performance was immediately followed
by a shower of rain. Rain, which is brought down in this manner, can be put
a stop to by singing to a different tune.546
Low-caste women have recourse to the following expedient to bring rain.
Five or six of them place a quantity of muddy earth on a wooden stool,
which is carried by one of them. The lump of mud is covered with leaves of
the Gidotān or Tindotān creeper, and is called mehulo or meghalo. The
whole party then sing songs, and visit every house in the village. A bowl of
water is poured over the mehulo and the women receive some corn for their
trouble.547
Some believe that when the worship of the village-gods is neglected and
when the people grow corrupt, ill-treat the saints and are given to the killing
of cows and Brahmans, Yama, the God of Death, directs his colleagues,
Indra and Varuna, to threaten the world with a drought. The rainfall returns
only when the people revert to righteous ways, and after Indra and Varuna
have been conciliated by offerings.
The lower classes of the people believe a prolonged cessation of rain to be
due to the wrath of local minor deities, aroused by the neglect of their
worship. In such a contingency, therefore, they prepare bāklan548 of uḍad
(lentils), lāpsi,549 vadān550 and other dishes, and offer them to the local
gods for their propitiation.551
To stop an incessant fall of rain, people often observe the Āladrā vow. The
patel or headman issues a proclamation that on a particular day none should
Page 99
cook, or churn whey, or fetch water, or wash clothes, or attend to any of the
multifarious household duties; but that all should pass the day in prayer. A
complete cessation from toil in favour of earnest devotion to divine powers
are the peculiar features of this vow. People do not abstain from food: but
food must be prepared on the previous day. If the rains do not cease in spite
of this vow, but threaten the village with inundation, the headman leads a
procession to the confines of the village and makes an offering to the
waters.552
In some places a spinning wheel, sometimes specially constructed of human
bones,553 is turned by a naked person in the reverse direction to the usual
one, with the object of causing the cessation of immoderate rainfall.554
A cessation of rains is also believed to be brought about by offering an
oblation to the god Kasatia, and by the observance of the vow called
Kasatia gānth (or tying the knot of Kasatia). The vow lasts for three weeks,
and those who observe it do not partake of anything except rice555 (or,
according to others, jirān, a kind of spice556).
Some persons attribute a heavy fall of rain to the wrath of Indra, and offer
ceremonious prayers to appease that god.557 In some places people engage
the services of magicians to restrain the fall of rain.558 Farmers sometimes
brand the rain by casting burning sparks upon it in order to stop an
incessant fall.559 Vows in honour of samudra (the ocean) are also observed
with the same object.553
In the changing circumstances of life, women more readily have recourse to
religious vows for the fulfilment of their wishes than men. This fondness of
women for vows has brought into vogue a number of vrats or religious
observances which are practised by women only. Gangigor or Ganāgor,
Vat-Sāvitri, Molākat, Goutrāt, Alavana or Alunda, Eva-vrat, Tulsi-vrat,
Umā masheshwar-vrat, and Surya-vrat are instances of such vows.551 The
Molākat-vrat is observed by virgins from the eleventh to the fifteenth day of
the bright half of Āshādh.560 The Goutrāt-vrat is believed to secure male
progeny, as well as long life to the husband. It is observed on the fourth day
multifarious household duties; but that all should pass the day in prayer. A
complete cessation from toil in favour of earnest devotion to divine powers
are the peculiar features of this vow. People do not abstain from food: but
food must be prepared on the previous day. If the rains do not cease in spite
of this vow, but threaten the village with inundation, the headman leads a
procession to the confines of the village and makes an offering to the
waters.552
In some places a spinning wheel, sometimes specially constructed of human
bones,553 is turned by a naked person in the reverse direction to the usual
one, with the object of causing the cessation of immoderate rainfall.554
A cessation of rains is also believed to be brought about by offering an
oblation to the god Kasatia, and by the observance of the vow called
Kasatia gānth (or tying the knot of Kasatia). The vow lasts for three weeks,
and those who observe it do not partake of anything except rice555 (or,
according to others, jirān, a kind of spice556).
Some persons attribute a heavy fall of rain to the wrath of Indra, and offer
ceremonious prayers to appease that god.557 In some places people engage
the services of magicians to restrain the fall of rain.558 Farmers sometimes
brand the rain by casting burning sparks upon it in order to stop an
incessant fall.559 Vows in honour of samudra (the ocean) are also observed
with the same object.553
In the changing circumstances of life, women more readily have recourse to
religious vows for the fulfilment of their wishes than men. This fondness of
women for vows has brought into vogue a number of vrats or religious
observances which are practised by women only. Gangigor or Ganāgor,
Vat-Sāvitri, Molākat, Goutrāt, Alavana or Alunda, Eva-vrat, Tulsi-vrat,
Umā masheshwar-vrat, and Surya-vrat are instances of such vows.551 The
Molākat-vrat is observed by virgins from the eleventh to the fifteenth day of
the bright half of Āshādh.560 The Goutrāt-vrat is believed to secure male
progeny, as well as long life to the husband. It is observed on the fourth day
Page 100
of the dark half of Shrāvana, on which day women fast till the evening, and
then take food after worshipping a cow.561 The object of the Eva-vrat (or
Jiva-vrat) is to secure eternal exemption from widowhood, the day for this
vow being the last day of Āshādh. It is then necessary to observe a fast till
the evening; and the only food allowed is a preparation of wheat, taken at
nightfall.562
On the fourth day of the dark half of Shrāvan, women observe a vrat called
Bolchoth. In the morning the woman worships a cow and her calf (which
must both be of the same colour), applies a little cotton to the horns of the
cow, and makes an auspicious mark on the foreheads of both with red lac.
She then places an offering of betel and rice before the cow, takes four turns
round the pair, and whispers in the ears of the cow the words tārun satya
mārun vritya (your truth and my devotion). A Brāhman then recites the
legend of the vrat.563
After narrating this story, the Brahman takes the betel and other things
placed before the cow. The woman then returns home and takes food for the
first time during that day, the meal consisting of loaves of bājrā-flour and
some preparation of mag (phaseolus mungo). Some women take ghi and
khir: but any preparation of cow’s milk is strictly forbidden. Similarly, there
is a prohibition against using things which have been cut by a knife or
scissors.564
The worship of the goddess Rāndal is a favourite vrat with Gujarati women.
A bower is erected for the installation of the goddess, and a bājat or a
wooden stool is placed therein. A piece of fine cloth is spread on the bājat,
and a figure is drawn in seeds of corn. A kalasio or bowl, with a cocoanut
on it, is placed over the figure. The cocoanut has two eyes painted on it in
black collyrium and a nose in red lac, and is decorated with rich clothes and
ornaments to represent the goddess Rāndal. Ghi lamps are kept constantly
burning before the goddess for three consecutive days and nights. An
invitation is sent to the neighbouring women, who bring offerings of ghi to
the goddess, and dance in a group at night to the accompaniment of
melodious garabis (songs).565 Sometimes, if a child is ill, or some
then take food after worshipping a cow.561 The object of the Eva-vrat (or
Jiva-vrat) is to secure eternal exemption from widowhood, the day for this
vow being the last day of Āshādh. It is then necessary to observe a fast till
the evening; and the only food allowed is a preparation of wheat, taken at
nightfall.562
On the fourth day of the dark half of Shrāvan, women observe a vrat called
Bolchoth. In the morning the woman worships a cow and her calf (which
must both be of the same colour), applies a little cotton to the horns of the
cow, and makes an auspicious mark on the foreheads of both with red lac.
She then places an offering of betel and rice before the cow, takes four turns
round the pair, and whispers in the ears of the cow the words tārun satya
mārun vritya (your truth and my devotion). A Brāhman then recites the
legend of the vrat.563
After narrating this story, the Brahman takes the betel and other things
placed before the cow. The woman then returns home and takes food for the
first time during that day, the meal consisting of loaves of bājrā-flour and
some preparation of mag (phaseolus mungo). Some women take ghi and
khir: but any preparation of cow’s milk is strictly forbidden. Similarly, there
is a prohibition against using things which have been cut by a knife or
scissors.564
The worship of the goddess Rāndal is a favourite vrat with Gujarati women.
A bower is erected for the installation of the goddess, and a bājat or a
wooden stool is placed therein. A piece of fine cloth is spread on the bājat,
and a figure is drawn in seeds of corn. A kalasio or bowl, with a cocoanut
on it, is placed over the figure. The cocoanut has two eyes painted on it in
black collyrium and a nose in red lac, and is decorated with rich clothes and
ornaments to represent the goddess Rāndal. Ghi lamps are kept constantly
burning before the goddess for three consecutive days and nights. An
invitation is sent to the neighbouring women, who bring offerings of ghi to
the goddess, and dance in a group at night to the accompaniment of
melodious garabis (songs).565 Sometimes, if a child is ill, or some
Page 101
misfortune is apprehended, gorānis, i.e., a certain number of unmarried
girls and unwidowed women, are invited to a feast in honour of Rāndal.
On the Nāgapanchami day, i.e., the 5th day of the bright half of Shrāvan,566
women draw an image of a nāg (cobra), and worship it with sprouts of
bājrā. In some places it is the custom to avoid all food but khichedi567 on
this day.
The wad (the banyan tree) is worshipped on the first day of the dark half of
Shrāvan. On that day the woman wears a necklace of fifteen leaves of this
tree and prepares a dish called navamuthium.568 A dorā or piece of string is
also worn on the person to ward off evil.569
Rishi-panchami,570 Gauri-pujan, Shitalāi-pujan, Shili-sātem are holidays
observed only by women. On the Rishi-panchami day only niar571 rice is
allowed to those who observe the vrat.572
Besides the observance of vrats, there are other ceremonies, auspicious as
well as inauspicious, in which women alone can take part. Only women are
concerned with all those ceremonies which are gone through on the birth of
a child. On the twelfth day after birth, a name is given to the child by its
aunt. The ceremony of making an auspicious mark on the throne of a king is
performed by an unwidowed woman or an unmarried girl.573
At the time of a marriage, women make the auspicious mark on the
forehead of the bridegroom and carry a lāman-divo574 to fetch ukardi.574
For nine days preceding the date of marriage the bride and the bridegroom
are besmeared with pithi or yellow turmeric powder, when auspicious songs
are recited by a party of women invited to witness the ceremony. When the
bridegroom reaches the entrance of the marriage bower, he is welcomed
there by his mother-in-law, who carries him on her hip to his seat in the
marriage booth.575
It is necessary to make certain marks on the corpse of a woman, and these
marks are made by women only.576 Similarly, women alone take part in the
girls and unwidowed women, are invited to a feast in honour of Rāndal.
On the Nāgapanchami day, i.e., the 5th day of the bright half of Shrāvan,566
women draw an image of a nāg (cobra), and worship it with sprouts of
bājrā. In some places it is the custom to avoid all food but khichedi567 on
this day.
The wad (the banyan tree) is worshipped on the first day of the dark half of
Shrāvan. On that day the woman wears a necklace of fifteen leaves of this
tree and prepares a dish called navamuthium.568 A dorā or piece of string is
also worn on the person to ward off evil.569
Rishi-panchami,570 Gauri-pujan, Shitalāi-pujan, Shili-sātem are holidays
observed only by women. On the Rishi-panchami day only niar571 rice is
allowed to those who observe the vrat.572
Besides the observance of vrats, there are other ceremonies, auspicious as
well as inauspicious, in which women alone can take part. Only women are
concerned with all those ceremonies which are gone through on the birth of
a child. On the twelfth day after birth, a name is given to the child by its
aunt. The ceremony of making an auspicious mark on the throne of a king is
performed by an unwidowed woman or an unmarried girl.573
At the time of a marriage, women make the auspicious mark on the
forehead of the bridegroom and carry a lāman-divo574 to fetch ukardi.574
For nine days preceding the date of marriage the bride and the bridegroom
are besmeared with pithi or yellow turmeric powder, when auspicious songs
are recited by a party of women invited to witness the ceremony. When the
bridegroom reaches the entrance of the marriage bower, he is welcomed
there by his mother-in-law, who carries him on her hip to his seat in the
marriage booth.575
It is necessary to make certain marks on the corpse of a woman, and these
marks are made by women only.576 Similarly, women alone take part in the
Page 102
ceremony of getting a widow’s hair shaved on the ninth day after her
husband’s death.577
The Shāstras have enjoined the worship of certain higher-grade deities, and
have prescribed certain ceremonials for the purpose. But women are not
authorised to make use of these ceremonies. The reason is that the Shāstras
regard women as inferior to men and do not grant them the privileges given
to the latter. They are not allowed to learn the Vedas nor can the Gāyatri-
mantra be taught to them. The result is that women are not qualified to
perform the ceremonial worship of such higher-grade deities as Vishnu,
Shiva, Durgā, Ganpati, and Hanumān;578 similarly the sacrificial rites of
Vishnuyāg, Shaktiyāg, Ashvamedha, Rāja-yajna, and Gāyatri-purashcharan
can only be performed by men.579
It is the duty of men only to worship the shami tree (prosopis spicegera) on
the Dasarā day, and the Hutāshani fire on the day of Holi.579
Women are not allowed to worship the god Kārtikey, who is said to shun
women, and to have pronounced a curse against all who visit his image.579
The fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra is the anniversary of the birth
of Hanumān, and a vrat called Hanumān-jayanti is observed on this day.
This vrat,580 as well as the Ganesh-chaturthi-vrat581 are meant only for
men.
The ceremonies of Shrāddha582 and the Baleva583 ceremonies can be
performed by men only. The duty of giving agni-sanskār575 to corpses, i.e.,
of performing the necessary rites at a funeral, is also laid on men.
People who practise the art of attaining mastery over spirits and fiends,
usually remain naked while they are engaged in the performance of their
mysterious rites. There are many branches of this black art: for instance,
Māran,584 Uchchātan,585 Lamban, Vashīkaran,586 Mohan,587 Stambhan,588
etc., and although the meli vidyā (sacrilegious art) is not held in respect by
high-class Hindus, it is popular among the lower classes. There is a belief
that knowledge of this art dooms a person to hell; but it secures to those
husband’s death.577
The Shāstras have enjoined the worship of certain higher-grade deities, and
have prescribed certain ceremonials for the purpose. But women are not
authorised to make use of these ceremonies. The reason is that the Shāstras
regard women as inferior to men and do not grant them the privileges given
to the latter. They are not allowed to learn the Vedas nor can the Gāyatri-
mantra be taught to them. The result is that women are not qualified to
perform the ceremonial worship of such higher-grade deities as Vishnu,
Shiva, Durgā, Ganpati, and Hanumān;578 similarly the sacrificial rites of
Vishnuyāg, Shaktiyāg, Ashvamedha, Rāja-yajna, and Gāyatri-purashcharan
can only be performed by men.579
It is the duty of men only to worship the shami tree (prosopis spicegera) on
the Dasarā day, and the Hutāshani fire on the day of Holi.579
Women are not allowed to worship the god Kārtikey, who is said to shun
women, and to have pronounced a curse against all who visit his image.579
The fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra is the anniversary of the birth
of Hanumān, and a vrat called Hanumān-jayanti is observed on this day.
This vrat,580 as well as the Ganesh-chaturthi-vrat581 are meant only for
men.
The ceremonies of Shrāddha582 and the Baleva583 ceremonies can be
performed by men only. The duty of giving agni-sanskār575 to corpses, i.e.,
of performing the necessary rites at a funeral, is also laid on men.
People who practise the art of attaining mastery over spirits and fiends,
usually remain naked while they are engaged in the performance of their
mysterious rites. There are many branches of this black art: for instance,
Māran,584 Uchchātan,585 Lamban, Vashīkaran,586 Mohan,587 Stambhan,588
etc., and although the meli vidyā (sacrilegious art) is not held in respect by
high-class Hindus, it is popular among the lower classes. There is a belief
that knowledge of this art dooms a person to hell; but it secures to those
Page 103
who master it a position of much importance, and therefore finds many
followers. The art consists in the knowledge of certain mysterious
incantations, which enable a person to influence the spirits and to bring
about certain results through their agency. Not only has every person when
learning this art, to remain naked, but all those who make prayogas or
experiments in it afterwards must observe the same precaution. The night of
Kāli-chaudas or the 14th day of the dark half of Ashvin, is considered to be
the most favourable time for the sādhan or accomplishment of this secret
art of remaining naked.589 On this day, it is the custom of those who
exercise the art, to go stripped to a cemetery in the dead of night, and to
cook food in a human skull as an offering to the spirits residing in the
neighbourhood. On the same night, some sorcerers, after stripping
themselves, are said to ride round the village on some mysterious
conveyance.590
A practice is noted among low-class people of performing a sādhana before
the goddess Jhāmpadi for the sake of progeny. The man who performs the
sādhana, has first to go naked to a cemetery on a Sunday night, and to fetch
therefrom the ashes of a corpse. At the time of the sādhana, the man takes
his seat on a corpse, fills a madaliun or hollow bracelet with the ashes
brought from the cemetery, and puts it on his arm above the elbow.591
Dhobis, Mālis, Vālands and other low-caste people remain naked while
worshipping Bhairav.592 In the performance of the anushthān (propitiation)
of such deities as Kāl-Bhairav,593 Batuk,593 Mani,594 Griva,594 etc., the
devotees keep their persons uncovered. The worshippers of the goddess
Jakshani also remain naked when they attend upon her.595
Persons who practise the art of curing men from the effects of serpent-bites
by means of incantations, have to sit naked under water in order to gain
efficacy for their mantras.592
Followers of the Devi-panth, Shakti-panth and Aghori-panth sects remain
naked while worshipping or offering victims to their gods.596 Vāma-mārgis
worship a nude image of the goddess Digambarā.591
followers. The art consists in the knowledge of certain mysterious
incantations, which enable a person to influence the spirits and to bring
about certain results through their agency. Not only has every person when
learning this art, to remain naked, but all those who make prayogas or
experiments in it afterwards must observe the same precaution. The night of
Kāli-chaudas or the 14th day of the dark half of Ashvin, is considered to be
the most favourable time for the sādhan or accomplishment of this secret
art of remaining naked.589 On this day, it is the custom of those who
exercise the art, to go stripped to a cemetery in the dead of night, and to
cook food in a human skull as an offering to the spirits residing in the
neighbourhood. On the same night, some sorcerers, after stripping
themselves, are said to ride round the village on some mysterious
conveyance.590
A practice is noted among low-class people of performing a sādhana before
the goddess Jhāmpadi for the sake of progeny. The man who performs the
sādhana, has first to go naked to a cemetery on a Sunday night, and to fetch
therefrom the ashes of a corpse. At the time of the sādhana, the man takes
his seat on a corpse, fills a madaliun or hollow bracelet with the ashes
brought from the cemetery, and puts it on his arm above the elbow.591
Dhobis, Mālis, Vālands and other low-caste people remain naked while
worshipping Bhairav.592 In the performance of the anushthān (propitiation)
of such deities as Kāl-Bhairav,593 Batuk,593 Mani,594 Griva,594 etc., the
devotees keep their persons uncovered. The worshippers of the goddess
Jakshani also remain naked when they attend upon her.595
Persons who practise the art of curing men from the effects of serpent-bites
by means of incantations, have to sit naked under water in order to gain
efficacy for their mantras.592
Followers of the Devi-panth, Shakti-panth and Aghori-panth sects remain
naked while worshipping or offering victims to their gods.596 Vāma-mārgis
worship a nude image of the goddess Digambarā.591
Page 104
The hook-shaped instrument, known as ganeshio, which is used by thieves
in boring a hole through the walls of a house, is sometimes prepared by a
blacksmith and his wife on the night of Kāli-chaudas, both being naked at
the time. Instruments prepared in this fashion are believed to secure success
for the thief, who scrupulously sets aside the first booty acquired by the
help of the ganeshio for the blacksmith as a reward for his services. He does
not grudge the reward however large the booty may be.590
In making dice according to the directions of Ramalashāstra, the workers
should remain naked.595
There is a belief that granulations in the eyes of a child are cured if the
maternal uncle fetches naked the beads of the Arani tree, and puts a circlet
of them round the neck of the child.597
If a person uncovers himself on hearing the screech of an owl, and then ties
and unties seven knots in a piece of string, repeating the process twenty-one
times, the piece of string is believed to possess the virtue of curing Taria
Tāv or periodical fever.598 Another remedy for the same ailment is to go to a
distance of three miles from the village and there to eat food which has
been cooked in a state of nudity.589
In the preparation of Nargudikalpa599 or Gujakalpa599, some drugs have to
be procured by a naked person.600
It is considered meritorious by some persons to rise early in the morning
and to bathe naked on the Makar Sankrānti day.601
A Brahman boy must be naked at the time of the performance of his thread
investiture ceremony. After the ceremony, the maternal uncle of the boy
presents garments to him, which he thereupon puts on.602
In Gujarat, for the most part, the people seem to be unacquainted with the
belief that certain stones possess the virtue of influencing the rain. Some
persons however attribute this quality to the stones on such sacred mounts
as Girnār, Ābu, and Pāvāgadh.603 There is a point called Tonk, on mount
in boring a hole through the walls of a house, is sometimes prepared by a
blacksmith and his wife on the night of Kāli-chaudas, both being naked at
the time. Instruments prepared in this fashion are believed to secure success
for the thief, who scrupulously sets aside the first booty acquired by the
help of the ganeshio for the blacksmith as a reward for his services. He does
not grudge the reward however large the booty may be.590
In making dice according to the directions of Ramalashāstra, the workers
should remain naked.595
There is a belief that granulations in the eyes of a child are cured if the
maternal uncle fetches naked the beads of the Arani tree, and puts a circlet
of them round the neck of the child.597
If a person uncovers himself on hearing the screech of an owl, and then ties
and unties seven knots in a piece of string, repeating the process twenty-one
times, the piece of string is believed to possess the virtue of curing Taria
Tāv or periodical fever.598 Another remedy for the same ailment is to go to a
distance of three miles from the village and there to eat food which has
been cooked in a state of nudity.589
In the preparation of Nargudikalpa599 or Gujakalpa599, some drugs have to
be procured by a naked person.600
It is considered meritorious by some persons to rise early in the morning
and to bathe naked on the Makar Sankrānti day.601
A Brahman boy must be naked at the time of the performance of his thread
investiture ceremony. After the ceremony, the maternal uncle of the boy
presents garments to him, which he thereupon puts on.602
In Gujarat, for the most part, the people seem to be unacquainted with the
belief that certain stones possess the virtue of influencing the rain. Some
persons however attribute this quality to the stones on such sacred mounts
as Girnār, Ābu, and Pāvāgadh.603 There is a point called Tonk, on mount
Page 105
Girnār, of which it is said that rain is certain to fall whenever anyone
succeeds in climbing it.604 There is also a common belief that arasi marble
if heated has influence over rain.605
It is a common practice to submerge the image606 of Shiva in water with the
object of bringing rain. Similarly the image606 of the goddess Harshadh is
sometimes bathed when rain is desired.607 The bhuva or the bhui, i.e., the
male and the female attendants of the goddess are at the same time given a
bath, and an offering of Khir608 is made to the goddess.607
There are two goals which a pious Hindu tries to attain by leading a life of
purity and virtue, viz., (i) moksha or final emancipation, merging into the
Eternal Spirit, and (ii) swarga (heaven or paradise) where meritorious
persons enjoy pure pleasures unalloyed by earthly cares. The stars are the
spirits of so many righteous persons who are translated to swarga for their
good actions, and are endowed with a lustre proportionate to their
individual merits. But every moment of enjoyment in swarga diminishes
the store of merit: and those whose whole merit is thus exhausted, on
receiving their proportionate share of pleasures, must resume their worldly
existence. The Bhagavad-gītā says: “क्षीणे पुण्ये मर्त्यलोकं विशन्ति” i.e., “they
enter the mortal world when their merit is expended.” Meteors are believed
to be spirits of this description who fall from their position as stars, to live
again on this earth.609
Another explanation of meteors is that they are the sparks produced when
the vimāns (or vehicles) of celestial people clash against each other.610
Meteors are also held to be the agār or charak (i.e., excreta) dropped either
by a curious water-bird,600 or by Garud, the favourite eagle, and vehicle of
Vishnu,611 or by a fabulous bird Anal.612 The latter is said to fly at an
immeasurable height from the surface of the earth, and to take food only
once a day.612 It is almost impossible to catch the charak when it falls to
earth: but if ever it can be secured, the application of it to the eyes of a blind
man will restore his eyesight. It also furnishes an effective remedy for
succeeds in climbing it.604 There is also a common belief that arasi marble
if heated has influence over rain.605
It is a common practice to submerge the image606 of Shiva in water with the
object of bringing rain. Similarly the image606 of the goddess Harshadh is
sometimes bathed when rain is desired.607 The bhuva or the bhui, i.e., the
male and the female attendants of the goddess are at the same time given a
bath, and an offering of Khir608 is made to the goddess.607
There are two goals which a pious Hindu tries to attain by leading a life of
purity and virtue, viz., (i) moksha or final emancipation, merging into the
Eternal Spirit, and (ii) swarga (heaven or paradise) where meritorious
persons enjoy pure pleasures unalloyed by earthly cares. The stars are the
spirits of so many righteous persons who are translated to swarga for their
good actions, and are endowed with a lustre proportionate to their
individual merits. But every moment of enjoyment in swarga diminishes
the store of merit: and those whose whole merit is thus exhausted, on
receiving their proportionate share of pleasures, must resume their worldly
existence. The Bhagavad-gītā says: “क्षीणे पुण्ये मर्त्यलोकं विशन्ति” i.e., “they
enter the mortal world when their merit is expended.” Meteors are believed
to be spirits of this description who fall from their position as stars, to live
again on this earth.609
Another explanation of meteors is that they are the sparks produced when
the vimāns (or vehicles) of celestial people clash against each other.610
Meteors are also held to be the agār or charak (i.e., excreta) dropped either
by a curious water-bird,600 or by Garud, the favourite eagle, and vehicle of
Vishnu,611 or by a fabulous bird Anal.612 The latter is said to fly at an
immeasurable height from the surface of the earth, and to take food only
once a day.612 It is almost impossible to catch the charak when it falls to
earth: but if ever it can be secured, the application of it to the eyes of a blind
man will restore his eyesight. It also furnishes an effective remedy for
Page 106
leprosy, and gives a golden lustre to the body of a person suffering from
that disease.611
Some declare that meteors are stars which fall owing to the curse of Indra,
and subsequently assume the highest human form on earth.613
It is also said that the stars descend to earth in human form when sins
accumulate in the celestial world.614
The influence of meteors on human affairs is treated at length in the
Varāhasanhitā.615 The phenomenon is popularly regarded as an evil omen:
it is supposed to portend devastation by fire, an earthquake, a famine, an
epidemic, danger from thieves, and storms at sea.616 The appearance of a
bright shooting star is supposed to foretell the death of some great man;617
and on beholding one, it is customary to repeat the words ‘Rām Rām’618
several times.619 A shower of meteors is believed to presage some civil
commotion or a change in the ruling dynasties.
Some persons, however, regard the appearance of meteors as auspicious or
baneful, according to the mandal or group of stars, from which they are
seen to fall. Meteors from the Vāyu-mandal, (or the group of stars known
by the name of Vāyu) portend the breaking out of an epidemic: those from
Varuna-mandal, are believed to be favourable to human happiness; if they
fall from Indra-mandal, they forebode danger to all kings; those from Agni-
mandal, threaten war between nations.620
During the monsoons, rain is believed to fall in that direction in which a
meteor is seen to shoot.621 A meteor in the west is ominous to kings, and if
it falls into the sea, it forebodes evil to the dwellers on earth.622
The appearance of a comet is believed to portend some dire calamity to the
king and the nation.622 It is said that if a heavenly body is seen,
chhogālo,623 chhogālā kings (i.e., great and celebrated kings) are in danger
of their lives.624 A comet is also believed to threaten all tailed animals with
destruction.624
that disease.611
Some declare that meteors are stars which fall owing to the curse of Indra,
and subsequently assume the highest human form on earth.613
It is also said that the stars descend to earth in human form when sins
accumulate in the celestial world.614
The influence of meteors on human affairs is treated at length in the
Varāhasanhitā.615 The phenomenon is popularly regarded as an evil omen:
it is supposed to portend devastation by fire, an earthquake, a famine, an
epidemic, danger from thieves, and storms at sea.616 The appearance of a
bright shooting star is supposed to foretell the death of some great man;617
and on beholding one, it is customary to repeat the words ‘Rām Rām’618
several times.619 A shower of meteors is believed to presage some civil
commotion or a change in the ruling dynasties.
Some persons, however, regard the appearance of meteors as auspicious or
baneful, according to the mandal or group of stars, from which they are
seen to fall. Meteors from the Vāyu-mandal, (or the group of stars known
by the name of Vāyu) portend the breaking out of an epidemic: those from
Varuna-mandal, are believed to be favourable to human happiness; if they
fall from Indra-mandal, they forebode danger to all kings; those from Agni-
mandal, threaten war between nations.620
During the monsoons, rain is believed to fall in that direction in which a
meteor is seen to shoot.621 A meteor in the west is ominous to kings, and if
it falls into the sea, it forebodes evil to the dwellers on earth.622
The appearance of a comet is believed to portend some dire calamity to the
king and the nation.622 It is said that if a heavenly body is seen,
chhogālo,623 chhogālā kings (i.e., great and celebrated kings) are in danger
of their lives.624 A comet is also believed to threaten all tailed animals with
destruction.624
Page 107
1 Khan Bahadur Fazlullah and Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
2 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
3 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
4 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
5 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
6 Mr. M. D. Vyas, Shastri, Bhayavadur. ↑
7 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Schoolmaster, Limbdi. ↑
8 The first nine days of Āshvin, the last month of the Gujarat Hindu Calendar, known otherwise as
Mātānā dāhadā-mātā’s days. The influence of the mātās is very strong in these days. ↑
9 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
10 Mr. M. D. Vayas, Shastri, Bhayavadur. ↑
11 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
12 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
13 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
14 Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
15 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
16 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
17 Lāpsi is coarse wheat-flour fried in ghi and sweetened with molasses or sugar. ↑
18 Vadān-bean flour—generally of gram or peas—is allowed to remain in water with spices until
the paste acquires a sufficient degree of consistence, when it is rolled into small biscuit-sized balls
and fried in oil. ↑
19 Bāklā are small round flat cakes of dry boiled beans. ↑
20 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
21 Mr. N. M. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sānkā. ↑
2 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
3 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
4 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
5 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
6 Mr. M. D. Vyas, Shastri, Bhayavadur. ↑
7 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Schoolmaster, Limbdi. ↑
8 The first nine days of Āshvin, the last month of the Gujarat Hindu Calendar, known otherwise as
Mātānā dāhadā-mātā’s days. The influence of the mātās is very strong in these days. ↑
9 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
10 Mr. M. D. Vayas, Shastri, Bhayavadur. ↑
11 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
12 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
13 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
14 Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
15 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
16 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
17 Lāpsi is coarse wheat-flour fried in ghi and sweetened with molasses or sugar. ↑
18 Vadān-bean flour—generally of gram or peas—is allowed to remain in water with spices until
the paste acquires a sufficient degree of consistence, when it is rolled into small biscuit-sized balls
and fried in oil. ↑
19 Bāklā are small round flat cakes of dry boiled beans. ↑
20 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
21 Mr. N. M. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sānkā. ↑
Page 108
22 Mr. N. M. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sanka. ↑
23 Kansār is coarse wheat-flour cooked in three times as much water, sweetened with molasses or
sugar, and taken with ghi.—B. L. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
24 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
25 Mr. G. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sultanpore. ↑
26 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
27 Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
28 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
29 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
30 A dānklā is otherwise known by the name of dūg-dudioon. ↑
31 Mr. Jagannath Hirji, Schoolmaster, Chok. ↑
32 Mr. Jethabhai Mangaldas, Schoolmaster, Gondal. ↑
33 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrāsā. ↑
34 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
35 Mr. H. R. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Khirasarā. ↑
36 Mr. L. G. Travadi, Schoolmaster, Upleta. ↑
37 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
38 Mr. H. R. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Khirasarā. ↑
39 Mr. L. G. Travadi, Schoolmaster, Upleta. ↑
40 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
41 Two pieces of cloth, a shouldercloth and a scarf are cast over the bridegroom and the bride, and
they are tied together by a knot. It is the unloosing of this tie which is here referred to.—Mr. K. D.
Desai. ↑
42 Mr. N. M. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sānkā. ↑
43 Mr. N. M. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sānkā. ↑
44 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
45 The tendency to fraternise as much in belief as in nationality is a notable feature of Indian life.
The saying goes:—Hindu Musalmān ék Rām bijó Rehmān. The Hindu and Musalman are not far
23 Kansār is coarse wheat-flour cooked in three times as much water, sweetened with molasses or
sugar, and taken with ghi.—B. L. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
24 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
25 Mr. G. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sultanpore. ↑
26 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
27 Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
28 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
29 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
30 A dānklā is otherwise known by the name of dūg-dudioon. ↑
31 Mr. Jagannath Hirji, Schoolmaster, Chok. ↑
32 Mr. Jethabhai Mangaldas, Schoolmaster, Gondal. ↑
33 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrāsā. ↑
34 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
35 Mr. H. R. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Khirasarā. ↑
36 Mr. L. G. Travadi, Schoolmaster, Upleta. ↑
37 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
38 Mr. H. R. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Khirasarā. ↑
39 Mr. L. G. Travadi, Schoolmaster, Upleta. ↑
40 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
41 Two pieces of cloth, a shouldercloth and a scarf are cast over the bridegroom and the bride, and
they are tied together by a knot. It is the unloosing of this tie which is here referred to.—Mr. K. D.
Desai. ↑
42 Mr. N. M. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sānkā. ↑
43 Mr. N. M. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sānkā. ↑
44 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
45 The tendency to fraternise as much in belief as in nationality is a notable feature of Indian life.
The saying goes:—Hindu Musalmān ék Rām bijó Rehmān. The Hindu and Musalman are not far
Page 109
apart; one is the follower of Rām, the other of Rehmān (the most compassionate—a Kuranic name of
Allah). Again says another proverb: The Hindu and Musalmān are as closely connected as the breast
and the skirt of a garment (Hindu né Musalmān moli dāman jo vehevār). The Hindu pays homage to
the Pīr, the Muslim repays the compliment by holding some of his Hindu brother’s lower class
deities, such as Vaital and Kāli and Ambā, in awe. The Hindu worships and breaks cocoanuts before
the Moharram taazias—the Musalman responds by showing a sneaking sort of a regard for the Holi,
whom he believes to have been a daughter of the patriarch Abraham. This reciprocal good fellowship
in times of political agitation, like those of the Indian Mutiny, results in the “chapati”, or unleavened
bread loaf, being considered a symbol to be honoured both by Muslim and Hindu; and in more recent
times, as during the plague troubles in Allahabad and Cawnpore, shows itself in the Muslim
garlanding the Hindu on a holiday, and the Hindus setting up sherbat-stalls for Musalmans on an Id
day.—Khan Bahadur Fazlullah. ↑
46 Mr. J. N. Patel, Schoolmaster, Jasdan. ↑
47 Mr. Jaggannath Hirji, Schoolmaster, Chok. ↑
48 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrāsā. ↑
49 Mr. O. A. Mehta, Schoolmaster, Lakhapadar. ↑
50 Mr. N. J. Bhatt, Moti Marad. ↑
51 Mr. J. D. Khandhar, Sayala. ↑
52 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
53 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
54 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
55 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
56 Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpore. ↑
57 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
58 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
59 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
60 Mr. M. D. Vyas, Schoolmaster, Bhayavadur. ↑
61 Cf. Alláho núr-us-samáwátiwal ard, mathalo nurihi-ka miskatin bihá nusbáh—Koran.
Allah! He is the light of the Heavens and the Earth. The likeness of His Light being similar to a lamp
in a glass.—Fazlullah Latfullah. ↑
Allah). Again says another proverb: The Hindu and Musalmān are as closely connected as the breast
and the skirt of a garment (Hindu né Musalmān moli dāman jo vehevār). The Hindu pays homage to
the Pīr, the Muslim repays the compliment by holding some of his Hindu brother’s lower class
deities, such as Vaital and Kāli and Ambā, in awe. The Hindu worships and breaks cocoanuts before
the Moharram taazias—the Musalman responds by showing a sneaking sort of a regard for the Holi,
whom he believes to have been a daughter of the patriarch Abraham. This reciprocal good fellowship
in times of political agitation, like those of the Indian Mutiny, results in the “chapati”, or unleavened
bread loaf, being considered a symbol to be honoured both by Muslim and Hindu; and in more recent
times, as during the plague troubles in Allahabad and Cawnpore, shows itself in the Muslim
garlanding the Hindu on a holiday, and the Hindus setting up sherbat-stalls for Musalmans on an Id
day.—Khan Bahadur Fazlullah. ↑
46 Mr. J. N. Patel, Schoolmaster, Jasdan. ↑
47 Mr. Jaggannath Hirji, Schoolmaster, Chok. ↑
48 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrāsā. ↑
49 Mr. O. A. Mehta, Schoolmaster, Lakhapadar. ↑
50 Mr. N. J. Bhatt, Moti Marad. ↑
51 Mr. J. D. Khandhar, Sayala. ↑
52 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
53 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
54 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
55 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
56 Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpore. ↑
57 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
58 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
59 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
60 Mr. M. D. Vyas, Schoolmaster, Bhayavadur. ↑
61 Cf. Alláho núr-us-samáwátiwal ard, mathalo nurihi-ka miskatin bihá nusbáh—Koran.
Allah! He is the light of the Heavens and the Earth. The likeness of His Light being similar to a lamp
in a glass.—Fazlullah Latfullah. ↑
Page 110
62 Mr. Jethabai Mangaldas, Schoolmaster, Gondal; and Damodar Karsonji, Schoolmaster,
Dhhank. ↑
63 Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
64 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
65 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
66 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
67 A similar custom is observed in Gujarat. Unfortunate parents, who have lost many children, vow
to grow the hair of their little children, if such are preserved to them, observing all the time a votive
abstinence from a particular dish or betelnut or the like. When the children are 3 or 5 or 7 years old,
the vow is fulfilled by taking them to a sacred place, like the temple of Ranchhodji at Dakor, to have
their hair cut for the first time. This vow is known as bābari in Southern Gujarat—K. D. Desai. ↑
68 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
69 Mr. Jethabhai Mangaldas, Gondal. ↑
70 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
71 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
72 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
73 Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. ↑
74 Mr. G. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sultanpore. ↑
75 Mrs. Raju Ramjee Kanjee, 2nd Assistant, Girls’ School, Gondal. ↑
76 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
77 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
78 Mr. Girijashankar Karmeashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
79 The Hindus use the tender sprigs of the Nim or Babul trees for tooth-brushes. After they have
done duty as brushes they are cloven into two and the tenderest part is used as a tongue-scraper.—
Khan Bahadur Fazlullah. ↑
80 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
81 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
82 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
83 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
Dhhank. ↑
63 Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
64 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
65 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
66 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
67 A similar custom is observed in Gujarat. Unfortunate parents, who have lost many children, vow
to grow the hair of their little children, if such are preserved to them, observing all the time a votive
abstinence from a particular dish or betelnut or the like. When the children are 3 or 5 or 7 years old,
the vow is fulfilled by taking them to a sacred place, like the temple of Ranchhodji at Dakor, to have
their hair cut for the first time. This vow is known as bābari in Southern Gujarat—K. D. Desai. ↑
68 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
69 Mr. Jethabhai Mangaldas, Gondal. ↑
70 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
71 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
72 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
73 Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. ↑
74 Mr. G. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sultanpore. ↑
75 Mrs. Raju Ramjee Kanjee, 2nd Assistant, Girls’ School, Gondal. ↑
76 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
77 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
78 Mr. Girijashankar Karmeashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
79 The Hindus use the tender sprigs of the Nim or Babul trees for tooth-brushes. After they have
done duty as brushes they are cloven into two and the tenderest part is used as a tongue-scraper.—
Khan Bahadur Fazlullah. ↑
80 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
81 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
82 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
83 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
Page 111
84 Mr. Jethalal Anūpram, Schoolmaster, Aman. ↑
85 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
86 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
87 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
88 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
89 Mr. M. D. Vyas, Shastri, Bhayavadur. ↑
90 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi, and L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia. ↑
91 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara, and Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
92 Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
93 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrāsā. ↑
94 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Schoolmaster, Limbdi. ↑
95 Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
96 Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
97 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
98 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrasa. ↑
99 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
100 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadavah. ↑
101 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
102 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
103 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
104 Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
105 Mr. N. J. Bhatt, Moti-Murad. ↑
106 Mr. Ranchhodji Becher Pandya, Shastri, Jelpur, Sanskrit Pāthashālā. ↑
107 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
108 Wheat flour fried in ghi with molasses. ↑
109 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
110 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
85 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
86 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
87 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
88 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
89 Mr. M. D. Vyas, Shastri, Bhayavadur. ↑
90 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi, and L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia. ↑
91 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara, and Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
92 Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
93 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrāsā. ↑
94 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Schoolmaster, Limbdi. ↑
95 Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
96 Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
97 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
98 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrasa. ↑
99 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
100 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadavah. ↑
101 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
102 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
103 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
104 Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
105 Mr. N. J. Bhatt, Moti-Murad. ↑
106 Mr. Ranchhodji Becher Pandya, Shastri, Jelpur, Sanskrit Pāthashālā. ↑
107 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
108 Wheat flour fried in ghi with molasses. ↑
109 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
110 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
Page 112
111 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
112 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
113 The names are: 1 Āditya, 2 Divākar, 3 Bhāskar, 4 Prabhākar, 5 Sahasrānshu, 6 Trilochan, 7
Haritāshva, 8 Vibhāvasu, 9 Divākrit, 10 Divādarshātmaka, 11 Trimūrti, 12 Sūrya. ↑
114 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
115 Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpur. ↑
116 Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Schoolmaster, Ganod. ↑
117 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
118 Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Schoolmaster, Ganod. ↑
119 Mr. Chhaganlal Motiram, Wala Taluka. ↑
120 Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School. ↑
121 Mrs. Raju Ramjee Kanjee, Girls’ School, Ganod. ↑
122 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
123 Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School. ↑
124 Mr. J. D. Khandhar, Sayala. ↑
125 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
126 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
127 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
128 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
129 Milk and sugar ball. ↑
130 A sugar cake. ↑
131 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
132 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
133 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
134 Mr. P. L. Mehta, Schoolmaster, Luvaria. ↑
135 Mr. Jeram Vasaram, Schoolmaster, Jodia. ↑
136 Mr. M. H. Raval, Ganod. ↑
112 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
113 The names are: 1 Āditya, 2 Divākar, 3 Bhāskar, 4 Prabhākar, 5 Sahasrānshu, 6 Trilochan, 7
Haritāshva, 8 Vibhāvasu, 9 Divākrit, 10 Divādarshātmaka, 11 Trimūrti, 12 Sūrya. ↑
114 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
115 Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpur. ↑
116 Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Schoolmaster, Ganod. ↑
117 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
118 Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Schoolmaster, Ganod. ↑
119 Mr. Chhaganlal Motiram, Wala Taluka. ↑
120 Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School. ↑
121 Mrs. Raju Ramjee Kanjee, Girls’ School, Ganod. ↑
122 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
123 Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School. ↑
124 Mr. J. D. Khandhar, Sayala. ↑
125 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
126 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
127 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
128 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
129 Milk and sugar ball. ↑
130 A sugar cake. ↑
131 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
132 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
133 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
134 Mr. P. L. Mehta, Schoolmaster, Luvaria. ↑
135 Mr. Jeram Vasaram, Schoolmaster, Jodia. ↑
136 Mr. M. H. Raval, Ganod. ↑
Page 113
137 Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Ganod. ↑
138 See figure above. A shows Shiva’s image: the arrow-head, the jalādhari which a person is not to
cross. He is to return from the point B in his first round and from the point C in his half turn. Thus B
C remains uncrossed. The circle round A shows the Khāl, place wherein god Shiva is installed—K.
D. Desai. ↑
139 Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpore. ↑
140 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
141 Hindus believe that a soul has to go through a lakh and eighty-four thousand transmigrations
before it attains final emancipation. The cycle of 1,84,000 births is called the pherā of lakh-choryasi,
—K. D. Desai. ↑
142 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
143 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster. Dhhank. ↑
144 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
145 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
146 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
147 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
148 Mr. Jethalal Anupram, Schoolmaster, Ainan. ↑
149 Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School. ↑
150 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
151 Mr. N. J. Bhatt, Moti-Murād. ↑
152 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
153 Mr. D. K. Shah, Schoolmaster, Charadwa. ↑
154 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Schoolmaster, Limbdi. ↑
155 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrāsa. ↑
156 Mr. Chhaganlal Motiram, Schoolmaster, Wala Talu. ↑
157 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Goholwad. ↑
158 Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani, and the Schoolmaster, Movaiyam. ↑
159 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
138 See figure above. A shows Shiva’s image: the arrow-head, the jalādhari which a person is not to
cross. He is to return from the point B in his first round and from the point C in his half turn. Thus B
C remains uncrossed. The circle round A shows the Khāl, place wherein god Shiva is installed—K.
D. Desai. ↑
139 Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpore. ↑
140 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
141 Hindus believe that a soul has to go through a lakh and eighty-four thousand transmigrations
before it attains final emancipation. The cycle of 1,84,000 births is called the pherā of lakh-choryasi,
—K. D. Desai. ↑
142 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
143 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster. Dhhank. ↑
144 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
145 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
146 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
147 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
148 Mr. Jethalal Anupram, Schoolmaster, Ainan. ↑
149 Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School. ↑
150 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
151 Mr. N. J. Bhatt, Moti-Murād. ↑
152 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
153 Mr. D. K. Shah, Schoolmaster, Charadwa. ↑
154 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Schoolmaster, Limbdi. ↑
155 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrāsa. ↑
156 Mr. Chhaganlal Motiram, Schoolmaster, Wala Talu. ↑
157 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Goholwad. ↑
158 Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani, and the Schoolmaster, Movaiyam. ↑
159 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
Page 114
160 Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School. ↑
161 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwa. ↑
162 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
163 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
164 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
165 Mr. N. J. Bhatt, Schoolmaster, Moti-Murād. ↑
166 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Schoolmaster, Limbdi. ↑
167 Mr. H. R. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Khirasarā. ↑
168 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
169 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
170 Mr. H. R. Pandya, Khirasarā. ↑
171 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwa. ↑
172 The Schoolmaster, Chank, Kolaba. ↑
173 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwa. ↑
174 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
175 The Schoolmaster, Pendhur, Ratnagiri. ↑
176 The Schoolmaster, Anjār. ↑
177 Mr. Jethabhai Mangaldas, Schoolmaster, Gondal. ↑
178 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
179 Mr. L. D. Mehta, Motā Devāliā. ↑
180 The Schoolmaster, Ganod. ↑
181 The Schoolmaster, Agashi and Arnālā. ↑
182 Mr. T. D. Khāndhār, Schoolmaster, Sayala. ↑
183 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Songadh. ↑
184 The Schoolmaster, Mith-bāo, Ratnagiri. ↑
185 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
186 Mr. Jethalal Anupram, Schoolmaster, Aman. ↑
161 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwa. ↑
162 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
163 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
164 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
165 Mr. N. J. Bhatt, Schoolmaster, Moti-Murād. ↑
166 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Schoolmaster, Limbdi. ↑
167 Mr. H. R. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Khirasarā. ↑
168 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
169 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
170 Mr. H. R. Pandya, Khirasarā. ↑
171 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwa. ↑
172 The Schoolmaster, Chank, Kolaba. ↑
173 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwa. ↑
174 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
175 The Schoolmaster, Pendhur, Ratnagiri. ↑
176 The Schoolmaster, Anjār. ↑
177 Mr. Jethabhai Mangaldas, Schoolmaster, Gondal. ↑
178 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh. ↑
179 Mr. L. D. Mehta, Motā Devāliā. ↑
180 The Schoolmaster, Ganod. ↑
181 The Schoolmaster, Agashi and Arnālā. ↑
182 Mr. T. D. Khāndhār, Schoolmaster, Sayala. ↑
183 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Songadh. ↑
184 The Schoolmaster, Mith-bāo, Ratnagiri. ↑
185 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
186 Mr. Jethalal Anupram, Schoolmaster, Aman. ↑
Page 115
187 Mr. M. H. Raval, Vanod. ↑
188 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
189 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Songadh. ↑
190 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
191 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Songadh. ↑
192 The Swastika is found at Pompeii and in the Greek ‘key’ pattern. It is also found on Persian and
Assyrian coins and in the Catacombs at Rome. It is to be seen on the tomb of the Duke of Clarence,
who was drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine, at Tewkesbury, and occurs in Winchester Cathedral,
where it is described as the fyle-foot.—R. E. E. ↑
193 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. Compare a similar idea in the Kurān in the chapter
An Nur (the Lights): “Allah is the Light of the Heavens and the Earth. The semblance of his light is
the nyche wherein there is a light.”—K. B. Fazlullah. ↑
194 Mr. J. A. Jani, Schoolmaster, Aman. ↑
195 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara; and Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
196 Kansār is coarse wheat flour sweetened with molasses and cooked in water until the whole
quantity of water is absorbed and taken with ghi. ↑
197 Puris are cakes of fine wheat flour, fried in ghi. ↑
198 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
199 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
200 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
201 The Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
202 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
203 Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
204 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi, and B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
205 All observers of the Chaturthi-vrat worship the god Ganpati on this day, and offer him one
thousand trifoliate sprouts of dūrva (cynodon dactylon). The dish specially prepared for the occasion
is Golanalādu—sweet-balls of wheat flour fried in ghi and mixed with molasses.—Mr. N. M. Dave,
Sānkā. ↑
206 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
188 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
189 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Songadh. ↑
190 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
191 Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Songadh. ↑
192 The Swastika is found at Pompeii and in the Greek ‘key’ pattern. It is also found on Persian and
Assyrian coins and in the Catacombs at Rome. It is to be seen on the tomb of the Duke of Clarence,
who was drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine, at Tewkesbury, and occurs in Winchester Cathedral,
where it is described as the fyle-foot.—R. E. E. ↑
193 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. Compare a similar idea in the Kurān in the chapter
An Nur (the Lights): “Allah is the Light of the Heavens and the Earth. The semblance of his light is
the nyche wherein there is a light.”—K. B. Fazlullah. ↑
194 Mr. J. A. Jani, Schoolmaster, Aman. ↑
195 Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara; and Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
196 Kansār is coarse wheat flour sweetened with molasses and cooked in water until the whole
quantity of water is absorbed and taken with ghi. ↑
197 Puris are cakes of fine wheat flour, fried in ghi. ↑
198 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
199 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
200 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
201 The Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
202 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
203 Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
204 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi, and B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
205 All observers of the Chaturthi-vrat worship the god Ganpati on this day, and offer him one
thousand trifoliate sprouts of dūrva (cynodon dactylon). The dish specially prepared for the occasion
is Golanalādu—sweet-balls of wheat flour fried in ghi and mixed with molasses.—Mr. N. M. Dave,
Sānkā. ↑
206 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
Page 116
207 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad. ↑
208 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
209 The Schoolmaster, Vanod. ↑
210 The original is—
Poshi Poshi Punemadi,
Āgāshe rāndhi khichadi,
jame bhāini benādi.
↑
211 The Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani and The Schoolmaster, Jodia. ↑
212 Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School. ↑
213 Mr. L. D. Mehta, Schoolmaster, Mota-Devalia. ↑
214 A Kundali is an astrological diagram of the position of planets at any particular time. The
numbers in the diagram change their positions according to the position of planets at any given time.
—Mr. D. Desai. ↑
215 Mr. Chhaganlal Motira, Wala Taluka. ↑
216 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
217 The Schoolmaster, Khāndhār. ↑
218 One ghadi is equal to 24 minutes and one pohor (prahara) lasts for three hours. ↑
219 Mr. M. P. Shah, Schoolmaster, Zinzuwada. ↑
220 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
221 Mr. M. P. Shah, Schoolmaster, Zinzuwada. ↑
222 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
223 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank, Rajpara and Limbdi. ↑
224 The Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
225 The Schoolmaster, Dadvi. ↑
226 The Schoolmaster, Lilapur. ↑
227 Throughout the Hindu Scriptures, Vishnu and his incarnations are described as being of
Shyama-varna or dark complexion.—Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
208 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
209 The Schoolmaster, Vanod. ↑
210 The original is—
Poshi Poshi Punemadi,
Āgāshe rāndhi khichadi,
jame bhāini benādi.
↑
211 The Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani and The Schoolmaster, Jodia. ↑
212 Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School. ↑
213 Mr. L. D. Mehta, Schoolmaster, Mota-Devalia. ↑
214 A Kundali is an astrological diagram of the position of planets at any particular time. The
numbers in the diagram change their positions according to the position of planets at any given time.
—Mr. D. Desai. ↑
215 Mr. Chhaganlal Motira, Wala Taluka. ↑
216 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
217 The Schoolmaster, Khāndhār. ↑
218 One ghadi is equal to 24 minutes and one pohor (prahara) lasts for three hours. ↑
219 Mr. M. P. Shah, Schoolmaster, Zinzuwada. ↑
220 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
221 Mr. M. P. Shah, Schoolmaster, Zinzuwada. ↑
222 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
223 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank, Rajpara and Limbdi. ↑
224 The Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
225 The Schoolmaster, Dadvi. ↑
226 The Schoolmaster, Lilapur. ↑
227 Throughout the Hindu Scriptures, Vishnu and his incarnations are described as being of
Shyama-varna or dark complexion.—Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
Page 117
228 The Schoolmaster, Dadvi. ↑
229 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Halar. ↑
230 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
231 The Schoolmaster, Lilapur. ↑
232 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa. ↑
233 Mr. M. P. Shah, Zinzuwada. ↑
234 The Mistress of Rajkot Civil Station Girls’ School. ↑
235 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa. ↑
236 Rao Saheb Shelke and the Shastri of Bhayavadur. ↑
237 The Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
238 The Schoolmaster, Dhhank. He refers to the books Vratarāj and Pathyapathya on this point. ↑
239 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Halar; and the Schoolmaster of Chauk, Kolaba. ↑
240 The Schoolmaster, Jodia. ↑
241 The Schoolmaster, Kolki. ↑
242 The Schoolmasters of Rajpara, Limbdi, and Ibhrampur. ↑
243 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
244 The Shastri of Jetpur, Pathashala. ↑
245 The following Sanskrit verse mentions all of them:—
लक्ष्मीः कौस्तुभपारिजातकसुरा धन्वंतरिश्चन्द्रमा ।
गावः कामदुहः सुरेश्वरगजो रम्भादिदेवाङ्गनाः ॥
अश्वः सप्तमुखो विषं हरिधनुः शंखोऽमृतं चांबुधेः ।
रत्नानीह चतुर्दश प्रतिदिनं कु र्वन्तु वो मंगलम्॥ १ ॥
Rao Saheb P. B. Joshi. ↑
246 The Schoolmasters of Jodia, Dhhank, Songadh, Rajpara, and Limbdi. ↑
247 The Schoolmaster of Khirāsara. ↑
248 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
249 Mr. Laxmichand Hemji, Vasāwad. ↑
250 Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
229 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Halar. ↑
230 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
231 The Schoolmaster, Lilapur. ↑
232 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa. ↑
233 Mr. M. P. Shah, Zinzuwada. ↑
234 The Mistress of Rajkot Civil Station Girls’ School. ↑
235 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa. ↑
236 Rao Saheb Shelke and the Shastri of Bhayavadur. ↑
237 The Schoolmaster, Rajpara. ↑
238 The Schoolmaster, Dhhank. He refers to the books Vratarāj and Pathyapathya on this point. ↑
239 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Halar; and the Schoolmaster of Chauk, Kolaba. ↑
240 The Schoolmaster, Jodia. ↑
241 The Schoolmaster, Kolki. ↑
242 The Schoolmasters of Rajpara, Limbdi, and Ibhrampur. ↑
243 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
244 The Shastri of Jetpur, Pathashala. ↑
245 The following Sanskrit verse mentions all of them:—
लक्ष्मीः कौस्तुभपारिजातकसुरा धन्वंतरिश्चन्द्रमा ।
गावः कामदुहः सुरेश्वरगजो रम्भादिदेवाङ्गनाः ॥
अश्वः सप्तमुखो विषं हरिधनुः शंखोऽमृतं चांबुधेः ।
रत्नानीह चतुर्दश प्रतिदिनं कु र्वन्तु वो मंगलम्॥ १ ॥
Rao Saheb P. B. Joshi. ↑
246 The Schoolmasters of Jodia, Dhhank, Songadh, Rajpara, and Limbdi. ↑
247 The Schoolmaster of Khirāsara. ↑
248 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
249 Mr. Laxmichand Hemji, Vasāwad. ↑
250 Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
Page 118
251 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
252 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
253 Mr K. D. Desai. ↑
254 Mr. Laxmichand Hemji, Vasāwad. ↑
255 A pohor or prahar is equal to three hours. ↑
256 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
257 Mr. Khan Bahadur Fazlullah. ↑
258 The Schoolmasters of Jodia and Songadh. ↑
259 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
260 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
261 Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
262 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
263 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
264 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
265 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
266 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
267 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwah. ↑
268 Mr. T. D. Khandhar, Sayala. ↑
269 The Schoolmaster, Jodia. ↑
270 Khan Bahadur Fazlullah. ↑
271 Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. ↑
272 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa, and Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College,
Rajkot. ↑
273 Mr. Motichand Vasanji Doshi, Kāluwad. ↑
274 I believe the name of the constellation is wrongly given: it ought to be Mriga. One of the stars in
this group, known as ‘Sirius’, in Western astronomy, is often called Vyādha (i.e., the hunter).—Mr. K.
T. Gupte.
252 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
253 Mr K. D. Desai. ↑
254 Mr. Laxmichand Hemji, Vasāwad. ↑
255 A pohor or prahar is equal to three hours. ↑
256 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
257 Mr. Khan Bahadur Fazlullah. ↑
258 The Schoolmasters of Jodia and Songadh. ↑
259 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
260 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
261 Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
262 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
263 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
264 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
265 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
266 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
267 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwah. ↑
268 Mr. T. D. Khandhar, Sayala. ↑
269 The Schoolmaster, Jodia. ↑
270 Khan Bahadur Fazlullah. ↑
271 Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. ↑
272 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa, and Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College,
Rajkot. ↑
273 Mr. Motichand Vasanji Doshi, Kāluwad. ↑
274 I believe the name of the constellation is wrongly given: it ought to be Mriga. One of the stars in
this group, known as ‘Sirius’, in Western astronomy, is often called Vyādha (i.e., the hunter).—Mr. K.
T. Gupte.
Page 119
The Mrig constellation is also said to represent the goddess Saraswati, who had assumed the form of
a gazelle in order to escape the amorous grasp of Brahmā, her father. While the deer in the Mrig
constellation is Saraswati, the Ardra constellation is Mahādev who had followed to chastise Brahma,
who also is seen as the Brahma constellation.—Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
275 The thirteenth day of both the bright and dark halves of a month, sacred to the worship of god
Shiva. ↑
276 The three-leaf-clusters of this tree are loved by the god Shiva if put upon his image.—Mr. K. D.
Desai. ↑
277 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
278 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
279 The nine grahas are, Ravi (the Sun), Chandra (the Moon), Mangal (Mars), Budha (Mercury),
Guru (Jupiter), Shukra (Venus), Shani (Saturn), and Rāhu and Ketu. ↑
280 The names of the twelve rāshis are:—1 Mesha (Aries), 2 Vrishabha (Taurus), 3 Mithun
(Gemini), 4 Karka (Cancer), 5 Sinha (Leo), 6 Kanyā (Virgo), 7 Tulā (Libra), 3 Vrishchika (Scorpio),
9 Dhanu (Sagittarius), 10 Makara (Capricornus), 11 Kumbha (Aquarius), 12 Mina (Pisces). ↑
281 The following are the twenty-seven nakshatras:—1 Ashvini, 2 Bharani, 3 Kritikā, 4 Rohinī, 5
Mrig, 6 Ardra, 7 Punarvasu, 8 Pushya, 9 Āshlesha, 10 Magha, 11 Pūrvā-phālguni, 12 Uttara-
phālguni, 13 Hasta, 14 Chitrā, 15 Swāti, 16 Vishākha, 17 Anurādha, 18 Jyeshthā, 19 Mūl, 20
Pūrvāshādha, 21 Uttarāshādha, 22 Shravana, 23 Dhanishtha, 24 Shatatārakā, 25 Pūrvābhādrapada, 26
Uttarābhadrapada, and 27 Revatī. ↑
282 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
283 One ghadi = 24 minutes. ↑
284 Mr. Motechand Vasanji Doshi, Kālāwad. ↑
285 The Schoolmaster, Dadvi. ↑
286 The Schoolmaster or Dadvi. ↑
287 N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
288 M. H. Raval, Vanod. ↑
289 Hirji Monji, Ganod. ↑
290 N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
a gazelle in order to escape the amorous grasp of Brahmā, her father. While the deer in the Mrig
constellation is Saraswati, the Ardra constellation is Mahādev who had followed to chastise Brahma,
who also is seen as the Brahma constellation.—Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
275 The thirteenth day of both the bright and dark halves of a month, sacred to the worship of god
Shiva. ↑
276 The three-leaf-clusters of this tree are loved by the god Shiva if put upon his image.—Mr. K. D.
Desai. ↑
277 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
278 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
279 The nine grahas are, Ravi (the Sun), Chandra (the Moon), Mangal (Mars), Budha (Mercury),
Guru (Jupiter), Shukra (Venus), Shani (Saturn), and Rāhu and Ketu. ↑
280 The names of the twelve rāshis are:—1 Mesha (Aries), 2 Vrishabha (Taurus), 3 Mithun
(Gemini), 4 Karka (Cancer), 5 Sinha (Leo), 6 Kanyā (Virgo), 7 Tulā (Libra), 3 Vrishchika (Scorpio),
9 Dhanu (Sagittarius), 10 Makara (Capricornus), 11 Kumbha (Aquarius), 12 Mina (Pisces). ↑
281 The following are the twenty-seven nakshatras:—1 Ashvini, 2 Bharani, 3 Kritikā, 4 Rohinī, 5
Mrig, 6 Ardra, 7 Punarvasu, 8 Pushya, 9 Āshlesha, 10 Magha, 11 Pūrvā-phālguni, 12 Uttara-
phālguni, 13 Hasta, 14 Chitrā, 15 Swāti, 16 Vishākha, 17 Anurādha, 18 Jyeshthā, 19 Mūl, 20
Pūrvāshādha, 21 Uttarāshādha, 22 Shravana, 23 Dhanishtha, 24 Shatatārakā, 25 Pūrvābhādrapada, 26
Uttarābhadrapada, and 27 Revatī. ↑
282 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
283 One ghadi = 24 minutes. ↑
284 Mr. Motechand Vasanji Doshi, Kālāwad. ↑
285 The Schoolmaster, Dadvi. ↑
286 The Schoolmaster or Dadvi. ↑
287 N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
288 M. H. Raval, Vanod. ↑
289 Hirji Monji, Ganod. ↑
290 N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
Page 120
291 I.e., a handful of rice, ghi, cocoanuts, and some other objects are cast into the fire as an
offering. ↑
292 Gangaram Tribhowandas, Lilapur. ↑
293 D. K. Pandya, Dhhānk. ↑
294 K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
295 R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit Pathashālā. ↑
296 A superior kind of rice. ↑
297 The Schoolmaster of Khirasarā. ↑
298 Twisted braids of darbha grass. ↑
299 D. K. Pandya, Dhhānk, and N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
300 B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
301 Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
302 Arghya is an offering of water in a spoon filled with barley seeds, sesamum seeds, sandal
ointment, rice, and flowers. ↑
303 Two varieties of sacred grass, used in thatching roofs. ↑
304 Kalyanji Bhaishankar, Kolki, and R. B. Pandya, Jetpur. ↑
305 G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
306 Meaningless terms. ↑
307 Odhowji Avichal, Lākhāpadar. ↑
308 Talakshi Dharamsi, Khandhar. ↑
309 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad. ↑
310 Hirji Monji, Ganod. ↑
311 Indra has full sway over the twelve meghas (or clouds), of which Shāmaghana is the greatest.
Indra directs them to pour down waters in whatever regions he likes. At the time of the deluge he lets
loose all the twelve meghas under the lead of Shāmaghana and thus brings about the destruction of
this world.—N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
312 L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia. ↑
313 Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrāsā. ↑
offering. ↑
292 Gangaram Tribhowandas, Lilapur. ↑
293 D. K. Pandya, Dhhānk. ↑
294 K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
295 R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit Pathashālā. ↑
296 A superior kind of rice. ↑
297 The Schoolmaster of Khirasarā. ↑
298 Twisted braids of darbha grass. ↑
299 D. K. Pandya, Dhhānk, and N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
300 B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
301 Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
302 Arghya is an offering of water in a spoon filled with barley seeds, sesamum seeds, sandal
ointment, rice, and flowers. ↑
303 Two varieties of sacred grass, used in thatching roofs. ↑
304 Kalyanji Bhaishankar, Kolki, and R. B. Pandya, Jetpur. ↑
305 G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
306 Meaningless terms. ↑
307 Odhowji Avichal, Lākhāpadar. ↑
308 Talakshi Dharamsi, Khandhar. ↑
309 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad. ↑
310 Hirji Monji, Ganod. ↑
311 Indra has full sway over the twelve meghas (or clouds), of which Shāmaghana is the greatest.
Indra directs them to pour down waters in whatever regions he likes. At the time of the deluge he lets
loose all the twelve meghas under the lead of Shāmaghana and thus brings about the destruction of
this world.—N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
312 L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia. ↑
313 Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrāsā. ↑
Page 121
314 N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
315 The Schoolmaster of Pālānvār. ↑
316 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
317 K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
318 The Schoolmaster of Luvaria. ↑
319 Mr. Kalyanji Bhaishankar, Kolki. ↑
320 The Schoolmaster of Khandhar. ↑
321 Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur. ↑
322 Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. ↑
323 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwah. ↑
324 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia, and B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
325 When a king desired to be Chakravarti—Sovereign of all India—he used to perform a horse-
sacrifice, and a horse was let loose with a copper-plate fastened to its head with the name of the king
engraved upon the plate. The horse moved in front followed by the king’s army. Those who were not
willing to acknowledge the suzerainty of the king challenged his army by seizing the horse. Such a
horse-sacrifice, if successfully completed, threatens the power of Indra, who is therefore said to be
very jealous and to create obstacles to the performance of such sacrifices—K. D. Desai. ↑
326 Mr. Vallabh Ramji, Mendardā. ↑
327 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
328 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa. ↑
329 Mr. Jethalal Anupram, Aman. ↑
330 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
331 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
332 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
333 Mr. K. B. Fazlullah. ↑
334 Mr. G. K. Bhall, Songadh. ↑
335 Mr. Hirji Monji, Ganod. ↑
336 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
315 The Schoolmaster of Pālānvār. ↑
316 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
317 K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
318 The Schoolmaster of Luvaria. ↑
319 Mr. Kalyanji Bhaishankar, Kolki. ↑
320 The Schoolmaster of Khandhar. ↑
321 Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur. ↑
322 Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. ↑
323 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwah. ↑
324 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia, and B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
325 When a king desired to be Chakravarti—Sovereign of all India—he used to perform a horse-
sacrifice, and a horse was let loose with a copper-plate fastened to its head with the name of the king
engraved upon the plate. The horse moved in front followed by the king’s army. Those who were not
willing to acknowledge the suzerainty of the king challenged his army by seizing the horse. Such a
horse-sacrifice, if successfully completed, threatens the power of Indra, who is therefore said to be
very jealous and to create obstacles to the performance of such sacrifices—K. D. Desai. ↑
326 Mr. Vallabh Ramji, Mendardā. ↑
327 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
328 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa. ↑
329 Mr. Jethalal Anupram, Aman. ↑
330 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
331 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
332 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
333 Mr. K. B. Fazlullah. ↑
334 Mr. G. K. Bhall, Songadh. ↑
335 Mr. Hirji Monji, Ganod. ↑
336 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
Page 122
337 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
338 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
339 Mr. Talakshi Dharashi, Sayala. ↑
340 A mixture of milk, curds, ghi, honey and sugar. ↑
341 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
342 Dūrvā is a kind of sacred grass. ↑
343 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
344 The Schoolmaster of Gondal Taluka. ↑
345 On the Dasarā holiday, which is also known as Vijayādashmī, Hindus take special dishes, dress
themselves in their best garments and go out of towns and villages to worship the earth-mother and
the holy shami, with javālā stalks, a few of which are inserted in the folds of their head-dress as
auspicious tokens. In towns, and big cities a procession is formed, conducted by some city magnate
or a native chief riding an elephant. They go in state to the place of worship, and after the completion
of the worship a goat or a he buffalo, preferably the latter, is killed, and a salvo of three to seven or
more cannon is fired. People then return home and prostrate themselves before their elders, and
receive from them a handful of candied sugar, a betel-nut and leaf, with blessings for long-life and
prosperity. Such blessings are considered likely to prove effective.—K. D. Desai. ↑
346 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
347 Some Hindus, when intending to go on a journey, consult an astrologer as to the muhūrt or
auspicious hour for setting out. If they do not happen to leave their place at the prescribed moment,
they put a pastānā—some of the articles to be carried by them in their journey—such as a suit of
clothes or a box, in a neighbour’s house as a token of their having set out at the stated time.—K. D.
Desai. ↑
348 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
349 Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Ganod. ↑
350 Mr. Talakshi Dharashi, Sayala. ↑
351 Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
352 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrāsā, and the Schoolmaster of Jāsdān. ↑
353 The Schoolmaster of Pātanvāv. ↑
354 The Schoolmaster of Sultanpur. ↑
338 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
339 Mr. Talakshi Dharashi, Sayala. ↑
340 A mixture of milk, curds, ghi, honey and sugar. ↑
341 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
342 Dūrvā is a kind of sacred grass. ↑
343 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
344 The Schoolmaster of Gondal Taluka. ↑
345 On the Dasarā holiday, which is also known as Vijayādashmī, Hindus take special dishes, dress
themselves in their best garments and go out of towns and villages to worship the earth-mother and
the holy shami, with javālā stalks, a few of which are inserted in the folds of their head-dress as
auspicious tokens. In towns, and big cities a procession is formed, conducted by some city magnate
or a native chief riding an elephant. They go in state to the place of worship, and after the completion
of the worship a goat or a he buffalo, preferably the latter, is killed, and a salvo of three to seven or
more cannon is fired. People then return home and prostrate themselves before their elders, and
receive from them a handful of candied sugar, a betel-nut and leaf, with blessings for long-life and
prosperity. Such blessings are considered likely to prove effective.—K. D. Desai. ↑
346 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
347 Some Hindus, when intending to go on a journey, consult an astrologer as to the muhūrt or
auspicious hour for setting out. If they do not happen to leave their place at the prescribed moment,
they put a pastānā—some of the articles to be carried by them in their journey—such as a suit of
clothes or a box, in a neighbour’s house as a token of their having set out at the stated time.—K. D.
Desai. ↑
348 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
349 Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Ganod. ↑
350 Mr. Talakshi Dharashi, Sayala. ↑
351 Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
352 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrāsā, and the Schoolmaster of Jāsdān. ↑
353 The Schoolmaster of Pātanvāv. ↑
354 The Schoolmaster of Sultanpur. ↑
Page 123
355 Mr. Laxmichand Hemji, Vasāvad. ↑
356 Mr. Madhowji Tulsiram, Movaiya. ↑
357 A mixture of milk, curds, ghi, honey, and sugar. ↑
358 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
359 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
360 Such objects are taken in a plate and thrown over a tulsi (or sweet basil) plant.—K. D. Desai. ↑
361 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
362 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
363 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
364 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
365 The Schoolmaster of Gondal Taluka. ↑
366 Sacrifices in honour of Vishnu, Mahādev and the goddess Chandi, respectively.—K. D. Desai. ↑
367 A form of devotion requiring the recitation of the Gāyatrī-mantra a hundred thousand times
with certain symbolic ceremonies.—K. D. Desai. ↑
368 The appointment of duly authorised Brāhmans to perform religious ceremonies.—K. D. Desai. ↑
369 Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. ↑
370 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
371 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
372 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
373 Intending pilgrims sometimes impose such self-denials upon themselves, vowing abnegation
from particular articles of food or wear till they have performed their pilgrimage. Some renounce the
use of ghi, some of milk, others of betel-leaf or nut, others swear not to wear a turban or a dupatta—
till they are given the merit of a pilgrimage.—Khan Bahadur Fazlullah. ↑
374 Mr. L. I. Joshi, Surela. ↑
375 This game, much resembling the English boys’ game of Tip cat, is also known as gilli-dānda.
The gedi or gilli is a small piece of wood, two or three inches in length, an inch or less in diameter
and sometimes tapering at both ends. The dānda is a small round stick, of the same thickness and a
foot or more in length, by which the gedi is played. There are two sides to the game as in cricket,
356 Mr. Madhowji Tulsiram, Movaiya. ↑
357 A mixture of milk, curds, ghi, honey, and sugar. ↑
358 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
359 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
360 Such objects are taken in a plate and thrown over a tulsi (or sweet basil) plant.—K. D. Desai. ↑
361 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
362 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
363 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
364 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
365 The Schoolmaster of Gondal Taluka. ↑
366 Sacrifices in honour of Vishnu, Mahādev and the goddess Chandi, respectively.—K. D. Desai. ↑
367 A form of devotion requiring the recitation of the Gāyatrī-mantra a hundred thousand times
with certain symbolic ceremonies.—K. D. Desai. ↑
368 The appointment of duly authorised Brāhmans to perform religious ceremonies.—K. D. Desai. ↑
369 Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. ↑
370 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
371 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
372 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
373 Intending pilgrims sometimes impose such self-denials upon themselves, vowing abnegation
from particular articles of food or wear till they have performed their pilgrimage. Some renounce the
use of ghi, some of milk, others of betel-leaf or nut, others swear not to wear a turban or a dupatta—
till they are given the merit of a pilgrimage.—Khan Bahadur Fazlullah. ↑
374 Mr. L. I. Joshi, Surela. ↑
375 This game, much resembling the English boys’ game of Tip cat, is also known as gilli-dānda.
The gedi or gilli is a small piece of wood, two or three inches in length, an inch or less in diameter
and sometimes tapering at both ends. The dānda is a small round stick, of the same thickness and a
foot or more in length, by which the gedi is played. There are two sides to the game as in cricket,
Page 124
though not composed of a definite number of players. There are a number of ways in which the game
can be played.—K. D. Desai. ↑
376 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
377 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara, or of Bhagwan, according to Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
378 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
379 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
380 The Shastri of Jetpur, Pathashala. ↑
381 The Schoolmaster of Pāolānvav. ↑
382 Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpur. ↑
383 The Schoolmaster of Rajkot Girls’ School. ↑
384 Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Ganod. ↑
385 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
386 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank, Sanka, Limbdi, and Sultanpur. ↑
387 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
388 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
389 The Schoolmaster of Charadwa. ↑
390 The Schoolmaster of Surela. ↑
391 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
392 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
393 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
394 The Schoolmaster of Gondal. ↑
395 i.e., the period for which the Rohini nakshatra lasts. ↑
396 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
397 Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
398 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
399 The Hasta nakshatra generally commences at the end of Bhādrapad or the beginning of Ashvin
and lasts for a fortnight. The rains during this period, which are required for the rabi crops, are so
much esteemed that each drop of them is said to be worth a drop of ghi. People store the hathio-
can be played.—K. D. Desai. ↑
376 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi. ↑
377 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara, or of Bhagwan, according to Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
378 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
379 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
380 The Shastri of Jetpur, Pathashala. ↑
381 The Schoolmaster of Pāolānvav. ↑
382 Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpur. ↑
383 The Schoolmaster of Rajkot Girls’ School. ↑
384 Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Ganod. ↑
385 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
386 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank, Sanka, Limbdi, and Sultanpur. ↑
387 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
388 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
389 The Schoolmaster of Charadwa. ↑
390 The Schoolmaster of Surela. ↑
391 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
392 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
393 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
394 The Schoolmaster of Gondal. ↑
395 i.e., the period for which the Rohini nakshatra lasts. ↑
396 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
397 Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
398 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
399 The Hasta nakshatra generally commences at the end of Bhādrapad or the beginning of Ashvin
and lasts for a fortnight. The rains during this period, which are required for the rabi crops, are so
much esteemed that each drop of them is said to be worth a drop of ghi. People store the hathio-
Page 125
varshād or the rain water of Hasta in reservoirs for drinking purposes, believing it to be very pure
and digestive.—K. D. Desai. ↑
400 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
401 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
402 Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
403 The Schoolmaster of Luvaria. ↑
404 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
405 The Schoolmaster of Songadh. ↑
406 Talakshi, Dharashi, Sayala. ↑
407 Mr. L. H. Jadow, Vasāwad. ↑
408 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
409 Among the Hindus it is customary for those whose children do not live to keep their children
unshaved for a certain number of years, after which the children are taken to a holy place and shaved
there for the first time. The temple of Ranchhodji at Dākor is a favourite place for such ceremonies.
—K. D. Desai. ↑
410 Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpur. ↑
411 The Schoolmaster of Charadwa. ↑
412 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
413 The seven nether worlds are Atāl, Vital, Sutal, Talātal, Mahātal, Rasātal, and Pātāl. ↑
414 In an ocean, as some say—D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
415 Mr. Jethalal Devji, Bantwā. ↑
416 Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
417 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank, and Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
418 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad. ↑
419 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
420 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi, and Mr. Raju Ramjee Kanjee Pathak, Girls’ School, Gondal. ↑
421 Mr. J. K. Upaddhyaya, Pātanvāo. ↑
422 Mr. Raju Ramjee Kanjee Pathak, Gondal. ↑
and digestive.—K. D. Desai. ↑
400 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
401 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
402 Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
403 The Schoolmaster of Luvaria. ↑
404 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
405 The Schoolmaster of Songadh. ↑
406 Talakshi, Dharashi, Sayala. ↑
407 Mr. L. H. Jadow, Vasāwad. ↑
408 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
409 Among the Hindus it is customary for those whose children do not live to keep their children
unshaved for a certain number of years, after which the children are taken to a holy place and shaved
there for the first time. The temple of Ranchhodji at Dākor is a favourite place for such ceremonies.
—K. D. Desai. ↑
410 Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpur. ↑
411 The Schoolmaster of Charadwa. ↑
412 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
413 The seven nether worlds are Atāl, Vital, Sutal, Talātal, Mahātal, Rasātal, and Pātāl. ↑
414 In an ocean, as some say—D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
415 Mr. Jethalal Devji, Bantwā. ↑
416 Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
417 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank, and Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
418 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad. ↑
419 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
420 Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi, and Mr. Raju Ramjee Kanjee Pathak, Girls’ School, Gondal. ↑
421 Mr. J. K. Upaddhyaya, Pātanvāo. ↑
422 Mr. Raju Ramjee Kanjee Pathak, Gondal. ↑
Page 126
423 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
424 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
425 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
426 The river is, therefore, regarded as his daughter, and is called Jahnavi. ↑
427 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
428 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
429 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
430 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
431 The Schoolmaster of Upleta. ↑
432 The waving of lights to and fro before an object of worship. ↑
433 The Schoolmaster of Kolki and the Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala. ↑
434 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
435 Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
436 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
437 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
438 This happens every twelfth year. The year of Sinhastha i.e. the year when Brihaspati stands in
the Sinha-rāshi, is the only one in which marriages among the Kadvâ Kunbis take place; and for this
reason the smallest children in the community, sometimes even those who are in the womb, are
married in this year.—Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
439 The Schoolmaster of Upleta. ↑
440 The Schoolmaster of Luvaria. ↑
441 Mr. L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia. ↑
442 Mr K. D. Desai. ↑
443 The Saraswati is believed to be present, but invisible at this spot. ↑
444 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
445 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
446 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwah. ↑
447 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank, Vanod, and Kolki. ↑
424 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
425 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
426 The river is, therefore, regarded as his daughter, and is called Jahnavi. ↑
427 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
428 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
429 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
430 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
431 The Schoolmaster of Upleta. ↑
432 The waving of lights to and fro before an object of worship. ↑
433 The Schoolmaster of Kolki and the Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala. ↑
434 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
435 Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani. ↑
436 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
437 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. ↑
438 This happens every twelfth year. The year of Sinhastha i.e. the year when Brihaspati stands in
the Sinha-rāshi, is the only one in which marriages among the Kadvâ Kunbis take place; and for this
reason the smallest children in the community, sometimes even those who are in the womb, are
married in this year.—Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
439 The Schoolmaster of Upleta. ↑
440 The Schoolmaster of Luvaria. ↑
441 Mr. L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia. ↑
442 Mr K. D. Desai. ↑
443 The Saraswati is believed to be present, but invisible at this spot. ↑
444 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
445 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
446 Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwah. ↑
447 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank, Vanod, and Kolki. ↑
Page 127
448 Mr. M. R. Raval. ↑
449 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
450 The Schoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka. ↑
451 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
452 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
453 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank, and the Headmistress of Gondal Girls’ School. ↑
454 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
455 See P. 42. ↑
456 Mr. M. H. Raval, Vanod. ↑
457 Mr. M. S. Shah, Zinzuwādā. ↑
458 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
459 The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala. ↑
460 Mr. L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia. ↑
461 The Schoolmaster of Khirasarā. ↑
462 The Schoolmaster of Lewaria. ↑
463 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
464 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
465 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
466 The Schoolmaster of Moti Murad. ↑
467 The Schoolmaster of Gondal Taluka. ↑
468 The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala. ↑
469 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
470 There are several species of bhuts and prets—ghosts and goblins—thus, for instance, Jalachar,
i.e., those who live in water; Agnichar, i.e., those found in fire; Ehuchar, i.e., those hovering on the
earth; Gaganachar, i.e., those moving in ethereal regions; Manushyachar, i.e., those moving among
men; Khagachar or those moving among birds; and Pashuchar, i.e., those living among beasts.—N.
D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
449 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
450 The Schoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka. ↑
451 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
452 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
453 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank, and the Headmistress of Gondal Girls’ School. ↑
454 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
455 See P. 42. ↑
456 Mr. M. H. Raval, Vanod. ↑
457 Mr. M. S. Shah, Zinzuwādā. ↑
458 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
459 The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala. ↑
460 Mr. L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia. ↑
461 The Schoolmaster of Khirasarā. ↑
462 The Schoolmaster of Lewaria. ↑
463 Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
464 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
465 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
466 The Schoolmaster of Moti Murad. ↑
467 The Schoolmaster of Gondal Taluka. ↑
468 The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala. ↑
469 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
470 There are several species of bhuts and prets—ghosts and goblins—thus, for instance, Jalachar,
i.e., those who live in water; Agnichar, i.e., those found in fire; Ehuchar, i.e., those hovering on the
earth; Gaganachar, i.e., those moving in ethereal regions; Manushyachar, i.e., those moving among
men; Khagachar or those moving among birds; and Pashuchar, i.e., those living among beasts.—N.
D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
Page 128
471 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank; the Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala and the Schoolmaster of Limbdi
Taluka. ↑
472 Mr. L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia. ↑
473 Vide page 1. ↑
474 The Schoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka and the Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala. ↑
475 The Schoolmaster of Movaiya. ↑
476 N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
477 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
478 N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
479 The Schoolmasters of Vanod and Kolki. ↑
480 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
481 H. M. Bhatt, Ganod. ↑
482 A mixture of milk, curds, ghi, honey and sugar. ↑
483 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Pātanvāv. ↑
484 Vide page 29. ↑
485 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
486 Rich persons use silver or golden spades and hoes when turning up the first clod of earth. ↑
487 The Schoolmasters of Ganod and Dadvi. ↑
488 B. K. Dave, Kotda Sangani. ↑
489 The schoolmasters of Limbdi and Chhatrasa. ↑
490 It is a common practice to bring a small circular piece of an earthen vessel from the
neighbourhood of such a well and to hang it by a piece of string round the neck of a child to cure it of
hadakhi-udharas or strong cough.—K. D. Desai. ↑
491 The Schoolmaster of Upleta. ↑
492 The schoolmaster of Mota Devalia. ↑
493 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
494 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
495 The Schoolmaster of Pātanvāv. ↑
Taluka. ↑
472 Mr. L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia. ↑
473 Vide page 1. ↑
474 The Schoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka and the Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala. ↑
475 The Schoolmaster of Movaiya. ↑
476 N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
477 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
478 N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
479 The Schoolmasters of Vanod and Kolki. ↑
480 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
481 H. M. Bhatt, Ganod. ↑
482 A mixture of milk, curds, ghi, honey and sugar. ↑
483 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Pātanvāv. ↑
484 Vide page 29. ↑
485 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
486 Rich persons use silver or golden spades and hoes when turning up the first clod of earth. ↑
487 The Schoolmasters of Ganod and Dadvi. ↑
488 B. K. Dave, Kotda Sangani. ↑
489 The schoolmasters of Limbdi and Chhatrasa. ↑
490 It is a common practice to bring a small circular piece of an earthen vessel from the
neighbourhood of such a well and to hang it by a piece of string round the neck of a child to cure it of
hadakhi-udharas or strong cough.—K. D. Desai. ↑
491 The Schoolmaster of Upleta. ↑
492 The schoolmaster of Mota Devalia. ↑
493 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
494 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
495 The Schoolmaster of Pātanvāv. ↑
Page 129
496 G. K. Bhatt, Songadh. ↑
497 Pampa is described in the Rāmāyana as being situated in the Dandaka forest, i.e., in the Deccan,
and seems to be the modern Hampi in Bellary district. ↑
498 Perhaps the one in Sidhapur—K. T. G. ↑
499 Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
500 The Shastri of Jetpur, Pathashala. ↑
501 The Schoolmasters of Dadvi and Kolki. ↑
502 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
503 H. M. Bhatt, Ganod. ↑
504 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
505 Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
506 The Schoolmaster of Khirasara. ↑
507 N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
508 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Hālār. ↑
509 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank, Moti Parabadi, and Luvaria. ↑
510 The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa. ↑
511 All mountains once possessed wings and caused much havoc when they flew about. So Indra
clipped their wings with his thunderbolt and they are lying motionless since.—K. D. Desai. ↑
512 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
513 Three-fourths of a gāu = one mile. ↑
514 The Shastri of Jetpur, Pathashala. ↑
515 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
516 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
517 The Schoolmasters of Kotda-Sangani, Vanod, and Luvaria. ↑
518 After the conflagration of Lakshabhuvan, the Pāndavas escaped to the Hidimba forest. There
one day, in his excursions, Bhīma came across the giantess Hidimbā sitting on a see-saw. On her
offering to marry him if he succeeded in swinging her see-saw, he is said to have swung it so high in
the skies that she could even see the stars during daytime.—K. D. Desai. ↑
497 Pampa is described in the Rāmāyana as being situated in the Dandaka forest, i.e., in the Deccan,
and seems to be the modern Hampi in Bellary district. ↑
498 Perhaps the one in Sidhapur—K. T. G. ↑
499 Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
500 The Shastri of Jetpur, Pathashala. ↑
501 The Schoolmasters of Dadvi and Kolki. ↑
502 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
503 H. M. Bhatt, Ganod. ↑
504 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
505 Jairam Vasaram, Jodia. ↑
506 The Schoolmaster of Khirasara. ↑
507 N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
508 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Hālār. ↑
509 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank, Moti Parabadi, and Luvaria. ↑
510 The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa. ↑
511 All mountains once possessed wings and caused much havoc when they flew about. So Indra
clipped their wings with his thunderbolt and they are lying motionless since.—K. D. Desai. ↑
512 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
513 Three-fourths of a gāu = one mile. ↑
514 The Shastri of Jetpur, Pathashala. ↑
515 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
516 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
517 The Schoolmasters of Kotda-Sangani, Vanod, and Luvaria. ↑
518 After the conflagration of Lakshabhuvan, the Pāndavas escaped to the Hidimba forest. There
one day, in his excursions, Bhīma came across the giantess Hidimbā sitting on a see-saw. On her
offering to marry him if he succeeded in swinging her see-saw, he is said to have swung it so high in
the skies that she could even see the stars during daytime.—K. D. Desai. ↑
Page 130
519 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
520 The Schoolmaster of Pātanvāv. ↑
521 The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala. ↑
522 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
523 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
524 R. B. Dave. ↑
525 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
526 The Schoolmaster of Luvaria. ↑
527 M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
528 The earth is believed to be flat like a dish and to consist of seven large islands, which are
compared to the seven petals of a lotus. ↑
529 One yojan = eight miles. ↑
530 M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
531 A magic tree, supposed to grant all desires. ↑
532 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
533 The Schoolmaster of Limbdi. ↑
534 The Schoolmaster of Upleta. ↑
535 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Sānkā. ↑
536 The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwādā. ↑
537 Fire used for the purposes of smoking. ↑
538 The Schoolmaster of Mendarda. ↑
539 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Gondal Taluka. ↑
540 The Shastri of Jetpur. ↑
541 K. D. Desai. ↑
542 N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
543 Offering oblations to gods by throwing ghi into the consecrated fire. ↑
544 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
520 The Schoolmaster of Pātanvāv. ↑
521 The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala. ↑
522 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
523 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
524 R. B. Dave. ↑
525 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
526 The Schoolmaster of Luvaria. ↑
527 M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
528 The earth is believed to be flat like a dish and to consist of seven large islands, which are
compared to the seven petals of a lotus. ↑
529 One yojan = eight miles. ↑
530 M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
531 A magic tree, supposed to grant all desires. ↑
532 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
533 The Schoolmaster of Limbdi. ↑
534 The Schoolmaster of Upleta. ↑
535 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Sānkā. ↑
536 The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwādā. ↑
537 Fire used for the purposes of smoking. ↑
538 The Schoolmaster of Mendarda. ↑
539 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Gondal Taluka. ↑
540 The Shastri of Jetpur. ↑
541 K. D. Desai. ↑
542 N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
543 Offering oblations to gods by throwing ghi into the consecrated fire. ↑
544 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
Page 131
545 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
546 The Schoolmaster of Upleta. ↑
547 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad and K. D. Desai. ↑
548 A flat round loaf, about two to four inches in diameter, prepared from the flour of uḍad. ↑
549 Coarse wheat-flour fried in ghi and sweetened with sugar or molasses. ↑
550 Bean-flour, generally of gram or peas, is allowed to remain in water with spices, until the paste
acquires a sufficient degree of consistency, when it is rolled into small biscuit-sized balls and fried in
sweet oil. ↑
551 K. D. Desai. ↑
552 M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
553 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad. ↑
554 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
555 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā, and the Schoolmaster of Vanod. ↑
556 The Schoolmaster of Mota Dewalia. According to him, the same vow is also observed to bring
about a rainfall. ↑
557 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
558 The Schoolmaster of Vanod. ↑
559 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
560 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
561 The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwâdâ. ↑
562 The Schoolmaster of Mendarda. ↑
563 The story tells how a woman and her daughter-in-law, intending to observe this vow, killed and
cooked a calf by mistake; covered with shame, they locked themselves up in their house, and refused
admission to the neighbours, to whom they confessed their crime. On searching for the remains of the
calf, the neighbours discovered that it had been miraculously restored to life.—R. E. E. ↑
564 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
565 The Schoolmasters of Vanod and Kolki. ↑
566 Some observe the Nāgapanchami on the fifth day of the bright half of Bhādrapad. ↑
567 A mixture of rice and pulse treated with spices and cooked in water. ↑
546 The Schoolmaster of Upleta. ↑
547 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad and K. D. Desai. ↑
548 A flat round loaf, about two to four inches in diameter, prepared from the flour of uḍad. ↑
549 Coarse wheat-flour fried in ghi and sweetened with sugar or molasses. ↑
550 Bean-flour, generally of gram or peas, is allowed to remain in water with spices, until the paste
acquires a sufficient degree of consistency, when it is rolled into small biscuit-sized balls and fried in
sweet oil. ↑
551 K. D. Desai. ↑
552 M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
553 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad. ↑
554 D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
555 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā, and the Schoolmaster of Vanod. ↑
556 The Schoolmaster of Mota Dewalia. According to him, the same vow is also observed to bring
about a rainfall. ↑
557 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
558 The Schoolmaster of Vanod. ↑
559 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
560 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
561 The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwâdâ. ↑
562 The Schoolmaster of Mendarda. ↑
563 The story tells how a woman and her daughter-in-law, intending to observe this vow, killed and
cooked a calf by mistake; covered with shame, they locked themselves up in their house, and refused
admission to the neighbours, to whom they confessed their crime. On searching for the remains of the
calf, the neighbours discovered that it had been miraculously restored to life.—R. E. E. ↑
564 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
565 The Schoolmasters of Vanod and Kolki. ↑
566 Some observe the Nāgapanchami on the fifth day of the bright half of Bhādrapad. ↑
567 A mixture of rice and pulse treated with spices and cooked in water. ↑
Page 132
568 A preparation of nine handfuls of wheat. ↑
569 The Schoolmaster of Surel. ↑
570 Vide Page 24. ↑
571 A kind of rice grown without ploughing. ↑
572 The Schoolmaster of Jasdan. ↑
573 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
574 The mother of the bride, accompanied by other women who sing songs on the way, carries an
iron lamp to the village-boundary, and from that place the party bring earth to erect the altars on
which sacrificial fires are burnt. The lamp is called lāman-divo and the earth which is brought is
called ukardi.—K. D. Desai. ↑
575 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
576 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
577 The Schoolmaster of Zaramā-Zāravā. ↑
578 The Schoolmaster of Kolki and the Head-Mistress of Rajkot Civil Station Girls’ School. ↑
579 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
580 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
581 The Schoolmaster of Surel. ↑
582 Vide question 10. ↑
583 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
584 The art of taking the life of a person by means of a magical process called muth-māravi. The
victim of this process suddenly vomits blood and loses his life, unless the evil influence is
counteracted by another sorcerer.—B. K. Dave, Kotda Sangani. ↑
585 Causing a person to leave his business by making him disgusted with it, by means of magical
spells. ↑
586 The art of so influencing the conduct of a person as to bring him perfectly under control. ↑
587 Bewildering an enemy by means of magical charms. ↑
588 The suppression of any force or feeling by magical means. ↑
589 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
590 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
569 The Schoolmaster of Surel. ↑
570 Vide Page 24. ↑
571 A kind of rice grown without ploughing. ↑
572 The Schoolmaster of Jasdan. ↑
573 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
574 The mother of the bride, accompanied by other women who sing songs on the way, carries an
iron lamp to the village-boundary, and from that place the party bring earth to erect the altars on
which sacrificial fires are burnt. The lamp is called lāman-divo and the earth which is brought is
called ukardi.—K. D. Desai. ↑
575 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
576 Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot. ↑
577 The Schoolmaster of Zaramā-Zāravā. ↑
578 The Schoolmaster of Kolki and the Head-Mistress of Rajkot Civil Station Girls’ School. ↑
579 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
580 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
581 The Schoolmaster of Surel. ↑
582 Vide question 10. ↑
583 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka. ↑
584 The art of taking the life of a person by means of a magical process called muth-māravi. The
victim of this process suddenly vomits blood and loses his life, unless the evil influence is
counteracted by another sorcerer.—B. K. Dave, Kotda Sangani. ↑
585 Causing a person to leave his business by making him disgusted with it, by means of magical
spells. ↑
586 The art of so influencing the conduct of a person as to bring him perfectly under control. ↑
587 Bewildering an enemy by means of magical charms. ↑
588 The suppression of any force or feeling by magical means. ↑
589 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
590 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
Page 133
591 Mr. N. M. Dave, Sānkā. ↑
592 The Schoolmaster of Moti Murad. ↑
593 Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda Sangani. ↑
594 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
595 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
596 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Songadh. ↑
597 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad. ↑
598 The Schoolmasters of Upleta and Aman. ↑
599 Name of a medicinal preparation. ↑
600 The Schoolmaster of Āman. ↑
601 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Halar. ↑
602 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
603 The Shastris of Jetpur and Bhayavadar. ↑
604 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
605 The Schoolmaster of Chok. ↑
606 But the virtue of influencing rain belongs to the Shiva linga and to the idol of Harshadh, not
because they are made of any particular kind of stone, but because they represent certain deities. ↑
607 The Schoolmaster of Pātanvāv. ↑
608 Rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar. ↑
609 Mr. K. D. Desai and the Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
610 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
611 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
612 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Ganod and the Mistress of Rajkot Civil Station Girls’
School. ↑
613 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa. ↑
614 The Schoolmaster of Sayala. Perhaps it is the accumulation of sin in this world that brings down
the saints of heaven in human form. The earth is unable to bear too much sin and would soon come to
an end if the balance between virtue and sin were not maintained. It is for this purpose that saints are
592 The Schoolmaster of Moti Murad. ↑
593 Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda Sangani. ↑
594 Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara. ↑
595 Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank. ↑
596 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Songadh. ↑
597 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad. ↑
598 The Schoolmasters of Upleta and Aman. ↑
599 Name of a medicinal preparation. ↑
600 The Schoolmaster of Āman. ↑
601 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Halar. ↑
602 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
603 The Shastris of Jetpur and Bhayavadar. ↑
604 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
605 The Schoolmaster of Chok. ↑
606 But the virtue of influencing rain belongs to the Shiva linga and to the idol of Harshadh, not
because they are made of any particular kind of stone, but because they represent certain deities. ↑
607 The Schoolmaster of Pātanvāv. ↑
608 Rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar. ↑
609 Mr. K. D. Desai and the Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
610 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
611 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
612 The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Ganod and the Mistress of Rajkot Civil Station Girls’
School. ↑
613 Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa. ↑
614 The Schoolmaster of Sayala. Perhaps it is the accumulation of sin in this world that brings down
the saints of heaven in human form. The earth is unable to bear too much sin and would soon come to
an end if the balance between virtue and sin were not maintained. It is for this purpose that saints are
Page 134
born in this world and add to the store of merit on earth, by preaching righteousness to people and by
leading a virtuous life.—K. D. Desai. ↑
615 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
616 The Schoolmasters of Rajpara, Vasawad, Upleta, and Khirasara. ↑
617 The Schoolmasters of Pātanvāv and Sultānpur. ↑
618 It is an act of merit to repeat the name of Rām, the seventh incarnation of Vishnu. As the death
of a righteous person is due to the growth of sin in this world, people utter the name of Rām in order
to atone for that sin. The name is repeated as long as the shooting star is visible. Vaishnavas recite the
name of Krishna.—K. D. Desai.
It is also said that the name of Rām or Krishna is repeated, because the falling star enters the Court of
God Bhagwān.—The Schoolmaster of Lākhāpadar. ↑
619 The Schoolmaster of Sultanpur. ↑
620 The Schoolmaster of Charādwā. ↑
621 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad. ↑
622 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
623 (I.e.) with a tail. Chhogā is the end of a turban, which is allowed to hang down the back. ↑
624 The Schoolmaster of Songadh. ↑
leading a virtuous life.—K. D. Desai. ↑
615 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
616 The Schoolmasters of Rajpara, Vasawad, Upleta, and Khirasara. ↑
617 The Schoolmasters of Pātanvāv and Sultānpur. ↑
618 It is an act of merit to repeat the name of Rām, the seventh incarnation of Vishnu. As the death
of a righteous person is due to the growth of sin in this world, people utter the name of Rām in order
to atone for that sin. The name is repeated as long as the shooting star is visible. Vaishnavas recite the
name of Krishna.—K. D. Desai.
It is also said that the name of Rām or Krishna is repeated, because the falling star enters the Court of
God Bhagwān.—The Schoolmaster of Lākhāpadar. ↑
619 The Schoolmaster of Sultanpur. ↑
620 The Schoolmaster of Charādwā. ↑
621 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad. ↑
622 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
623 (I.e.) with a tail. Chhogā is the end of a turban, which is allowed to hang down the back. ↑
624 The Schoolmaster of Songadh. ↑
Page 135
Page 136
CHAPTER II.
Page 137
HEROIC GODLINGS
Several stories, in addition to the legend of the Rāmāyana, are related of the
birth of the god Hanumān. Dasharatha, king of Ayodhyā, being childless,
once performed a sacrifice with the hope of thereby obtaining male issue.
On the completion of the ceremony a heavenly being rose out of the
sacrificial fire and presented the king with a celestial preparation, called
pāyas, which he directed the king to give to his wives if he desired a son.
The king divided the divine gift among his three queens; but the share of
one of them was snatched away by an eagle. It was dropped into the hands
of Anjanī, who was herself childless, and was practising austerities for the
sake of obtaining a son. On partaking of the pāyas, Anjanī conceived, and
the son born to her was afterwards known as the god Hanumān.
Another story relates how Anjanī was one of those persons who helped
Indra in his evil designs on Ahalyā, the wife of Gautama. She had on that
account been cursed by Gautama, and threatened with the birth of a
fatherless child. To prevent the curse from taking effect, Anjanī buried
herself in the ground as far as her waist, and began to observe religious
austerities in the hope of propitiating Shiva. The latter was pleased with her
devotion, and sent her a mantra through Nārada, who was ordered to
deliver it in her ear. Vāyu, the god of wind, forced the mantra into her
womb, and she conceived a son named Hanumān. This son had the form of
a monkey, because, at the time of conception, Anjanī happened to behold a
monkey, named Keshi, on a neighbouring tree.
Hanumān is a chiranjīva, i.e., one of those seven1 persons who are to live
for ever and are therefore considered to be immortal. He is represented as
possessed of miraculous strength, and his body is vajramaya, i.e.,
adamantine. When Sītā was carried off by Rāvana, it was he who crossed
the sea and brought news about her to Rāma. When Ahi and Mahi, two
cousins of Rāvana, carried off Rāma and Lakshmana by magic and decided
to offer them as victims to their favourite goddess Panoti, Hanumān entered
Several stories, in addition to the legend of the Rāmāyana, are related of the
birth of the god Hanumān. Dasharatha, king of Ayodhyā, being childless,
once performed a sacrifice with the hope of thereby obtaining male issue.
On the completion of the ceremony a heavenly being rose out of the
sacrificial fire and presented the king with a celestial preparation, called
pāyas, which he directed the king to give to his wives if he desired a son.
The king divided the divine gift among his three queens; but the share of
one of them was snatched away by an eagle. It was dropped into the hands
of Anjanī, who was herself childless, and was practising austerities for the
sake of obtaining a son. On partaking of the pāyas, Anjanī conceived, and
the son born to her was afterwards known as the god Hanumān.
Another story relates how Anjanī was one of those persons who helped
Indra in his evil designs on Ahalyā, the wife of Gautama. She had on that
account been cursed by Gautama, and threatened with the birth of a
fatherless child. To prevent the curse from taking effect, Anjanī buried
herself in the ground as far as her waist, and began to observe religious
austerities in the hope of propitiating Shiva. The latter was pleased with her
devotion, and sent her a mantra through Nārada, who was ordered to
deliver it in her ear. Vāyu, the god of wind, forced the mantra into her
womb, and she conceived a son named Hanumān. This son had the form of
a monkey, because, at the time of conception, Anjanī happened to behold a
monkey, named Keshi, on a neighbouring tree.
Hanumān is a chiranjīva, i.e., one of those seven1 persons who are to live
for ever and are therefore considered to be immortal. He is represented as
possessed of miraculous strength, and his body is vajramaya, i.e.,
adamantine. When Sītā was carried off by Rāvana, it was he who crossed
the sea and brought news about her to Rāma. When Ahi and Mahi, two
cousins of Rāvana, carried off Rāma and Lakshmana by magic and decided
to offer them as victims to their favourite goddess Panoti, Hanumān entered
Page 138
the temple of Panoti, crushed her under his feet, and released Rāma and
Lakshmana. Hence he is known as the conqueror of Panoti. After the death
of Rāvana, Hanumān was left to guard the kingdom of Lankā, which was
conferred by Rāma on Bibhīshana, the brother of Rāvana.2
Hanumān is an incarnation of one of the eleven Rudras,34 is a brahmachāri
(i.e., one who has taken the vow of celibacy), a powerful and benevolent
deity, and a giver of many blessings. At the same time, he is considered to
be the master-deity of all bhuts, prets, pishāchas, (ghosts, goblins, fiends),
of dākans (witches), shakans, chudel, vantri, of the forty-nine virs (male
fiends), of the fifty-two vetāls, of yakshas and yakshinis and of all evil
spirits in general, who are believed to obey his commands.5 Vows are
observed in honour of Hanumān if a person is possessed by a bhut or a pret,
or if he is scared by a jhapat (sudden encounter) with a devil, or if he
happens to step inadvertently within the kundalan6 of an utār. Persons who
are possessed by evil spirits are exorcised by the bhuvas by reciting the
zanzira mantra in honour of Hanumān.7
Kāli-Chaudas, i.e., the 14th day of dark half of Ashvin8 is considered to be
the most favourable day for practising the black art; and the god Hanumān
is accordingly worshipped with much ceremony by bhuvas on that day.5
All bhuts, prets and spirits are thus believed to obey the commands of the
god Hanumān. In the course of a sādhana (i.e. the process of procuring the
fulfilment of certain desires through the favour and by the agency of spirits)
the latter are conjured in the name of Hanumān, so that the sādhana may
not prove inefficacious. For this purpose the Hanumān raksha mantra is
repeated one hundred and eight times before the image of the god, the
devotee remaining standing all the time. A lamp of clarified butter is also
lighted, and frankincense is burnt. The mantra runs as follows:—‘Om namo
Hanumān bālā ghatapīdam, pānikā rakhavālā, lohaki kothadi, bajarkā tālā,
deva-dānava-kumār, nikal Hanumān āsan, Mahādev bāsan, Hanumān
hathēla, bajarkā khīlā.’ It is neither pure Sanskrit, nor Gujarāti, nor
Hindustāni, but roughly it means:—‘Bow to the young Hanumān, the
tormentor of ghata, the guardian of water, the iron-safe, the lock of vajra,
Lakshmana. Hence he is known as the conqueror of Panoti. After the death
of Rāvana, Hanumān was left to guard the kingdom of Lankā, which was
conferred by Rāma on Bibhīshana, the brother of Rāvana.2
Hanumān is an incarnation of one of the eleven Rudras,34 is a brahmachāri
(i.e., one who has taken the vow of celibacy), a powerful and benevolent
deity, and a giver of many blessings. At the same time, he is considered to
be the master-deity of all bhuts, prets, pishāchas, (ghosts, goblins, fiends),
of dākans (witches), shakans, chudel, vantri, of the forty-nine virs (male
fiends), of the fifty-two vetāls, of yakshas and yakshinis and of all evil
spirits in general, who are believed to obey his commands.5 Vows are
observed in honour of Hanumān if a person is possessed by a bhut or a pret,
or if he is scared by a jhapat (sudden encounter) with a devil, or if he
happens to step inadvertently within the kundalan6 of an utār. Persons who
are possessed by evil spirits are exorcised by the bhuvas by reciting the
zanzira mantra in honour of Hanumān.7
Kāli-Chaudas, i.e., the 14th day of dark half of Ashvin8 is considered to be
the most favourable day for practising the black art; and the god Hanumān
is accordingly worshipped with much ceremony by bhuvas on that day.5
All bhuts, prets and spirits are thus believed to obey the commands of the
god Hanumān. In the course of a sādhana (i.e. the process of procuring the
fulfilment of certain desires through the favour and by the agency of spirits)
the latter are conjured in the name of Hanumān, so that the sādhana may
not prove inefficacious. For this purpose the Hanumān raksha mantra is
repeated one hundred and eight times before the image of the god, the
devotee remaining standing all the time. A lamp of clarified butter is also
lighted, and frankincense is burnt. The mantra runs as follows:—‘Om namo
Hanumān bālā ghatapīdam, pānikā rakhavālā, lohaki kothadi, bajarkā tālā,
deva-dānava-kumār, nikal Hanumān āsan, Mahādev bāsan, Hanumān
hathēla, bajarkā khīlā.’ It is neither pure Sanskrit, nor Gujarāti, nor
Hindustāni, but roughly it means:—‘Bow to the young Hanumān, the
tormentor of ghata, the guardian of water, the iron-safe, the lock of vajra,
Page 139
the son of the gods and the demons. Take your seat, the receptacle of
Mahadev, O stubborn god, O Nail of adamant.’ After the repetition of the
mantra, four nails are driven into the four corners of the seat of the votary,
and it is believed that the sādhana is thus rendered sure of success.9
The god Hanumān is sometimes worshipped when a serious epidemic is to
be warded off. The usual mode of propitiating him in such cases, and also in
exorcising spirits, is to pour red lead and oil over his image, to make an
offering of udad seeds (Phaseolus radiatus) and molasses, and to invest the
image with a wreath of one hundred and eight flowers of ānkadā10 or of as
many leaves or berries of the same plant.11
The influence of the god is believed to be so powerful in some places that it
is said that a bhut or a pishācha is at once exorcised from the body of a
person who observes certain ceremonies there. In some places the mere
sight of the image of the god has the same effect, and it is believed that
ghosts shriek and fly from the bodies of possessed persons, if these visit the
images of Hanumān. In Kodolia, about half a mile to the west of Lilapur in
Gujarāt, there is a temple of Hanumān where persons suffering from fever
go on a Saturday, and take a meal before 2 p. m. at which time the god goes
out to graze his cows. This proceeding is believed to work a cure in cases of
fever and is called anagah.12 A mere glance at the temple of Hanumān at
Khandia and Saranghur, or of that image which is known as ‘Bhīd-bhanjan,’
is sufficient to drive out evil spirits from the bodies of possessed persons.13
The same virtue is attributed to the images of Hanumān at Bhurakhia, near
Lathi and at Nariana, near Dhrangadhra, in Jhalavar,14 Kathiawar.14
There are certain peculiar conjunctions of planets, which if they appear in a
person’s horoscope, always bring him misfortunes. In such circumstances,
the person is said to be under the influence of panoti.15 Such influence lasts
for a period varying from one year to seven years and a half.16 When the
planet Shani (Saturn) enters the 1st, 11th, or the 12th rāshi in relation to a
person, the latter is said to be affected by sādāsāti-panoti, i.e., panoti
extending over seven years and a half.17 The panoti enters the life of such a
person with feet either of gold, silver, copper or iron: and in most cases the
Mahadev, O stubborn god, O Nail of adamant.’ After the repetition of the
mantra, four nails are driven into the four corners of the seat of the votary,
and it is believed that the sādhana is thus rendered sure of success.9
The god Hanumān is sometimes worshipped when a serious epidemic is to
be warded off. The usual mode of propitiating him in such cases, and also in
exorcising spirits, is to pour red lead and oil over his image, to make an
offering of udad seeds (Phaseolus radiatus) and molasses, and to invest the
image with a wreath of one hundred and eight flowers of ānkadā10 or of as
many leaves or berries of the same plant.11
The influence of the god is believed to be so powerful in some places that it
is said that a bhut or a pishācha is at once exorcised from the body of a
person who observes certain ceremonies there. In some places the mere
sight of the image of the god has the same effect, and it is believed that
ghosts shriek and fly from the bodies of possessed persons, if these visit the
images of Hanumān. In Kodolia, about half a mile to the west of Lilapur in
Gujarāt, there is a temple of Hanumān where persons suffering from fever
go on a Saturday, and take a meal before 2 p. m. at which time the god goes
out to graze his cows. This proceeding is believed to work a cure in cases of
fever and is called anagah.12 A mere glance at the temple of Hanumān at
Khandia and Saranghur, or of that image which is known as ‘Bhīd-bhanjan,’
is sufficient to drive out evil spirits from the bodies of possessed persons.13
The same virtue is attributed to the images of Hanumān at Bhurakhia, near
Lathi and at Nariana, near Dhrangadhra, in Jhalavar,14 Kathiawar.14
There are certain peculiar conjunctions of planets, which if they appear in a
person’s horoscope, always bring him misfortunes. In such circumstances,
the person is said to be under the influence of panoti.15 Such influence lasts
for a period varying from one year to seven years and a half.16 When the
planet Shani (Saturn) enters the 1st, 11th, or the 12th rāshi in relation to a
person, the latter is said to be affected by sādāsāti-panoti, i.e., panoti
extending over seven years and a half.17 The panoti enters the life of such a
person with feet either of gold, silver, copper or iron: and in most cases the
Page 140
result is disastrous. If the panoti affects the head of a person, he loses his
wits; if it affects the heart, it takes away his wealth; when it affects the feet,
it brings bodily ailments. In order to counteract the evil effects of panoti,
people worship Hanumān as the god who crushed the malignant goddess
Panoti under his feet. On Saturdays red lead and oil, adad, molasses are
offered to the image of the god.16 Frankincense is burnt, a lamp is lighted,
and a wreath of ānkadā flowers is sometimes dedicated.18 A fast is observed
on such days; and sometimes the services of a Brahman are engaged to
recite verses in honour of the god.17
There is a belief that Hanumān cries out once in twelve years, and those
men who happen to hear him are transformed into hijadās (eunuchs).16
Oil which has been poured over the image of Hanumān and caught in a
vessel is called naman. It is sometimes carried in a vātki (a small metal cup)
and is burnt to produce anjan (i.e., soot used as collyrium). This anjan is
believed to improve the eyesight, and to protect a person from the influence
of evil spirits.14 There is a saying in Gujarāti that ‘Kāli-chaudasno ānjyo,
ane koine na jāy gānjio’. i.e., a person using anjan on Kālichaudas day
cannot be foiled by anyone.19
Of the days of the week, Saturday is the most suitable for the worship of
Hanumān. Of all offerings, that of red lead and oil is the most acceptable to
him.19 When Hanumān was carrying the Drona mountain to the battlefield
before Lankā, he was wounded in the leg by an arrow from Bharata, the
brother of Rāma. The wound was healed by the application of red lead and
oil, and hence his predilection for these things.14 It is also said that after the
death of Rāvana and at the time of the coronation of Bibhīshana, Rāma
distributed prizes to all his monkey followers, when nothing was left for
Hanumān except red lead and oil.
Mostly Ānkadā flowers are used in worshipping Hanumān, but sometimes
Karan flowers also are made to serve the purpose.14 The favourite dishes of
Hanumān are maliddā20, churamā21 and vadān.2219 The usual naivedya is
wits; if it affects the heart, it takes away his wealth; when it affects the feet,
it brings bodily ailments. In order to counteract the evil effects of panoti,
people worship Hanumān as the god who crushed the malignant goddess
Panoti under his feet. On Saturdays red lead and oil, adad, molasses are
offered to the image of the god.16 Frankincense is burnt, a lamp is lighted,
and a wreath of ānkadā flowers is sometimes dedicated.18 A fast is observed
on such days; and sometimes the services of a Brahman are engaged to
recite verses in honour of the god.17
There is a belief that Hanumān cries out once in twelve years, and those
men who happen to hear him are transformed into hijadās (eunuchs).16
Oil which has been poured over the image of Hanumān and caught in a
vessel is called naman. It is sometimes carried in a vātki (a small metal cup)
and is burnt to produce anjan (i.e., soot used as collyrium). This anjan is
believed to improve the eyesight, and to protect a person from the influence
of evil spirits.14 There is a saying in Gujarāti that ‘Kāli-chaudasno ānjyo,
ane koine na jāy gānjio’. i.e., a person using anjan on Kālichaudas day
cannot be foiled by anyone.19
Of the days of the week, Saturday is the most suitable for the worship of
Hanumān. Of all offerings, that of red lead and oil is the most acceptable to
him.19 When Hanumān was carrying the Drona mountain to the battlefield
before Lankā, he was wounded in the leg by an arrow from Bharata, the
brother of Rāma. The wound was healed by the application of red lead and
oil, and hence his predilection for these things.14 It is also said that after the
death of Rāvana and at the time of the coronation of Bibhīshana, Rāma
distributed prizes to all his monkey followers, when nothing was left for
Hanumān except red lead and oil.
Mostly Ānkadā flowers are used in worshipping Hanumān, but sometimes
Karan flowers also are made to serve the purpose.14 The favourite dishes of
Hanumān are maliddā20, churamā21 and vadān.2219 The usual naivedya is
Page 141
malidda of Savāpāti, i.e., of wheat weighing about six pounds and a quarter
and vadān.23
Bhīma the second of the Pāndavas was begotten from Kunti by Vāyu, the
god of wind, and hence was called Vāyusuta. From his childhood he was
possessed of miraculous strength, and had a voracious appetite. Every day
he consumed 12 kalashis24 (or 192 maunds) of corn, and as much oil as is
yielded by 13 ghānis.24 He also required a maund and a quarter of betelnuts
after each dinner. These habits had procured him the name of Vrikodara,
i.e., wolf-bellied. He played a very important part in the Great War, and on
the last day of the battle smashed the thigh of Duryodhana with his
ponderous mace. In his early days he killed several demons including Baka
and Hidimba.25
Bhīma never took food without first worshipping Mahādev. On one
occasion no temple of Shiva could be found within easy distance, and in a
rage, Bhīma turned his bowl upside down and set it up as Mahādev. Such
was the first installation of Bhīmanāth Mahādev revered to this day by all
Hindus.25
Once upon a time Bhīma obstructed the stream of a river by laying himself
across it, when the river rose to the banks and submerged a temple of Shiva
near by. Shiva thereupon assumed the form of a lion and pretended to chase
Pārvatī in the guise of a cow. Bhīma, in his true Kshatriya spirit, instantly
rose from the water in order to save the cow from the lion. But the latter
gave Bhīma a blow on the shoulder with one of his paws, and instantly
transformed himself into a sage. After Bhīma had fruitlessly searched for
the lion for a long time, he was informed by the sage that it was he, Shiva,
who had assumed the form of a lion in order to rouse him from his position
across the river. Shiva then favoured him with a boon that the half of his
body which had received the blow would be turned into vajra (adamant).
On Bhīma’s request a further boon was granted to him that he should in
future be able to digest as much as he could eat without suffering
discomfort. Hence the proverb: Bhīma khāve shakuni aghe.26
and vadān.23
Bhīma the second of the Pāndavas was begotten from Kunti by Vāyu, the
god of wind, and hence was called Vāyusuta. From his childhood he was
possessed of miraculous strength, and had a voracious appetite. Every day
he consumed 12 kalashis24 (or 192 maunds) of corn, and as much oil as is
yielded by 13 ghānis.24 He also required a maund and a quarter of betelnuts
after each dinner. These habits had procured him the name of Vrikodara,
i.e., wolf-bellied. He played a very important part in the Great War, and on
the last day of the battle smashed the thigh of Duryodhana with his
ponderous mace. In his early days he killed several demons including Baka
and Hidimba.25
Bhīma never took food without first worshipping Mahādev. On one
occasion no temple of Shiva could be found within easy distance, and in a
rage, Bhīma turned his bowl upside down and set it up as Mahādev. Such
was the first installation of Bhīmanāth Mahādev revered to this day by all
Hindus.25
Once upon a time Bhīma obstructed the stream of a river by laying himself
across it, when the river rose to the banks and submerged a temple of Shiva
near by. Shiva thereupon assumed the form of a lion and pretended to chase
Pārvatī in the guise of a cow. Bhīma, in his true Kshatriya spirit, instantly
rose from the water in order to save the cow from the lion. But the latter
gave Bhīma a blow on the shoulder with one of his paws, and instantly
transformed himself into a sage. After Bhīma had fruitlessly searched for
the lion for a long time, he was informed by the sage that it was he, Shiva,
who had assumed the form of a lion in order to rouse him from his position
across the river. Shiva then favoured him with a boon that the half of his
body which had received the blow would be turned into vajra (adamant).
On Bhīma’s request a further boon was granted to him that he should in
future be able to digest as much as he could eat without suffering
discomfort. Hence the proverb: Bhīma khāve shakuni aghe.26
Page 142
It is said that Bhīma once played at navateri (lit. nine and thirteen), i.e., he
flung into the sky nine elephants with his right hand and thirteen with his
left. The corpses of these animals were afterwards brought down to earth by
Shukamuni to expiate king Janmejaya’s sin of Brahmahatyā (Brāhman-
slaughter).26
In his whole life-time Bhīma is said to have fasted only on one day, which
happened to be the eleventh day of the bright half of Jyeshtha and is now
called Bhīma-agiāras. On this day people who desire to be cured of
dyspepsia observe a strict fast, taking neither food nor water, and pass their
hands over their bellies repeating the name of Bhīma and also offer
cocoanuts to his image.27 On the night of Bhīma-agiāras, persons who are
anxious to obtain health, wealth and victory over their enemies, bathe the
image of Bhīma in water and panchāmrit28 and worship it according to the
prescribed ceremonies.29
In some places there are vāvs (or tanks) called Bhīma-vāvs which are said
to have been formed by the strokes of Bhīma, when playing gilli-dandā.30
There are huge images of Bhīma on Mount Pālitānā.31 There are many
places in different parts of India which possess such images and which are
believed to have been visited by the Pāndavas during their exile from
Hastinapur. The Pāndavas never attained the status of gods and there is no
systematic form of worship for them.25
Bhīshma, the uncle of the Kauravas and the Pāndavas, was an incarnation
of one of the Ashtāvasus32 and was the son of king Shantanu by Ganga. The
stories about Bhīshma are chiefly derived from the Mahābhārat, and need
not be repeated here. He is not regarded as a god and does not receive
systematic worship.33
A fast is observed on the eighth day of Māgh, the anniversary of the death
of Bhīshma. A dorā (a knotted piece of string) tied in the name of Bhīshma
is believed to cure fever.34 The Yantra (a mystical formula or diagram) of
Bhīshma is sometimes drawn on a piece of paper, water is poured over it,
and the water is offered to women in labour to drink, as likely to expedite
flung into the sky nine elephants with his right hand and thirteen with his
left. The corpses of these animals were afterwards brought down to earth by
Shukamuni to expiate king Janmejaya’s sin of Brahmahatyā (Brāhman-
slaughter).26
In his whole life-time Bhīma is said to have fasted only on one day, which
happened to be the eleventh day of the bright half of Jyeshtha and is now
called Bhīma-agiāras. On this day people who desire to be cured of
dyspepsia observe a strict fast, taking neither food nor water, and pass their
hands over their bellies repeating the name of Bhīma and also offer
cocoanuts to his image.27 On the night of Bhīma-agiāras, persons who are
anxious to obtain health, wealth and victory over their enemies, bathe the
image of Bhīma in water and panchāmrit28 and worship it according to the
prescribed ceremonies.29
In some places there are vāvs (or tanks) called Bhīma-vāvs which are said
to have been formed by the strokes of Bhīma, when playing gilli-dandā.30
There are huge images of Bhīma on Mount Pālitānā.31 There are many
places in different parts of India which possess such images and which are
believed to have been visited by the Pāndavas during their exile from
Hastinapur. The Pāndavas never attained the status of gods and there is no
systematic form of worship for them.25
Bhīshma, the uncle of the Kauravas and the Pāndavas, was an incarnation
of one of the Ashtāvasus32 and was the son of king Shantanu by Ganga. The
stories about Bhīshma are chiefly derived from the Mahābhārat, and need
not be repeated here. He is not regarded as a god and does not receive
systematic worship.33
A fast is observed on the eighth day of Māgh, the anniversary of the death
of Bhīshma. A dorā (a knotted piece of string) tied in the name of Bhīshma
is believed to cure fever.34 The Yantra (a mystical formula or diagram) of
Bhīshma is sometimes drawn on a piece of paper, water is poured over it,
and the water is offered to women in labour to drink, as likely to expedite
Page 143
delivery. Bhīshma-worship is supposed to facilitate the observance of the
Brahmacharya-vrat (the vow of celibacy) and to bestow heroism and
learning.35 Bhīshma is credited with having composed the well-known
poem, Bhīshma-stavarāj, which recites the glory of Krishna and shows the
way to attain salvation.36
There is a large temple of Ganpati near the eastern gates of Dhhank. It is
said that this Ganpati informed a goldsmith, by appearing in a dream, that
he was buried in a particular spot, and promised that a son would be born to
him if he raised a temple in honour of the god. The goldsmith satisfied the
wishes of the god and was soon relieved from the repeated taunt of the
vānziāpanā (i.e., the barrenness of his wife).37
The following tradition is connected with a place, about a mile from
Dhhank, called Dhhank-ni Fui. Dhhank was in ancient times a great city
and was known as Preh Pātan38. Once a bāvā (recluse), named
Dhundhalimal, came to reside with his chelā (disciple) in a cave on a
neighbouring hill. Every day the chelā went about the city begging alms for
himself and his guru; but nobody except a poor kumbhāran (a potter-
woman) ever gave him anything. So the chelā was obliged to cut and sell
fuel in order to obtain means of subsistence, although he did not mention
this fact to his guru. One day the guru noticed the growing baldness of his
disciple and on being questioned about it, the latter had to admit his
difficulties in earning a livelihood. The next day the bāvā decided to test the
charity of the neighbourhood, and went on a begging round in person. He
moved about the city from door to door, crying aloud ālek ālek, but nobody
except the kumbhār woman offered him so much as a handful of flour. He
then addressed the latter thus:—“Girl, this city is sinful and will shortly
meet with destruction. Fly, therefore, instantly with your family and never
turn your face towards the city in your flight”. Having thus warned the only
righteous person in the city, the bāvā returned to his cave where, after
reciting an incantation in high exasperation, he pronounced a terrible curse
for the destruction of the city ‘Let Pātan be buried and let māyā39 be
reduced to māti (dust).’ A whirlwind at once arose and destroyed the whole
city. The kumbhāran had already fled with her children; but she
Brahmacharya-vrat (the vow of celibacy) and to bestow heroism and
learning.35 Bhīshma is credited with having composed the well-known
poem, Bhīshma-stavarāj, which recites the glory of Krishna and shows the
way to attain salvation.36
There is a large temple of Ganpati near the eastern gates of Dhhank. It is
said that this Ganpati informed a goldsmith, by appearing in a dream, that
he was buried in a particular spot, and promised that a son would be born to
him if he raised a temple in honour of the god. The goldsmith satisfied the
wishes of the god and was soon relieved from the repeated taunt of the
vānziāpanā (i.e., the barrenness of his wife).37
The following tradition is connected with a place, about a mile from
Dhhank, called Dhhank-ni Fui. Dhhank was in ancient times a great city
and was known as Preh Pātan38. Once a bāvā (recluse), named
Dhundhalimal, came to reside with his chelā (disciple) in a cave on a
neighbouring hill. Every day the chelā went about the city begging alms for
himself and his guru; but nobody except a poor kumbhāran (a potter-
woman) ever gave him anything. So the chelā was obliged to cut and sell
fuel in order to obtain means of subsistence, although he did not mention
this fact to his guru. One day the guru noticed the growing baldness of his
disciple and on being questioned about it, the latter had to admit his
difficulties in earning a livelihood. The next day the bāvā decided to test the
charity of the neighbourhood, and went on a begging round in person. He
moved about the city from door to door, crying aloud ālek ālek, but nobody
except the kumbhār woman offered him so much as a handful of flour. He
then addressed the latter thus:—“Girl, this city is sinful and will shortly
meet with destruction. Fly, therefore, instantly with your family and never
turn your face towards the city in your flight”. Having thus warned the only
righteous person in the city, the bāvā returned to his cave where, after
reciting an incantation in high exasperation, he pronounced a terrible curse
for the destruction of the city ‘Let Pātan be buried and let māyā39 be
reduced to māti (dust).’ A whirlwind at once arose and destroyed the whole
city. The kumbhāran had already fled with her children; but she
Page 144
unfortunately happened to look back in her flight, in spite of the warning,
and she and her children were all turned into stones. In this form she can be
seen even to-day, with two of her children on her shoulders and leading the
other two.
To the south of the same village on the banks of a small lake are situated the
temples of Hinglaj Mātā and Kāmdev Mahādev. If there is a prospect of a
drought in any year, the people of the village make an offering of lāpsi to
the former deity in order to bring about a fall of rain. About two miles from
Dhhank there is a temple of Vikani, in whose honour vows are observed for
the cure of fractured bones of men and animals. Brāhmans are feasted at the
temple of Hanumān at Timbo, four miles away from Dhhank. At a distance
of about two khetarvās (fields) there is the shrine of Ashabi-pir where
Mussalmāns feast fakirs and other co-religionists of theirs.40
Besides the above there are the temples of Shankar Tapakeshwar Mahādev
and Mungeshwar Mahādev near the hill mentioned in the paragraph above
and the temples of Pipaleshwar Mahādev and Rāmchandraji, to the south of
Dhhank. There are also temples erected in honour of suttees known as
Nomalmātā, Hulmātā, etc.40
The river Vinu meets the Bhādar, at a place two miles to the east of Ganod,
and the Moja also joins the Bhādar a little further to the east. Hence the spot
is called Traveni (a confluence of three rivers) and is regarded as holy. The
beautiful temple of Baraneshwar Mahādev is situated here. Vows for
feasting a certain number of Brāhmans, are observed in honour of this
deity.41
The celebrated shrine of Husen-pir is situated in the vicinity of Ganod, and
is much revered by the Khoja community, who hold a fair there on every
Āso-sud-bij, i.e. the second day of the bright half of Āshvin. The fair lasts
for seven or eight days, when Khojas from Bombay and even Zanzibar visit
the place. A large building, the Khoja-khana, is set apart to the west of the
shrine for the sabhā (or meeting). The largest fair was held in samvat 1940
(1884 A.D.), when H. H. the Agashah paid a visit to the shrine. There is a
large gathering of people at the place every bij day.41
and she and her children were all turned into stones. In this form she can be
seen even to-day, with two of her children on her shoulders and leading the
other two.
To the south of the same village on the banks of a small lake are situated the
temples of Hinglaj Mātā and Kāmdev Mahādev. If there is a prospect of a
drought in any year, the people of the village make an offering of lāpsi to
the former deity in order to bring about a fall of rain. About two miles from
Dhhank there is a temple of Vikani, in whose honour vows are observed for
the cure of fractured bones of men and animals. Brāhmans are feasted at the
temple of Hanumān at Timbo, four miles away from Dhhank. At a distance
of about two khetarvās (fields) there is the shrine of Ashabi-pir where
Mussalmāns feast fakirs and other co-religionists of theirs.40
Besides the above there are the temples of Shankar Tapakeshwar Mahādev
and Mungeshwar Mahādev near the hill mentioned in the paragraph above
and the temples of Pipaleshwar Mahādev and Rāmchandraji, to the south of
Dhhank. There are also temples erected in honour of suttees known as
Nomalmātā, Hulmātā, etc.40
The river Vinu meets the Bhādar, at a place two miles to the east of Ganod,
and the Moja also joins the Bhādar a little further to the east. Hence the spot
is called Traveni (a confluence of three rivers) and is regarded as holy. The
beautiful temple of Baraneshwar Mahādev is situated here. Vows for
feasting a certain number of Brāhmans, are observed in honour of this
deity.41
The celebrated shrine of Husen-pir is situated in the vicinity of Ganod, and
is much revered by the Khoja community, who hold a fair there on every
Āso-sud-bij, i.e. the second day of the bright half of Āshvin. The fair lasts
for seven or eight days, when Khojas from Bombay and even Zanzibar visit
the place. A large building, the Khoja-khana, is set apart to the west of the
shrine for the sabhā (or meeting). The largest fair was held in samvat 1940
(1884 A.D.), when H. H. the Agashah paid a visit to the shrine. There is a
large gathering of people at the place every bij day.41
Page 145
Husen-pīr was a native of Kadi and a Saiyed by birth. In his youth, with his
father’s permission, he decided to remain unmarried, and took to travelling.
In the course of his wanderings he halted for a week on the spot where his
shrine stands at present, and was so charmed with the place, that he asked
the owner of it, a Rabāri, Almora by name, for permission to reside there
always. The Pīr was accompanied by two followers of the Mujāvar fakir
sect. The present Mujāvar attendants at the shrine are descended from them,
and stand in the 12th or the 15th degree of descent.41
One evening (it was the 5th day of the dark half of Bhādrapad) the Pīr
accompanied by his two followers went to the Bhādar to offer the evening
prayers. After the prayers were over, he told his followers that a flood was
soon coming in the river, and asked both of them to leave him and return
with their horses. One of them left the place as directed: but the other
placed his head on the Pīr’s lap and was drowned along with his master in
the flood, which came down as if in obedience to the Pīr’s words. Before
dying the Pīr granted a boon to the Mujāvars that their line of descent
would never fail for want of their heirs, and that their heirs would always be
his attendants.41
The same night the Pīr informed the Khojas of Keshod and Kutiana that his
corpse and that of his Mujāvar follower lay unburied at a particular spot.
The Khojas, accompanied by the Rabāri Almora, visited the place in the
morning and made ready to carry the corpses to Junāgadh. They found to
their astonishment that the corpses could not be removed. Almora then
recollected the request of the Pīr, and told the Khojas of his favourite place.
The corpses were then carried to their present place of rest, and all efforts of
the Khojas to proceed further proved unavailing. At that time there was a
village called Keralun about a mile from the present site of Ganod. It is,
however, uninhabited and in ruins and its site is now known as the timbo of
Keralun. The Khojas erected a shrine over the place where the Pīr was
buried, and the tombs of his relatives were afterwards erected in the
vicinity. Vows observed in honour of the Pīr having proved fruitful in many
cases, the Pīr’s fame spreads wider every day. The Gondal Durbar has
granted a wādi (a piece of land) for the maintenance of the Mujāvar family,
who also receive the things that are offered to the Pīr. The Khojas consider
father’s permission, he decided to remain unmarried, and took to travelling.
In the course of his wanderings he halted for a week on the spot where his
shrine stands at present, and was so charmed with the place, that he asked
the owner of it, a Rabāri, Almora by name, for permission to reside there
always. The Pīr was accompanied by two followers of the Mujāvar fakir
sect. The present Mujāvar attendants at the shrine are descended from them,
and stand in the 12th or the 15th degree of descent.41
One evening (it was the 5th day of the dark half of Bhādrapad) the Pīr
accompanied by his two followers went to the Bhādar to offer the evening
prayers. After the prayers were over, he told his followers that a flood was
soon coming in the river, and asked both of them to leave him and return
with their horses. One of them left the place as directed: but the other
placed his head on the Pīr’s lap and was drowned along with his master in
the flood, which came down as if in obedience to the Pīr’s words. Before
dying the Pīr granted a boon to the Mujāvars that their line of descent
would never fail for want of their heirs, and that their heirs would always be
his attendants.41
The same night the Pīr informed the Khojas of Keshod and Kutiana that his
corpse and that of his Mujāvar follower lay unburied at a particular spot.
The Khojas, accompanied by the Rabāri Almora, visited the place in the
morning and made ready to carry the corpses to Junāgadh. They found to
their astonishment that the corpses could not be removed. Almora then
recollected the request of the Pīr, and told the Khojas of his favourite place.
The corpses were then carried to their present place of rest, and all efforts of
the Khojas to proceed further proved unavailing. At that time there was a
village called Keralun about a mile from the present site of Ganod. It is,
however, uninhabited and in ruins and its site is now known as the timbo of
Keralun. The Khojas erected a shrine over the place where the Pīr was
buried, and the tombs of his relatives were afterwards erected in the
vicinity. Vows observed in honour of the Pīr having proved fruitful in many
cases, the Pīr’s fame spreads wider every day. The Gondal Durbar has
granted a wādi (a piece of land) for the maintenance of the Mujāvar family,
who also receive the things that are offered to the Pīr. The Khojas consider
Page 146
it a merit to dedicate a portion of their earnings to this Pīr. People of all
castes from Ganod offer one kori42 at the time of the marriage of a girl at
their house. The knots of the marriage-scarves of newly-wedded couples are
untied here, and the ceremony of shaving children for the first time is also
performed in the presence of the Pīr. The usual offering to the Pīr consists
of churamu and kansār: some people, however, offer a goat or a ram and
call it pānechednāriel.43
There is a hollow log of wood on the boundary of Lath, a sub-village of
Gondal and a mile to the South of Ganod. Long ago a fakir, while
accompanying a band of outlaws bārvatias, was killed in a scuffle and was
buried here. A bābul tree grew over his tomb, and came to be known
afterwards as Lakkad Pīr (the wooden Pīr). The tree after a time withered
till its stem was reduced to a small log with a hole in the centre. People
observe vows in honour of this Pīr for the cure of cough and bronchitis in
children. After recovery, the children are made to pass through this bākān or
hole and an offering of kansār is made to the Pīr. It is not only the
Musalmāns who observe vows in the Pīr’s honour: Hindus also have the
same strong faith in him.43
Nearly twelve miles from Vanod lies the temple of Bechrā Mātā, who is the
patron goddess of the Pāvaiyā sect. A male buffalo is offered to her as a
victim on the 15th day of the bright half of every month. Near the temple
there is the holy kund of Mānsarovar, the legend about which has already
been related in these notes.44
The village of Dādvi possesses the shrine of Mangalshā Pīr. Friday is the
day for special worship of the Pīr, when dainties and cocoanuts are offered,
and a flag is hoisted. Frankincense is burnt every evening.45 There is also a
temple of Māchho, the goddess of the Bharvāds, who offer her lāpsi and
cocoanuts on every bij day. They also light a ghi lamp and lop off the ears
of a goat or a ram, and offer the blood to the goddess.45
In Kolki a bāvā of the Bharvād caste named Hado Bhagat is said to have set
up the images of all the gods in a certain temple. It is believed that he
castes from Ganod offer one kori42 at the time of the marriage of a girl at
their house. The knots of the marriage-scarves of newly-wedded couples are
untied here, and the ceremony of shaving children for the first time is also
performed in the presence of the Pīr. The usual offering to the Pīr consists
of churamu and kansār: some people, however, offer a goat or a ram and
call it pānechednāriel.43
There is a hollow log of wood on the boundary of Lath, a sub-village of
Gondal and a mile to the South of Ganod. Long ago a fakir, while
accompanying a band of outlaws bārvatias, was killed in a scuffle and was
buried here. A bābul tree grew over his tomb, and came to be known
afterwards as Lakkad Pīr (the wooden Pīr). The tree after a time withered
till its stem was reduced to a small log with a hole in the centre. People
observe vows in honour of this Pīr for the cure of cough and bronchitis in
children. After recovery, the children are made to pass through this bākān or
hole and an offering of kansār is made to the Pīr. It is not only the
Musalmāns who observe vows in the Pīr’s honour: Hindus also have the
same strong faith in him.43
Nearly twelve miles from Vanod lies the temple of Bechrā Mātā, who is the
patron goddess of the Pāvaiyā sect. A male buffalo is offered to her as a
victim on the 15th day of the bright half of every month. Near the temple
there is the holy kund of Mānsarovar, the legend about which has already
been related in these notes.44
The village of Dādvi possesses the shrine of Mangalshā Pīr. Friday is the
day for special worship of the Pīr, when dainties and cocoanuts are offered,
and a flag is hoisted. Frankincense is burnt every evening.45 There is also a
temple of Māchho, the goddess of the Bharvāds, who offer her lāpsi and
cocoanuts on every bij day. They also light a ghi lamp and lop off the ears
of a goat or a ram, and offer the blood to the goddess.45
In Kolki a bāvā of the Bharvād caste named Hado Bhagat is said to have set
up the images of all the gods in a certain temple. It is believed that he
Page 147
possessed miraculous powers. His descendants do not sell goats to Kasāis
(butchers46).
There is a temple of Khodiār Mātā in Chok. The goddess is worshipped by
Atits, who offer her lāpsi on every Dasarā day. There is also a temple of
Hanumān, where the Khākhis bring an offering to the god every Saturday.47
In the village of Motā Devaliā are the temples of Bholānāth, Mahādev and
Pipaleshwar Mahādev. Both the deities are worshipped by Atits, who
perform the ceremony with the usual materials of frankincense, a ghi-lamp,
cooked food, and who also blow a conch. It is said about Pipaleshwar
Mahādev that none can stay at night in the temple. Once a Brāhman, who
insisted on passing the night there, was hurled to a distance of two fields.
There is also a temple of Swāmi-Nārāyan and three temples of Thākorji
where the ceremony of worship is performed every morning and evening in
the usual way with frankincense, a ghi lamp, and ārati. The shrine of Nilā-
Pīr on the village boundary is revered alike by Hindus and Musalmans.48
In the vicinity of Chhatrasa, there is a temple of Kishordās Hanumān. On
Kāli-Chaudas day the people of the village offer churamu and vadān to the
god. The shrine of Gebalashā Pīr is situated two miles away from
Chhatrasa, on the boundary line between that village and Kalānā. Sweet-
balls, or sometimes only molasses, are offered to this Pīr on the fulfilment
of vows observed in his name. Near the village gates lies the shrine of
Daudshah, of whom it is said that he deprives thieves of their eye-sight, if
they try to enter Chhatrasa. In the Vishnu-mandir, annakūt49 is offered to
Vishnu by the attendant priest, on the first day of the bright half of Kārtik.50
A temple of Khodiar Mātā surrounded by Pandari creepers is to be seen on
the way from Mojidad to Sanka. The Thakor of Limbdi used to kill a goat
before the goddess during the Navarātra holidays; but an offering of lāpsi is
now substituted for the goat. There is another temple of the same goddess
on the way to Zābālā where she is worshipped by the Bhadkavā Durbar. The
attendants at both places are Atits, and the usual offering consists of lāpsi
and khīr.51 At a place near the boundary-line between Mojidad and Ayarda,
Swāmi-Nārāyan Bhagwān and Sahajānand Swāmī are said to have bathed
(butchers46).
There is a temple of Khodiār Mātā in Chok. The goddess is worshipped by
Atits, who offer her lāpsi on every Dasarā day. There is also a temple of
Hanumān, where the Khākhis bring an offering to the god every Saturday.47
In the village of Motā Devaliā are the temples of Bholānāth, Mahādev and
Pipaleshwar Mahādev. Both the deities are worshipped by Atits, who
perform the ceremony with the usual materials of frankincense, a ghi-lamp,
cooked food, and who also blow a conch. It is said about Pipaleshwar
Mahādev that none can stay at night in the temple. Once a Brāhman, who
insisted on passing the night there, was hurled to a distance of two fields.
There is also a temple of Swāmi-Nārāyan and three temples of Thākorji
where the ceremony of worship is performed every morning and evening in
the usual way with frankincense, a ghi lamp, and ārati. The shrine of Nilā-
Pīr on the village boundary is revered alike by Hindus and Musalmans.48
In the vicinity of Chhatrasa, there is a temple of Kishordās Hanumān. On
Kāli-Chaudas day the people of the village offer churamu and vadān to the
god. The shrine of Gebalashā Pīr is situated two miles away from
Chhatrasa, on the boundary line between that village and Kalānā. Sweet-
balls, or sometimes only molasses, are offered to this Pīr on the fulfilment
of vows observed in his name. Near the village gates lies the shrine of
Daudshah, of whom it is said that he deprives thieves of their eye-sight, if
they try to enter Chhatrasa. In the Vishnu-mandir, annakūt49 is offered to
Vishnu by the attendant priest, on the first day of the bright half of Kārtik.50
A temple of Khodiar Mātā surrounded by Pandari creepers is to be seen on
the way from Mojidad to Sanka. The Thakor of Limbdi used to kill a goat
before the goddess during the Navarātra holidays; but an offering of lāpsi is
now substituted for the goat. There is another temple of the same goddess
on the way to Zābālā where she is worshipped by the Bhadkavā Durbar. The
attendants at both places are Atits, and the usual offering consists of lāpsi
and khīr.51 At a place near the boundary-line between Mojidad and Ayarda,
Swāmi-Nārāyan Bhagwān and Sahajānand Swāmī are said to have bathed
Page 148
in the company of Hanumān in the river Vansal. The Brahmachāris52 of the
Swāmi-Nārāyan sect hold a fair there and offer prayers to Hanumān on the
15th day of the dark half of Bhādrapad.53
Every marriage-procession on its way to and from the place of marriage has
to offer a new earthen jar to such field-deities as Dādmokhodiar, Lālo,
Hardās, etc. Failure to do so arouses the wrath of these deities and brings
disasters to the married couple. The only form of worship in use for these
deities is to apply red lead and oil to their images. Seven kinds of corn, viz.
adād (phaseolus radiatus), mag (phaseolus mungo), kalathi, math, chanā
(gram), wheat and juvari are mixed and cooked together and the preparation
which is called khichdi is offered to the deities at sunset. If the deities are
not propitiated in this manner, they are believed to do harm to the people of
the village.54
On a hill near the village of Patanvav there is a temple of Mātāji, where a
ghi lamp is kept constantly burning at the cost of the Gondal Durbar. In
Patanvav itself there is a shrine of Ahabā Pīr attended upon by a fakir. At
the approach of the monsoons, all the villages offer lāpsi to Mātāji and
churamu to the Pīr.55
In Paj, near Sultanpur there is a shrine of Gebansha Pīr surrounded by a
number of bābhul trees; and it is said that if a person were to cut any of the
trees, he would meet with death or at least fall ill. There is a cobra deity,
called Khetalo, near Sultanpur whose gors (attendant priests) are Nāgmagā
Brahmans. It is believed that this deity confers once on each generation of
the gors, as much wealth as would suffice for the lifetime of all men of that
generation.56
There is a temple of Hadmatio Hanumān about half a mile to the west of
Luvaria. A Kanbi of the Dhani tribe once, while pursued by robbers, took
shelter behind the image of Hanumān, and vowed that he and his
descendants would discharge priestly duties towards the god if he escaped
safely out of the difficulty. The god protected him in his danger, and his
descendants are now the recognised attendants at the temple.57
Swāmi-Nārāyan sect hold a fair there and offer prayers to Hanumān on the
15th day of the dark half of Bhādrapad.53
Every marriage-procession on its way to and from the place of marriage has
to offer a new earthen jar to such field-deities as Dādmokhodiar, Lālo,
Hardās, etc. Failure to do so arouses the wrath of these deities and brings
disasters to the married couple. The only form of worship in use for these
deities is to apply red lead and oil to their images. Seven kinds of corn, viz.
adād (phaseolus radiatus), mag (phaseolus mungo), kalathi, math, chanā
(gram), wheat and juvari are mixed and cooked together and the preparation
which is called khichdi is offered to the deities at sunset. If the deities are
not propitiated in this manner, they are believed to do harm to the people of
the village.54
On a hill near the village of Patanvav there is a temple of Mātāji, where a
ghi lamp is kept constantly burning at the cost of the Gondal Durbar. In
Patanvav itself there is a shrine of Ahabā Pīr attended upon by a fakir. At
the approach of the monsoons, all the villages offer lāpsi to Mātāji and
churamu to the Pīr.55
In Paj, near Sultanpur there is a shrine of Gebansha Pīr surrounded by a
number of bābhul trees; and it is said that if a person were to cut any of the
trees, he would meet with death or at least fall ill. There is a cobra deity,
called Khetalo, near Sultanpur whose gors (attendant priests) are Nāgmagā
Brahmans. It is believed that this deity confers once on each generation of
the gors, as much wealth as would suffice for the lifetime of all men of that
generation.56
There is a temple of Hadmatio Hanumān about half a mile to the west of
Luvaria. A Kanbi of the Dhani tribe once, while pursued by robbers, took
shelter behind the image of Hanumān, and vowed that he and his
descendants would discharge priestly duties towards the god if he escaped
safely out of the difficulty. The god protected him in his danger, and his
descendants are now the recognised attendants at the temple.57
Page 149
The village of Aman possesses the holy tomb of Davalshah Pīr. This Pīr
lived in the 15th century and was a native of Ahmedabad. He had come to
serve in the Amaran thāna, when he was killed in a battle. A tomb was built
over his body, and he soon came to be regarded as a Pīr. His name became
famous when a blind Bharvād regained his eye-sight through his favour.
The Pīr also gave a son to a Bania from Ahmedabad who visits the tomb
every year in a black suit. Once a Miana killed a cow and took refuge at the
shrine of this Pīr: but the shrine spontaneously caught fire and he was burnt
with it. The present building was erected by the Bania, and the ladies of the
Jamsaheb’s court have supplied silver gates and copper railings to it. The
Jamsaheb also presents kinkhab coverings for the tomb every year. On the
night of the Uras (or the fair held in the Pīr’s honour) sandalwood is burnt
before the Pīr.58
Charadwa is well-known for the temple of Rājeshwari Mātā. King Prithwi
Rāj Chohān suffered from white leprosy and was once going to Dwārkā,
with the hope that residence in the holy city would cure him of his disease.
On the way, one of his best bullocks suddenly fell. The animal was almost
given up for dead when a young woman named Rājbāi, daughter of Udā
Chāran, happened to pass by while carrying water in earthen pots. Rājbāi
touched the bullock with one of her toes, and to the astonishment of all
beholders, the animal at once got up. Prithwi Rāj got rid of his leprosy by
the favour of Rājbāi, who granted him an additional boon that she would
come to help him on another occasion if he remembered her and sought her
assistance. Rājbāi then directed him to visit Dwārkā. Long after, king
Prithwi Rāj, when he was at his own place, remembered her in a moment of
distress, and she went there (in spirit) after giving instructions to her
relatives not to dispose of her body, as she would return soon. But the
relatives did not understand her, and before she had returned from Prithwi
Rāj’s place, her body was disposed of according to the usual manner. For
this, Rājbāi cursed her relatives that one of their descendants in each degree
would turn out a lunatic. In her memory a pillar was raised and an image set
up, both of which are worshipped every morning and evening. Milk, sugar
and cakes are offered to her every morning in a thāl or dish, and milk and
sugar every evening. There is a festival in honour of Rājbāi during the
Navarātra holidays.59
lived in the 15th century and was a native of Ahmedabad. He had come to
serve in the Amaran thāna, when he was killed in a battle. A tomb was built
over his body, and he soon came to be regarded as a Pīr. His name became
famous when a blind Bharvād regained his eye-sight through his favour.
The Pīr also gave a son to a Bania from Ahmedabad who visits the tomb
every year in a black suit. Once a Miana killed a cow and took refuge at the
shrine of this Pīr: but the shrine spontaneously caught fire and he was burnt
with it. The present building was erected by the Bania, and the ladies of the
Jamsaheb’s court have supplied silver gates and copper railings to it. The
Jamsaheb also presents kinkhab coverings for the tomb every year. On the
night of the Uras (or the fair held in the Pīr’s honour) sandalwood is burnt
before the Pīr.58
Charadwa is well-known for the temple of Rājeshwari Mātā. King Prithwi
Rāj Chohān suffered from white leprosy and was once going to Dwārkā,
with the hope that residence in the holy city would cure him of his disease.
On the way, one of his best bullocks suddenly fell. The animal was almost
given up for dead when a young woman named Rājbāi, daughter of Udā
Chāran, happened to pass by while carrying water in earthen pots. Rājbāi
touched the bullock with one of her toes, and to the astonishment of all
beholders, the animal at once got up. Prithwi Rāj got rid of his leprosy by
the favour of Rājbāi, who granted him an additional boon that she would
come to help him on another occasion if he remembered her and sought her
assistance. Rājbāi then directed him to visit Dwārkā. Long after, king
Prithwi Rāj, when he was at his own place, remembered her in a moment of
distress, and she went there (in spirit) after giving instructions to her
relatives not to dispose of her body, as she would return soon. But the
relatives did not understand her, and before she had returned from Prithwi
Rāj’s place, her body was disposed of according to the usual manner. For
this, Rājbāi cursed her relatives that one of their descendants in each degree
would turn out a lunatic. In her memory a pillar was raised and an image set
up, both of which are worshipped every morning and evening. Milk, sugar
and cakes are offered to her every morning in a thāl or dish, and milk and
sugar every evening. There is a festival in honour of Rājbāi during the
Navarātra holidays.59
Page 150
The temple of Swāmi-Nārāyan at Charadwa contains the images of
Shrikrishna, Baldev, Rādhā, Rāma, Lakshman and Sītā. The ceremony of
ārati is performed before the images five times every day. The first is called
mangalārati or the auspicious ārati and is performed early in the morning.
The second is Shangār (Shringār) ārati, when night garments are taken off
the images and new ones are put on for the day. The third Rājbhog ārati,
takes place at the time when dainties and cooked food are offered to the
gods. The Sandhyā ārati follows the offering of milk, sugar and cakes to the
gods in the evening. The last, Pidhān ārati, is performed at night, when
night garments are substituted for the rich dresses of the day. There are five
occasions during the year when a fair is held at this place: (1) the Annakūt
fair on the first day of Kārtik; (2) Vasantapanchamī fair, on the fifth day of
the bright half of Māgh; (3) Hutāshani or Holi fair, on the 15th day of the
bright half of Phālgun; (4) Rāmanavamī fair, on the 9th day of the bright
half of Chaitra, (5) Janmāshtamī fair on the 8th day of the dark half of
Shrāvan.60
To the north of Charadwa there is a field-goddess, named Motisāri Meldi
Mātā, in whose honour persons who are afflicted by diseases take a vow of
presenting a tavā (a cake fried in oil in a pan). There is also a serpent-god
named Charmaria who receives an offering of lāpsi on every Aso-sud-bij,
i.e., the second day of the bright half of Ashvin.60
Besides these there are four temples of Shiva, one of Shaktimātā, one of
Hanumānji and two Mahomedan Pīrs in the village.60
In Limbdi Taluka, there is a temple of Kālikā Mātā, in whose honour vows
are observed by persons suffering from physical or mental afflictions. The
attendant at the place is a Brahman, and the worshippers of the Mātā visit
her temple on a Sunday or a Tuesday and offer sweetmeats or lāpsi. On the
eighth day of Ashvin a havan is made (i.e., offerings are burnt) before the
goddess.61
Vows in honour of Khodiar Mātā are efficacious in the prevention of such
epidemics as cholera. The Khiyado Māmo quells evil spirits, bhūts and
prets. The Khodo Māmo cures such diseases as cough and bronchitis. In the
Shrikrishna, Baldev, Rādhā, Rāma, Lakshman and Sītā. The ceremony of
ārati is performed before the images five times every day. The first is called
mangalārati or the auspicious ārati and is performed early in the morning.
The second is Shangār (Shringār) ārati, when night garments are taken off
the images and new ones are put on for the day. The third Rājbhog ārati,
takes place at the time when dainties and cooked food are offered to the
gods. The Sandhyā ārati follows the offering of milk, sugar and cakes to the
gods in the evening. The last, Pidhān ārati, is performed at night, when
night garments are substituted for the rich dresses of the day. There are five
occasions during the year when a fair is held at this place: (1) the Annakūt
fair on the first day of Kārtik; (2) Vasantapanchamī fair, on the fifth day of
the bright half of Māgh; (3) Hutāshani or Holi fair, on the 15th day of the
bright half of Phālgun; (4) Rāmanavamī fair, on the 9th day of the bright
half of Chaitra, (5) Janmāshtamī fair on the 8th day of the dark half of
Shrāvan.60
To the north of Charadwa there is a field-goddess, named Motisāri Meldi
Mātā, in whose honour persons who are afflicted by diseases take a vow of
presenting a tavā (a cake fried in oil in a pan). There is also a serpent-god
named Charmaria who receives an offering of lāpsi on every Aso-sud-bij,
i.e., the second day of the bright half of Ashvin.60
Besides these there are four temples of Shiva, one of Shaktimātā, one of
Hanumānji and two Mahomedan Pīrs in the village.60
In Limbdi Taluka, there is a temple of Kālikā Mātā, in whose honour vows
are observed by persons suffering from physical or mental afflictions. The
attendant at the place is a Brahman, and the worshippers of the Mātā visit
her temple on a Sunday or a Tuesday and offer sweetmeats or lāpsi. On the
eighth day of Ashvin a havan is made (i.e., offerings are burnt) before the
goddess.61
Vows in honour of Khodiar Mātā are efficacious in the prevention of such
epidemics as cholera. The Khiyado Māmo quells evil spirits, bhūts and
prets. The Khodo Māmo cures such diseases as cough and bronchitis. In the
Page 151
temple of Rāmnāth, a brahmabhoj—a feast to Brahmans—is given on the
last day of Shrāvan.61
Near the western gates of Zinzuwada is seen the celebrated shrine of Rājbāi
Mātā. In old times Zinzuwada was only the nehado62 of a Bharvād called
Zunzā. At that time the queen of the reigning prince of Pātan could not be
delivered of a child even though two years had passed since the time of
conception. Once while on tour the queen’s party encamped near the
nehado of Zunzā Bharvād. The latter, when he learnt of the queen’s
misfortune, said that the co-wives of the queen had bewitched her by the
kāman art, i.e., by passing an earthen pot round her and by burying the pot
underground with a live frog hanging with its head downwards in it. He
added that the queen would not be delivered unless the frog was brought out
by some stratagem. He asked the queen and her followers to stay there for
some time, and sent word to Pātan with a messenger that the queen was
delivered of a son. The co-wives of the queen, dismayed at the unexpected
news and at the futility of the kāman art, went to look at the buried frog,
which instantly jumped out and at the same moment the pregnant queen
gave birth to a son. As the child was brought to birth by the instructions of a
Siddha-purusha (a magician), it was named Siddharāj. The town of
Zinzuwada was built in memory of Zunzā Bharvād, and a temple of Rājbāi
Mātā was erected in honour of the queen. A large lake named Sensāsar was
also constructed in memory of Sensā, the brother of Zunzā.63
Soon afterwards people began to observe vows in honour of Rājbāi Mātā.
The devotees of the goddess visit her temple every evening. All newly-
married couples in the village offer salutations to the Mātā accompanied by
hired musicians and a party of women who sing on the way to the shrine. A
virgin walks in front of the party with an earthen pot and a cocoanut on her
head. After the salutations, sweetmeats to the amount vowed for are
distributed among all those who are present. Sometimes a woman who has
observed vows for the sake of a son, presents a silver umbrella to the
goddess, of the value of one rupee and a quarter or five rupees and a
quarter, on the birth of a son to her. Burnt offerings and lāpsi are presented
to the goddess to protect the town from such misfortunes as cholera, plague,
etc.64
last day of Shrāvan.61
Near the western gates of Zinzuwada is seen the celebrated shrine of Rājbāi
Mātā. In old times Zinzuwada was only the nehado62 of a Bharvād called
Zunzā. At that time the queen of the reigning prince of Pātan could not be
delivered of a child even though two years had passed since the time of
conception. Once while on tour the queen’s party encamped near the
nehado of Zunzā Bharvād. The latter, when he learnt of the queen’s
misfortune, said that the co-wives of the queen had bewitched her by the
kāman art, i.e., by passing an earthen pot round her and by burying the pot
underground with a live frog hanging with its head downwards in it. He
added that the queen would not be delivered unless the frog was brought out
by some stratagem. He asked the queen and her followers to stay there for
some time, and sent word to Pātan with a messenger that the queen was
delivered of a son. The co-wives of the queen, dismayed at the unexpected
news and at the futility of the kāman art, went to look at the buried frog,
which instantly jumped out and at the same moment the pregnant queen
gave birth to a son. As the child was brought to birth by the instructions of a
Siddha-purusha (a magician), it was named Siddharāj. The town of
Zinzuwada was built in memory of Zunzā Bharvād, and a temple of Rājbāi
Mātā was erected in honour of the queen. A large lake named Sensāsar was
also constructed in memory of Sensā, the brother of Zunzā.63
Soon afterwards people began to observe vows in honour of Rājbāi Mātā.
The devotees of the goddess visit her temple every evening. All newly-
married couples in the village offer salutations to the Mātā accompanied by
hired musicians and a party of women who sing on the way to the shrine. A
virgin walks in front of the party with an earthen pot and a cocoanut on her
head. After the salutations, sweetmeats to the amount vowed for are
distributed among all those who are present. Sometimes a woman who has
observed vows for the sake of a son, presents a silver umbrella to the
goddess, of the value of one rupee and a quarter or five rupees and a
quarter, on the birth of a son to her. Burnt offerings and lāpsi are presented
to the goddess to protect the town from such misfortunes as cholera, plague,
etc.64
Page 152
There is a well-known place called Vāchhdā-solanki about eight miles front
Zinzuwada. Once a Rajput boy, aged sixteen, was going round the
marriage-altar at the time of his wedding, in the village of Kuar, when he
heard a piteous cry from a distressed cowherd, whose cows were being
carried away by freebooters. The boy immediately ran to rescue the cows;
but he was killed in the encounter. A temple was built on that spot in his
honour. There is a small kund near the temple, the water in which is
believed never to dry up and to possess the quality of curing hydrophobia.
Goradia Hanumān lies three miles from Zinzuwada, and there is a tradition
that there is a treasure hidden near by. Many vows are observed in honour
of Dhamā Hanumān, whose place is at a distance of two miles from
Zinzuwada.64
The holy kund of Zilānand is one mile from Zinzuwada. It is a custom of
the neighbourhood to throw the bones of deceased persons into this kund,
and a fair is held annually at the place on the last day of Bhādrapad. The
Bhotāvo kund is one mile distant from Zilānand kund: the bottom of this
kund presents a bluish appearance, and the water always remains hot. It is
said that there are sulphur mines below.64
A princess of Marwar used to worship five gods: Sumaria Ganesh,
Kanaknāth, Ratneshwar Mahādev, Nāgnāth and Hanumān; and she had
taken a vow never to take food before she had worshipped all of them. The
gods followed her everywhere in all her tours, but they had made one
condition, that they would stop if she looked behind at them on the way.
The princess happened to look back at Ganpati on the ridge of Sumaria near
Keshia, three miles to the east of Jodia. So Ganpati would not leave
Sumaria, and was installed there as Sumaria Ganesh. The same happened to
Ratneshwar near Badanpur; to Kanaknāth, at a place midway between
Kanakpuri (the modern Kunad) and Badanpur; and to Hanumān, near
Kunad. In the same manner, Nāgnāth was installed near the Balambha gate
of Jodia. The old town of Kanakpuri was buried by an earth-quake, and the
image Kunadia Hanumān was found among its ruins.
Zinzuwada. Once a Rajput boy, aged sixteen, was going round the
marriage-altar at the time of his wedding, in the village of Kuar, when he
heard a piteous cry from a distressed cowherd, whose cows were being
carried away by freebooters. The boy immediately ran to rescue the cows;
but he was killed in the encounter. A temple was built on that spot in his
honour. There is a small kund near the temple, the water in which is
believed never to dry up and to possess the quality of curing hydrophobia.
Goradia Hanumān lies three miles from Zinzuwada, and there is a tradition
that there is a treasure hidden near by. Many vows are observed in honour
of Dhamā Hanumān, whose place is at a distance of two miles from
Zinzuwada.64
The holy kund of Zilānand is one mile from Zinzuwada. It is a custom of
the neighbourhood to throw the bones of deceased persons into this kund,
and a fair is held annually at the place on the last day of Bhādrapad. The
Bhotāvo kund is one mile distant from Zilānand kund: the bottom of this
kund presents a bluish appearance, and the water always remains hot. It is
said that there are sulphur mines below.64
A princess of Marwar used to worship five gods: Sumaria Ganesh,
Kanaknāth, Ratneshwar Mahādev, Nāgnāth and Hanumān; and she had
taken a vow never to take food before she had worshipped all of them. The
gods followed her everywhere in all her tours, but they had made one
condition, that they would stop if she looked behind at them on the way.
The princess happened to look back at Ganpati on the ridge of Sumaria near
Keshia, three miles to the east of Jodia. So Ganpati would not leave
Sumaria, and was installed there as Sumaria Ganesh. The same happened to
Ratneshwar near Badanpur; to Kanaknāth, at a place midway between
Kanakpuri (the modern Kunad) and Badanpur; and to Hanumān, near
Kunad. In the same manner, Nāgnāth was installed near the Balambha gate
of Jodia. The old town of Kanakpuri was buried by an earth-quake, and the
image Kunadia Hanumān was found among its ruins.
Page 153
The attendants of Sumaria Ganesh are Atīts. A fair is held there on the 4th
day of Vaishākh, when thousands of Dheds flock to the place. The usual
offering to the god consists of sweet balls. Kanaknāth is attended upon by
Atīt Bāvās who share among themselves whatever is offered to the god.
Shaivas hold a fair here on the 8th day of the dark half of Shrāvan.
The devotees of Kunadia Hanumān observe anagh (vulgarly called
anagodha) at his place on Saturdays. They cook their food there and make
offerings to the god before partaking of it, fasting afterwards for the day.
The anagh is observed in the month of Mārgashīrsha. The attendants of this
god are Khākhi Bāvās.65
One mile to the north-west of Jodia, towards the sea, there is a stone image
of a horse set up on a pedestal, known as Rāval Pīr. A heroic Girāsia of the
Dāl sect, named Rāval, was once shipwrecked while on an expedition from
Cutch, and is said to have landed at the spot where Rāval Pīr stands at
present. He received a hearty reception at the hands of the then ruling
prince of Jodia (who was a Khavās) and was installed in the Durbār as Nana
Rāval Pīr.
On the second day of the bright half of Āshādh (which is the new year’s day
according to the Halari year) Hindus offer lāpsi to Rāval Pīr as also on each
Monday in the month of Bhādrapad. On occasions of popular distress, such
as the breaking out of cholera or when the rains stop for days together, the
bhuvās at the place, who are Dāl Rajputs, receive the pedi (a small heap of
lāpsi) on behalf of the Pīr, and being possessed, declare the will of the Pīr
as to when rain may be expected or when an epidemic will be warded off.
Persons who are anxious for the success of their undertakings observe vows
in honour of the Pīr which may cost them anything from a single pice to
twenty-five rupees. At the shrine of Nānā Rāval Pīr, huge kettledrums are
beaten and the ceremony of ārati is performed every morning and
evening.66
The present site of Lilapur was formerly uninhabited, and the village stood
nearly one mile off. Once the goddess Bhavānī directed the patel of the
village in a dream to reside on the present site, and promised him that he
day of Vaishākh, when thousands of Dheds flock to the place. The usual
offering to the god consists of sweet balls. Kanaknāth is attended upon by
Atīt Bāvās who share among themselves whatever is offered to the god.
Shaivas hold a fair here on the 8th day of the dark half of Shrāvan.
The devotees of Kunadia Hanumān observe anagh (vulgarly called
anagodha) at his place on Saturdays. They cook their food there and make
offerings to the god before partaking of it, fasting afterwards for the day.
The anagh is observed in the month of Mārgashīrsha. The attendants of this
god are Khākhi Bāvās.65
One mile to the north-west of Jodia, towards the sea, there is a stone image
of a horse set up on a pedestal, known as Rāval Pīr. A heroic Girāsia of the
Dāl sect, named Rāval, was once shipwrecked while on an expedition from
Cutch, and is said to have landed at the spot where Rāval Pīr stands at
present. He received a hearty reception at the hands of the then ruling
prince of Jodia (who was a Khavās) and was installed in the Durbār as Nana
Rāval Pīr.
On the second day of the bright half of Āshādh (which is the new year’s day
according to the Halari year) Hindus offer lāpsi to Rāval Pīr as also on each
Monday in the month of Bhādrapad. On occasions of popular distress, such
as the breaking out of cholera or when the rains stop for days together, the
bhuvās at the place, who are Dāl Rajputs, receive the pedi (a small heap of
lāpsi) on behalf of the Pīr, and being possessed, declare the will of the Pīr
as to when rain may be expected or when an epidemic will be warded off.
Persons who are anxious for the success of their undertakings observe vows
in honour of the Pīr which may cost them anything from a single pice to
twenty-five rupees. At the shrine of Nānā Rāval Pīr, huge kettledrums are
beaten and the ceremony of ārati is performed every morning and
evening.66
The present site of Lilapur was formerly uninhabited, and the village stood
nearly one mile off. Once the goddess Bhavānī directed the patel of the
village in a dream to reside on the present site, and promised him that he
Page 154
would be always happy and that none of his descendants for seven
generations would die of cholera. In testimony of the reality of the dream a
box of red lac, a cocoanut, a reel of red thread—called nādāsādi and
chunadi—were found under the patel’s pillow. The village was then
removed to its present site. The descendants of the patel are called Yadodā.
The Mātā chose to take a Bharvād to be her attendant. On the 15th day of
the bright half of Shrāvan offerings are burnt before the Mātā, when the
attendant bhuvā has to offer sweetmeats worth five rupees. Every Bharvād
family spends a rupee and a quarter every third year in honour of the Mātā.
During the famine of the year 1895 Samvat era (= 1839 A. D.) the bhuvā
was thinking of leaving the Mātā in order to escape from starvation, when
the goddess appeared in a dream to him, and told him that he would find
half a rupee every morning in the temple until he saw and partook of the
new harvest. In the month of Shrāvan, he happened to partake of some new
seeds and the coin could not be found as usual after this, although the new
harvest was not quite ready till three months afterwards. At the entreaties of
the bhuvā, however, the Mātā again told him in a dream that he would find
a silver anklet, weighing 60 tolas, on the bhogavā (village boundary) of the
village of Shiyani. A number of vows are observed in honour of this
goddess with various motives.67
The Shakta Mātā in the western part of the same village prevents the
Joganīs or female fiends from spreading contagious diseases.67
The Surdhans near the gates of Lilapur represent two heroes who were
killed in an encounter with freebooters in the Samvat year 1836 (1780 A.
D.). The knots of the marriage-scarves of the descendants of the Surdhans
are untied before them, and any of their female descendants visiting the
images without a veil on their faces, are subjected to serious calamities.67
About ten years ago Unād Bhagat and Jivā Bhagat of Paliad were one day
walking together, when Unād Bhagat collected seven stones and placing
them one over the other, said to Jivā Bhagat that he was constructing a
pālio, i.e., a tomb for Jivā. Immediately Jivā died, and Unād had to carry
out what was merely meant in jest. Some rooms are built at the expense of
generations would die of cholera. In testimony of the reality of the dream a
box of red lac, a cocoanut, a reel of red thread—called nādāsādi and
chunadi—were found under the patel’s pillow. The village was then
removed to its present site. The descendants of the patel are called Yadodā.
The Mātā chose to take a Bharvād to be her attendant. On the 15th day of
the bright half of Shrāvan offerings are burnt before the Mātā, when the
attendant bhuvā has to offer sweetmeats worth five rupees. Every Bharvād
family spends a rupee and a quarter every third year in honour of the Mātā.
During the famine of the year 1895 Samvat era (= 1839 A. D.) the bhuvā
was thinking of leaving the Mātā in order to escape from starvation, when
the goddess appeared in a dream to him, and told him that he would find
half a rupee every morning in the temple until he saw and partook of the
new harvest. In the month of Shrāvan, he happened to partake of some new
seeds and the coin could not be found as usual after this, although the new
harvest was not quite ready till three months afterwards. At the entreaties of
the bhuvā, however, the Mātā again told him in a dream that he would find
a silver anklet, weighing 60 tolas, on the bhogavā (village boundary) of the
village of Shiyani. A number of vows are observed in honour of this
goddess with various motives.67
The Shakta Mātā in the western part of the same village prevents the
Joganīs or female fiends from spreading contagious diseases.67
The Surdhans near the gates of Lilapur represent two heroes who were
killed in an encounter with freebooters in the Samvat year 1836 (1780 A.
D.). The knots of the marriage-scarves of the descendants of the Surdhans
are untied before them, and any of their female descendants visiting the
images without a veil on their faces, are subjected to serious calamities.67
About ten years ago Unād Bhagat and Jivā Bhagat of Paliad were one day
walking together, when Unād Bhagat collected seven stones and placing
them one over the other, said to Jivā Bhagat that he was constructing a
pālio, i.e., a tomb for Jivā. Immediately Jivā died, and Unād had to carry
out what was merely meant in jest. Some rooms are built at the expense of
Page 155
the Jasdan Durbar, and a pujāri daily offers worship to Jivā Bhagat. A fair is
also held in his honour on the second day of Bhādrapad.68
About two miles from Jasdan in the village of Bakhalvad there is a temple
of Āvad Mātā. The latter represents the queen of one of the rulers of Jasdan.
On every Vijayā-dashamī, i.e., the 10th day of the bright half of Ashvin, the
prince of Jasdan goes to visit the image in a procession, offers lāpsi to Āvad
Mātā, and then a feast is celebrated. Formerly it was the custom to kill a
buffalo before the goddess on this day: but only lāpsi is now offered
instead. It is usual to take some wine also on this occasion.69
On the Chitalia hill, two miles from Jasdan, there is a temple of Shitalā, the
goddess of small-pox, where children who have lately recovered from that
disease are taken to offer salutations to the goddess. Silver images of human
eye, milk, sugar, curds, grapes, cocoanuts, a sheet of blank paper, and a
number of other things are presented to the goddess on such an occasion.
Some persons vow to visit the goddess with a burning hearth on their heads.
Such vows are discharged on a sātem, i.e., the 7th day of the bright or the
dark half of a month. On Shili Sātem, the 7th day of the dark half of
Shrāvan, there is a large gathering of people at the place.69
The village-gods of Upleta are Kaleshwar, Pragateshwar, Somnāth,
Nīlkanth, Dādmo and Khetalio. Pragateshwar is said to have emerged from
the earth of his own accord and is therefore called Swayambhu (self-
existent). The same is said about Nīlkanth and Somnāth also. The temple of
Dādmo lies a little away from Upleta. Persons suffering from cough observe
vows in his honour and partake of parched gram. There is a devi near
Pragateshwar before whom a sacrifice is performed on the 9th day of the
bright half of Ashvin, and cakes, bread, khichdi and khir are offered.70
In Gondal there is a temple of Gondalio Nāg and one of Nāgnāth Mahādev.
Pure milk is the usual offering made to both the deities. Gondalio Nāg is
installed in Durbārgadh and is white in appearance. Newly married couples
of high class Hindus untie the knots of their marriage-scarves before this
deity. In the Durbārgadh there are tombs of seven ghoris with whose
assistance the first king of Gondal is said to have won his crown. There is
also held in his honour on the second day of Bhādrapad.68
About two miles from Jasdan in the village of Bakhalvad there is a temple
of Āvad Mātā. The latter represents the queen of one of the rulers of Jasdan.
On every Vijayā-dashamī, i.e., the 10th day of the bright half of Ashvin, the
prince of Jasdan goes to visit the image in a procession, offers lāpsi to Āvad
Mātā, and then a feast is celebrated. Formerly it was the custom to kill a
buffalo before the goddess on this day: but only lāpsi is now offered
instead. It is usual to take some wine also on this occasion.69
On the Chitalia hill, two miles from Jasdan, there is a temple of Shitalā, the
goddess of small-pox, where children who have lately recovered from that
disease are taken to offer salutations to the goddess. Silver images of human
eye, milk, sugar, curds, grapes, cocoanuts, a sheet of blank paper, and a
number of other things are presented to the goddess on such an occasion.
Some persons vow to visit the goddess with a burning hearth on their heads.
Such vows are discharged on a sātem, i.e., the 7th day of the bright or the
dark half of a month. On Shili Sātem, the 7th day of the dark half of
Shrāvan, there is a large gathering of people at the place.69
The village-gods of Upleta are Kaleshwar, Pragateshwar, Somnāth,
Nīlkanth, Dādmo and Khetalio. Pragateshwar is said to have emerged from
the earth of his own accord and is therefore called Swayambhu (self-
existent). The same is said about Nīlkanth and Somnāth also. The temple of
Dādmo lies a little away from Upleta. Persons suffering from cough observe
vows in his honour and partake of parched gram. There is a devi near
Pragateshwar before whom a sacrifice is performed on the 9th day of the
bright half of Ashvin, and cakes, bread, khichdi and khir are offered.70
In Gondal there is a temple of Gondalio Nāg and one of Nāgnāth Mahādev.
Pure milk is the usual offering made to both the deities. Gondalio Nāg is
installed in Durbārgadh and is white in appearance. Newly married couples
of high class Hindus untie the knots of their marriage-scarves before this
deity. In the Durbārgadh there are tombs of seven ghoris with whose
assistance the first king of Gondal is said to have won his crown. There is
Page 156
also a family goddess of the Bhadeja Rajputs in Gondal known as Ashāpuri,
a vow in whose honour is believed to fulfil all desires.71
There is a female spirit named Meldi in Movaiya who is worshipped by
bhuvās on the 14th day of the dark half of Ashvīn. On that day they heat oil
in an iron pan and take out cakes from the burning oil with unprotected
hands. A goat and a cock are also sacrificed on this occasion, and the meat
is partaken of in order to win the favour of the goddess.72
There is a bedā tree near Movaiya about which the following story is told.
Long ago there was a kanbi (farmer) in Movaiya who used to see a boy
moving in front of him with an uncovered head whenever he was ploughing
his field. One day the kanbi lopped off the hair from the boy’s head who
followed him to his home, entreating him to return the lock of hair. The
kanbi however did not heed him, and concealed the lock of hair in a jar
containing gram. The boy then served the kanbi as a field-boy, when one
day he was asked by his master to take gram out of the jar for sowing. The
boy, who was a bhut, found his lock of hair there, and when once he had
obtained it, he took a very heavy load of gram to the kanbi and bade him
good-bye. But before the boy had fled with his lock of hair, the kanbi
begged of him a boon that a bedā tree should grow in his field, where vows
could be observed in honour of the bhut.72
The villagers in Sayala accompanied by several bhuvās and by musicians
who beat the dhols and the dānklān go outside the village to visit the temple
of Khodiār Mātā on the 15th day of the bright half of Shrāvan. The bhuvās
wind a piece of cotton-thread round the village, and sometimes pour out
milk or water in the same place in order to secure its safety from any
epidemic. On the same occasion four divers, who are generally healthy
young athletes, are presented with an earthen pot each and are made to
stand in the village-tank till the water reaches to their necks. They are asked
to dive simultaneously in the water at a signal from the headman of the
village, and to get out immediately. Each of them is named after one of the
four months of the rainy season and the amount of water in the pot of each
is supposed to indicate the amount of rain which would fall in the respective
months of the next year. After leaving the water the divers break the pots on
a vow in whose honour is believed to fulfil all desires.71
There is a female spirit named Meldi in Movaiya who is worshipped by
bhuvās on the 14th day of the dark half of Ashvīn. On that day they heat oil
in an iron pan and take out cakes from the burning oil with unprotected
hands. A goat and a cock are also sacrificed on this occasion, and the meat
is partaken of in order to win the favour of the goddess.72
There is a bedā tree near Movaiya about which the following story is told.
Long ago there was a kanbi (farmer) in Movaiya who used to see a boy
moving in front of him with an uncovered head whenever he was ploughing
his field. One day the kanbi lopped off the hair from the boy’s head who
followed him to his home, entreating him to return the lock of hair. The
kanbi however did not heed him, and concealed the lock of hair in a jar
containing gram. The boy then served the kanbi as a field-boy, when one
day he was asked by his master to take gram out of the jar for sowing. The
boy, who was a bhut, found his lock of hair there, and when once he had
obtained it, he took a very heavy load of gram to the kanbi and bade him
good-bye. But before the boy had fled with his lock of hair, the kanbi
begged of him a boon that a bedā tree should grow in his field, where vows
could be observed in honour of the bhut.72
The villagers in Sayala accompanied by several bhuvās and by musicians
who beat the dhols and the dānklān go outside the village to visit the temple
of Khodiār Mātā on the 15th day of the bright half of Shrāvan. The bhuvās
wind a piece of cotton-thread round the village, and sometimes pour out
milk or water in the same place in order to secure its safety from any
epidemic. On the same occasion four divers, who are generally healthy
young athletes, are presented with an earthen pot each and are made to
stand in the village-tank till the water reaches to their necks. They are asked
to dive simultaneously in the water at a signal from the headman of the
village, and to get out immediately. Each of them is named after one of the
four months of the rainy season and the amount of water in the pot of each
is supposed to indicate the amount of rain which would fall in the respective
months of the next year. After leaving the water the divers break the pots on
Page 157
the spot, and the fragments are taken away by the people, to be kept in their
jars of corn, in the belief that they will bring prosperity in the ensuing
season. The four divers are then made to run a race on the maidan, and he
who wins the race gets a small plough and a cocoanut as a prize. The
winner is called hālino-jityo, and it is believed that he will be successful in
all his undertakings.
On the same day the bhuvās place a small four-wheeled chariot of the Mātā
outside the village, and it is believed that the chariot carries off the plague,
cholera and similar diseases with it. Such ceremonies are performed in most
of the villages on the Balev holiday (i.e., the Nārel-Purnimā day, or the 15th
day of the bright half of Shrāvan).73
The foundation of a new settlement is carried out in various ways. A series
of unusual accidents befalling the residents of a village makes them
doubtful of the security of their residence, and produces a desire to move to
a safer home. Very often on such occasions the bhuvās or exorcists are
possessed by the Devis, or Mātās, and declare the will of the gods regarding
a new settlement. Sometimes a change of home is recommended to the
villagers in a dream: sometimes a heavenly voice is said to direct the
change, in addressing one of the villagers.74
An astrologer has first to be consulted as to the auspicious date on which
the boundaries of the new settlement should be marked out. Three or four
days before the delimitation, learned Brahmans are sent to purify the chosen
site by the recitation of sacred mantras.75 On the appointed day the
headman of the village leads a procession to the site, and performs the
ceremony of installing the village gods. It is said that, at the time of
founding a new settlement, it is necessary to install and worship the panch-
deva or the five deities, namely, Hanumān, Ganpati, Mahādev, Vishnu and
Devi. Hanumān is installed at the village-gates, and is propitiated with an
offering of churmu and vadān. The images of Ganpati and Vishnu are set up
in a central place in the village, temples being built for them in due curse.
Mahādev is generally installed on the village-boundary, and has a temple
built for him afterwards. Devi may be set up anywhere: her installation is
not permanent nor does she receive systematic worship.76 But more
jars of corn, in the belief that they will bring prosperity in the ensuing
season. The four divers are then made to run a race on the maidan, and he
who wins the race gets a small plough and a cocoanut as a prize. The
winner is called hālino-jityo, and it is believed that he will be successful in
all his undertakings.
On the same day the bhuvās place a small four-wheeled chariot of the Mātā
outside the village, and it is believed that the chariot carries off the plague,
cholera and similar diseases with it. Such ceremonies are performed in most
of the villages on the Balev holiday (i.e., the Nārel-Purnimā day, or the 15th
day of the bright half of Shrāvan).73
The foundation of a new settlement is carried out in various ways. A series
of unusual accidents befalling the residents of a village makes them
doubtful of the security of their residence, and produces a desire to move to
a safer home. Very often on such occasions the bhuvās or exorcists are
possessed by the Devis, or Mātās, and declare the will of the gods regarding
a new settlement. Sometimes a change of home is recommended to the
villagers in a dream: sometimes a heavenly voice is said to direct the
change, in addressing one of the villagers.74
An astrologer has first to be consulted as to the auspicious date on which
the boundaries of the new settlement should be marked out. Three or four
days before the delimitation, learned Brahmans are sent to purify the chosen
site by the recitation of sacred mantras.75 On the appointed day the
headman of the village leads a procession to the site, and performs the
ceremony of installing the village gods. It is said that, at the time of
founding a new settlement, it is necessary to install and worship the panch-
deva or the five deities, namely, Hanumān, Ganpati, Mahādev, Vishnu and
Devi. Hanumān is installed at the village-gates, and is propitiated with an
offering of churmu and vadān. The images of Ganpati and Vishnu are set up
in a central place in the village, temples being built for them in due curse.
Mahādev is generally installed on the village-boundary, and has a temple
built for him afterwards. Devi may be set up anywhere: her installation is
not permanent nor does she receive systematic worship.76 But more
Page 158
generally only Ganpati, Hanumān and Mātā are installed on this occasion.77
Occasionally other deities, such as the Earth, Shesh Nāg,78 the Navagrah
(the nine planets), the pole-star and Kshetrapāl are also worshipped.79
The village-gates are fixed after the ceremony of installation, and a toraṇ—
a string of āsopālav leaves (Jonesia asoka) with a cocoanut in the centre—is
fastened across them near the top.80 Here the ceremony of khāt-muhurt81 is
performed82 and afterwards the headman, accompanied by a Brahman, who
recites mantras, either winds a cotton-thread besmeared with red lac round
the village or pours a stream of milk dhārāvādi along the village
boundaries.83 The headman has further to perform the homa at the gates of
the village, when a company of Brahmans recite holy passages in honour of
Hanumān and Mātā. At the time of the completion of the homa, when the
āhuti (an oblation of ghi) is thrown on the fire, all persons present offer
cocoanuts to the sacrificial fire.84
In some places it is usual to worship the newly chosen site itself, and then
to drive into the ground a wooden peg besmeared with red lac, called the
khili (peg) of Shesh Nāg, which is first ceremoniously worshipped with red
lac, sandal-ointment and rice.85
After these ceremonies, the villagers are at liberty to build their own houses
within the new settlement. When the houses are complete and ready for
habitation, it is necessary to perform the ceremony known as vāstun (or
graha-shānti) for the propitiation of the nine planets. Both the day of
installing the gods and the day of vāstun ceremony, are observed as
festivals, at which Brahmans are feasted, and lāpsi, churmu and kansār are
offered to the gods.86
The new settlement may be named after the deity whose advice brought
about the move or after the headman. It is sometimes named after the
particular incident which drove the people to seek their new home.86
A failure of the harvest is in most cases due to the irregularity of the rains. It
is therefore ascribed to the displeasure of Indra, the god of rain, and Varuna,
Occasionally other deities, such as the Earth, Shesh Nāg,78 the Navagrah
(the nine planets), the pole-star and Kshetrapāl are also worshipped.79
The village-gates are fixed after the ceremony of installation, and a toraṇ—
a string of āsopālav leaves (Jonesia asoka) with a cocoanut in the centre—is
fastened across them near the top.80 Here the ceremony of khāt-muhurt81 is
performed82 and afterwards the headman, accompanied by a Brahman, who
recites mantras, either winds a cotton-thread besmeared with red lac round
the village or pours a stream of milk dhārāvādi along the village
boundaries.83 The headman has further to perform the homa at the gates of
the village, when a company of Brahmans recite holy passages in honour of
Hanumān and Mātā. At the time of the completion of the homa, when the
āhuti (an oblation of ghi) is thrown on the fire, all persons present offer
cocoanuts to the sacrificial fire.84
In some places it is usual to worship the newly chosen site itself, and then
to drive into the ground a wooden peg besmeared with red lac, called the
khili (peg) of Shesh Nāg, which is first ceremoniously worshipped with red
lac, sandal-ointment and rice.85
After these ceremonies, the villagers are at liberty to build their own houses
within the new settlement. When the houses are complete and ready for
habitation, it is necessary to perform the ceremony known as vāstun (or
graha-shānti) for the propitiation of the nine planets. Both the day of
installing the gods and the day of vāstun ceremony, are observed as
festivals, at which Brahmans are feasted, and lāpsi, churmu and kansār are
offered to the gods.86
The new settlement may be named after the deity whose advice brought
about the move or after the headman. It is sometimes named after the
particular incident which drove the people to seek their new home.86
A failure of the harvest is in most cases due to the irregularity of the rains. It
is therefore ascribed to the displeasure of Indra, the god of rain, and Varuna,
Page 159
the god of water. The mode of propitiating these gods has already been
described.
Sometimes a cessation of rains is attributed to the wrath of the village-gods,
whereupon the festival of Ujāṇi is celebrated in order to appease them. One
day, preferably a Sunday, all the inhabitants go outside the village, and rich
viands are cooked to be offered to the village-gods. At the same time, the
headman performs a homa sacrifice and the dainties are partaken of after
the villagers have thrown cocoanuts into the sacrificial fire.
In similar circumstances people sometimes seek the protection of the gods
Annadeva, Annapūrṇā, and Kriyā Bhaudai. Six dokdās87 or six pice are
collected from every house in the village to make what is called a chhakadi,
and the whole amount is then bestowed in charity in the name of the above-
named deities.88
Rain during the Ashleshā and Maghā nakshatras89 is destructive to the
crops, and is a sign of the wrath of Indra, who should be appeased with
sacrificial offerings.90
Diseases among cattle are believed to be brought on by the wrath of minor
deities such as Shitalā Mahākāli91 or the sixty-four Joganis.9293 The bhuvās,
when they are possessed, declare to the people which particular deity is
exasperated, whereupon that deity is conciliated either by offering dainties
or a goat or a ram, or by the observance of Ujāṇi. A dhārāvādi—a stream of
milk—is poured on to the ground adjoining the village side, and toraṇs of
āsopālav leaves (Jonesia asoka) are fastened on the doors of the offended
deity’s temple.94 It is also customary to place baklān and vadān at a spot
where three roads meet in order to propitiate the evil spirits, who frequent
such places.95
Small-pox is supposed to be the result of the displeasure of the goddess
Shitalā. In all cases of small-pox the victim is left to suffer, the only remedy
being the observation of vows in honour of the angry goddess. Different
things are dedicated to the goddess according as the disease affects one part
of the body or another; and they are usually offered on a Sunday or a
described.
Sometimes a cessation of rains is attributed to the wrath of the village-gods,
whereupon the festival of Ujāṇi is celebrated in order to appease them. One
day, preferably a Sunday, all the inhabitants go outside the village, and rich
viands are cooked to be offered to the village-gods. At the same time, the
headman performs a homa sacrifice and the dainties are partaken of after
the villagers have thrown cocoanuts into the sacrificial fire.
In similar circumstances people sometimes seek the protection of the gods
Annadeva, Annapūrṇā, and Kriyā Bhaudai. Six dokdās87 or six pice are
collected from every house in the village to make what is called a chhakadi,
and the whole amount is then bestowed in charity in the name of the above-
named deities.88
Rain during the Ashleshā and Maghā nakshatras89 is destructive to the
crops, and is a sign of the wrath of Indra, who should be appeased with
sacrificial offerings.90
Diseases among cattle are believed to be brought on by the wrath of minor
deities such as Shitalā Mahākāli91 or the sixty-four Joganis.9293 The bhuvās,
when they are possessed, declare to the people which particular deity is
exasperated, whereupon that deity is conciliated either by offering dainties
or a goat or a ram, or by the observance of Ujāṇi. A dhārāvādi—a stream of
milk—is poured on to the ground adjoining the village side, and toraṇs of
āsopālav leaves (Jonesia asoka) are fastened on the doors of the offended
deity’s temple.94 It is also customary to place baklān and vadān at a spot
where three roads meet in order to propitiate the evil spirits, who frequent
such places.95
Small-pox is supposed to be the result of the displeasure of the goddess
Shitalā. In all cases of small-pox the victim is left to suffer, the only remedy
being the observation of vows in honour of the angry goddess. Different
things are dedicated to the goddess according as the disease affects one part
of the body or another; and they are usually offered on a Sunday or a
Page 160
Tuesday. The usual offering consists of kulera,96 a tāv (a sheet of paper),
fried juvāri, fried gram, and other articles varying according to the
symptoms.97
To ward off this disease the women of the village sometimes prepare cakes,
gānthiās,98 etc., on the sixth day of a month, the preparations being
partaken of on the next day, when no fresh food is to be cooked.99
Kharavā affects the hoofs of cattle, in which it produces irritation; it is
generally due to worms in the hoofs. A jantra (a mystical arrangement of
words) of the twelve names of Mahāvir (the great warrior, i.e. Arjun) is
written on a piece of paper, and tied round the neck of the diseased animal,
fastened over the gates through which the cattle pass, or suspended over the
street by which the cattle go out to graze.100 The jantra is as follows:—
Shrisakhā101 Dhanurdhāri Gājidhanā101 Krishna-sakhā.
Dhananjaya Lalanlārkhā101 Kapidhwaj. Jayahari.
Gudākesh Pitabhavā101 Narsinh Pārth.
Sometimes the paper on which the jantra is written is placed in a hollow
bamboo stick which is then fastened over the gates.102 The jantra is
believed to have the power to cure the disease.
Muvā-keshibi causes saliva to flow continuously from the mouths of
animals. A gagarbediun (a piece of leather thong or a piece of black wood,
on which magic spells have been cast) is suspended over the village gates or
is tied to the neck of the animal, in the case of this disease occurring.103
In such diseases as kharavā, sunaku, motudukh (lit. the great malady), valo,
pet-tod,104 Bandhāi-javan,105 a jantra is tied by a piece of indigo-coloured
cloth or by a piece of thread of the same colour, round the neck of the
animal, and is also fastened over the village-gates. A toraṇ is prepared of
the ears of juvāri corn with a cocoanut in the centre, and after magical
incantations have been pronounced over it, is suspended over the village-
fried juvāri, fried gram, and other articles varying according to the
symptoms.97
To ward off this disease the women of the village sometimes prepare cakes,
gānthiās,98 etc., on the sixth day of a month, the preparations being
partaken of on the next day, when no fresh food is to be cooked.99
Kharavā affects the hoofs of cattle, in which it produces irritation; it is
generally due to worms in the hoofs. A jantra (a mystical arrangement of
words) of the twelve names of Mahāvir (the great warrior, i.e. Arjun) is
written on a piece of paper, and tied round the neck of the diseased animal,
fastened over the gates through which the cattle pass, or suspended over the
street by which the cattle go out to graze.100 The jantra is as follows:—
Shrisakhā101 Dhanurdhāri Gājidhanā101 Krishna-sakhā.
Dhananjaya Lalanlārkhā101 Kapidhwaj. Jayahari.
Gudākesh Pitabhavā101 Narsinh Pārth.
Sometimes the paper on which the jantra is written is placed in a hollow
bamboo stick which is then fastened over the gates.102 The jantra is
believed to have the power to cure the disease.
Muvā-keshibi causes saliva to flow continuously from the mouths of
animals. A gagarbediun (a piece of leather thong or a piece of black wood,
on which magic spells have been cast) is suspended over the village gates or
is tied to the neck of the animal, in the case of this disease occurring.103
In such diseases as kharavā, sunaku, motudukh (lit. the great malady), valo,
pet-tod,104 Bandhāi-javan,105 a jantra is tied by a piece of indigo-coloured
cloth or by a piece of thread of the same colour, round the neck of the
animal, and is also fastened over the village-gates. A toraṇ is prepared of
the ears of juvāri corn with a cocoanut in the centre, and after magical
incantations have been pronounced over it, is suspended over the village-
Page 161
gates. All animals passing under the toraṇ are believed to be proof against
the disease.
But if this is not successful in checking the course of the disease, it is usual
to swallow the chelans106 of Mungi Mātā (the Dumb Mother). For this
purpose the bhuvās of the Mātā, who are Bharvāds, are invited to the stalls
of the affected cattle, where they recite magic incantations amidst
tumultuous shouts and yells. After this they are fed with rice, ghi and sugar,
this latter process being called ‘swallowing the chelans of the Mātā.’107
In event of this process being of no avail in restraining the disease, the
headman of the village in the company of his wife performs a homa
sacrifice in the places dedicated to the Mātās, and offers an āhuti—a
sacrificial oblation—when all the villagers dedicate cocoanuts to the
sacrificial fire.108
Sometimes the wrath of the god Gorakhdev is supposed to be responsible
for cattle-diseases. A bunch of the leaves of a poisonous medicinal plant
ānkdo is passed seven times over the body of the ailing animal with the
prayer ‘May Gorakhdev be pleased,’ and a cocoanut is dedicated to the
god.109
Another method of checking cattle-disease is to bury the corpse of an
animal which has died thereof near the village-gates. It is believed that this
puts a stop to any further deaths among cattle from the same disease.110
When such a disease as shili (small-pox), sakharado, or kharavā prevails
largely among cattle, a belief gains ground that the Dheds (who flay the
dead cattle and sell their hides) have poisoned the drinking water of the
cattle in order to increase their earnings.111
The god Kāl-bhairav was brought into existence by the fury of god Shiva,
when he, being extremely angry with Brahmā, cut off the fifth head of the
latter. Kāl-bhairav is the leader of all bhuts (ghosts) and dākans (witches),
and resides at Kāshi (Benares) by the order of Shiva. His favourite haunt is
a cemetery. His image is always represented as fierce and ugly.112
the disease.
But if this is not successful in checking the course of the disease, it is usual
to swallow the chelans106 of Mungi Mātā (the Dumb Mother). For this
purpose the bhuvās of the Mātā, who are Bharvāds, are invited to the stalls
of the affected cattle, where they recite magic incantations amidst
tumultuous shouts and yells. After this they are fed with rice, ghi and sugar,
this latter process being called ‘swallowing the chelans of the Mātā.’107
In event of this process being of no avail in restraining the disease, the
headman of the village in the company of his wife performs a homa
sacrifice in the places dedicated to the Mātās, and offers an āhuti—a
sacrificial oblation—when all the villagers dedicate cocoanuts to the
sacrificial fire.108
Sometimes the wrath of the god Gorakhdev is supposed to be responsible
for cattle-diseases. A bunch of the leaves of a poisonous medicinal plant
ānkdo is passed seven times over the body of the ailing animal with the
prayer ‘May Gorakhdev be pleased,’ and a cocoanut is dedicated to the
god.109
Another method of checking cattle-disease is to bury the corpse of an
animal which has died thereof near the village-gates. It is believed that this
puts a stop to any further deaths among cattle from the same disease.110
When such a disease as shili (small-pox), sakharado, or kharavā prevails
largely among cattle, a belief gains ground that the Dheds (who flay the
dead cattle and sell their hides) have poisoned the drinking water of the
cattle in order to increase their earnings.111
The god Kāl-bhairav was brought into existence by the fury of god Shiva,
when he, being extremely angry with Brahmā, cut off the fifth head of the
latter. Kāl-bhairav is the leader of all bhuts (ghosts) and dākans (witches),
and resides at Kāshi (Benares) by the order of Shiva. His favourite haunt is
a cemetery. His image is always represented as fierce and ugly.112
Page 162
It is said that this god once entered the mouth of Gorakhnath and performed
religious austerities in that strange abode. Although Gorakhnath was nearly
suffocated, he could only persuade Kāl-bhairav to come out by extolling his
glory and by conferring on him the leadership of all bhuts and the
guardianship of the Kotvālu fortress at Kāshi.113
Kāl-bhairav does not command worship on any auspicious occasion. On the
other hand, he is much revered by persons who practise the black art. On
Kāli-chaudas day his devotees worship him in a cemetery, offer an oblation
of baklan, and recite magic incantations till late at night.114
The offerings favoured by Kāl-bhairav are khir,115 cakes of wheat flour,
sugar and vadān.116117 The sacrifice of a live animal is also acceptable.118
The offerings after presentation to the god, are given to black dogs.
Pregnant women in order to secure a safe delivery sometimes vow to
abstain from ghi till they have offered an oblation to Kāl-bhairav.119
The following lines are often repeated in honour of this god120:—
भुक्तिमुक्तिदायकं प्रशस्तञ्चारुविग्रहम्।
भक्तवत्सलं स्थितं समस्तलोकविग्रहम्॥
निष्क्वणन्मनोज्ञहेमकिंकिणीलसत्कटिम्।
काशिकापुराधिनाथं कालभैरवं भजे ॥ १ ॥
(I worship Kāl-bhairav, the giver of food and of salvation, of auspicious and
comely appearance, who is kind to his devotees.)
Ganpati or Ganesh, about whose origin the traditional legends prevail, is
represented with four hands, in one of which he holds a kamandalu (a
gourd), in the second a lādu (or a sweet-ball), in the third a parashu (or an
axe), and in the fourth a jap-māl (or a rosary). He is sometimes called
Dundalo (lit., big-bellied) because of his having a protuberant belly. He puts
on a yellow garment and rides a mouse. His brother is Kārtik-swāmī who
rides a peacock. His favourite dish consists of lādus or sweet-balls of
wheat-flour fried in ghi and sweetened with molasses. Siddhi and Buddhi
religious austerities in that strange abode. Although Gorakhnath was nearly
suffocated, he could only persuade Kāl-bhairav to come out by extolling his
glory and by conferring on him the leadership of all bhuts and the
guardianship of the Kotvālu fortress at Kāshi.113
Kāl-bhairav does not command worship on any auspicious occasion. On the
other hand, he is much revered by persons who practise the black art. On
Kāli-chaudas day his devotees worship him in a cemetery, offer an oblation
of baklan, and recite magic incantations till late at night.114
The offerings favoured by Kāl-bhairav are khir,115 cakes of wheat flour,
sugar and vadān.116117 The sacrifice of a live animal is also acceptable.118
The offerings after presentation to the god, are given to black dogs.
Pregnant women in order to secure a safe delivery sometimes vow to
abstain from ghi till they have offered an oblation to Kāl-bhairav.119
The following lines are often repeated in honour of this god120:—
भुक्तिमुक्तिदायकं प्रशस्तञ्चारुविग्रहम्।
भक्तवत्सलं स्थितं समस्तलोकविग्रहम्॥
निष्क्वणन्मनोज्ञहेमकिंकिणीलसत्कटिम्।
काशिकापुराधिनाथं कालभैरवं भजे ॥ १ ॥
(I worship Kāl-bhairav, the giver of food and of salvation, of auspicious and
comely appearance, who is kind to his devotees.)
Ganpati or Ganesh, about whose origin the traditional legends prevail, is
represented with four hands, in one of which he holds a kamandalu (a
gourd), in the second a lādu (or a sweet-ball), in the third a parashu (or an
axe), and in the fourth a jap-māl (or a rosary). He is sometimes called
Dundalo (lit., big-bellied) because of his having a protuberant belly. He puts
on a yellow garment and rides a mouse. His brother is Kārtik-swāmī who
rides a peacock. His favourite dish consists of lādus or sweet-balls of
wheat-flour fried in ghi and sweetened with molasses. Siddhi and Buddhi
Page 163
are the two wives of Ganpati. Before their marriage their father Vishwarupa
had made a promise that he would bestow the hands of both on
whomsoever circumambulated the whole Earth within one day. Ganpati
reasoned that a cow and a mother are equal in merit to the Earth and by
passing round the former, he got the hands of both. Ganpati is said to be the
fastest writer of all, so that the sage Vyāsa secured his services as a scribe,
at the instance of Brahmā, in writing the Mahābhārat. When Rāvan had
conquered all the gods and made them serve in his household, Ganpati had
to become a cowherd and to look after cows and goats.121
On Vaishākh sud choth, known as Ganpati choth, i.e., the fourth day of the
bright half of Vaishākh, Ganpati is ceremoniously worshipped with red lead,
red flowers, milk, curds, honey, etc. The image of the god is besmeared
with red lead and ghi, and the remnant of this ointment is applied to the
doors and windows of the house.122 Sweet-balls of wheat-flour fried in ghi
and sweetened with molasses are first dedicated to Ganpati and are
afterwards partaken of as the god’s gift.123
The people of Mahārāshtra observe Ganpati choth on the 4th day of the
bright half of Bhādrapad, when an earthen image of Ganpati is made and
worshipped with twenty kinds of leaves.124
It is a custom among the Vaishnavas to draw an image of Ganpati in those
vessels which are to be used for cooking food at the time of performing the
obsequies of a deceased Vaishnava.125
The Mātrikās are sixteen in number, and are worshipped on such auspicious
occasions as a yajna (i.e., a sacrifice), a wedding, or the ceremony known
as vāstu.126 Their installation consists in painting the following marks with
red lac on the back walls of a house.
. . . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . .
. . .
had made a promise that he would bestow the hands of both on
whomsoever circumambulated the whole Earth within one day. Ganpati
reasoned that a cow and a mother are equal in merit to the Earth and by
passing round the former, he got the hands of both. Ganpati is said to be the
fastest writer of all, so that the sage Vyāsa secured his services as a scribe,
at the instance of Brahmā, in writing the Mahābhārat. When Rāvan had
conquered all the gods and made them serve in his household, Ganpati had
to become a cowherd and to look after cows and goats.121
On Vaishākh sud choth, known as Ganpati choth, i.e., the fourth day of the
bright half of Vaishākh, Ganpati is ceremoniously worshipped with red lead,
red flowers, milk, curds, honey, etc. The image of the god is besmeared
with red lead and ghi, and the remnant of this ointment is applied to the
doors and windows of the house.122 Sweet-balls of wheat-flour fried in ghi
and sweetened with molasses are first dedicated to Ganpati and are
afterwards partaken of as the god’s gift.123
The people of Mahārāshtra observe Ganpati choth on the 4th day of the
bright half of Bhādrapad, when an earthen image of Ganpati is made and
worshipped with twenty kinds of leaves.124
It is a custom among the Vaishnavas to draw an image of Ganpati in those
vessels which are to be used for cooking food at the time of performing the
obsequies of a deceased Vaishnava.125
The Mātrikās are sixteen in number, and are worshipped on such auspicious
occasions as a yajna (i.e., a sacrifice), a wedding, or the ceremony known
as vāstu.126 Their installation consists in painting the following marks with
red lac on the back walls of a house.
. . . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . .
. . .
Page 164
. .
.
The marks are besmeared with molasses, and a little ghi and a piece of
some precious metal is affixed to them.127 At the time of a marriage,
fourteen are worshipped in the house, one outside the village limits, and one
near the front door of the house where the wedding is celebrated.128
The Mātrikās or Mātās are worshipped during the Navarātra holidays also.
On this occasion small morias or earthen bowls with a hole in the centre of
each, are plastered with khadi (red or green earth) and kāyā; and young girls
carry them on their heads with burning lamps from door to door. At each
house they receive oil for the lamp and a handful of corn. On the last day,
i.e., on the ninth day, all the bowls are placed on the special site dedicated
to the Mātās. The songs, which are also accompanied by dancing, are called
garabi or garabā.129
The Mātrikās are also supposed to be the grahas or planets which influence
the life of a child in the womb, and their worship is believed to bring about
an easy delivery.130
There is also a family goddess of the name of Mātrikā. In worshipping her,
seven round spots are painted on a wall with red lac, and ghi is poured over
them in such a manner as to form five small relās (streams). A mixture of
molasses and ghi is then applied to these spots with a piece of ādāchh (red
cotton yarn). By this process the devotee secures the motherly regard of the
goddess.131
One of the deities which preside over child-birth is Randal Mātā or Rannā
Devi, who is said to be the wife of the Sun.132 In order to secure an easy
delivery, pregnant women take a vow that they will invite one or more lotās
(bowls) of this Mātā. The process of “inviting the lotās” is as follows:—
The tufts round the shell of a cocoanut are pulled out, the nut is besmeared
with chalk, and marks representing two eyes and a nose are painted on it.
(Or the nut is so placed that the two spots on its surface represent eyes, and
.
The marks are besmeared with molasses, and a little ghi and a piece of
some precious metal is affixed to them.127 At the time of a marriage,
fourteen are worshipped in the house, one outside the village limits, and one
near the front door of the house where the wedding is celebrated.128
The Mātrikās or Mātās are worshipped during the Navarātra holidays also.
On this occasion small morias or earthen bowls with a hole in the centre of
each, are plastered with khadi (red or green earth) and kāyā; and young girls
carry them on their heads with burning lamps from door to door. At each
house they receive oil for the lamp and a handful of corn. On the last day,
i.e., on the ninth day, all the bowls are placed on the special site dedicated
to the Mātās. The songs, which are also accompanied by dancing, are called
garabi or garabā.129
The Mātrikās are also supposed to be the grahas or planets which influence
the life of a child in the womb, and their worship is believed to bring about
an easy delivery.130
There is also a family goddess of the name of Mātrikā. In worshipping her,
seven round spots are painted on a wall with red lac, and ghi is poured over
them in such a manner as to form five small relās (streams). A mixture of
molasses and ghi is then applied to these spots with a piece of ādāchh (red
cotton yarn). By this process the devotee secures the motherly regard of the
goddess.131
One of the deities which preside over child-birth is Randal Mātā or Rannā
Devi, who is said to be the wife of the Sun.132 In order to secure an easy
delivery, pregnant women take a vow that they will invite one or more lotās
(bowls) of this Mātā. The process of “inviting the lotās” is as follows:—
The tufts round the shell of a cocoanut are pulled out, the nut is besmeared
with chalk, and marks representing two eyes and a nose are painted on it.
(Or the nut is so placed that the two spots on its surface represent eyes, and
Page 165
the pointed tuft of fibres between them serves the purpose of a nose). A
bowl is placed on a piece of cloth stretched on a wooden stool, and the
cocoanut is placed over the bowl. It is then dressed in elegant female attire,
and a ghi lamp is kept constantly burning near it. This completes the
sthāpan or installation of Randal Mātā. Women bow down before this
representation of the Mātā, and sing melodious tunes in its presence. On the
morning of the following day, the image is carried to the temple of the
village Mātā, the cocoanut is deposited there, and the garments are brought
home. The cocoanut is subsequently taken by the Brahman attendant of the
Mātā.
On the day of the installation it is customary to invite five gorāṇis133
(married women whose husbands are living) to a feast of khir and cakes. On
the next day, when the Mātā is sent away, three virgins are entertained with
rice, sugar and milk.134
In some communities a custom prevails of “inviting the lotās of the Mātās”
on the occasion of the first pregnancy of a woman. On the day on which the
lotās are to be invited, the pregnant woman takes a bath early in the
morning, and calls upon thirteen gorāṇis, whom she invites to dinner by
marking their foreheads with red lac. A Brāhman is called to set up the
Mātās, whose installation takes place in the same manner as that of Randal.
The piece of cloth spread on the wooden stool is required to be green. When
the gorāṇis sit down to the dinner, the pregnant woman washes their right
toes with milk and swallows that milk as charanāmrit (lit. the nectar of the
feet). The gorāṇis are required to taste a morsel of some preparation of milk
before they begin their meal. At night, a company of women dance in a
circle round the Mātās, singing songs. Next morning a bhuvā is called, who
declares the will of the Mātās. On receiving a satisfactory reply from the
bhuvā, the party disperses.135
The goddesses Bahucharāji (or Bechrāji) and Ambāji are sometimes
worshipped for the sake of safety during childbirth. The ceremony of
Nāndi-Shrāddha which was performed when Rāma was born is sometimes
gone through at the birth of a child.136
bowl is placed on a piece of cloth stretched on a wooden stool, and the
cocoanut is placed over the bowl. It is then dressed in elegant female attire,
and a ghi lamp is kept constantly burning near it. This completes the
sthāpan or installation of Randal Mātā. Women bow down before this
representation of the Mātā, and sing melodious tunes in its presence. On the
morning of the following day, the image is carried to the temple of the
village Mātā, the cocoanut is deposited there, and the garments are brought
home. The cocoanut is subsequently taken by the Brahman attendant of the
Mātā.
On the day of the installation it is customary to invite five gorāṇis133
(married women whose husbands are living) to a feast of khir and cakes. On
the next day, when the Mātā is sent away, three virgins are entertained with
rice, sugar and milk.134
In some communities a custom prevails of “inviting the lotās of the Mātās”
on the occasion of the first pregnancy of a woman. On the day on which the
lotās are to be invited, the pregnant woman takes a bath early in the
morning, and calls upon thirteen gorāṇis, whom she invites to dinner by
marking their foreheads with red lac. A Brāhman is called to set up the
Mātās, whose installation takes place in the same manner as that of Randal.
The piece of cloth spread on the wooden stool is required to be green. When
the gorāṇis sit down to the dinner, the pregnant woman washes their right
toes with milk and swallows that milk as charanāmrit (lit. the nectar of the
feet). The gorāṇis are required to taste a morsel of some preparation of milk
before they begin their meal. At night, a company of women dance in a
circle round the Mātās, singing songs. Next morning a bhuvā is called, who
declares the will of the Mātās. On receiving a satisfactory reply from the
bhuvā, the party disperses.135
The goddesses Bahucharāji (or Bechrāji) and Ambāji are sometimes
worshipped for the sake of safety during childbirth. The ceremony of
Nāndi-Shrāddha which was performed when Rāma was born is sometimes
gone through at the birth of a child.136
Page 166
The deities of the forest reside in groves of trees or near the Piludi tree, to
which their devotees must go in order to fulfil their vows.137 These deities
do not receive any formal worship. But they are noted for the cure of certain
diseases, and the groves which they haunt are frequently visited by afflicted
persons. These deities are installed in those places where they have
manifested their powers.138
There is a belief that if unmarried persons touch sindur or red lead, a cobra
deity of the forest, Kshetrapāl, takes them in marriage. But the danger can
be averted by vowing to dedicate khichaḍi, red lead, a dokado139 and some
fruit to this god at the time of marriage.140
1 The following couplet mentions all of them:
अश्वत्थामा बलिर्व्यासो हनूमांश्च बिभीषणः ।
कृ पः परशुरामश्च सप्तैते चिरजीविनः ॥
↑
2 K. D. Desai, from the answers of various Schoolmasters. ↑
3 A group of gods supposed to be inferior manifestations of Shiva, who is said to be the head of
the group. ↑
4 The Schoolmaster of Vasavad. ↑
5 The Schoolmaster of Rajpara. ↑
6 Kundalan is the circle formed round the utār by a bhuvā, after he has placed the utār in a
cemetery or over a crossway.—The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
7 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
8 This is the day to learn such arts as that of muth, chot, māran, etc., i.e., the art of doing bodily
injuries by means of magic even to persons who are at a distant place. The process is gone through in
a cemetery at the dead of night.—The Schoolmaster of Rajpara. ↑
9 The Schoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka. ↑
10 A poisonous plant, the leaves of which are used in fomenting in cases of palpitation and of
stomach troubles.—The Deputy Educational Inspector, Prānt Hālār. ↑
11 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Prānt Hālār. ↑
which their devotees must go in order to fulfil their vows.137 These deities
do not receive any formal worship. But they are noted for the cure of certain
diseases, and the groves which they haunt are frequently visited by afflicted
persons. These deities are installed in those places where they have
manifested their powers.138
There is a belief that if unmarried persons touch sindur or red lead, a cobra
deity of the forest, Kshetrapāl, takes them in marriage. But the danger can
be averted by vowing to dedicate khichaḍi, red lead, a dokado139 and some
fruit to this god at the time of marriage.140
1 The following couplet mentions all of them:
अश्वत्थामा बलिर्व्यासो हनूमांश्च बिभीषणः ।
कृ पः परशुरामश्च सप्तैते चिरजीविनः ॥
↑
2 K. D. Desai, from the answers of various Schoolmasters. ↑
3 A group of gods supposed to be inferior manifestations of Shiva, who is said to be the head of
the group. ↑
4 The Schoolmaster of Vasavad. ↑
5 The Schoolmaster of Rajpara. ↑
6 Kundalan is the circle formed round the utār by a bhuvā, after he has placed the utār in a
cemetery or over a crossway.—The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
7 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
8 This is the day to learn such arts as that of muth, chot, māran, etc., i.e., the art of doing bodily
injuries by means of magic even to persons who are at a distant place. The process is gone through in
a cemetery at the dead of night.—The Schoolmaster of Rajpara. ↑
9 The Schoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka. ↑
10 A poisonous plant, the leaves of which are used in fomenting in cases of palpitation and of
stomach troubles.—The Deputy Educational Inspector, Prānt Hālār. ↑
11 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Prānt Hālār. ↑
Page 167
12 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
13 The Schoolmaster of Songadh. ↑
14 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
15 The panoti cannot affect anybody who has an elder male relative living, i.e., it influences only
the eldest male member of a family.—K. D. Desai. ↑
16 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
17 The Schoolmaster of Sanka. ↑
18 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
19 K. D. Desai. ↑
20 A sweet preparation of wheat flour fried in ghi. ↑
21 Sweet balls of wheat flour fried and afterwards soaked in ghi. ↑
22 Small biscuit-sized cakes of pulse flour treated with spices and fried in oil—K. D. Desai. ↑
23 The Schoolmaster of Rajpara. ↑
24 A ghāni is that quantity of oil seeds which is put in at one time to be crushed in an oil mill. ↑
25 K. D. Desai. ↑
26 The Schoolmaster of Aman. ↑
27 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
28 A mixture of milk, honey, curds, sugar and ghi. ↑
29 The Schoolmaster of Rajpara. ↑
30 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
31 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
32 The Vasus are a class of deities, eight in number, and are often collectively called Ashtāvasus. ↑
33 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
34 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthāshālā. ↑
35 The Schoolmaster of Rajpara. ↑
36 The Schoolmaster of Charadwa. ↑
37 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
13 The Schoolmaster of Songadh. ↑
14 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
15 The panoti cannot affect anybody who has an elder male relative living, i.e., it influences only
the eldest male member of a family.—K. D. Desai. ↑
16 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
17 The Schoolmaster of Sanka. ↑
18 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
19 K. D. Desai. ↑
20 A sweet preparation of wheat flour fried in ghi. ↑
21 Sweet balls of wheat flour fried and afterwards soaked in ghi. ↑
22 Small biscuit-sized cakes of pulse flour treated with spices and fried in oil—K. D. Desai. ↑
23 The Schoolmaster of Rajpara. ↑
24 A ghāni is that quantity of oil seeds which is put in at one time to be crushed in an oil mill. ↑
25 K. D. Desai. ↑
26 The Schoolmaster of Aman. ↑
27 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
28 A mixture of milk, honey, curds, sugar and ghi. ↑
29 The Schoolmaster of Rajpara. ↑
30 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
31 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
32 The Vasus are a class of deities, eight in number, and are often collectively called Ashtāvasus. ↑
33 Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
34 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthāshālā. ↑
35 The Schoolmaster of Rajpara. ↑
36 The Schoolmaster of Charadwa. ↑
37 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
Page 168
38 Vide Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. VIII, page 414. ↑
39 Māyā, in philosophy, means the illusion, by virtue of which one considers the unreal universe as
existent and distinct from the supreme spirit. Here it means the effect of māyā, the unreal splendour
of the world, in fact phenomena opposed to the noumenon. ↑
40 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
41 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
42 Kori may mean either a new garment or an unused earthen jar. ↑
43 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
44 See p. 42 Supra. ↑
45 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
46 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
47 The Schoolmaster of Chok. ↑
48 The Schoolmaster of Mota Devalia. ↑
49 An offering of all sorts of dainties and vegetables. ↑
50 The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa. ↑
51 Milk and rice boiled together and sweetened with sugar. ↑
52 I. e. persons who have taken the vow of celibacy. ↑
53 The Schoolmaster of Mojidad. ↑
54 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
55 The Schoolmaster of Patanvav. ↑
56 The Schoolmaster of Sultanpur. ↑
57 The Schoolmaster of Luvaria. ↑
58 The Schoolmaster of Aman. ↑
59 The Schoolmaster of Charadwa. ↑
60 The Schoolmaster of Charadwa. ↑
61 The Schoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka. ↑
62 Nehado is the residence of Bharvāds or shepherds. ↑
63 The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwada. ↑
39 Māyā, in philosophy, means the illusion, by virtue of which one considers the unreal universe as
existent and distinct from the supreme spirit. Here it means the effect of māyā, the unreal splendour
of the world, in fact phenomena opposed to the noumenon. ↑
40 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
41 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
42 Kori may mean either a new garment or an unused earthen jar. ↑
43 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
44 See p. 42 Supra. ↑
45 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
46 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
47 The Schoolmaster of Chok. ↑
48 The Schoolmaster of Mota Devalia. ↑
49 An offering of all sorts of dainties and vegetables. ↑
50 The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa. ↑
51 Milk and rice boiled together and sweetened with sugar. ↑
52 I. e. persons who have taken the vow of celibacy. ↑
53 The Schoolmaster of Mojidad. ↑
54 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
55 The Schoolmaster of Patanvav. ↑
56 The Schoolmaster of Sultanpur. ↑
57 The Schoolmaster of Luvaria. ↑
58 The Schoolmaster of Aman. ↑
59 The Schoolmaster of Charadwa. ↑
60 The Schoolmaster of Charadwa. ↑
61 The Schoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka. ↑
62 Nehado is the residence of Bharvāds or shepherds. ↑
63 The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwada. ↑
Page 169
64 The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwada. ↑
65 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
66 The Schoolmaster of Goda. ↑
67 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
68 The Schoolmaster of Jasdan. ↑
69 The Schoolmaster of Jasdan. ↑
70 The Schoolmaster of Upleta. ↑
71 The Schoolmaster of Gondal Taluka and the Head Mistress of girls’ school, Gondal. ↑
72 The Schoolmaster of Movaiya. ↑
73 The Schoolmaster of Sayala. ↑
74 K. D. Desai. ↑
75 The Schoolmaster of Khirasara. ↑
76 The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa. ↑
77 The Schoolmasters of Jodia and Khirasara. ↑
78 The celebrated serpent of one thousand heads who supports all the worlds. ↑
79 The Schoolmaster of Rajpara. ↑
80 The Schoolmasters of Chhatrasa and Rajpara. ↑
81 Vide Chapter I, p. 29. ↑
82 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
83 The Schoolmasters of Khirasara, Jetpur and Rajpara. ↑
84 The Schoolmasters of Chhatrasa and Jetpur. ↑
85 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
86 K. D. Desai. ↑
87 100 dokdās = 1 rupee. ↑
88 The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa. ↑
89 The time taken by the sun to move through the constellations Ashleshā and Maghā, which is
approximately the month of August. ↑
65 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
66 The Schoolmaster of Goda. ↑
67 The Schoolmaster of Lilapur. ↑
68 The Schoolmaster of Jasdan. ↑
69 The Schoolmaster of Jasdan. ↑
70 The Schoolmaster of Upleta. ↑
71 The Schoolmaster of Gondal Taluka and the Head Mistress of girls’ school, Gondal. ↑
72 The Schoolmaster of Movaiya. ↑
73 The Schoolmaster of Sayala. ↑
74 K. D. Desai. ↑
75 The Schoolmaster of Khirasara. ↑
76 The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa. ↑
77 The Schoolmasters of Jodia and Khirasara. ↑
78 The celebrated serpent of one thousand heads who supports all the worlds. ↑
79 The Schoolmaster of Rajpara. ↑
80 The Schoolmasters of Chhatrasa and Rajpara. ↑
81 Vide Chapter I, p. 29. ↑
82 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
83 The Schoolmasters of Khirasara, Jetpur and Rajpara. ↑
84 The Schoolmasters of Chhatrasa and Jetpur. ↑
85 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
86 K. D. Desai. ↑
87 100 dokdās = 1 rupee. ↑
88 The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa. ↑
89 The time taken by the sun to move through the constellations Ashleshā and Maghā, which is
approximately the month of August. ↑
Page 170
90 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
91 The Schoolmaster of Kotda-Sangani. ↑
92 The Schoolmaster or Dadvi. ↑
93 Generally the same ideas prevail regarding diseases of cattle as in the case of human ailments.
Dorās or magical threads and slips of paper are often used in cases of fever. In epidemics like cholera
pollution is believed to be at the root of the evil. Bhangis are engaged to prepare images of corn to
keep off the disease, and they forfeit their homesteads and property if the epidemic is not checked
thereby.—The Schoolmaster of Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. (These images represent
evil spirits presiding over particular diseases. Certain oblations are offered to these evil spirits, and
after the recital of certain incantations they are either burnt or buried.) ↑
94 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
95 The Schoolmaster of Mota-Devalia. ↑
96 Small round cakes of wheat flour sweetened with molasses and fried in ghi. ↑
97 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
98 A preparation of fine gram flour treated with spices, which after being made into a thick paste, is
passed through a sieve into boiling oil. ↑
99 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
100 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
101 Shrisakhā, Gājidhanā and Pitabhavā are most probably corruptions of Shrishasakhā,
Gāndivadhanvā and Prithābhava respectively; Lalanlārkhā perhaps of Lalāma narākhya. ↑
102 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
103 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
104 A disease which causes severe pain in the stomach of the affected animal. ↑
105 A disease which stiffens the limbs of animals and renders them incapable of any movement. ↑
106 The word chela in ordinary language means a pancake (pudalo) of wheat or gram, sweet or salt,
and it is a favourite oblation to Mātā. So the word chelan may have come to be used for any oblation
to Mātā and the expression swallowing the chelans may mean partaking of the oblation or offering of
the Mātā. ↑
107 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
108 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
91 The Schoolmaster of Kotda-Sangani. ↑
92 The Schoolmaster or Dadvi. ↑
93 Generally the same ideas prevail regarding diseases of cattle as in the case of human ailments.
Dorās or magical threads and slips of paper are often used in cases of fever. In epidemics like cholera
pollution is believed to be at the root of the evil. Bhangis are engaged to prepare images of corn to
keep off the disease, and they forfeit their homesteads and property if the epidemic is not checked
thereby.—The Schoolmaster of Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. (These images represent
evil spirits presiding over particular diseases. Certain oblations are offered to these evil spirits, and
after the recital of certain incantations they are either burnt or buried.) ↑
94 The Schoolmaster of Dadvi. ↑
95 The Schoolmaster of Mota-Devalia. ↑
96 Small round cakes of wheat flour sweetened with molasses and fried in ghi. ↑
97 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
98 A preparation of fine gram flour treated with spices, which after being made into a thick paste, is
passed through a sieve into boiling oil. ↑
99 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
100 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
101 Shrisakhā, Gājidhanā and Pitabhavā are most probably corruptions of Shrishasakhā,
Gāndivadhanvā and Prithābhava respectively; Lalanlārkhā perhaps of Lalāma narākhya. ↑
102 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
103 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
104 A disease which causes severe pain in the stomach of the affected animal. ↑
105 A disease which stiffens the limbs of animals and renders them incapable of any movement. ↑
106 The word chela in ordinary language means a pancake (pudalo) of wheat or gram, sweet or salt,
and it is a favourite oblation to Mātā. So the word chelan may have come to be used for any oblation
to Mātā and the expression swallowing the chelans may mean partaking of the oblation or offering of
the Mātā. ↑
107 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
108 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
Page 171
109 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
110 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
111 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
112 The Schoolmaster of Moti Murad. ↑
113 The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa. ↑
114 The Schoolmaster of Jodia and Dodiala. ↑
115 Milk and rice boiled together and sweetened with sugar. ↑
116 Vide page 48. ↑
117 The Schoolmaster of Aman. ↑
118 The Schoolmaster of Patanvav. ↑
119 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
120 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
121 The Schoolmaster of Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. ↑
122 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
123 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
124 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
125 The Schoolmaster of Jasdan. ↑
126 The Schoolmaster of Aman. ↑
127 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
128 The Schoolmaster of Aman. ↑
129 The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwada. ↑
130 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
131 The Schoolmaster of Sanka. ↑
132 The Schoolmaster of Sanka. ↑
133 Also known as surāsaṇis. ↑
134 The Schoolmaster of Anandpur. ↑
135 K. D. Desai. ↑
110 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
111 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
112 The Schoolmaster of Moti Murad. ↑
113 The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa. ↑
114 The Schoolmaster of Jodia and Dodiala. ↑
115 Milk and rice boiled together and sweetened with sugar. ↑
116 Vide page 48. ↑
117 The Schoolmaster of Aman. ↑
118 The Schoolmaster of Patanvav. ↑
119 The Shastri of Jetpur Pāthashālā. ↑
120 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
121 The Schoolmaster of Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. ↑
122 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
123 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
124 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
125 The Schoolmaster of Jasdan. ↑
126 The Schoolmaster of Aman. ↑
127 The Schoolmaster of Dhhank. ↑
128 The Schoolmaster of Aman. ↑
129 The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwada. ↑
130 The Schoolmaster of Ganod. ↑
131 The Schoolmaster of Sanka. ↑
132 The Schoolmaster of Sanka. ↑
133 Also known as surāsaṇis. ↑
134 The Schoolmaster of Anandpur. ↑
135 K. D. Desai. ↑
Page 172
136 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
137 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
138 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
139 A ball of molasses and sesamum seeds mixed together. ↑
140 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
137 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
138 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
139 A ball of molasses and sesamum seeds mixed together. ↑
140 The Schoolmaster of Kolki. ↑
Page 173
Page 174
CHAPTER III.
Page 175
DISEASE DEITIES.
Such diseases as cholera and small-pox are believed to be brought on by the
wrath of the Mātās or Devis caused by neglecting to offer the usual
oblations. In order to propitiate them, Brāhmans are engaged to recite the
Chandipāth and to offer havans (sacrificial offerings). Very often the
festival known as ujani is observed, in which all the villagers go outside the
village to take their meals, and return home in the evening after witnessing
the āhuti (the offering of cocoanuts to the sacrificial fire).1
Another belief personifies the diseases as malin or evil spirits who are fond
of human prey. To ward them off, a dhārā-vādi, or stream of milk, is poured
out in the village or a magic thread is passed round. The chariot2 of the
Mātā is driven through the village with the same object.3
There is a popular tradition that in ancient times cholera was subjugated by
king Vikrama, and was buried underground. Once upon a time the British
excavated the place in the belief that treasure was concealed there, and thus
cholera was released. After many soldiers had fallen victims, the disease
deity was at last propitiated by an oblation, and was handed over to the
Bhangis (or scavengers).4
This association of the Bhangis with cholera is present in most of the beliefs
current about the disease. There is a story that once upon a time a number of
students had put up in a house by which a Bhangi was in the habit of
passing frequently. He daily used to hear the students reciting the sacred
texts and this produced in his mind the desire to become a Sanskrit scholar.
For this purpose, having concealed his low birth, he went to Benares and by
diligent study, soon became a pandit. He even married a girl of high caste.
But his imposture being at last discovered, he burnt himself to death, and
his ashes gave rise to the disease known as cholera.5
Such diseases as cholera and small-pox are believed to be brought on by the
wrath of the Mātās or Devis caused by neglecting to offer the usual
oblations. In order to propitiate them, Brāhmans are engaged to recite the
Chandipāth and to offer havans (sacrificial offerings). Very often the
festival known as ujani is observed, in which all the villagers go outside the
village to take their meals, and return home in the evening after witnessing
the āhuti (the offering of cocoanuts to the sacrificial fire).1
Another belief personifies the diseases as malin or evil spirits who are fond
of human prey. To ward them off, a dhārā-vādi, or stream of milk, is poured
out in the village or a magic thread is passed round. The chariot2 of the
Mātā is driven through the village with the same object.3
There is a popular tradition that in ancient times cholera was subjugated by
king Vikrama, and was buried underground. Once upon a time the British
excavated the place in the belief that treasure was concealed there, and thus
cholera was released. After many soldiers had fallen victims, the disease
deity was at last propitiated by an oblation, and was handed over to the
Bhangis (or scavengers).4
This association of the Bhangis with cholera is present in most of the beliefs
current about the disease. There is a story that once upon a time a number of
students had put up in a house by which a Bhangi was in the habit of
passing frequently. He daily used to hear the students reciting the sacred
texts and this produced in his mind the desire to become a Sanskrit scholar.
For this purpose, having concealed his low birth, he went to Benares and by
diligent study, soon became a pandit. He even married a girl of high caste.
But his imposture being at last discovered, he burnt himself to death, and
his ashes gave rise to the disease known as cholera.5
Page 176
At the present day, if the epidemic breaks out, the Bhangis are often
suspected in some way or other of having brought it about. It is said that
they make statues of the flour of adad (phaseolus radiatus) and after
piercing them with needles and pins, either throw them into the wells which
are daily used by the villagers6 or bury them in a spot over which the people
frequently pass. The whole affair is managed very secretly and at the dead
of night. The slightest rumour of such proceedings causes a tumult in the
village, and the Bhangis are then in danger of being severely handled by the
enraged villagers.7
Another method by which the Bhangis are supposed to bring about cholera
is to sprinkle the blood of a black cow on the image of Hanumān. The god
is deeply offended at the insult, and in consequence spreads cholera in the
neighbourhood. For this reason, offerings are burnt before Hanumān in
order to stop an epidemic of cholera.8
Bhangis are also supposed by some to accomplish the same result by the
help of malin or evil deities who are first gratified by the offering of
victims.9 One of such deities is Rāmdepir, to whom bali-dān (offering of a
victim) is made by the people, through the medium of Bhangis, for the
prevention of cholera.9
An outbreak of cholera offers a good opportunity to the Bhangis, who extort
dainties and small sums of money from the people. Persons attacked by
cholera often seek the services of a Bhangi and promise him liberal gifts if
they are cured. The latter generally treats his patients by tying a magical
thread round their elbows.10
It is said that the Bhangis have to present an offering to their malin or evil
goddess every third year, and that, in so doing, they kill a black animal
before the goddess. They then place an iron pan full of sesamum oil on the
fire, and suspend the body of the animal above it. It is believed that as many
human beings will fall victims to cholera as the number of the drops of
blood that fall from the body of the animal into the iron pan.11
suspected in some way or other of having brought it about. It is said that
they make statues of the flour of adad (phaseolus radiatus) and after
piercing them with needles and pins, either throw them into the wells which
are daily used by the villagers6 or bury them in a spot over which the people
frequently pass. The whole affair is managed very secretly and at the dead
of night. The slightest rumour of such proceedings causes a tumult in the
village, and the Bhangis are then in danger of being severely handled by the
enraged villagers.7
Another method by which the Bhangis are supposed to bring about cholera
is to sprinkle the blood of a black cow on the image of Hanumān. The god
is deeply offended at the insult, and in consequence spreads cholera in the
neighbourhood. For this reason, offerings are burnt before Hanumān in
order to stop an epidemic of cholera.8
Bhangis are also supposed by some to accomplish the same result by the
help of malin or evil deities who are first gratified by the offering of
victims.9 One of such deities is Rāmdepir, to whom bali-dān (offering of a
victim) is made by the people, through the medium of Bhangis, for the
prevention of cholera.9
An outbreak of cholera offers a good opportunity to the Bhangis, who extort
dainties and small sums of money from the people. Persons attacked by
cholera often seek the services of a Bhangi and promise him liberal gifts if
they are cured. The latter generally treats his patients by tying a magical
thread round their elbows.10
It is said that the Bhangis have to present an offering to their malin or evil
goddess every third year, and that, in so doing, they kill a black animal
before the goddess. They then place an iron pan full of sesamum oil on the
fire, and suspend the body of the animal above it. It is believed that as many
human beings will fall victims to cholera as the number of the drops of
blood that fall from the body of the animal into the iron pan.11
Page 177
Another deity whose wrath is supposed to be responsible for the breaking
out of cholera is Mahāmāri Devi.12 The worshippers of this goddess are
Bhangis. She is believed to send forth cholera when her oblations are
stopped,13 and her favour is regained by renewing the offer of these
oblations. Sometimes the Navachandi sacrifice is performed at the principal
village-gates, and the chandipāth is recited at the other gates. A number of
Brāhmans and virgins are also feasted, and presented with garments. A
magic cotton thread is passed round the village and a dhārā-vādi, or stream
of milk, is poured out. The bhuvās go round the village playing upon the
harsh unpleasant danklan. A goat is then taken to the temple of the Mātā,
and the bhuvās, after cutting out its tongue, dip their hands in its blood and
strike them against the doors of the temple. The goat is then killed and
similar blood-marks are made upon every door in the village as well as on
the village-gates, where an iron nail is driven into the ground with an
incantation. A lime is then cut, and an oblation is offered to the Mātā. Such
a process is believed to stop the progress of the epidemic.13
Other deities connected in popular belief with cholera are the goddesses
Visuchikā14 and Chandikā.15 Visuchikā is conciliated by burnt offerings: the
recitation of the chandipāth wins the favour of Chandikā. There is also a
giantess named Karkatā who is supposed to be responsible for cholera. She
is said to have sprung from the sweat on the forehead of Brahmā and to
reside in the chandra mandal (or lunar sphere).16
One of the remedies adopted to stop an epidemic of cholera is to propitiate
Shiva by the performance of Rudrayāg,17 Mahārudra,17 Shatachandi,17
Homahavan and by bestowing gifts on Brāhmans and other holy men.18
Sometimes vows are observed with the same object in honour of a minor
local deity named Lala Hardev.19 Another method of driving off the disease
is to convey it to the body of a goat or a ram, or a he-buffalo, and to drive
the animal out of the village.20
Small-pox is believed to be the act of the goddess Shitalā Mātā, who
spreads the disease whenever she is desirous of having victims.21 Thus, in
cases of small-pox, the patient very often receives no medical treatment, the
out of cholera is Mahāmāri Devi.12 The worshippers of this goddess are
Bhangis. She is believed to send forth cholera when her oblations are
stopped,13 and her favour is regained by renewing the offer of these
oblations. Sometimes the Navachandi sacrifice is performed at the principal
village-gates, and the chandipāth is recited at the other gates. A number of
Brāhmans and virgins are also feasted, and presented with garments. A
magic cotton thread is passed round the village and a dhārā-vādi, or stream
of milk, is poured out. The bhuvās go round the village playing upon the
harsh unpleasant danklan. A goat is then taken to the temple of the Mātā,
and the bhuvās, after cutting out its tongue, dip their hands in its blood and
strike them against the doors of the temple. The goat is then killed and
similar blood-marks are made upon every door in the village as well as on
the village-gates, where an iron nail is driven into the ground with an
incantation. A lime is then cut, and an oblation is offered to the Mātā. Such
a process is believed to stop the progress of the epidemic.13
Other deities connected in popular belief with cholera are the goddesses
Visuchikā14 and Chandikā.15 Visuchikā is conciliated by burnt offerings: the
recitation of the chandipāth wins the favour of Chandikā. There is also a
giantess named Karkatā who is supposed to be responsible for cholera. She
is said to have sprung from the sweat on the forehead of Brahmā and to
reside in the chandra mandal (or lunar sphere).16
One of the remedies adopted to stop an epidemic of cholera is to propitiate
Shiva by the performance of Rudrayāg,17 Mahārudra,17 Shatachandi,17
Homahavan and by bestowing gifts on Brāhmans and other holy men.18
Sometimes vows are observed with the same object in honour of a minor
local deity named Lala Hardev.19 Another method of driving off the disease
is to convey it to the body of a goat or a ram, or a he-buffalo, and to drive
the animal out of the village.20
Small-pox is believed to be the act of the goddess Shitalā Mātā, who
spreads the disease whenever she is desirous of having victims.21 Thus, in
cases of small-pox, the patient very often receives no medical treatment, the
Page 178
only remedies adopted being directed towards the propitiation of the
Mātā.22 A number of vows are taken in the Mātā’s name, to be fulfilled after
the patient has recovered. Many people accomplish their vows before the
Shitalā Mātā at Kalavad in Jāmnagar. A vow to visit this place after the
patient’s recovery, and to abstain from certain things till the day of the visit,
is taken by the mother of the affected person in case of a severe attack. But
almost every village contains a temple of Shitalā Mātā, and those, who
cannot go to Kalavad, vow in the name of the local Mātā.21 One of such
vows is to go to the temple of the Mātā with a burning hearth on the head.21
Such a vow is generally undertaken by the patient’s mother.
Ordinarily in a case of small-pox, the patient is not allowed to bathe till he
is completely free from all traces of the disease. A bath is then given on a
Sunday, a Tuesday, or a Thursday, with water which has been heated by
being placed in the sun. An image of Shitalā Mātā is set up in the house
near the water room, and the patient worships the image after the bath. The
image is drawn in cowdung with two cotton seeds to represent the eyes. An
offering of kulera23 and curds is made to the goddess. Five virgins are
invited to dinner, and are served with cold food. All the members of the
household also partake of cold food. On the 7th or the 13th day of the bright
half of a month the patient is taken to the temple of Shitalā Mātā, when a
cocoanut is broken in the presence of the goddess. Half of the cocoanut is
brought home, the other half being carried away by the Mātā’s attendant.
Some people place a new earthen vessel filled with water near the goddess.
Silver eyes, which may be worth anything between half an anna and half a
rupee, are dedicated to the Mātā.21
The first visit to the Mātā should take place on a Sunday or a Tuesday. The
things vowed to the goddess are dedicated on this occasion. It is also
necessary to go to the goddess again on the next Tuesday or Thursday after
the first visit. This time only water and red lac are offered.24
During the course of the disease no low-caste person and no woman in her
monthly course is allowed to cast his or her shadow on the patient.21 The
women in the house are prohibited from combing their hair, or churning
Mātā.22 A number of vows are taken in the Mātā’s name, to be fulfilled after
the patient has recovered. Many people accomplish their vows before the
Shitalā Mātā at Kalavad in Jāmnagar. A vow to visit this place after the
patient’s recovery, and to abstain from certain things till the day of the visit,
is taken by the mother of the affected person in case of a severe attack. But
almost every village contains a temple of Shitalā Mātā, and those, who
cannot go to Kalavad, vow in the name of the local Mātā.21 One of such
vows is to go to the temple of the Mātā with a burning hearth on the head.21
Such a vow is generally undertaken by the patient’s mother.
Ordinarily in a case of small-pox, the patient is not allowed to bathe till he
is completely free from all traces of the disease. A bath is then given on a
Sunday, a Tuesday, or a Thursday, with water which has been heated by
being placed in the sun. An image of Shitalā Mātā is set up in the house
near the water room, and the patient worships the image after the bath. The
image is drawn in cowdung with two cotton seeds to represent the eyes. An
offering of kulera23 and curds is made to the goddess. Five virgins are
invited to dinner, and are served with cold food. All the members of the
household also partake of cold food. On the 7th or the 13th day of the bright
half of a month the patient is taken to the temple of Shitalā Mātā, when a
cocoanut is broken in the presence of the goddess. Half of the cocoanut is
brought home, the other half being carried away by the Mātā’s attendant.
Some people place a new earthen vessel filled with water near the goddess.
Silver eyes, which may be worth anything between half an anna and half a
rupee, are dedicated to the Mātā.21
The first visit to the Mātā should take place on a Sunday or a Tuesday. The
things vowed to the goddess are dedicated on this occasion. It is also
necessary to go to the goddess again on the next Tuesday or Thursday after
the first visit. This time only water and red lac are offered.24
During the course of the disease no low-caste person and no woman in her
monthly course is allowed to cast his or her shadow on the patient.21 The
women in the house are prohibited from combing their hair, or churning
Page 179
curdled milk, or indulging in sexual intercourse. Such acts are believed to
cause extreme displeasure to the Mātā, who then causes some limb of the
patient to be affected. Branches of nimb leaves are suspended over the
doors of the house, and also round the patient’s bed. The same leaves are
used to fan the patient.21
When a child suffers from the disease, it is often weighed against dates,
which are first dedicated to the goddess, and then distributed amongst the
poor.25 The child is taken to bow down before the goddess after nine or ten
days from the date of attack, and the mother of the child offers several
things to the Mātā, among which are grapes, sugar, a pinch of flour, a small
earthen bowl full of water, and a blank sheet of paper.26
Different things are dedicated to the goddess according as the disease
affects one part of the body or another. For instance, flour of bājrā or juvāri
is offered in case of bronchitis; silver models of the human eye when the
disease affects the eyes; a goras (a black earthen vessel full of curds) in
case of morbid heat; a piece of black paper, in high fever, and salt if there is
an itching sensation.27 The Mātā is said to live on cold food and to be very
fond of things which have a cooling effect such as fruits, sugar, etc. The
same things are given to the patient as food.28
To secure the protection of Shitalā Mātā for their children, women annually
observe the vow of shili sātem on the 7th day of the dark half of Shrāvan.
On this day the Mātā is said to visit every house and to roll herself on the
hearth. No fire is, therefore, lighted in the hearth on this day: for if the Mātā
comes and is scorched by the fire she is sure to bring misfortune on that
household. For this reason, a number of dainties and all the food necessary
for the day is prepared on the previous day. On the day of shili sātem, juvāri
seeds are spread on the hearth, and after being sprinkled with red lac, a
cowdung bowl containing a plant called vaṇa is placed upon them. The
women of the house bathe with cold water and take only one meal during
the day. They further abstain from sewing and embroidering during that
day. Sometimes a Brāhman is engaged to recite the Shitalā shloka from a
book called Rudrayāmal.29
cause extreme displeasure to the Mātā, who then causes some limb of the
patient to be affected. Branches of nimb leaves are suspended over the
doors of the house, and also round the patient’s bed. The same leaves are
used to fan the patient.21
When a child suffers from the disease, it is often weighed against dates,
which are first dedicated to the goddess, and then distributed amongst the
poor.25 The child is taken to bow down before the goddess after nine or ten
days from the date of attack, and the mother of the child offers several
things to the Mātā, among which are grapes, sugar, a pinch of flour, a small
earthen bowl full of water, and a blank sheet of paper.26
Different things are dedicated to the goddess according as the disease
affects one part of the body or another. For instance, flour of bājrā or juvāri
is offered in case of bronchitis; silver models of the human eye when the
disease affects the eyes; a goras (a black earthen vessel full of curds) in
case of morbid heat; a piece of black paper, in high fever, and salt if there is
an itching sensation.27 The Mātā is said to live on cold food and to be very
fond of things which have a cooling effect such as fruits, sugar, etc. The
same things are given to the patient as food.28
To secure the protection of Shitalā Mātā for their children, women annually
observe the vow of shili sātem on the 7th day of the dark half of Shrāvan.
On this day the Mātā is said to visit every house and to roll herself on the
hearth. No fire is, therefore, lighted in the hearth on this day: for if the Mātā
comes and is scorched by the fire she is sure to bring misfortune on that
household. For this reason, a number of dainties and all the food necessary
for the day is prepared on the previous day. On the day of shili sātem, juvāri
seeds are spread on the hearth, and after being sprinkled with red lac, a
cowdung bowl containing a plant called vaṇa is placed upon them. The
women of the house bathe with cold water and take only one meal during
the day. They further abstain from sewing and embroidering during that
day. Sometimes a Brāhman is engaged to recite the Shitalā shloka from a
book called Rudrayāmal.29
Page 180
The following legend is related of shili sātem. A certain woman once forgot
to extinguish the fire in her hearth on Rāndhan Chhetha (lit. cooking sixth),
i.e., the day previous to shili sātem. On the next day, the Mātā was scorched
in the stomach when she came to roll herself on the hearth. In extreme
anger the goddess cursed the woman saying that her only son would be
burnt to death; and immediately the boy died. In her anguish the unfortunate
mother confessed her fault to a friend, who advised her to go to the jungle
and entreat the Mātā to give back her son. She found the goddess rolling in
distress under a bābul tree. The woman slowly approached her, and began
to comb out the Mātā’s hair. She then placed her son in the Mātā’s lap and
entreated the goddess to revive the boy. The Mātā felt much relieved by the
woman’s attentions and blessed her saying that her bosom should be as
quiet as her own head. Immediately, at these words, the boy revived, to the
intense joy of his mother.30
Women whose relatives have recovered from a dangerous attack of small-
pox observe a vow on every sātem, i.e., the 7th day of the dark half of every
month. They first bathe with cold water and, after offering an oblation of
kulerā, take their meals only once during the day. This food has to be
prepared on the previous day.
Shitalā Mātā is described as riding an ass in a nude state with the half of a
supadun (a winnowing fan) for an umbrella and with a swing in one hand,
and a broom in the other.31 But more usually the Mātā is represented by a
mere trunkless head in stone, besmeared with red lead. This is said to be the
head of Babhrivāhan, the son of Bhīma32 the second of the Pāndavas by a
Nāg mother. At the time of the Great War, he was sent by his mother from
his residence in the pātāl (the regions below this world) to assist his father,
and as he did not know the Pāndavas, he was asked to join the weaker side.
On coming to the earth he first met with Krishna who took a promise from
him to lop his own head off. In return, Krishna promised him that he would
be immortal, invisible and worshipped by all, and the head was set up on
the flag of the Pāndavas. This head began to trouble the Pāndavas after their
victory, and could only be quieted by the promise of Krishna to have him
recognised as a deity with unlimited powers. This head afterwards came to
be known as the controller of small-pox. How the head of the male
to extinguish the fire in her hearth on Rāndhan Chhetha (lit. cooking sixth),
i.e., the day previous to shili sātem. On the next day, the Mātā was scorched
in the stomach when she came to roll herself on the hearth. In extreme
anger the goddess cursed the woman saying that her only son would be
burnt to death; and immediately the boy died. In her anguish the unfortunate
mother confessed her fault to a friend, who advised her to go to the jungle
and entreat the Mātā to give back her son. She found the goddess rolling in
distress under a bābul tree. The woman slowly approached her, and began
to comb out the Mātā’s hair. She then placed her son in the Mātā’s lap and
entreated the goddess to revive the boy. The Mātā felt much relieved by the
woman’s attentions and blessed her saying that her bosom should be as
quiet as her own head. Immediately, at these words, the boy revived, to the
intense joy of his mother.30
Women whose relatives have recovered from a dangerous attack of small-
pox observe a vow on every sātem, i.e., the 7th day of the dark half of every
month. They first bathe with cold water and, after offering an oblation of
kulerā, take their meals only once during the day. This food has to be
prepared on the previous day.
Shitalā Mātā is described as riding an ass in a nude state with the half of a
supadun (a winnowing fan) for an umbrella and with a swing in one hand,
and a broom in the other.31 But more usually the Mātā is represented by a
mere trunkless head in stone, besmeared with red lead. This is said to be the
head of Babhrivāhan, the son of Bhīma32 the second of the Pāndavas by a
Nāg mother. At the time of the Great War, he was sent by his mother from
his residence in the pātāl (the regions below this world) to assist his father,
and as he did not know the Pāndavas, he was asked to join the weaker side.
On coming to the earth he first met with Krishna who took a promise from
him to lop his own head off. In return, Krishna promised him that he would
be immortal, invisible and worshipped by all, and the head was set up on
the flag of the Pāndavas. This head began to trouble the Pāndavas after their
victory, and could only be quieted by the promise of Krishna to have him
recognised as a deity with unlimited powers. This head afterwards came to
be known as the controller of small-pox. How the head of the male
Page 181
Babhrivāhan came to be identified with Shitalā Mātā, it is difficult to
explain.33
There is a tradition that a Kunbi once recovered his eyesight, lost in an
attack of small-pox, by worshipping Shitalā Mātā, and by vowing not to tie
his lock of hair till his blindness was cured.34
It is said that the powderlike substance which falls from the scabs of small-
pox cures cataract if applied to the eyes.34
Daksha Prajāpati once celebrated a great sacrifice, but did not invite his
son-in-law Shiva. The latter was extremely enraged at the insult, and eight
sorts of fever were in consequence produced by his breath at that time.35
According to another story zār or fever was created by Shiva in order to
assist the demon Bānāsur in his contest with god Krishna, and it can be
cured by the recitation of a piece called Ushāharan, from the Harivansha.36
Some persons attribute fever to the wrath of Vishnu, and declare that it can
be avoided by the recitation of Vishnusahasranāma.37 Others believe it to
be due to the anger of Shiva, and say that it can be cured by pouring a
stream of water over the image of Shiva by offering bel leaves (Aegle
marmelos) to him, and by reciting the Mrityunjaya mantra in his honour.38
Others again ascribe it to the displeasure of the gods Hari39 and Har,39
saying that the heat is caused by the wrath of Shiva.40
The following are some of the remedies adopted in cases of fever:
(i) The recitation of sacred hymns in honour of the gods.
(ii) The worship of Narsinh.41
(iii) Rudrābhishek—pouring a stream of water on the image of Shiva with
the recitation of verses in his honour.
(iv) Drawing the jantra of Mrityunjaya (lit. Death-conquering, an epithet of
Shiva) as shown below.
explain.33
There is a tradition that a Kunbi once recovered his eyesight, lost in an
attack of small-pox, by worshipping Shitalā Mātā, and by vowing not to tie
his lock of hair till his blindness was cured.34
It is said that the powderlike substance which falls from the scabs of small-
pox cures cataract if applied to the eyes.34
Daksha Prajāpati once celebrated a great sacrifice, but did not invite his
son-in-law Shiva. The latter was extremely enraged at the insult, and eight
sorts of fever were in consequence produced by his breath at that time.35
According to another story zār or fever was created by Shiva in order to
assist the demon Bānāsur in his contest with god Krishna, and it can be
cured by the recitation of a piece called Ushāharan, from the Harivansha.36
Some persons attribute fever to the wrath of Vishnu, and declare that it can
be avoided by the recitation of Vishnusahasranāma.37 Others believe it to
be due to the anger of Shiva, and say that it can be cured by pouring a
stream of water over the image of Shiva by offering bel leaves (Aegle
marmelos) to him, and by reciting the Mrityunjaya mantra in his honour.38
Others again ascribe it to the displeasure of the gods Hari39 and Har,39
saying that the heat is caused by the wrath of Shiva.40
The following are some of the remedies adopted in cases of fever:
(i) The recitation of sacred hymns in honour of the gods.
(ii) The worship of Narsinh.41
(iii) Rudrābhishek—pouring a stream of water on the image of Shiva with
the recitation of verses in his honour.
(iv) Drawing the jantra of Mrityunjaya (lit. Death-conquering, an epithet of
Shiva) as shown below.
Page 182
(v) Tying a magic thread round the arm.42 On a Sunday or a Tuesday a
woollen thread or a piece of five-coloured silken thread is taken to a bāvā
or a jogi, who mutters a few mystic words, and makes seven knots in the
thread. The thread is treated with frankincense, and then tied round the
arm.43
Periodical fevers are believed to be under the control of certain spirits.
There is a story connected with almost every sort of fever, and it is believed
that a person who listens to such a story is cured of fever.44 The following
legend is connected with ekānterio—intermittent fever occurring on
alternate days. Once a Bania, on his way to a village, came across a banyan
tree where he unyoked his bullocks and went to a distance to seek for water.
Ekānterio (the spirit controlling intermittent fever) resided on this tree, and
when the Bania had gone sufficiently far he stole from behind the tree and
carried away the Bania’s carriage together with his family. The Bania was
much surprised to miss them on his return, but he soon found out the author
of the trick, and pursued Ekānterio. That spirit however would not listen to
the Bania’s entreaties to return his carriage, and the matter was at last
referred for arbitration to Bochki Bai. The latter decided in favour of the
woollen thread or a piece of five-coloured silken thread is taken to a bāvā
or a jogi, who mutters a few mystic words, and makes seven knots in the
thread. The thread is treated with frankincense, and then tied round the
arm.43
Periodical fevers are believed to be under the control of certain spirits.
There is a story connected with almost every sort of fever, and it is believed
that a person who listens to such a story is cured of fever.44 The following
legend is connected with ekānterio—intermittent fever occurring on
alternate days. Once a Bania, on his way to a village, came across a banyan
tree where he unyoked his bullocks and went to a distance to seek for water.
Ekānterio (the spirit controlling intermittent fever) resided on this tree, and
when the Bania had gone sufficiently far he stole from behind the tree and
carried away the Bania’s carriage together with his family. The Bania was
much surprised to miss them on his return, but he soon found out the author
of the trick, and pursued Ekānterio. That spirit however would not listen to
the Bania’s entreaties to return his carriage, and the matter was at last
referred for arbitration to Bochki Bai. The latter decided in favour of the
Page 183
Bania, and confined Ekānterio in a bamboo tube. He was released on the
condition that he would never attack those persons who listen to this
story.45
There is a flower garden to the west of Jodia where there is a tree called
ghelun (mad) tree. Vows in honour of this tree are believed to be efficacious
in curing fever.45
It has been already said above that such epidemic diseases as cholera or the
plague are often supposed to be the result of the sinister practices of the
Bhangis. There is a belief that the Bhangis sometimes prepare an image out
of the flour of adad (phaseolus radiatus) and pierce it with needles, and it is
said that for every hole made in the image one human being falls a victim to
some epidemic disease. Such an image is sometimes placed in an earthen
vessel and buried underground in a public way so that every passer-by
treading on the spot where it is buried may be attacked by some disease. Or
it is thrown into the well which is most used by village people, with the
object that all persons drinking water from the well may perish by the
disease.46
The Bhangis are also accused of causing an epidemic by means of boiling
the ear of a buffalo and the flesh of an ox together in one vessel, it being
believed that the virulence of the disease varies in proportion to the extent
to which the boiling proceeds. This process is supposed to cause a disease
among cattle also.47
Another belief is that the Bhangis charm seeds of adad and cloves by
repeating magic incantations over them, and afterwards strew them on a
highway in order that those who step on them may be attacked by cholera
or some similar disease.48 One motive suggested for such action is that they
are thereby likely to receive their garments, which would be used for
covering the bodies.49 Also at the outbreak of such an epidemic, clothes,
cocoanuts, ghi, molasses, wheat flour, etc., are offered by the people to the
Bhangis, who in return give a dorā, a piece of thread, of black wool to be
worn by the afflicted persons.50
condition that he would never attack those persons who listen to this
story.45
There is a flower garden to the west of Jodia where there is a tree called
ghelun (mad) tree. Vows in honour of this tree are believed to be efficacious
in curing fever.45
It has been already said above that such epidemic diseases as cholera or the
plague are often supposed to be the result of the sinister practices of the
Bhangis. There is a belief that the Bhangis sometimes prepare an image out
of the flour of adad (phaseolus radiatus) and pierce it with needles, and it is
said that for every hole made in the image one human being falls a victim to
some epidemic disease. Such an image is sometimes placed in an earthen
vessel and buried underground in a public way so that every passer-by
treading on the spot where it is buried may be attacked by some disease. Or
it is thrown into the well which is most used by village people, with the
object that all persons drinking water from the well may perish by the
disease.46
The Bhangis are also accused of causing an epidemic by means of boiling
the ear of a buffalo and the flesh of an ox together in one vessel, it being
believed that the virulence of the disease varies in proportion to the extent
to which the boiling proceeds. This process is supposed to cause a disease
among cattle also.47
Another belief is that the Bhangis charm seeds of adad and cloves by
repeating magic incantations over them, and afterwards strew them on a
highway in order that those who step on them may be attacked by cholera
or some similar disease.48 One motive suggested for such action is that they
are thereby likely to receive their garments, which would be used for
covering the bodies.49 Also at the outbreak of such an epidemic, clothes,
cocoanuts, ghi, molasses, wheat flour, etc., are offered by the people to the
Bhangis, who in return give a dorā, a piece of thread, of black wool to be
worn by the afflicted persons.50
Page 184
But apart from such beliefs, the appearance of an epidemic is also attributed
to other causes. There is the usual belief that it is caused by the diminution
of virtue and the increase of sin among people and the consequent wrath of
the gods, who are only propitiated by the people again reverting to
righteous ways and by the performance of sacrifices in their honour.51
There is also a belief that the sixty-four Joganis, when they are desirous of
victims, cause baneful epidemics among mankind, the remedies in such a
case being such as offering a goat or a he-buffalo to them, or the
observation of an ujāni in their honour.
The following tale is related regarding an occurrence said to have taken
place not long ago in the village of Verad. The headman of the village who
was a Rajput by birth but who had lost his caste owing to irregular conduct
with a woman, died of fever, and as he was an outcaste his body was buried
instead of being cremated. Soon after, a number of persons in the same
village happened to die of the same fever and the people conjectured that
the late patel’s corpse must be lying in its grave with its face downwards
chewing the khahan (? perhaps kaphan, i.e. the cloth in which a corpse is
wrapped). Many thought that the health of the village would not be restored
until the corpse was replaced in the correct position with its face upwards
and unless the kaphan was taken out of its mouth. But none ventured to do
so, being dissuaded by the fear of meeting with a worse fate.
But although they did not open the grave yet they arranged for certain vows
to be taken in honour of the dead man, and that put a stop to the disease.52
Another story from the same place is that when small-pox once raged
furiously in that village, the people of the place celebrated a magnificent
feast of dainties prepared of wheat-flour, ghi, molasses, rice and pulse, and
afterwards the Dheds of the village lopped off the head of a dead he-
buffalo, burying it at the spot where the feast was held.53
The remedies adopted for the abatement of epidemic diseases have already
been mentioned above, the most common being the winding of a cotton-
thread, the pouring out of dhārāvādi, i.e., milk, in the village, and the taking
to other causes. There is the usual belief that it is caused by the diminution
of virtue and the increase of sin among people and the consequent wrath of
the gods, who are only propitiated by the people again reverting to
righteous ways and by the performance of sacrifices in their honour.51
There is also a belief that the sixty-four Joganis, when they are desirous of
victims, cause baneful epidemics among mankind, the remedies in such a
case being such as offering a goat or a he-buffalo to them, or the
observation of an ujāni in their honour.
The following tale is related regarding an occurrence said to have taken
place not long ago in the village of Verad. The headman of the village who
was a Rajput by birth but who had lost his caste owing to irregular conduct
with a woman, died of fever, and as he was an outcaste his body was buried
instead of being cremated. Soon after, a number of persons in the same
village happened to die of the same fever and the people conjectured that
the late patel’s corpse must be lying in its grave with its face downwards
chewing the khahan (? perhaps kaphan, i.e. the cloth in which a corpse is
wrapped). Many thought that the health of the village would not be restored
until the corpse was replaced in the correct position with its face upwards
and unless the kaphan was taken out of its mouth. But none ventured to do
so, being dissuaded by the fear of meeting with a worse fate.
But although they did not open the grave yet they arranged for certain vows
to be taken in honour of the dead man, and that put a stop to the disease.52
Another story from the same place is that when small-pox once raged
furiously in that village, the people of the place celebrated a magnificent
feast of dainties prepared of wheat-flour, ghi, molasses, rice and pulse, and
afterwards the Dheds of the village lopped off the head of a dead he-
buffalo, burying it at the spot where the feast was held.53
The remedies adopted for the abatement of epidemic diseases have already
been mentioned above, the most common being the winding of a cotton-
thread, the pouring out of dhārāvādi, i.e., milk, in the village, and the taking
Page 185
of the rath of the Mātā in a procession beyond the village boundary, the
epidemic being supposed to be expelled in the rath. In the last case, after
the rath has been taken to the neighbouring village, a charmed peg is
sometimes driven into the ground near the village boundary to prevent the
epidemic from crossing back again.54
Mention has already been made of the deities which protect the cattle and to
whose displeasure diseases among cattle are attributed. It is said that such
diseases are very common during the vishi of Shiva. A cycle of twenty years
is called a vishi, three such cycles making a complete samvatsar of sixty
years. Each of such vishis is presided over and named after each of the three
gods of the Trinity, Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva. The vishi of Brahmā is
characterized by protection and creation, that of Vishnu by growth and that
of Shiva by destruction, the last often bringing on such calamities as plague,
famine and diseases among cattle.55
The following are some of the remedies practised by the village people in
the case of certain cattle-diseases.
In the case of such diseases as movā kharavā or the like, there is a practice
of burying a plough near one’s gates, which is afterwards covered with dust
gathered from three streets and is worshiped with a branch of a tree, a plate
of iron and red lead. This ceremony has to be performed either on a Sunday
or a Tuesday, and the man who performs it has to remain naked at the
time.56
For the cure of valo (a disease in which the throat is inflamed), pieces of the
stalk of kukad-vel (a kind of creeper) are tied round the neck or the horns of
the diseased animal and no other food except ghi and molasses is allowed to
it for two or three days. A handful of salt is sometimes thrown on the back
of the animal.57 Sesamum oil is also said to work as a good medicine in the
case of the same disease.58
Another remedy for the same disease is to pass a knotted bamboo stick with
seven knots seven times over the back of the ailing animal.59
epidemic being supposed to be expelled in the rath. In the last case, after
the rath has been taken to the neighbouring village, a charmed peg is
sometimes driven into the ground near the village boundary to prevent the
epidemic from crossing back again.54
Mention has already been made of the deities which protect the cattle and to
whose displeasure diseases among cattle are attributed. It is said that such
diseases are very common during the vishi of Shiva. A cycle of twenty years
is called a vishi, three such cycles making a complete samvatsar of sixty
years. Each of such vishis is presided over and named after each of the three
gods of the Trinity, Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva. The vishi of Brahmā is
characterized by protection and creation, that of Vishnu by growth and that
of Shiva by destruction, the last often bringing on such calamities as plague,
famine and diseases among cattle.55
The following are some of the remedies practised by the village people in
the case of certain cattle-diseases.
In the case of such diseases as movā kharavā or the like, there is a practice
of burying a plough near one’s gates, which is afterwards covered with dust
gathered from three streets and is worshiped with a branch of a tree, a plate
of iron and red lead. This ceremony has to be performed either on a Sunday
or a Tuesday, and the man who performs it has to remain naked at the
time.56
For the cure of valo (a disease in which the throat is inflamed), pieces of the
stalk of kukad-vel (a kind of creeper) are tied round the neck or the horns of
the diseased animal and no other food except ghi and molasses is allowed to
it for two or three days. A handful of salt is sometimes thrown on the back
of the animal.57 Sesamum oil is also said to work as a good medicine in the
case of the same disease.58
Another remedy for the same disease is to pass a knotted bamboo stick with
seven knots seven times over the back of the ailing animal.59
Page 186
Ghi is sometimes used as a medicine in the case of small-pox. In the case of
shakario or kālo vā, the animal is branded in the affected limbs. To one
suffering from a stye in the eye an ointment prepared from the horn of a
deer is applied, while a mixture of whey and salt is said to be useful in most
eye maladies. The treatment for the swelling of the belly is a mixture of
molasses, ajamo (ligusticum ajwaen) and sanchal (a kind of salt). To cure
an animal of khāpari (a disease which affects milch-cattle), the milk of the
affected animal is poured on rāfdā (a kind of jujube tree). If after delivery,
some part of the embryo remains inside an animal, milk and molasses are
given to expedite its removal.60
In the case of kharavā the ailing animal is made to move about in hot sand
and is treated with salt, which is first fried on the fire of Holi. The remedy
for the disease known as kumbhava is to give a dose of castor oil, sanchal,
ajamo and hot water to the sick animal and also to tie a magic thread round
its neck.61
A disease called okarinu (i.e., vomitting) sometimes breaks out among
sheep. In this case the shepherds separate all the affected animals from the
herd and remove them to a distance. All the sheep which die of the disease
are buried deep in a pit, which is guarded for several days, lest some other
animals dig it up and let lose the buried epidemic by exposing the carcasses.
It is believed that the contagion of this disease lies in the ears; and the ears
of all the sheep in the herd are carefully watched if they bleed.62
The twin gods Ashvini Kumār are sometimes propitiated by means of an
anushthān (the performance of religious austerities in their honour) in order
that they may put a stop to a disease among cattle.63
It appears that dancing often forms a part of the process of exorcism.
Frequently dancing is accompanied by the beating of cymbals and drums
and other loud noises. A mandalu is convened at the house of the person
who is to be exorcised i.e., a number of bhuvās are invited to attend along
with a number of low-caste drummers, and afterwards the ceremony of utār
is gone through; the utār is then taken to a cemetery.64
shakario or kālo vā, the animal is branded in the affected limbs. To one
suffering from a stye in the eye an ointment prepared from the horn of a
deer is applied, while a mixture of whey and salt is said to be useful in most
eye maladies. The treatment for the swelling of the belly is a mixture of
molasses, ajamo (ligusticum ajwaen) and sanchal (a kind of salt). To cure
an animal of khāpari (a disease which affects milch-cattle), the milk of the
affected animal is poured on rāfdā (a kind of jujube tree). If after delivery,
some part of the embryo remains inside an animal, milk and molasses are
given to expedite its removal.60
In the case of kharavā the ailing animal is made to move about in hot sand
and is treated with salt, which is first fried on the fire of Holi. The remedy
for the disease known as kumbhava is to give a dose of castor oil, sanchal,
ajamo and hot water to the sick animal and also to tie a magic thread round
its neck.61
A disease called okarinu (i.e., vomitting) sometimes breaks out among
sheep. In this case the shepherds separate all the affected animals from the
herd and remove them to a distance. All the sheep which die of the disease
are buried deep in a pit, which is guarded for several days, lest some other
animals dig it up and let lose the buried epidemic by exposing the carcasses.
It is believed that the contagion of this disease lies in the ears; and the ears
of all the sheep in the herd are carefully watched if they bleed.62
The twin gods Ashvini Kumār are sometimes propitiated by means of an
anushthān (the performance of religious austerities in their honour) in order
that they may put a stop to a disease among cattle.63
It appears that dancing often forms a part of the process of exorcism.
Frequently dancing is accompanied by the beating of cymbals and drums
and other loud noises. A mandalu is convened at the house of the person
who is to be exorcised i.e., a number of bhuvās are invited to attend along
with a number of low-caste drummers, and afterwards the ceremony of utār
is gone through; the utār is then taken to a cemetery.64
Page 187
Sometimes the beating of drums and cymbals is alone resorted to for
expelling an evil spirit from the person of a patient. It is believed that this
process is effectual in proportion to the degree of the intensity of the noise
created.65 The patient is asked to sit facing the east. The Bāval or Vāghri
i.e., the drummer, sits in front of him, and not only beats the drum as loudly
as he can, but also sings hymns at the top of his voice in honour of his
favourite goddess. In the meanwhile, the bhuvā, who is also in attendance,
begins to be possessed, and discloses the fact by convulsive fits. After a
while, the bhuvā suddenly stamps his foot furiously on the floor, and,
seizing the patient by a lock of his hair, and perhaps even giving him a blow
on the back, asks in a stern voice, “Who art thou? speak out at once why
thou hast come or else I will burn thee to death.”66
The patient will then perhaps reply: ‘Don’t you know me? I am chāran’, or
I am zāmhādi, (a female spirit guarding the village gates) or Vāgharan67 or
Purvaj (the spirit of a deceased ancestor). Regarding the reason for
possession, the evil spirit will give some such explanation as follows:
—“Once upon a time the patient was taking a loaf and vegetables which he
hid from me, and therefore I shall leave his person only with his life.” The
bhuvā will then say “life is precious and not so cheap as you think. If you
want anything else, say so and leave this person.” After a dialogue such as
the above, the bhuvā and the spirit come to some compromise, and the
bhuvā then leads a procession with the utār either to the village boundary or
to a cemetery. The bhuvā then draws a circle on the ground with the point of
a sword which he carries, and places the utār within the circle. He then
slightly cuts the tip of his tongue with the edge of the sword, and spits
blood into a fire lighted for the purpose. The smoke of this fire is supposed
to carry the offering to the evil spirit. The utār is then taken away by the
drummers, who share it secretly with the bhuvā. In the event of the patient
deriving no benefit from this ceremony, the bhuvā advises the patient’s
relatives to repeat the process.68
The following ceremony is sometimes performed in order to ascertain
whether a person is under the influence of an evil spirit or not. A bhuvā is
invited to the patient’s house in the company of drummers, and there he
dances for some time amidst the din produced by the beating of the drums
expelling an evil spirit from the person of a patient. It is believed that this
process is effectual in proportion to the degree of the intensity of the noise
created.65 The patient is asked to sit facing the east. The Bāval or Vāghri
i.e., the drummer, sits in front of him, and not only beats the drum as loudly
as he can, but also sings hymns at the top of his voice in honour of his
favourite goddess. In the meanwhile, the bhuvā, who is also in attendance,
begins to be possessed, and discloses the fact by convulsive fits. After a
while, the bhuvā suddenly stamps his foot furiously on the floor, and,
seizing the patient by a lock of his hair, and perhaps even giving him a blow
on the back, asks in a stern voice, “Who art thou? speak out at once why
thou hast come or else I will burn thee to death.”66
The patient will then perhaps reply: ‘Don’t you know me? I am chāran’, or
I am zāmhādi, (a female spirit guarding the village gates) or Vāgharan67 or
Purvaj (the spirit of a deceased ancestor). Regarding the reason for
possession, the evil spirit will give some such explanation as follows:
—“Once upon a time the patient was taking a loaf and vegetables which he
hid from me, and therefore I shall leave his person only with his life.” The
bhuvā will then say “life is precious and not so cheap as you think. If you
want anything else, say so and leave this person.” After a dialogue such as
the above, the bhuvā and the spirit come to some compromise, and the
bhuvā then leads a procession with the utār either to the village boundary or
to a cemetery. The bhuvā then draws a circle on the ground with the point of
a sword which he carries, and places the utār within the circle. He then
slightly cuts the tip of his tongue with the edge of the sword, and spits
blood into a fire lighted for the purpose. The smoke of this fire is supposed
to carry the offering to the evil spirit. The utār is then taken away by the
drummers, who share it secretly with the bhuvā. In the event of the patient
deriving no benefit from this ceremony, the bhuvā advises the patient’s
relatives to repeat the process.68
The following ceremony is sometimes performed in order to ascertain
whether a person is under the influence of an evil spirit or not. A bhuvā is
invited to the patient’s house in the company of drummers, and there he
dances for some time amidst the din produced by the beating of the drums
Page 188
and by the loud recitation of hymns in honour of his favourite goddess.
Afterwards a handful of grain is passed round the head of the patient and
presented to the bhuvā for inspection. The bhuvā selects a few seeds from
the grain and making certain gestures, offers them to the patient with either
the words ‘vācho’ or ‘vadhāvo’. In case the bhuvā says ‘vācho’ and the
number of seeds happens to be even, what he declared to be the cause of the
patient’s trouble is believed to be true. So also if the bhuvā says vadhāvo
and the number of seeds proves to be odd. But in case the number of seeds
proves to be odd when the bhuvā says ‘vācho’, or even, when he says
vadhāvo, then his explanation of the cause of the patient’s trouble is not
credited.
Sometimes Brāhmans instead of bhuvās are engaged to exorcise an evil
spirit from the body of a sick person. A bell-metal dish, containing adad
(phaseolus radiatus), wheat and jowāri, is placed on a copper jar and struck
violently with a stick, called velan, so as to produce a loud noise. The
patient, who is made to sit in front, begins to tremble and sometimes even
to rave. The Brāhmans also create a loud noise and in a loud voice ask the
patient who the evil spirit is and what it wants. The patient will then give
out the name of some notorious dākan (witch) or of one of his deceased
ancestors and will add that he desires a certain thing which he was used to
get while in human form. The evil spirit is then propitiated by offering the
things asked for and is requested to leave the body of the patient.69
The following are other methods of expelling an evil spirit from the body:
—
Either lobhān, i.e., incense powder, or chillies or even the excreta of dogs
are burnt under the nose of the patient, who, overpowered by the unpleasant
odour, is supposed to give out the name of the evil spirit and also what the
latter wants.
Water is charmed with incantations, and is either dashed against the
patient’s eyes or is given to him to drink.70
Afterwards a handful of grain is passed round the head of the patient and
presented to the bhuvā for inspection. The bhuvā selects a few seeds from
the grain and making certain gestures, offers them to the patient with either
the words ‘vācho’ or ‘vadhāvo’. In case the bhuvā says ‘vācho’ and the
number of seeds happens to be even, what he declared to be the cause of the
patient’s trouble is believed to be true. So also if the bhuvā says vadhāvo
and the number of seeds proves to be odd. But in case the number of seeds
proves to be odd when the bhuvā says ‘vācho’, or even, when he says
vadhāvo, then his explanation of the cause of the patient’s trouble is not
credited.
Sometimes Brāhmans instead of bhuvās are engaged to exorcise an evil
spirit from the body of a sick person. A bell-metal dish, containing adad
(phaseolus radiatus), wheat and jowāri, is placed on a copper jar and struck
violently with a stick, called velan, so as to produce a loud noise. The
patient, who is made to sit in front, begins to tremble and sometimes even
to rave. The Brāhmans also create a loud noise and in a loud voice ask the
patient who the evil spirit is and what it wants. The patient will then give
out the name of some notorious dākan (witch) or of one of his deceased
ancestors and will add that he desires a certain thing which he was used to
get while in human form. The evil spirit is then propitiated by offering the
things asked for and is requested to leave the body of the patient.69
The following are other methods of expelling an evil spirit from the body:
—
Either lobhān, i.e., incense powder, or chillies or even the excreta of dogs
are burnt under the nose of the patient, who, overpowered by the unpleasant
odour, is supposed to give out the name of the evil spirit and also what the
latter wants.
Water is charmed with incantations, and is either dashed against the
patient’s eyes or is given to him to drink.70
Page 189
If the evil spirit possessing a patient is a purvaj, i.e., the spirit of a deceased
ancestor, either Nārāyan-bali Shrāddha or Nil-Parvani Shrāddha or
Tripindi Shrāddha is performed in order to propitiate it, and a party of
Brāhmans is invited to dinner. In case the purvaj is a female, a cocoanut is
installed in a gokhalo (a niche) in the wall to represent it, ghi lamps are
lighted, and frankincense is burnt every morning before it. On the
anniversary of the death of the purvaj a party of gorānis (unwidowed
women) is invited to dinner.71
If a woman is believed to be possessed by a dākan, she is made to hold a
shoe in her teeth and is taken to the village boundary, where the shoe is
dropped, and a circle is drawn round it with water from a bowl carried by
the party. The holding of the shoe by the teeth signifies a vow on the part of
the dākan never to re-enter the person of the exorcised woman.72
The following are other occasions for religious dancing, namely during the
Nav-rātra holidays (i.e., the festival which commences from the 1st day of
the bright half of Āshvin and lasts for nine days); at the time of offering
oblations to the village-gods; on the occasion of setting up a pillar in
memory of a deceased person; at the time of the Nilotsava73 ceremony.
At the time when Randal the wife of Surya is installed and worshipped, a
party of young women dance in a circle before the goddess to the
accompaniment of garabis.74
The eighth day of the bright half of Āshvin is dedicated to the worship of
the Mātās and devis (minor goddesses), and on this day, bhuvās have to
dance each before his favourite mātā. This they have also to do on the 1st
day of the bright half of Āshādh. Bhuvās are also invited to dance on the
Diwāsā day i.e., the last day of Āshādh.74
The bhuvā occupies a high place in the esteem of the village people, and
commands much respect. In the first place, his position is that of a medium
between the gods and goddesses on the one hand and human beings on the
other.75 He is the interpreter of the will of the gods, which he expresses to
the public when in a state of trance. Besides he is believed to have power
ancestor, either Nārāyan-bali Shrāddha or Nil-Parvani Shrāddha or
Tripindi Shrāddha is performed in order to propitiate it, and a party of
Brāhmans is invited to dinner. In case the purvaj is a female, a cocoanut is
installed in a gokhalo (a niche) in the wall to represent it, ghi lamps are
lighted, and frankincense is burnt every morning before it. On the
anniversary of the death of the purvaj a party of gorānis (unwidowed
women) is invited to dinner.71
If a woman is believed to be possessed by a dākan, she is made to hold a
shoe in her teeth and is taken to the village boundary, where the shoe is
dropped, and a circle is drawn round it with water from a bowl carried by
the party. The holding of the shoe by the teeth signifies a vow on the part of
the dākan never to re-enter the person of the exorcised woman.72
The following are other occasions for religious dancing, namely during the
Nav-rātra holidays (i.e., the festival which commences from the 1st day of
the bright half of Āshvin and lasts for nine days); at the time of offering
oblations to the village-gods; on the occasion of setting up a pillar in
memory of a deceased person; at the time of the Nilotsava73 ceremony.
At the time when Randal the wife of Surya is installed and worshipped, a
party of young women dance in a circle before the goddess to the
accompaniment of garabis.74
The eighth day of the bright half of Āshvin is dedicated to the worship of
the Mātās and devis (minor goddesses), and on this day, bhuvās have to
dance each before his favourite mātā. This they have also to do on the 1st
day of the bright half of Āshādh. Bhuvās are also invited to dance on the
Diwāsā day i.e., the last day of Āshādh.74
The bhuvā occupies a high place in the esteem of the village people, and
commands much respect. In the first place, his position is that of a medium
between the gods and goddesses on the one hand and human beings on the
other.75 He is the interpreter of the will of the gods, which he expresses to
the public when in a state of trance. Besides he is believed to have power
Page 190
over the evil spirits which are visible to a bhuvā though cannot be seen by
ordinary eyes.76 He is the guardian of the village, his duty, being to protect
the people from the malignant influence of the evil spirits.76
In the next place, it is also the office of the bhuvā to treat the sick. In cases
when medicine is unavailing and where the malady is supposed to be the
work of some evil spirit, the opinion of the bhuvā is sought by the relations
of the patient and is given by the test of the scrutiny of grain.77 When the
sick person is found to be under the influence of a spirit, the common mode
of exorcising is to take an utār to the cemetery. An image of a human being
is prepared out of the flour of adad (phaseolus radiatus) and is passed round
the body of the sick person. The bhuvā then holds the image near his heart
and stretches himself on a bier with the image on his bosom. In this
condition the bhuvā is taken to the cemetery, and the evil spirit is believed
to be driven by these means out of the patient’s body.78
The bhuvā distributes dorās (magic threads) and anklets among the people.
Such things are coveted for their efficacy in warding off the influence of
evil spirits and are often sought after by people for their cattle as well as for
themselves.79 The prosperity of the dānklān-vagādnārs (those who beat the
drum) depends to a large extent on the success of the bhuvā’s business, and
for this reason, the drummers are often very good advocates of the bhuvā
and take every opportunity of glorifying his powers and merits.
The respect which a bhuvā commands in this way is sometimes increased
by the performance of such tricks as his putting lighted torches into his
mouth, placing his hand in boiling oil, and similar performances.
But although there may be some bhuvās who profit by imposing upon the
credulity of the villagers, there are many bhuvās who do not work with the
expectation of any reward, and are only actuated by benevolent motives.
Many of them honestly believe that at the time when they are thrown into a
state of trance, the mātās or deities actually enter their bodies and speak
their wishes through them as a medium.
ordinary eyes.76 He is the guardian of the village, his duty, being to protect
the people from the malignant influence of the evil spirits.76
In the next place, it is also the office of the bhuvā to treat the sick. In cases
when medicine is unavailing and where the malady is supposed to be the
work of some evil spirit, the opinion of the bhuvā is sought by the relations
of the patient and is given by the test of the scrutiny of grain.77 When the
sick person is found to be under the influence of a spirit, the common mode
of exorcising is to take an utār to the cemetery. An image of a human being
is prepared out of the flour of adad (phaseolus radiatus) and is passed round
the body of the sick person. The bhuvā then holds the image near his heart
and stretches himself on a bier with the image on his bosom. In this
condition the bhuvā is taken to the cemetery, and the evil spirit is believed
to be driven by these means out of the patient’s body.78
The bhuvā distributes dorās (magic threads) and anklets among the people.
Such things are coveted for their efficacy in warding off the influence of
evil spirits and are often sought after by people for their cattle as well as for
themselves.79 The prosperity of the dānklān-vagādnārs (those who beat the
drum) depends to a large extent on the success of the bhuvā’s business, and
for this reason, the drummers are often very good advocates of the bhuvā
and take every opportunity of glorifying his powers and merits.
The respect which a bhuvā commands in this way is sometimes increased
by the performance of such tricks as his putting lighted torches into his
mouth, placing his hand in boiling oil, and similar performances.
But although there may be some bhuvās who profit by imposing upon the
credulity of the villagers, there are many bhuvās who do not work with the
expectation of any reward, and are only actuated by benevolent motives.
Many of them honestly believe that at the time when they are thrown into a
state of trance, the mātās or deities actually enter their bodies and speak
their wishes through them as a medium.
Page 191
In some villages, the office of the bhuvā is hereditary, and lands have been
assigned to them in remuneration for their duty80. In addition to this
religious calling, a bhuvā often follows some other profession as that of
agriculture, weaving or spinning.81
The bhuvā generally belongs to some low caste and may be a Koli,
Bharvād, Rabāri, Vāghri or even a Chamār. The bhuvās are also known as
pothiās. One good qualification for becoming a bhuvā is to possess the
habit of throwing one’s self into convulsive fits followed by a state of
trance, especially on hearing the beating of a dānklān (drum). At such a
time the mātā or devi is supposed to possess the person of the bhuvā and to
speak out her wishes on being questioned. Some bhuvās are regularly
possessed by some devi or mātā on every Sunday or Tuesday.82
A typical bhuvā has a braid of hair on his head, puts one or more iron or
copper anklets round his leg or elbow, and makes a mark with red lead on
his forehead. A bhuvā attending upon the goddess Meldi is generally83 a
Vāghri by caste and always wears dirty clothes. A Bharvād bhuvā has
generally a silver anklet round his waist. A bhuvā has to observe a fast on
all the nine days of the Nav-rātras. If a bhuvā happens to come across
another bhuvā in convulsive fits or in a trance, he must need go into fits as
well.
Generally speaking every bhuvā keeps an image of his favourite mātā in or
near his own dwelling. Generally he erects a hut for the purpose and hoists
a flag upon it. Near the image are placed a number of conch-shells and
stones and brooms of peacock feathers. The deity is not systematically
worshipped every day but receives adoration every Sunday and Tuesday.
Sometimes the bhuvā has a disciple—a sevaka—who does the duty of
dashing bell-metal cymbals at the time when the bhuvā throws himself in a
trance.84
When a new bhuvā is to be initiated into the profession, he is made to sit
before an image of the mātā, where he goes into convulsive fits while the
dānklān vagādnārs beat the drums and loudly recite hymns in honour of the
deity. Afterwards he is taken to a cemetery accompanied by the drummers
assigned to them in remuneration for their duty80. In addition to this
religious calling, a bhuvā often follows some other profession as that of
agriculture, weaving or spinning.81
The bhuvā generally belongs to some low caste and may be a Koli,
Bharvād, Rabāri, Vāghri or even a Chamār. The bhuvās are also known as
pothiās. One good qualification for becoming a bhuvā is to possess the
habit of throwing one’s self into convulsive fits followed by a state of
trance, especially on hearing the beating of a dānklān (drum). At such a
time the mātā or devi is supposed to possess the person of the bhuvā and to
speak out her wishes on being questioned. Some bhuvās are regularly
possessed by some devi or mātā on every Sunday or Tuesday.82
A typical bhuvā has a braid of hair on his head, puts one or more iron or
copper anklets round his leg or elbow, and makes a mark with red lead on
his forehead. A bhuvā attending upon the goddess Meldi is generally83 a
Vāghri by caste and always wears dirty clothes. A Bharvād bhuvā has
generally a silver anklet round his waist. A bhuvā has to observe a fast on
all the nine days of the Nav-rātras. If a bhuvā happens to come across
another bhuvā in convulsive fits or in a trance, he must need go into fits as
well.
Generally speaking every bhuvā keeps an image of his favourite mātā in or
near his own dwelling. Generally he erects a hut for the purpose and hoists
a flag upon it. Near the image are placed a number of conch-shells and
stones and brooms of peacock feathers. The deity is not systematically
worshipped every day but receives adoration every Sunday and Tuesday.
Sometimes the bhuvā has a disciple—a sevaka—who does the duty of
dashing bell-metal cymbals at the time when the bhuvā throws himself in a
trance.84
When a new bhuvā is to be initiated into the profession, he is made to sit
before an image of the mātā, where he goes into convulsive fits while the
dānklān vagādnārs beat the drums and loudly recite hymns in honour of the
deity. Afterwards he is taken to a cemetery accompanied by the drummers
Page 192
and an expert bhuvā, where the latter marks out a square on the ground with
the edge of a sword. The novice is asked to lie prostrate within the area thus
marked out and to get up and lie again, doing the same four times, each
time with his head towards each of the four quarters. The bhuvā who
initiates the novice and who is thenceforth considered to be the guru or
preceptor of the latter, ties a rākhadi (a piece of silk thread) round the elbow
of the pupil.85
Every bhuvā is required to propitiate his favourite goddess every third year,
the ceremony which is then performed being called Khad-Khadya-besādvi.
This is performed either during the Nav-rātra holidays or during the bright
half of either the month of Māgh or Chaitra. All the bhuvās in the village
are invited on the occasion, when there is gānjā-smoking or bhāng-
drinking, partly at night. After the supper which follows this party, all the
bhuvās gather together and go into convulsive fits till they are almost
suffocated. Cocoanuts are then dedicated and cracked before the mātā, and
the kernel is distributed among those present. The party then break up.86
It is believed by some people that the spirit of a Muhammadan saint, living
or dead, dwells in such trees as the Khijado, i.e., Shami (Prosopis spicigera)
and Bāval, i.e., Bābhul (Acacia arabica). It is known by the name of
chitharia that is, the ragged Pir. It is a common belief that if a mother fails
to offer a rag or a piece of cloth to such a holy tree while passing by it, her
children run the risk of falling ill. Women and ignorant people, therefore,
make a point of offering rags to such trees whenever they happen to pass by
them.87
According to another belief, travellers, in order to accomplish their journey
safely, offer rags to such of the Khijado, Bāval or Limdo (Nim) trees as are
reputed to be the residences of spirits, if they happen to be on their road.88
Some believe that both male and female spirits reside in the Khijado, Bāval
and Kerado trees, and throw rags over them with the object of preventing
passers by from cutting or removing the trees. Some pile stones round their
stems and draw tridents over them with red lead and oil. If superstitious
people come across such trees, they throw pieces of stones on the piles,
the edge of a sword. The novice is asked to lie prostrate within the area thus
marked out and to get up and lie again, doing the same four times, each
time with his head towards each of the four quarters. The bhuvā who
initiates the novice and who is thenceforth considered to be the guru or
preceptor of the latter, ties a rākhadi (a piece of silk thread) round the elbow
of the pupil.85
Every bhuvā is required to propitiate his favourite goddess every third year,
the ceremony which is then performed being called Khad-Khadya-besādvi.
This is performed either during the Nav-rātra holidays or during the bright
half of either the month of Māgh or Chaitra. All the bhuvās in the village
are invited on the occasion, when there is gānjā-smoking or bhāng-
drinking, partly at night. After the supper which follows this party, all the
bhuvās gather together and go into convulsive fits till they are almost
suffocated. Cocoanuts are then dedicated and cracked before the mātā, and
the kernel is distributed among those present. The party then break up.86
It is believed by some people that the spirit of a Muhammadan saint, living
or dead, dwells in such trees as the Khijado, i.e., Shami (Prosopis spicigera)
and Bāval, i.e., Bābhul (Acacia arabica). It is known by the name of
chitharia that is, the ragged Pir. It is a common belief that if a mother fails
to offer a rag or a piece of cloth to such a holy tree while passing by it, her
children run the risk of falling ill. Women and ignorant people, therefore,
make a point of offering rags to such trees whenever they happen to pass by
them.87
According to another belief, travellers, in order to accomplish their journey
safely, offer rags to such of the Khijado, Bāval or Limdo (Nim) trees as are
reputed to be the residences of spirits, if they happen to be on their road.88
Some believe that both male and female spirits reside in the Khijado, Bāval
and Kerado trees, and throw rags over them with the object of preventing
passers by from cutting or removing the trees. Some pile stones round their
stems and draw tridents over them with red lead and oil. If superstitious
people come across such trees, they throw pieces of stones on the piles,
Page 193
believing them to be holy places, and think that by doing so they attain the
merit of building a temple or shrine. A belief runs that this pile should grow
larger and larger day by day, and not be diminished. If the base of such a
tree is not marked by a pile of stones, rags only are offered; and if rags are
not available, the devotee tears off a piece of his garment, however costly it
may be, and dedicates it to the tree.89
Once, a child saw its mother offering a rag to such a tree, and asked her the
reason of the offering. The mother replied that her brother, that is the child’s
maternal uncle, dwelt in the tree. Hence a belief arose that a chithario
(ragged) uncle dwells in such trees. Others assert that the chithario pir
dwells in such trees, and they propitiate him by offering cocoanuts and
burning frankincense before it.89
There is a Khijado tree near Sultānpur which is believed to be the residence
of a demon māmo. This demon is propitiated by the offerings of rags.
Some declare that travellers fix rags of worn out clothes to the trees
mentioned above in order that they may not be attacked by the evil spirits
residing in them. Another belief is that the spirits of deceased ancestors
residing in such trees get absolution through this form of devotion. It is also
believed that a goddess called chitharia devi resides in such trees, and being
pleased with these offerings, blesses childless females with children, and
cures persons suffering from itch of their disease. There is a further belief
that ragged travellers, by offering pieces of their clothes to the Khijado,
Bāval or Kerado trees, are blessed in return with good clothes.
Some believe that Hanumān, the lord of spirits, resides in certain trees.
They call him chithario or ragged Hanumān. All passers by offer rags to the
trees inhabited by him. There is such a tree near the station of Shiroi. There
is a tamarind tree on the road from Tamnagar to Khantalia which is believed
to be the residence of chithario Hanumān and receives similar offerings.
Another tamarind tree of this description is near Marad and there is a
Khijado tree on the road between Kālāvad and Vāvadi which is similarly
treated.90
merit of building a temple or shrine. A belief runs that this pile should grow
larger and larger day by day, and not be diminished. If the base of such a
tree is not marked by a pile of stones, rags only are offered; and if rags are
not available, the devotee tears off a piece of his garment, however costly it
may be, and dedicates it to the tree.89
Once, a child saw its mother offering a rag to such a tree, and asked her the
reason of the offering. The mother replied that her brother, that is the child’s
maternal uncle, dwelt in the tree. Hence a belief arose that a chithario
(ragged) uncle dwells in such trees. Others assert that the chithario pir
dwells in such trees, and they propitiate him by offering cocoanuts and
burning frankincense before it.89
There is a Khijado tree near Sultānpur which is believed to be the residence
of a demon māmo. This demon is propitiated by the offerings of rags.
Some declare that travellers fix rags of worn out clothes to the trees
mentioned above in order that they may not be attacked by the evil spirits
residing in them. Another belief is that the spirits of deceased ancestors
residing in such trees get absolution through this form of devotion. It is also
believed that a goddess called chitharia devi resides in such trees, and being
pleased with these offerings, blesses childless females with children, and
cures persons suffering from itch of their disease. There is a further belief
that ragged travellers, by offering pieces of their clothes to the Khijado,
Bāval or Kerado trees, are blessed in return with good clothes.
Some believe that Hanumān, the lord of spirits, resides in certain trees.
They call him chithario or ragged Hanumān. All passers by offer rags to the
trees inhabited by him. There is such a tree near the station of Shiroi. There
is a tamarind tree on the road from Tamnagar to Khantalia which is believed
to be the residence of chithario Hanumān and receives similar offerings.
Another tamarind tree of this description is near Marad and there is a
Khijado tree on the road between Kālāvad and Vāvadi which is similarly
treated.90
Page 194
It is related by some people that in deserts trees are rare and the summer
heat is oppressive. To the travellers passing through such deserts, the only
place of rest is in the shadow of a solitary tree that is to be met occasionally.
In order that no harm be done to such trees, some people have given
currency to the belief that a spirit called māmo dwells in such trees and
expects the offering of a rag and a pice at the hands of every passer by.90
Some are of opinion that the bhuvās, in order to raise money from the
credulous by terrifying them, daub a tree within the limits of each village
with the form of a trident, and fix rags to it, stating that it is the abode of a
māmo or a pir. At times they ask their clients to offer certain things to such
trees, which they appropriate to themselves.91
There is also a belief, that the holy trees that receive offerings of rags from
travellers, are the abodes of gods or evil spirits, and are distinguished from
other trees of the same species by the epithet of chithario. Some people
hoist flags on such trees instead of offering rags.
In some places, the Borādi (jujube), Pipal, Vad (banyan) and the sweet basil
receive offerings of a pice and a betelnut from travellers, while the Khijado
and Bāval are given rags.92
It is stated by some people that the belief in chithario pir has grown during
the last four hundred years.
Rags are never offered to wells, but it is common to offer them copper coins
and betelnuts. Sometimes flags are hoisted near holy wells in honour of the
water-goddess Jaldevki. Travellers hoist flags on certain wells and throw
copper coins into them in the course of their journey. The origin of this
offering is said to be in the desire of travellers to prevent people from
committing a nuisance near wells.
Some wells are noted as being the abode of spirits who have the power of
effecting certain cures. It is customary to throw a pice in such wells. When
a person is bitten by a rabid dog, he goes to a well inhabited by a vāchharo,
heat is oppressive. To the travellers passing through such deserts, the only
place of rest is in the shadow of a solitary tree that is to be met occasionally.
In order that no harm be done to such trees, some people have given
currency to the belief that a spirit called māmo dwells in such trees and
expects the offering of a rag and a pice at the hands of every passer by.90
Some are of opinion that the bhuvās, in order to raise money from the
credulous by terrifying them, daub a tree within the limits of each village
with the form of a trident, and fix rags to it, stating that it is the abode of a
māmo or a pir. At times they ask their clients to offer certain things to such
trees, which they appropriate to themselves.91
There is also a belief, that the holy trees that receive offerings of rags from
travellers, are the abodes of gods or evil spirits, and are distinguished from
other trees of the same species by the epithet of chithario. Some people
hoist flags on such trees instead of offering rags.
In some places, the Borādi (jujube), Pipal, Vad (banyan) and the sweet basil
receive offerings of a pice and a betelnut from travellers, while the Khijado
and Bāval are given rags.92
It is stated by some people that the belief in chithario pir has grown during
the last four hundred years.
Rags are never offered to wells, but it is common to offer them copper coins
and betelnuts. Sometimes flags are hoisted near holy wells in honour of the
water-goddess Jaldevki. Travellers hoist flags on certain wells and throw
copper coins into them in the course of their journey. The origin of this
offering is said to be in the desire of travellers to prevent people from
committing a nuisance near wells.
Some wells are noted as being the abode of spirits who have the power of
effecting certain cures. It is customary to throw a pice in such wells. When
a person is bitten by a rabid dog, he goes to a well inhabited by a vāchharo,
Page 195
the spirit who cures hydrophobia, with two earthen cups filled with milk,
with a pice in each, and empties the contents into the water.
It is a belief among Hindus that to give alms in secret confers a great merit
on the donor. Some of the orthodox people, therefore, throw pice into wells,
considering it to be a kind of secret charity.
The belief in the practices adopted for transferring disease from one person
to another obtains mostly among women, who have recourse to such
practices for curing their children.
One of such practices is to lay a suffering child in the cradle of a healthy
child. This act is believed to result in transferring the disease of the ailing
child to the healthy child. Another practice is that the mother of the sickly
child should touch the mother of a healthy child with the object of
transferring the disease of her child to the child of the latter. Some believe
that the mere contact of an ailing child with a healthy child is sufficient to
transfer the malady of the former to the person of the latter. Others maintain
that this can be brought about by a mother either by touching the cradle of
another child or by touching the person of another woman. There are others,
who hold that the disease of a sickly child can be transferred to another
child by feeding the latter with the leavings of the former. There is a further
belief that a mother can transfer the disease of her suffering child to the
child of another woman by applying the end of her robe to the end of the
robe of the latter. In some places, when a child begins to weaken, its mother
makes an idol of cow or buffalo dung, and keeps it fixed to a wall of the
house, in the belief that the child will be cured slowly as the idol dries. It is
stated that instances are actually known of the recovery of children by this
process. These methods of transferring disease are called tuchakās i.e.
mystic methods. As a rule superstitious women practise them on Sundays or
Tuesdays, as it is believed, that to be efficacious, they must be practised on
these days.
In addition to the tuchakās above stated the utārs, dorās, etc., already
described, are used for curing diseases.
with a pice in each, and empties the contents into the water.
It is a belief among Hindus that to give alms in secret confers a great merit
on the donor. Some of the orthodox people, therefore, throw pice into wells,
considering it to be a kind of secret charity.
The belief in the practices adopted for transferring disease from one person
to another obtains mostly among women, who have recourse to such
practices for curing their children.
One of such practices is to lay a suffering child in the cradle of a healthy
child. This act is believed to result in transferring the disease of the ailing
child to the healthy child. Another practice is that the mother of the sickly
child should touch the mother of a healthy child with the object of
transferring the disease of her child to the child of the latter. Some believe
that the mere contact of an ailing child with a healthy child is sufficient to
transfer the malady of the former to the person of the latter. Others maintain
that this can be brought about by a mother either by touching the cradle of
another child or by touching the person of another woman. There are others,
who hold that the disease of a sickly child can be transferred to another
child by feeding the latter with the leavings of the former. There is a further
belief that a mother can transfer the disease of her suffering child to the
child of another woman by applying the end of her robe to the end of the
robe of the latter. In some places, when a child begins to weaken, its mother
makes an idol of cow or buffalo dung, and keeps it fixed to a wall of the
house, in the belief that the child will be cured slowly as the idol dries. It is
stated that instances are actually known of the recovery of children by this
process. These methods of transferring disease are called tuchakās i.e.
mystic methods. As a rule superstitious women practise them on Sundays or
Tuesdays, as it is believed, that to be efficacious, they must be practised on
these days.
In addition to the tuchakās above stated the utārs, dorās, etc., already
described, are used for curing diseases.
Page 196
Some diseases are attributed to vir possession. Virs are male spirits fifty two
in number. The bhuvās or exorcists are believed to have control over them,
and are supposed to be able to detect an illness caused by possession by a
vir. In such cases, the bhuvās drive away the evil spirits from the patients by
magic incantations, or transfer them to others by waving a certain number
of grain seeds round the head of the patient. By another process the bhuvās
can confine the evil spirit in a glass bottle, which is buried underground.
In order to eradicate a dangerous disease, an utār is frequently offered to a
dog, in the belief that by eating the utār the disease is transferred to the dog.
In some places, diseases of long standing due to spirit possession are cured
by employing a bhuvā, (exorcist), who, accompanied by others of his order,
goes to the patient’s house, makes a bamboo bier, waves an utār round the
patient’s head, and lays himself on the bier with the utār by his side. The
bier is carried to the burning ground by four persons to the accompaniment
of the beatings of drums, followed by the exorcists, who throw bāklāns
(round flat cakes of juvāri flour) into the air as the procession moves on.
When the party reach the burning ground, the bier is put down, and the
bhuvā, shaking violently, offers the utār to a spirit of the place. He then
prostrates himself four times with his face turned towards the four
directions and drives a nail into the ground at each turn. Next, the bhuvā
lets loose a goat or a ram, to which the vir in the body of the patient is
supposed to be transferred. It is said that the performance of this rite
relieves the patient’s mind of anxiety regarding the cause of his disease, and
he thereafter shows signs of improvement.93
When a man is suffering from ānjani (a sore or mole on the eye-lid) he goes
to another person’s house and strikes earthen vessels against his door saying
“I have shaken the vessels. May the ānjani be with me to-day and with you
tomorrow”. It is also stated that such a patient goes to the house of a man
who has two wives while the latter are asleep, and taps his door uttering the
words “Anjani ghar bhāngani āj mane ane kal tane” i.e., “May ānjani, the
breaker of the house, be to-day with me and tomorrow with thee.” This
process is believed to transfer the disease from the person of the patient to
that of the husband of the two wives.
in number. The bhuvās or exorcists are believed to have control over them,
and are supposed to be able to detect an illness caused by possession by a
vir. In such cases, the bhuvās drive away the evil spirits from the patients by
magic incantations, or transfer them to others by waving a certain number
of grain seeds round the head of the patient. By another process the bhuvās
can confine the evil spirit in a glass bottle, which is buried underground.
In order to eradicate a dangerous disease, an utār is frequently offered to a
dog, in the belief that by eating the utār the disease is transferred to the dog.
In some places, diseases of long standing due to spirit possession are cured
by employing a bhuvā, (exorcist), who, accompanied by others of his order,
goes to the patient’s house, makes a bamboo bier, waves an utār round the
patient’s head, and lays himself on the bier with the utār by his side. The
bier is carried to the burning ground by four persons to the accompaniment
of the beatings of drums, followed by the exorcists, who throw bāklāns
(round flat cakes of juvāri flour) into the air as the procession moves on.
When the party reach the burning ground, the bier is put down, and the
bhuvā, shaking violently, offers the utār to a spirit of the place. He then
prostrates himself four times with his face turned towards the four
directions and drives a nail into the ground at each turn. Next, the bhuvā
lets loose a goat or a ram, to which the vir in the body of the patient is
supposed to be transferred. It is said that the performance of this rite
relieves the patient’s mind of anxiety regarding the cause of his disease, and
he thereafter shows signs of improvement.93
When a man is suffering from ānjani (a sore or mole on the eye-lid) he goes
to another person’s house and strikes earthen vessels against his door saying
“I have shaken the vessels. May the ānjani be with me to-day and with you
tomorrow”. It is also stated that such a patient goes to the house of a man
who has two wives while the latter are asleep, and taps his door uttering the
words “Anjani ghar bhāngani āj mane ane kal tane” i.e., “May ānjani, the
breaker of the house, be to-day with me and tomorrow with thee.” This
process is believed to transfer the disease from the person of the patient to
that of the husband of the two wives.
Page 197
A common method for transferring disease is to wave water round a sick
person and give it to another to drink. Similarly, a goblet filled with water is
passed round a patient’s head and offered to a bhuvā, who drinks off the
contents.
A belief prevails all over Gujarāt that a disease can be passed from one
species of animals to another, and various practices are adopted to effect
this. Generally a bhuvā or exorcist arranges the transfer. The bhuvā,
accompanied by a troupe of dancers and drummers, visits the house of the
sick person and, after examining corn seeds dānās which have been waved
round the patient’s head on a night preceding a Sunday or Tuesday, declares
that the evil spirit possessing the patient requires a living victim. A cock,
goat or a male buffalo is then brought as a substitute for the patient, is
waved round him, the tip of its right ear is cut off, and it is offered to the
mātā or goddess, that is, it is released to stray as it pleases. These goats,
etc., are called mātā’s goats, mātā’s cocks, or mātā’s male buffaloes, and are
seen wandering about in many villages. Sometimes the goat, etc., is killed
before the image of the mātā and the bhuvā dipping the palms of his hands
into its blood, presses them against the doors of every house in the village.
In the case of an outbreak of epidemic, the victim is set at liberty beyond
the limits of the village affected. It is believed by some people that the
animal to which a disease is conveyed in the above manner, dies of its
effects.94
In some places the patient is supposed to be possessed by a goddess instead
of by an evil spirit. A goat, cock or a male buffalo is offered to the goddess
in the same way as to an evil spirit.
In some villages, when there is an outbreak of a serious epidemic, it is
customary to drive a buffalo beyond the village boundary, with the disease
on his back. The back of the buffalo which is chosen for this purpose is
marked with a trident in red lead and covered with a piece of black cloth, on
which are laid a few grains of adad and an iron nail. Thus decorated, the
buffalo is driven beyond the limits of the village. It is believed that an
animal driven in this way carries the disease wherever it goes.
person and give it to another to drink. Similarly, a goblet filled with water is
passed round a patient’s head and offered to a bhuvā, who drinks off the
contents.
A belief prevails all over Gujarāt that a disease can be passed from one
species of animals to another, and various practices are adopted to effect
this. Generally a bhuvā or exorcist arranges the transfer. The bhuvā,
accompanied by a troupe of dancers and drummers, visits the house of the
sick person and, after examining corn seeds dānās which have been waved
round the patient’s head on a night preceding a Sunday or Tuesday, declares
that the evil spirit possessing the patient requires a living victim. A cock,
goat or a male buffalo is then brought as a substitute for the patient, is
waved round him, the tip of its right ear is cut off, and it is offered to the
mātā or goddess, that is, it is released to stray as it pleases. These goats,
etc., are called mātā’s goats, mātā’s cocks, or mātā’s male buffaloes, and are
seen wandering about in many villages. Sometimes the goat, etc., is killed
before the image of the mātā and the bhuvā dipping the palms of his hands
into its blood, presses them against the doors of every house in the village.
In the case of an outbreak of epidemic, the victim is set at liberty beyond
the limits of the village affected. It is believed by some people that the
animal to which a disease is conveyed in the above manner, dies of its
effects.94
In some places the patient is supposed to be possessed by a goddess instead
of by an evil spirit. A goat, cock or a male buffalo is offered to the goddess
in the same way as to an evil spirit.
In some villages, when there is an outbreak of a serious epidemic, it is
customary to drive a buffalo beyond the village boundary, with the disease
on his back. The back of the buffalo which is chosen for this purpose is
marked with a trident in red lead and covered with a piece of black cloth, on
which are laid a few grains of adad and an iron nail. Thus decorated, the
buffalo is driven beyond the limits of the village. It is believed that an
animal driven in this way carries the disease wherever it goes.
Page 198
Very often, the beast to which a disease is transferred is kept tied to a post
all its life, with the belief that by so doing the disease remains enchained.
Jain teachers confine a disease in a bottle and bury it underground.
Sometimes, a disease is passed on to a crow, whose legs are tied to a pillar,
thus making it a life-long prisoner.
Once upon a time, when there was an outbreak of cholera in a certain
village, a bāvā (recluse) happened to arrive on the scene. He caught two
rams, made them move in a circle, and left them in the burning ground,
where they died, the epidemic disappearing with their death. Hence a belief
gained ground that an epidemic of cholera can be expelled by passing it on
to two rams or goats.95
It is related that, at Gondal, a case of cholera was cured by a Bhangi
(sweeper) by waving a cock round the patient’s head.96
A few years ago there lived in Khākhi Jalia, a village in the vicinity of
Kolki, a Khākhi (recluse) named Nārandās, who, when laid up with fever,
passed on the disease to his blanket, and after a time drew it back to his own
person.
1 Vide Question 19. ↑
2 A small wooden car five or six inches long is covered over with a piece of cotton cloth and the
wooden image of a Mātā—Khodiār or Kālkā—besmeared with red lead is placed upon it. This rath
or chariot of the Mātā is then passed through the village on the shoulders of a low-caste person, who
begs corn from door to door and afterwards places the image at the gates of the neighbouring village.
From thence it is removed by the people of that village to the next village and so on till it reaches the
sea.—Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
3 The Schoolmaster of Luvaria. ↑
4 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
5 The Schoolmaster of Kotda-Sangani. ↑
6 Sometimes the statues of adad flour are besmeared with red lead and afterwards are boiled in
dirty water. The whole of this preparation is then thrown into wells, the waters of which are used for
drinking in the village.—The Schoolmaster of Songadh. ↑
all its life, with the belief that by so doing the disease remains enchained.
Jain teachers confine a disease in a bottle and bury it underground.
Sometimes, a disease is passed on to a crow, whose legs are tied to a pillar,
thus making it a life-long prisoner.
Once upon a time, when there was an outbreak of cholera in a certain
village, a bāvā (recluse) happened to arrive on the scene. He caught two
rams, made them move in a circle, and left them in the burning ground,
where they died, the epidemic disappearing with their death. Hence a belief
gained ground that an epidemic of cholera can be expelled by passing it on
to two rams or goats.95
It is related that, at Gondal, a case of cholera was cured by a Bhangi
(sweeper) by waving a cock round the patient’s head.96
A few years ago there lived in Khākhi Jalia, a village in the vicinity of
Kolki, a Khākhi (recluse) named Nārandās, who, when laid up with fever,
passed on the disease to his blanket, and after a time drew it back to his own
person.
1 Vide Question 19. ↑
2 A small wooden car five or six inches long is covered over with a piece of cotton cloth and the
wooden image of a Mātā—Khodiār or Kālkā—besmeared with red lead is placed upon it. This rath
or chariot of the Mātā is then passed through the village on the shoulders of a low-caste person, who
begs corn from door to door and afterwards places the image at the gates of the neighbouring village.
From thence it is removed by the people of that village to the next village and so on till it reaches the
sea.—Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
3 The Schoolmaster of Luvaria. ↑
4 The Schoolmaster of Jodia. ↑
5 The Schoolmaster of Kotda-Sangani. ↑
6 Sometimes the statues of adad flour are besmeared with red lead and afterwards are boiled in
dirty water. The whole of this preparation is then thrown into wells, the waters of which are used for
drinking in the village.—The Schoolmaster of Songadh. ↑
Page 199
7 The Schoolmasters of Jodia, Dadvi, and Songadh. ↑
8 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
9 The School Master of Chhatrasa. ↑
10 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
11 The School Master of Mendarda. ↑
12 The School Master of Movaiya. ↑
13 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
14 The School Masters of Devalia and Vasavad. ↑
15 The Shastri of Jetpur Pathshala. ↑
16 The School Master of Charadwa. ↑
17 These are different sacrifices, the first two in honour of Shiva, the third in honour of the goddess
Chandi. ↑
18 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
19 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
20 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
21 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
22 The patient is often entirely made over to the Mātā and is again purchased from her at a nominal
price of a rupee and a quarter.—Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
23 A mixture of the flour of bajri, ghi, and molasses. ↑
24 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
25 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
26 The School Master of Sayala. ↑
27 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Hālār. ↑
28 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
29 The School Masters of Dhānk and Ganod. ↑
30 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
31 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
8 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
9 The School Master of Chhatrasa. ↑
10 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
11 The School Master of Mendarda. ↑
12 The School Master of Movaiya. ↑
13 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
14 The School Masters of Devalia and Vasavad. ↑
15 The Shastri of Jetpur Pathshala. ↑
16 The School Master of Charadwa. ↑
17 These are different sacrifices, the first two in honour of Shiva, the third in honour of the goddess
Chandi. ↑
18 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
19 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
20 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
21 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
22 The patient is often entirely made over to the Mātā and is again purchased from her at a nominal
price of a rupee and a quarter.—Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
23 A mixture of the flour of bajri, ghi, and molasses. ↑
24 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
25 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
26 The School Master of Sayala. ↑
27 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Hālār. ↑
28 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
29 The School Masters of Dhānk and Ganod. ↑
30 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
31 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
Page 200
32 Babhrivāhan was not the son of Bhīma, he was the son of Arjun by Chitrangadā, a princess of
Manipur. ↑
33 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
34 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
35 The School Master of Sanka. ↑
36 The Mistress of Rajkot Civil Station Girls’ School. ↑
37 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
38 The Shastri of Jetpur Pathshāla. ↑
39 Names of Vishnu and Shiva respectively. ↑
40 The School Master of Charadwa. ↑
41 The half-man and half-lion incarnation of Vishnu. ↑
42 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
43 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
44 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
45 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
46 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
47 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad. ↑
48 The School Master of Rajpara. ↑
49 The School Master of Jasdan. ↑
50 The School Master of Rajpara. ↑
51 The School Master of Kotda-Sangani. ↑
52 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
53 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
54 The School Master of Sanka. ↑
55 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
56 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
57 The School Master of Dhānk and the Shastri of Jetpur Pathshala. ↑
Manipur. ↑
33 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
34 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
35 The School Master of Sanka. ↑
36 The Mistress of Rajkot Civil Station Girls’ School. ↑
37 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
38 The Shastri of Jetpur Pathshāla. ↑
39 Names of Vishnu and Shiva respectively. ↑
40 The School Master of Charadwa. ↑
41 The half-man and half-lion incarnation of Vishnu. ↑
42 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
43 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
44 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
45 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
46 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
47 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad. ↑
48 The School Master of Rajpara. ↑
49 The School Master of Jasdan. ↑
50 The School Master of Rajpara. ↑
51 The School Master of Kotda-Sangani. ↑
52 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
53 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
54 The School Master of Sanka. ↑
55 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
56 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
57 The School Master of Dhānk and the Shastri of Jetpur Pathshala. ↑
Page 201
58 The Shastri of Bhayavadur Pathashala. ↑
59 The School Master of Zinzuwāda. ↑
60 The Shastris of Jetpur and Bhayavadur. ↑
61 The School Master of Wala Taluka. ↑
62 The School Master of Anandpur. ↑
63 The School Master of Kotda-Sangani. ↑
64 The School Master of Zinzuwāda. ↑
65 The School Master of Kotda-Sangani. ↑
66 All this of course is addressed to the evil spirit which is supposed to have possessed the
patient. ↑
67 Feminine of Vāghri belonging to the Vāghri caste. ↑
68 The School Master of Sānkā. ↑
69 The School Masters of Ganod, Vanod and Kolki. ↑
70 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
71 The School Master of Limbdi Taluka. ↑
72 Mr. B. K. Desāi. ↑
73 Nilotsava or Nil-parnāvum is a ceremony performed in honour of a young man, who has come
to an untimely end. The chief part of the ceremony is the performance of the wedding of a bull-calf
with a heifer. Sometimes a member of the deceased youth’s family is possessed on such an occasion
by the spirit of the deceased man and is believed to have then the power of correctly answering
questions about future events, etc.—The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
74 The School Master of Devaliā. ↑
75 The School Masters of Dhānk and Kotda Sangani. ↑
76 The School Master of Sanka. ↑
77 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
78 The School Masters of Dadvi and Kolki. ↑
79 The School Masters of Kotdā Sangani and Sanka. ↑
80 The School Master of Zinzuwādā. ↑
59 The School Master of Zinzuwāda. ↑
60 The Shastris of Jetpur and Bhayavadur. ↑
61 The School Master of Wala Taluka. ↑
62 The School Master of Anandpur. ↑
63 The School Master of Kotda-Sangani. ↑
64 The School Master of Zinzuwāda. ↑
65 The School Master of Kotda-Sangani. ↑
66 All this of course is addressed to the evil spirit which is supposed to have possessed the
patient. ↑
67 Feminine of Vāghri belonging to the Vāghri caste. ↑
68 The School Master of Sānkā. ↑
69 The School Masters of Ganod, Vanod and Kolki. ↑
70 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
71 The School Master of Limbdi Taluka. ↑
72 Mr. B. K. Desāi. ↑
73 Nilotsava or Nil-parnāvum is a ceremony performed in honour of a young man, who has come
to an untimely end. The chief part of the ceremony is the performance of the wedding of a bull-calf
with a heifer. Sometimes a member of the deceased youth’s family is possessed on such an occasion
by the spirit of the deceased man and is believed to have then the power of correctly answering
questions about future events, etc.—The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
74 The School Master of Devaliā. ↑
75 The School Masters of Dhānk and Kotda Sangani. ↑
76 The School Master of Sanka. ↑
77 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
78 The School Masters of Dadvi and Kolki. ↑
79 The School Masters of Kotdā Sangani and Sanka. ↑
80 The School Master of Zinzuwādā. ↑
Page 202
81 The School Master of Jodiā. ↑
82 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
83 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
84 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
85 The Schoolmaster of Pātanvāv. ↑
86 The School Master of Sānkā. ↑
87 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
88 The School Master of Davaliā. ↑
89 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
90 The School Master of Limbdi Taluka. ↑
91 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
92 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
93 The School Master of Zinzuwādā. ↑
94 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
95 The Pathashālā Shastri, Talpur. ↑
96 The School Mistress of Gondal. ↑
82 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
83 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
84 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
85 The Schoolmaster of Pātanvāv. ↑
86 The School Master of Sānkā. ↑
87 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
88 The School Master of Davaliā. ↑
89 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
90 The School Master of Limbdi Taluka. ↑
91 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
92 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
93 The School Master of Zinzuwādā. ↑
94 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
95 The Pathashālā Shastri, Talpur. ↑
96 The School Mistress of Gondal. ↑
Page 203
Page 204
CHAPTER IV.
Page 205
WORSHIP OF ANCESTORS AND SAINTS.
The spirits of a deceased father, grand father, great grand father, and of a
mother, grand mother, and great grand mother, i.e., all the male and female
ascendants up to the third degree, receive systematic worship when the
Shrāddha or funeral ceremonies are performed either on the anniversary of
the death of any of them or on the day when the Nārāyan bali is performed
in such holy places as Gayā, Siddhapur or Prabhās Pātan. The spirits of
those who meet heroic deaths on fields of battle are called Suropuros, and
pillars are erected in their memory on the spot where they breathed their
last. They receive only occasional worship.1
The purvajas or spirits of deceased ancestors receive worship on the
thirteenth or fourteenth day of the dark half of Shrāvan (the tenth month of
the Gujarāt Hindu year), on the fourteenth of the dark half of Ashvin, on the
death anniversaries and on days on which the Shrāddhas, tripindis or nil
parnāvavi ceremonies are performed. On these occasions, the pitriyas
(deceased ancestors) are represented by twisted braids of the durvā grass
(cynodon dactylon).2
Purvajas or ancestral spirits descend to the level of ghosts when they are
strongly attached to worldly objects. Such spirits often possess the bodies of
their descendants, though the necessary Shrāddhas are performed for their
release. The 13th, 14th and 15th days of the bright half of the months of
Kārtik and Chaitra are the special days for propitiation of departed spirits
by their relatives either at home or in holy places, while the whole of the
dark half of the month of Bhādarvā is devoted to this purpose.3 During this
fortnight, shrāddha is performed in honour of the deceased on the day
corresponding to the day of his death, when Brāhmans are feasted. Thus, a
person dying on the 5th day of Kārtik has his shrāddha performed on the
5th day of the sharādian. On this occasion, water is poured at the root of the
Pipal, tarpan or offerings of water are made, and pinds or balls of rice are
offered to the deceased.
The spirits of a deceased father, grand father, great grand father, and of a
mother, grand mother, and great grand mother, i.e., all the male and female
ascendants up to the third degree, receive systematic worship when the
Shrāddha or funeral ceremonies are performed either on the anniversary of
the death of any of them or on the day when the Nārāyan bali is performed
in such holy places as Gayā, Siddhapur or Prabhās Pātan. The spirits of
those who meet heroic deaths on fields of battle are called Suropuros, and
pillars are erected in their memory on the spot where they breathed their
last. They receive only occasional worship.1
The purvajas or spirits of deceased ancestors receive worship on the
thirteenth or fourteenth day of the dark half of Shrāvan (the tenth month of
the Gujarāt Hindu year), on the fourteenth of the dark half of Ashvin, on the
death anniversaries and on days on which the Shrāddhas, tripindis or nil
parnāvavi ceremonies are performed. On these occasions, the pitriyas
(deceased ancestors) are represented by twisted braids of the durvā grass
(cynodon dactylon).2
Purvajas or ancestral spirits descend to the level of ghosts when they are
strongly attached to worldly objects. Such spirits often possess the bodies of
their descendants, though the necessary Shrāddhas are performed for their
release. The 13th, 14th and 15th days of the bright half of the months of
Kārtik and Chaitra are the special days for propitiation of departed spirits
by their relatives either at home or in holy places, while the whole of the
dark half of the month of Bhādarvā is devoted to this purpose.3 During this
fortnight, shrāddha is performed in honour of the deceased on the day
corresponding to the day of his death, when Brāhmans are feasted. Thus, a
person dying on the 5th day of Kārtik has his shrāddha performed on the
5th day of the sharādian. On this occasion, water is poured at the root of the
Pipal, tarpan or offerings of water are made, and pinds or balls of rice are
offered to the deceased.
Page 206
Of all the days of the sharādian the 13th, 14th and 15th are considered to be
of special importance.
The death anniversary of a pitriya is called samvatsari, valgo samachari or
chhamachhari, when a shrāddha is performed and Brāhmans are feasted.
The pitriyas are also worshipped on auspicious occasions such as
marriages, by the performance of a shrāddha called nāndi, when pinds
(balls) of molasses are offered instead of rice. It is considered an act of
merit to perform shrāddha in honour of the pitriyas on the banks of a river
or tank at midday on the 8th day of the dark half of a month.
From the 13th to the 15th day of the dark half of Shrāvan, after their
morning ablutions, orthodox people pour water over the Pipal, the Bābul,
the Ber (Zizyphus jujube) and durvā grass, and on those places where cows
are known to congregate, in the belief that by so doing the thirst of the
spirits of the deceased is quenched. It is also believed that if feasts are given
to the relatives of the deceased and to Brāhmans the pitriyas are satisfied.
According to some, the Sharādian lasts from the full-moon day of the
month of Bhādarvā to the new-moon day of the same month, that is for a
period of sixteen days. The Shrāddhas of those who die on the Punema or
full-moon day of a month are performed on the full-moon day of Bhādarvā,
and the Shrāddhas of those who die on the new-moon day amavasia of a
month are performed on the amavasia of Bhādarvā. The 13th day of the
dark half of Bhādarvā is called bālā terash that is children’s thirteenth. This
day is specially devoted to the propitiation of the spirits of children.4
On the Shrāddha days Brāhmans and relatives of the deceased are feasted,
and oblations called Vāsh, consisting of rice and sweets, are offered to
crows.
On Āsho Vad fourteenth, that is, the fourteenth of the dark half of Āsho, it is
customary to apply red lead to the pillars erected in honour of men that die
heroic or noble deaths on fields of battle, to break cocoanuts before them, to
light lamps fed with ghi and to offer cooked food to their spirits.5
of special importance.
The death anniversary of a pitriya is called samvatsari, valgo samachari or
chhamachhari, when a shrāddha is performed and Brāhmans are feasted.
The pitriyas are also worshipped on auspicious occasions such as
marriages, by the performance of a shrāddha called nāndi, when pinds
(balls) of molasses are offered instead of rice. It is considered an act of
merit to perform shrāddha in honour of the pitriyas on the banks of a river
or tank at midday on the 8th day of the dark half of a month.
From the 13th to the 15th day of the dark half of Shrāvan, after their
morning ablutions, orthodox people pour water over the Pipal, the Bābul,
the Ber (Zizyphus jujube) and durvā grass, and on those places where cows
are known to congregate, in the belief that by so doing the thirst of the
spirits of the deceased is quenched. It is also believed that if feasts are given
to the relatives of the deceased and to Brāhmans the pitriyas are satisfied.
According to some, the Sharādian lasts from the full-moon day of the
month of Bhādarvā to the new-moon day of the same month, that is for a
period of sixteen days. The Shrāddhas of those who die on the Punema or
full-moon day of a month are performed on the full-moon day of Bhādarvā,
and the Shrāddhas of those who die on the new-moon day amavasia of a
month are performed on the amavasia of Bhādarvā. The 13th day of the
dark half of Bhādarvā is called bālā terash that is children’s thirteenth. This
day is specially devoted to the propitiation of the spirits of children.4
On the Shrāddha days Brāhmans and relatives of the deceased are feasted,
and oblations called Vāsh, consisting of rice and sweets, are offered to
crows.
On Āsho Vad fourteenth, that is, the fourteenth of the dark half of Āsho, it is
customary to apply red lead to the pillars erected in honour of men that die
heroic or noble deaths on fields of battle, to break cocoanuts before them, to
light lamps fed with ghi and to offer cooked food to their spirits.5
Page 207
The spirits of those who die with strong attachment to the objects of this
world are said to enter the state known as asur gati or the path of demons.
In this condition the spirit of the deceased possesses the person of one of his
relatives and torments the family in which he lived. The members of the
family, when worried by his persecutions, engage the services of a bhuvā or
exorcist, who sets up a wooden image of the tormenting spirit in a niche in
a wall of the house. A lamp fed with ghi is lighted daily before this image,
and in times of trouble, a cocoanut is offered to it in the belief that the spirit
can protect the offerers from injuries.
The pitriyas or ancestral spirits are propitiated by pouring water over the
Bordi (jujube), the Tulsi (sweet basil), the Vad (banyan), the Pipal or durvā
grass (cynodon dactylon) on the 13th, 14th and 15th days of the bright half
of Chaitra and on the same days of the dark half of Kārtik and Shrāvan. On
Vaishākh Shud Trij, that is, on the third of the bright half of Vaishākh, which
is called Akhā Trij, women offer to Brāhmans two earthen jars filled with
water and covered with an earthen cup containing a betelnut, a pice and a
pān or betel leaf, for the propitiation of the spirits of their deceased
ancestors.6
For the propitiation of a male spirit a party of Brāhmans is feasted, and for
the propitiation of a female spirit three unwidowed married women.7
Rajputs, Bharvāds, Ahirs and Kolis set up either a pile of stones or a single
stone on the boundary of their village in honour of those among them who
die on battle fields. These piles or stones are called Pālios. On the Pālios
are placed engraved images to represent the deceased in whose memory the
Pālios are erected. Small pillars are also raised in the localities where such
persons met their death. On the Kāli Chaudas or black fourteenth, that is the
fourteenth day of the dark half of Āsho, the Pālios are daubed with red lead
and worshipped with offerings of cocoanuts. Women who have become sati
receive worship and offerings on the Hindu new year’s day.8
Spiritual guides such as Shankarāchārya, Vallabāchārya, the mahārājas or
spiritual heads of the sect called Swāminārāyan, Lālo Bhagat and Talo
Bhagat are worshipped by their devotees with offerings of food, garments
world are said to enter the state known as asur gati or the path of demons.
In this condition the spirit of the deceased possesses the person of one of his
relatives and torments the family in which he lived. The members of the
family, when worried by his persecutions, engage the services of a bhuvā or
exorcist, who sets up a wooden image of the tormenting spirit in a niche in
a wall of the house. A lamp fed with ghi is lighted daily before this image,
and in times of trouble, a cocoanut is offered to it in the belief that the spirit
can protect the offerers from injuries.
The pitriyas or ancestral spirits are propitiated by pouring water over the
Bordi (jujube), the Tulsi (sweet basil), the Vad (banyan), the Pipal or durvā
grass (cynodon dactylon) on the 13th, 14th and 15th days of the bright half
of Chaitra and on the same days of the dark half of Kārtik and Shrāvan. On
Vaishākh Shud Trij, that is, on the third of the bright half of Vaishākh, which
is called Akhā Trij, women offer to Brāhmans two earthen jars filled with
water and covered with an earthen cup containing a betelnut, a pice and a
pān or betel leaf, for the propitiation of the spirits of their deceased
ancestors.6
For the propitiation of a male spirit a party of Brāhmans is feasted, and for
the propitiation of a female spirit three unwidowed married women.7
Rajputs, Bharvāds, Ahirs and Kolis set up either a pile of stones or a single
stone on the boundary of their village in honour of those among them who
die on battle fields. These piles or stones are called Pālios. On the Pālios
are placed engraved images to represent the deceased in whose memory the
Pālios are erected. Small pillars are also raised in the localities where such
persons met their death. On the Kāli Chaudas or black fourteenth, that is the
fourteenth day of the dark half of Āsho, the Pālios are daubed with red lead
and worshipped with offerings of cocoanuts. Women who have become sati
receive worship and offerings on the Hindu new year’s day.8
Spiritual guides such as Shankarāchārya, Vallabāchārya, the mahārājas or
spiritual heads of the sect called Swāminārāyan, Lālo Bhagat and Talo
Bhagat are worshipped by their devotees with offerings of food, garments
Page 208
and cash. In this Kali Yuga or iron age, men who are really great are rare,
and even if there be some, they are invisible to the faulty vision of the
present day degraded mortals. A few come into contact with such holy men
by virtue of the good deeds performed by them in their past lives. These are
said to attain paradise by this satsang9 (contact with the righteous).
Holy men receive personal worship during their life-time. After they are
dead, their relics, such as impressions of their footsteps, their photos or
busts are worshipped with offerings of sandal paste, flowers, red powder,
frankincense, lamps fed with ghi and ārati (swingings of lamps).10
Every sect of Hindus has a Mahārāja or spiritual head, and it is considered
meritorious to entertain and worship him on certain special occasions. The
Mahārāja or Guru is received with great éclat. His followers form a
procession and carry him in a palanquin or a carriage and pair accompanied
with music. At the house of the person who invites him, the floor is covered
with rich cloth, over which the Mahārāja is led to a raised seat specially
arranged for the purpose. He is then worshipped by the host with the same
details as the image of a god. His feet are washed by panchāmrita (five
nectars), that is a mixture of ghi, milk, honey, sugar and water, which is
sipped by the worshipper and distributed among the followers of the
Mahārāja. Very often the feet of the Mahārāja are washed in water, which
is considered as purifying as the panchāmrita. Great festivity and rejoicings
are observed on this day at the house of the Mahārāja’s host, where crowds
of the Mahārāja’s followers assemble eager for a sight of him. After
spending about half an hour in the house, the Mahārāja departs, first
receiving valuable presents from the host.
Spiritual guides who claim the power of working miracles are held in high
esteem by the people. Some of these guides are said to have control over
spiritual beings or to possess their favour. These spirits are supposed to
endow them with the power of preparing mystic threads, which, when worn
round the waist, neck or arm, cure various diseases.
In the Kadavāsan woods, near the village of Daldi, there lives a bāvā called
Bhimputi, who is believed to possess miraculous powers. He surprises
and even if there be some, they are invisible to the faulty vision of the
present day degraded mortals. A few come into contact with such holy men
by virtue of the good deeds performed by them in their past lives. These are
said to attain paradise by this satsang9 (contact with the righteous).
Holy men receive personal worship during their life-time. After they are
dead, their relics, such as impressions of their footsteps, their photos or
busts are worshipped with offerings of sandal paste, flowers, red powder,
frankincense, lamps fed with ghi and ārati (swingings of lamps).10
Every sect of Hindus has a Mahārāja or spiritual head, and it is considered
meritorious to entertain and worship him on certain special occasions. The
Mahārāja or Guru is received with great éclat. His followers form a
procession and carry him in a palanquin or a carriage and pair accompanied
with music. At the house of the person who invites him, the floor is covered
with rich cloth, over which the Mahārāja is led to a raised seat specially
arranged for the purpose. He is then worshipped by the host with the same
details as the image of a god. His feet are washed by panchāmrita (five
nectars), that is a mixture of ghi, milk, honey, sugar and water, which is
sipped by the worshipper and distributed among the followers of the
Mahārāja. Very often the feet of the Mahārāja are washed in water, which
is considered as purifying as the panchāmrita. Great festivity and rejoicings
are observed on this day at the house of the Mahārāja’s host, where crowds
of the Mahārāja’s followers assemble eager for a sight of him. After
spending about half an hour in the house, the Mahārāja departs, first
receiving valuable presents from the host.
Spiritual guides who claim the power of working miracles are held in high
esteem by the people. Some of these guides are said to have control over
spiritual beings or to possess their favour. These spirits are supposed to
endow them with the power of preparing mystic threads, which, when worn
round the waist, neck or arm, cure various diseases.
In the Kadavāsan woods, near the village of Daldi, there lives a bāvā called
Bhimputi, who is believed to possess miraculous powers. He surprises
Page 209
visitors by his wonderful feats and commands vows from the afflicted by
mitigating their sufferings. Every day, before breakfast, the bāvā visits
seven villages to collect sugar and flour, which he throws in handfuls over
every anthill which he meets on his way. This act of charity has established
him as a saint, and most of his prophecies are believed to be fulfilled.
A Musalmān named Muhammad Chhail is held in great respect by the
people on account of his great magical powers. He is believed to be in the
good graces of a Pir, who has endowed him with the power of commanding
material objects to come to him from long distances, and of breaking them
and making them whole again.11
Great men of antiquity often command worship as gods. A fast is observed
by Hindus on the 9th day of the bright half of Chaitra, the birth day of
Rāma, whose birth anniversary is celebrated at noon on that day in his
temple. On this occasion, all visitors to the temple offer a pice or two to his
image and receive his Prasād, that is, consecrated food, which consists of a
mixture of curdled milk and sugar. The birth of Krishna is celebrated at
mid-night on the eighth day of the dark half of Shrāvan, when people keep
awake for the whole of the night.
The Jains observe a fast for seven days from Shrāvan Vad Bāras, that is the
12th day of the dark half of Shrāvan, to the 5th day of the bright half of
Bhādarvā, in honour of Mahāvir Swāmi, one of their spiritual teachers, who
is believed to have been born on the 2nd day of the bright half of Bhādarvā.
This period is known as the Pajusan, during which the Jains cause the
slaughter-houses and fish markets to be closed and give alms to the poor.12
A century ago there lived at Nalkanthā a sage named Bhānsāb. He met a
holy death by deep meditations, and a few days after rose up from his grave
in his original form. This led him to be classed in the category of great men
and to command divine worship.13
Vithal, a sage of the Kāthi tribe, is revered in Pāliād. Sāvo, a devotee at
Zanzarkā, is worshipped by Dheds. Fehalā, a Rajput and Tolat his wife, are
enshrined at Anjār, a village in Cutch. Lālo, a Baniā devotee of Sindhāvār,
mitigating their sufferings. Every day, before breakfast, the bāvā visits
seven villages to collect sugar and flour, which he throws in handfuls over
every anthill which he meets on his way. This act of charity has established
him as a saint, and most of his prophecies are believed to be fulfilled.
A Musalmān named Muhammad Chhail is held in great respect by the
people on account of his great magical powers. He is believed to be in the
good graces of a Pir, who has endowed him with the power of commanding
material objects to come to him from long distances, and of breaking them
and making them whole again.11
Great men of antiquity often command worship as gods. A fast is observed
by Hindus on the 9th day of the bright half of Chaitra, the birth day of
Rāma, whose birth anniversary is celebrated at noon on that day in his
temple. On this occasion, all visitors to the temple offer a pice or two to his
image and receive his Prasād, that is, consecrated food, which consists of a
mixture of curdled milk and sugar. The birth of Krishna is celebrated at
mid-night on the eighth day of the dark half of Shrāvan, when people keep
awake for the whole of the night.
The Jains observe a fast for seven days from Shrāvan Vad Bāras, that is the
12th day of the dark half of Shrāvan, to the 5th day of the bright half of
Bhādarvā, in honour of Mahāvir Swāmi, one of their spiritual teachers, who
is believed to have been born on the 2nd day of the bright half of Bhādarvā.
This period is known as the Pajusan, during which the Jains cause the
slaughter-houses and fish markets to be closed and give alms to the poor.12
A century ago there lived at Nalkanthā a sage named Bhānsāb. He met a
holy death by deep meditations, and a few days after rose up from his grave
in his original form. This led him to be classed in the category of great men
and to command divine worship.13
Vithal, a sage of the Kāthi tribe, is revered in Pāliād. Sāvo, a devotee at
Zanzarkā, is worshipped by Dheds. Fehalā, a Rajput and Tolat his wife, are
enshrined at Anjār, a village in Cutch. Lālo, a Baniā devotee of Sindhāvār,
Page 210
received divine honours in his life-time and his image in Sāyalā is held in
great reverence to this day. The samādh of Mādhvagar, an atit of Vastadi,
situated in Unchadi a village in the Dhandhuka taluka in Ahmedābād, is an
object of worship. Harikrishna Mahārāja, a Brāhman saint of Chudā,
received divine honours at Chudā and the Charotar.14
If the souls of the departed ones are condemned to become ghosts,
shrāddha ceremonies performed by their descendants are said to be
efficacious in freeing them from their ghostly existence and relegating them
to some other form of life.
The lives of bhuts and pishāchas, male and female ghosts, are said to
extend over a thousand years.15 Shrāddhas, such as the samāchari i.e., the
death anniversary and Nārāyanbali i.e., a shrāddha performed in a holy
place, emancipate the ghostly spirits from their wretched existence and
make them eligible for birth in a better form.16 Some believe that at the end
of their ghostly existence (a thousand years) they take birth in the animal
kingdom in the mortal world.17
The soul is not said to have finally perished unless it merges into the divine
self and attains moksha or salvation. The passions and desires of a dying
man do not permit his soul ascending beyond a certain stage, where he or
she remains as a ghost until the soul is purged of all his or her desires and
sins by the performance of funeral ceremonies. For relieving ancestral
spirits from the low order of bhuts and pishāchas, shrāddhas are performed
by their surviving relatives in such holy places as Prabhās, Gayā and
Pindtārak. These ceremonies are known as Nārāyanbali, Nilotsarga and
saptāha-pārāyan (recitation of a sacred book for seven consecutive days).18
Those persons who die with wicked thoughts still present and their desires
not fulfilled, enter the order of evil spirits, from which they are liberated
after their desires have been satisfied and their wicked thoughts
eliminated.19
Bhuts and pishāchas—ghosts, male and female—can be prevented from
doing harm by recourse to certain processes. For instance, the wife of a
great reverence to this day. The samādh of Mādhvagar, an atit of Vastadi,
situated in Unchadi a village in the Dhandhuka taluka in Ahmedābād, is an
object of worship. Harikrishna Mahārāja, a Brāhman saint of Chudā,
received divine honours at Chudā and the Charotar.14
If the souls of the departed ones are condemned to become ghosts,
shrāddha ceremonies performed by their descendants are said to be
efficacious in freeing them from their ghostly existence and relegating them
to some other form of life.
The lives of bhuts and pishāchas, male and female ghosts, are said to
extend over a thousand years.15 Shrāddhas, such as the samāchari i.e., the
death anniversary and Nārāyanbali i.e., a shrāddha performed in a holy
place, emancipate the ghostly spirits from their wretched existence and
make them eligible for birth in a better form.16 Some believe that at the end
of their ghostly existence (a thousand years) they take birth in the animal
kingdom in the mortal world.17
The soul is not said to have finally perished unless it merges into the divine
self and attains moksha or salvation. The passions and desires of a dying
man do not permit his soul ascending beyond a certain stage, where he or
she remains as a ghost until the soul is purged of all his or her desires and
sins by the performance of funeral ceremonies. For relieving ancestral
spirits from the low order of bhuts and pishāchas, shrāddhas are performed
by their surviving relatives in such holy places as Prabhās, Gayā and
Pindtārak. These ceremonies are known as Nārāyanbali, Nilotsarga and
saptāha-pārāyan (recitation of a sacred book for seven consecutive days).18
Those persons who die with wicked thoughts still present and their desires
not fulfilled, enter the order of evil spirits, from which they are liberated
after their desires have been satisfied and their wicked thoughts
eliminated.19
Bhuts and pishāchas—ghosts, male and female—can be prevented from
doing harm by recourse to certain processes. For instance, the wife of a
Page 211
Nāgar of Gadhadā became a witch after her death and began to torment the
second wife of her husband by throwing her out of bed whenever she was
asleep. To prevent this, the husband took a vow to perform a shrāddha at
Sidhpur in the name of the deceased wife, after the performance of which
the ghostly presence stopped harassing the new wife of her husband.20
Bhuts and pishāchas are believed by some people to be immortal, because
they are supposed to belong to the order of demi-gods. In the Amarkosha—
the well-known Sanskrit lexicon—they are classed with divinities, such as
guhyaks, and sidhas. The bhut is defined as a deity that troubles infants and
the pishācha as a deity that lives on flesh. Bhuts and pishāchas are the
ganas or attendants of Shiva, one of the gods of the Hindu Trinity. They are
supposed to be upadevas or demi-gods.
Preta is the spirit of a person that dies a sudden or unnatural death with
many of his desires unfulfilled. His soul attains emancipation by the
performance of a saptāh, that is a recitation of the Bhāgvat on seven
consecutive days. It is described in the Bhāgvat that Dhundhumari, the
brother of Gokarn, who had become a preta, was released from his preta
existence by the performance of a saptāh which his brother caused to be
made. The Garudpurān mentions that King Babruvāhan emancipated a
preta by the performance of a shrāddha. The mukti or salvation of a preta is
in itself its death. This would prove pretas to be mortal.21
The span of life of the bhuts and pretas is very long, but those whose
descendants offer them the usual oblations gain their emancipation sooner.
There is a kund or spring called Zilānand in the vicinity of Jhinjhuvādā, on
the banks of which is a temple of Zilakeshwar Mahādev. The performance
of the pitri shrāddha by the side of this spring is believed to expedite the
emancipation of the spirits of the deceased from ghostly life. Every year, on
the Bhādarvā amāvāsya, that is, the new moon day of the month Bhādarvā,
a great fair is held on this spot, when people from long distances visit the
place to get their relatives exorcised by the bhuvās or exorcists.
It is believed, that though bhuts, pretas and pishāchas are immortal, they
are scared away by the sound of a European band and of other musical
second wife of her husband by throwing her out of bed whenever she was
asleep. To prevent this, the husband took a vow to perform a shrāddha at
Sidhpur in the name of the deceased wife, after the performance of which
the ghostly presence stopped harassing the new wife of her husband.20
Bhuts and pishāchas are believed by some people to be immortal, because
they are supposed to belong to the order of demi-gods. In the Amarkosha—
the well-known Sanskrit lexicon—they are classed with divinities, such as
guhyaks, and sidhas. The bhut is defined as a deity that troubles infants and
the pishācha as a deity that lives on flesh. Bhuts and pishāchas are the
ganas or attendants of Shiva, one of the gods of the Hindu Trinity. They are
supposed to be upadevas or demi-gods.
Preta is the spirit of a person that dies a sudden or unnatural death with
many of his desires unfulfilled. His soul attains emancipation by the
performance of a saptāh, that is a recitation of the Bhāgvat on seven
consecutive days. It is described in the Bhāgvat that Dhundhumari, the
brother of Gokarn, who had become a preta, was released from his preta
existence by the performance of a saptāh which his brother caused to be
made. The Garudpurān mentions that King Babruvāhan emancipated a
preta by the performance of a shrāddha. The mukti or salvation of a preta is
in itself its death. This would prove pretas to be mortal.21
The span of life of the bhuts and pretas is very long, but those whose
descendants offer them the usual oblations gain their emancipation sooner.
There is a kund or spring called Zilānand in the vicinity of Jhinjhuvādā, on
the banks of which is a temple of Zilakeshwar Mahādev. The performance
of the pitri shrāddha by the side of this spring is believed to expedite the
emancipation of the spirits of the deceased from ghostly life. Every year, on
the Bhādarvā amāvāsya, that is, the new moon day of the month Bhādarvā,
a great fair is held on this spot, when people from long distances visit the
place to get their relatives exorcised by the bhuvās or exorcists.
It is believed, that though bhuts, pretas and pishāchas are immortal, they
are scared away by the sound of a European band and of other musical
Page 212
instruments.22 It is said that all drums and other weird instruments whether
European or Indian, have the power of scaring away evil spirits.
An evil spirit called Bābaro had entered the person of the uncle of Māldev
the king of Jhālāvād much to the king’s annoyance. Māldev offered a
stubborn fight to Bābaro, who, unable to cope with Māldev, promised to
extend his kingdom over those villages in which he would hang up bunting
in one night. It is said that the present extent of the Jāhlwād territories was
due to king Māldev’s enterprise in hanging up bunting over these territories
as asked by Bābaro.23
Though at the time of a man’s death the faculties may hardly be sound, yet
the vārsanā—the impressions—left on his mind by his past actions are in
themselves good or bad enough to impress him so as to make his departing
spirit assume a new form of life in keeping with them. For instance, a man
following a particular profession becomes subject to dreams bearing on that
profession. When the impression created by his actions in daily life is so
deep as to induce dreams, his mind, even after death, leaves to his departing
soul an inclination to be engaged in the subject of his mind’s last activities.
This is vāsanā.24
It is a popular saying among Hindus that children inherit the nature of their
parents. It is for this reason that high caste Hindus do not utter the names of
their eldest sons. There is a further belief that the Pitriyas departed from the
world with certain desires unfulfilled reappear as descendants of their
children to have these desires satisfied.25
As the saying goes Pitā putrena jāyate, that is a father is born in the form of
the son, so the Pitriyas are born as descendants of their children, or
according to the Bija vrikshanyāya, as a tree springs from its seed, that is,
its offerings, so parents take birth as children of their offspring.26
The Pitriyas, whose attachment to their children or family or wealth does
not die with them, reappear in the same family as descendants. It is also
believed that persons dying with debts unpaid with the consciousness that
European or Indian, have the power of scaring away evil spirits.
An evil spirit called Bābaro had entered the person of the uncle of Māldev
the king of Jhālāvād much to the king’s annoyance. Māldev offered a
stubborn fight to Bābaro, who, unable to cope with Māldev, promised to
extend his kingdom over those villages in which he would hang up bunting
in one night. It is said that the present extent of the Jāhlwād territories was
due to king Māldev’s enterprise in hanging up bunting over these territories
as asked by Bābaro.23
Though at the time of a man’s death the faculties may hardly be sound, yet
the vārsanā—the impressions—left on his mind by his past actions are in
themselves good or bad enough to impress him so as to make his departing
spirit assume a new form of life in keeping with them. For instance, a man
following a particular profession becomes subject to dreams bearing on that
profession. When the impression created by his actions in daily life is so
deep as to induce dreams, his mind, even after death, leaves to his departing
soul an inclination to be engaged in the subject of his mind’s last activities.
This is vāsanā.24
It is a popular saying among Hindus that children inherit the nature of their
parents. It is for this reason that high caste Hindus do not utter the names of
their eldest sons. There is a further belief that the Pitriyas departed from the
world with certain desires unfulfilled reappear as descendants of their
children to have these desires satisfied.25
As the saying goes Pitā putrena jāyate, that is a father is born in the form of
the son, so the Pitriyas are born as descendants of their children, or
according to the Bija vrikshanyāya, as a tree springs from its seed, that is,
its offerings, so parents take birth as children of their offspring.26
The Pitriyas, whose attachment to their children or family or wealth does
not die with them, reappear in the same family as descendants. It is also
believed that persons dying with debts unpaid with the consciousness that
Page 213
they must be paid, are reborn in this world for the discharge of their
obligations.27
It is not always that the Purvajas reappear in the same family. It is said
about the departed spirits, that after undergoing punishment for their sins
and enjoying the fruits of their good actions, they come down on earth
again as drops of rain, and forming part of the grain which grows on rain
water make their way into the wombs of animals and are thus reborn.28
On account of the community of their feelings, habits and ideas in previous
births, members of different families form different groups. The actions
performed in this life keep them bound to one another either as recipients of
the return of the obligations given in the past or as givers of fresh
obligations. The members of a family stand thus to one another in the
relation of debtors and creditors. It is for the discharge of these debts and
recovery of dues that several individuals are united in a family. This
naturally leads to the members of a family taking birth again in the same
family for the proper discharge of debts.
A virtuous child is declared to have been born to return the debts contracted
in its past lives, and a vicious one to recover the dues.29
When an atit or holy man or a recluse dies, his body is interred, and a
platform rising waist high from the ground, or a small dome-shaped temple,
is built over the spot. This is called a samādh. An image of the god Shiva is
generally installed in the samādh; but sometimes pādukās i.e. the
impressions on stone of the footsteps of the deceased, are installed instead.
Instances of the latter are the pādukās of Dattātraya, Gorakha and
Machchendra Nāth.
Both the Samādh and the image of the god Shiva as well as the pādukās
installed therein, are worshipped by the people, who, in course of time, give
currency to the belief that the Samādh possesses certain miraculous powers,
such as curing long-standing diseases, blessing barren women with
children, etc. Offerings are made to the Samādh by pious persons and
obligations.27
It is not always that the Purvajas reappear in the same family. It is said
about the departed spirits, that after undergoing punishment for their sins
and enjoying the fruits of their good actions, they come down on earth
again as drops of rain, and forming part of the grain which grows on rain
water make their way into the wombs of animals and are thus reborn.28
On account of the community of their feelings, habits and ideas in previous
births, members of different families form different groups. The actions
performed in this life keep them bound to one another either as recipients of
the return of the obligations given in the past or as givers of fresh
obligations. The members of a family stand thus to one another in the
relation of debtors and creditors. It is for the discharge of these debts and
recovery of dues that several individuals are united in a family. This
naturally leads to the members of a family taking birth again in the same
family for the proper discharge of debts.
A virtuous child is declared to have been born to return the debts contracted
in its past lives, and a vicious one to recover the dues.29
When an atit or holy man or a recluse dies, his body is interred, and a
platform rising waist high from the ground, or a small dome-shaped temple,
is built over the spot. This is called a samādh. An image of the god Shiva is
generally installed in the samādh; but sometimes pādukās i.e. the
impressions on stone of the footsteps of the deceased, are installed instead.
Instances of the latter are the pādukās of Dattātraya, Gorakha and
Machchendra Nāth.
Both the Samādh and the image of the god Shiva as well as the pādukās
installed therein, are worshipped by the people, who, in course of time, give
currency to the belief that the Samādh possesses certain miraculous powers,
such as curing long-standing diseases, blessing barren women with
children, etc. Offerings are made to the Samādh by pious persons and
Page 214
festivals or fairs are held in its honour by the inhabitants of the village in
which the Samādh is located.30
Kabars or tombs raised over the graves of Mahomedan saints or Pirs are
held in equal reverence both by Mahomedans and Hindus. To these
offerings are made, and fairs are held in their honour.
Some Samādhs and Kabars noted for miraculous powers are given below.
1. Gorakhnāth:—The Samādh of Gorakhnāth lies on Mount Girnār. It is
said that when the word Salām is shouted by any one standing on the brink
of the hollow wherein the Samādh is said to be, the word “Aleka, Aleka,
Aleka” is heard in response.31
2. Kevaldās:—The Samādh of Kevaldās stands in Susavāv. It is told that, on
one occasion, when a festival was being celebrated in honour of the Bāvā
Kevaldās, a nimb tree (Azadirachta Indica) overhanging the Samādh was
transformed into a mitho Limbdo (Ailantas excelsa).
3. The Samādh at Kāngā:—In the religious house at Kāngā, a village in the
Junāgadh State, there lived a bāvā given to religious austerities. It is said
that he took Samādh32 during life. This Samādh is said to work miracles at
times.
4. Similarly, a bāvā in the religious house at Navānagar called Shāradā
Matha has taken a Samādh during life, and his remains and the structure
over them have become an object of worship.
5. The Samādh of Lālā bhakta:—Lālā bhakta was a native of Sāyolā. He
was famous for his piety, and after his death his Samādh was deified. It is
said in reference to this Samādh that a meal of dainty dishes prepared for
five or six persons by its side, would satisfy the hunger of a company of
fifty, if one happened to arrive there at the time of serving the meal33.
6. Dātār34 Pir:—The tomb of this Pir is situated on Mount Girnār. Almost
all people in Kāthiāwār and many from Gujarāt offer vows to this Pir.35
which the Samādh is located.30
Kabars or tombs raised over the graves of Mahomedan saints or Pirs are
held in equal reverence both by Mahomedans and Hindus. To these
offerings are made, and fairs are held in their honour.
Some Samādhs and Kabars noted for miraculous powers are given below.
1. Gorakhnāth:—The Samādh of Gorakhnāth lies on Mount Girnār. It is
said that when the word Salām is shouted by any one standing on the brink
of the hollow wherein the Samādh is said to be, the word “Aleka, Aleka,
Aleka” is heard in response.31
2. Kevaldās:—The Samādh of Kevaldās stands in Susavāv. It is told that, on
one occasion, when a festival was being celebrated in honour of the Bāvā
Kevaldās, a nimb tree (Azadirachta Indica) overhanging the Samādh was
transformed into a mitho Limbdo (Ailantas excelsa).
3. The Samādh at Kāngā:—In the religious house at Kāngā, a village in the
Junāgadh State, there lived a bāvā given to religious austerities. It is said
that he took Samādh32 during life. This Samādh is said to work miracles at
times.
4. Similarly, a bāvā in the religious house at Navānagar called Shāradā
Matha has taken a Samādh during life, and his remains and the structure
over them have become an object of worship.
5. The Samādh of Lālā bhakta:—Lālā bhakta was a native of Sāyolā. He
was famous for his piety, and after his death his Samādh was deified. It is
said in reference to this Samādh that a meal of dainty dishes prepared for
five or six persons by its side, would satisfy the hunger of a company of
fifty, if one happened to arrive there at the time of serving the meal33.
6. Dātār34 Pir:—The tomb of this Pir is situated on Mount Girnār. Almost
all people in Kāthiāwār and many from Gujarāt offer vows to this Pir.35
Page 215
This Pir is also known by the name of Kālā Yavan.36 It is believed that he
has the power of releasing the chain bonds of a person falsely accused with
an offence provided he approaches the Pir in chains. The sanctity of this Pir
is so great that vows in his honour secure to persons desiring male heirs the
birth of sons.37
7. Asāmi Pir:—The tomb of this Pir is in Lunār. He is believed to ensure
the fulfilment of certain vows made by those who have faith in him.38
8. Devalshā Pir:—The tomb of this Pir is situated at Amarān about seven
miles from Todia. Many Hindus perform the first hair-cutting ceremony of
their children at the shrine of this Pir with an offering of a sweet
preparation of ghi, sugar or molasses, and wheat flour. The Muhammadans
distribute cooked rice among the Fakirs about this shrine.
A tradition runs that, once seven eunuchs defied the power of this Pir
saying that they would put no faith in him unless they conceived sons. This
they did, and when in terror regarding their approaching confinement, they
were told that the children would have to be taken out by cutting their
bodies open. The tombs of these seven eunuchs and their sons still stand
near the tomb of Devalshā to bear testimony to his glory and miraculous
power.39
9. The Kabar of Hāji Karmāni:—Is situated at Dwārkān and is much
respected by both Hindus and Muhammadans.40
10. The tombs of Jesal and Toral:—These are said to be the tombs of a
husband and wife of the names of Jesal and Toral. They are situated in
Anjār, a village in Cutch. It is said that originally these tombs were at the
distance of twenty-seven feet from one another, but now the distance
between them is only 7½ feet. A belief is current that the day of judgment
will come when these two tombs meet.41
11. Hāj Pir and Gebānshā Pir:—The tombs of these Pirs are at Mendardā.
Vows are offered to the Hāj Pir (Pilgrims saint) with the object of securing a
good rainfall after an unusual drought, also for the restoration of stolen
has the power of releasing the chain bonds of a person falsely accused with
an offence provided he approaches the Pir in chains. The sanctity of this Pir
is so great that vows in his honour secure to persons desiring male heirs the
birth of sons.37
7. Asāmi Pir:—The tomb of this Pir is in Lunār. He is believed to ensure
the fulfilment of certain vows made by those who have faith in him.38
8. Devalshā Pir:—The tomb of this Pir is situated at Amarān about seven
miles from Todia. Many Hindus perform the first hair-cutting ceremony of
their children at the shrine of this Pir with an offering of a sweet
preparation of ghi, sugar or molasses, and wheat flour. The Muhammadans
distribute cooked rice among the Fakirs about this shrine.
A tradition runs that, once seven eunuchs defied the power of this Pir
saying that they would put no faith in him unless they conceived sons. This
they did, and when in terror regarding their approaching confinement, they
were told that the children would have to be taken out by cutting their
bodies open. The tombs of these seven eunuchs and their sons still stand
near the tomb of Devalshā to bear testimony to his glory and miraculous
power.39
9. The Kabar of Hāji Karmāni:—Is situated at Dwārkān and is much
respected by both Hindus and Muhammadans.40
10. The tombs of Jesal and Toral:—These are said to be the tombs of a
husband and wife of the names of Jesal and Toral. They are situated in
Anjār, a village in Cutch. It is said that originally these tombs were at the
distance of twenty-seven feet from one another, but now the distance
between them is only 7½ feet. A belief is current that the day of judgment
will come when these two tombs meet.41
11. Hāj Pir and Gebānshā Pir:—The tombs of these Pirs are at Mendardā.
Vows are offered to the Hāj Pir (Pilgrims saint) with the object of securing a
good rainfall after an unusual drought, also for the restoration of stolen
Page 216
property. Vows to the Gebānshā Pir are believed to be efficacious in curing
foot diseases of cattle and skin diseases of children.42
12. Panch or Five Pirs:—The tombs of these Pirs are situated in Dahurā,
each of them measuring about twenty-seven feet. A miracle is attributed to
these tombs in the phenomenon that they can never be accurately measured,
each attempt at measurement giving a different result. Women whose sons
die in infancy make vows in honour of the Panch Pirs, and take them to
their tombs on their attaining a certain age, where they observe fakiri43 for
ten days.44
13. Aulia Pir45:—The tomb of this Pir lies on Mount Girnār. It is believed
to possess the miraculous power of stopping the career of galloping horses
and bringing them to the ground, and of stupefying the senses of a person
who enters the shrine.46
14. Miran Dātār:—The celebrated tomb of this Pir is in the village of Unjhā
near Baroda, where a fair is held every Friday in Shrāvan. Persons
possessed by evil spirits are said to be cured by visiting this tomb and
offering an image of a horse stuffed with cotton, and a cocoanut. People
from all parts of Gujarāt and from distant places suffering from physical
infirmities, observe vows in honour of this Pir. Some wear iron wristlets
round their wrists in his honour.47
15. Pir Māhābali:—The tomb of this Pir is situated at Gotarkā near
Rādhanpur. Every year a fair is held in honour of this tomb, when the chief
Pujāri of the shrine of Varalu goes there, holding in one hand a bayonet with
its point touching his breast, and in the other, a cocoanut. It is said that
when the Pujāri reaches the third step leading to the entrance of the shrine,
the locked doors of the shrine fly open, and the Pujāri throws the cocoanut
into the shrine. If the shrine gates do not open of themselves on his
approach, the Pujāri has to stab himself to death then and there.48
16. Kalu Pir:—It is said that this Pir leads a procession every night, when
monstrous kettle-drums are beaten by his phantom followers. On every
Friday this procession goes on its rounds, which cover a large area.49
foot diseases of cattle and skin diseases of children.42
12. Panch or Five Pirs:—The tombs of these Pirs are situated in Dahurā,
each of them measuring about twenty-seven feet. A miracle is attributed to
these tombs in the phenomenon that they can never be accurately measured,
each attempt at measurement giving a different result. Women whose sons
die in infancy make vows in honour of the Panch Pirs, and take them to
their tombs on their attaining a certain age, where they observe fakiri43 for
ten days.44
13. Aulia Pir45:—The tomb of this Pir lies on Mount Girnār. It is believed
to possess the miraculous power of stopping the career of galloping horses
and bringing them to the ground, and of stupefying the senses of a person
who enters the shrine.46
14. Miran Dātār:—The celebrated tomb of this Pir is in the village of Unjhā
near Baroda, where a fair is held every Friday in Shrāvan. Persons
possessed by evil spirits are said to be cured by visiting this tomb and
offering an image of a horse stuffed with cotton, and a cocoanut. People
from all parts of Gujarāt and from distant places suffering from physical
infirmities, observe vows in honour of this Pir. Some wear iron wristlets
round their wrists in his honour.47
15. Pir Māhābali:—The tomb of this Pir is situated at Gotarkā near
Rādhanpur. Every year a fair is held in honour of this tomb, when the chief
Pujāri of the shrine of Varalu goes there, holding in one hand a bayonet with
its point touching his breast, and in the other, a cocoanut. It is said that
when the Pujāri reaches the third step leading to the entrance of the shrine,
the locked doors of the shrine fly open, and the Pujāri throws the cocoanut
into the shrine. If the shrine gates do not open of themselves on his
approach, the Pujāri has to stab himself to death then and there.48
16. Kalu Pir:—It is said that this Pir leads a procession every night, when
monstrous kettle-drums are beaten by his phantom followers. On every
Friday this procession goes on its rounds, which cover a large area.49
Page 217
Other tombs noted for miraculous powers are those of Gebalshā Pir in
Charādwa, of Dariā Pir in Morvi, of Hajarat Pir in Baghdād and of Khojā
Pir in Ajmere.50
The followers of the tenets of Swāmi-nārāyān, Vallabhāchārya, Kabir,
Shankarāchārya, Rāmānuja, Madhwāchārya, Nimbārk and Talo Bhagat look
upon these personages as gods, and worship their images.51
Some of the spiritual teachers mentioned above maintained large
establishments and made their supremacy hereditary. Their representatives
(that is either their heirs or disciples) are looked upon as the embodiments
of the same virtues as were concentrated in the founders of the sects. The
great teachers are worshipped either in the form of their footprints, their
images or their representatives.52
The worship of the following Muhammadan Pirs has been adopted by
Hindus:—
(1) Dātār Pir in Junāgadh.
(2) Dātār in Rātaiya near Khirāsara.
(3) Gobalsha Pir:—This Pir is noted for curing boils.
(4) Tāg Pir or the live saint near Bhāyāvadar:—This Pir is believed to have
the power of curing enlargement of the spleen. Persons suffering from this
disease go to his shrine and distribute dry dates among children. This is
supposed to propitiate him and to effect the cure.53
(5) Miran Dātār:—The miraculous and curative powers of this Pir are so
potent that blind persons are known to have their eye-sight restored and
childless persons to have their longings for children satisfied through his
favour. Persons possessed by evil spirits are exorcised by merely wearing a
ring in his name.54
The shrine of this Pir is situated in the village of Unāva in the Gāikwār’s
territory in North Gujarāt. His Highness the late Gāikwār Khanderāo has
Charādwa, of Dariā Pir in Morvi, of Hajarat Pir in Baghdād and of Khojā
Pir in Ajmere.50
The followers of the tenets of Swāmi-nārāyān, Vallabhāchārya, Kabir,
Shankarāchārya, Rāmānuja, Madhwāchārya, Nimbārk and Talo Bhagat look
upon these personages as gods, and worship their images.51
Some of the spiritual teachers mentioned above maintained large
establishments and made their supremacy hereditary. Their representatives
(that is either their heirs or disciples) are looked upon as the embodiments
of the same virtues as were concentrated in the founders of the sects. The
great teachers are worshipped either in the form of their footprints, their
images or their representatives.52
The worship of the following Muhammadan Pirs has been adopted by
Hindus:—
(1) Dātār Pir in Junāgadh.
(2) Dātār in Rātaiya near Khirāsara.
(3) Gobalsha Pir:—This Pir is noted for curing boils.
(4) Tāg Pir or the live saint near Bhāyāvadar:—This Pir is believed to have
the power of curing enlargement of the spleen. Persons suffering from this
disease go to his shrine and distribute dry dates among children. This is
supposed to propitiate him and to effect the cure.53
(5) Miran Dātār:—The miraculous and curative powers of this Pir are so
potent that blind persons are known to have their eye-sight restored and
childless persons to have their longings for children satisfied through his
favour. Persons possessed by evil spirits are exorcised by merely wearing a
ring in his name.54
The shrine of this Pir is situated in the village of Unāva in the Gāikwār’s
territory in North Gujarāt. His Highness the late Gāikwār Khanderāo has
Page 218
fixed solid silver railings round the shrine of this Pir in gratitude for a cure
effected by him.
(6) Rāmde Pir:—This Pir has obtained the epithet of Hindva Pir as he is
worshipped mostly by the Hindus. He has worshippers in many places,
where shrines are erected in his honour and verses and hymns composed
and sung in his praise.55 He is evidently, as his name suggests, one of the
first Khoja missionaries who practised teachings more Hindu than
Musalmān in order to secure a following among the Hindus.
(7) Hāji Karmāni near Dvārikhān.
(8) The Dāvalsha Pir near Amarān.
(9) The Lakad Pir and the Hussein Pir in the vicinity of Ganod.
(10) Mahābali Dāda Pir:—This Pir is to be found close to the village of
Varai. Milk offered to him in his shrine in indās (egg-shaped pots) is said to
remain fresh for a year. Similarly, the doors of his shrine open of
themselves after the lapse of a year.
(11) Mangalio Pir:—This Pir is worshipped at Dadvi.
(12) Moto Pir:—Is worshipped at Khandorana.
(13) Hindva Pir:—This is the Pir of the Khojās in Pirāna near Ahmedābād.
He is so called because he is worshipped by the Hindus also.
(14) Bhadiādaro Pir:—Is in the village of Bhādia near Dhorāli.
(15) Ingārāsha Pir and Bālamsha Pir.
(16) Tamialsha and Kāsamsha Pir:—The shrines of these Pirs are on the
Girnār hill.56
(17) Ganj Pir:—The shrine of this Pir is near Todia. Vows to offer a quarter
of a pound of molasses to this Pir are believed to be efficacious in curing
effected by him.
(6) Rāmde Pir:—This Pir has obtained the epithet of Hindva Pir as he is
worshipped mostly by the Hindus. He has worshippers in many places,
where shrines are erected in his honour and verses and hymns composed
and sung in his praise.55 He is evidently, as his name suggests, one of the
first Khoja missionaries who practised teachings more Hindu than
Musalmān in order to secure a following among the Hindus.
(7) Hāji Karmāni near Dvārikhān.
(8) The Dāvalsha Pir near Amarān.
(9) The Lakad Pir and the Hussein Pir in the vicinity of Ganod.
(10) Mahābali Dāda Pir:—This Pir is to be found close to the village of
Varai. Milk offered to him in his shrine in indās (egg-shaped pots) is said to
remain fresh for a year. Similarly, the doors of his shrine open of
themselves after the lapse of a year.
(11) Mangalio Pir:—This Pir is worshipped at Dadvi.
(12) Moto Pir:—Is worshipped at Khandorana.
(13) Hindva Pir:—This is the Pir of the Khojās in Pirāna near Ahmedābād.
He is so called because he is worshipped by the Hindus also.
(14) Bhadiādaro Pir:—Is in the village of Bhādia near Dhorāli.
(15) Ingārāsha Pir and Bālamsha Pir.
(16) Tamialsha and Kāsamsha Pir:—The shrines of these Pirs are on the
Girnār hill.56
(17) Ganj Pir:—The shrine of this Pir is near Todia. Vows to offer a quarter
of a pound of molasses to this Pir are believed to be efficacious in curing
Page 219
persons of fever and children of their ailments.57
There is a Pir in the village of Vadhardun near Viramgām. Persons
suspected of having committed thefts are conducted in chains before this
Pir. It is said that, if the charge be false, the chains break asunder of
themselves.58
Apart from the respect paid to the Pirs mentioned above, the Hindus hold in
great reverence the tābuts of the Muhammadans.59
There are various rural methods in vogue for the cure of barrenness.
One of these is for the barren woman to swallow the navel-string of a new-
born child.60 Another is to partake of the preparation called kātlān.61
There are two kinds of preparations which go by the name of kātlān. One is
prepared from seven pieces of dry ginger.62 The other is a mixture of
suva,63 sunth (dry ginger), gundar (gum arabic), gol (molasses) etc.64 In
order to secure the desired effect, the kātlān must be eaten seven times
every Sunday or Tuesday seated on the cot of a woman in child-bed.65
The longing for a child is also believed to be satisfied by partaking of the
food served to a woman, in confinement, sitting on her bed, either on a
Sunday or Tuesday.66
There is also another preparation which is believed to cause conception. It
consists of a mixture of pitpāpdo (Glossocardi Boswellia), sugar-cane and
butter. In order to be efficacious, it must be taken on seven consecutive days
commencing from the fourth day of the monthly menstrual period.67
Conception is also believed to be favoured by administering the gum of the
bābul tree dissolved in milk for three days commencing from the third day
of the monthly period.67
Some believe that, in order to be effective, this mixture must be taken
standing.68 In some places, seeds of a vegetable plant called shivalangi are
There is a Pir in the village of Vadhardun near Viramgām. Persons
suspected of having committed thefts are conducted in chains before this
Pir. It is said that, if the charge be false, the chains break asunder of
themselves.58
Apart from the respect paid to the Pirs mentioned above, the Hindus hold in
great reverence the tābuts of the Muhammadans.59
There are various rural methods in vogue for the cure of barrenness.
One of these is for the barren woman to swallow the navel-string of a new-
born child.60 Another is to partake of the preparation called kātlān.61
There are two kinds of preparations which go by the name of kātlān. One is
prepared from seven pieces of dry ginger.62 The other is a mixture of
suva,63 sunth (dry ginger), gundar (gum arabic), gol (molasses) etc.64 In
order to secure the desired effect, the kātlān must be eaten seven times
every Sunday or Tuesday seated on the cot of a woman in child-bed.65
The longing for a child is also believed to be satisfied by partaking of the
food served to a woman, in confinement, sitting on her bed, either on a
Sunday or Tuesday.66
There is also another preparation which is believed to cause conception. It
consists of a mixture of pitpāpdo (Glossocardi Boswellia), sugar-cane and
butter. In order to be efficacious, it must be taken on seven consecutive days
commencing from the fourth day of the monthly menstrual period.67
Conception is also believed to be favoured by administering the gum of the
bābul tree dissolved in milk for three days commencing from the third day
of the monthly period.67
Some believe that, in order to be effective, this mixture must be taken
standing.68 In some places, seeds of a vegetable plant called shivalangi are
Page 220
also administered.67
To secure conception, a bit of coral is also eaten, with the face turned
towards the sun.67
Other preparations taken with the belief that they cause conception are:—
(1) Harde (Myrobalan) put in kansār (a preparation of wheat flour cooked
in water and sweetened with molasses), (2) extract of the fruit called
sārangdha, (3) pāras pipalo (Thespesia populnea) mixed with clarified
butter,60 (4) gum mixed with plantains, (5) juice of the cooked leaves of the
Ārani (Elaeodendren glaucum),69 (6) powder of Nāg kesar (Messua ferrea)
put into milk, and (7) the roots of Bhong ringdi (a kind of poisonous plant)
mixed with the milk of a cow.70
It is also believed that if a barren woman succeeds in carrying away grains
of rice from the folds of the upper garment of a pregnant woman, and eats
them cooked in milk, her desire for a child is satisfied.71
In celebrating the Simānt or first pregnancy ceremony of a woman, the
pregnant woman is taken for a bath to a dung-hill or to a distance of about
thirty yards behind the house. After the bath is over, she returns home
walking over sheets of cloth spread on her way. On this occasion her
company is coveted by barren women for the purpose of tearing off unseen
a piece of her upper garment, as this is believed to bring about conception.
It is said that if a woman succeeds in doing this, she conceives, while the
victim has a miscarriage.72
Some believe that a slight pressure by a childless woman on the upper
garment of a pregnant woman is sufficient to bring about the result
mentioned above.73
Others hold that a slight blow on the shoulder of a pregnant woman by a
childless woman satisfies the desire of the latter for a child.74
To secure conception, a bit of coral is also eaten, with the face turned
towards the sun.67
Other preparations taken with the belief that they cause conception are:—
(1) Harde (Myrobalan) put in kansār (a preparation of wheat flour cooked
in water and sweetened with molasses), (2) extract of the fruit called
sārangdha, (3) pāras pipalo (Thespesia populnea) mixed with clarified
butter,60 (4) gum mixed with plantains, (5) juice of the cooked leaves of the
Ārani (Elaeodendren glaucum),69 (6) powder of Nāg kesar (Messua ferrea)
put into milk, and (7) the roots of Bhong ringdi (a kind of poisonous plant)
mixed with the milk of a cow.70
It is also believed that if a barren woman succeeds in carrying away grains
of rice from the folds of the upper garment of a pregnant woman, and eats
them cooked in milk, her desire for a child is satisfied.71
In celebrating the Simānt or first pregnancy ceremony of a woman, the
pregnant woman is taken for a bath to a dung-hill or to a distance of about
thirty yards behind the house. After the bath is over, she returns home
walking over sheets of cloth spread on her way. On this occasion her
company is coveted by barren women for the purpose of tearing off unseen
a piece of her upper garment, as this is believed to bring about conception.
It is said that if a woman succeeds in doing this, she conceives, while the
victim has a miscarriage.72
Some believe that a slight pressure by a childless woman on the upper
garment of a pregnant woman is sufficient to bring about the result
mentioned above.73
Others hold that a slight blow on the shoulder of a pregnant woman by a
childless woman satisfies the desire of the latter for a child.74
Page 221
Conception is also said to be effected by branding children while at play in
the streets.75
It is believed that this brand, to have efficacy, must be inflicted on a Sunday
or Tuesday.75 The operation is generally performed in the evening with a
red-hot needle. It is said that the branded child dies while the branding
barren woman conceives a child.76
Offering bread to black dogs is also supposed to be a cure for barrenness.
Conception is also favoured by passing under the bier or palanquin holding
the corpse of an ascetic or holy man while it is being carried to the
cemetery.77 Some believe that such an ascetic or saint must be a follower of
the Jain faith.78 Others maintain that the desired end can be secured only by
wearing round the elbows the grains of rice or coins offered to the bier of a
saint on its way to the cemetery.79
Other methods practised for the cure of barrenness are as follows:
The barren woman cuts off a lock of the hair of a child-bearing woman and
keeps it in her custody.80
Some women collect the dust trodden on by a child-bearing woman in an
earthen pot and eat it every day till it is exhausted.80
Some throw grains of adad (Phaseolus mungo) over the bed of a woman in
confinement.81
Others daub their foreheads with the blood emitted by a woman in
menses.80
There are some who pour water in a circle at the village gate on a Sunday or
Tuesday, and when in period, partake of the powder of mindhal mixed with
lāpsi (coarse wheat flour fried in ghi and sweetened with molasses or sugar)
seated on the threshold of the house.82
the streets.75
It is believed that this brand, to have efficacy, must be inflicted on a Sunday
or Tuesday.75 The operation is generally performed in the evening with a
red-hot needle. It is said that the branded child dies while the branding
barren woman conceives a child.76
Offering bread to black dogs is also supposed to be a cure for barrenness.
Conception is also favoured by passing under the bier or palanquin holding
the corpse of an ascetic or holy man while it is being carried to the
cemetery.77 Some believe that such an ascetic or saint must be a follower of
the Jain faith.78 Others maintain that the desired end can be secured only by
wearing round the elbows the grains of rice or coins offered to the bier of a
saint on its way to the cemetery.79
Other methods practised for the cure of barrenness are as follows:
The barren woman cuts off a lock of the hair of a child-bearing woman and
keeps it in her custody.80
Some women collect the dust trodden on by a child-bearing woman in an
earthen pot and eat it every day till it is exhausted.80
Some throw grains of adad (Phaseolus mungo) over the bed of a woman in
confinement.81
Others daub their foreheads with the blood emitted by a woman in
menses.80
There are some who pour water in a circle at the village gate on a Sunday or
Tuesday, and when in period, partake of the powder of mindhal mixed with
lāpsi (coarse wheat flour fried in ghi and sweetened with molasses or sugar)
seated on the threshold of the house.82
Page 222
Many wear round their necks leaves called bhojapatras on which the
mystical figure given below is drawn by an exorcist.
Pieces of paper on which the following jantra is written by an ascetic,
woven in a string made of five kinds of silk, are also worn round the
elbows:—
Swāhā aum rhin kling swāhā.
About a month and a quarter after the delivery of a woman, a ceremony
called zarmān zarvān is performed, when the woman goes to a
neighbouring stream or well to fetch water for the first time after her
delivery. Near the stream or well five small heaps of sand are made and
daubed with red lead. Next, a lamp fed with ghi is lighted, and seven small
betelnuts are offered to the stream or well. A cocoanut is then broken, and a
part of it is thrown into the water as an offering. Next, the woman fills a jar
with the water of the stream or well and returns home, taking with her six
out of the seven betelnuts offered to the stream or well. On her way home
she is approached by barren women who request to be favoured with one of
the betelnuts, as it is believed that swallowing such a betelnut causes
conception.83
mystical figure given below is drawn by an exorcist.
Pieces of paper on which the following jantra is written by an ascetic,
woven in a string made of five kinds of silk, are also worn round the
elbows:—
Swāhā aum rhin kling swāhā.
About a month and a quarter after the delivery of a woman, a ceremony
called zarmān zarvān is performed, when the woman goes to a
neighbouring stream or well to fetch water for the first time after her
delivery. Near the stream or well five small heaps of sand are made and
daubed with red lead. Next, a lamp fed with ghi is lighted, and seven small
betelnuts are offered to the stream or well. A cocoanut is then broken, and a
part of it is thrown into the water as an offering. Next, the woman fills a jar
with the water of the stream or well and returns home, taking with her six
out of the seven betelnuts offered to the stream or well. On her way home
she is approached by barren women who request to be favoured with one of
the betelnuts, as it is believed that swallowing such a betelnut causes
conception.83
Page 223
Some believe that only the smallest of the seven betelnuts has the power of
producing this result84. Others hold that this betelnut must be swallowed on
the threshold of a house.85
Eating cocoa-kernel and molasses sitting on the threshold of the house on
the fourth day of the monthly period is also believed to be a remedy for the
cure of barrenness.
Placing a box containing a kori, (a small silver coin) on a spot where three
roads cross one another is also said to favour conception.86
In some places, a black earthen pot containing charcoal and grains of adad
(Phaseolus mungo) is placed on a spot where two roads cross one another,
on a Sunday or Tuesday. On this day the barren woman has to take her
meals without salt.87
Cutting off a lock of a child’s hair and keeping it in custody is also believed
to satisfy the longing of a barren woman for a child. This result can also be
obtained by securing a piece of a garment of a suckling child.
Some worship daily a cocoanut and a betelnut consecrated with
incantations.88
Some take a bath on the third day of their period, and stand on the threshold
of the house with their hair sprinkled over with kankotri (red powder).
Next, a ghi-fed lamp is offered to the deities, and the devotee prostrates
herself before the lamp.89
It is also believed that barrenness can be cured by religious vows, by
offering alms in propitiation of malignant planets such as Mars, and by
reciting the jap or incantation called gopāl santān to please the deity of that
name.90
One of the religious vows of this nature is to observe fasts on twelve
consecutive Sundays or Tuesdays. On these days the devotee fixes her gaze
producing this result84. Others hold that this betelnut must be swallowed on
the threshold of a house.85
Eating cocoa-kernel and molasses sitting on the threshold of the house on
the fourth day of the monthly period is also believed to be a remedy for the
cure of barrenness.
Placing a box containing a kori, (a small silver coin) on a spot where three
roads cross one another is also said to favour conception.86
In some places, a black earthen pot containing charcoal and grains of adad
(Phaseolus mungo) is placed on a spot where two roads cross one another,
on a Sunday or Tuesday. On this day the barren woman has to take her
meals without salt.87
Cutting off a lock of a child’s hair and keeping it in custody is also believed
to satisfy the longing of a barren woman for a child. This result can also be
obtained by securing a piece of a garment of a suckling child.
Some worship daily a cocoanut and a betelnut consecrated with
incantations.88
Some take a bath on the third day of their period, and stand on the threshold
of the house with their hair sprinkled over with kankotri (red powder).
Next, a ghi-fed lamp is offered to the deities, and the devotee prostrates
herself before the lamp.89
It is also believed that barrenness can be cured by religious vows, by
offering alms in propitiation of malignant planets such as Mars, and by
reciting the jap or incantation called gopāl santān to please the deity of that
name.90
One of the religious vows of this nature is to observe fasts on twelve
consecutive Sundays or Tuesdays. On these days the devotee fixes her gaze
Page 224
on the sun and offers him worship, after which she takes a meal prepared in
milk without salt or sugar.91
Some hold a recitation of the chandi kavach a hundred times through
Brāhmans with sacrificial oblations of clarified butter, sesamum seed,
kamod (a kind of rice), gugal (rhododendron), sandal wood and
sugarcandy.92 Others have the story of the Harivansha recited on seventeen
consecutive days, during which period the devotee (i.e., the barren woman)
observes brahmacharya, that is abstains from sexual enjoyment. This
ceremony is believed to exorcise the fiend of barrenness.92
Some keep a vow of standing on their legs for the whole day on the
fourteenth of the month of Phālgun (the fifth month of the Gujarāt Hindu
year) and of breaking their fast after worshipping the sacred pyre.93
There is another vow called the Punema or full-moon day vow, the
observance of which is believed to favour the birth of a son.94
Pouring water at the root of, or circumambulating, a pipal or bābul tree
after a bath without removing the wet clothes, is also believed to cause
conception.95
Some observe the vow of entertaining thirteen Brāhmans and thirteen
virgins to a feast, and of setting up Randal Bantva.96
Women whose children die in infancy give them opprobrious names such as
Khacharo (filth), Ghelo (stupid), Natho, Uko, Ukardo, Bodho, Pujo, Adāvo,
Mongho, Tulhi, Tutho, Kadavi, etc. in the belief that by so doing the life of
the children is lengthened.97 The idea is almost Asiatic in extent. Among
Musalmāns also such names are given; and even among the Persians and
Arabs boys are given such names as Masriequ and Osaid—the Stolen and
the Black. Sometimes parents arrange that their children be actually stolen;
and some next of kin, generally the aunt, is made to commit the kindly
felony. She afterwards returns the child for a certain amount in cash or
clothes. The custom is as old as the scriptures, there being an allusion in the
Korān to how the little Joseph was made to steal some garment of his aunt
milk without salt or sugar.91
Some hold a recitation of the chandi kavach a hundred times through
Brāhmans with sacrificial oblations of clarified butter, sesamum seed,
kamod (a kind of rice), gugal (rhododendron), sandal wood and
sugarcandy.92 Others have the story of the Harivansha recited on seventeen
consecutive days, during which period the devotee (i.e., the barren woman)
observes brahmacharya, that is abstains from sexual enjoyment. This
ceremony is believed to exorcise the fiend of barrenness.92
Some keep a vow of standing on their legs for the whole day on the
fourteenth of the month of Phālgun (the fifth month of the Gujarāt Hindu
year) and of breaking their fast after worshipping the sacred pyre.93
There is another vow called the Punema or full-moon day vow, the
observance of which is believed to favour the birth of a son.94
Pouring water at the root of, or circumambulating, a pipal or bābul tree
after a bath without removing the wet clothes, is also believed to cause
conception.95
Some observe the vow of entertaining thirteen Brāhmans and thirteen
virgins to a feast, and of setting up Randal Bantva.96
Women whose children die in infancy give them opprobrious names such as
Khacharo (filth), Ghelo (stupid), Natho, Uko, Ukardo, Bodho, Pujo, Adāvo,
Mongho, Tulhi, Tutho, Kadavi, etc. in the belief that by so doing the life of
the children is lengthened.97 The idea is almost Asiatic in extent. Among
Musalmāns also such names are given; and even among the Persians and
Arabs boys are given such names as Masriequ and Osaid—the Stolen and
the Black. Sometimes parents arrange that their children be actually stolen;
and some next of kin, generally the aunt, is made to commit the kindly
felony. She afterwards returns the child for a certain amount in cash or
clothes. The custom is as old as the scriptures, there being an allusion in the
Korān to how the little Joseph was made to steal some garment of his aunt
Page 225
and was claimed as a forfeit by her. Speaking about Levi, the older brothers
of Joseph say to the Egyptian soldiers, “If he hath stolen (the king’s goblet)
verily the brother of his too did (formerly) steal.”
Some make a vow of not cutting the hair of their children till they are taken
to Ambāji, where their hair is cut for the first time.98
Some treat their children as beggars until they attain the age of five years,
that is, they are dressed till that age in clothes obtained by begging. Some
bore the nose of the child.98
1 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
2 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
3 This period of 15 days is called Sharādian. ↑
4 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
5 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
6 The School Master of Jodiā. ↑
7 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
8 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
9 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
10 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
11 The School Master of Zinzuvādā. ↑
12 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
13 The School Master of Lālāpur. ↑
14 The School Master of Sānkā. ↑
15 The School Masters of Kotda Sangani and Dadvi. ↑
16 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
17 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
18 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
19 The School Master of Motā Devaliā. ↑
of Joseph say to the Egyptian soldiers, “If he hath stolen (the king’s goblet)
verily the brother of his too did (formerly) steal.”
Some make a vow of not cutting the hair of their children till they are taken
to Ambāji, where their hair is cut for the first time.98
Some treat their children as beggars until they attain the age of five years,
that is, they are dressed till that age in clothes obtained by begging. Some
bore the nose of the child.98
1 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
2 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
3 This period of 15 days is called Sharādian. ↑
4 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
5 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
6 The School Master of Jodiā. ↑
7 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
8 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
9 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
10 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
11 The School Master of Zinzuvādā. ↑
12 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
13 The School Master of Lālāpur. ↑
14 The School Master of Sānkā. ↑
15 The School Masters of Kotda Sangani and Dadvi. ↑
16 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
17 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
18 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
19 The School Master of Motā Devaliā. ↑
Page 226
20 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohilvād. ↑
21 Shāstri Bhāyāvadar Pāthshālā. ↑
22 The School Master of Todiā. ↑
23 The School Master of Jodiā. ↑
24 A vāsanā is the outcome of a person’s good or bad actions. It is not the last desire of a man as
supposed by some, but the result of his good or bad actions or rather of the workings of his mind
during life. It is believed that, if at the moment of death, a man’s mind is fixed on the strong
attachment he feels for his children, he is born as a descendant of his offspring.—The School Master
of Dhānk. ↑
25 The School Master of Kotdā Sangani. ↑
26 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
27 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
28 The School Master of Motā Devaliā. ↑
29 The School Master of Charādwa. ↑
30 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
31 The School Master of Dhānk and the School Mistress of Gondal. ↑
32 A samādh is taken during life in the following way.
A deep pit is dug in the ground. The person who wishes to take a samādh goes into a deep trance by
meditation, and then runs yelling and screaming to the pit, while drums are beaten furiously and a
loud din is raised, so that none should hear a possible exclamation or cry from the runner. In the
midst of this din the runner leaps into the pit and is covered over with salt and earth. An altar is raised
over this spot with Shiva’s image, which afterwards becomes an object of worship. It is believed that
if a word or a cry from the runner is heard while he is taking the leap, the whole village will be
destroyed.—Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
33 The Pāthshālā Shāstri, Bhāyāvadar. ↑
34 Dātār means the great giver or munificent. The Pir is so called on account of his power of
fulfilling the vows of many. ↑
35 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
36 The School Master of Movaiya. ↑
37 The School Masters of Dhānk and Moti Parabdi. ↑
21 Shāstri Bhāyāvadar Pāthshālā. ↑
22 The School Master of Todiā. ↑
23 The School Master of Jodiā. ↑
24 A vāsanā is the outcome of a person’s good or bad actions. It is not the last desire of a man as
supposed by some, but the result of his good or bad actions or rather of the workings of his mind
during life. It is believed that, if at the moment of death, a man’s mind is fixed on the strong
attachment he feels for his children, he is born as a descendant of his offspring.—The School Master
of Dhānk. ↑
25 The School Master of Kotdā Sangani. ↑
26 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
27 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
28 The School Master of Motā Devaliā. ↑
29 The School Master of Charādwa. ↑
30 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
31 The School Master of Dhānk and the School Mistress of Gondal. ↑
32 A samādh is taken during life in the following way.
A deep pit is dug in the ground. The person who wishes to take a samādh goes into a deep trance by
meditation, and then runs yelling and screaming to the pit, while drums are beaten furiously and a
loud din is raised, so that none should hear a possible exclamation or cry from the runner. In the
midst of this din the runner leaps into the pit and is covered over with salt and earth. An altar is raised
over this spot with Shiva’s image, which afterwards becomes an object of worship. It is believed that
if a word or a cry from the runner is heard while he is taking the leap, the whole village will be
destroyed.—Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
33 The Pāthshālā Shāstri, Bhāyāvadar. ↑
34 Dātār means the great giver or munificent. The Pir is so called on account of his power of
fulfilling the vows of many. ↑
35 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
36 The School Master of Movaiya. ↑
37 The School Masters of Dhānk and Moti Parabdi. ↑
Page 227
38 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
39 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
40 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
41 The School Master of Davaliā. ↑
42 The School Master of Mendardā. ↑
43 A symbol of servitude of the saint. ↑
44 The School Master of Sultānpur. ↑
45 Aulia and Pir, synonymous terms, the first Arabic, the second Persian. Aulia is the Arabic plural
of wali which means a saint. In Hindustāni the plural form is used to signify the singular e. g., a
single wali or saint is often spoken of as an aulia. The word Pir originally meaning an old man is
used in Hindustān in the sense of a saint. Aulia Pir is the Gujarāti for a single or many saints. ↑
46 The School Master of Moti Porabdi. ↑
47 The School Master of Zinzuwādā. ↑
48 The School Master of Surel. ↑
49 The School Master of Jaseluan. ↑
50 The School Master of Charādwā. ↑
51 The School Master of Dhank. ↑
52 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
53 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
54 The School Masters of Dhānk and Vanod. ↑
55 The School Mistress, Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
56 The School Master of Moti Parabadi. ↑
57 The School Master of Todia. ↑
58 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
59 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
60 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
61 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
62 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
39 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
40 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
41 The School Master of Davaliā. ↑
42 The School Master of Mendardā. ↑
43 A symbol of servitude of the saint. ↑
44 The School Master of Sultānpur. ↑
45 Aulia and Pir, synonymous terms, the first Arabic, the second Persian. Aulia is the Arabic plural
of wali which means a saint. In Hindustāni the plural form is used to signify the singular e. g., a
single wali or saint is often spoken of as an aulia. The word Pir originally meaning an old man is
used in Hindustān in the sense of a saint. Aulia Pir is the Gujarāti for a single or many saints. ↑
46 The School Master of Moti Porabdi. ↑
47 The School Master of Zinzuwādā. ↑
48 The School Master of Surel. ↑
49 The School Master of Jaseluan. ↑
50 The School Master of Charādwā. ↑
51 The School Master of Dhank. ↑
52 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
53 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
54 The School Masters of Dhānk and Vanod. ↑
55 The School Mistress, Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
56 The School Master of Moti Parabadi. ↑
57 The School Master of Todia. ↑
58 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
59 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
60 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
61 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
62 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
Page 228
63 An ingredient used in preparing spices. ↑
64 The School Master of Uptala. ↑
65 The School Mistress, Girls’ School, Gondal. ↑
66 The School Master of Sultānpur. ↑
67 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
68 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
69 The School Mistress of Rājkot, Civil Station Girls’ School. ↑
70 The School Master of Bhayavadar. ↑
71 The School Master of Sultānpur. ↑
72 The School Master of Dhānk and Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
73 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
74 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
75 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
76 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
77 The School Masters of Kotda Sangani and Chhatrāsa. ↑
78 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
79 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohilwād. ↑
80 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
81 It is for this reason that barren women are not allowed to approach the bed of a woman in child-
bed. ↑
82 The School Masters of Dadvi and Chhatrāsa. ↑
83 The School Master of Todia. ↑
84 The School Master of Mota Devalia. ↑
85 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
86 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
87 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
88 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
64 The School Master of Uptala. ↑
65 The School Mistress, Girls’ School, Gondal. ↑
66 The School Master of Sultānpur. ↑
67 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
68 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
69 The School Mistress of Rājkot, Civil Station Girls’ School. ↑
70 The School Master of Bhayavadar. ↑
71 The School Master of Sultānpur. ↑
72 The School Master of Dhānk and Mr. K. D. Desai. ↑
73 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
74 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
75 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
76 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
77 The School Masters of Kotda Sangani and Chhatrāsa. ↑
78 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
79 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohilwād. ↑
80 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
81 It is for this reason that barren women are not allowed to approach the bed of a woman in child-
bed. ↑
82 The School Masters of Dadvi and Chhatrāsa. ↑
83 The School Master of Todia. ↑
84 The School Master of Mota Devalia. ↑
85 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
86 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
87 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
88 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
Page 229
89 The School Master of Jhinjhuwāda. ↑
90 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
91 The School Master of Kotdā Sangani. ↑
92 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
93 The School Master of Todia. ↑
94 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
95 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
96 The School Master of Khirasara. ↑
97 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
98 The School Master of Todia. ↑
90 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
91 The School Master of Kotdā Sangani. ↑
92 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
93 The School Master of Todia. ↑
94 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
95 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
96 The School Master of Khirasara. ↑
97 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
98 The School Master of Todia. ↑
Page 230
Page 231
CHAPTER V.
Page 232
WORSHIP OF THE MALEVOLENT DEAD.
The beliefs current as to the cause of dreams are many. One of these is that
memory of known facts or incidents heard or seen causes dreams. Dreams
are also supposed to be caused by disorders in the brain, by brooding
constantly over a particular occurrence, by anxiety or by the perpetration of
sinful acts.1 Those who are indebted to the pitris (ancestral spirits) are also
said to be troubled by dreams.2 A hearty meal at night just before going to
bed is also supposed to cause dreams.3
There are three conditions of human existence, (1) Jāgriti that is
wakefulness (2) Swapna that is dream and (3) Sushupti that is sleep. The
incidents which impress the mind strongly during wakefulness are
reproduced in dreams. Very often thoughts that never occur to our minds
strike us in dreams. These are ascribed to the impressions made on the soul
during past lives.4
It is said that the interpretation of dreams goes by contraries. But at times
they are fully borne out. A good dream is an indication of future good, and a
bad one of future evil.5
There are some persons whose dreams are always fulfilled. Dreams dreamt
by persons pure of mind and heart seldom turn out false.
Dreams occurring in the first quarter of the night are believed to be fulfilled
in a year, those in the second quarter of the night in six months, those in the
third quarter in three months, and those in the last quarter in one month. A
dream seen during an hour and a half before daybreak bears fruit in ten
days, while that seen just at day-break is realised immediately.6
Dreams that occur before midnight are never fulfilled.7
The beliefs current as to the cause of dreams are many. One of these is that
memory of known facts or incidents heard or seen causes dreams. Dreams
are also supposed to be caused by disorders in the brain, by brooding
constantly over a particular occurrence, by anxiety or by the perpetration of
sinful acts.1 Those who are indebted to the pitris (ancestral spirits) are also
said to be troubled by dreams.2 A hearty meal at night just before going to
bed is also supposed to cause dreams.3
There are three conditions of human existence, (1) Jāgriti that is
wakefulness (2) Swapna that is dream and (3) Sushupti that is sleep. The
incidents which impress the mind strongly during wakefulness are
reproduced in dreams. Very often thoughts that never occur to our minds
strike us in dreams. These are ascribed to the impressions made on the soul
during past lives.4
It is said that the interpretation of dreams goes by contraries. But at times
they are fully borne out. A good dream is an indication of future good, and a
bad one of future evil.5
There are some persons whose dreams are always fulfilled. Dreams dreamt
by persons pure of mind and heart seldom turn out false.
Dreams occurring in the first quarter of the night are believed to be fulfilled
in a year, those in the second quarter of the night in six months, those in the
third quarter in three months, and those in the last quarter in one month. A
dream seen during an hour and a half before daybreak bears fruit in ten
days, while that seen just at day-break is realised immediately.6
Dreams that occur before midnight are never fulfilled.7
Page 233
If a person has a bad dream, he should go to sleep at once, and not
communicate it to any one. If he has a good dream, he should not sleep on
that night after its occurrence. Early on the following morning he should
communicate it to a preceptor or saint; but if neither be available, he should
repeat it into the ears of a cow. A good dream should never be told to a bad
or low-minded person.
If a man sleeps after a good dream and has a bad one, the former loses its
force while the latter gains ascendancy and comes true.8
It is related that Allāuddin the bloody once entered the house of a
blacksmith when the latter was asleep dreaming that he saw a treasure trove
after having bathed in a stream and drunk a little water. At the same time
Allāuddin saw a small insect come out of the blacksmith’s nostril, drink
water from a neighbouring cistern, and return to the place from whence he
came. When the dream was over, the blacksmith woke and communicated it
to Allāuddin, which enabled the latter to spot the treasure, found by
excavating the place where the insect was hidden.9
The king Nala was questioned in his sleep several times by an individual
unknown to him, “May I come now or later?” Nala replied “Come now”
thinking that if it was misfortune that put him the question, it would be
better to get rid of it soon, so that the latter part of life might be passed
happily. The questioner proved to be misfortune, and it is related that Nala
met many mishaps during his youth.9
Similarly, a bad dream dreamt by Harischandra was followed by a series of
calamities.9
Rāvan, the demon king of Lanka or Ceylon, had a dream in the third quarter
of the night that Lanka was destroyed, and the destruction of Lanka
followed.10
To see or think or experience in dreams the following, as the case may be is
considered to be auspicious:—
communicate it to any one. If he has a good dream, he should not sleep on
that night after its occurrence. Early on the following morning he should
communicate it to a preceptor or saint; but if neither be available, he should
repeat it into the ears of a cow. A good dream should never be told to a bad
or low-minded person.
If a man sleeps after a good dream and has a bad one, the former loses its
force while the latter gains ascendancy and comes true.8
It is related that Allāuddin the bloody once entered the house of a
blacksmith when the latter was asleep dreaming that he saw a treasure trove
after having bathed in a stream and drunk a little water. At the same time
Allāuddin saw a small insect come out of the blacksmith’s nostril, drink
water from a neighbouring cistern, and return to the place from whence he
came. When the dream was over, the blacksmith woke and communicated it
to Allāuddin, which enabled the latter to spot the treasure, found by
excavating the place where the insect was hidden.9
The king Nala was questioned in his sleep several times by an individual
unknown to him, “May I come now or later?” Nala replied “Come now”
thinking that if it was misfortune that put him the question, it would be
better to get rid of it soon, so that the latter part of life might be passed
happily. The questioner proved to be misfortune, and it is related that Nala
met many mishaps during his youth.9
Similarly, a bad dream dreamt by Harischandra was followed by a series of
calamities.9
Rāvan, the demon king of Lanka or Ceylon, had a dream in the third quarter
of the night that Lanka was destroyed, and the destruction of Lanka
followed.10
To see or think or experience in dreams the following, as the case may be is
considered to be auspicious:—
Page 234
(1) A cow, (2) a bullock, (3) an elephant, (4) a palace, (5) a mountain, (6) a
high peak, (7) the droppings of a bird, (8) ointment, (9) weeping, (10) a
king, (11) gold, (12) the crossing of the ocean, (13) a lamp, (14) flesh, (15)
fruit, (16) a lotus, (17) a flag, (18) the image of one’s favourite god, (19) a
saint, (20) a Brāhman, (21) an ancestral spirit, (22) a white snake biting the
right side, (23) a flowering tree, (24) climbing a tree, (25) climbing the
Rāyan (Mimusops hexandra), (26) a woman dressed in white, (27) walking
over a layer of lead, (28) lifting a goblet filled with wine, (29) a lion, (30)
the goddess of wealth, (31) a garland, (32) driving in a carriage to which an
elephant, a lion, a horse or a bullock is yoked, (33) swallowing the disc of
the sun or the moon, (34) the hands or feet of a man, (35) worship of a
deity, (36) barley, (37) rice, (38) sandal paste, (39) the Dro grass (Cynodon
Dactylon), (40) the moon, (41) the sun, (42) a goblet, (43) an ocean of milk,
(44) jewels, (45) smokeless fire, (46) an image of the god Shiva, Brahma or
Ganesh or of the goddess Gauri, (47) a celestial vehicle, (48) the heaven,
(49) the Kalpavriksha or the magic tree that satisfies all desires, (50) a river
in floods, (51) fish, (52) curdled milk, (53) going on a pilgrimage, (54)
ornaments, (55) crossing a river, (56) eating the flesh of a man’s legs or
flowers.11
To see in a dream (1) a person leading a life of celibacy, (2) a virgin, (3) a
green tree, (4) or students returning from school, is also considered to
foretell good fortune.12
Similarly, the sight of an unwidowed woman and the thought of the death of
any person, in a dream, is believed to bring good luck.12
A dream in which one of the following objects is seen is also supposed to be
good:—
(1) An assemblage of Brāhmans, (2) a gardener, (3) milk, (4) a prostitute,
(5) a shield and sword, (6) a musket, (7) a scimitar, (8) an antelope, (9) an
unwidowed woman carrying on her head a jar filled with water, (10) a
mongoose, (11) a peacock, (12) a woman carrying a child on her waist, (13)
newly-washed dry clothes, (14) a costly fan, (15) a man dressed in white
clothes.13
high peak, (7) the droppings of a bird, (8) ointment, (9) weeping, (10) a
king, (11) gold, (12) the crossing of the ocean, (13) a lamp, (14) flesh, (15)
fruit, (16) a lotus, (17) a flag, (18) the image of one’s favourite god, (19) a
saint, (20) a Brāhman, (21) an ancestral spirit, (22) a white snake biting the
right side, (23) a flowering tree, (24) climbing a tree, (25) climbing the
Rāyan (Mimusops hexandra), (26) a woman dressed in white, (27) walking
over a layer of lead, (28) lifting a goblet filled with wine, (29) a lion, (30)
the goddess of wealth, (31) a garland, (32) driving in a carriage to which an
elephant, a lion, a horse or a bullock is yoked, (33) swallowing the disc of
the sun or the moon, (34) the hands or feet of a man, (35) worship of a
deity, (36) barley, (37) rice, (38) sandal paste, (39) the Dro grass (Cynodon
Dactylon), (40) the moon, (41) the sun, (42) a goblet, (43) an ocean of milk,
(44) jewels, (45) smokeless fire, (46) an image of the god Shiva, Brahma or
Ganesh or of the goddess Gauri, (47) a celestial vehicle, (48) the heaven,
(49) the Kalpavriksha or the magic tree that satisfies all desires, (50) a river
in floods, (51) fish, (52) curdled milk, (53) going on a pilgrimage, (54)
ornaments, (55) crossing a river, (56) eating the flesh of a man’s legs or
flowers.11
To see in a dream (1) a person leading a life of celibacy, (2) a virgin, (3) a
green tree, (4) or students returning from school, is also considered to
foretell good fortune.12
Similarly, the sight of an unwidowed woman and the thought of the death of
any person, in a dream, is believed to bring good luck.12
A dream in which one of the following objects is seen is also supposed to be
good:—
(1) An assemblage of Brāhmans, (2) a gardener, (3) milk, (4) a prostitute,
(5) a shield and sword, (6) a musket, (7) a scimitar, (8) an antelope, (9) an
unwidowed woman carrying on her head a jar filled with water, (10) a
mongoose, (11) a peacock, (12) a woman carrying a child on her waist, (13)
newly-washed dry clothes, (14) a costly fan, (15) a man dressed in white
clothes.13
Page 235
In a book called Harit-sanhita the subject of the influence of dreams on
human happiness or misery is fully treated.
The book says:—If the sun, the moon, the congregation of the stars, a lake
filled with clusters of expanded lotuses, or crossing the sea or a river full of
water be seen or experienced in a dream by a man, he attains wealth,
happiness and prosperity and relief from diseases.
“If a cow, a horse, an elephant, a king or a flower called prashasta is seen in
a dream by a sickly person, his illness disappears; if by one laid in sick bed,
he is cured; if by one confined in a jail, he is released.”14
If a child grinds its teeth and weeps in a dream, it indicates liquidation of
pecuniary liabilities. One who sees a man die in a dream is blessed with
longevity.15
A bite by a white snake in a dream is an omen of increase of wealth.16
“All black objects except a cow, a horse, a king, an elephant, and fish, seen
in a dream, are the precursors of disease and calamity.”
“One who sees in a dream his body devoured by crows, herons, camels,
serpents, boars, eagles, foxes, dogs, wolves, asses, buffaloes, birds moving
in the sky, tigers, fishes, alligators or monkeys, experiences in the
immediate future a heavy loss or a terrible disease.”17
The following objects seen, heard or experienced in a dream are believed to
forebode evil:—
(1) Cotton, (2) ashes, (3) bones, (4) whey, (5) singing, (6) merriment, (7)
laughing, (8) studying, (9) a woman dressed in red, (10) a red mark on the
forehead, (11) a gandharva or heavenly bard, (12) a demon, (13) a wizard,
(14) a witch, (15) a prickly shrub, (16) a cemetery, (17) a cat, (18) vomiting,
(19) darkness, (20) a hide, (21) a woman with a bad reputation, (22) thirst,
(23) a contest between two planets, (24) fall of a luminous body, (25) a
whirlwind, (26) vishotak (a disease in which the skin is covered with
ulcers), (27) one carrying away one’s vehicle, wife, jewels, gold, silver or
human happiness or misery is fully treated.
The book says:—If the sun, the moon, the congregation of the stars, a lake
filled with clusters of expanded lotuses, or crossing the sea or a river full of
water be seen or experienced in a dream by a man, he attains wealth,
happiness and prosperity and relief from diseases.
“If a cow, a horse, an elephant, a king or a flower called prashasta is seen in
a dream by a sickly person, his illness disappears; if by one laid in sick bed,
he is cured; if by one confined in a jail, he is released.”14
If a child grinds its teeth and weeps in a dream, it indicates liquidation of
pecuniary liabilities. One who sees a man die in a dream is blessed with
longevity.15
A bite by a white snake in a dream is an omen of increase of wealth.16
“All black objects except a cow, a horse, a king, an elephant, and fish, seen
in a dream, are the precursors of disease and calamity.”
“One who sees in a dream his body devoured by crows, herons, camels,
serpents, boars, eagles, foxes, dogs, wolves, asses, buffaloes, birds moving
in the sky, tigers, fishes, alligators or monkeys, experiences in the
immediate future a heavy loss or a terrible disease.”17
The following objects seen, heard or experienced in a dream are believed to
forebode evil:—
(1) Cotton, (2) ashes, (3) bones, (4) whey, (5) singing, (6) merriment, (7)
laughing, (8) studying, (9) a woman dressed in red, (10) a red mark on the
forehead, (11) a gandharva or heavenly bard, (12) a demon, (13) a wizard,
(14) a witch, (15) a prickly shrub, (16) a cemetery, (17) a cat, (18) vomiting,
(19) darkness, (20) a hide, (21) a woman with a bad reputation, (22) thirst,
(23) a contest between two planets, (24) fall of a luminous body, (25) a
whirlwind, (26) vishotak (a disease in which the skin is covered with
ulcers), (27) one carrying away one’s vehicle, wife, jewels, gold, silver or
Page 236
bell-metal utensils, (28) the breaking of one’s own house, (29) the drinking
of a poisonous liquid.18
If in a dream one relishes a dish of sweetmeats, plays upon a musical
instrument, or sees a widow dressed in the garment of an unwidowed
woman, it is believed to prognosticate evil and bring misfortune.
Similarly, if in a dream, the sleeper marries or hears the crowing of a crow
or the bark of a dog, or an owl speak like a man, it portends misfortune.19
Seeing an auspicious mark, or bathing in or being besmeared with oil, in a
dream, is an indication of one’s death in the near future. Going to the south
riding a he-buffalo, or seeing a widow, brings on misfortune.20
If a man in health comes across a corpse in a dream, he apprehends illness.
If a patient does the same, he fears death.21
It is a common belief that the soul can leave the body temporarily.
When a man feels thirsty in sleep, his soul is supposed to leave the body to
drink water, and if it finds the water pots covered, not to return to the body,
which is found dead the next morning.22 It is for this reason that most
people drink water at the time of going to bed.23
Shankarāchārya was a life long celibate. Once, in a discussion with the wife
of Mandan Mishra, she put to him a question on the subject of the pleasures
of married life. To answer the question it was necessary to have the
experiences of a married life. To gain these experiences Shankarāchārya’s
soul left his body and entered the corpse of a king just dead, and enjoyed
the pleasures of married life for six months in the company of the queen of
the deceased king. It then returned to his body, which was preserved by his
disciples according to his instructions, and answered the question put to him
by the wife of Mandan Mishra.24
It is related that the spirit of the daughter of a black-smith in Luvaria
returned to her body two hours after her death, after which she lived for a
of a poisonous liquid.18
If in a dream one relishes a dish of sweetmeats, plays upon a musical
instrument, or sees a widow dressed in the garment of an unwidowed
woman, it is believed to prognosticate evil and bring misfortune.
Similarly, if in a dream, the sleeper marries or hears the crowing of a crow
or the bark of a dog, or an owl speak like a man, it portends misfortune.19
Seeing an auspicious mark, or bathing in or being besmeared with oil, in a
dream, is an indication of one’s death in the near future. Going to the south
riding a he-buffalo, or seeing a widow, brings on misfortune.20
If a man in health comes across a corpse in a dream, he apprehends illness.
If a patient does the same, he fears death.21
It is a common belief that the soul can leave the body temporarily.
When a man feels thirsty in sleep, his soul is supposed to leave the body to
drink water, and if it finds the water pots covered, not to return to the body,
which is found dead the next morning.22 It is for this reason that most
people drink water at the time of going to bed.23
Shankarāchārya was a life long celibate. Once, in a discussion with the wife
of Mandan Mishra, she put to him a question on the subject of the pleasures
of married life. To answer the question it was necessary to have the
experiences of a married life. To gain these experiences Shankarāchārya’s
soul left his body and entered the corpse of a king just dead, and enjoyed
the pleasures of married life for six months in the company of the queen of
the deceased king. It then returned to his body, which was preserved by his
disciples according to his instructions, and answered the question put to him
by the wife of Mandan Mishra.24
It is related that the spirit of the daughter of a black-smith in Luvaria
returned to her body two hours after her death, after which she lived for a
Page 237
fortnight.
A similar story is told of a Nāgar Brāhman, who lived for some years after
the return of his spirit to his body.25
About forty years ago, the corpse of a Kanbi in Lilāpur was carried to the
burning ground for cremation, and there his spirit returned to his body. On
being asked where he had been, the Kanbi replied that he had been to
Dharmarāja, the lord of hell, who told him to go back to his body, saying
that his life’s thread had not yet ended. It is related that the Kanbi lived for
some years after this incident.
Another instance of the soul departing and then returning to the body is that
of a Kanbi woman in Lilāpur, whose soul returned to the body after she had
been carried to the burning ground. The woman lived for five years after
this occurrence.26
A Brāhman in Limbdi named Vaijnāth had, by the performance of yoga,
obtained the power of sending his spirit out of his body and recalling it at
pleasure.27
The soul of a living being leaves its physical tabernacle during sleep and
hovers about. It can go to and return from even the heavenly and infernal
regions.
There are eighteen kinds of siddhis or accomplishments, one of which is
parakāyāpravesh or the power of entering the body of another and returning
to one’s own body at will. The soul cannot exist separated from the body.
When a person who revives after death is asked how he returned to life, he
declares that he has been carried to the presence of the god of death by his
messengers, being mistaken for another bearing the same name and living
in the same locality. When such a mistake is detected, the god of death tells
the soul of the man concerned that his life’s span has not yet ended, and
sends it back to the body, which appears to be dead.28
A similar story is told of a Nāgar Brāhman, who lived for some years after
the return of his spirit to his body.25
About forty years ago, the corpse of a Kanbi in Lilāpur was carried to the
burning ground for cremation, and there his spirit returned to his body. On
being asked where he had been, the Kanbi replied that he had been to
Dharmarāja, the lord of hell, who told him to go back to his body, saying
that his life’s thread had not yet ended. It is related that the Kanbi lived for
some years after this incident.
Another instance of the soul departing and then returning to the body is that
of a Kanbi woman in Lilāpur, whose soul returned to the body after she had
been carried to the burning ground. The woman lived for five years after
this occurrence.26
A Brāhman in Limbdi named Vaijnāth had, by the performance of yoga,
obtained the power of sending his spirit out of his body and recalling it at
pleasure.27
The soul of a living being leaves its physical tabernacle during sleep and
hovers about. It can go to and return from even the heavenly and infernal
regions.
There are eighteen kinds of siddhis or accomplishments, one of which is
parakāyāpravesh or the power of entering the body of another and returning
to one’s own body at will. The soul cannot exist separated from the body.
When a person who revives after death is asked how he returned to life, he
declares that he has been carried to the presence of the god of death by his
messengers, being mistaken for another bearing the same name and living
in the same locality. When such a mistake is detected, the god of death tells
the soul of the man concerned that his life’s span has not yet ended, and
sends it back to the body, which appears to be dead.28
Page 238
Often the soul of a man ascends to his temples, when the man is supposed
to be dead although he is alive. In such cases, when the soul descends, the
man is supposed to come to life again.
It is believed by some people that if all the desires of a man are not satisfied
at the time of his death, his soul leaves the body to satisfy them and
subsequently returns to the corpse, whereupon the body revives.29
A devotee in his meditative trance can send forth his soul whithersoever he
pleases.30
It is also believed that the soul of man leaves the body in sleep to enjoy
those pleasures which it cannot enjoy in wakefulness.31
The popular conceptions of the character and functions of the bhut or
disembodied soul are as follows:
A ghost has no recognised form. It may assume the form of a human being,
a goat, a blaze of fire, a whirl-wind or any other object it pleases.32
Some assume a terribly gigantic and fearfully uncouth frame, with big fang-
like teeth, long matted hair and a height that reaches the sky. At times they
assume the form of a child and cry heart-breakingly at a concealed corner of
a road. Should a passer-by, out of compassion, try to save it, the supposed
infant begins to lengthen its legs to show its benefactor its real and
supernatural dimensions. Sometimes it transforms itself into a gigantic and
terrible being, taking possession of the man if he becomes afraid.33
Some evil spirits manifest themselves as showers of burning charcoal, while
some are so forward as to offer their services as guides to strangers from
one village to another. Some assume the form of Bhensāsur—a demon in
the form of a buffalo—said to be a most malignant ghost.34
The throat of a ghost is as narrow as the fine end of a needle, and yet it is
believed to require a dozen potfuls of water to quench its thirst. It cannot
get pure water, as such water is guarded by the god Varuna. It has,
to be dead although he is alive. In such cases, when the soul descends, the
man is supposed to come to life again.
It is believed by some people that if all the desires of a man are not satisfied
at the time of his death, his soul leaves the body to satisfy them and
subsequently returns to the corpse, whereupon the body revives.29
A devotee in his meditative trance can send forth his soul whithersoever he
pleases.30
It is also believed that the soul of man leaves the body in sleep to enjoy
those pleasures which it cannot enjoy in wakefulness.31
The popular conceptions of the character and functions of the bhut or
disembodied soul are as follows:
A ghost has no recognised form. It may assume the form of a human being,
a goat, a blaze of fire, a whirl-wind or any other object it pleases.32
Some assume a terribly gigantic and fearfully uncouth frame, with big fang-
like teeth, long matted hair and a height that reaches the sky. At times they
assume the form of a child and cry heart-breakingly at a concealed corner of
a road. Should a passer-by, out of compassion, try to save it, the supposed
infant begins to lengthen its legs to show its benefactor its real and
supernatural dimensions. Sometimes it transforms itself into a gigantic and
terrible being, taking possession of the man if he becomes afraid.33
Some evil spirits manifest themselves as showers of burning charcoal, while
some are so forward as to offer their services as guides to strangers from
one village to another. Some assume the form of Bhensāsur—a demon in
the form of a buffalo—said to be a most malignant ghost.34
The throat of a ghost is as narrow as the fine end of a needle, and yet it is
believed to require a dozen potfuls of water to quench its thirst. It cannot
get pure water, as such water is guarded by the god Varuna. It has,
Page 239
therefore, to quench its thirst with such dirty water as it can get. Similarly, it
cannot get clean food, and has to satisfy its hunger on human excretions, the
droppings of birds and other animals, urine, and the filth of houses.35
It is generally believed that evil spirits do not cast shadows. All attempts to
catch them prove futile, as they vanish in the form of a flame.36
If it is sought to catch hold of a goat-shaped ghost, the goat swells into such
a monstrous size that the spectator gets terrified, whereupon the ghost finds
an opportunity of disappearing in a flame.
It is believed that ghosts prefer darkness to light and silence to noise. They
live on the Pipal (Ficus religiosa) or Shami (Prosopis spicigera) trees.37
A ghost presents itself to the vision of a man by blocking its way in the
form of a goat or some other animal.38
Ghosts are believed to infest woods, unused wells, cellars and old tanks.
They are also found in ruins and cemeteries. As far as possible they keep
themselves aloof from mortals; but at times they are visible to human
beings, mostly to those destitute of religion and morals. They roam about
and terrify people. Sometimes they enter the persons of human beings. Such
men either gain in strength, fall sick, or become senseless. The ghosts who
possess them make them laugh or work, without being fatigued, with ten
times the vigour they originally possessed.39
Ghosts keep their persons uncovered, feed upon flesh and blood, sleep
during the day, and roam about at night.40
Often a large concourse of ghosts meet together and dance, sing and make
merry uttering loud and fierce shrieks. A ghost has no back, and has its feet
reversed. It keeps away from man, but terrifies him by pelting him with
stones from a distance.41
On the fourteenth day of the dark half of Āshvin (the twelfth month of the
Gujarāti Hindu year) all ghosts are believed to go about playing pranks with
cannot get clean food, and has to satisfy its hunger on human excretions, the
droppings of birds and other animals, urine, and the filth of houses.35
It is generally believed that evil spirits do not cast shadows. All attempts to
catch them prove futile, as they vanish in the form of a flame.36
If it is sought to catch hold of a goat-shaped ghost, the goat swells into such
a monstrous size that the spectator gets terrified, whereupon the ghost finds
an opportunity of disappearing in a flame.
It is believed that ghosts prefer darkness to light and silence to noise. They
live on the Pipal (Ficus religiosa) or Shami (Prosopis spicigera) trees.37
A ghost presents itself to the vision of a man by blocking its way in the
form of a goat or some other animal.38
Ghosts are believed to infest woods, unused wells, cellars and old tanks.
They are also found in ruins and cemeteries. As far as possible they keep
themselves aloof from mortals; but at times they are visible to human
beings, mostly to those destitute of religion and morals. They roam about
and terrify people. Sometimes they enter the persons of human beings. Such
men either gain in strength, fall sick, or become senseless. The ghosts who
possess them make them laugh or work, without being fatigued, with ten
times the vigour they originally possessed.39
Ghosts keep their persons uncovered, feed upon flesh and blood, sleep
during the day, and roam about at night.40
Often a large concourse of ghosts meet together and dance, sing and make
merry uttering loud and fierce shrieks. A ghost has no back, and has its feet
reversed. It keeps away from man, but terrifies him by pelting him with
stones from a distance.41
On the fourteenth day of the dark half of Āshvin (the twelfth month of the
Gujarāti Hindu year) all ghosts are believed to go about playing pranks with
Page 240
poor mortals and possessing them.42
The Navarātra holidays is the season when ghosts appear in many places.43
Ghosts enter corpses or possess human beings and speak through them as a
medium. Sometimes they assume their original human form, and often
torment people with disease. They present themselves as animals and pass
away in a blaze. They hum in the air without being seen, wrestle with men
or carry unseen human beings from one place to another. Some women are
believed to conceive by intercourse with male ghosts.44
If a man happens to step in the circle described by water round the offering
given to a ghost, viz., utār, he is possessed by the ghost. A house haunted
by a ghost is the scene of great mischief.45
Ghosts are said to be most mischievous during the first part of the night.
Their fury diminishes with the advance of night.46
Ghosts are inimical to human beings, terrify them, and sometimes,
assuming the form of a cobra, kill those whom they hated most during
life.47
They are pleased with offerings of blood.48
To throw stones at houses and trees and to set them on fire are their usual
pranks.49
The ghost called Jān manifests itself as a giant, its height reaching the sky.
If a man comes under its shadow, he is seized by it and dashed to pieces on
the ground. On the contrary, if a man wins its favour, he becomes
prosperous. Hence a proverb has been current that “seizing another as by a
jān” meaning “being attacked by a dire misfortune.”50
There is a female ghost called Chudel. Its back is covered with flesh, its feet
are reversed, its form is hollow and its face handsome like that of a
charming woman.51
The Navarātra holidays is the season when ghosts appear in many places.43
Ghosts enter corpses or possess human beings and speak through them as a
medium. Sometimes they assume their original human form, and often
torment people with disease. They present themselves as animals and pass
away in a blaze. They hum in the air without being seen, wrestle with men
or carry unseen human beings from one place to another. Some women are
believed to conceive by intercourse with male ghosts.44
If a man happens to step in the circle described by water round the offering
given to a ghost, viz., utār, he is possessed by the ghost. A house haunted
by a ghost is the scene of great mischief.45
Ghosts are said to be most mischievous during the first part of the night.
Their fury diminishes with the advance of night.46
Ghosts are inimical to human beings, terrify them, and sometimes,
assuming the form of a cobra, kill those whom they hated most during
life.47
They are pleased with offerings of blood.48
To throw stones at houses and trees and to set them on fire are their usual
pranks.49
The ghost called Jān manifests itself as a giant, its height reaching the sky.
If a man comes under its shadow, he is seized by it and dashed to pieces on
the ground. On the contrary, if a man wins its favour, he becomes
prosperous. Hence a proverb has been current that “seizing another as by a
jān” meaning “being attacked by a dire misfortune.”50
There is a female ghost called Chudel. Its back is covered with flesh, its feet
are reversed, its form is hollow and its face handsome like that of a
charming woman.51
Page 241
It is said that a woman dying in childbed becomes a chudel. Her form is a
skeleton behind with the figure of a pretty woman in front.
It is believed that mastery over ghosts can be obtained by dint of
incantations or mantras. Those who subjugate ghosts in this way have
power to command them to do their behests. But the process by which such
powers are procured is believed to be beset with dangers, and many lose
their lives in so doing.52
There is also a belief that a bhut or ghost can be brought under control by
lopping off a lock of its hair or top knot and keeping it in one’s custody.53
It is said that this lock ought to be kept inside the right thigh by tearing a
hole in the flesh. It is believed that the thigh can be cut open by a hair of the
ghost without injury.54
The ghost so subjugated should never be kept unemployed; otherwise it
oppresses its master.55
It is believed that the spirits of deceased persons become ghosts under the
following conditions:—
1 If scriptural ceremonies are not performed with the ceremonial offerings
of rice balls to the deceased.
2 If the deceased dies with a strong attachment to worldly objects.
3 If the death is unnatural that is, caused by an accident.
All ghosts get absolution by the performance of propitiative ceremonies by
their descendants as prescribed in the scriptures.56
There are various beliefs current as to the state of the soul after death. The
Garud purān contains many passages illustrating its movements after it
leaves the body. Says the book:—
skeleton behind with the figure of a pretty woman in front.
It is believed that mastery over ghosts can be obtained by dint of
incantations or mantras. Those who subjugate ghosts in this way have
power to command them to do their behests. But the process by which such
powers are procured is believed to be beset with dangers, and many lose
their lives in so doing.52
There is also a belief that a bhut or ghost can be brought under control by
lopping off a lock of its hair or top knot and keeping it in one’s custody.53
It is said that this lock ought to be kept inside the right thigh by tearing a
hole in the flesh. It is believed that the thigh can be cut open by a hair of the
ghost without injury.54
The ghost so subjugated should never be kept unemployed; otherwise it
oppresses its master.55
It is believed that the spirits of deceased persons become ghosts under the
following conditions:—
1 If scriptural ceremonies are not performed with the ceremonial offerings
of rice balls to the deceased.
2 If the deceased dies with a strong attachment to worldly objects.
3 If the death is unnatural that is, caused by an accident.
All ghosts get absolution by the performance of propitiative ceremonies by
their descendants as prescribed in the scriptures.56
There are various beliefs current as to the state of the soul after death. The
Garud purān contains many passages illustrating its movements after it
leaves the body. Says the book:—
Page 242
“When the soul leaves the body it assumes a form as small as a thumb. At
this very moment it is caught by the servants of Yama while he is crying out
ha! ha! looking at its corporal receptacle.”
And again:—
“Covering the body of the soul (which suffers intensely) and strangling it
forcibly, the servants of the god Yama carry it away just as a culprit is
carried by a king’s soldiers.”
The verses that follow describe the miseries inflicted upon the poor thumb-
shaped soul for the sins committed by him during his life-time. The sinful
soul has to undergo similar miseries in hell. From hell it returns to this
world guarded by the servants of Yama, to partake of the rice-balls and
other articles of food offered by the sons or other relatives. It is then again
taken to hell to suffer more miseries and penalties in expiation of past sins.
Then it returns once more to receive the offerings of rice-balls made at
shrāddha ceremonies. If, even after this, any desires remain unfulfilled, it
has to continue a wretched existence in the other world.57
In a chapter of the Pretamanjari of the Garud Purān it is stated that the
souls of righteous men go to the next world unmolested.58
Some people believe that the departing soul assumes a form like a thumb,
and remains in that state until relieved by the performance of shrāddha by
his heirs. It then enters the other world to enjoy the fruits of its good
actions. The Yamapuri or the city of the god of death is 8,6´0 Yōjans—a
Yōjan being equal to four miles—to the south of the earth. The lord of this
place is Dharmarāja. Yama is his servant, whose duty is to carry the soul
from one place to another.59
Others maintain that two states await the soul after death according to
whether it has performed righteous or sinful acts during life.
The righteous attain to heaven and enter the Pārshad Vaikunta of Vishnu.
The sinful go to hell or Yamaloka.60
this very moment it is caught by the servants of Yama while he is crying out
ha! ha! looking at its corporal receptacle.”
And again:—
“Covering the body of the soul (which suffers intensely) and strangling it
forcibly, the servants of the god Yama carry it away just as a culprit is
carried by a king’s soldiers.”
The verses that follow describe the miseries inflicted upon the poor thumb-
shaped soul for the sins committed by him during his life-time. The sinful
soul has to undergo similar miseries in hell. From hell it returns to this
world guarded by the servants of Yama, to partake of the rice-balls and
other articles of food offered by the sons or other relatives. It is then again
taken to hell to suffer more miseries and penalties in expiation of past sins.
Then it returns once more to receive the offerings of rice-balls made at
shrāddha ceremonies. If, even after this, any desires remain unfulfilled, it
has to continue a wretched existence in the other world.57
In a chapter of the Pretamanjari of the Garud Purān it is stated that the
souls of righteous men go to the next world unmolested.58
Some people believe that the departing soul assumes a form like a thumb,
and remains in that state until relieved by the performance of shrāddha by
his heirs. It then enters the other world to enjoy the fruits of its good
actions. The Yamapuri or the city of the god of death is 8,6´0 Yōjans—a
Yōjan being equal to four miles—to the south of the earth. The lord of this
place is Dharmarāja. Yama is his servant, whose duty is to carry the soul
from one place to another.59
Others maintain that two states await the soul after death according to
whether it has performed righteous or sinful acts during life.
The righteous attain to heaven and enter the Pārshad Vaikunta of Vishnu.
The sinful go to hell or Yamaloka.60
Page 243
The sinful souls go to Yamaloka and are made to suffer the miseries of
twenty-eight naraks or hells in proportion to the sins perpetrated by them,
after which they return to the earth.
The following are some of the punishments meted out to wicked souls for
their sins, in their next lives:—
1 Those who murder Brāhmans suffer from consumption.
2 Those who slaughter cows are born as tortoises.
3 Those guilty of female infanticide suffer from white leprosy.
4 One who kills his wife, as well as a woman guilty of causing abortion,
becomes a beggar.
5 Those who commit adultery become impotent.
6 He who seats himself on the bed or seat of his preceptor is affected by
skin diseases.
7 Flesh-eaters get a red body.
8 Those who indulge in drink get black teeth.
9 A Brāhman partaking of prohibited food suffers from dropsy.
10 One who eats sweets without sharing them with the by-standers suffers
from cancer in the throat.
11 One who offers polluted food to departed spirits suffers from black
leprosy.
12 One who disobeys and despises his teacher suffers from wind apasmār.
13 One who does not believe in the shāstras suffers from enlargement of
the spleen or Bright’s disease.
twenty-eight naraks or hells in proportion to the sins perpetrated by them,
after which they return to the earth.
The following are some of the punishments meted out to wicked souls for
their sins, in their next lives:—
1 Those who murder Brāhmans suffer from consumption.
2 Those who slaughter cows are born as tortoises.
3 Those guilty of female infanticide suffer from white leprosy.
4 One who kills his wife, as well as a woman guilty of causing abortion,
becomes a beggar.
5 Those who commit adultery become impotent.
6 He who seats himself on the bed or seat of his preceptor is affected by
skin diseases.
7 Flesh-eaters get a red body.
8 Those who indulge in drink get black teeth.
9 A Brāhman partaking of prohibited food suffers from dropsy.
10 One who eats sweets without sharing them with the by-standers suffers
from cancer in the throat.
11 One who offers polluted food to departed spirits suffers from black
leprosy.
12 One who disobeys and despises his teacher suffers from wind apasmār.
13 One who does not believe in the shāstras suffers from enlargement of
the spleen or Bright’s disease.
Page 244
14 A perjurer is born dumb.
15 One who does not serve food equally to all the members at a dining table
loses one of his eyes.
16 Those who break off a marriage alliance are punished with thick (negro-
like) lips.
17 Those who steal books lose their eye-sight.
18 He who kicks a Brāhman becomes lame.
19 A liar becomes a stammerer.
20 Those who listen to contradictory versions of what is generally believed
to be true become deaf.
21 One who poisons another becomes a lunatic.
22 One who steals precious metals becomes indigent.
23 An incendiary is punished with a bald head.
24 Meat-sellers meet with misfortunes.
25 One who steals gold has his nails deformed.
26 He who steals food is born a mouse.
27 One stealing corn has to be reborn as a locust.
28 One stealing opium or other poisonous drugs is born a scorpion.
29 One who steals leaves or vegetables is born a peacock.
30 One who enjoys perfumes by stealing them is born a mole.
31 One who steals honey becomes an eagle.
15 One who does not serve food equally to all the members at a dining table
loses one of his eyes.
16 Those who break off a marriage alliance are punished with thick (negro-
like) lips.
17 Those who steal books lose their eye-sight.
18 He who kicks a Brāhman becomes lame.
19 A liar becomes a stammerer.
20 Those who listen to contradictory versions of what is generally believed
to be true become deaf.
21 One who poisons another becomes a lunatic.
22 One who steals precious metals becomes indigent.
23 An incendiary is punished with a bald head.
24 Meat-sellers meet with misfortunes.
25 One who steals gold has his nails deformed.
26 He who steals food is born a mouse.
27 One stealing corn has to be reborn as a locust.
28 One stealing opium or other poisonous drugs is born a scorpion.
29 One who steals leaves or vegetables is born a peacock.
30 One who enjoys perfumes by stealing them is born a mole.
31 One who steals honey becomes an eagle.
Page 245
32 One who steals flour, rice, etc. is born a monkey.61
The state of the soul after death depends upon a man’s good or bad actions
in life.
The souls of the righteous leave the body without any trouble. The
messengers of the god of death present themselves to these souls in the
form of saints and carry them to that part of the heaven which is presided
over by their favourite deity, by the eastern, northern, or western gates.
They are received there with great respect. Here they enjoy the fruits of
their merit, after which they return to this world and are born either in the
family of a wealthy virtuous man or in that of a poor Brāhman who has
attained the knowledge of God. In this new life they accumulate further
merit, in virtue of which they are endowed with a higher spiritual life in the
following birth, and so on until they attain final emancipation.
After attaining moksha or salvation the soul becomes free from the wheel of
birth and rebirth.
To the souls of the sinful, who leave their bodies with a great struggle, the
messengers of the god of death present themselves in a terrible form. They
are carried to hell by the southern gate, being constantly lashed on the way.
There they are relegated to one of the twenty-eight pits (of hell) appropriate
to their misdeeds, to suffer retribution for their sins.62
The soul is carried to Dharmarāja after it leaves the body. Thence, with the
permission of the god, it returns to this world and halts for thirteen days at
the threshold of its house. On the thirteenth day an earthen jar filled with
water is emptied on a pipal tree (Ficus religiosa) after which its connection
with this world ceases. Then it returns to the heavenly judge of actions
(Dharmarāja), and is again born in the species prescribed by him. The soul
of a strictly spiritual being merges into the divine entity and becomes free
from birth and rebirth.
Moksha or Mukti, that is final emancipation is of two kinds, sāyujya or
merging into the divine form and sāmishya or entering the divine order and
The state of the soul after death depends upon a man’s good or bad actions
in life.
The souls of the righteous leave the body without any trouble. The
messengers of the god of death present themselves to these souls in the
form of saints and carry them to that part of the heaven which is presided
over by their favourite deity, by the eastern, northern, or western gates.
They are received there with great respect. Here they enjoy the fruits of
their merit, after which they return to this world and are born either in the
family of a wealthy virtuous man or in that of a poor Brāhman who has
attained the knowledge of God. In this new life they accumulate further
merit, in virtue of which they are endowed with a higher spiritual life in the
following birth, and so on until they attain final emancipation.
After attaining moksha or salvation the soul becomes free from the wheel of
birth and rebirth.
To the souls of the sinful, who leave their bodies with a great struggle, the
messengers of the god of death present themselves in a terrible form. They
are carried to hell by the southern gate, being constantly lashed on the way.
There they are relegated to one of the twenty-eight pits (of hell) appropriate
to their misdeeds, to suffer retribution for their sins.62
The soul is carried to Dharmarāja after it leaves the body. Thence, with the
permission of the god, it returns to this world and halts for thirteen days at
the threshold of its house. On the thirteenth day an earthen jar filled with
water is emptied on a pipal tree (Ficus religiosa) after which its connection
with this world ceases. Then it returns to the heavenly judge of actions
(Dharmarāja), and is again born in the species prescribed by him. The soul
of a strictly spiritual being merges into the divine entity and becomes free
from birth and rebirth.
Moksha or Mukti, that is final emancipation is of two kinds, sāyujya or
merging into the divine form and sāmishya or entering the divine order and
Page 246
living in this state so long as one’s merits allow.62
Dharmarāja keeps an account of the good and bad actions of all men in his
book called siddhi karan, and dispenses justice according to it. A man guilty
of adultery is sentenced to embrace a redhot image of a woman; one who
has slaughtered animals is devoured by those animals; while those who
have committed the sin of murdering Brāhmans are relegated to hell for
ever.63
There are seven rungs to the ladder which leads to the next world. The first
is covered with a thick forest. The second bristles with pointed spears. The
third is strewn with gokharu (a species of thorns). The fourth has piercing
blasts. On the fifth runs the river Vaitarna. The sixth is full of red-hot iron.
The seventh is covered with deep streams.64
After death, the soul has to cross the river Vaitarna (vide the fifth rung
above) on its way to the next world. Those who have given cows in charity
can cross this river without difficulty by holding the tails of the cows, who
present themselves to help them.
Those who have given shoes in charity can tread the third step with ease.
The sinful have to walk barefooted on ground studded with pointed spears,
and to embrace red-hot iron pillars. It is with the object of avoiding these
miseries that people distribute shoes and clothes in charity.65
The sinful expiate their sins by passing through a cycle of 8,400,000
births.66 They have to be born 2,100,000 times in the class of creatures born
of eggs, 2,100,000 times in the species of worms produced from sweat,
2,100,000 times from embryonic birth and a similar number of times in the
vegetable kingdom.
Those who lack virtue but commit no sins are born in the divine order of a
low grade such as the servants of Kuber, the attendants of the god Shiva,
Gandharvas, Vaitāls, Brahmarākshasas, Kushmānds and other demigods.
Virtuous women are born as goddesses or devis or as apsarās or celestial
Dharmarāja keeps an account of the good and bad actions of all men in his
book called siddhi karan, and dispenses justice according to it. A man guilty
of adultery is sentenced to embrace a redhot image of a woman; one who
has slaughtered animals is devoured by those animals; while those who
have committed the sin of murdering Brāhmans are relegated to hell for
ever.63
There are seven rungs to the ladder which leads to the next world. The first
is covered with a thick forest. The second bristles with pointed spears. The
third is strewn with gokharu (a species of thorns). The fourth has piercing
blasts. On the fifth runs the river Vaitarna. The sixth is full of red-hot iron.
The seventh is covered with deep streams.64
After death, the soul has to cross the river Vaitarna (vide the fifth rung
above) on its way to the next world. Those who have given cows in charity
can cross this river without difficulty by holding the tails of the cows, who
present themselves to help them.
Those who have given shoes in charity can tread the third step with ease.
The sinful have to walk barefooted on ground studded with pointed spears,
and to embrace red-hot iron pillars. It is with the object of avoiding these
miseries that people distribute shoes and clothes in charity.65
The sinful expiate their sins by passing through a cycle of 8,400,000
births.66 They have to be born 2,100,000 times in the class of creatures born
of eggs, 2,100,000 times in the species of worms produced from sweat,
2,100,000 times from embryonic birth and a similar number of times in the
vegetable kingdom.
Those who lack virtue but commit no sins are born in the divine order of a
low grade such as the servants of Kuber, the attendants of the god Shiva,
Gandharvas, Vaitāls, Brahmarākshasas, Kushmānds and other demigods.
Virtuous women are born as goddesses or devis or as apsarās or celestial
Page 247
songstresses. Those who have performed only a few acts of righteousness
enter the ranks of Jakhanis, Kinnaris, Mātrikās, and the maid servants of the
goddess Durga.67
The souls of the righteous are carried by Yamadutas or the messengers of
the god of death through five cities, by a route passing through beautiful
gardens; while those of the sinful are led barefooted over brambles and
pointed spears by roads running through dense forests hidden in pitchy
darkness. The latter have also to cross large rivers and pass through streams
filled with blood and puss. As they pass, eagles prey upon their bodies and
they are bitten by venomous snakes.68
The souls of those who have in life performed good actions pass through
the sun and assume divine forms; while those of ordinary beings pass
through the moon and return to this world.69
A sinful soul has to go to Yamaloka or hell through sixteen cities. On its
way it has to cross the river Vaitarna, which consists of blood mixed with
puss. He who has presented a cow to a Brāhman can cross this river with
ease. Beyond this river lies a land which is covered with spikes. Those who
have given in charity ashtamahādān, that is, sesamum seeds, flour, gold,
cotton, salt, clarified butter, milk and sugarcandy, can walk over this ground
without being hurt. When the soul has reached Yama or the god of death,
the sun and the moon, the ever-living witnesses of human actions, testify to
its virtues and sins, and it is meted out a punishment appropriate to its
sins.70
In order that the departed soul may not find its way difficult, his heirs make
a gift to a Brāhman of a bedstead, bedding, a lamp, corn, a pair of shoes and
other articles, on the thirteenth day after death. This gift is called seraja.71
One enters the human order after passing through 8,400,000 species of
living beings. It is in the human life that one can accumulate merit, and
wipe out the influence of past sins.
enter the ranks of Jakhanis, Kinnaris, Mātrikās, and the maid servants of the
goddess Durga.67
The souls of the righteous are carried by Yamadutas or the messengers of
the god of death through five cities, by a route passing through beautiful
gardens; while those of the sinful are led barefooted over brambles and
pointed spears by roads running through dense forests hidden in pitchy
darkness. The latter have also to cross large rivers and pass through streams
filled with blood and puss. As they pass, eagles prey upon their bodies and
they are bitten by venomous snakes.68
The souls of those who have in life performed good actions pass through
the sun and assume divine forms; while those of ordinary beings pass
through the moon and return to this world.69
A sinful soul has to go to Yamaloka or hell through sixteen cities. On its
way it has to cross the river Vaitarna, which consists of blood mixed with
puss. He who has presented a cow to a Brāhman can cross this river with
ease. Beyond this river lies a land which is covered with spikes. Those who
have given in charity ashtamahādān, that is, sesamum seeds, flour, gold,
cotton, salt, clarified butter, milk and sugarcandy, can walk over this ground
without being hurt. When the soul has reached Yama or the god of death,
the sun and the moon, the ever-living witnesses of human actions, testify to
its virtues and sins, and it is meted out a punishment appropriate to its
sins.70
In order that the departed soul may not find its way difficult, his heirs make
a gift to a Brāhman of a bedstead, bedding, a lamp, corn, a pair of shoes and
other articles, on the thirteenth day after death. This gift is called seraja.71
One enters the human order after passing through 8,400,000 species of
living beings. It is in the human life that one can accumulate merit, and
wipe out the influence of past sins.
Page 248
Those who meet a sudden or violent death, e. g., by being crushed under a
falling house, by drowning in a well, by an accidental fall, by a snake bite,
etc. enter the order of bhuts, pretas, pishāchas, etc., and are said to have
gone to durgati or to a bad path.72
But those who die on a field of battle are believed to attain heaven.73
According to another belief, persons dying a violent death have to pass
through the same fate, that is, die violently, for the next seven lives.74
Their souls are said to be liable to enter the asurgati or the order of devils.
They are emancipated from this condition by the performance by their
descendants of the ceremony called Nil parnāvavi or of those ceremonies
prescribed in the Pāl Shāstra.75
It is also believed that such souls after entering the order of ghosts oppress
and torment their descendants and relatives.76
In the case of suicides, when the crime is proved before the god of death the
culprit is hurled into a hell called Mahāraurava, where he has to pass a
thousand years. After the expiry of this period he is born again into this
world, again commits suicide, and again meets the same fate after death.
This is repeated seven times, after which he has to pass through 8,400,000
species of animals before again obtaining the human life.77
If the suicide be caused by poisoning, the person, in his next life, becomes a
serpent; if by drowning or strangling, he becomes a ghost.78
Some believe that the souls of persons meeting a violent death enter the
order of such ghosts as Jinni, Māmo, etc. For their emancipation shrāddhas
are performed by their descendants. At times these ghosts possess the
persons of their nearest relatives, and through this medium declare their
desires. If they express a desire to have a pālio or pillar erected in their
name, one is erected on the spot where they breathed their last. On this
pillar is engraved a figure riding a horse, representing the deceased, which
falling house, by drowning in a well, by an accidental fall, by a snake bite,
etc. enter the order of bhuts, pretas, pishāchas, etc., and are said to have
gone to durgati or to a bad path.72
But those who die on a field of battle are believed to attain heaven.73
According to another belief, persons dying a violent death have to pass
through the same fate, that is, die violently, for the next seven lives.74
Their souls are said to be liable to enter the asurgati or the order of devils.
They are emancipated from this condition by the performance by their
descendants of the ceremony called Nil parnāvavi or of those ceremonies
prescribed in the Pāl Shāstra.75
It is also believed that such souls after entering the order of ghosts oppress
and torment their descendants and relatives.76
In the case of suicides, when the crime is proved before the god of death the
culprit is hurled into a hell called Mahāraurava, where he has to pass a
thousand years. After the expiry of this period he is born again into this
world, again commits suicide, and again meets the same fate after death.
This is repeated seven times, after which he has to pass through 8,400,000
species of animals before again obtaining the human life.77
If the suicide be caused by poisoning, the person, in his next life, becomes a
serpent; if by drowning or strangling, he becomes a ghost.78
Some believe that the souls of persons meeting a violent death enter the
order of such ghosts as Jinni, Māmo, etc. For their emancipation shrāddhas
are performed by their descendants. At times these ghosts possess the
persons of their nearest relatives, and through this medium declare their
desires. If they express a desire to have a pālio or pillar erected in their
name, one is erected on the spot where they breathed their last. On this
pillar is engraved a figure riding a horse, representing the deceased, which
Page 249
is besmeared with red lead or ochre. This representation is worshipped as a
deity with offerings of frankincense, cocoanuts and lamps fed with ghi.79
The pālio is called surdhan, and is worshipped, especially on the death
anniversary of the deceased.80
In some castes the surdhans are installed in the house of the deceased.81
There are various beliefs current as to the way in which spirits enter and
leave the body.
According to one belief, when a person gets frightened by the apparition of
a ghost, the ghost enters his body through one of the organs, and makes him
senseless and violent.82
According to another belief, a ghost, as stated above, takes an airy form and
enters the body through any channel through which air can enter the body.
It leaves the body by the same route.83
There is also a belief that evil spirits enter the body of a man through any
part of the body and under their influence the person possessed dances,
jumps, foams or sits idle84.
There is a further belief that a ghost enters the body through the thumb and
gets out by the ears.85
According to some, a ghost makes its way into the body through the anus
and its exit by the same route.86
Others maintain that it enters the body through the nostrils and gets out by
the same passage.87
Some say that it finds an entrance and outlet through the skull.88
There are others who are of opinion that the immaterial form of a ghost can
find admission into the body by the right side and egress the same way.89
deity with offerings of frankincense, cocoanuts and lamps fed with ghi.79
The pālio is called surdhan, and is worshipped, especially on the death
anniversary of the deceased.80
In some castes the surdhans are installed in the house of the deceased.81
There are various beliefs current as to the way in which spirits enter and
leave the body.
According to one belief, when a person gets frightened by the apparition of
a ghost, the ghost enters his body through one of the organs, and makes him
senseless and violent.82
According to another belief, a ghost, as stated above, takes an airy form and
enters the body through any channel through which air can enter the body.
It leaves the body by the same route.83
There is also a belief that evil spirits enter the body of a man through any
part of the body and under their influence the person possessed dances,
jumps, foams or sits idle84.
There is a further belief that a ghost enters the body through the thumb and
gets out by the ears.85
According to some, a ghost makes its way into the body through the anus
and its exit by the same route.86
Others maintain that it enters the body through the nostrils and gets out by
the same passage.87
Some say that it finds an entrance and outlet through the skull.88
There are others who are of opinion that the immaterial form of a ghost can
find admission into the body by the right side and egress the same way.89
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It is said that when the body is unclean, a ghost can enter it through any of
the organs.90
To drive away an evil spirit from the body of a person, a conjuror, Vānjha,
Koli, Vāghri, Atit, Fakir or other exorcist is engaged to set a dānklān91 and
to offer a victim and frankincense to the evil spirit, which is supposed to
drive the spirit out by the same route by which it entered the body.9293
Another method of driving away an evil spirit from the body is as follows:
—
As soon as it is ascertained that a man is possessed by an evil spirit,
somebody catches hold of the top-knot of the man or ties it into a knot.
Next he is lashed with a whip or chain until the ghost in him cries out
“Please don’t beat me. I shall leave the body and shall never return.” Then
the ghost is told that it is a liar, that it said a thousand times that it would
leave the body and not return, but it did not do it. No faith, therefore, would
be put in its word. After a haggling dialogue of this kind and on the ghost’s
confirmation of its offer never to return by some satisfactory oath or
assurance, the top-knot is unloosed and the ghost disappears.94
A third method is to subject the person possessed to the fumes of red
chillies or of black wood, or to tie a sacred thread round his elbow.
After one of these processes has been performed to expel the ghost, the
victim gives a deep yawn, and it is said that the ghost goes out in the yawn.
Next the relieved person is given water to drink, and an exorcist is engaged
to take measures to prevent the possibility of the ghost’s return.95
In a book entitled Brāhman Nighanta Ratnākar is described the method of
driving away an evil spirit from the body of a man by an offering of dhup or
frankincense. The dhup to be used for this purpose must be made of gugal,
and it must be offered with honey and clarified butter, repeating the
following mantra:—
the organs.90
To drive away an evil spirit from the body of a person, a conjuror, Vānjha,
Koli, Vāghri, Atit, Fakir or other exorcist is engaged to set a dānklān91 and
to offer a victim and frankincense to the evil spirit, which is supposed to
drive the spirit out by the same route by which it entered the body.9293
Another method of driving away an evil spirit from the body is as follows:
—
As soon as it is ascertained that a man is possessed by an evil spirit,
somebody catches hold of the top-knot of the man or ties it into a knot.
Next he is lashed with a whip or chain until the ghost in him cries out
“Please don’t beat me. I shall leave the body and shall never return.” Then
the ghost is told that it is a liar, that it said a thousand times that it would
leave the body and not return, but it did not do it. No faith, therefore, would
be put in its word. After a haggling dialogue of this kind and on the ghost’s
confirmation of its offer never to return by some satisfactory oath or
assurance, the top-knot is unloosed and the ghost disappears.94
A third method is to subject the person possessed to the fumes of red
chillies or of black wood, or to tie a sacred thread round his elbow.
After one of these processes has been performed to expel the ghost, the
victim gives a deep yawn, and it is said that the ghost goes out in the yawn.
Next the relieved person is given water to drink, and an exorcist is engaged
to take measures to prevent the possibility of the ghost’s return.95
In a book entitled Brāhman Nighanta Ratnākar is described the method of
driving away an evil spirit from the body of a man by an offering of dhup or
frankincense. The dhup to be used for this purpose must be made of gugal,
and it must be offered with honey and clarified butter, repeating the
following mantra:—
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“Amen. Bow to the divine Lord of the evil spirits, the Lord whose teeth,
jaws, and mouth are fierce, by whose three eyes the forehead is ablaze,
whose lustre is marked by irresistible anger, who holds a crescent moon on
the forehead and matted hair on the head, whose body is besmeared with
ashes; whose neck is adorned by the poison of the fierce lord of the cobras.
Oh! may success attend to thee! Oh! Great one! The Lord of spirits!
manifest thy form, dance, dance; move, move; tie with a chain, tie; terrify
by a neigh, terrify; kill, kill by the adamantine wand; cut, cut off by a sharp
weapon; tear off, tear off by the point of a spear; reduce, reduce to atoms by
the bludgeon; remove remove, all the evil spirits Swāha.”96
There are various superstitious beliefs entertained by people regarding
sneezing.
According to one belief, if a person sneezes face to face with another who is
about to begin an auspicious act, such as starting on a journey, decking his
person with ornaments, performing a marriage ceremony, and the like, it
portends misfortune to the latter; but a sneeze on his right or at his back
foretells good. A sneeze in front of a person starting to perform an
auspicious act is supposed to mean that a blow has been struck on his
forehead, suggesting that the act should be stopped. If, in spite of this
warning, the act is commenced, evil consequences are sure to follow.
A sneeze at a man’s back confirms the unobstructed fulfilment of the act
taken in hand, as it is believed to have patted the man on his back or
shoulders in token of approval.
Sneezes on either side, right or left, portend neither good nor evil.
As a rule, sneezes are believed to forebode evil, and it is considered highly
unmannerly to sneeze while one is about to begin an auspicious act or start
with a good purpose. If, in spite of this etiquette, one sneezes, he excuses
himself by saying that he is suffering from cold.97
Some people believe that a sneeze in front is an indication of a broil on the
road, a sneeze on the left side portends loss of money, one from above is a
jaws, and mouth are fierce, by whose three eyes the forehead is ablaze,
whose lustre is marked by irresistible anger, who holds a crescent moon on
the forehead and matted hair on the head, whose body is besmeared with
ashes; whose neck is adorned by the poison of the fierce lord of the cobras.
Oh! may success attend to thee! Oh! Great one! The Lord of spirits!
manifest thy form, dance, dance; move, move; tie with a chain, tie; terrify
by a neigh, terrify; kill, kill by the adamantine wand; cut, cut off by a sharp
weapon; tear off, tear off by the point of a spear; reduce, reduce to atoms by
the bludgeon; remove remove, all the evil spirits Swāha.”96
There are various superstitious beliefs entertained by people regarding
sneezing.
According to one belief, if a person sneezes face to face with another who is
about to begin an auspicious act, such as starting on a journey, decking his
person with ornaments, performing a marriage ceremony, and the like, it
portends misfortune to the latter; but a sneeze on his right or at his back
foretells good. A sneeze in front of a person starting to perform an
auspicious act is supposed to mean that a blow has been struck on his
forehead, suggesting that the act should be stopped. If, in spite of this
warning, the act is commenced, evil consequences are sure to follow.
A sneeze at a man’s back confirms the unobstructed fulfilment of the act
taken in hand, as it is believed to have patted the man on his back or
shoulders in token of approval.
Sneezes on either side, right or left, portend neither good nor evil.
As a rule, sneezes are believed to forebode evil, and it is considered highly
unmannerly to sneeze while one is about to begin an auspicious act or start
with a good purpose. If, in spite of this etiquette, one sneezes, he excuses
himself by saying that he is suffering from cold.97
Some people believe that a sneeze in front is an indication of a broil on the
road, a sneeze on the left side portends loss of money, one from above is a
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harbinger of success, one from below foretells danger, while the sneeze of
the man who is engaged or is starting on the act contemplated is believed to
be very injurious. A sneeze on the right is considered neither good nor
bad.98
A sneeze in the east causes anxiety, in the south-east foretells happiness, in
the south speaks of coming loss, and in the south-west is an indication of
good. A sneeze from the west or north-west is considered good, from the
north injurious, and from the north-east auspicious.99
Some lines from the sayings of Gorakhrāj run to the effect that a sneeze in
the east causes anxiety, one in the south-east inflicts a sound beating, one in
the south brings a visitor or guest, one in the south-west subjects the person
concerned to a taunt, one in the west bestows a throne or crown, one in the
north-west promises sweets or dainties, one in the north foretells good, one
in the north-east brings disappointment, while one’s own sneeze is so
ominous that one should never start out on any business after sneezing.100
The beliefs enumerated above relate to sneezes which occur on certain
week days. The sneezes which occur on Sundays have the following
consequences.
A sneeze from the east is good, one from the south-east points to delay in
the fulfilment of one’s intended object, one from the south brings in profit,
one from the south-west results in death, one from the west in happiness,
one from the north-west throws one into the society of good men, one from
the north is productive of pecuniary gain, and one from the north-east of
general wellbeing.101
It is a common belief that if while one is about to commence some act,
somebody sneezes once, the act is doomed to fail, and to avoid failure it
must be postponed. But if the sneeze is repeated, no harm ensues.101
A sneeze by an ailing person is believed to be a sign of his recovery, and
more sneezes by the same person are supposed to indicate his complete
recovery, even though the symptoms be not favourable.
the man who is engaged or is starting on the act contemplated is believed to
be very injurious. A sneeze on the right is considered neither good nor
bad.98
A sneeze in the east causes anxiety, in the south-east foretells happiness, in
the south speaks of coming loss, and in the south-west is an indication of
good. A sneeze from the west or north-west is considered good, from the
north injurious, and from the north-east auspicious.99
Some lines from the sayings of Gorakhrāj run to the effect that a sneeze in
the east causes anxiety, one in the south-east inflicts a sound beating, one in
the south brings a visitor or guest, one in the south-west subjects the person
concerned to a taunt, one in the west bestows a throne or crown, one in the
north-west promises sweets or dainties, one in the north foretells good, one
in the north-east brings disappointment, while one’s own sneeze is so
ominous that one should never start out on any business after sneezing.100
The beliefs enumerated above relate to sneezes which occur on certain
week days. The sneezes which occur on Sundays have the following
consequences.
A sneeze from the east is good, one from the south-east points to delay in
the fulfilment of one’s intended object, one from the south brings in profit,
one from the south-west results in death, one from the west in happiness,
one from the north-west throws one into the society of good men, one from
the north is productive of pecuniary gain, and one from the north-east of
general wellbeing.101
It is a common belief that if while one is about to commence some act,
somebody sneezes once, the act is doomed to fail, and to avoid failure it
must be postponed. But if the sneeze is repeated, no harm ensues.101
A sneeze by an ailing person is believed to be a sign of his recovery, and
more sneezes by the same person are supposed to indicate his complete
recovery, even though the symptoms be not favourable.
Page 253
A sneeze by a cow at the commencement of an auspicious act is supposed
to be the worst possible omen, and a sneeze by a cat is proverbially a
portent of failure in any act taken in hand at the time.102
A yawn is generally believed to be harmless, as it does not foretell either
good or evil. Still as sometimes it results in accidental instantaneous death,
the elders of a person when he yawns, exclaim, “Be long-lived! Patience!
Live long!”, and the spiritually disposed repeat the name of the god of their
devotion.103
Lest spirits may make their way into the body of a person through his
mouth when he is yawning, or lest his soul may pass out of it, some people
pinch him to stop the yawn while others utter the words “Rām” “Rām” to
divert his attention.104
In mythological times, Brahma, one of the gods of the Hindu Trinity, once
left his body for a time. Some people began to molest the body, when he
cried out, “Rākho! Rākho!” that is “Keep aloof! Keep aloof!” or “Wait!
Wait!”. These people came to be called Rākho105 which in course of time
corrupted into Rākshasa. The beings who hold sway over rākshasas are
called Mahārākshasas. In the Rāmāyan and other purāns, rākshasas are
represented as feeding on human flesh.106
A rākshasa is supposed to be sixteen miles in height and to roam about for
his prey within a circle with a radius of sixteen miles.107
The Mahārākshasas are supposed to have their abode in the seas. It is said
that they burn or swallow ships sailing thereon.108
The rākshasas are supposed to number 60,000,000 and the mahārākshasas
20,000. Kubera, a mahārākshasa, is the lord of the rākshasas.109
It is said that the rākshasas, mahārākshasas, wizards and witches were
visible to the human eye during the tretāyuga. With the commencement of
the present or kaliyuga they have become invisible. It is stated in the
Purāns that during the recitation of the Surya kavach, Saptasani or the
to be the worst possible omen, and a sneeze by a cat is proverbially a
portent of failure in any act taken in hand at the time.102
A yawn is generally believed to be harmless, as it does not foretell either
good or evil. Still as sometimes it results in accidental instantaneous death,
the elders of a person when he yawns, exclaim, “Be long-lived! Patience!
Live long!”, and the spiritually disposed repeat the name of the god of their
devotion.103
Lest spirits may make their way into the body of a person through his
mouth when he is yawning, or lest his soul may pass out of it, some people
pinch him to stop the yawn while others utter the words “Rām” “Rām” to
divert his attention.104
In mythological times, Brahma, one of the gods of the Hindu Trinity, once
left his body for a time. Some people began to molest the body, when he
cried out, “Rākho! Rākho!” that is “Keep aloof! Keep aloof!” or “Wait!
Wait!”. These people came to be called Rākho105 which in course of time
corrupted into Rākshasa. The beings who hold sway over rākshasas are
called Mahārākshasas. In the Rāmāyan and other purāns, rākshasas are
represented as feeding on human flesh.106
A rākshasa is supposed to be sixteen miles in height and to roam about for
his prey within a circle with a radius of sixteen miles.107
The Mahārākshasas are supposed to have their abode in the seas. It is said
that they burn or swallow ships sailing thereon.108
The rākshasas are supposed to number 60,000,000 and the mahārākshasas
20,000. Kubera, a mahārākshasa, is the lord of the rākshasas.109
It is said that the rākshasas, mahārākshasas, wizards and witches were
visible to the human eye during the tretāyuga. With the commencement of
the present or kaliyuga they have become invisible. It is stated in the
Purāns that during the recitation of the Surya kavach, Saptasani or the
Page 254
Nārāyan kavach, if the rākshasas or mahārākshasas fall into or approach
the limits circumscribed for them, the recitation proves ineffective.110
It is a common belief that there is bitter enmity between the gods and
rākshasas. The former follow the path of virtue while the latter lead
immoral lives devouring Brāhmans and cows, feeding on flesh, and
indulging in intoxicating drinks. The habitat of the rākshasas is the pātāl or
nether world, Rāwan being their king.111
The exploits of some of the rākshasas are described in the Mahābhārat,
Bhāgvat and the Rāmāyan. For instance, the misdeeds of Jarāsandh,
Ghatotkacha and Hedamba are described in the Mahābhārat; those of
Kansa, Bānāsur, Pralambāsur, Adhāsur, Dhenukāsur, Kālanemi, Shankāsur
and Vritrāsur in the Bhāgvat; and those of Rāvan, Kumbhakarna and
Indrajit in the Rāmāyan.112
A rākshasa named Tripurāsur conquered the heavens, the earth and the
nether regions, and began to annoy the gods. The god Shiva burnt the
rākshasa to ashes.113
The two rākshasas Hiranyāksha and Hiranyakashyapu were originally the
gate-keepers of Vishnu, one of the gods of the Hindu trinity. Once they
affronted Sanatkumār, the son of Brahma, when they were cursed by Vishnu
who decreed that they would be born rākshasas in three successive lives. In
these lives they had to play the part of the enemies of gods and men, and
were destroyed by Vishnu as such.113
A rākshasa named Jalandhar is stated to have met his death when the
chastity of his wife was violated by the god Vishnu in the disguise of her
husband.114
Mahārākshasas are also known by the name of Brahma rākshasas. A
Brāhman dying without imparting all his learning to his disciples or with
the guilt of the murder of a Brāhman or a cow on him is believed to enter
the order of Brahma rākshasas after his death. In this state he possesses a
body without a head. A Brahma rākshasa is also called Khavis.115116
the limits circumscribed for them, the recitation proves ineffective.110
It is a common belief that there is bitter enmity between the gods and
rākshasas. The former follow the path of virtue while the latter lead
immoral lives devouring Brāhmans and cows, feeding on flesh, and
indulging in intoxicating drinks. The habitat of the rākshasas is the pātāl or
nether world, Rāwan being their king.111
The exploits of some of the rākshasas are described in the Mahābhārat,
Bhāgvat and the Rāmāyan. For instance, the misdeeds of Jarāsandh,
Ghatotkacha and Hedamba are described in the Mahābhārat; those of
Kansa, Bānāsur, Pralambāsur, Adhāsur, Dhenukāsur, Kālanemi, Shankāsur
and Vritrāsur in the Bhāgvat; and those of Rāvan, Kumbhakarna and
Indrajit in the Rāmāyan.112
A rākshasa named Tripurāsur conquered the heavens, the earth and the
nether regions, and began to annoy the gods. The god Shiva burnt the
rākshasa to ashes.113
The two rākshasas Hiranyāksha and Hiranyakashyapu were originally the
gate-keepers of Vishnu, one of the gods of the Hindu trinity. Once they
affronted Sanatkumār, the son of Brahma, when they were cursed by Vishnu
who decreed that they would be born rākshasas in three successive lives. In
these lives they had to play the part of the enemies of gods and men, and
were destroyed by Vishnu as such.113
A rākshasa named Jalandhar is stated to have met his death when the
chastity of his wife was violated by the god Vishnu in the disguise of her
husband.114
Mahārākshasas are also known by the name of Brahma rākshasas. A
Brāhman dying without imparting all his learning to his disciples or with
the guilt of the murder of a Brāhman or a cow on him is believed to enter
the order of Brahma rākshasas after his death. In this state he possesses a
body without a head. A Brahma rākshasa is also called Khavis.115116
Page 255
In addition to the wizards and witches mentioned above, there are others the
names of which are as follows:—
(1) Dākini, (2) Sakini, (3) Kushmānd, (4) Zod, (5) Dholio, (6) Pāle Marad,
(7) Bhuchar, (8) Khechar, (9) Jalaj, (10) Jakharo, (11) Shikotrum, (12)
Ashtabhāro, (13) Chand Chani, (14) Chorosi Kāntini, (15) Jogani, (16)
Hathadi, (17) Miyali, (18) Ghānchini, (19) Mochini, (20) Baladi, (21)
Molani, (22) Khuntini, (23) Suti, (24) Gavati, (25) Bethi, (26) Ubhi, (27)
Avi, (28) Chaurār, (29) Madhu Pavanti, (30) Mānsa Khavanti, (31) Bhāsika,
(32) Pratāb, (33) Vira, (34) Vāvānchara, (35) Chorāsi Viru, (36) Nao
Narasing, (37) Jaikha, (38) Jutaka, (39) Masida, (40) Gāndharavi, (41)
Jami, (42) Asmāni, (43) Mamikula,117 (44) Zāmpadi, (45) Meladi, (46)
Balla.118
Of the above, the first forty-three together with Chudela or Vantri and Preta
are believed by some to be the names of so many Joganis or female evil
spirits or witches. The remaining are living Dākans or witches who are
believed to cause illness or even death by their evil eye to those on whom
they throw a glance.119
Wizards live upon ordinary food, witches on air, while pretas require
nothing to eat for their maintenance. It is said that their backs and shoulders
are covered with filth and emit an offensive odour.120
It is generally believed that the spirits of such male members of low unclean
castes as die a violent death become Khavis.121 Some believe that Khavis or
Khabith is a Musalmān ghost.122 Others hold that he is the lord of all
ghosts.123
Khavis has no head. His eyes are located in the chest. He is as tall as a
cocoa-palm or bamboo. He roams about holding in one hand a weapon and
in the other a lump of flesh. Those over whom his shadow falls are said to
fall ill.124 His appearance is so terrible that a person who sees him for the
first time is frightened to death.125 It is stated that he starts on his
excursions after sun-set.126
names of which are as follows:—
(1) Dākini, (2) Sakini, (3) Kushmānd, (4) Zod, (5) Dholio, (6) Pāle Marad,
(7) Bhuchar, (8) Khechar, (9) Jalaj, (10) Jakharo, (11) Shikotrum, (12)
Ashtabhāro, (13) Chand Chani, (14) Chorosi Kāntini, (15) Jogani, (16)
Hathadi, (17) Miyali, (18) Ghānchini, (19) Mochini, (20) Baladi, (21)
Molani, (22) Khuntini, (23) Suti, (24) Gavati, (25) Bethi, (26) Ubhi, (27)
Avi, (28) Chaurār, (29) Madhu Pavanti, (30) Mānsa Khavanti, (31) Bhāsika,
(32) Pratāb, (33) Vira, (34) Vāvānchara, (35) Chorāsi Viru, (36) Nao
Narasing, (37) Jaikha, (38) Jutaka, (39) Masida, (40) Gāndharavi, (41)
Jami, (42) Asmāni, (43) Mamikula,117 (44) Zāmpadi, (45) Meladi, (46)
Balla.118
Of the above, the first forty-three together with Chudela or Vantri and Preta
are believed by some to be the names of so many Joganis or female evil
spirits or witches. The remaining are living Dākans or witches who are
believed to cause illness or even death by their evil eye to those on whom
they throw a glance.119
Wizards live upon ordinary food, witches on air, while pretas require
nothing to eat for their maintenance. It is said that their backs and shoulders
are covered with filth and emit an offensive odour.120
It is generally believed that the spirits of such male members of low unclean
castes as die a violent death become Khavis.121 Some believe that Khavis or
Khabith is a Musalmān ghost.122 Others hold that he is the lord of all
ghosts.123
Khavis has no head. His eyes are located in the chest. He is as tall as a
cocoa-palm or bamboo. He roams about holding in one hand a weapon and
in the other a lump of flesh. Those over whom his shadow falls are said to
fall ill.124 His appearance is so terrible that a person who sees him for the
first time is frightened to death.125 It is stated that he starts on his
excursions after sun-set.126
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The attendants of the god Shiva known as Vaitālikas are said to have no
heads.127 They live in cremation grounds, as they have a burning desire to
possess the bodies of deceased persons.128
A belief runs that the trunk of the evil spirit called Suropuro, that is the
spirit of one who meets a heroic death, moves about like a Khavis.129
It is a common belief that evil spirits haunt trees, groves, deserted tanks and
woods.130
Vetāl roams over burial and cremation grounds, as also Bhuchar, Khechar,
Kāl-Bhairav and a number of other ghosts.131
The Jimp, Bābaro and some other ghosts reside in fortresses and
unoccupied houses and roam about in the burning grounds. Chudela, Kotda
and Brahma Rākshasa make their abodes on the tamarind, Shami (Prosopis
spicigera), Bābul and Kerado trees and in deep tanks and wells in deserted
places. Their favourite haunts are river banks.132
It is stated by some people that the Chudel, Vantri, Dākan, Jimp, Khavis and
other ghosts generally haunt cremation grounds, fields where battles have
been fought, thresholds of houses and latrines and cross-roads.133
Some declare that ghosts are also to be found in temples in which there are
no images and in dry wells.134
The ghost preta is said to be as tall as a camel, the passage of its throat
being as small as the bore of a needle. It is therefore believed to be always
wandering about in quest of water.135
The evil spirit Jān haunts mountains and forests and Māmo the centres of
filth, while Vetāl is found in cremation grounds.136
Jān, Brahma Rākshasa and Khavis reside in woods, trees, or on mountains,
Khijadio Māmo lives in the Khijada or Shami tree and Amatho Māmo in a
heads.127 They live in cremation grounds, as they have a burning desire to
possess the bodies of deceased persons.128
A belief runs that the trunk of the evil spirit called Suropuro, that is the
spirit of one who meets a heroic death, moves about like a Khavis.129
It is a common belief that evil spirits haunt trees, groves, deserted tanks and
woods.130
Vetāl roams over burial and cremation grounds, as also Bhuchar, Khechar,
Kāl-Bhairav and a number of other ghosts.131
The Jimp, Bābaro and some other ghosts reside in fortresses and
unoccupied houses and roam about in the burning grounds. Chudela, Kotda
and Brahma Rākshasa make their abodes on the tamarind, Shami (Prosopis
spicigera), Bābul and Kerado trees and in deep tanks and wells in deserted
places. Their favourite haunts are river banks.132
It is stated by some people that the Chudel, Vantri, Dākan, Jimp, Khavis and
other ghosts generally haunt cremation grounds, fields where battles have
been fought, thresholds of houses and latrines and cross-roads.133
Some declare that ghosts are also to be found in temples in which there are
no images and in dry wells.134
The ghost preta is said to be as tall as a camel, the passage of its throat
being as small as the bore of a needle. It is therefore believed to be always
wandering about in quest of water.135
The evil spirit Jān haunts mountains and forests and Māmo the centres of
filth, while Vetāl is found in cremation grounds.136
Jān, Brahma Rākshasa and Khavis reside in woods, trees, or on mountains,
Khijadio Māmo lives in the Khijada or Shami tree and Amatho Māmo in a
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grove of trees. Spirits of high caste people not emancipated from the
trammels of birth and rebirth have their abode in the Pipal tree.137
It is related that once a number of boys, on their return from a tank to which
they had gone on a swimming excursion, passed by a Khijada tree, when
one of them suggested to the others to throw stones at the tree, saying that
any one not doing so would fall under the displeasure of God. One of the
boys threw a stone at a neighbouring Bābul tree with the result that on
reaching home he fell ill in a fit of terror. He began to shake and said, “Why
did you strike me with a stone? I had resorted to the Bābul tree from the
Khijado and you struck me there. I shall not depart until I take your life.”
Evidently it was the Khijadio Māmo who had possessed the boy who spoke
the above words; and an exorcist was called who drove him out by the
incantation of mantras; after which the boy recovered.138
It is believed that a woman who dies an unnatural death becomes a Chudel
and troubles her husband, her successor or co-wife, or her children.139
There are three classes of Chudels, (1) Poshi, (2) Soshi and (3) Toshi. Those
women that have not enjoyed before death the pleasures of this world to
their satisfaction enter the order of Poshi Chudels. They fondle children and
render good service to their widower husbands.
Those women that are persecuted beyond endurance by the members of
their families become Soshi Chudels after death. They dry up the blood of
men and prove very troublesome to the members of the family.
Those women who bear a strong attachment to their husbands enter the
order of Toshi Chudels and bring great pleasure and happiness to their
husbands in this life.140
Most high caste people, on the death of their first wives, take an impression
of their feet on gold leaves or leaf-like tablets of gold and cause their
second wives to wear them round their necks.141 These impresses of feet are
called shok-pagalāns or mourning footprints. Among the lower castes, the
trammels of birth and rebirth have their abode in the Pipal tree.137
It is related that once a number of boys, on their return from a tank to which
they had gone on a swimming excursion, passed by a Khijada tree, when
one of them suggested to the others to throw stones at the tree, saying that
any one not doing so would fall under the displeasure of God. One of the
boys threw a stone at a neighbouring Bābul tree with the result that on
reaching home he fell ill in a fit of terror. He began to shake and said, “Why
did you strike me with a stone? I had resorted to the Bābul tree from the
Khijado and you struck me there. I shall not depart until I take your life.”
Evidently it was the Khijadio Māmo who had possessed the boy who spoke
the above words; and an exorcist was called who drove him out by the
incantation of mantras; after which the boy recovered.138
It is believed that a woman who dies an unnatural death becomes a Chudel
and troubles her husband, her successor or co-wife, or her children.139
There are three classes of Chudels, (1) Poshi, (2) Soshi and (3) Toshi. Those
women that have not enjoyed before death the pleasures of this world to
their satisfaction enter the order of Poshi Chudels. They fondle children and
render good service to their widower husbands.
Those women that are persecuted beyond endurance by the members of
their families become Soshi Chudels after death. They dry up the blood of
men and prove very troublesome to the members of the family.
Those women who bear a strong attachment to their husbands enter the
order of Toshi Chudels and bring great pleasure and happiness to their
husbands in this life.140
Most high caste people, on the death of their first wives, take an impression
of their feet on gold leaves or leaf-like tablets of gold and cause their
second wives to wear them round their necks.141 These impresses of feet are
called shok-pagalāns or mourning footprints. Among the lower castes, the
Page 258
hands or the feet of the second wives are tattooed in the belief that this
prevents the deceased wife from causing injury to the second wife.142
All female spirits called Pishāchas or Dākans and male spirits called Virs or
Bhuts oppress their descendants.143
It is also believed that any male member of a family dying with certain of
his desires unfulfilled becomes a Surdhan and oppresses the surviving
relatives, while a female member troubles others as Sikoturu or Māvadi.144
The spirits of men that fall victims to tigers or other wild animals are
believed to enter the ghostly order and wander about until they are relieved
from this state by the performance of the prescribed shrāddha by some
pious surviving relative.145 These evil spirits live in forests and eat nothing
but flesh.146 If they do not get flesh to eat they eat the flesh of their own
bodies.147 At times they put their relatives to great annoyance by entering
their persons. To pacify them, pālios are erected in their name, and their
images are set up in the square cavities of walls. These images are
besmeared with red lead and oil by their descendants on the fourteenth day
of the dark half of Ashvin. The relief of such spirits is sought by the
performance of a shrāddha either at Siddhapur or at Gaya.148
It is believed that a woman dying in child-bed or menses enters the order of
ghosts variously known as Chudels, Vantris or Taxamis. In order that she
may not return from the cremation ground, mustard seeds are strewn along
the road behind her bier, for a belief prevails that she can only succeed in
returning if she can collect all the mustard seeds thus strewn on the way.149
In some places, loose cotton wool is thrown over the bier so as to be
scattered all along the road to the cemetery. It is believed that the Chudel
can only return to the house if she can collect all the cotton scattered behind
her in one night. This is considered an impossible task, and no fear is
therefore entertained of her return after the cotton has been scattered.150
To prevent the return of the Chudel, some people pass underneath the bier
the legs of the cot on which the woman lay in her confinement, while others
prevents the deceased wife from causing injury to the second wife.142
All female spirits called Pishāchas or Dākans and male spirits called Virs or
Bhuts oppress their descendants.143
It is also believed that any male member of a family dying with certain of
his desires unfulfilled becomes a Surdhan and oppresses the surviving
relatives, while a female member troubles others as Sikoturu or Māvadi.144
The spirits of men that fall victims to tigers or other wild animals are
believed to enter the ghostly order and wander about until they are relieved
from this state by the performance of the prescribed shrāddha by some
pious surviving relative.145 These evil spirits live in forests and eat nothing
but flesh.146 If they do not get flesh to eat they eat the flesh of their own
bodies.147 At times they put their relatives to great annoyance by entering
their persons. To pacify them, pālios are erected in their name, and their
images are set up in the square cavities of walls. These images are
besmeared with red lead and oil by their descendants on the fourteenth day
of the dark half of Ashvin. The relief of such spirits is sought by the
performance of a shrāddha either at Siddhapur or at Gaya.148
It is believed that a woman dying in child-bed or menses enters the order of
ghosts variously known as Chudels, Vantris or Taxamis. In order that she
may not return from the cremation ground, mustard seeds are strewn along
the road behind her bier, for a belief prevails that she can only succeed in
returning if she can collect all the mustard seeds thus strewn on the way.149
In some places, loose cotton wool is thrown over the bier so as to be
scattered all along the road to the cemetery. It is believed that the Chudel
can only return to the house if she can collect all the cotton scattered behind
her in one night. This is considered an impossible task, and no fear is
therefore entertained of her return after the cotton has been scattered.150
To prevent the return of the Chudel, some people pass underneath the bier
the legs of the cot on which the woman lay in her confinement, while others
Page 259
drive in an iron nail at the end of the street immediately after the corpse has
been carried beyond the village boundary.151
In some places, the nail is driven into the threshold of the house.152
Even after the precautions mentioned above have been taken, to prevent the
return of a Chudel or Vantri, Shrāddhas are performed, and a number of
Brāhman women feasted on the twelfth and thirteenth day after death to
propitiate her as the fear of the mischief done by her is very strong.152
A Chudel has no shoulders.153 Any passer by coming across her is asked by
her to take her to his home, and if he agrees, she accompanies him, passes
the night in his company, and brings his life to a speedy end. In the village
of Charādi under the jurisdiction of Dhrāngadhra, a Girāsia named Halāji
fell into the clutches of a Chudel who was driven from his person by the
enchantment of a Jati on condition that he should not go into the eastern
part of the village.154
It is believed that a woman can be relieved from the ghostly order of a
Chudel by the performance of a shrāddha at Siddhapur.155
There is no belief that the father has to take special precautions at the birth
of his child except that care is taken to note the exact time of the child’s
birth for the purpose of casting its horoscope correctly. An inkstand and pen
are also placed in the lying-in-room, as it is believed that the creator writes
the destiny of a child as soon as it makes its appearance into the world.156
All children born in Jyeshta Nakshatra, Mula-nakshatra, or Yamaghanta
are said to cause the death of their male parent. Such children were left to
starve uncared for in forests in olden times; but now-a-days they are kept
alive, as certain performances are believed to avert the evil. One such
performance is only to see the child after clarified butter has been given in
donation. Another is to see its face after it has been bathed with the water
collected from eighteen wells in a pot with a thousand holes.157 In a third,
the parents of the child hold in their hands goblets filled with clarified
been carried beyond the village boundary.151
In some places, the nail is driven into the threshold of the house.152
Even after the precautions mentioned above have been taken, to prevent the
return of a Chudel or Vantri, Shrāddhas are performed, and a number of
Brāhman women feasted on the twelfth and thirteenth day after death to
propitiate her as the fear of the mischief done by her is very strong.152
A Chudel has no shoulders.153 Any passer by coming across her is asked by
her to take her to his home, and if he agrees, she accompanies him, passes
the night in his company, and brings his life to a speedy end. In the village
of Charādi under the jurisdiction of Dhrāngadhra, a Girāsia named Halāji
fell into the clutches of a Chudel who was driven from his person by the
enchantment of a Jati on condition that he should not go into the eastern
part of the village.154
It is believed that a woman can be relieved from the ghostly order of a
Chudel by the performance of a shrāddha at Siddhapur.155
There is no belief that the father has to take special precautions at the birth
of his child except that care is taken to note the exact time of the child’s
birth for the purpose of casting its horoscope correctly. An inkstand and pen
are also placed in the lying-in-room, as it is believed that the creator writes
the destiny of a child as soon as it makes its appearance into the world.156
All children born in Jyeshta Nakshatra, Mula-nakshatra, or Yamaghanta
are said to cause the death of their male parent. Such children were left to
starve uncared for in forests in olden times; but now-a-days they are kept
alive, as certain performances are believed to avert the evil. One such
performance is only to see the child after clarified butter has been given in
donation. Another is to see its face after it has been bathed with the water
collected from eighteen wells in a pot with a thousand holes.157 In a third,
the parents of the child hold in their hands goblets filled with clarified
Page 260
butter, and see their faces reflected in them before the child is presented to
the sight of the father.
Such children are named Mulubhāi, Mulchand, Muli or Mulo.
A child born in the month of Jyeshta prognosticates poverty.158
If the birth time of a child happens to fall within the ecliptic period, that is
the period of nine hours before an eclipse takes place, as well as in the
duration of the eclipse, the father does not see the child before performing
certain rites, as to do so is supposed to bring misfortune.159
If a man has a child in his twentieth year he does not see the child before he
completes it.160
If a child is born at a wrong juncture or conjunction of the stars, the father
does not see it for twenty-seven days.161
A child born on the fourth, fourteenth or fifteenth day of a month is
supposed to become a burden to its father.162
It is a common belief that a woman in child-bed should not see the face of
her husband nor he of her.163
Women who do not obey the commands of their husbands, who partake of
their meals secretly before their husbands,164 or violate any of their duties
towards their husbands, are believed to enter the order of bats or owls after
their death.165
According to another belief, men who have been incontinent become owls
after death, while such women become bats.166
The owls and bats are blind during the day, but they can see corpses and the
spirits of the deceased and converse with them in their own tongue.167
The spirits of the deceased are supposed to remain in their worldly
tenement for twelve days, and owls and bats are supposed to be able to see
the sight of the father.
Such children are named Mulubhāi, Mulchand, Muli or Mulo.
A child born in the month of Jyeshta prognosticates poverty.158
If the birth time of a child happens to fall within the ecliptic period, that is
the period of nine hours before an eclipse takes place, as well as in the
duration of the eclipse, the father does not see the child before performing
certain rites, as to do so is supposed to bring misfortune.159
If a man has a child in his twentieth year he does not see the child before he
completes it.160
If a child is born at a wrong juncture or conjunction of the stars, the father
does not see it for twenty-seven days.161
A child born on the fourth, fourteenth or fifteenth day of a month is
supposed to become a burden to its father.162
It is a common belief that a woman in child-bed should not see the face of
her husband nor he of her.163
Women who do not obey the commands of their husbands, who partake of
their meals secretly before their husbands,164 or violate any of their duties
towards their husbands, are believed to enter the order of bats or owls after
their death.165
According to another belief, men who have been incontinent become owls
after death, while such women become bats.166
The owls and bats are blind during the day, but they can see corpses and the
spirits of the deceased and converse with them in their own tongue.167
The spirits of the deceased are supposed to remain in their worldly
tenement for twelve days, and owls and bats are supposed to be able to see
Page 261
them at night and talk to them.168
One of the beliefs entertained by Hindus about the owl is that none should
throw a lump of earth at it, as the owl is believed to pick up the missile and
throw it into a well or tank or any sheet of water, with the result that it
gradually dissolves and disappears, and simultaneously the body of the
person is said to be consumed.169
If perchance an owl utters some note perching on the top cross beam of a
house on a Sunday or Tuesday night, the owner of the house should pass a
dark woollen thread below the cross beam, to which a nude person should
give a knot at every screech of the owl. If such a thread be kept in one’s
anklet, one need have no fear of ghosts nor can he be seen by a dākan or
witch.
If a person in sleep responds to the call of an owl, he is believed to expire
within six months from that date.170
If an owl screeches every night for six months on one’s house or an
adjacent tree, a terror seizes the members of the house that some sure and
certain calamity not short of death is imminent.171
An owl sitting on the house of a person and screeching is said to be uttering
threats or forebodings of calamities and misfortunes, and is believed to
foretell the death of some near relative or of a member of the household.172
If a miser dies after accumulating vast treasures, his spirit becomes a ghost
or a snake and guards his wealth.173
According to another belief, a miser dying without an heir becomes a snake
to guard his treasure.174
It is believed that such treasures are accessible to batrisas175 (those
possessed of thirty two accomplishments).
One of the beliefs entertained by Hindus about the owl is that none should
throw a lump of earth at it, as the owl is believed to pick up the missile and
throw it into a well or tank or any sheet of water, with the result that it
gradually dissolves and disappears, and simultaneously the body of the
person is said to be consumed.169
If perchance an owl utters some note perching on the top cross beam of a
house on a Sunday or Tuesday night, the owner of the house should pass a
dark woollen thread below the cross beam, to which a nude person should
give a knot at every screech of the owl. If such a thread be kept in one’s
anklet, one need have no fear of ghosts nor can he be seen by a dākan or
witch.
If a person in sleep responds to the call of an owl, he is believed to expire
within six months from that date.170
If an owl screeches every night for six months on one’s house or an
adjacent tree, a terror seizes the members of the house that some sure and
certain calamity not short of death is imminent.171
An owl sitting on the house of a person and screeching is said to be uttering
threats or forebodings of calamities and misfortunes, and is believed to
foretell the death of some near relative or of a member of the household.172
If a miser dies after accumulating vast treasures, his spirit becomes a ghost
or a snake and guards his wealth.173
According to another belief, a miser dying without an heir becomes a snake
to guard his treasure.174
It is believed that such treasures are accessible to batrisas175 (those
possessed of thirty two accomplishments).
Page 262
Those persons that die while ousted from the houses built by them become
ghosts, and, residing in the houses, do not allow any body to live therein,
and leave them only when they are demolished.176
Some evil spirits guard treasures in the form of drones.177
It is related that there is a pond called Lakhota near Jamvādi in Gondal. It
contains a treasure guarded by a cobra which tries to bite whosoever
attempts to remove it.178
The Janchar, Bhuchar, Jin and some other spirits are believed to haunt
valleys.179
Some believe that those persons that meet their death in valleys become evil
spirits and haunt the valleys.180
Rakhevālio, Andhārio, Sevālio, Sulio and Ragatio are evil spirits that haunt
the ruins of magnificent buildings and also valleys.181
1 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
2 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
3 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
4 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
5 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
6 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
7 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
8 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
9 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
10 The School Master of Todia. ↑
11 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
12 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
13 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
ghosts, and, residing in the houses, do not allow any body to live therein,
and leave them only when they are demolished.176
Some evil spirits guard treasures in the form of drones.177
It is related that there is a pond called Lakhota near Jamvādi in Gondal. It
contains a treasure guarded by a cobra which tries to bite whosoever
attempts to remove it.178
The Janchar, Bhuchar, Jin and some other spirits are believed to haunt
valleys.179
Some believe that those persons that meet their death in valleys become evil
spirits and haunt the valleys.180
Rakhevālio, Andhārio, Sevālio, Sulio and Ragatio are evil spirits that haunt
the ruins of magnificent buildings and also valleys.181
1 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
2 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
3 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
4 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
5 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
6 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
7 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
8 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
9 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
10 The School Master of Todia. ↑
11 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
12 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
13 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
Page 263
14 The Shastri, Bhāyāvadar Pāthashāla. ↑
15 The School Master of Todia. ↑
16 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
17 The Shāstri, Bhāyāvadar Pāthshāla. ↑
18 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
19 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
20 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
21 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
22 The Musalmān Haditte has it that spirits cannot open closed doors, uncover covered pots, or
even remove a piece of cloth if it is spread over a tray or vessel to save its contents from view. ↑
23 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
24 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
25 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
26 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
27 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
28 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
29 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
30 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
31 The School Master of Mojidād. ↑
32 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
33 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
34 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
35 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
36 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
37 The School Masters of Sānka and Songadh. ↑
38 The School Master of Charādva. ↑
39 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
15 The School Master of Todia. ↑
16 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
17 The Shāstri, Bhāyāvadar Pāthshāla. ↑
18 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
19 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
20 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
21 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
22 The Musalmān Haditte has it that spirits cannot open closed doors, uncover covered pots, or
even remove a piece of cloth if it is spread over a tray or vessel to save its contents from view. ↑
23 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
24 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
25 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
26 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
27 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
28 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
29 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
30 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
31 The School Master of Mojidād. ↑
32 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
33 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
34 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
35 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
36 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
37 The School Masters of Sānka and Songadh. ↑
38 The School Master of Charādva. ↑
39 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
Page 264
40 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
41 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
42 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
43 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
44 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
45 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
46 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
47 The School Master of Oman. ↑
48 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
49 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
50 The word Jān is the plural of the Arabic jinni. It has remained as a relic of Arab supremacy and
occupation of the Kathiāwār coast just in the beginning of Islām during its first conquests—about
half a century after the Prophet’s death. ↑
51 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
52 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
53 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
54 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
55 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
56 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
57 The Shāstri, Bhāyāvadar Pāthshāla. ↑
58 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
59 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
60 The D. E. Inspector, Hālār. ↑
61 The Shāstri, Pāthshāla, Bhāyāvadar. ↑
62 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
63 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
64 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
65 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
41 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
42 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
43 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
44 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
45 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
46 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
47 The School Master of Oman. ↑
48 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
49 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
50 The word Jān is the plural of the Arabic jinni. It has remained as a relic of Arab supremacy and
occupation of the Kathiāwār coast just in the beginning of Islām during its first conquests—about
half a century after the Prophet’s death. ↑
51 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
52 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
53 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
54 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
55 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
56 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
57 The Shāstri, Bhāyāvadar Pāthshāla. ↑
58 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
59 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
60 The D. E. Inspector, Hālār. ↑
61 The Shāstri, Pāthshāla, Bhāyāvadar. ↑
62 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
63 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
64 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
65 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
Page 265
66 “Like the green grass on the turf I have often grown and regrown. I have visited 770,000
bodies.” Maulana Ilaluddin Rumi. ↑
67 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
68 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
69 The School Master of Jetalpur. ↑
70 The D. E. Inspector, Hālār. ↑
71 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
72 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
73 The School Master of Charādva. ↑
74 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
75 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
76 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
77 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
78 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
79 The School Master of Todia. ↑
80 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
81 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
82 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
83 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
84 The School Master of Pātan Vāo. ↑
85 The D. E. Inspector, Gohilwād. ↑
86 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
87 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
88 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
89 The School Master of Vāla. ↑
90 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
91 See p. 3. ↑
bodies.” Maulana Ilaluddin Rumi. ↑
67 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
68 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
69 The School Master of Jetalpur. ↑
70 The D. E. Inspector, Hālār. ↑
71 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
72 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
73 The School Master of Charādva. ↑
74 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
75 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
76 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
77 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
78 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
79 The School Master of Todia. ↑
80 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
81 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
82 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
83 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
84 The School Master of Pātan Vāo. ↑
85 The D. E. Inspector, Gohilwād. ↑
86 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
87 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
88 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
89 The School Master of Vāla. ↑
90 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
91 See p. 3. ↑
Page 266
92 If a lock of the hair of the person possessed by an evil spirit be knotted round and round while
the exorcist is trying to cast the spirit, it cannot get out.—The School Master of Vanod. ↑
93 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
94 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
95 The School Master of Pātan Vāo. ↑
96 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
97 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
98 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
99 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
100 The School Master of Chharādva. ↑
101 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
102 The School Master of Jhinjhuwāda. ↑
103 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
104 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
105 This derivation of the word rākshasa is obviously fanciful. Rākshasa is a Sanskrit word and has
no connection with the Gujarāti word rākho which itself is derived from the Sanskrit root raksha to
protect. ↑
106 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
107 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
108 The School Master of Moti Parabdi. ↑
109 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
110 The School Master of Charādva. ↑
111 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
112 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
113 The School Master of Lewaria. ↑
114 The School Master of Upleta. ↑
115 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
the exorcist is trying to cast the spirit, it cannot get out.—The School Master of Vanod. ↑
93 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
94 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
95 The School Master of Pātan Vāo. ↑
96 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
97 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
98 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
99 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
100 The School Master of Chharādva. ↑
101 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
102 The School Master of Jhinjhuwāda. ↑
103 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
104 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
105 This derivation of the word rākshasa is obviously fanciful. Rākshasa is a Sanskrit word and has
no connection with the Gujarāti word rākho which itself is derived from the Sanskrit root raksha to
protect. ↑
106 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
107 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
108 The School Master of Moti Parabdi. ↑
109 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
110 The School Master of Charādva. ↑
111 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
112 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
113 The School Master of Lewaria. ↑
114 The School Master of Upleta. ↑
115 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
Page 267
116 The word Khavis comes from the Arabic Khabith from the root verb Khabotha and means one
who has become impure or unholy. ↑
117 The School Master of Sultānpur. ↑
118 The School Masters of Khirāsara and Pipalāna. ↑
119 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
120 The School Master of Ānandpur. ↑
121 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
122 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
123 The School Master of Vasāvād. ↑
124 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
125 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
126 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
127 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
128 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
129 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
130 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
131 The School Master of Talpur and Luvaria. ↑
132 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
133 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
134 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
135 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
136 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
137 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
138 The D. E. Inspector, Gohilwād. ↑
139 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
140 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
141 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
who has become impure or unholy. ↑
117 The School Master of Sultānpur. ↑
118 The School Masters of Khirāsara and Pipalāna. ↑
119 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
120 The School Master of Ānandpur. ↑
121 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
122 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
123 The School Master of Vasāvād. ↑
124 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
125 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
126 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
127 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
128 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
129 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
130 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
131 The School Master of Talpur and Luvaria. ↑
132 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
133 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
134 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
135 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
136 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
137 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
138 The D. E. Inspector, Gohilwād. ↑
139 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
140 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
141 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
Page 268
142 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
143 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
144 The School Master of Jhinjhuwāda. ↑
145 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
146 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
147 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
148 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
149 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
150 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
151 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
152 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
153 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
154 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
155 The School Masters of Dhānk and Vanod. ↑
156 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
157 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
158 The School Mistress, Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
159 The School Master of Todia. ↑
160 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
161 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
162 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
163 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
164 This is a point of conjugal etiquette in India. Hindu, and in Gujarāt and the Deccan, Musalmān
women, would much rather starve than dine before their husbands. ↑
165 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
166 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
167 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
143 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
144 The School Master of Jhinjhuwāda. ↑
145 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
146 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
147 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
148 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
149 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
150 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
151 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
152 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
153 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
154 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
155 The School Masters of Dhānk and Vanod. ↑
156 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
157 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
158 The School Mistress, Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
159 The School Master of Todia. ↑
160 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
161 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
162 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
163 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
164 This is a point of conjugal etiquette in India. Hindu, and in Gujarāt and the Deccan, Musalmān
women, would much rather starve than dine before their husbands. ↑
165 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
166 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
167 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
Page 269
168 The School Master of Chhatrāsā. ↑
169 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
170 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
171 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
172 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
173 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
174 The School Master of Māvaiya. ↑
175 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
176 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
177 The School Master of Sāyala. ↑
178 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
179 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
180 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
181 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
169 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
170 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
171 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
172 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
173 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
174 The School Master of Māvaiya. ↑
175 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
176 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
177 The School Master of Sāyala. ↑
178 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
179 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
180 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
181 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
Page 270
Page 271
CHAPTER VI.
Page 272
THE EVIL EYE AND THE SCARING OF
GHOSTS.
The superstitious dread of an evil eye is to be seen mostly among ignorant
people, especially among women. If a boy were to fall ill, they say,
“Chhotio (the name of the boy) was playing in the house wearing a fine
dress and was prattling sweetly, when that wretch came to the house and her
evil eye fell on him”1 or “The boy was eating a dainty dish when that
devilish woman came up and her evil eye influenced the boy.”2
Persons born on a Sunday or Tuesday are generally believed to have an evil
eye.3
The evil eye causes its victim to vomit what he has eaten in its presence.4
If a child weeps all day long, or a person finds his appetite very weak, the
evil is attributed to an evil eye.5
If milch cattle do not give milk, or if seva (vermicelli), pāpad (wafer
biscuits), pickles, dudhpāk (rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar)
or such other eatables are spoilt, it is believed that the evil eye is at the root
of the trouble.6
It is believed that the following objects are liable to be influenced by an evil
eye:—
(1) Persons having fine glossy hair, fiery eyes, exquisite form, refined gait,
fine speech or good handwriting, (2) good sportsmen, (3), pickles, (4)
pāpad (wafer biscuits), (5) seva (vermicelli), (6) all attractive objects.
If a person falls ill after he is praised, he is said to have been a victim of an
evil eye.7
GHOSTS.
The superstitious dread of an evil eye is to be seen mostly among ignorant
people, especially among women. If a boy were to fall ill, they say,
“Chhotio (the name of the boy) was playing in the house wearing a fine
dress and was prattling sweetly, when that wretch came to the house and her
evil eye fell on him”1 or “The boy was eating a dainty dish when that
devilish woman came up and her evil eye influenced the boy.”2
Persons born on a Sunday or Tuesday are generally believed to have an evil
eye.3
The evil eye causes its victim to vomit what he has eaten in its presence.4
If a child weeps all day long, or a person finds his appetite very weak, the
evil is attributed to an evil eye.5
If milch cattle do not give milk, or if seva (vermicelli), pāpad (wafer
biscuits), pickles, dudhpāk (rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar)
or such other eatables are spoilt, it is believed that the evil eye is at the root
of the trouble.6
It is believed that the following objects are liable to be influenced by an evil
eye:—
(1) Persons having fine glossy hair, fiery eyes, exquisite form, refined gait,
fine speech or good handwriting, (2) good sportsmen, (3), pickles, (4)
pāpad (wafer biscuits), (5) seva (vermicelli), (6) all attractive objects.
If a person falls ill after he is praised, he is said to have been a victim of an
evil eye.7
Page 273
The precautions taken to evade the influence of the evil eye are as follows:
—
(1) When children are dressed and decked with ornaments, a spot is made
on their cheeks or near their necks with a black pigment or collyrium, as it
is believed that the dark colour is an antidote against the influence of the
evil eye.
(2) Some efficacious inscription is engraved on a copper plate, which is
suspended round the child’s neck.
(3) A bead of kachakada is also worn round the neck.
(4) A tiger’s nail or tooth is worn round the neck.
(5) An iron ring is worn on the finger.
(6) A lime is worn in the turban or headdress.
(7) An incantation in the praise of Hanumān is written on a piece of paper
and put in an anklet which is worn.
(8) A piece of thread of five kinds of silk or cotton spun by a virgin is given
seven knots on the fourteenth day of the dark half of Āshvin and worn on
the person.
(9) In order that sweet meats and other eatables such as pāpad (wafer
biscuits), pickles, etc., may not be spoilt by an evil eye, a lime, an iron nail
or a knife is put into them.
(10) In order that a cot or cradle may not be broken by the influence of an
evil eye, a black woollen thread is tied round it.
(11) To prevent dudhpāk (rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar)
from being spoilt, a piece of charcoal is put into the pot in which it is
prepared.8
—
(1) When children are dressed and decked with ornaments, a spot is made
on their cheeks or near their necks with a black pigment or collyrium, as it
is believed that the dark colour is an antidote against the influence of the
evil eye.
(2) Some efficacious inscription is engraved on a copper plate, which is
suspended round the child’s neck.
(3) A bead of kachakada is also worn round the neck.
(4) A tiger’s nail or tooth is worn round the neck.
(5) An iron ring is worn on the finger.
(6) A lime is worn in the turban or headdress.
(7) An incantation in the praise of Hanumān is written on a piece of paper
and put in an anklet which is worn.
(8) A piece of thread of five kinds of silk or cotton spun by a virgin is given
seven knots on the fourteenth day of the dark half of Āshvin and worn on
the person.
(9) In order that sweet meats and other eatables such as pāpad (wafer
biscuits), pickles, etc., may not be spoilt by an evil eye, a lime, an iron nail
or a knife is put into them.
(10) In order that a cot or cradle may not be broken by the influence of an
evil eye, a black woollen thread is tied round it.
(11) To prevent dudhpāk (rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar)
from being spoilt, a piece of charcoal is put into the pot in which it is
prepared.8
Page 274
While taking one’s meal one should avoid the company of an evil-eyed
person, but if perchance one happens to be present, a morsel of the food
should be thrown behind him or set aside on the ground as an offering to the
evil eye.9
If, in spite of the precautions mentioned above, the influence of the evil eye
prevails, the following remedies are adopted to remove its effects:—
(1) The evil eye is fastened or curbed, as they say, by one of the processes
described in Chapter III above.
(2) A red-hot charcoal is placed on a dinner plate and covered with an
earthen jar. A bowl filled with water is then passed round the head of the
patient, emptied over the jar and placed on it with its mouth touching the
jar. Next, a scythe is placed over the bowl. The jar, which is heated with the
heat of the burning charcoal placed under it produces a hissing sound as
soon as it is touched by the water in the bowl, and is said to speak. This
process is called Ghadulo and is performed after sunset.10
In some places, it is a belief that the plate to be used in this process must be
of bell-metal, and that over the fire placed in it mustard seeds, chillies and
salt must be thrown before it is covered with the earthen jar.11
(3) An utār12 or sacrificial offering is taken to the village gate on a Sunday
or Tuesday.
(4) Milk is passed three or seven times round the head of the ailing child,
poured into a black earthen pot, and offered to a black bitch on a Sunday or
Tuesday.13
(5) The mother or some other near relative of the child suffering from the
effects of the evil eye, puts in a bell-metal cup mustard seed, salt, chillies
and seven stones from the village gate, passes the cup thrice round the
child’s head, puts burning charcoal in the cup, and after it is heated, places
it overturned in a bell-metal pot and pours over it water mixed with
cowdung, so that the cup adheres to the pot. This sticking of the cup is
person, but if perchance one happens to be present, a morsel of the food
should be thrown behind him or set aside on the ground as an offering to the
evil eye.9
If, in spite of the precautions mentioned above, the influence of the evil eye
prevails, the following remedies are adopted to remove its effects:—
(1) The evil eye is fastened or curbed, as they say, by one of the processes
described in Chapter III above.
(2) A red-hot charcoal is placed on a dinner plate and covered with an
earthen jar. A bowl filled with water is then passed round the head of the
patient, emptied over the jar and placed on it with its mouth touching the
jar. Next, a scythe is placed over the bowl. The jar, which is heated with the
heat of the burning charcoal placed under it produces a hissing sound as
soon as it is touched by the water in the bowl, and is said to speak. This
process is called Ghadulo and is performed after sunset.10
In some places, it is a belief that the plate to be used in this process must be
of bell-metal, and that over the fire placed in it mustard seeds, chillies and
salt must be thrown before it is covered with the earthen jar.11
(3) An utār12 or sacrificial offering is taken to the village gate on a Sunday
or Tuesday.
(4) Milk is passed three or seven times round the head of the ailing child,
poured into a black earthen pot, and offered to a black bitch on a Sunday or
Tuesday.13
(5) The mother or some other near relative of the child suffering from the
effects of the evil eye, puts in a bell-metal cup mustard seed, salt, chillies
and seven stones from the village gate, passes the cup thrice round the
child’s head, puts burning charcoal in the cup, and after it is heated, places
it overturned in a bell-metal pot and pours over it water mixed with
cowdung, so that the cup adheres to the pot. This sticking of the cup is
Page 275
called najar chonti gai (the evil eye has stuck fast) and is believed to cure
the child.14
(6) An exorcist is engaged to wave a bowl filled with water round the head
of the patient. He then drinks off the water, and the patient believes that the
disease has been drunk with it.15
(7) A handful of salt and chillies is passed thrice round the head of the
patient and thrown into the fire. If the chillies burn without giving out
fumes of an unpleasant odour, the evil eye is believed to be at the root of the
illness.1617
(8) A little dust collected from a spot where two roads cross one another, or
red lead and oil offered to Hanumān, a red chilly, an iron nail and grains of
adad (Phaseolus mungo) are packed into a piece of white cotton cloth with
a black woollen thread, and tied to the cradle of the suffering child.18
(9) A side of a loaf of millet flour is baked by being exposed to fire,
clarified butter is applied to this side, and a fine cotton thread is passed
round the loaf. Next, the loaf is waved round the head of the ailing child
and thrown into fire. If the cotton thread is not burnt by the fire, an evil eye
is believed to be the cause of the illness.18
Sometimes the loaf is offered to a black dog after it has been waved round
the child’s head.18
(10) If the illness be due to the influence of the evil eye of a woman, she is
called in and asked to pass her hand over the child’s head.19
(11) In order to avoid the effects of the evil eye, when a child returns home
from an outside visit, a bowl filled with water is passed thrice round its
head and emptied outside the house before it crosses the threshold of the
house.20
(12) The grains of Adad, twigs of the Thor (Euphoria nerifolia), salt and
dust are passed seven times round the head of a person suffering from the
the child.14
(6) An exorcist is engaged to wave a bowl filled with water round the head
of the patient. He then drinks off the water, and the patient believes that the
disease has been drunk with it.15
(7) A handful of salt and chillies is passed thrice round the head of the
patient and thrown into the fire. If the chillies burn without giving out
fumes of an unpleasant odour, the evil eye is believed to be at the root of the
illness.1617
(8) A little dust collected from a spot where two roads cross one another, or
red lead and oil offered to Hanumān, a red chilly, an iron nail and grains of
adad (Phaseolus mungo) are packed into a piece of white cotton cloth with
a black woollen thread, and tied to the cradle of the suffering child.18
(9) A side of a loaf of millet flour is baked by being exposed to fire,
clarified butter is applied to this side, and a fine cotton thread is passed
round the loaf. Next, the loaf is waved round the head of the ailing child
and thrown into fire. If the cotton thread is not burnt by the fire, an evil eye
is believed to be the cause of the illness.18
Sometimes the loaf is offered to a black dog after it has been waved round
the child’s head.18
(10) If the illness be due to the influence of the evil eye of a woman, she is
called in and asked to pass her hand over the child’s head.19
(11) In order to avoid the effects of the evil eye, when a child returns home
from an outside visit, a bowl filled with water is passed thrice round its
head and emptied outside the house before it crosses the threshold of the
house.20
(12) The grains of Adad, twigs of the Thor (Euphoria nerifolia), salt and
dust are passed seven times round the head of a person suffering from the
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effects of an evil eye, on the threshold of the house, and thrown away.21
(13) Grains of Adad, twigs of the Thor, salt, an iron nail and charcoal are
put into an unused earthen pot and taken to the village boundary with a
bowl filled with water. The person carrying the pot and bowl should not
look behind either on his way to, or on his return from, the village
boundary. The pot is placed on the village boundary, and water is poured
over it seven times from the bowl.22
(14) A loaf baked on one side, with seven grains of Adad, seven grains of
salt and seven cotton seeds placed over it, is passed seven times round the
patient’s head and placed on a spot where two roads cross one another. The
person carrying the bread should not look behind while carrying it.23
Those whose children do not live, or die in infancy, or who get children
with difficulty, give them opprobrious names, as it is believed that objects
so named, being considered of no value, are left unharmed both by men and
by gods.24
Some people believe that children so named are considered impure by Fate
or Destiny, and consequently not molested by her.25
It is believed by some that, as good names attract attention, giving
opprobrious names averts the danger of the evil eye.26
Some people throw a newly-born child on a dung-hill and take it back,
saying that they found it on the dung-hill, with the belief that a child of such
low origin cannot be snatched away from them by Fate. Such children are
named Punjio, Unkardo or Kacharo meaning ‘dung-hill.’
Some children are named Khoto, Amatho or Jutho, all meaning ‘false’, with
the belief that children so named are considered to belong to gods or Fate,
and hence cannot be taken away from their parents by the god of death.
Some people exchange their children for sweets, or offer them to others and
purchase them back at a nominal price. Others roll them in the dust and
(13) Grains of Adad, twigs of the Thor, salt, an iron nail and charcoal are
put into an unused earthen pot and taken to the village boundary with a
bowl filled with water. The person carrying the pot and bowl should not
look behind either on his way to, or on his return from, the village
boundary. The pot is placed on the village boundary, and water is poured
over it seven times from the bowl.22
(14) A loaf baked on one side, with seven grains of Adad, seven grains of
salt and seven cotton seeds placed over it, is passed seven times round the
patient’s head and placed on a spot where two roads cross one another. The
person carrying the bread should not look behind while carrying it.23
Those whose children do not live, or die in infancy, or who get children
with difficulty, give them opprobrious names, as it is believed that objects
so named, being considered of no value, are left unharmed both by men and
by gods.24
Some people believe that children so named are considered impure by Fate
or Destiny, and consequently not molested by her.25
It is believed by some that, as good names attract attention, giving
opprobrious names averts the danger of the evil eye.26
Some people throw a newly-born child on a dung-hill and take it back,
saying that they found it on the dung-hill, with the belief that a child of such
low origin cannot be snatched away from them by Fate. Such children are
named Punjio, Unkardo or Kacharo meaning ‘dung-hill.’
Some children are named Khoto, Amatho or Jutho, all meaning ‘false’, with
the belief that children so named are considered to belong to gods or Fate,
and hence cannot be taken away from their parents by the god of death.
Some people exchange their children for sweets, or offer them to others and
purchase them back at a nominal price. Others roll them in the dust and
Page 277
name them Dhulio or dust. This is believed to ensure a long life to the
children.27
In some places, a relative of the child’s on the mother’s side presents it with
a necklace of gold beads shaped like large black ants. When the child
attains the age of eight or ten years this necklace is offered to some god or
goddess. The child is named Sānkalio as it wears round its neck this sānkal
or chain, that is, necklace.28
It is held by some that children bearing contemptuous names are not
affected by magic.29
Some weigh the child against corn and give the name of that corn to the
child, e. g., ‘Kodario’, ‘Juvārio’. The corn is then distributed among
beggars, which is supposed to ensure a long life to the child.30
Some make earthen figures of children, call them Ila Ili or Pithad, and carry
them through the village on the Holi day (the full-moon day of Fālgun),
with the belief that by so doing they ensure a long life to the children.
It is related that a carpenter’s children used to die in infancy, so he named
one of his sons ‘Pithad’ and he lived. Since then, parents whose children do
not live name them ‘Pithad’. Some name their children ‘Jivo’ that is ‘Live’
with the hope that they may live long.31
The opprobrious and other special spirit-scaring names generally given to
boys are as follows:—
NAME. MEANING. NAME. MEANING.
Amatho Useless Gobaro33
Jutho False Fakiro Beggar
Kacharo Refuse Mafatio Worthless
Nathu Tied Nāgo Shameless
Punjo Refuse Bocho Coward
Jivo Live Bakor Noise
children.27
In some places, a relative of the child’s on the mother’s side presents it with
a necklace of gold beads shaped like large black ants. When the child
attains the age of eight or ten years this necklace is offered to some god or
goddess. The child is named Sānkalio as it wears round its neck this sānkal
or chain, that is, necklace.28
It is held by some that children bearing contemptuous names are not
affected by magic.29
Some weigh the child against corn and give the name of that corn to the
child, e. g., ‘Kodario’, ‘Juvārio’. The corn is then distributed among
beggars, which is supposed to ensure a long life to the child.30
Some make earthen figures of children, call them Ila Ili or Pithad, and carry
them through the village on the Holi day (the full-moon day of Fālgun),
with the belief that by so doing they ensure a long life to the children.
It is related that a carpenter’s children used to die in infancy, so he named
one of his sons ‘Pithad’ and he lived. Since then, parents whose children do
not live name them ‘Pithad’. Some name their children ‘Jivo’ that is ‘Live’
with the hope that they may live long.31
The opprobrious and other special spirit-scaring names generally given to
boys are as follows:—
NAME. MEANING. NAME. MEANING.
Amatho Useless Gobaro33
Jutho False Fakiro Beggar
Kacharo Refuse Mafatio Worthless
Nathu Tied Nāgo Shameless
Punjo Refuse Bocho Coward
Jivo Live Bakor Noise
Page 278
NAME. MEANING. NAME. MEANING.
Kālo Black Bow Name of a demon
Ghelo Mad How Ditto.
Gafal Stupid Limbo Poisonous
Valu or Vāyali Eccentric Gānglo Stony34
Sawo or Siwo Sewed Bhikhāri or Bhikho Beggar
Dungar Hill Vaigrāi Recluse
Ado Useless Amar Immortal
Bhābho Worthless Sidio Negro-like
Mālo Bower Vasto35
Velo Creeper Polio or Polo Hollow
Nāno Small Kadavo Bitter
Khodo Lame Bero Deaf
Oghad Fool Dipo Panther
Hakalo Vāgh Tiger
Bhukhan Cohampalo Meddlesome
Uko Dung-hill Chindharo Ragged
Lāvo Parasite Chiko
Jino Small Chuntho Ragged
Doso Old Jinthro Ragged
Rāno Lord (ironical) Jalo
Bāvo Recluse Davalo Not loved
Rupo Handsome (ironical) Dendo The croaking of a frog.
Mor Peacock Dhingo Fat
Popat Parrot Bodo Bald-headed
Jado Fastened32 Rotal Womanish
Bodho Radio Crying36
The contemptuous names given to girls are:—
Kālo Black Bow Name of a demon
Ghelo Mad How Ditto.
Gafal Stupid Limbo Poisonous
Valu or Vāyali Eccentric Gānglo Stony34
Sawo or Siwo Sewed Bhikhāri or Bhikho Beggar
Dungar Hill Vaigrāi Recluse
Ado Useless Amar Immortal
Bhābho Worthless Sidio Negro-like
Mālo Bower Vasto35
Velo Creeper Polio or Polo Hollow
Nāno Small Kadavo Bitter
Khodo Lame Bero Deaf
Oghad Fool Dipo Panther
Hakalo Vāgh Tiger
Bhukhan Cohampalo Meddlesome
Uko Dung-hill Chindharo Ragged
Lāvo Parasite Chiko
Jino Small Chuntho Ragged
Doso Old Jinthro Ragged
Rāno Lord (ironical) Jalo
Bāvo Recluse Davalo Not loved
Rupo Handsome (ironical) Dendo The croaking of a frog.
Mor Peacock Dhingo Fat
Popat Parrot Bodo Bald-headed
Jado Fastened32 Rotal Womanish
Bodho Radio Crying36
The contemptuous names given to girls are:—
Page 279
NAME. MEANING. NAME. MEANING.
Liri Juthi False
Dhori White Jādi Fat
Zini Small Monghi
Punji Refuse Jāba38
Kāli Black Kadvi Bitter
Ful Light as a flower37 Jivi Live
Nāthi Divi39
Veju, Bhilak, Chichi, Lāghu40, Mafat (useless), Gheli (mad), Panchi41,
Dedki, Kukadi and Zabu.42
It is said that in ancient times change of sex could be effected.
Tradition relates that all the children of a certain Solanki king died in
infancy, except the last child, a girl. She was dressed in male attire and
passed for a boy. When the pretended boy attained marriageable age, he was
betrothed to a princess. When the day fixed for the marriage drew near, the
king became anxious and went on an hunting expedition to pass the time.
On his way back from the hunt he became very thirsty, and quenched his
thirst with the water of a pond near which a temple of Bahucharāji stands to
this day. His bitch, which was with him, leapt into the pond, and on coming
out of the water was found to be transformed into a dog. On seeing this the
king brought his daughter and bathed her into the pond with the result that
she was transformed into a boy. The king then built a big tank on the spot,
which is known by the name of Mān.43
In a chapter called Brahmottar Khand of the Padma Purān, which describes
the glory of a vow called Uma Mahesh, the greatness of observing fasts on
Mondays is described at length. Two Brāhman brothers, one dressed as a
man and the other as a woman, set out on a journey. Once they halted in a
temple of the god Shiva, where lived a woman who had observed the fasts
on Mondays. She invited them to dinner, taking them, as they appeared to
be, for a man and a woman. The devotion of the hostess was so great that
Liri Juthi False
Dhori White Jādi Fat
Zini Small Monghi
Punji Refuse Jāba38
Kāli Black Kadvi Bitter
Ful Light as a flower37 Jivi Live
Nāthi Divi39
Veju, Bhilak, Chichi, Lāghu40, Mafat (useless), Gheli (mad), Panchi41,
Dedki, Kukadi and Zabu.42
It is said that in ancient times change of sex could be effected.
Tradition relates that all the children of a certain Solanki king died in
infancy, except the last child, a girl. She was dressed in male attire and
passed for a boy. When the pretended boy attained marriageable age, he was
betrothed to a princess. When the day fixed for the marriage drew near, the
king became anxious and went on an hunting expedition to pass the time.
On his way back from the hunt he became very thirsty, and quenched his
thirst with the water of a pond near which a temple of Bahucharāji stands to
this day. His bitch, which was with him, leapt into the pond, and on coming
out of the water was found to be transformed into a dog. On seeing this the
king brought his daughter and bathed her into the pond with the result that
she was transformed into a boy. The king then built a big tank on the spot,
which is known by the name of Mān.43
In a chapter called Brahmottar Khand of the Padma Purān, which describes
the glory of a vow called Uma Mahesh, the greatness of observing fasts on
Mondays is described at length. Two Brāhman brothers, one dressed as a
man and the other as a woman, set out on a journey. Once they halted in a
temple of the god Shiva, where lived a woman who had observed the fasts
on Mondays. She invited them to dinner, taking them, as they appeared to
be, for a man and a woman. The devotion of the hostess was so great that
Page 280
the brother dressed as a woman was actually transformed into a woman
while partaking of the meal served to him.44
It is related that in ancient times the son of a certain sage once disguised
himself as a girl with the result that he was actually changed into a girl. He
was thereafter called Mudrālopi and married to the sage Agastya.45
The warrior Shikhandi who assisted the Pāndavas in killing Bhishma (who
had vowed not to raise his arms against a woman) was at first a girl, and
was subsequently transformed into a boy by the boon of the gods.46
There is supposed to be a forest of Pārvati in a continent called Ilavrit. Any
man visiting it is at once turned into a woman.47
A king named Sudyaman visited this forest and was transformed into a
woman. It was only after appeasing Pārvati by a sacrifice that he was
restored to his original form.48
It is believed that in Kamaru Desha or the land of fairies, children are
transformed into the opposite sex by the spell of the inhabitants.49
A belief is current that change of sex can be effected by the performance of
the Shatchandi or the prayoga of Rudra, Bahucharāji, Āshāpuri and
Mahākāli.50
It is also believed that change of sex can also be effected by the spell of
magic.51
There is a further belief that Yogis by their incantations, and Mahātmās by
their blessings or curses, can effect a change of sex.52
The following things are considered efficacious in protecting oneself
against evil spirits:—
(1) A sword, (2) iron,53 (3) a woollen blanket, (4) fire, (5) a coin in the
funeral pyre, (6) a nail of a tiger, (7) a blue thread, (8) the red lead offered
while partaking of the meal served to him.44
It is related that in ancient times the son of a certain sage once disguised
himself as a girl with the result that he was actually changed into a girl. He
was thereafter called Mudrālopi and married to the sage Agastya.45
The warrior Shikhandi who assisted the Pāndavas in killing Bhishma (who
had vowed not to raise his arms against a woman) was at first a girl, and
was subsequently transformed into a boy by the boon of the gods.46
There is supposed to be a forest of Pārvati in a continent called Ilavrit. Any
man visiting it is at once turned into a woman.47
A king named Sudyaman visited this forest and was transformed into a
woman. It was only after appeasing Pārvati by a sacrifice that he was
restored to his original form.48
It is believed that in Kamaru Desha or the land of fairies, children are
transformed into the opposite sex by the spell of the inhabitants.49
A belief is current that change of sex can be effected by the performance of
the Shatchandi or the prayoga of Rudra, Bahucharāji, Āshāpuri and
Mahākāli.50
It is also believed that change of sex can also be effected by the spell of
magic.51
There is a further belief that Yogis by their incantations, and Mahātmās by
their blessings or curses, can effect a change of sex.52
The following things are considered efficacious in protecting oneself
against evil spirits:—
(1) A sword, (2) iron,53 (3) a woollen blanket, (4) fire, (5) a coin in the
funeral pyre, (6) a nail of a tiger, (7) a blue thread, (8) the red lead offered
Page 281
to the god Hanumān, (9) a lime consecrated with incantations, (10) five
kinds of cotton thread worn round the elbow,54 (11) blood, (12) corn, (13)
frankincense, (14) salt, (15) water, (16) leather, (17) an amulet of iron
procured from a well polluted by the death of some one in its water,55 (18) a
garland, the beads of which are made of the wood of the Ekal ber (Zizyphus
jujuba), (19) the sacred thread worn by Brāhmans,56 (20) iron nails
extracted from a wheel of a cart used for carrying fuel for cremation,57 (21)
human blood,58 (22) a costly jewel.
Amulets are generally used as a precaution against the attack of evil spirits
or the influence of an evil eye. They are also used to cure diseases. They are
made of iron, copper, tin, gold, silver, alloys of precious metals, or leather.
Chithis or pieces of paper on which mystic signs are drawn are put into the
amulets and are tied to the forearm with black woollen or silk thread.59
In some places, frankincense of gugal (Canarium strictum) or lobān
(olibanum) is offered to the amulets before they are worn.60
Amulets are also made of tād-patras (palm-leaves). They are tied round the
arm with an indigo-coloured cloth.61
Dorās or threads are also worn with the same object as amulets. They are
generally made of five kinds of silk thread, black wool, or red or black
cotton thread. The length of the dora must be eight feet, one and a quarter
of a cubit or a man’s height. They must have three folds and must be twisted
seven or twenty-one times. After they are twisted, they are knotted seven,
fourteen or twenty-one times, when they become ready for use. An offering
of frankincense made of gugal or of lobān is made to a dora before it is
worn.62
It is believed by some people, that a chiti (amulet) or dora in order to be
effective, must not be touched with water.
The dora of the god Kāl-bhairav at Benares, which is made of silk thread
with seven twists, is tied round the wrist of a patient in the belief that it
kinds of cotton thread worn round the elbow,54 (11) blood, (12) corn, (13)
frankincense, (14) salt, (15) water, (16) leather, (17) an amulet of iron
procured from a well polluted by the death of some one in its water,55 (18) a
garland, the beads of which are made of the wood of the Ekal ber (Zizyphus
jujuba), (19) the sacred thread worn by Brāhmans,56 (20) iron nails
extracted from a wheel of a cart used for carrying fuel for cremation,57 (21)
human blood,58 (22) a costly jewel.
Amulets are generally used as a precaution against the attack of evil spirits
or the influence of an evil eye. They are also used to cure diseases. They are
made of iron, copper, tin, gold, silver, alloys of precious metals, or leather.
Chithis or pieces of paper on which mystic signs are drawn are put into the
amulets and are tied to the forearm with black woollen or silk thread.59
In some places, frankincense of gugal (Canarium strictum) or lobān
(olibanum) is offered to the amulets before they are worn.60
Amulets are also made of tād-patras (palm-leaves). They are tied round the
arm with an indigo-coloured cloth.61
Dorās or threads are also worn with the same object as amulets. They are
generally made of five kinds of silk thread, black wool, or red or black
cotton thread. The length of the dora must be eight feet, one and a quarter
of a cubit or a man’s height. They must have three folds and must be twisted
seven or twenty-one times. After they are twisted, they are knotted seven,
fourteen or twenty-one times, when they become ready for use. An offering
of frankincense made of gugal or of lobān is made to a dora before it is
worn.62
It is believed by some people, that a chiti (amulet) or dora in order to be
effective, must not be touched with water.
The dora of the god Kāl-bhairav at Benares, which is made of silk thread
with seven twists, is tied round the wrist of a patient in the belief that it
Page 282
cures illness.
A janjiro (black cotton thread with seven knots) of the god Hanumān is
worn round the arm with the same belief.
Surakano, that is, twisted iron wire, consecrated by the worshipper of the
goddess Machhu, is worn by the Bharvāds round the elbow or the wrist
with the belief that it cures wind.
Those people whose children do not live long put silver anklets round their
left legs in the belief that by so doing their life is lengthened.63
An amulet made of a piece of cloth is called dhāga.64 It is either a piece of
cloth used by a holy man, a piece of cloth containing a mixture of red lead
and oil offered to the god Hanumān,65 or a piece of cloth in which are
wrapped up the things put into an amulet. The dhāga is either worn round
the wrist or suspended from the neck.66
Amulets tied to the horns of pet animals such as cows, bullocks, horses,
etc., are called dāmanās. Sometimes they are also suspended from the necks
of these animals. They are made of the hides of sacred animals and are
believed to protect the animals against the evil eye, evil spirits and magic.67
It is believed by some people that one can escape injury from an evil spirit
by seating oneself in a circle or square drawn in and plastered with
cowdung.68
Others hold that the circle must be drawn with the point of a sword.68
Some maintain that the circle cannot be a protective unless it is drawn with
enchanted water, milk or sesamum oil.
There are others who are of opinion that the entry of evil spirits into the
circle can be prevented only by calling upon God not to allow the evil
spirits to enter it.69
A janjiro (black cotton thread with seven knots) of the god Hanumān is
worn round the arm with the same belief.
Surakano, that is, twisted iron wire, consecrated by the worshipper of the
goddess Machhu, is worn by the Bharvāds round the elbow or the wrist
with the belief that it cures wind.
Those people whose children do not live long put silver anklets round their
left legs in the belief that by so doing their life is lengthened.63
An amulet made of a piece of cloth is called dhāga.64 It is either a piece of
cloth used by a holy man, a piece of cloth containing a mixture of red lead
and oil offered to the god Hanumān,65 or a piece of cloth in which are
wrapped up the things put into an amulet. The dhāga is either worn round
the wrist or suspended from the neck.66
Amulets tied to the horns of pet animals such as cows, bullocks, horses,
etc., are called dāmanās. Sometimes they are also suspended from the necks
of these animals. They are made of the hides of sacred animals and are
believed to protect the animals against the evil eye, evil spirits and magic.67
It is believed by some people that one can escape injury from an evil spirit
by seating oneself in a circle or square drawn in and plastered with
cowdung.68
Others hold that the circle must be drawn with the point of a sword.68
Some maintain that the circle cannot be a protective unless it is drawn with
enchanted water, milk or sesamum oil.
There are others who are of opinion that the entry of evil spirits into the
circle can be prevented only by calling upon God not to allow the evil
spirits to enter it.69
Page 283
When an evil spirit is expelled from the body of a person, it is buried
underground, a circle of water is made round the spot and an iron nail is
driven into the ground, in order that it may be imprisoned there.70
If anybody step into such a circle, the evil spirit confined therein takes
possession of him, and is thus freed.71
To prevent this, evil spirits are generally confined in secluded spots.72
As the circle drawn by the point of a sword is a protection against an evil
spirit, those who go to the burning ground to propitiate or subjugate evil
spirits, seat themselves in such circles while reciting mantras.73
After entering the circle, some people recite the name of Hanumān, Chandi
or Bhairav.74
Some people, after seating themselves in the circle, make offerings to the
evil spirits, while reciting mantras, to propitiate them more easily. The Kāli
chaudas or the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin is considered a
suitable day for propitiating or subjugating evil spirits.75
There are various superstitious beliefs entertained by people regarding
omens.
1. If when leaving the house on a visit or with some definite object in view,
a deer crosses one’s path from right to left, it is considered a bad omen,
while crossing from left to right is considered good. On returning home,
this omen is read in the reverse way to that just stated.76
2. When starting on a journey, the braying of an ass on the right is a good
omen and on the left, evil.77
3. If on leaving the house, a man meets an unwidowed woman or a virgin
with a jar filled with water on her head, it is an indication that the object of
the expedition will be accomplished.78
underground, a circle of water is made round the spot and an iron nail is
driven into the ground, in order that it may be imprisoned there.70
If anybody step into such a circle, the evil spirit confined therein takes
possession of him, and is thus freed.71
To prevent this, evil spirits are generally confined in secluded spots.72
As the circle drawn by the point of a sword is a protection against an evil
spirit, those who go to the burning ground to propitiate or subjugate evil
spirits, seat themselves in such circles while reciting mantras.73
After entering the circle, some people recite the name of Hanumān, Chandi
or Bhairav.74
Some people, after seating themselves in the circle, make offerings to the
evil spirits, while reciting mantras, to propitiate them more easily. The Kāli
chaudas or the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin is considered a
suitable day for propitiating or subjugating evil spirits.75
There are various superstitious beliefs entertained by people regarding
omens.
1. If when leaving the house on a visit or with some definite object in view,
a deer crosses one’s path from right to left, it is considered a bad omen,
while crossing from left to right is considered good. On returning home,
this omen is read in the reverse way to that just stated.76
2. When starting on a journey, the braying of an ass on the right is a good
omen and on the left, evil.77
3. If on leaving the house, a man meets an unwidowed woman or a virgin
with a jar filled with water on her head, it is an indication that the object of
the expedition will be accomplished.78
Page 284
4. While starting on a good errand, if one breathes through the left nostril or
comes across a person carrying a basket of eggs, it is a good omen.
5. If at the time of leaving for a visit to another town or village, the position
of the moon in the circle explaining the position of stars with reference to
one’s birth-day stars, be in the rear or on the left of that position, it is a bad
omen, but if it be in the front or on the right it is a good omen.
The moon in front means fulfilment of the intended purpose, on the right, it
confers happiness and prosperity, on the back it causes death, and on the
left, loss of wealth.
6. The warbling of the bird bhairav on the right while going out and on the
left while returning is a good omen, but the opposite is bad.79
7. A cat or a serpent crossing one’s path is ominous of evil; but if either
passes on the right, it foretells good.79
8. A jackal howling in the evening prognosticates damage by fire to the
town or village; its howling at midnight predicts robbery; while in the last
part of the night it foretells good.
9. Kāg-rāshiās (expounders of the utterances of crows) know the good and
bad indications of the croakings of crows.
10. The wailing notes of the bird Fāvadi forebode evil.79
11. The throbbing of the right eye or side in the case of men and of the left
eye or side in the case of women is considered to be a good omen, while the
contrary is bad.79
12. If the bird holo sweeps the roof of one’s house continuously for a
number of days, a calamity is supposed to be imminent for the inmates of
the house.
13. If a dog barks in front of a man it is considered to be a bad omen.80
comes across a person carrying a basket of eggs, it is a good omen.
5. If at the time of leaving for a visit to another town or village, the position
of the moon in the circle explaining the position of stars with reference to
one’s birth-day stars, be in the rear or on the left of that position, it is a bad
omen, but if it be in the front or on the right it is a good omen.
The moon in front means fulfilment of the intended purpose, on the right, it
confers happiness and prosperity, on the back it causes death, and on the
left, loss of wealth.
6. The warbling of the bird bhairav on the right while going out and on the
left while returning is a good omen, but the opposite is bad.79
7. A cat or a serpent crossing one’s path is ominous of evil; but if either
passes on the right, it foretells good.79
8. A jackal howling in the evening prognosticates damage by fire to the
town or village; its howling at midnight predicts robbery; while in the last
part of the night it foretells good.
9. Kāg-rāshiās (expounders of the utterances of crows) know the good and
bad indications of the croakings of crows.
10. The wailing notes of the bird Fāvadi forebode evil.79
11. The throbbing of the right eye or side in the case of men and of the left
eye or side in the case of women is considered to be a good omen, while the
contrary is bad.79
12. If the bird holo sweeps the roof of one’s house continuously for a
number of days, a calamity is supposed to be imminent for the inmates of
the house.
13. If a dog barks in front of a man it is considered to be a bad omen.80
Page 285
A Brāhman, a cow, fruits, flowers, milk, pearls, jewels, a prostitute, an
elephant, an umbrella, meat, fish, a gun, a bayonet, a mirror, a mongoose, a
peacock with its plumage expanded, girls singing songs, band-players and a
washerman carrying washed clothes are all considered to be good omens, if
one comes across them while going out on business.81
The sight of a king, an armed man, a Dhed, a Bhangi or a Darji is also
considered to be an auspicious omen.82
The sight of boys going to or returning from school is a good omen.83
A labourer carrying a load of fuel on his head, a corpse in front, a potter
carrying earth on his head or on his donkey, a woman carrying her son, a
man carrying molasses, are all auspicious omens.84
A male monkey or a donkey crying on the right while going out, and on the
left while returning home is considered to be a good omen.85
Wine and good speech are also considered good omens.86
The sight of a herdswoman, a dog scratching its right side, a cuckoo singing
on a tree or a black sparrow is a good omen.87
Fuel, hides, grass, vegetables, a smoking fire, sesamum oil, molasses, a
barren woman, an enemy, a disorderly mob, a woman without the
auspicious mark on her forehead, a man besmeared with oil, a eunuch, mud,
wet clothes, an ascetic, a beggar, are all considered to be bad omens, if one
sees them while going on business.88
The sight of dry cow-dung cakes is supposed to be a bad omen.89
The sight of a widow or of a corpse90 is bad.91
Weasels crossing the road, dogs shaking their ears, a man carrying a black
earthen vessel, a woman with loose hair, a person carrying clarified butter, a
man with gray moustaches, a man having no hair on his chest, a cat-eyed
elephant, an umbrella, meat, fish, a gun, a bayonet, a mirror, a mongoose, a
peacock with its plumage expanded, girls singing songs, band-players and a
washerman carrying washed clothes are all considered to be good omens, if
one comes across them while going out on business.81
The sight of a king, an armed man, a Dhed, a Bhangi or a Darji is also
considered to be an auspicious omen.82
The sight of boys going to or returning from school is a good omen.83
A labourer carrying a load of fuel on his head, a corpse in front, a potter
carrying earth on his head or on his donkey, a woman carrying her son, a
man carrying molasses, are all auspicious omens.84
A male monkey or a donkey crying on the right while going out, and on the
left while returning home is considered to be a good omen.85
Wine and good speech are also considered good omens.86
The sight of a herdswoman, a dog scratching its right side, a cuckoo singing
on a tree or a black sparrow is a good omen.87
Fuel, hides, grass, vegetables, a smoking fire, sesamum oil, molasses, a
barren woman, an enemy, a disorderly mob, a woman without the
auspicious mark on her forehead, a man besmeared with oil, a eunuch, mud,
wet clothes, an ascetic, a beggar, are all considered to be bad omens, if one
sees them while going on business.88
The sight of dry cow-dung cakes is supposed to be a bad omen.89
The sight of a widow or of a corpse90 is bad.91
Weasels crossing the road, dogs shaking their ears, a man carrying a black
earthen vessel, a woman with loose hair, a person carrying clarified butter, a
man with gray moustaches, a man having no hair on his chest, a cat-eyed
Page 286
man, a person carrying flour, a Brāhman without the sacred mark on his
forehead are all bad omens.92
The sight of the husk of corn, a man with a medicinal application, or a
lunatic, is a bad omen.93
The question “kiān jāo chho” that is “Where are you going” is a bad
omen.94
The mixture of whey, mud and cow-dung, a recluse with matted hair, a man
spitting, a cough, and a man with the whole of his head shaved are bad
omens95.
Similarly, the sight of a drunkard, Adad or cotton seeds is a bad omen.96
A bride stumbling on her entry into the bridegroom’s house is said to be a
bad omen.97
A dog scratching its left side with his paws, a man riding a he-buffalo or a
donkey, two Baniās, one Musalmān, one male goat, one ox, five she-
buffaloes, six dogs, three cows, or seven horses, confronting a man on
starting from the house are ominous of evil.98
Some numbers are believed to be auspicious and some inauspicious. There
is a book on this subject, in which some good or evil is attributed to each
number. One who wants to know the result of the undertaking in hand puts
his finger on any number in the book, and the expounder of the science,
reading the passage bearing on the number, explains how the undertaking
will end.99
The numbers, 12, 18, 56 and 58 are considered inauspicious.100
An odd number is generally believed to be inauspicious. It is for this reason
that newly-married girls are not sent to their husbands’ house for the first
time in any of the odd years of their age. They are also not sent back to their
parents’ house in an odd year of their age for the same reason.101
forehead are all bad omens.92
The sight of the husk of corn, a man with a medicinal application, or a
lunatic, is a bad omen.93
The question “kiān jāo chho” that is “Where are you going” is a bad
omen.94
The mixture of whey, mud and cow-dung, a recluse with matted hair, a man
spitting, a cough, and a man with the whole of his head shaved are bad
omens95.
Similarly, the sight of a drunkard, Adad or cotton seeds is a bad omen.96
A bride stumbling on her entry into the bridegroom’s house is said to be a
bad omen.97
A dog scratching its left side with his paws, a man riding a he-buffalo or a
donkey, two Baniās, one Musalmān, one male goat, one ox, five she-
buffaloes, six dogs, three cows, or seven horses, confronting a man on
starting from the house are ominous of evil.98
Some numbers are believed to be auspicious and some inauspicious. There
is a book on this subject, in which some good or evil is attributed to each
number. One who wants to know the result of the undertaking in hand puts
his finger on any number in the book, and the expounder of the science,
reading the passage bearing on the number, explains how the undertaking
will end.99
The numbers, 12, 18, 56 and 58 are considered inauspicious.100
An odd number is generally believed to be inauspicious. It is for this reason
that newly-married girls are not sent to their husbands’ house for the first
time in any of the odd years of their age. They are also not sent back to their
parents’ house in an odd year of their age for the same reason.101
Page 287
The numbers 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, and 21 are believed to be lucky while 3,
4, 8 and 12 are considered unlucky.102
A belief exists that if a company of three start on a mission, the mission is
sure to fail. This has given rise to the proverb “Tran trikat ane maha vikat”
that is, “Three persons going on an errand meet with great difficulties or
danger.”103
A zero is believed to be inauspicious. In monetary transactions or bargains,
therefore, all numbers ending in a zero are avoided. If such numbers are
unavoidable, the sign of ¼ is placed before them. The number 12 is
considered unlucky, to avoid which 11½ is used in its place.104
Some people believe that the numbers 1¼, 5, 7, 21, 108 and 1,008 are lucky
while 12 is unlucky.105
It is a belief that in the sales of cattle and certain other things if the price is
raised by 1¼, it results in good both to the seller and buyer.106
It is for this reason that in subscribing to charitable funds people write 401
instead of 400 and so on. But 1¼ is preferred to 1 in valuing things. So in
all purchases and sales 1¼ is added to the actual price of a thing.107
The numbers 5 and 7 are believed to be auspicious, because on starting on a
journey from the house one is given five betelnuts as a sign of good omen,
while in all auspicious ceremonies seven betelnuts are used.108
Certain days of the week are considered lucky while others are considered
unlucky. It is also believed that certain days are auspicious for performing
certain acts, while others are inauspicious for the performance of the same
acts.
Monday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are considered lucky, while
Tuesday, Saturday and Sunday are believed to be unlucky.109
4, 8 and 12 are considered unlucky.102
A belief exists that if a company of three start on a mission, the mission is
sure to fail. This has given rise to the proverb “Tran trikat ane maha vikat”
that is, “Three persons going on an errand meet with great difficulties or
danger.”103
A zero is believed to be inauspicious. In monetary transactions or bargains,
therefore, all numbers ending in a zero are avoided. If such numbers are
unavoidable, the sign of ¼ is placed before them. The number 12 is
considered unlucky, to avoid which 11½ is used in its place.104
Some people believe that the numbers 1¼, 5, 7, 21, 108 and 1,008 are lucky
while 12 is unlucky.105
It is a belief that in the sales of cattle and certain other things if the price is
raised by 1¼, it results in good both to the seller and buyer.106
It is for this reason that in subscribing to charitable funds people write 401
instead of 400 and so on. But 1¼ is preferred to 1 in valuing things. So in
all purchases and sales 1¼ is added to the actual price of a thing.107
The numbers 5 and 7 are believed to be auspicious, because on starting on a
journey from the house one is given five betelnuts as a sign of good omen,
while in all auspicious ceremonies seven betelnuts are used.108
Certain days of the week are considered lucky while others are considered
unlucky. It is also believed that certain days are auspicious for performing
certain acts, while others are inauspicious for the performance of the same
acts.
Monday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are considered lucky, while
Tuesday, Saturday and Sunday are believed to be unlucky.109
Page 288
It is a common belief that one should not go in certain directions on certain
days; for doing so results in what is called dishā-shul or pain caused by
directions.110
Going to the north on Sunday, to the west on Tuesday, to the north-west on
Monday, to the south-west on Wednesday, to the south on Thursday, to the
south-east on Friday and to the east on Saturday is considered ominous of
evil.111
According to another belief, Sunday and Thursday are inauspicious for
going to the south-east; Monday and Friday, to the south-west; Saturday
and Tuesday, to the north-west and Wednesday to the north-east.112
Some people believe that by going to the west on Monday or Saturday one
secures the fulfilment of the desired object.113
Many hold that the favourableness or otherwise of the days for going in
particular directions varies according to the occasion.114
The auspicious days for sending a girl to her husband’s house are believed
to be Monday, Thursday and Friday. Sunday and Tuesday are also
considered auspicious for a girl to go to her house, but they are considered
very unlucky for her to return to her parents.115
It is forbidden to eat dālia (baked split gram) on Sunday, but it is favoured
on Friday.
Wednesday is considered to be a lucky day for sowing corn, and making
purchases of new articles. Thursday is believed to be auspicious for sending
a boy to school for the first time.116
Wednesday is considered unfavourable for the separation of brothers and
sisters, but it is considered a suitable day for their meeting.117
It is believed that if a man wears new clothes on Sunday they will be burnt;
if on Tuesday, they will be lost; if on Wednesday or Saturday, a quarrel with
days; for doing so results in what is called dishā-shul or pain caused by
directions.110
Going to the north on Sunday, to the west on Tuesday, to the north-west on
Monday, to the south-west on Wednesday, to the south on Thursday, to the
south-east on Friday and to the east on Saturday is considered ominous of
evil.111
According to another belief, Sunday and Thursday are inauspicious for
going to the south-east; Monday and Friday, to the south-west; Saturday
and Tuesday, to the north-west and Wednesday to the north-east.112
Some people believe that by going to the west on Monday or Saturday one
secures the fulfilment of the desired object.113
Many hold that the favourableness or otherwise of the days for going in
particular directions varies according to the occasion.114
The auspicious days for sending a girl to her husband’s house are believed
to be Monday, Thursday and Friday. Sunday and Tuesday are also
considered auspicious for a girl to go to her house, but they are considered
very unlucky for her to return to her parents.115
It is forbidden to eat dālia (baked split gram) on Sunday, but it is favoured
on Friday.
Wednesday is considered to be a lucky day for sowing corn, and making
purchases of new articles. Thursday is believed to be auspicious for sending
a boy to school for the first time.116
Wednesday is considered unfavourable for the separation of brothers and
sisters, but it is considered a suitable day for their meeting.117
It is believed that if a man wears new clothes on Sunday they will be burnt;
if on Tuesday, they will be lost; if on Wednesday or Saturday, a quarrel with
Page 289
some one is the result.118
It is considered auspicious to go to a Chamār or tanner on Sunday, to a
prostitute on Monday, to a Kāchhia (vegetable seller) on Tuesday, to a
washerman on Wednesday, to a Brāhman on Thursday, to a Bania on Friday
and to a barber on Saturday.119
The beliefs regarding the lucky and unlucky days of a month are similar to
those of the lucky and unlucky days of the week.
According to some, all the days of the bright half of a month are auspicious
for performing any good act, while the days in the dark half are considered
favourable for perpetrating black deeds.120
Some believe that the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 8th, 10th, 11th, 13th and the full-
moon day of a month are auspicious, while the 2nd, 4th, 7th, 9th and 14th,
whether of the bright or dark half, as well as the new-moon day, are
inauspicious.121
According to another belief, the 1st, 6th and 11th days of a month are good,
the 3rd and 8th are dates of success (that is acts commenced on these days
are crowned with success); the 5th, 10th and 15th are purna tithis, that is,
complete days, (meaning that the moon on these days appears full one-third,
full two-thirds and completely full); while the 2nd, 7th and 12th are
auspicious days.
The 4th, 9th and 14th days of a month are inauspicious.122
Some hold that if the 1st, 4th, 12th, 14th and 30th day of a month fall on a
Saturday they are good; otherwise bad.123
The 1st, 13th or 14th day of either the bright or dark half of a month, as
well as the full-moon and new-moon day, are considered unfavourable to
patients.124
It is considered auspicious to go to a Chamār or tanner on Sunday, to a
prostitute on Monday, to a Kāchhia (vegetable seller) on Tuesday, to a
washerman on Wednesday, to a Brāhman on Thursday, to a Bania on Friday
and to a barber on Saturday.119
The beliefs regarding the lucky and unlucky days of a month are similar to
those of the lucky and unlucky days of the week.
According to some, all the days of the bright half of a month are auspicious
for performing any good act, while the days in the dark half are considered
favourable for perpetrating black deeds.120
Some believe that the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 8th, 10th, 11th, 13th and the full-
moon day of a month are auspicious, while the 2nd, 4th, 7th, 9th and 14th,
whether of the bright or dark half, as well as the new-moon day, are
inauspicious.121
According to another belief, the 1st, 6th and 11th days of a month are good,
the 3rd and 8th are dates of success (that is acts commenced on these days
are crowned with success); the 5th, 10th and 15th are purna tithis, that is,
complete days, (meaning that the moon on these days appears full one-third,
full two-thirds and completely full); while the 2nd, 7th and 12th are
auspicious days.
The 4th, 9th and 14th days of a month are inauspicious.122
Some hold that if the 1st, 4th, 12th, 14th and 30th day of a month fall on a
Saturday they are good; otherwise bad.123
The 1st, 13th or 14th day of either the bright or dark half of a month, as
well as the full-moon and new-moon day, are considered unfavourable to
patients.124
Page 290
The 2nd, 14th and the last day of a month are considered unlucky. Those
days on which there is a panchak—a grouping of constellations lasting for
five consecutive days—are very inauspicious for commencing auspicious
acts.125
A belief prevails that any one dying in a panchak draws five companions to
heaven, that is, his death is followed by the death of four others of the same
village.126
A son born on the full-moon day is believed to turn out brave, but is
supposed to forebode evil to the parents.127
If a girl is born on the 2nd, 7th or 12th day of a month falling on a Tuesday
or Saturday in the Ashlesha, Kritikā or Shutbhilla nakshatra, she loses her
husband.128
The Mul nakshatra falling on the 1st day of a month, Bharani on the 5th,
Kritika on the 8th, Rohini on the 9th and Ashlesha on the 10th, has an effect
like a volcano. A girl born on the 1st, 6th or 11th day of a month falling on a
Saturday, Tuesday or Sunday in the Kritika or Mrigshar nakshatra is like
poison. She is supposed to cause the death of herself, her husband, or all the
members of her father’s family.129
Some of the Hindu holidays are considered auspicious for performing
certain deeds, while inauspicious for performing certain others.130
The ceremonies described below are performed to help the spirit to the
other world.
When a man is on the point of death the floor is cow-dunged and an
offering of sesamum seeds, Durva grass (cynodon dactylon) and Java
(barley) is made to the deities. Next, water of the Ganges or the Jumna is
dropped into the mouth of the dying man and the name of Rām is whispered
in his ear, as this is believed to turn his consciousness to God and thus
facilitate his way to the other world.
days on which there is a panchak—a grouping of constellations lasting for
five consecutive days—are very inauspicious for commencing auspicious
acts.125
A belief prevails that any one dying in a panchak draws five companions to
heaven, that is, his death is followed by the death of four others of the same
village.126
A son born on the full-moon day is believed to turn out brave, but is
supposed to forebode evil to the parents.127
If a girl is born on the 2nd, 7th or 12th day of a month falling on a Tuesday
or Saturday in the Ashlesha, Kritikā or Shutbhilla nakshatra, she loses her
husband.128
The Mul nakshatra falling on the 1st day of a month, Bharani on the 5th,
Kritika on the 8th, Rohini on the 9th and Ashlesha on the 10th, has an effect
like a volcano. A girl born on the 1st, 6th or 11th day of a month falling on a
Saturday, Tuesday or Sunday in the Kritika or Mrigshar nakshatra is like
poison. She is supposed to cause the death of herself, her husband, or all the
members of her father’s family.129
Some of the Hindu holidays are considered auspicious for performing
certain deeds, while inauspicious for performing certain others.130
The ceremonies described below are performed to help the spirit to the
other world.
When a man is on the point of death the floor is cow-dunged and an
offering of sesamum seeds, Durva grass (cynodon dactylon) and Java
(barley) is made to the deities. Next, water of the Ganges or the Jumna is
dropped into the mouth of the dying man and the name of Rām is whispered
in his ear, as this is believed to turn his consciousness to God and thus
facilitate his way to the other world.
Page 291
When a patient is convinced that his case is hopeless, he distributes money
or other valuable articles among Brāhmans, as this is believed to make his
way to heaven easy.
When life is extinct, the corpse is placed on the cow-dunged floor and then
carried on a bier to the burning ground with the cries of “Shri Rām”,
“Rām”, “Rām nām satya hai”,131 or “Jaya Shri Krishna”. In the fuel with
which it is burnt is put Tulsi (sweet basil), Pipal and sandal wood and
cocoanuts. The bones and ashes are collected and preserved, to be thrown
into the Dāmodar kund, (pool of water) at Gaya or other holy waters. For
three days after death, holy water and milk is offered to the spirit of the
deceased. On the 10th, 11th and 12th day after death, on all the days of
every month in the first year corresponding to the day of death, and on
every anniversary of the death, Shrāddha is performed. Shrāddha is also
performed annually on the day corresponding to the day of death in the dark
half of the month of Bhādrapad.
The ceremonies mentioned above are believed to make the passage of the
soul to the other world easy. For his final emancipation a man must
renounce all pleasures of the senses and all egotism.132
Giving alms to the poor, holding recitations of the Bhāgvat, performing the
Vishnu Yāg, Gāyatri-purashcharan and the Chāndrāyan vrat are also
believed to make the passage of the soul to heaven easy.133
In order that the departing spirit may meet with no obstruction on the way,
cows, articles of dress, shoes and food are presented to a Brāhman for one
year after death.134
Places for offering water to passers by, and houses in which to feed the
needy, are also established by well-to-do people with the same object.135
The gift of sacks for holding corn, of umbrellas, blankets and bedding to
travellers, is also believed to smooth the passage of the soul to heaven.136
or other valuable articles among Brāhmans, as this is believed to make his
way to heaven easy.
When life is extinct, the corpse is placed on the cow-dunged floor and then
carried on a bier to the burning ground with the cries of “Shri Rām”,
“Rām”, “Rām nām satya hai”,131 or “Jaya Shri Krishna”. In the fuel with
which it is burnt is put Tulsi (sweet basil), Pipal and sandal wood and
cocoanuts. The bones and ashes are collected and preserved, to be thrown
into the Dāmodar kund, (pool of water) at Gaya or other holy waters. For
three days after death, holy water and milk is offered to the spirit of the
deceased. On the 10th, 11th and 12th day after death, on all the days of
every month in the first year corresponding to the day of death, and on
every anniversary of the death, Shrāddha is performed. Shrāddha is also
performed annually on the day corresponding to the day of death in the dark
half of the month of Bhādrapad.
The ceremonies mentioned above are believed to make the passage of the
soul to the other world easy. For his final emancipation a man must
renounce all pleasures of the senses and all egotism.132
Giving alms to the poor, holding recitations of the Bhāgvat, performing the
Vishnu Yāg, Gāyatri-purashcharan and the Chāndrāyan vrat are also
believed to make the passage of the soul to heaven easy.133
In order that the departing spirit may meet with no obstruction on the way,
cows, articles of dress, shoes and food are presented to a Brāhman for one
year after death.134
Places for offering water to passers by, and houses in which to feed the
needy, are also established by well-to-do people with the same object.135
The gift of sacks for holding corn, of umbrellas, blankets and bedding to
travellers, is also believed to smooth the passage of the soul to heaven.136
Page 292
The performance of the shrāddhas and other ceremonies mentioned above
is believed to prevent the return of the spirit to this world.137
Observing fasts by the survivors of the deceased on the Rishi Panchami (the
5th day of the bright half of Bhādrapad), the Janmāshtami (the eighth day
of the dark half of Shrāvan) and the Rāmnavami (the ninth day of the bright
half of Chaitra) is also believed to prevent the return of a spirit from
heaven. Some worship the Pipal with the same object.138
Reading the Garud Purān for nine days after death is also believed to be a
means of preventing the return of the soul to this world.139
Some people believe that performing shrāddha in sixty-eight holy places
secures this end.140
Daily offerings of rice and water to the departed spirits also prevent them
from revisiting this world.141
The same means which are adopted to help the spirit to the other world and
to prevent its return also secure its good-will to the survivors.142
Persons living on the banks of the Ganges do not burn the dead, but throw
the corpses into the holy water of the river.143
If a pregnant woman dies in the eighth month of her pregnancy, the foetus is
taken out by cutting open the womb and buried, while the woman is
burnt.144
Corpses of persons dying an unnatural death are burnt in a Gondaro (place
where the village cows rest) or on the village common, in the belief that by
so doing the deceased escapes divine wrath and is freed from rebirth.145
When a grave is commenced in a certain spot, the corpse must be buried on
that spot, even though the ground be rocky or otherwise unsuitable. As far
as possible, the corpses of relatives are buried near one another.145
is believed to prevent the return of the spirit to this world.137
Observing fasts by the survivors of the deceased on the Rishi Panchami (the
5th day of the bright half of Bhādrapad), the Janmāshtami (the eighth day
of the dark half of Shrāvan) and the Rāmnavami (the ninth day of the bright
half of Chaitra) is also believed to prevent the return of a spirit from
heaven. Some worship the Pipal with the same object.138
Reading the Garud Purān for nine days after death is also believed to be a
means of preventing the return of the soul to this world.139
Some people believe that performing shrāddha in sixty-eight holy places
secures this end.140
Daily offerings of rice and water to the departed spirits also prevent them
from revisiting this world.141
The same means which are adopted to help the spirit to the other world and
to prevent its return also secure its good-will to the survivors.142
Persons living on the banks of the Ganges do not burn the dead, but throw
the corpses into the holy water of the river.143
If a pregnant woman dies in the eighth month of her pregnancy, the foetus is
taken out by cutting open the womb and buried, while the woman is
burnt.144
Corpses of persons dying an unnatural death are burnt in a Gondaro (place
where the village cows rest) or on the village common, in the belief that by
so doing the deceased escapes divine wrath and is freed from rebirth.145
When a grave is commenced in a certain spot, the corpse must be buried on
that spot, even though the ground be rocky or otherwise unsuitable. As far
as possible, the corpses of relatives are buried near one another.145
Page 293
The occasions on which the hair is shaved are as follows:—
1. When a boy attains the age of three years, his head is shaved completely
for the first time.
2. At the time of performing shrāddha in holy places, the head, except the
top-knot, and the moustaches and face must be shaved.
3. On the ninth day after the death of a man, all his male relatives younger
than himself have to shave their heads, except the top-knot, and the
moustaches and chin.
4. On the day of investing a boy with the sacred thread his head is shaved
before the investiture.
5. Amongst high caste Hindus the heads of widows are shaved on the tenth
day after the death of their husbands.146
6. Gorjis or preceptors of the Atits, Shrāvaks and Sanyāsis have to get their
heads shaved at the time of entering the order.147
7. All the male relatives of the deceased have to get their heads shaved on
the ninth day after death.
8. Atits and Bāvās get the heads of their disciples shaved at the time of
admitting them into their order.148
9. The preceptors of the Swāmi Nārāyan sect shave off their moustaches
every time they shave their heads.149
10. At the time of admitting a Jain to the ascetic order of the religion, the
hairs of his head are pulled out one by one until the head is completely
bald.150
11. On the occasion of a man being readmitted to his own caste, out of
which he has been expelled for some breach of caste rules, he has to shave
his head and face by way of prāyaschitta or atonement.150
1. When a boy attains the age of three years, his head is shaved completely
for the first time.
2. At the time of performing shrāddha in holy places, the head, except the
top-knot, and the moustaches and face must be shaved.
3. On the ninth day after the death of a man, all his male relatives younger
than himself have to shave their heads, except the top-knot, and the
moustaches and chin.
4. On the day of investing a boy with the sacred thread his head is shaved
before the investiture.
5. Amongst high caste Hindus the heads of widows are shaved on the tenth
day after the death of their husbands.146
6. Gorjis or preceptors of the Atits, Shrāvaks and Sanyāsis have to get their
heads shaved at the time of entering the order.147
7. All the male relatives of the deceased have to get their heads shaved on
the ninth day after death.
8. Atits and Bāvās get the heads of their disciples shaved at the time of
admitting them into their order.148
9. The preceptors of the Swāmi Nārāyan sect shave off their moustaches
every time they shave their heads.149
10. At the time of admitting a Jain to the ascetic order of the religion, the
hairs of his head are pulled out one by one until the head is completely
bald.150
11. On the occasion of a man being readmitted to his own caste, out of
which he has been expelled for some breach of caste rules, he has to shave
his head and face by way of prāyaschitta or atonement.150
Page 294
It is believed that if the head of a widow is not shaved on the tenth day after
the death of her husband, his soul is not admitted to heaven, and the funeral
ceremonies performed in his honour bear no fruit.151
The heads of such widows are shaved on the banks of the Godāvari or at
Benares or at some other holy place in the neighbourhood.152
The spirits of the dead are represented by balls of rice flour or cooked rice,
and offerings of water, cotton thread, red powder, abir (white scented
powder), red lead, sandal paste, frankincense, lamps, sesamum seeds and of
the leaves of the Tulsi, the tamarind, the Agathio or Agathi (Sesbania
grandiflora) and the Bhangra, and the flowers and seeds of the Java, are
made to them.
The ancestral spirits are also represented by chats (twisted braids of the
Durva grass (Cynodon Dactylon)), and to them are offered the Suran
(Elephant-foot) cooked rice, fried cakes of the flour of mag (Phaseolus
mungo), rice cooked in milk, etc.153
It is believed that the departed spirits are pleased with offerings of pindas or
rice-balls.154
Pindas are also made of wheat flour or molasses. Costly dishes, sesamum
seeds, honey, curdled milk, clarified butter, and sugarcandy are also offered
to the manes.155
The pindas are generally offered on the 10th, 11th and 12th day after death
and on the occasion of performing shrāddha.156
Rice balls are also offered to crows or thrown into water in the belief that
by so offering they reach the spirits of deceased ancestors.156
A belief prevails that the messengers of the god of death eat the flesh of the
deceased if pindas are not offered to them. So, in ancient times, offerings of
flesh balls were made instead of rice ones.157
the death of her husband, his soul is not admitted to heaven, and the funeral
ceremonies performed in his honour bear no fruit.151
The heads of such widows are shaved on the banks of the Godāvari or at
Benares or at some other holy place in the neighbourhood.152
The spirits of the dead are represented by balls of rice flour or cooked rice,
and offerings of water, cotton thread, red powder, abir (white scented
powder), red lead, sandal paste, frankincense, lamps, sesamum seeds and of
the leaves of the Tulsi, the tamarind, the Agathio or Agathi (Sesbania
grandiflora) and the Bhangra, and the flowers and seeds of the Java, are
made to them.
The ancestral spirits are also represented by chats (twisted braids of the
Durva grass (Cynodon Dactylon)), and to them are offered the Suran
(Elephant-foot) cooked rice, fried cakes of the flour of mag (Phaseolus
mungo), rice cooked in milk, etc.153
It is believed that the departed spirits are pleased with offerings of pindas or
rice-balls.154
Pindas are also made of wheat flour or molasses. Costly dishes, sesamum
seeds, honey, curdled milk, clarified butter, and sugarcandy are also offered
to the manes.155
The pindas are generally offered on the 10th, 11th and 12th day after death
and on the occasion of performing shrāddha.156
Rice balls are also offered to crows or thrown into water in the belief that
by so offering they reach the spirits of deceased ancestors.156
A belief prevails that the messengers of the god of death eat the flesh of the
deceased if pindas are not offered to them. So, in ancient times, offerings of
flesh balls were made instead of rice ones.157
Page 295
It is believed that male and female evil spirits such as bhuts and pishāchas
manifest themselves as dogs, notably black dogs, goats, fire, the whirl-
wind, snakes or children.158
They may assume the form of a he-buffalo, a heifer, a ram, a man, a
woman,159 a lion, a tiger or a cat.160
The evil spirit called jān is believed to manifest itself as a snake.161
The voice of an evil spirit in any of the above forms is heard from a
distance, and the nearer the hearer approaches the more it is found to
recede.162
Among Bharvāds and Sonis, seven or nine earthen pots are broken in the
house of the deceased on the tenth day after death. The number of the pots
varies according to the individual merits of the deceased.163
Among some low castes, an earthen pot is broken on the village boundary
and another in the burning ground.164
Some break an earthen pot at the village gate on their way back from the
cemetery after the performance of shrāddha.165
In some places, the earthen pots placed on the spot where the corpse is laid
in the house are broken at the village gate.166
In some low castes two earthen pots are placed on the village boundary on
the twelfth day after death, and broken by children.167
Some carry the funeral fire in a black earthen jar as far as the village gate,
where the jar is broken and the fire carried in the hand, by one of the
mourners, to the burning ground.168
According to some, this breaking of an earthen pot is a symbol indicating
that the connection of the deceased with this world has broken or ceased.169
manifest themselves as dogs, notably black dogs, goats, fire, the whirl-
wind, snakes or children.158
They may assume the form of a he-buffalo, a heifer, a ram, a man, a
woman,159 a lion, a tiger or a cat.160
The evil spirit called jān is believed to manifest itself as a snake.161
The voice of an evil spirit in any of the above forms is heard from a
distance, and the nearer the hearer approaches the more it is found to
recede.162
Among Bharvāds and Sonis, seven or nine earthen pots are broken in the
house of the deceased on the tenth day after death. The number of the pots
varies according to the individual merits of the deceased.163
Among some low castes, an earthen pot is broken on the village boundary
and another in the burning ground.164
Some break an earthen pot at the village gate on their way back from the
cemetery after the performance of shrāddha.165
In some places, the earthen pots placed on the spot where the corpse is laid
in the house are broken at the village gate.166
In some low castes two earthen pots are placed on the village boundary on
the twelfth day after death, and broken by children.167
Some carry the funeral fire in a black earthen jar as far as the village gate,
where the jar is broken and the fire carried in the hand, by one of the
mourners, to the burning ground.168
According to some, this breaking of an earthen pot is a symbol indicating
that the connection of the deceased with this world has broken or ceased.169
Page 296
Others hold that it indicates the disintegration of the constituents of the
body into the elements of which it was formed.170
There are others who are of opinion that the messengers of the god of death
are satisfied with the breaking of an earthen pot after an offering to them of
six rice balls and water.171
When a death takes place in a family, a prāna-poka or death-wail is raised
by the chief mourner, who is joined afterwards by the other relatives.172
The prāna-poka is believed to open the gates of heaven for the admission of
the soul.173
Some are of opinion that the object of the death-wail, which begins with “O
māra bhāi!” that is, “Oh my brother!” or “O māra bāp!” that is, “Oh my
father!”, is that at the moment of death, the soul, by hearing the sound ‘Om’
may ascend to the brahmarandhra or the divine seat of the brain and thus
attain salvation.174
When the funeral party start with the bier for the burning ground, the
women of the house, accompanied by other women of the neighbourhood
or village, follow them as far as the village gate, crying and singing funeral
dirges. There they stop a while and sing more funeral dirges, keeping time
by beating their breasts. They then start to return home, and, on their way,
bathe in a tank or well and again mourn for some time before entering the
house. The funeral party enter the house after the women and cry aloud for
a few seconds. They also cry when the pyre is set on fire.175
The mourning of the women continues for thirteen176 days after death. They
also weep on such holidays as the Holi, the Divāli, etc., and on the
quarterly, six-monthly and the first anniversary Shrāddha day.177
Male relatives of the deceased wear a white turban as a sign of
mourning.178
body into the elements of which it was formed.170
There are others who are of opinion that the messengers of the god of death
are satisfied with the breaking of an earthen pot after an offering to them of
six rice balls and water.171
When a death takes place in a family, a prāna-poka or death-wail is raised
by the chief mourner, who is joined afterwards by the other relatives.172
The prāna-poka is believed to open the gates of heaven for the admission of
the soul.173
Some are of opinion that the object of the death-wail, which begins with “O
māra bhāi!” that is, “Oh my brother!” or “O māra bāp!” that is, “Oh my
father!”, is that at the moment of death, the soul, by hearing the sound ‘Om’
may ascend to the brahmarandhra or the divine seat of the brain and thus
attain salvation.174
When the funeral party start with the bier for the burning ground, the
women of the house, accompanied by other women of the neighbourhood
or village, follow them as far as the village gate, crying and singing funeral
dirges. There they stop a while and sing more funeral dirges, keeping time
by beating their breasts. They then start to return home, and, on their way,
bathe in a tank or well and again mourn for some time before entering the
house. The funeral party enter the house after the women and cry aloud for
a few seconds. They also cry when the pyre is set on fire.175
The mourning of the women continues for thirteen176 days after death. They
also weep on such holidays as the Holi, the Divāli, etc., and on the
quarterly, six-monthly and the first anniversary Shrāddha day.177
Male relatives of the deceased wear a white turban as a sign of
mourning.178
Page 297
It is generally believed that bhuts or evil spirits prove beneficial to those
who succeed in securing locks of their hair or subjugate them by
incantations or magical rites.179
Such spirits generally belong to the class of the Bavan, the Vir, the Bābro,
Māmo, Vaitāl, Dādamo and Yaksha. Of these, Māmo, Vir, Vaitāl and
Dādamo prove beneficial through favour, while the rest become the slaves
of those who subdue them.180
It is believed that Suro Puro and Dādo favour only their blood relations.181
It is related that in building the numerous tanks and temples attributed to
Siddhrāj Jaysing, a former king of Gujarāt, he was assisted by the spirit
Bābario whom he had brought under his control.182
A tradition is current that Tulsidās, the celebrated author of the Rāmāyan in
Hindi and a great devotee of Rām, had secured personal visits from the god
Hanumān through the favour of a ghost.
The king Vikram is said to have received great services from the evil spirits
Vaitāl and Jāl.183
In a book entitled Vaitāla Pachisi it is described how a bhut lived on a
banyan tree in Ujjain.184
It is related that in Rājkot a bhut called hunthia lived on a banyan tree.185
To the east of Kolki there is a tree called Jāla which is inhabited by a
māmo. It is related that the māmo frightens persons passing by the tree.
Near the school at Kolki there is a Pipal on which lives a sikotarun who
frightens people passing along the road.186
Is is related that a māmo lived on a Khijado tree at the gate of the village
Surel. He manifested himself, dressed in white garments, for a period of
nearly ten years. Once he frightened several persons out of their senses. It is
who succeed in securing locks of their hair or subjugate them by
incantations or magical rites.179
Such spirits generally belong to the class of the Bavan, the Vir, the Bābro,
Māmo, Vaitāl, Dādamo and Yaksha. Of these, Māmo, Vir, Vaitāl and
Dādamo prove beneficial through favour, while the rest become the slaves
of those who subdue them.180
It is believed that Suro Puro and Dādo favour only their blood relations.181
It is related that in building the numerous tanks and temples attributed to
Siddhrāj Jaysing, a former king of Gujarāt, he was assisted by the spirit
Bābario whom he had brought under his control.182
A tradition is current that Tulsidās, the celebrated author of the Rāmāyan in
Hindi and a great devotee of Rām, had secured personal visits from the god
Hanumān through the favour of a ghost.
The king Vikram is said to have received great services from the evil spirits
Vaitāl and Jāl.183
In a book entitled Vaitāla Pachisi it is described how a bhut lived on a
banyan tree in Ujjain.184
It is related that in Rājkot a bhut called hunthia lived on a banyan tree.185
To the east of Kolki there is a tree called Jāla which is inhabited by a
māmo. It is related that the māmo frightens persons passing by the tree.
Near the school at Kolki there is a Pipal on which lives a sikotarun who
frightens people passing along the road.186
Is is related that a māmo lived on a Khijado tree at the gate of the village
Surel. He manifested himself, dressed in white garments, for a period of
nearly ten years. Once he frightened several persons out of their senses. It is
Page 298
said that on his being propitiated with an offering of wheaten bread at his
abode (the Khijado tree), these persons recovered their senses.187
The Habib-Vad or Habib’s banyan tree on the road leading from Māvaiya to
Gondal is a favourite haunt of bhuts, who frighten and stupefy persons
passing by that road.188
There is a step-well near Hāmpar under the jurisdiction of Dhrāngadhra
which is the resort of a bhut. A Girāsia and his wife arrived here one day at
midnight. The Girāsia tied his mare to a tree hard by, and went to the well to
fetch water for the mare. On his return he found there a number of mares
like his own tied to the trees. He therefore smelt their mouths to recognise
which of them was his own, but in the flurry caused by the appearance of so
many mares, his waist-cloth got entangled, and while mounting his mare he
fell down, which frightened him so much that he exclaimed “I am overtaken
(by a ghost)” and died.189
It is related that in the Chhāliāchok at Limbdi, no woman has yet succeeded
in reciting a garabi (song) in honour of the goddess Mahākāli to the end, as
a ghost which lives on the tamarind tree opposite the chok (square) is averse
to its completion.
There is a house at Porbandar haunted by a ghost, in which none is able to
reside.190
It is believed that only those trees, the wood of which cannot be used for
sacrificial purposes, can be haunted by evil spirits. Such trees are the
Khijado, the Bāval, the Kerādo and the tamarind.191
Kshetrapāl is believed to be the guardian spirit of fields and Suropuro and
Māmado are believed to protect harvest and cattle.192
It is also believed that the spirit jakhara protects crops and cattle.193
Māmo and Dādamo are also believed by some to be the guardian spirits of
crops and cattle.194
abode (the Khijado tree), these persons recovered their senses.187
The Habib-Vad or Habib’s banyan tree on the road leading from Māvaiya to
Gondal is a favourite haunt of bhuts, who frighten and stupefy persons
passing by that road.188
There is a step-well near Hāmpar under the jurisdiction of Dhrāngadhra
which is the resort of a bhut. A Girāsia and his wife arrived here one day at
midnight. The Girāsia tied his mare to a tree hard by, and went to the well to
fetch water for the mare. On his return he found there a number of mares
like his own tied to the trees. He therefore smelt their mouths to recognise
which of them was his own, but in the flurry caused by the appearance of so
many mares, his waist-cloth got entangled, and while mounting his mare he
fell down, which frightened him so much that he exclaimed “I am overtaken
(by a ghost)” and died.189
It is related that in the Chhāliāchok at Limbdi, no woman has yet succeeded
in reciting a garabi (song) in honour of the goddess Mahākāli to the end, as
a ghost which lives on the tamarind tree opposite the chok (square) is averse
to its completion.
There is a house at Porbandar haunted by a ghost, in which none is able to
reside.190
It is believed that only those trees, the wood of which cannot be used for
sacrificial purposes, can be haunted by evil spirits. Such trees are the
Khijado, the Bāval, the Kerādo and the tamarind.191
Kshetrapāl is believed to be the guardian spirit of fields and Suropuro and
Māmado are believed to protect harvest and cattle.192
It is also believed that the spirit jakhara protects crops and cattle.193
Māmo and Dādamo are also believed by some to be the guardian spirits of
crops and cattle.194
Page 299
A belief runs that if a cousin (father’s brother’s son) becomes a spirit after
death, he proves beneficial to the cattle of his relatives.195
There are various ways of frightening crying children to silence, one of
which is to invoke evil spirits.
When a child continues to cry for a long time, the mother says, “keep quiet,
Bāghada has come.” “Oh Bāu, come and take away this child.” “Bābara,
come here. Don’t come, my child is now silent.” “May Bāghada carry you
away.” These exclamations are uttered in such a tone and with such
gestures, that generally the child is at once frightened into silence.196
In addition to the spirits mentioned above, Bābaro, Chudda, Dākana,
Satarsingo and other spirits are also invoked to frighten a weeping child to
silence.197
A Bāva or Bairāgi, a Fakir, a tiger, a dog, a cat or a rat are all presented to
the child as objects of terror, and are called one after another to silence it.198
1 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
2 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
3 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
4 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
5 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
6 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
7 The School Master of Sāyala. ↑
8 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
9 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
10 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
11 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
12 See page 3. ↑
13 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
death, he proves beneficial to the cattle of his relatives.195
There are various ways of frightening crying children to silence, one of
which is to invoke evil spirits.
When a child continues to cry for a long time, the mother says, “keep quiet,
Bāghada has come.” “Oh Bāu, come and take away this child.” “Bābara,
come here. Don’t come, my child is now silent.” “May Bāghada carry you
away.” These exclamations are uttered in such a tone and with such
gestures, that generally the child is at once frightened into silence.196
In addition to the spirits mentioned above, Bābaro, Chudda, Dākana,
Satarsingo and other spirits are also invoked to frighten a weeping child to
silence.197
A Bāva or Bairāgi, a Fakir, a tiger, a dog, a cat or a rat are all presented to
the child as objects of terror, and are called one after another to silence it.198
1 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
2 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
3 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
4 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
5 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
6 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
7 The School Master of Sāyala. ↑
8 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
9 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
10 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
11 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
12 See page 3. ↑
13 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
Page 300
14 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
15 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
16 This process is generally adopted in cases of milch cattle not giving milk and all other ailments
to ascertain the influence of the evil eye. ↑
17 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
18 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
19 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
20 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
21 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
22 The School Master of Aman. ↑
23 The School Master of Sāyala. ↑
24 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
25 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
26 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
27 Mr. M. M. Rāna, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
28 The School Master of Sultānpur. ↑
29 The School Master of Moti Khilori. ↑
30 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
31 The School Master of Todia. ↑
32 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
33 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
34 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
35 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
36 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
37 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
38 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
39 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
15 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
16 This process is generally adopted in cases of milch cattle not giving milk and all other ailments
to ascertain the influence of the evil eye. ↑
17 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
18 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
19 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
20 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
21 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
22 The School Master of Aman. ↑
23 The School Master of Sāyala. ↑
24 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
25 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
26 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
27 Mr. M. M. Rāna, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
28 The School Master of Sultānpur. ↑
29 The School Master of Moti Khilori. ↑
30 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
31 The School Master of Todia. ↑
32 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
33 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
34 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
35 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
36 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
37 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
38 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
39 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
Page 301
40 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
41 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
42 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
43 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
44 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
45 The School Master of Uptela. ↑
46 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
47 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
48 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
49 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
50 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
51 The School Master of Mota Devalia. ↑
52 The D. E. Inspector, Hālār. ↑
53 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
54 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
55 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
56 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohilwād. ↑
57 Anklets are made of these nails and worn round the wrist.—The School Master of Zinzuwāda. ↑
58 The School Master of Vasavad. ↑
59 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
60 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
61 The School Master of Gohilwād. ↑
62 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
63 The School Master of Todia. ↑
64 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
65 The Pathashala Shastri, Jetpur. ↑
66 The Girls’ School Mistress, Gondal. ↑
41 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
42 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
43 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
44 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
45 The School Master of Uptela. ↑
46 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
47 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
48 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
49 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
50 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
51 The School Master of Mota Devalia. ↑
52 The D. E. Inspector, Hālār. ↑
53 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
54 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
55 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
56 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohilwād. ↑
57 Anklets are made of these nails and worn round the wrist.—The School Master of Zinzuwāda. ↑
58 The School Master of Vasavad. ↑
59 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
60 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
61 The School Master of Gohilwād. ↑
62 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
63 The School Master of Todia. ↑
64 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
65 The Pathashala Shastri, Jetpur. ↑
66 The Girls’ School Mistress, Gondal. ↑
Page 302
67 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
68 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
69 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
70 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
71 The School Master of Todia. ↑
72 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
73 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
74 The School Master of Chok. ↑
75 The School Master of Zinzuvada. ↑
76 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
77 The School Masters of Dadvi and Dhānk. ↑
78 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
79 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
80 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
81 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
82 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
83 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
84 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
85 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
86 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
87 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
88 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
89 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
90 The sight of a corpse is a good omen when one sees it on entering a village where he goes on
business. ↑
91 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
92 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
68 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
69 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
70 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
71 The School Master of Todia. ↑
72 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
73 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
74 The School Master of Chok. ↑
75 The School Master of Zinzuvada. ↑
76 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
77 The School Masters of Dadvi and Dhānk. ↑
78 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
79 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
80 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
81 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
82 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
83 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
84 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
85 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
86 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
87 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
88 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
89 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
90 The sight of a corpse is a good omen when one sees it on entering a village where he goes on
business. ↑
91 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
92 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
Page 303
93 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
94 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
95 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
96 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
97 The School Master of Todia. ↑
98 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
99 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
100 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
101 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
102 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
103 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
104 The School Master of Mota Devalia. ↑
105 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
106 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
107 The School Master of Todia. ↑
108 The School Master of Todia. ↑
109 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
110 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
111 The School Master of Sāyala. ↑
112 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
113 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
114 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
115 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
116 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
117 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
118 The School Master of Todia. ↑
119 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
94 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
95 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
96 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
97 The School Master of Todia. ↑
98 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
99 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
100 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
101 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
102 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
103 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
104 The School Master of Mota Devalia. ↑
105 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
106 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
107 The School Master of Todia. ↑
108 The School Master of Todia. ↑
109 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
110 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
111 The School Master of Sāyala. ↑
112 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
113 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
114 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
115 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
116 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
117 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
118 The School Master of Todia. ↑
119 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
Page 304
120 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
121 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
122 The School Master of Moti Parabadi. ↑
123 The School Master of Charādva. ↑
124 The School Masters of Ganod and Vanod. ↑
125 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
126 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
127 The School Master of Mota Devalia. ↑
128 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
129 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
130 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
131 “The name of Rām is alone true” meaning all else except God is illusion. ↑
132 The School Master of Dhānk and Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
133 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
134 The School Master of Pātanvāv. ↑
135 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
136 The School Master of Hālār. ↑
137 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
138 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
139 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
140 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
141 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
142 The School Master of Dhānk and Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
143 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
144 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
145 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
146 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
121 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
122 The School Master of Moti Parabadi. ↑
123 The School Master of Charādva. ↑
124 The School Masters of Ganod and Vanod. ↑
125 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
126 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
127 The School Master of Mota Devalia. ↑
128 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
129 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
130 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
131 “The name of Rām is alone true” meaning all else except God is illusion. ↑
132 The School Master of Dhānk and Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
133 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
134 The School Master of Pātanvāv. ↑
135 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
136 The School Master of Hālār. ↑
137 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
138 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
139 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
140 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
141 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
142 The School Master of Dhānk and Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
143 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
144 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
145 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
146 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
Page 305
147 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
148 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
149 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
150 The School Master of Uptela. ↑
151 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
152 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
153 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
154 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
155 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
156 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
157 The School Mistress, Girls’ school, Civil Station, Rājkot. ↑
158 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
159 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
160 The School Masters of Chhatrāsa and Uptela. ↑
161 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
162 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
163 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
164 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
165 The School Master of Gunjār. ↑
166 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
167 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
168 The School Master of Hālār. ↑
169 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
170 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
171 The School Mistress, Civil Station Girls’ School, Rājkot. ↑
172 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
173 The School Master of Gunjār. ↑
148 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
149 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
150 The School Master of Uptela. ↑
151 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
152 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
153 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
154 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
155 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
156 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
157 The School Mistress, Girls’ school, Civil Station, Rājkot. ↑
158 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
159 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
160 The School Masters of Chhatrāsa and Uptela. ↑
161 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
162 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
163 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
164 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
165 The School Master of Gunjār. ↑
166 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
167 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
168 The School Master of Hālār. ↑
169 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
170 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
171 The School Mistress, Civil Station Girls’ School, Rājkot. ↑
172 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
173 The School Master of Gunjār. ↑
Page 306
174 The School Mistress of Civil Station Girls’ School, Rājkot and the School Master of Todia. ↑
175 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
176 It is believed that the spirit of the deceased returns to its house for thirteen days after death.
Hence the period of mourning is thirteen days.—The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
177 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
178 The School Master of Todia. ↑
179 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
180 The School Masters of Vanod and Kotda Sangani. ↑
181 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
182 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
183 The School Master of Uptela. ↑
184 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
185 The School Mistress of Girls’ school, Gondal, and the School Master of Dhānk. ↑
186 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
187 The School Master of Surel. ↑
188 The School Master of Māvaiya. ↑
189 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
190 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
191 The School Master of Moti Murad. ↑
192 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
193 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
194 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
195 The School Master of Zinzuwāda. ↑
196 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
197 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
198 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
175 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
176 It is believed that the spirit of the deceased returns to its house for thirteen days after death.
Hence the period of mourning is thirteen days.—The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
177 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
178 The School Master of Todia. ↑
179 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
180 The School Masters of Vanod and Kotda Sangani. ↑
181 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
182 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
183 The School Master of Uptela. ↑
184 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
185 The School Mistress of Girls’ school, Gondal, and the School Master of Dhānk. ↑
186 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
187 The School Master of Surel. ↑
188 The School Master of Māvaiya. ↑
189 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
190 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
191 The School Master of Moti Murad. ↑
192 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
193 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
194 The School Master of Rājpāra. ↑
195 The School Master of Zinzuwāda. ↑
196 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
197 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
198 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
Page 307
Page 308
CHAPTER VII.
Page 309
TREE AND SERPENT WORSHIP.
Certain trees are considered holy, and they are neither cut nor their wood
used as fuel.
The Pipal is one of such trees. It is considered to be the incarnation of a
Brāhman, and to cut it is considered to be as great a sin as murdering a
Brāhman. It is believed that the family of one who cuts it becomes extinct.1
Some people believe that the spirits of the deceased do not get water to
drink in the next world. The water poured at the root of the Pipal on the
13th, 14th and 15th day of the dark half of Kārtik and Shrāvan and on the
14th day of the bright half of Chaitra is believed to reach these spirits and
quench their thirst.2
Although to cut the Pipal is supposed to be a great sin, it is believed that if
a corpse is burnt with its wood, the soul of the deceased attains salvation.3
The Vad or banyan tree is believed to be a representation of the god Shiva.4
There is a proverb to the effect that one who cuts this tree is punished with
the extirpation of his family.5
According to another belief, the god Vishnu once slept on this tree.6
The Tulsi or sweet basil is considered to represent Lakshmi, the wife of
Vishnu. It is also related that Krishna wanted to kill the demon Jalandhar,
but he could not be killed on account of the merit of the chastity of his wife
Vrinda. Krishna, therefore, assumed the form of Jalandhar, violated the
chastity of Vrinda, and was thus enabled to kill the demon. Krishna next
expressed a desire to marry Vrinda, when she transformed herself into the
Tulsi plant. It is considered an act of great religious merit to wed Krishna
with the Tulsi, and this marriage is celebrated every year by all Hindus on
the 11th day of the bright half of Kārtik otherwise called Dev Divāli.
Certain trees are considered holy, and they are neither cut nor their wood
used as fuel.
The Pipal is one of such trees. It is considered to be the incarnation of a
Brāhman, and to cut it is considered to be as great a sin as murdering a
Brāhman. It is believed that the family of one who cuts it becomes extinct.1
Some people believe that the spirits of the deceased do not get water to
drink in the next world. The water poured at the root of the Pipal on the
13th, 14th and 15th day of the dark half of Kārtik and Shrāvan and on the
14th day of the bright half of Chaitra is believed to reach these spirits and
quench their thirst.2
Although to cut the Pipal is supposed to be a great sin, it is believed that if
a corpse is burnt with its wood, the soul of the deceased attains salvation.3
The Vad or banyan tree is believed to be a representation of the god Shiva.4
There is a proverb to the effect that one who cuts this tree is punished with
the extirpation of his family.5
According to another belief, the god Vishnu once slept on this tree.6
The Tulsi or sweet basil is considered to represent Lakshmi, the wife of
Vishnu. It is also related that Krishna wanted to kill the demon Jalandhar,
but he could not be killed on account of the merit of the chastity of his wife
Vrinda. Krishna, therefore, assumed the form of Jalandhar, violated the
chastity of Vrinda, and was thus enabled to kill the demon. Krishna next
expressed a desire to marry Vrinda, when she transformed herself into the
Tulsi plant. It is considered an act of great religious merit to wed Krishna
with the Tulsi, and this marriage is celebrated every year by all Hindus on
the 11th day of the bright half of Kārtik otherwise called Dev Divāli.
Page 310
It is considered a great sin to uproot this plant, though no sin attaches to the
plucking of its leaves during the day time. The leaves of the Tulsi are
considered holy and are offered to the image of the god Vishnu and are
required in all religious ceremonies.7
The Khijado or Shami tree is also held sacred. When the Pāndavas lost their
kingdom in gambling with the Kauravas, the latter promised the former that
they would give them back their kingdom if they lived in the forest for
twelve years and unknown for one year. After having completed their stay
in the forest, the Pāndavas remained unknown for one year in the city of
Virāt. During this year they concealed their weapons on a Khijado tree.
Before taking these weapons, they worshipped the tree. Next took place the
great battle of Kurukshetra in which the Pāndavas won a splendid victory.
This has given rise to the custom of worshipping the tree on the tenth day of
the bright half of Ashvin or the Dasara day.8
It is a common belief that a tree haunted by ghosts should not be cut. So the
Khijado is not cut, because it is the favourite residence of ghosts.9
The Kadamb (Anthocephalus cadumba) is considered sacred because it is
believed that God Krishna rested under this tree when he took cattle to
graze.10
The Limbdo (Nim tree) is also considered sacred as it represents the god
Brahma.11 Some believe that it represents Jagannāthji.12
The Rudrāksha is believed to be a representation of the god Shiva. It is
therefore considered a sin to cut it. Garlands of Rudrāksha beads are worn
round the neck by the devotees of Shiva.
The leaves of the Bel (Aegle marmelos) are offered to the god Shiva as they
are supposed to be liked by him. It is also considered a sin to cut this tree.13
The Karan (Mimusops hexandra) is believed to be a representation of
Shiva. A grove of the Karan trees is supposed to be inhabited by natural
plucking of its leaves during the day time. The leaves of the Tulsi are
considered holy and are offered to the image of the god Vishnu and are
required in all religious ceremonies.7
The Khijado or Shami tree is also held sacred. When the Pāndavas lost their
kingdom in gambling with the Kauravas, the latter promised the former that
they would give them back their kingdom if they lived in the forest for
twelve years and unknown for one year. After having completed their stay
in the forest, the Pāndavas remained unknown for one year in the city of
Virāt. During this year they concealed their weapons on a Khijado tree.
Before taking these weapons, they worshipped the tree. Next took place the
great battle of Kurukshetra in which the Pāndavas won a splendid victory.
This has given rise to the custom of worshipping the tree on the tenth day of
the bright half of Ashvin or the Dasara day.8
It is a common belief that a tree haunted by ghosts should not be cut. So the
Khijado is not cut, because it is the favourite residence of ghosts.9
The Kadamb (Anthocephalus cadumba) is considered sacred because it is
believed that God Krishna rested under this tree when he took cattle to
graze.10
The Limbdo (Nim tree) is also considered sacred as it represents the god
Brahma.11 Some believe that it represents Jagannāthji.12
The Rudrāksha is believed to be a representation of the god Shiva. It is
therefore considered a sin to cut it. Garlands of Rudrāksha beads are worn
round the neck by the devotees of Shiva.
The leaves of the Bel (Aegle marmelos) are offered to the god Shiva as they
are supposed to be liked by him. It is also considered a sin to cut this tree.13
The Karan (Mimusops hexandra) is believed to be a representation of
Shiva. A grove of the Karan trees is supposed to be inhabited by natural
Page 311
powers called Mātās and to cut a Karan is supposed to bring disaster to the
cutter.14
The Maravo (Marjoram) is considered sacred by Musalmāns. They dip its
leaves into oil and rub them against the face of a corpse.15
There is a temple of Bhimnāth Mahādev near Baravāla in the shade of an
ancient Jāl tree. The worshipper at the temple, a wealthy man, once thought
of erecting a grand temple over the image, but he was prevented from doing
so by the god appearing in his dream and telling him that he preferred to
live under the tree.16
Under a Jāl tree near Dhandhuka there is a shrine of Bhimnāth Shankar
who is known as Bhimnāth Jālvālo after the tree.17
There is a Sakhotia tree near Kutiāna, which is supposed to be the abode of
a snake deity.18
Near Rājkot in Kāthiāwār there is a tree called Gāndu or mad, vows in
honour of which are said to cure children of bronchitis.19
In the village of Vadāl near Bhiyāl in the Junāgadh State there is a banyan
tree called Lāl Vad said to have sprung from the sticks of a Vad (banyan)
used as tooth brushes by Lāl Bāva, a preceptor of the Vaishnav school. A
silver staff and silver umbrella belonging to Lāl Bāva are kept near this tree,
which is visited and worshipped by the followers of the preceptor.20
It is related that in this Lāl Vad there is an opening through which the
virtuous can pass to the other side, but not the sinful.21
There are two banyan trees near Anandpur, one of which is called Bhut-vad
or the banyan tree of the evil spirits, as it is supposed to be inhabited by
ghosts. The other is called Visalvad, because a devotee named Visaman
Bhagat lived under this tree.22
cutter.14
The Maravo (Marjoram) is considered sacred by Musalmāns. They dip its
leaves into oil and rub them against the face of a corpse.15
There is a temple of Bhimnāth Mahādev near Baravāla in the shade of an
ancient Jāl tree. The worshipper at the temple, a wealthy man, once thought
of erecting a grand temple over the image, but he was prevented from doing
so by the god appearing in his dream and telling him that he preferred to
live under the tree.16
Under a Jāl tree near Dhandhuka there is a shrine of Bhimnāth Shankar
who is known as Bhimnāth Jālvālo after the tree.17
There is a Sakhotia tree near Kutiāna, which is supposed to be the abode of
a snake deity.18
Near Rājkot in Kāthiāwār there is a tree called Gāndu or mad, vows in
honour of which are said to cure children of bronchitis.19
In the village of Vadāl near Bhiyāl in the Junāgadh State there is a banyan
tree called Lāl Vad said to have sprung from the sticks of a Vad (banyan)
used as tooth brushes by Lāl Bāva, a preceptor of the Vaishnav school. A
silver staff and silver umbrella belonging to Lāl Bāva are kept near this tree,
which is visited and worshipped by the followers of the preceptor.20
It is related that in this Lāl Vad there is an opening through which the
virtuous can pass to the other side, but not the sinful.21
There are two banyan trees near Anandpur, one of which is called Bhut-vad
or the banyan tree of the evil spirits, as it is supposed to be inhabited by
ghosts. The other is called Visalvad, because a devotee named Visaman
Bhagat lived under this tree.22
Page 312
There is a branch of the followers of Kabir called Khijāda Panth. They
worship the Khijāda or Shami in their temples.23
There is a belief that the sanctity attached to the Pipal tree has been the act
of the god Krishna. This tree is invested with a sacred thread.24
According to tradition, Krishna breathed his last under a Pipal tree.25
It is related that once blood gushed forth from a Pipal tree when it was cut.
Thenceforward it came to be regarded as a Brāhman and it is no longer
cut.26
There is a Pipal tree in the village of Prāchi near Prabhās Pātan, vows in
whose honour are believed to favour childless persons with children.27
It is described in the Purānas that Sāvitri, the daughter of King Ashupati,
lost her husband within a year after her marriage. The death took place
under a banyan tree, by worshipping which, Sāvitri succeeded in reviving
her husband. Since then women perform a vow called Vat Sāvitri Vrat on
the 13th, 14th and 15th days of the bright half of Jetha by observing a fast
and worshipping and circumambulating the banyan tree.28
There is a legend that in mythological times a woman named Vrinda was
cursed to be a plant for infidelity to her husband. She became the Tulsi
(sweet basil), which is held sacred by Hindus, and worshipped by women.29
On the top of the hill in the village of Jasdan there are two tall trees called
‘mad trees’. As the fruits of these trees resemble the face of a saint, they are
considered divine and worshipped with offerings of red lead, oil and
cocoanuts.30
Amongst Rajputs, during the marriage ceremony, the bride has to walk four
times round the sacrificial fire in the company of the bridegroom. Two of
these turns are generally taken with a wooden blade called Khāndu.31
worship the Khijāda or Shami in their temples.23
There is a belief that the sanctity attached to the Pipal tree has been the act
of the god Krishna. This tree is invested with a sacred thread.24
According to tradition, Krishna breathed his last under a Pipal tree.25
It is related that once blood gushed forth from a Pipal tree when it was cut.
Thenceforward it came to be regarded as a Brāhman and it is no longer
cut.26
There is a Pipal tree in the village of Prāchi near Prabhās Pātan, vows in
whose honour are believed to favour childless persons with children.27
It is described in the Purānas that Sāvitri, the daughter of King Ashupati,
lost her husband within a year after her marriage. The death took place
under a banyan tree, by worshipping which, Sāvitri succeeded in reviving
her husband. Since then women perform a vow called Vat Sāvitri Vrat on
the 13th, 14th and 15th days of the bright half of Jetha by observing a fast
and worshipping and circumambulating the banyan tree.28
There is a legend that in mythological times a woman named Vrinda was
cursed to be a plant for infidelity to her husband. She became the Tulsi
(sweet basil), which is held sacred by Hindus, and worshipped by women.29
On the top of the hill in the village of Jasdan there are two tall trees called
‘mad trees’. As the fruits of these trees resemble the face of a saint, they are
considered divine and worshipped with offerings of red lead, oil and
cocoanuts.30
Amongst Rajputs, during the marriage ceremony, the bride has to walk four
times round the sacrificial fire in the company of the bridegroom. Two of
these turns are generally taken with a wooden blade called Khāndu.31
Page 313
When a girl loses her betrothed twice in succession, she is married to a
Pipal tree before being betrothed for the third time.32
If the betrothed husband of a girl dies before the celebration of the
marriage, she is married to a Pipal or Ankda (a poisonous plant) in the
belief that the danger of death will fall on the tree, and that the next
husband of the girl will survive.33
If a man loses two wives one after the other, he is married to a Shami tree
before he is married again, and his third marriage is called the fourth.34
In some places, such a man is married to a Bordi (Zizyphus Jujuba) instead
of a Shami.35
In some places, if a man’s wives do not live, his next wife is married to an
Ankdi plant before her marriage with him.36
A belief prevails that an insane maiden is cured of her insanity if married to
the field god Kshetrapāl.37
If a girl attains puberty before marriage, she is married to a Pipal tree. A girl
with congenital deformities is also married to a Pipal tree.38
It is generally believed that if a betrothed girl touches red lead, she is
carried away by Kshetrapāl.39
The belief that Kshetrapāl carries away the bride from the marriage altar is
so common, that a stone representing the god is placed on the marriage altar
and touched by the bridal pair at every turn round the sacrificial fire.40
If this is not done, disastrous consequences follow, to avert which, that
portion of the marriage ceremony in which Kshetrapāl is propitiated has to
be performed a second time.41
Disagreement between husband and wife soon after marriage is attributed to
the wrath of Kshetrapāl. To bring about a reconciliation between them, they
Pipal tree before being betrothed for the third time.32
If the betrothed husband of a girl dies before the celebration of the
marriage, she is married to a Pipal or Ankda (a poisonous plant) in the
belief that the danger of death will fall on the tree, and that the next
husband of the girl will survive.33
If a man loses two wives one after the other, he is married to a Shami tree
before he is married again, and his third marriage is called the fourth.34
In some places, such a man is married to a Bordi (Zizyphus Jujuba) instead
of a Shami.35
In some places, if a man’s wives do not live, his next wife is married to an
Ankdi plant before her marriage with him.36
A belief prevails that an insane maiden is cured of her insanity if married to
the field god Kshetrapāl.37
If a girl attains puberty before marriage, she is married to a Pipal tree. A girl
with congenital deformities is also married to a Pipal tree.38
It is generally believed that if a betrothed girl touches red lead, she is
carried away by Kshetrapāl.39
The belief that Kshetrapāl carries away the bride from the marriage altar is
so common, that a stone representing the god is placed on the marriage altar
and touched by the bridal pair at every turn round the sacrificial fire.40
If this is not done, disastrous consequences follow, to avert which, that
portion of the marriage ceremony in which Kshetrapāl is propitiated has to
be performed a second time.41
Disagreement between husband and wife soon after marriage is attributed to
the wrath of Kshetrapāl. To bring about a reconciliation between them, they
Page 314
are taken to a triangular field and married there to please the god.42
All Hindus worship the snake. The day especially devoted to its worship is
the fifth day of the bright half of Shrāvan, which is called Nāg panchami. In
some places Nāg panchami is observed on the 5th day of the dark half of
Shrāvan. On this day an image of a snake is made of cowdung or earth, or
its picture is drawn on the wall.
The image is worshipped as a deity, and kulera, a mixture of wheat, oat or
rice flour, clarified butter, and sugar or molasses is offered to it. After
worship, the members of the household take their meal and eat kulera,
cocoanuts and cucumbers. Only one meal is taken on this day by men and
women.43
The Nāg panchmi is observed as a vrat or vow, generally by women. They
do not take any meal on this day, but live only on kulera. On this day, her
Highness the Mahārāni of Baroda, mounted on an elephant, goes in
procession to the woods to worship an ant-hill. The pipers who accompany
the procession blow their pipes, and allured by the sound, the snakes come
out of their holes, when they are worshipped and fed with milk.44
Women do not pound, grind or sift corn on the Nāg panchami day, and all
people try to see a snake.
It is obligatory in some families to offer a cocoanut to the Nāgdev (snake
god) on the Nāg panchami day.45
In some places, the likeness of the snake is engraved on a stone or copper
plate and worshipped. In others, it is drawn on a piece of paper which is
affixed to the wall.46
In many places there are temples dedicated to snake gods. These gods are
known by various names. Some of the temples with the names of the gods
installed in them are given below:—
1. The temple of Sarmālio Nāg at Arani Timba near Bikāner.
All Hindus worship the snake. The day especially devoted to its worship is
the fifth day of the bright half of Shrāvan, which is called Nāg panchami. In
some places Nāg panchami is observed on the 5th day of the dark half of
Shrāvan. On this day an image of a snake is made of cowdung or earth, or
its picture is drawn on the wall.
The image is worshipped as a deity, and kulera, a mixture of wheat, oat or
rice flour, clarified butter, and sugar or molasses is offered to it. After
worship, the members of the household take their meal and eat kulera,
cocoanuts and cucumbers. Only one meal is taken on this day by men and
women.43
The Nāg panchmi is observed as a vrat or vow, generally by women. They
do not take any meal on this day, but live only on kulera. On this day, her
Highness the Mahārāni of Baroda, mounted on an elephant, goes in
procession to the woods to worship an ant-hill. The pipers who accompany
the procession blow their pipes, and allured by the sound, the snakes come
out of their holes, when they are worshipped and fed with milk.44
Women do not pound, grind or sift corn on the Nāg panchami day, and all
people try to see a snake.
It is obligatory in some families to offer a cocoanut to the Nāgdev (snake
god) on the Nāg panchami day.45
In some places, the likeness of the snake is engraved on a stone or copper
plate and worshipped. In others, it is drawn on a piece of paper which is
affixed to the wall.46
In many places there are temples dedicated to snake gods. These gods are
known by various names. Some of the temples with the names of the gods
installed in them are given below:—
1. The temple of Sarmālio Nāg at Arani Timba near Bikāner.
Page 315
2. The temple of Ragatio Nāg midway between Kanāza and Vanthali in the
Junāgadh State.
3. The temple of Charmālio Nāg at Chokdi near Chuda. Vows of offering
sweets are made to this Nāg by persons bitten by snakes, who visit the
temple, hold the sweets before the image of the god, distribute them among
the visitors, and are in return presented with cotton thread which they wear
round the neck.
This god is also reputed to have the power of blessing childless persons
with offspring. The offerings concerned consist of cradles, which are
presented to the god after the wished for object has been fulfilled.
4. The temple of Vāsuki Nāg near Thāngadh. This Nāg is supposed to be a
servant of the god Shiva. An old snake with gray moustaches is said to live
in this temple. He drinks milk at the hands of visitors. Many vows are made
in honour of this snake god.
5. The temple of Khambhadio Nāg at Khāmbhada.
6. The temple of Nāg Mandal at Dadvi.
7. The temple of Bhujia Nāg at Bhuj.
8. The temple of Shimalia Nāg near Jadeshvar in the neighbourhood of
Jetpur.
9. The temple of Fulia Nāg near Jopanāth.
10. The temple of Malodaro Nāg at Malod.
11. The temple of Charmālio Nāg at Chudia.
12. The temple of Chhatrāsia Nāg in Chhatrāsa.
13. The temple of Monapario Nāg at Monpar near Chital.
14. The temple of Ashāpāl at Nanadiya in the Bantva State.
Junāgadh State.
3. The temple of Charmālio Nāg at Chokdi near Chuda. Vows of offering
sweets are made to this Nāg by persons bitten by snakes, who visit the
temple, hold the sweets before the image of the god, distribute them among
the visitors, and are in return presented with cotton thread which they wear
round the neck.
This god is also reputed to have the power of blessing childless persons
with offspring. The offerings concerned consist of cradles, which are
presented to the god after the wished for object has been fulfilled.
4. The temple of Vāsuki Nāg near Thāngadh. This Nāg is supposed to be a
servant of the god Shiva. An old snake with gray moustaches is said to live
in this temple. He drinks milk at the hands of visitors. Many vows are made
in honour of this snake god.
5. The temple of Khambhadio Nāg at Khāmbhada.
6. The temple of Nāg Mandal at Dadvi.
7. The temple of Bhujia Nāg at Bhuj.
8. The temple of Shimalia Nāg near Jadeshvar in the neighbourhood of
Jetpur.
9. The temple of Fulia Nāg near Jopanāth.
10. The temple of Malodaro Nāg at Malod.
11. The temple of Charmālio Nāg at Chudia.
12. The temple of Chhatrāsia Nāg in Chhatrāsa.
13. The temple of Monapario Nāg at Monpar near Chital.
14. The temple of Ashāpāl at Nanadiya in the Bantva State.
Page 316
15. The temple of Khodiāl Nāgini at Khokharda in the Junāgadh State.
16. The temple of Gondalia Nāg at Gondal.
It is related that there were once divine snakes in the royal fort of Jodia.
When a pair (male and female) of these snakes were found killed, the
heinous act was atoned for by the bodies of the snakes being buried and a
temple erected over the grave. The male snake of this pair is known as Nāg
Nāth or the Lord of Snakes.
According to others, Nāg Nāth was a big white snake with gray
moustaches. He once waylaid a milkman of the royal household, forced him
to put down the milkpot he was carrying, drank the milk and went away.
This snake is believed to be divine.47
The god Shiva is supposed to wear a snake round his neck like a garland of
flowers. So, in all temples of Shiva, an image of a snake is installed behind
the idol of the god with his hood spread over the idol.48
In ancient times dead snakes were buried and temples and altars were
erected over their graves. An image of the dead snake was engraved on the
altar.49
There is a shrine dedicated to Chāndalia Nāg on the bank of the river
Palavo on the road from Mota Devalia to Tramboda. It is visited by a sect of
beggars called Nāg-magas. The Nāg-magas beg wealth of the snake god,
and it is said, that he bestows it on them. They are never seen begging from
any body else.50
In the Purānas, the Shesh Nāg, the Takshak Nāg, Pundarik, Kāli Nāg and
Karkotak Nāg are described as gods. In modern times, Sarmālio, Bhujo and
Gadhio are believed to be as powerful as gods, and vows are observed in
their honour.51
Dhananjaya, Pushkar and Vāsuki are also considered to be very powerful.52
16. The temple of Gondalia Nāg at Gondal.
It is related that there were once divine snakes in the royal fort of Jodia.
When a pair (male and female) of these snakes were found killed, the
heinous act was atoned for by the bodies of the snakes being buried and a
temple erected over the grave. The male snake of this pair is known as Nāg
Nāth or the Lord of Snakes.
According to others, Nāg Nāth was a big white snake with gray
moustaches. He once waylaid a milkman of the royal household, forced him
to put down the milkpot he was carrying, drank the milk and went away.
This snake is believed to be divine.47
The god Shiva is supposed to wear a snake round his neck like a garland of
flowers. So, in all temples of Shiva, an image of a snake is installed behind
the idol of the god with his hood spread over the idol.48
In ancient times dead snakes were buried and temples and altars were
erected over their graves. An image of the dead snake was engraved on the
altar.49
There is a shrine dedicated to Chāndalia Nāg on the bank of the river
Palavo on the road from Mota Devalia to Tramboda. It is visited by a sect of
beggars called Nāg-magas. The Nāg-magas beg wealth of the snake god,
and it is said, that he bestows it on them. They are never seen begging from
any body else.50
In the Purānas, the Shesh Nāg, the Takshak Nāg, Pundarik, Kāli Nāg and
Karkotak Nāg are described as gods. In modern times, Sarmālio, Bhujo and
Gadhio are believed to be as powerful as gods, and vows are observed in
their honour.51
Dhananjaya, Pushkar and Vāsuki are also considered to be very powerful.52
Page 317
Takshak is believed to have drunk the nectar of immortality.53
A tradition is current that god Vishnu sleeps on the Shesha Nāg in the Milky
Ocean. This snake is believed to have a thousand mouths and to support the
earth on its hood.54
It is described in the Purānas how King Parikshit was bitten by Takshak
Nāg and King Nala by Karkotak Nāg. King Nala became deformed owing
to the bite, but he could assume his original form by wearing a special
dress, through the favour of Karkotak.
Vāsuki Nāg was wrapped round the Māndār mountain, which was used as a
churning handle by the gods and demons to churn the ocean for the
recovery of the fourteen jewels from the ocean55.
It is a common belief that treasures buried underground are guarded by
snakes.
Generally a miser dying without an heir is supposed to be born as a snake
after his death, to guard his hoarded money.
It is believed by some people that on the establishment of a new dynasty of
kings after a revolution, a snake makes its appearance to guard the
accumulated wealth of the fallen dynasty.56
It is also believed that a rich man dying with his mind fixed on his wealth is
born as a snake, to guard the wealth.57
There is a further belief that one who collects money by foul means and
does not spend it, is born as a snake in his next life to guard his buried
treasure.58
There is still another belief that a man who buries his treasure in a secret
place becomes a snake after death, to guard the treasure.59
The beliefs mentioned above have given rise to the impression that places
where big snakes are found are sure to have a treasure trove concealed in
A tradition is current that god Vishnu sleeps on the Shesha Nāg in the Milky
Ocean. This snake is believed to have a thousand mouths and to support the
earth on its hood.54
It is described in the Purānas how King Parikshit was bitten by Takshak
Nāg and King Nala by Karkotak Nāg. King Nala became deformed owing
to the bite, but he could assume his original form by wearing a special
dress, through the favour of Karkotak.
Vāsuki Nāg was wrapped round the Māndār mountain, which was used as a
churning handle by the gods and demons to churn the ocean for the
recovery of the fourteen jewels from the ocean55.
It is a common belief that treasures buried underground are guarded by
snakes.
Generally a miser dying without an heir is supposed to be born as a snake
after his death, to guard his hoarded money.
It is believed by some people that on the establishment of a new dynasty of
kings after a revolution, a snake makes its appearance to guard the
accumulated wealth of the fallen dynasty.56
It is also believed that a rich man dying with his mind fixed on his wealth is
born as a snake, to guard the wealth.57
There is a further belief that one who collects money by foul means and
does not spend it, is born as a snake in his next life to guard his buried
treasure.58
There is still another belief that a man who buries his treasure in a secret
place becomes a snake after death, to guard the treasure.59
The beliefs mentioned above have given rise to the impression that places
where big snakes are found are sure to have a treasure trove concealed in
Page 318
them.60
It is believed that the snake guarding the treasure of his previous life does
not allow anybody to remove it, and bites any one who attempts to do so.61
If in spite of this, a man succeeds in seizing the treasure by force or by the
power of mantras or incantations, it is believed that he leaves no heirs to
use it.62
A belief is also current that such guardian snakes allow those persons to
take away the treasures guarded by them if they are destined to possess
them.63
To the south of Kolki there is a site of a deserted village. It is believed to
contain a buried treasure which is guarded by a snake with white
moustaches. This snake is seen roaming about the place.64
It is related that a Brāhman once read in an old paper that there was a
treasure buried under a Shami tree in Deola. He communicated the
information to the Thākor of Dhrol who secured the treasure by excavating
the place. The Brāhman went to worship the spot, but was buried alive. The
Thākor buried the treasure in his castle, but the Brāhman, becoming a
snake, guarded the treasure and allowed none to touch it. All attempts to dig
it up were frustrated by attacks of bees and the appearance of a snake.
A Kshatriya named Dev Karan, while the foundation of his house was being
dug, found a treasure guarded by a snake. He killed the snake by pouring
boiling oil over it and secured the treasure.
A Kunbi of Malia, while digging a pit for storing corn, found a large vessel
filled with costly coins guarded by a snake. He killed the snake and secured
the vessel.65
There are many practices in vogue to render the poisonous bite of a snake
ineffective.
If the man bitten by a snake be bold, he cuts off the bitten part.
It is believed that the snake guarding the treasure of his previous life does
not allow anybody to remove it, and bites any one who attempts to do so.61
If in spite of this, a man succeeds in seizing the treasure by force or by the
power of mantras or incantations, it is believed that he leaves no heirs to
use it.62
A belief is also current that such guardian snakes allow those persons to
take away the treasures guarded by them if they are destined to possess
them.63
To the south of Kolki there is a site of a deserted village. It is believed to
contain a buried treasure which is guarded by a snake with white
moustaches. This snake is seen roaming about the place.64
It is related that a Brāhman once read in an old paper that there was a
treasure buried under a Shami tree in Deola. He communicated the
information to the Thākor of Dhrol who secured the treasure by excavating
the place. The Brāhman went to worship the spot, but was buried alive. The
Thākor buried the treasure in his castle, but the Brāhman, becoming a
snake, guarded the treasure and allowed none to touch it. All attempts to dig
it up were frustrated by attacks of bees and the appearance of a snake.
A Kshatriya named Dev Karan, while the foundation of his house was being
dug, found a treasure guarded by a snake. He killed the snake by pouring
boiling oil over it and secured the treasure.
A Kunbi of Malia, while digging a pit for storing corn, found a large vessel
filled with costly coins guarded by a snake. He killed the snake and secured
the vessel.65
There are many practices in vogue to render the poisonous bite of a snake
ineffective.
If the man bitten by a snake be bold, he cuts off the bitten part.
Page 319
Some have the bitten part branded.
Those who have no ulcer in the mouth suck the poison, and spit it out.
The powder of the fruit of the Nol Vel is also administered with water.
Sometimes emetics and purgative medicines are given.
A mixture of pepper and clarified butter is also believed to be efficacious.66
Other remedies for the cure of snake bite, are as follows:—
The patient is made to wear a cotton thread in the name of Charmālia Nāg,
Sharmalia Nāg, or Vasangi Nāg, and certain observances, as stated above,
are promised to the snake deity.67
The ends of peacock feathers are pounded and smoked in a chilum (clay
pipe) by the patient.68
A moharo (stone found in the head of a snake supposed to be a cure for
snake poison) is applied to the wound caused by the bite. It absorbs the
poison, and on being dipped into milk, transfers the poison to the milk.
Thus it can be used any number of times.69
There is a Girāsia in Lakhtar who is believed to cure patients suffering from
snake poison. As soon as a person is bitten by a snake, one of the garments
worn by him is taken to the Girāsia, who ties it into a knot and this cures the
patient.70
There is a Bāva in Rajpāra, a village near Anandpur. He and all the
members of his family are reputed to be able to cure snake-bites. When a
person is bitten by a snake, he or a friend goes to the Bāvā’s house and
informs him or any member of his family of the occurrence. The Bāva or
the person who receives the intimation folds into a knot a garment of the
informant, which he afterwards unfolds. As soon as this is done, the patient
is in great pain, loses his senses, is seized with convulsions and tells why
Those who have no ulcer in the mouth suck the poison, and spit it out.
The powder of the fruit of the Nol Vel is also administered with water.
Sometimes emetics and purgative medicines are given.
A mixture of pepper and clarified butter is also believed to be efficacious.66
Other remedies for the cure of snake bite, are as follows:—
The patient is made to wear a cotton thread in the name of Charmālia Nāg,
Sharmalia Nāg, or Vasangi Nāg, and certain observances, as stated above,
are promised to the snake deity.67
The ends of peacock feathers are pounded and smoked in a chilum (clay
pipe) by the patient.68
A moharo (stone found in the head of a snake supposed to be a cure for
snake poison) is applied to the wound caused by the bite. It absorbs the
poison, and on being dipped into milk, transfers the poison to the milk.
Thus it can be used any number of times.69
There is a Girāsia in Lakhtar who is believed to cure patients suffering from
snake poison. As soon as a person is bitten by a snake, one of the garments
worn by him is taken to the Girāsia, who ties it into a knot and this cures the
patient.70
There is a Bāva in Rajpāra, a village near Anandpur. He and all the
members of his family are reputed to be able to cure snake-bites. When a
person is bitten by a snake, he or a friend goes to the Bāvā’s house and
informs him or any member of his family of the occurrence. The Bāva or
the person who receives the intimation folds into a knot a garment of the
informant, which he afterwards unfolds. As soon as this is done, the patient
is in great pain, loses his senses, is seized with convulsions and tells why
Page 320
the snake bit him. Thereupon the relatives of the patient implore the pardon
of the snake, which is granted on condition that the patient should give alms
to the poor.71
In some places, Bhagats or devotees of Mātāji are invited to dinner along
with a number of exorcists, who are generally Rabāris. After they have
assembled at the house of the patient, they start out in a procession headed
by one who holds in his hand a bunch of peacock feathers, to bathe in a
river. On their way to and back from the river they sing songs in praise of
the goddess to the accompaniment of drums and other musical instruments.
After their return from the river, the whole party are treated to a feast,
which is supposed to cure the patient of the effects of the snake-bite.72
Some people believe that snakes, like evil spirits, can enter the bodies of
human beings. Such persons, when possessed, are supposed to have the
power of curing snake-bites.73
Every village has an exorcist who is a specialist in curing the effects of
snake-bites. When a person is bitten by a snake the exorcist is at once sent
for. He gives the patient Nim leaves and pepper to chew, to determine the
extent of the effect of the bite. Next he asks one of those present to bathe
and bring water in an unused earthen jar. He then recites incantations, and
sprinkles water from the jar over the body of the patient. If this does not
counteract the effects of the poison, he throws red-hot pieces of charcoal at
the patient, when the snake speaks through the patient and states that he bit
the patient because he committed a certain offence, and that he will leave
him if certain offerings are made. After he has ceased speaking, the patient
begins to shake and to crawl about like a snake, and is then cured. If the
man be doomed to death, the snake would say, “I have bitten him by the
order of the god of death, and I will not leave him without taking his life.”74
Sometimes the exorcist fans the patient with branches of the Nim tree,
reciting mantras, and thereupon the patient becomes possessed by the snake
and declares the cause of his offence.
of the snake, which is granted on condition that the patient should give alms
to the poor.71
In some places, Bhagats or devotees of Mātāji are invited to dinner along
with a number of exorcists, who are generally Rabāris. After they have
assembled at the house of the patient, they start out in a procession headed
by one who holds in his hand a bunch of peacock feathers, to bathe in a
river. On their way to and back from the river they sing songs in praise of
the goddess to the accompaniment of drums and other musical instruments.
After their return from the river, the whole party are treated to a feast,
which is supposed to cure the patient of the effects of the snake-bite.72
Some people believe that snakes, like evil spirits, can enter the bodies of
human beings. Such persons, when possessed, are supposed to have the
power of curing snake-bites.73
Every village has an exorcist who is a specialist in curing the effects of
snake-bites. When a person is bitten by a snake the exorcist is at once sent
for. He gives the patient Nim leaves and pepper to chew, to determine the
extent of the effect of the bite. Next he asks one of those present to bathe
and bring water in an unused earthen jar. He then recites incantations, and
sprinkles water from the jar over the body of the patient. If this does not
counteract the effects of the poison, he throws red-hot pieces of charcoal at
the patient, when the snake speaks through the patient and states that he bit
the patient because he committed a certain offence, and that he will leave
him if certain offerings are made. After he has ceased speaking, the patient
begins to shake and to crawl about like a snake, and is then cured. If the
man be doomed to death, the snake would say, “I have bitten him by the
order of the god of death, and I will not leave him without taking his life.”74
Sometimes the exorcist fans the patient with branches of the Nim tree,
reciting mantras, and thereupon the patient becomes possessed by the snake
and declares the cause of his offence.
Page 321
Some exorcists present a magic epistle or charm asking the snake that bit
the patient to be present. The snake obeys the call, and appears before the
exorcist. The latter then asks the snake to suck the poison from the wound
of the patient, which is done by the snake, and the patient is then cured.75
In some places, the exorcist ties up the patient when the snake tells the
cause of the bite. Next the exorcist calls on the snake to leave the body of
the patient, who then begins to crawl about like a snake and is cured.
On some occasions, the exorcist slaps the cheek of the person who calls him
to attend the patient. It is said that the poison disappears as soon as the slap
is given.76
Some exorcists take a stick having seven joints and break them one by one.
As the stick is broken, the patient recovers, his recovery being complete
when the seventh joint is broken.77
It is believed that the Dhedas are the oldest worshippers of Nāgs or snakes.
When a person is bitten by a snake, he is seated near a Dheda, who prays
the snake to leave the body of the patient. It is said that in some cases this
method proves efficacious in curing the patient.78
It is stated that exorcists who know the mantra (incantation) for the cure of
snake-bites must lead a strictly moral life. If they touch a woman in child-
bed or during her period the mantra loses its power. This can be regained
through purification, bathing, and by reciting the mantra while inhaling the
smoke of burning frankincense. Some exorcists abstain from certain kinds
of vegetables and sweets, e. g., the Mogri (Rat-tailed radish), Julebi (a kind
of sweet), etc. They have also to abstain from articles of a colour like that of
a snake.79
A belief prevails that there is a precious stone in the head of the snake. Such
stones are called mohors. They are occasionally shown to the people by
snake-charmers, who declare that it is very difficult to procure them.
the patient to be present. The snake obeys the call, and appears before the
exorcist. The latter then asks the snake to suck the poison from the wound
of the patient, which is done by the snake, and the patient is then cured.75
In some places, the exorcist ties up the patient when the snake tells the
cause of the bite. Next the exorcist calls on the snake to leave the body of
the patient, who then begins to crawl about like a snake and is cured.
On some occasions, the exorcist slaps the cheek of the person who calls him
to attend the patient. It is said that the poison disappears as soon as the slap
is given.76
Some exorcists take a stick having seven joints and break them one by one.
As the stick is broken, the patient recovers, his recovery being complete
when the seventh joint is broken.77
It is believed that the Dhedas are the oldest worshippers of Nāgs or snakes.
When a person is bitten by a snake, he is seated near a Dheda, who prays
the snake to leave the body of the patient. It is said that in some cases this
method proves efficacious in curing the patient.78
It is stated that exorcists who know the mantra (incantation) for the cure of
snake-bites must lead a strictly moral life. If they touch a woman in child-
bed or during her period the mantra loses its power. This can be regained
through purification, bathing, and by reciting the mantra while inhaling the
smoke of burning frankincense. Some exorcists abstain from certain kinds
of vegetables and sweets, e. g., the Mogri (Rat-tailed radish), Julebi (a kind
of sweet), etc. They have also to abstain from articles of a colour like that of
a snake.79
A belief prevails that there is a precious stone in the head of the snake. Such
stones are called mohors. They are occasionally shown to the people by
snake-charmers, who declare that it is very difficult to procure them.
Page 322
It is stated that on dark nights snakes take these mohors out of their head
and place them on prominent spots in order to be able to move about in the
dark by their light.80
It is believed that snakes give these mohors to those who please them. If
one tries to take a mohor by force, the snake swallows it and dissolves it
into water.81
As stated above, the mohor has the property of absorbing the poison from
snake-bites.
It is because a snake is believed to hold a precious stone in its head that it is
called manidhar, that is, holder of a jewel.82
It is believed by some people that the mohor shines the most when a
rainbow appears in the sky.83
According to the Purānas the pātāl or nether world is as beautiful as
heaven. It is inhabited by Nāgs or snakes in human form. The Nāg girls are
reputed to be so handsome that an extraordinarily beautiful girl is
commonly likened to a Nāg girl.
It is believed that in ancient times inter-marriages between Nāgs and human
beings were common.84
It is a common belief that Kshetrapāl, the guardian snake of fields, married
human brides. So to propitiate him, his image is installed on the marriage
altar, and the bride takes three turns round it when walking round the
sacrificial fire with the bridegroom.85
According to the Purānas, king Dasharath married a Nāg girl Sumitra.86
Similarly Indrajit, the son of Rāvan, the Lord of Lanka or Ceylon, married a
Nāg girl.87
At times snakes are seen in houses. They are believed to be the guardians of
the houses, and worshipped with offerings of lamps fed with ghi. After
and place them on prominent spots in order to be able to move about in the
dark by their light.80
It is believed that snakes give these mohors to those who please them. If
one tries to take a mohor by force, the snake swallows it and dissolves it
into water.81
As stated above, the mohor has the property of absorbing the poison from
snake-bites.
It is because a snake is believed to hold a precious stone in its head that it is
called manidhar, that is, holder of a jewel.82
It is believed by some people that the mohor shines the most when a
rainbow appears in the sky.83
According to the Purānas the pātāl or nether world is as beautiful as
heaven. It is inhabited by Nāgs or snakes in human form. The Nāg girls are
reputed to be so handsome that an extraordinarily beautiful girl is
commonly likened to a Nāg girl.
It is believed that in ancient times inter-marriages between Nāgs and human
beings were common.84
It is a common belief that Kshetrapāl, the guardian snake of fields, married
human brides. So to propitiate him, his image is installed on the marriage
altar, and the bride takes three turns round it when walking round the
sacrificial fire with the bridegroom.85
According to the Purānas, king Dasharath married a Nāg girl Sumitra.86
Similarly Indrajit, the son of Rāvan, the Lord of Lanka or Ceylon, married a
Nāg girl.87
At times snakes are seen in houses. They are believed to be the guardians of
the houses, and worshipped with offerings of lamps fed with ghi. After
Page 323
worship, the members of the family pray to the snake, “Oh snake! Thou art
our guardian. Protect our health and wealth. We are thy children and live in
thy garden.”88
Some people believe that the spirits of deceased ancestors, on account of
the anxiety for the welfare of progeny, become snakes and guard the
house.89
1 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
2 The School Master of Todia. ↑
3 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
4 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
5 The School Master of Moti Parabdi. ↑
6 The School Master of Todia. ↑
7 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
8 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
9 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
10 The School Master of Todia. ↑
11 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
12 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
13 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
14 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
15 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
16 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
17 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
18 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
19 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
20 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
21 The School Master of Uptela. ↑
our guardian. Protect our health and wealth. We are thy children and live in
thy garden.”88
Some people believe that the spirits of deceased ancestors, on account of
the anxiety for the welfare of progeny, become snakes and guard the
house.89
1 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
2 The School Master of Todia. ↑
3 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
4 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
5 The School Master of Moti Parabdi. ↑
6 The School Master of Todia. ↑
7 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
8 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
9 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
10 The School Master of Todia. ↑
11 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
12 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
13 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
14 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
15 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
16 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
17 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
18 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
19 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
20 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
21 The School Master of Uptela. ↑
Page 324
22 The School Master of Anandpur. ↑
23 The School Masters of Ganod and Khirāsara. ↑
24 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
25 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
26 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
27 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
28 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
29 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
30 The School Master of Jasdan. ↑
31 The School Masters of Dhānk and Dadvi. ↑
32 The School Masters of Dhānk and Māvaiya. ↑
33 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
34 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
35 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
36 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
37 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
38 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
39 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
40 The School Masters of Uptela and Limbdi. ↑
41 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
42 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
43 The Schoolmistress, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. ↑
44 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
45 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
46 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
47 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
48 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
23 The School Masters of Ganod and Khirāsara. ↑
24 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
25 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
26 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
27 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
28 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
29 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
30 The School Master of Jasdan. ↑
31 The School Masters of Dhānk and Dadvi. ↑
32 The School Masters of Dhānk and Māvaiya. ↑
33 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
34 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
35 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
36 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
37 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
38 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
39 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
40 The School Masters of Uptela and Limbdi. ↑
41 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
42 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
43 The Schoolmistress, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot. ↑
44 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
45 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
46 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
47 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
48 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
Page 325
49 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
50 The School Master of Mota Devalia. ↑
51 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
52 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
53 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
54 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
55 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
56 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
57 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
58 The School Master of Charādva. ↑
59 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
60 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
61 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
62 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
63 The School Master of Sanka. ↑
64 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
65 The School Master of Todia. ↑
66 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
67 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
68 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
69 The D. E. Inspector, Hālār. ↑
70 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
71 The School Master of Anandpur. ↑
72 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
73 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
74 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
75 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
50 The School Master of Mota Devalia. ↑
51 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
52 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
53 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
54 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
55 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
56 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
57 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
58 The School Master of Charādva. ↑
59 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
60 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
61 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
62 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
63 The School Master of Sanka. ↑
64 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
65 The School Master of Todia. ↑
66 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
67 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
68 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
69 The D. E. Inspector, Hālār. ↑
70 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
71 The School Master of Anandpur. ↑
72 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
73 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
74 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
75 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
Page 326
76 The D. E. Inspector, Hālār. ↑
77 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
78 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
79 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
80 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
81 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
82 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
83 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
84 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
85 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
86 The School Mistress, Civil Station Girls’ School, Rājkot. ↑
87 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
88 The School Master of Vanod, and Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
89 The School Master of Sāyala. ↑
77 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
78 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
79 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
80 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
81 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
82 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
83 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
84 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
85 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
86 The School Mistress, Civil Station Girls’ School, Rājkot. ↑
87 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
88 The School Master of Vanod, and Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
89 The School Master of Sāyala. ↑
Page 327
Page 328
CHAPTER VIII.
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TOTEMISM AND FETISHISM.
The worship of totems is not known to prevail in Gujarāt, but the names of
persons and clans or families are occasionally derived from animals and
plants.
Instances of names derived from animals are given below:—
NAME. ANIMAL FROM WHICH NAME. ANIMAL FROM WHICH
DERIVED. DERIVED.
1. Hāthibhāi Hathi—an elephant. 8. Mankodia Mankoda—a black ant.
2. Vāghajibhāi Vāgh—a tiger. 9. Tido Tid—a locust.2
3. Nāgjibhāi Nāg—a snake. 10. Hansrāj Hansa—a goose.
4. Popatbhāi Popat—a parrot. 11. Vinchi3 Vinchi—a female scorpion.
5. Morbhāi Mor—a peacock. 12. Olo Olo—a species of bird.
6. Chaklibhat Chakli—a sparrow.1 13. Ajo Aja—a goat.
7. Kido Kidi—an ant. 14. Mena3 Mena—a species of bird.4
The Kāli Parāj or aboriginal tribes in Gujarāt give such names as Kāgdo
(crow), Kolo (Jackal), Bilādo (cat), Kutro (dog) to their children according
as one or other of these animals is heard to cry at the time of birth.5
The following are instances of names derived from plants:—
NAME. PLANT OR TREE FROM NAME. PLANT OR TREE FROM
WHICH DERIVED. WHICH DERIVED.
1. Gulāb6 Gulāb—the rose. 8. Dudhi3 Dudhi—Pumpkin.
2. Ambo Ambo—the mango. 9. Lavengi3 Laveng—Clove.
3. Tulsibāi3 Tulsi—the sweet basil. 10. Mulo Mulo—Radish.
4. Tulsidās Ditto. 11. Limbdo Limbdo—The Nim tree.
5. Kesharbāi3 Keshar—Saffron. 12. Mako Maki—Maize.8
The worship of totems is not known to prevail in Gujarāt, but the names of
persons and clans or families are occasionally derived from animals and
plants.
Instances of names derived from animals are given below:—
NAME. ANIMAL FROM WHICH NAME. ANIMAL FROM WHICH
DERIVED. DERIVED.
1. Hāthibhāi Hathi—an elephant. 8. Mankodia Mankoda—a black ant.
2. Vāghajibhāi Vāgh—a tiger. 9. Tido Tid—a locust.2
3. Nāgjibhāi Nāg—a snake. 10. Hansrāj Hansa—a goose.
4. Popatbhāi Popat—a parrot. 11. Vinchi3 Vinchi—a female scorpion.
5. Morbhāi Mor—a peacock. 12. Olo Olo—a species of bird.
6. Chaklibhat Chakli—a sparrow.1 13. Ajo Aja—a goat.
7. Kido Kidi—an ant. 14. Mena3 Mena—a species of bird.4
The Kāli Parāj or aboriginal tribes in Gujarāt give such names as Kāgdo
(crow), Kolo (Jackal), Bilādo (cat), Kutro (dog) to their children according
as one or other of these animals is heard to cry at the time of birth.5
The following are instances of names derived from plants:—
NAME. PLANT OR TREE FROM NAME. PLANT OR TREE FROM
WHICH DERIVED. WHICH DERIVED.
1. Gulāb6 Gulāb—the rose. 8. Dudhi3 Dudhi—Pumpkin.
2. Ambo Ambo—the mango. 9. Lavengi3 Laveng—Clove.
3. Tulsibāi3 Tulsi—the sweet basil. 10. Mulo Mulo—Radish.
4. Tulsidās Ditto. 11. Limbdo Limbdo—The Nim tree.
5. Kesharbāi3 Keshar—Saffron. 12. Mako Maki—Maize.8
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NAME. PLANT OR TREE FROM NAME. PLANT OR TREE FROM
WHICH DERIVED. WHICH DERIVED.
6. Galālbāi3 Galāl—Red powder.7 13. Champo Champa—Michelia Champaca.9
7. Bili3 Bili—Aegle marmelos.
Instances of family or clan names derived from trees and animals are as
follows:—
NAME. DERIVATION. NAME. DERIVATION.
1. Untia Unt—camel. 6. Bhensdadia Bhensa—A buffalo.
2. Gadheda Gadheda—An ass. 7. Ghetiya Gheta—A sheep.
3. Dedakia Dedako—A frog. 8. Sāvaj A species of wild animals.10
4. Balada Balad—An ox. 9. Kakadia Kakadi—cucumber.11
5. Godhani Godho—A bull.
The cow, the she-goat, the horse, the deer, peacock, the Tilad or singing
sparrow, the goose, the Nāg or snake, the eagle, the elephant and the male
monkey are believed to be sacred by all Hindus. Of these, the greatest
sanctity attaches to the cow. Her urine is sipped for the atonement of sins.
The cow is also revered by the Pārsis.12
The mouth of the she-goat and the smell of the horse are considered
sacred.12
An elephant is considered sacred, because when the head of Ganpati was
chopped off by Shiva, the head of an elephant was joined to his trunk.13
The peacock is considered sacred on account of its being the conveyance of
Sarasvati, the goddess of learning.13
A male monkey is held holy, because it is supposed to represent the monkey
god Māruti.13
Some sanctity attaches to the rat also, as it is the conveyance of the god
Ganpati. He is called Māma or maternal uncle by the Hindus.14
WHICH DERIVED. WHICH DERIVED.
6. Galālbāi3 Galāl—Red powder.7 13. Champo Champa—Michelia Champaca.9
7. Bili3 Bili—Aegle marmelos.
Instances of family or clan names derived from trees and animals are as
follows:—
NAME. DERIVATION. NAME. DERIVATION.
1. Untia Unt—camel. 6. Bhensdadia Bhensa—A buffalo.
2. Gadheda Gadheda—An ass. 7. Ghetiya Gheta—A sheep.
3. Dedakia Dedako—A frog. 8. Sāvaj A species of wild animals.10
4. Balada Balad—An ox. 9. Kakadia Kakadi—cucumber.11
5. Godhani Godho—A bull.
The cow, the she-goat, the horse, the deer, peacock, the Tilad or singing
sparrow, the goose, the Nāg or snake, the eagle, the elephant and the male
monkey are believed to be sacred by all Hindus. Of these, the greatest
sanctity attaches to the cow. Her urine is sipped for the atonement of sins.
The cow is also revered by the Pārsis.12
The mouth of the she-goat and the smell of the horse are considered
sacred.12
An elephant is considered sacred, because when the head of Ganpati was
chopped off by Shiva, the head of an elephant was joined to his trunk.13
The peacock is considered sacred on account of its being the conveyance of
Sarasvati, the goddess of learning.13
A male monkey is held holy, because it is supposed to represent the monkey
god Māruti.13
Some sanctity attaches to the rat also, as it is the conveyance of the god
Ganpati. He is called Māma or maternal uncle by the Hindus.14
Page 331
The pig is held taboo by the Musalmāns.15
Brāhmans, Baniās, Bhātiās, Kunbis, Sutārs and Darjis abstain from flesh
and liquor.16
Some Brāhmans and Baniās do not eat tādiās (fruit of the palm tree) as they
look like human eyes.17
Some Brāhmans abstain from garlic and onions. Some do not eat Kodra
(punctured millet).18
The masur (Lentil) pulse is not eaten by Brāhmans and Baniās, because,
when cooked, it looks red like blood.19
The Humbad Baniās do not eat whey, milk, curdled milk and clarified
butter.20
The Shrāvaks abstain from the suran (Elephant foot), potatoes and roots
that grow underground.21
Mahomedans abstain from the suran, because “su” the first letter of the
word suran is also the first letter of their taboo’d animal the pig.22
There are some deities associated with the worship of animals. These
animals, with the deities with whom they are connected, are given below.
1. Pothio or the bull is believed to be the vehicle of god Shiva. In all
temples of Shiva its image is installed, facing the image of Shiva in the
centre of the temple.
2. Sinha or the lion is believed to be the vehicle of Pārvati, the consort of
Shiva. The lion is also connected with the demon planet Rāhu.
3. Hansa the goose is associated with Brahma the creator.
4. Gadhedo the ass is believed to be connected with Shitala, the goddess of
small pox.
Brāhmans, Baniās, Bhātiās, Kunbis, Sutārs and Darjis abstain from flesh
and liquor.16
Some Brāhmans and Baniās do not eat tādiās (fruit of the palm tree) as they
look like human eyes.17
Some Brāhmans abstain from garlic and onions. Some do not eat Kodra
(punctured millet).18
The masur (Lentil) pulse is not eaten by Brāhmans and Baniās, because,
when cooked, it looks red like blood.19
The Humbad Baniās do not eat whey, milk, curdled milk and clarified
butter.20
The Shrāvaks abstain from the suran (Elephant foot), potatoes and roots
that grow underground.21
Mahomedans abstain from the suran, because “su” the first letter of the
word suran is also the first letter of their taboo’d animal the pig.22
There are some deities associated with the worship of animals. These
animals, with the deities with whom they are connected, are given below.
1. Pothio or the bull is believed to be the vehicle of god Shiva. In all
temples of Shiva its image is installed, facing the image of Shiva in the
centre of the temple.
2. Sinha or the lion is believed to be the vehicle of Pārvati, the consort of
Shiva. The lion is also connected with the demon planet Rāhu.
3. Hansa the goose is associated with Brahma the creator.
4. Gadhedo the ass is believed to be connected with Shitala, the goddess of
small pox.
Page 332
5. Undar the mouse is the conveyance of Ganpati.
6. Mor the peacock is the conveyance of Sarasvati, the goddess of learning.
The peacock is also associated with Kārtik Swāmi.
7. Garud the eagle is the conveyance of the god Vishnu.
8. Pādo the male buffalo is the conveyance of Devis or goddesses.
9. Ghodo the horse is the conveyance of the Sun. The horse is also
associated with the planet Guru or Jupiter and Shukra or Venus.
10. Mrig the deer is supposed to be the conveyance of the Moon as well as
of Mangal or Mars.
11. Balad the ox is connected with Mars and Shani or Saturn.
12. Hāthi the elephant is supposed to be the conveyance of Indra. It is also
connected with Budha or Mercury.
13 The tiger is the conveyance of the goddess Ambāji.
The animals mentioned above are worshipped along with deities and
planets with whom they are associated23.
It is generally believed that the earth is supported by a tortoise. So,
whenever the goddess earth or Prithvi is worshipped, the tortoise is also
worshipped.24
In the temples of the Mātās cocks and hens, and in the temple of Kāl
Bhairav, dogs, are worshipped.25
For the propitiation of goddesses and evil spirits, male goats, he-buffaloes
and cocks are sacrificed.26
In his first incarnation, the god Vishnu was born as a fish, in the second as
an alligator, and in the third as a boar. For this reason the images of these
6. Mor the peacock is the conveyance of Sarasvati, the goddess of learning.
The peacock is also associated with Kārtik Swāmi.
7. Garud the eagle is the conveyance of the god Vishnu.
8. Pādo the male buffalo is the conveyance of Devis or goddesses.
9. Ghodo the horse is the conveyance of the Sun. The horse is also
associated with the planet Guru or Jupiter and Shukra or Venus.
10. Mrig the deer is supposed to be the conveyance of the Moon as well as
of Mangal or Mars.
11. Balad the ox is connected with Mars and Shani or Saturn.
12. Hāthi the elephant is supposed to be the conveyance of Indra. It is also
connected with Budha or Mercury.
13 The tiger is the conveyance of the goddess Ambāji.
The animals mentioned above are worshipped along with deities and
planets with whom they are associated23.
It is generally believed that the earth is supported by a tortoise. So,
whenever the goddess earth or Prithvi is worshipped, the tortoise is also
worshipped.24
In the temples of the Mātās cocks and hens, and in the temple of Kāl
Bhairav, dogs, are worshipped.25
For the propitiation of goddesses and evil spirits, male goats, he-buffaloes
and cocks are sacrificed.26
In his first incarnation, the god Vishnu was born as a fish, in the second as
an alligator, and in the third as a boar. For this reason the images of these
Page 333
animals are worshipped.27
All the gods, goddesses and spirits mentioned in the preceding pages are
represented by idols made of stone, metal or wood. In addition to stone
idols of gods there are certain stones which are considered to represent gods
and worshipped as such. Some of these stones are described below.
All the stones found in the river Narbada are believed to represent the god
Shiva and worshipped.
There is a kind of stone found in the river Gandaki which is smooth on one
side and porous on the other. It is either round or square and about five
inches in length. This stone is called Shāligrām and is believed to represent
the god Vishnu. It is kept in the household gods and worshipped daily.
There is another kind of hard, white, porous stone found near Dwārka. It is
also worshipped along with the idol of Vishnu.
Sometimes tridents are drawn with red lead on stones to represent
goddesses.28
There is a tank near the Pir in Kutiāna in which bored stones are found
floating on the surface of the water. These stones are considered sacred.29
Certain stones are considered sacred on account of their supposed curative
properties. One of such stones is called Pāro. It is believed to be efficacious
in curing rheumatism.30
There is also a kind of red stone which is supposed to cure skin diseases.31
Each of the nine planets is supposed to be in touch with a stone of a
particular colour. For instance, the stone in touch with Shani or Saturn is
black, and that with Mangal or Mars is red. These stones are bored, and set
in rings which are worn by persons suffering from the influence of these
planets.
All the gods, goddesses and spirits mentioned in the preceding pages are
represented by idols made of stone, metal or wood. In addition to stone
idols of gods there are certain stones which are considered to represent gods
and worshipped as such. Some of these stones are described below.
All the stones found in the river Narbada are believed to represent the god
Shiva and worshipped.
There is a kind of stone found in the river Gandaki which is smooth on one
side and porous on the other. It is either round or square and about five
inches in length. This stone is called Shāligrām and is believed to represent
the god Vishnu. It is kept in the household gods and worshipped daily.
There is another kind of hard, white, porous stone found near Dwārka. It is
also worshipped along with the idol of Vishnu.
Sometimes tridents are drawn with red lead on stones to represent
goddesses.28
There is a tank near the Pir in Kutiāna in which bored stones are found
floating on the surface of the water. These stones are considered sacred.29
Certain stones are considered sacred on account of their supposed curative
properties. One of such stones is called Pāro. It is believed to be efficacious
in curing rheumatism.30
There is also a kind of red stone which is supposed to cure skin diseases.31
Each of the nine planets is supposed to be in touch with a stone of a
particular colour. For instance, the stone in touch with Shani or Saturn is
black, and that with Mangal or Mars is red. These stones are bored, and set
in rings which are worn by persons suffering from the influence of these
planets.
Page 334
A kind of stone called Akik, found in abundance in Cambay, is considered
sacred by the Mahomedan saints, who wear garlands made of beads carved
out of these stones.32
In ancient times human sacrifices were offered on certain occasions. Now-
a-days, in place of a human being, a cocoanut or a Kolu (Cucurbita
maxima) is offered. At the time of making the offering, the cocoanut is
plastered with red lead and other holy applications and covered with a silk
cloth. The Kolu is offered by cutting it into two pieces with a stroke of a
knife or sword.33
Sometimes an image of the flour of Adad is sacrificed in place of a human
being.34
This sacrifice is generally made on the eighth or tenth day of the bright half
of Ashvin.
In place of human blood, milk mixed with gulāl (red powder) and molasses
is offered.35
In ancient times, when a well was dug, a human sacrifice was made to it if
it did not yield water, with the belief that this would bring water into the
well. Now-a-days, instead of this sacrifice, blood from the fourth finger of a
man is sprinkled over the spot.36
It is also related that in ancient times, when a king was crowned, a human
sacrifice was offered. Now-a-days, instead of this sacrifice, the king’s
forehead is marked with the blood from the fourth finger of a low caste
Hindu at the time of the coronation ceremony.37
There are a few stones which are supposed to have the power of curing
certain diseases. One of such stones is known as Ratvano Pāro. It is found
at a distance of about two miles from Kolki. It is marked with red lines. It is
bored and worn round the neck by persons suffering from ratawa38 (a
disease in which red spots or pimples are seen on the skin).
sacred by the Mahomedan saints, who wear garlands made of beads carved
out of these stones.32
In ancient times human sacrifices were offered on certain occasions. Now-
a-days, in place of a human being, a cocoanut or a Kolu (Cucurbita
maxima) is offered. At the time of making the offering, the cocoanut is
plastered with red lead and other holy applications and covered with a silk
cloth. The Kolu is offered by cutting it into two pieces with a stroke of a
knife or sword.33
Sometimes an image of the flour of Adad is sacrificed in place of a human
being.34
This sacrifice is generally made on the eighth or tenth day of the bright half
of Ashvin.
In place of human blood, milk mixed with gulāl (red powder) and molasses
is offered.35
In ancient times, when a well was dug, a human sacrifice was made to it if
it did not yield water, with the belief that this would bring water into the
well. Now-a-days, instead of this sacrifice, blood from the fourth finger of a
man is sprinkled over the spot.36
It is also related that in ancient times, when a king was crowned, a human
sacrifice was offered. Now-a-days, instead of this sacrifice, the king’s
forehead is marked with the blood from the fourth finger of a low caste
Hindu at the time of the coronation ceremony.37
There are a few stones which are supposed to have the power of curing
certain diseases. One of such stones is known as Ratvano Pāro. It is found
at a distance of about two miles from Kolki. It is marked with red lines. It is
bored and worn round the neck by persons suffering from ratawa38 (a
disease in which red spots or pimples are seen on the skin).
Page 335
There is another stone called Suleimani Pāro which is supposed to have the
power of curing many diseases.39
There is a kind of white semi-circular stone which is supposed to cure eye
diseases when rubbed on the eyes and fever when rubbed on the body.40
Sieves for flour and corn, brooms, sambelus or corn pounders, and ploughs
are regarded as sacred.
Sieves are considered sacred for the following reasons.
1. Because articles of food such as flour, grain, etc., are sifted through
them.41
2. Because, on auspicious occasions, when women go to worship the
potter’s wheel, the materials of worship are carried in a sieve.
3. Because the fire used for igniting the sacrificial fuel is taken in a sieve, or
is covered with a sieve while it is being carried to the sacrificial altar.42
4. Because at the time of performing the ceremony when commencing to
prepare sweets for a marriage, a sieve is worshipped.43
5. Because, in some communities like the Bhātiās, the bride’s mother, when
receiving the bridegroom in the marriage booth, carries in a dish a lamp
covered with a sieve.44
The flour collected by Brāhmans by begging from door to door is supposed
to be polluted. But it is considered purified when it is passed through a
sieve.45
The sambelu is considered so sacred that it is not touched with the foot. If a
woman lie down during day time, she will not touch it either with her head
or with her foot.
One of the reasons why it is considered sacred is that it was used as a
weapon by Baldev, the brother of the god Krishna.
power of curing many diseases.39
There is a kind of white semi-circular stone which is supposed to cure eye
diseases when rubbed on the eyes and fever when rubbed on the body.40
Sieves for flour and corn, brooms, sambelus or corn pounders, and ploughs
are regarded as sacred.
Sieves are considered sacred for the following reasons.
1. Because articles of food such as flour, grain, etc., are sifted through
them.41
2. Because, on auspicious occasions, when women go to worship the
potter’s wheel, the materials of worship are carried in a sieve.
3. Because the fire used for igniting the sacrificial fuel is taken in a sieve, or
is covered with a sieve while it is being carried to the sacrificial altar.42
4. Because at the time of performing the ceremony when commencing to
prepare sweets for a marriage, a sieve is worshipped.43
5. Because, in some communities like the Bhātiās, the bride’s mother, when
receiving the bridegroom in the marriage booth, carries in a dish a lamp
covered with a sieve.44
The flour collected by Brāhmans by begging from door to door is supposed
to be polluted. But it is considered purified when it is passed through a
sieve.45
The sambelu is considered so sacred that it is not touched with the foot. If a
woman lie down during day time, she will not touch it either with her head
or with her foot.
One of the reasons why it is considered sacred is that it was used as a
weapon by Baldev, the brother of the god Krishna.
Page 336
A sambelu is one of the articles, required for performing the reception
ceremony on a bridegroom’s entering the marriage pandal.46
It is believed that a fall of rain is expedited by placing a sambelu erect in a
dish when there is a drought.47
Among Shrigaud Brāhmans, on the marriage day, one of the men of the
bridegroom’s party wears a wreath made of a sambelu, a broom and other
articles. Some special marks are also made on his forehead. Thus adorned,
he goes with the bridegroom’s procession and plays jokes with the parents
of both the bride and bridegroom. His doing so is supposed to bless the
bridal pair with a long life and a large family.48
On the marriage day, after the ceremony of propitiating the nine planets has
been performed in the bride’s house, in some castes three, and in others one
sambelu, is kept near the spot where the planets are worshipped. Next, five
unwidowed women of the family hold the sambelus and thrash them five or
seven times on the floor repeating the words “On the chest of the ill-wisher
of the host.” The sambelus are bound together by a thread.49
If a woman has to take part in an auspicious ceremony on the fourth day of
her monthly period, she is made to thresh one maund of rice with a
sambelu. Her fourth day is then considered as the fifth50 and she becomes
eligible for taking part in the ceremony.51
The plough is considered sacred, because it is the chief implement for
cultivating the soil. It is worshipped on the full-moon day of Shrāvan which
is known as a Balev holiday, the worship being called Grahan-pujan.52
Some people consider the plough sacred because Sita, the consort of Rām,
was born of the earth by the touch of a plough.53 Others hold it sacred as it
was used as a weapon by Baldev, the brother of the god Krishna.
On account of the sanctity which attaches to the plough, it forms part of the
articles, with which a bridegroom is received in the marriage pandal by the
bride’s mother.54
ceremony on a bridegroom’s entering the marriage pandal.46
It is believed that a fall of rain is expedited by placing a sambelu erect in a
dish when there is a drought.47
Among Shrigaud Brāhmans, on the marriage day, one of the men of the
bridegroom’s party wears a wreath made of a sambelu, a broom and other
articles. Some special marks are also made on his forehead. Thus adorned,
he goes with the bridegroom’s procession and plays jokes with the parents
of both the bride and bridegroom. His doing so is supposed to bless the
bridal pair with a long life and a large family.48
On the marriage day, after the ceremony of propitiating the nine planets has
been performed in the bride’s house, in some castes three, and in others one
sambelu, is kept near the spot where the planets are worshipped. Next, five
unwidowed women of the family hold the sambelus and thrash them five or
seven times on the floor repeating the words “On the chest of the ill-wisher
of the host.” The sambelus are bound together by a thread.49
If a woman has to take part in an auspicious ceremony on the fourth day of
her monthly period, she is made to thresh one maund of rice with a
sambelu. Her fourth day is then considered as the fifth50 and she becomes
eligible for taking part in the ceremony.51
The plough is considered sacred, because it is the chief implement for
cultivating the soil. It is worshipped on the full-moon day of Shrāvan which
is known as a Balev holiday, the worship being called Grahan-pujan.52
Some people consider the plough sacred because Sita, the consort of Rām,
was born of the earth by the touch of a plough.53 Others hold it sacred as it
was used as a weapon by Baldev, the brother of the god Krishna.
On account of the sanctity which attaches to the plough, it forms part of the
articles, with which a bridegroom is received in the marriage pandal by the
bride’s mother.54
Page 337
It is related that king Janak ploughed the soil on which he had to perform a
sacrifice. Hence it has become a practice to purify with a plough the spot on
which a sacrifice is to be performed.55
In some places, on the Balev day, a number of persons gather together near
a pond, and each of them fills an earthen jar with the water of the pond.
Next, one of the party is made to stand at a long distance from the others
with a small plough in his hands. The others then run a race towards the
latter. He who wins the race is presented with molasses and a cocoanut.56
It is customary among Brāhmans to perform the worship known as Baleviān
after the performance of a thread ceremony. In Native States, the prime
minister and other State officials and clerks join the ceremony, the principal
function of the ceremony being performed by the prime minister. In
villages, this function is performed by the headman of the village. The party
go in procession to a neighbouring village or a pond where an earthen
image of Ganpati besmeared with red lead is installed on a red cloth two
feet square. Near this image are installed the nine planets, represented by
nine heaps of corn, on each of which is placed a betelnut. This is called the
installation of Baleviān. A plough about two feet in length is kept standing
near the Baleviān with its end buried in the ground. The prime minister or
the village headman worships the plough, after which, four Kumbhārs or
potters wash themselves, and holding four jars on their heads, run a race.
Each of the Kumbhārs is named after one of the four months of the rainy
season. He who wins the race is presented with the plough. The expenses of
the ceremony are paid from the State treasury or the village fund.57
According to a popular saying, a broom should not be kept erect or
trampled under foot. This indicates that brooms are held sacred.
When a newly-born infant does not cry, the leaves of a broom are thrown
into the fire and their smoke is passed over the child. It is said that this
makes the child cry.58
Some people consider brooms sacred, because they are used in sweeping
the ground58 (that is the earth, which is a goddess).
sacrifice. Hence it has become a practice to purify with a plough the spot on
which a sacrifice is to be performed.55
In some places, on the Balev day, a number of persons gather together near
a pond, and each of them fills an earthen jar with the water of the pond.
Next, one of the party is made to stand at a long distance from the others
with a small plough in his hands. The others then run a race towards the
latter. He who wins the race is presented with molasses and a cocoanut.56
It is customary among Brāhmans to perform the worship known as Baleviān
after the performance of a thread ceremony. In Native States, the prime
minister and other State officials and clerks join the ceremony, the principal
function of the ceremony being performed by the prime minister. In
villages, this function is performed by the headman of the village. The party
go in procession to a neighbouring village or a pond where an earthen
image of Ganpati besmeared with red lead is installed on a red cloth two
feet square. Near this image are installed the nine planets, represented by
nine heaps of corn, on each of which is placed a betelnut. This is called the
installation of Baleviān. A plough about two feet in length is kept standing
near the Baleviān with its end buried in the ground. The prime minister or
the village headman worships the plough, after which, four Kumbhārs or
potters wash themselves, and holding four jars on their heads, run a race.
Each of the Kumbhārs is named after one of the four months of the rainy
season. He who wins the race is presented with the plough. The expenses of
the ceremony are paid from the State treasury or the village fund.57
According to a popular saying, a broom should not be kept erect or
trampled under foot. This indicates that brooms are held sacred.
When a newly-born infant does not cry, the leaves of a broom are thrown
into the fire and their smoke is passed over the child. It is said that this
makes the child cry.58
Some people consider brooms sacred, because they are used in sweeping
the ground58 (that is the earth, which is a goddess).
Page 338
In some places, children suffering from cough are fanned with a broom.59
In some castes, a broom is worshipped on the marriage day.60
Many people deny any sanctity to a broom. A belief is common that if a
man sees a broom the first thing after getting up in the morning, he does not
pass the day happily.61
Some believe that if a broom be kept erect in the house, a quarrel between
the husband and wife is sure to follow. There is also a belief that if a person
thrashes another with a broom, the former is liable to suffer from a gland
under the arm.62
Fire is considered to be a deity by all Hindus. In all sacrifices, fire is first
ignited with certain ceremonies of worship.63 In all Brāhman families,
every morning before breakfast, a ceremony called Vaishvadeva is
performed, in which fire is worshipped and cooked rice is offered to it.64
The Agnihotris keep a constant fire burning in their houses and worship it
thrice a day, morning, noon and evening65.
The Pārsis consider fire so sacred that they do not smoke. Neither do they
cross fire. In their temples called Agiāris a fire of sandal wood is kept
constantly burning. It is considered a great mishap if this fire is
extinguished.65
Fire is specially worshipped on the Holi day, that is the full-moon day of the
month of Fālgun.66
Other special occasions on which it is worshipped are the thread ceremony,
the ceremony of installing a new idol in a temple, the first pregnancy
ceremony, and the ceremony performed at the time of entering a new
house.67
Fire is also worshipped in Mahārudra, Vishnuyāg, Gāyatri-purashcharan,
Nilōtsarga, Vāstupujan, Shatachandi, Lakshachandi, and the sacrifices
In some castes, a broom is worshipped on the marriage day.60
Many people deny any sanctity to a broom. A belief is common that if a
man sees a broom the first thing after getting up in the morning, he does not
pass the day happily.61
Some believe that if a broom be kept erect in the house, a quarrel between
the husband and wife is sure to follow. There is also a belief that if a person
thrashes another with a broom, the former is liable to suffer from a gland
under the arm.62
Fire is considered to be a deity by all Hindus. In all sacrifices, fire is first
ignited with certain ceremonies of worship.63 In all Brāhman families,
every morning before breakfast, a ceremony called Vaishvadeva is
performed, in which fire is worshipped and cooked rice is offered to it.64
The Agnihotris keep a constant fire burning in their houses and worship it
thrice a day, morning, noon and evening65.
The Pārsis consider fire so sacred that they do not smoke. Neither do they
cross fire. In their temples called Agiāris a fire of sandal wood is kept
constantly burning. It is considered a great mishap if this fire is
extinguished.65
Fire is specially worshipped on the Holi day, that is the full-moon day of the
month of Fālgun.66
Other special occasions on which it is worshipped are the thread ceremony,
the ceremony of installing a new idol in a temple, the first pregnancy
ceremony, and the ceremony performed at the time of entering a new
house.67
Fire is also worshipped in Mahārudra, Vishnuyāg, Gāyatri-purashcharan,
Nilōtsarga, Vāstupujan, Shatachandi, Lakshachandi, and the sacrifices
Page 339
performed during the Navarātra and on the Dasara day.68
Fire is considered to be the mouth of God, through which he is supposed to
receive all offerings.69
The offerings made to fire generally consist of clarified butter, cocoanuts,
sesamum seed, the Java, chips of the wood of the Pipal and the Shami,
curdled milk and frankincense.70
The fire to be used for sacrifices and agnihotras is produced by the friction
of two pieces of the wood of the Arani,71 the Pipal, the Shami72 or the
bamboo while mantras or incantations are being recited by Brāhmans.73
1 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
2 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
3 These are female names. ↑
4 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
5 The School Master of Hālār. ↑
6 Both male and female. ↑
7 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
8 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
9 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
10 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
11 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
12 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
13 The School Master of Todia. ↑
14 The School Master of Mota Devalia. ↑
15 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
16 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
17 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
Fire is considered to be the mouth of God, through which he is supposed to
receive all offerings.69
The offerings made to fire generally consist of clarified butter, cocoanuts,
sesamum seed, the Java, chips of the wood of the Pipal and the Shami,
curdled milk and frankincense.70
The fire to be used for sacrifices and agnihotras is produced by the friction
of two pieces of the wood of the Arani,71 the Pipal, the Shami72 or the
bamboo while mantras or incantations are being recited by Brāhmans.73
1 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
2 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
3 These are female names. ↑
4 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
5 The School Master of Hālār. ↑
6 Both male and female. ↑
7 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
8 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
9 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
10 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
11 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
12 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
13 The School Master of Todia. ↑
14 The School Master of Mota Devalia. ↑
15 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
16 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
17 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
Page 340
18 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
19 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
20 The School Master of Pātanvāv. ↑
21 The School Master of Vāla. ↑
22 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
23 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
24 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
25 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
26 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
27 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
28 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
29 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
30 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
31 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
32 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
33 The School Masters of Kotda Sangani, Zinzuvāda and Gohelwād. ↑
34 The School Master of Hālār. ↑
35 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
36 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
37 The School Master of Todia. ↑
38 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
39 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
40 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
41 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
42 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
43 The School Master of Aman. ↑
44 The School Master of Todia. ↑
19 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
20 The School Master of Pātanvāv. ↑
21 The School Master of Vāla. ↑
22 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
23 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
24 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
25 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
26 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
27 The School Master of Bāntva. ↑
28 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
29 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
30 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
31 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
32 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
33 The School Masters of Kotda Sangani, Zinzuvāda and Gohelwād. ↑
34 The School Master of Hālār. ↑
35 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
36 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
37 The School Master of Todia. ↑
38 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
39 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
40 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
41 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
42 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
43 The School Master of Aman. ↑
44 The School Master of Todia. ↑
Page 341
45 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
46 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
47 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
48 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
49 The School Master of Todia. ↑
50 Among Hindus women in menses are considered impure for four days. ↑
51 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
52 The School Master of Dhānk and Kota Sangani. ↑
53 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
54 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
55 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
56 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
57 The School Master of Todia. ↑
58 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
59 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
60 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
61 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
62 The School Master of Todia. ↑
63 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
64 The School Masters of Dhānk and Vanod. ↑
65 The School Master of Kalavad and Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
66 The School Masters of Ganod and Dhānk. ↑
67 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
68 The School Masters of Ganod and Kalavad and Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
69 The School Master of Todia. ↑
70 The School Master of Wala. ↑
71 The School Masters of Dadvi and Dhānk. ↑
46 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
47 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
48 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
49 The School Master of Todia. ↑
50 Among Hindus women in menses are considered impure for four days. ↑
51 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
52 The School Master of Dhānk and Kota Sangani. ↑
53 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
54 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
55 The School Master of Lilāpur. ↑
56 The School Master of Zinzuvāda. ↑
57 The School Master of Todia. ↑
58 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
59 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
60 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
61 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
62 The School Master of Todia. ↑
63 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
64 The School Masters of Dhānk and Vanod. ↑
65 The School Master of Kalavad and Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
66 The School Masters of Ganod and Dhānk. ↑
67 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
68 The School Masters of Ganod and Kalavad and Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
69 The School Master of Todia. ↑
70 The School Master of Wala. ↑
71 The School Masters of Dadvi and Dhānk. ↑
Page 342
72 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
73 The School Master of Aman. ↑
73 The School Master of Aman. ↑
Page 343
Page 344
CHAPTER IX.
Page 345
ANIMAL WORSHIP.
The following animals are considered sacred and worshipped by the
Hindus.
1. The cow:—is regarded as the holiest of animals. She is worshipped on
the fourth day of the dark half of Shrāvan which is known as Bol Choth;1
and a vow is observed by women in her honour on the fifteenth day of
Bhādarvā. It is known as Gautrad Vrat. On this day women do not eat
wheat, milk, clarified butter and the whey of a cow.2
The sanctity which attaches to the cow is due to the belief that in her body
reside thirty three crores of gods.3
2. The horse:—The horse is believed by some people to be the last
incarnation of God. It is also believed to represent Vāchhado, the deity who
cures hydrophobia.4
Some people believe the horse to be a celestial animal. It is said that in
ancient times it had wings, traces of which are believed to be still visible in
its knees.
Of the fourteen jewels obtained by the gods and demons by churning the
ocean, one was a horse with seven mouths. Hence the horse is considered
divine.5
The horse is worshipped on the Dasara day.6
3. The elephant:—The elephant is considered divine because it is the
vehicle of Indra, the lord of gods, and because its head was fixed on the
trunk of Ganpati, the son of Pārvati and Shiva. It is believed by some
people that vows to offer cocoanuts to an elephant are efficacious in curing
fever.7
The following animals are considered sacred and worshipped by the
Hindus.
1. The cow:—is regarded as the holiest of animals. She is worshipped on
the fourth day of the dark half of Shrāvan which is known as Bol Choth;1
and a vow is observed by women in her honour on the fifteenth day of
Bhādarvā. It is known as Gautrad Vrat. On this day women do not eat
wheat, milk, clarified butter and the whey of a cow.2
The sanctity which attaches to the cow is due to the belief that in her body
reside thirty three crores of gods.3
2. The horse:—The horse is believed by some people to be the last
incarnation of God. It is also believed to represent Vāchhado, the deity who
cures hydrophobia.4
Some people believe the horse to be a celestial animal. It is said that in
ancient times it had wings, traces of which are believed to be still visible in
its knees.
Of the fourteen jewels obtained by the gods and demons by churning the
ocean, one was a horse with seven mouths. Hence the horse is considered
divine.5
The horse is worshipped on the Dasara day.6
3. The elephant:—The elephant is considered divine because it is the
vehicle of Indra, the lord of gods, and because its head was fixed on the
trunk of Ganpati, the son of Pārvati and Shiva. It is believed by some
people that vows to offer cocoanuts to an elephant are efficacious in curing
fever.7
Page 346
At the time of celebrating a coronation ceremony an elephant is
worshipped. There is a tradition that in ancient times the coronation waters
were poured over the king by a she-elephant.8
4. The lion:—The lion is considered sacred because it is believed to be the
lord of the beasts of the forest and the vehicle of goddesses.5
5. The tiger:—The tiger is worshipped with Vāgheshvari Mātā as it is
believed to be her vehicle.
6. The she-buffalo:—Some sanctity attaches to the she-buffalo, as it is
believed that a she-buffalo was given in dowry to a Nāg kanya (snake girl)
by her father.9
To atone for a great sin a she-buffalo decked with a black wreath, iron, red
lead and marks made with the flour of adad is presented to a Brāhman.10
7. The donkey:—Is believed to be the vehicle of the goddess of small-pox.11
It is also believed that the god Brahma had formerly five mouths, one of
which was like that of a donkey.12
8. The dog:—The dog is believed to have divine vision and to be able to see
the messengers of the god of death. Some believe that in its next life a dog
becomes a man.13
The dog is also believed to be the vehicle of Kāl Bhairav and is worshipped
along with his image.14
Some people offer bread to dogs in the belief that they will bear witness to
their merits before God15.
9. The goat:—is worshipped by the Bharvāds when they worship the
goddess Machhu.16
10. The cat:—is worshipped in the belief that by so doing a man can win
over his opponents.17
worshipped. There is a tradition that in ancient times the coronation waters
were poured over the king by a she-elephant.8
4. The lion:—The lion is considered sacred because it is believed to be the
lord of the beasts of the forest and the vehicle of goddesses.5
5. The tiger:—The tiger is worshipped with Vāgheshvari Mātā as it is
believed to be her vehicle.
6. The she-buffalo:—Some sanctity attaches to the she-buffalo, as it is
believed that a she-buffalo was given in dowry to a Nāg kanya (snake girl)
by her father.9
To atone for a great sin a she-buffalo decked with a black wreath, iron, red
lead and marks made with the flour of adad is presented to a Brāhman.10
7. The donkey:—Is believed to be the vehicle of the goddess of small-pox.11
It is also believed that the god Brahma had formerly five mouths, one of
which was like that of a donkey.12
8. The dog:—The dog is believed to have divine vision and to be able to see
the messengers of the god of death. Some believe that in its next life a dog
becomes a man.13
The dog is also believed to be the vehicle of Kāl Bhairav and is worshipped
along with his image.14
Some people offer bread to dogs in the belief that they will bear witness to
their merits before God15.
9. The goat:—is worshipped by the Bharvāds when they worship the
goddess Machhu.16
10. The cat:—is worshipped in the belief that by so doing a man can win
over his opponents.17
Page 347
11. The bear:—is considered by some people to be a holy animal because
the god Krishna married Jāmbuvanti, the daughter of Jāmbuvant, the heroic
bear who assisted Rāma.18
12. Fish:—are considered sacred because they are supposed to carry the
food (pindas) to the manes offered (in water) at the shrāddha ceremony.19
13. Alligators:—are worshipped in a pond at Magar Pir, near Karāchi.20
14. The crows:—are worshipped because they are supposed to represent
rishis.21
Some people believe that crows were formerly rishis. They are supposed to
have divine vision, and food offered to them is believed to reach deceased
ancestors.
A loaf is cut into three parts. One of them is designated kāl (ordinary), the
second dukāl (famine), and the third sukāl (plenty). Next they are offered to
a crow. If the crow takes away the kāl, it is believed that the crops in the
following year will be normal; if it takes away the dukāl a famine is
apprehended in the following year, and if the sukāl, it is believed that the
crops will be plentiful.22
15. The goose:—is supposed to be the vehicle of the goddess Sarasvati. It is
believed that its worship ensures success in any enterprise. If a goose is
seen in a dream, it is considered to be a very good omen.23
A goose is believed to be endowed with the power of separating milk from
water. It is supposed to feed on rubies. It is found in lake Mān in the
Himālayas.24
16. The cock:—is considered holy as it is believed to be the vehicle of the
goddess Bahucharāji.25
17. The hen:—is worshipped on the last Sunday of the month of Jeth.26
the god Krishna married Jāmbuvanti, the daughter of Jāmbuvant, the heroic
bear who assisted Rāma.18
12. Fish:—are considered sacred because they are supposed to carry the
food (pindas) to the manes offered (in water) at the shrāddha ceremony.19
13. Alligators:—are worshipped in a pond at Magar Pir, near Karāchi.20
14. The crows:—are worshipped because they are supposed to represent
rishis.21
Some people believe that crows were formerly rishis. They are supposed to
have divine vision, and food offered to them is believed to reach deceased
ancestors.
A loaf is cut into three parts. One of them is designated kāl (ordinary), the
second dukāl (famine), and the third sukāl (plenty). Next they are offered to
a crow. If the crow takes away the kāl, it is believed that the crops in the
following year will be normal; if it takes away the dukāl a famine is
apprehended in the following year, and if the sukāl, it is believed that the
crops will be plentiful.22
15. The goose:—is supposed to be the vehicle of the goddess Sarasvati. It is
believed that its worship ensures success in any enterprise. If a goose is
seen in a dream, it is considered to be a very good omen.23
A goose is believed to be endowed with the power of separating milk from
water. It is supposed to feed on rubies. It is found in lake Mān in the
Himālayas.24
16. The cock:—is considered holy as it is believed to be the vehicle of the
goddess Bahucharāji.25
17. The hen:—is worshipped on the last Sunday of the month of Jeth.26
Page 348
18. The parrot:—is worshipped by singers desiring to improve their voice.
It is also worshipped by dull persons desirous of improving their intellect.27
1 See pp. 48–49. ↑
2 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
3 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
4 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
5 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwād. ↑
6 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
7 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
8 The School Master of Todia. ↑
9 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
10 The School Master of Moti Marad. ↑
11 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
12 The School Master of Moti Parabdi. ↑
13 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
14 The School Master of Aman. ↑
15 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
16 The School Master of Aman. ↑
17 The School Master of Todia. ↑
18 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwād. ↑
19 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
20 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
21 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
22 The School Master of Todia. ↑
23 The School Master of Todia. ↑
24 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
25 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
It is also worshipped by dull persons desirous of improving their intellect.27
1 See pp. 48–49. ↑
2 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
3 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
4 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
5 The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwād. ↑
6 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
7 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
8 The School Master of Todia. ↑
9 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
10 The School Master of Moti Marad. ↑
11 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
12 The School Master of Moti Parabdi. ↑
13 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
14 The School Master of Aman. ↑
15 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
16 The School Master of Aman. ↑
17 The School Master of Todia. ↑
18 The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwād. ↑
19 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
20 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
21 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
22 The School Master of Todia. ↑
23 The School Master of Todia. ↑
24 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
25 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
Page 349
26 The School Master of Aman. ↑
27 The School Master of Todia. ↑
27 The School Master of Todia. ↑
Page 350
Page 351
CHAPTER X.
Page 352
WITCHCRAFT.
Dākans are of two kinds, human and of the order of ghosts.1
Girls born in the Ashlesha nakshatra on the bij or second day of a month, in
the Kritika nakshatra on the seventh day of a month and in the Shatabhigha
nakshatra on the twelfth day of a month, are believed to be human dākans.
They cause the death of their husbands, and their evil eye injures all things
and individuals that come under its influence.2
Women who die in child-bed, meet an untimely death or commit suicide,
become Dākans or Chudels after death.2
Some people believe that women of such low castes as Kolis, Vāghris and
Chārans become Dākans. High caste Dākans are rare.3
A ghostly Dākan dresses in fine clothes and decks her person with
ornaments. But she does not cover her back, which is horrible to look at. It
is so frightful that any one happening to see it dies of horror.4
Ghostly Dākans trouble only women. When possessed by them, the latter
have convulsive fits, loose their hair, and cry out without any reason.5
A ghostly Dākan lives with a man as his wife, brings him dainties and turns
the refuse of food into flesh and bones. The man gradually becomes
emaciated and ultimately dies.6
It is believed that generally a Dākan kills a man within six months.7
The Dākans do not allow calves to suck, cattle to give milk, and healthy
persons to enjoy sound health. Sometimes they cause cattle to yield blood
instead of milk.8
Dākans are of two kinds, human and of the order of ghosts.1
Girls born in the Ashlesha nakshatra on the bij or second day of a month, in
the Kritika nakshatra on the seventh day of a month and in the Shatabhigha
nakshatra on the twelfth day of a month, are believed to be human dākans.
They cause the death of their husbands, and their evil eye injures all things
and individuals that come under its influence.2
Women who die in child-bed, meet an untimely death or commit suicide,
become Dākans or Chudels after death.2
Some people believe that women of such low castes as Kolis, Vāghris and
Chārans become Dākans. High caste Dākans are rare.3
A ghostly Dākan dresses in fine clothes and decks her person with
ornaments. But she does not cover her back, which is horrible to look at. It
is so frightful that any one happening to see it dies of horror.4
Ghostly Dākans trouble only women. When possessed by them, the latter
have convulsive fits, loose their hair, and cry out without any reason.5
A ghostly Dākan lives with a man as his wife, brings him dainties and turns
the refuse of food into flesh and bones. The man gradually becomes
emaciated and ultimately dies.6
It is believed that generally a Dākan kills a man within six months.7
The Dākans do not allow calves to suck, cattle to give milk, and healthy
persons to enjoy sound health. Sometimes they cause cattle to yield blood
instead of milk.8
Page 353
A Dākan by virtue of her powers, can ascend to the sky. She lives upon the
flesh of corpses.9
A Dākan can assume any form she likes. She appears as a cat, a buffalo, a
goat or any other animal. She can swell and shrink her body at will. Her feet
are reversed.10
Dākans haunt trees, cemeteries, deserted tanks, mines or other desolate
places.11
They also haunt ruins and places where four roads meet.12
1 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
2 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
3 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
4 The School Master of Sultānpur. ↑
5 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
6 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
7 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
8 The School Master of Moti Khilori. ↑
9 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
10 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
11 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
12 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
flesh of corpses.9
A Dākan can assume any form she likes. She appears as a cat, a buffalo, a
goat or any other animal. She can swell and shrink her body at will. Her feet
are reversed.10
Dākans haunt trees, cemeteries, deserted tanks, mines or other desolate
places.11
They also haunt ruins and places where four roads meet.12
1 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
2 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
3 The School Master of Gondal. ↑
4 The School Master of Sultānpur. ↑
5 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
6 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
7 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
8 The School Master of Moti Khilori. ↑
9 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
10 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
11 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
12 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
Page 354
Page 355
CHAPTER XI.
Page 356
GENERAL.
Various ceremonies are performed by cultivators at the time of ploughing
the soil, sowing, reaping and harvesting. These ceremonies differ in details
in different localities.
In all places, an auspicious day for ploughing and sowing is fixed in
consultation with an astrologer. On the day when ploughing is to be
commenced, the front court yard of the house is cowdunged and an
auspicious figure called Sathia1 is drawn on it with the grains of juvāri.2
A dish called kansār is prepared, and served to all members of the family at
the morning meal. Their foreheads are marked with red powder, and a pice
and betelnut are offered to the household gods. Hand-spun cotton threads
marked at intervals with red powder are then tied round the plough and to
the horns of the bullocks which are to be yoked to the plough.3
Next, the farmer stands waiting at the front door of his house for good
omens,4 and when a few are seen, sets out for his field.
In some places, the foreheads of the bullocks are daubed with red lead,
clarified butter is applied to their horns, and they are fed with molasses.5
In others, a betelnut is placed over the Sathia and given to the person who
first meets the farmer on leaving his house.6
In some localities again, the farmer holds the plough over the Sathia,
touching it with the end, eats a morsel of molasses, and bows to the Sathia
before starting.7
As a rule, seed is not sown on Saturdays or Tuesdays. Wednesday is
believed to be the most favourable day for this purpose.8
Various ceremonies are performed by cultivators at the time of ploughing
the soil, sowing, reaping and harvesting. These ceremonies differ in details
in different localities.
In all places, an auspicious day for ploughing and sowing is fixed in
consultation with an astrologer. On the day when ploughing is to be
commenced, the front court yard of the house is cowdunged and an
auspicious figure called Sathia1 is drawn on it with the grains of juvāri.2
A dish called kansār is prepared, and served to all members of the family at
the morning meal. Their foreheads are marked with red powder, and a pice
and betelnut are offered to the household gods. Hand-spun cotton threads
marked at intervals with red powder are then tied round the plough and to
the horns of the bullocks which are to be yoked to the plough.3
Next, the farmer stands waiting at the front door of his house for good
omens,4 and when a few are seen, sets out for his field.
In some places, the foreheads of the bullocks are daubed with red lead,
clarified butter is applied to their horns, and they are fed with molasses.5
In others, a betelnut is placed over the Sathia and given to the person who
first meets the farmer on leaving his house.6
In some localities again, the farmer holds the plough over the Sathia,
touching it with the end, eats a morsel of molasses, and bows to the Sathia
before starting.7
As a rule, seed is not sown on Saturdays or Tuesdays. Wednesday is
believed to be the most favourable day for this purpose.8
Page 357
Sowing is commenced from that corner of the field which has been
pronounced by the astrologer to be the best for the operation.9
Sunday is believed to be the most auspicious day for reaping.10 While
reaping, a part of the crop is offered to the image of Kshetrapāl and to other
village deities. In order to secure a good harvest, sweets are offered to the
village gods on the eighth or tenth day of the bright half of Ashvin or on the
second day of the bright half of Kārtik which is called Annakuta.11
No crop is brought into the house before a part of it has been offered to the
local deities.12
When juice is to be extracted from sugar-canes, the mill is first worshipped.
In the shed erected for storing the jars of molasses, an image of Ganpati is
installed, and worshipped before placing the jars in the shed.13
The first jar of molasses and two bits of sugar cane are offered to the local
deities.14
Before reaping cotton, offerings are made to the village gods.15
When a cow or she-buffalo is about to calve a packet containing a few
pebbles or cowries, the mali (red lead) from the image of Hanumān, dust
collected from a place where four roads meet, and grains of Adad, are tied
to its horns by an indigo-coloured thread, in the belief that this protects the
animal from the effects of the evil eye.16
To guard cattle against an attack of small-pox, women observe a vow called
Shili Sātem on the seventh day of the bright half of Shrāvan.17
To prevent a tiger from attacking cattle, a circle of the flour of charonthi is
drawn round them by an exorcist reciting mantras or incantations. If a tiger
tries to enter this protected area its mouth at once becomes swollen.18
In some places, salt heated over the fire of the Holi is put into the food
given to the cattle in the belief that this protects them from disease.19
pronounced by the astrologer to be the best for the operation.9
Sunday is believed to be the most auspicious day for reaping.10 While
reaping, a part of the crop is offered to the image of Kshetrapāl and to other
village deities. In order to secure a good harvest, sweets are offered to the
village gods on the eighth or tenth day of the bright half of Ashvin or on the
second day of the bright half of Kārtik which is called Annakuta.11
No crop is brought into the house before a part of it has been offered to the
local deities.12
When juice is to be extracted from sugar-canes, the mill is first worshipped.
In the shed erected for storing the jars of molasses, an image of Ganpati is
installed, and worshipped before placing the jars in the shed.13
The first jar of molasses and two bits of sugar cane are offered to the local
deities.14
Before reaping cotton, offerings are made to the village gods.15
When a cow or she-buffalo is about to calve a packet containing a few
pebbles or cowries, the mali (red lead) from the image of Hanumān, dust
collected from a place where four roads meet, and grains of Adad, are tied
to its horns by an indigo-coloured thread, in the belief that this protects the
animal from the effects of the evil eye.16
To guard cattle against an attack of small-pox, women observe a vow called
Shili Sātem on the seventh day of the bright half of Shrāvan.17
To prevent a tiger from attacking cattle, a circle of the flour of charonthi is
drawn round them by an exorcist reciting mantras or incantations. If a tiger
tries to enter this protected area its mouth at once becomes swollen.18
In some places, salt heated over the fire of the Holi is put into the food
given to the cattle in the belief that this protects them from disease.19
Page 358
Instead of salt, some people give cattle leaves of castor-oil plants roasted
over the fire of the Holi.20
In some places, on the Divāli holiday, a torch and a rice pounder are placed
in the cattle shed, and the cattle are made to cross them one by one. This
process is believed to protect them from disease.21
A ceremony called the Doro of Mahādev is also performed in the month of
Shrāvan to protect cattle against disease.22
Vows in the honour of Ashpāl or Nāgdev are also observed for the
protection of cattle.23
In the Hasta nakshatra during the monsoon, when there is a thunder storm,
a sāmbelu (rice pounder) is struck seven times against the main cross beam
of the house in the belief that the sound thus produced destroys insects.24
To scare the insects called itidio, vows are observed in honour of the Itidio
Pir.25
In order that insects and worms may not spoil the corn stored in a granary
or in earthen jars, the ashes of the fire of the Holi or leaves of the nim tree
are mixed with it.
To prevent insects from spoiling wheat, bājari and juvāri, mercury and
ashes are put into them, while it is believed that gram cannot be eaten by
insects if it is mixed with dust from a place where three roads meet.26
To drive away insects, a ceremony called Adagho Badagho or Mariyun is
performed on the Divāli holiday. It is as follows:—
One man holds a lighted torch in his hand, and another an earthen jar, which
he beats with a small stick. The two men pass through every nook and
corner of the house and the cattle-shed crying “Adagho may go, Badagho
may go”, that is, “May troubles and diseases disappear; may bugs, serpents,
mice, scorpions, mosquitoes and other insects die out.” Next they proceed,
over the fire of the Holi.20
In some places, on the Divāli holiday, a torch and a rice pounder are placed
in the cattle shed, and the cattle are made to cross them one by one. This
process is believed to protect them from disease.21
A ceremony called the Doro of Mahādev is also performed in the month of
Shrāvan to protect cattle against disease.22
Vows in the honour of Ashpāl or Nāgdev are also observed for the
protection of cattle.23
In the Hasta nakshatra during the monsoon, when there is a thunder storm,
a sāmbelu (rice pounder) is struck seven times against the main cross beam
of the house in the belief that the sound thus produced destroys insects.24
To scare the insects called itidio, vows are observed in honour of the Itidio
Pir.25
In order that insects and worms may not spoil the corn stored in a granary
or in earthen jars, the ashes of the fire of the Holi or leaves of the nim tree
are mixed with it.
To prevent insects from spoiling wheat, bājari and juvāri, mercury and
ashes are put into them, while it is believed that gram cannot be eaten by
insects if it is mixed with dust from a place where three roads meet.26
To drive away insects, a ceremony called Adagho Badagho or Mariyun is
performed on the Divāli holiday. It is as follows:—
One man holds a lighted torch in his hand, and another an earthen jar, which
he beats with a small stick. The two men pass through every nook and
corner of the house and the cattle-shed crying “Adagho may go, Badagho
may go”, that is, “May troubles and diseases disappear; may bugs, serpents,
mice, scorpions, mosquitoes and other insects die out.” Next they proceed,
Page 359
repeating the same words, through the streets to the village boundary, where
the torch, the earthen jar and the stick are thrown away, thus ending the
ceremony.27
In order to secure sunshine and favourable weather, oblations are offered to
the local deities, sacrificial offerings are made and bunting is suspended
from the doors of temples.28
In order to secure a favourable rainfall, a grand festival is observed on an
auspicious day. On this day all agricultural work is stopped and megh
laddus (sweet balls called megh or cloud) are eaten by the people.29
In some places, for the protection of the crops, a thread charmed by the
incantations of an exorcist is passed round the hedge of the field.30
For the protection of crops of gram, wheat and sugar-cane against injury by
rats, a ceremony called Dādh Bāndhavi is performed, in which a thread
over which incantations have been repeated by an exorcist is passed round
the crop, and an image of Ganpati is installed and worshipped with
offerings of sweet balls of wheat flour.31
In some places, the ceremony of Dādh Bāndhavi is performed somewhat
differently. Instead of passing a thread round the field, the exorcist walks
round the field repeating incantations, holding in his hand a pot containing
fire, over which is placed a pan containing Gugal. This ceremony is
generally performed for the protection of sugar-cane crops against the
attacks of jackals. It is believed that an animal entering the field after the
performance of this ceremony has its dādh (gums) stiffened.32
Silence and secrecy are considered essential in working mystic lore, for it is
a belief that if learnt openly such lore loses its power.33
The ceremony for obtaining command over Kāl Bhairav is performed in
perfect silence at midnight on the Kālichaudas, that is the fourteenth day of
the dark half of Ashvin.34
the torch, the earthen jar and the stick are thrown away, thus ending the
ceremony.27
In order to secure sunshine and favourable weather, oblations are offered to
the local deities, sacrificial offerings are made and bunting is suspended
from the doors of temples.28
In order to secure a favourable rainfall, a grand festival is observed on an
auspicious day. On this day all agricultural work is stopped and megh
laddus (sweet balls called megh or cloud) are eaten by the people.29
In some places, for the protection of the crops, a thread charmed by the
incantations of an exorcist is passed round the hedge of the field.30
For the protection of crops of gram, wheat and sugar-cane against injury by
rats, a ceremony called Dādh Bāndhavi is performed, in which a thread
over which incantations have been repeated by an exorcist is passed round
the crop, and an image of Ganpati is installed and worshipped with
offerings of sweet balls of wheat flour.31
In some places, the ceremony of Dādh Bāndhavi is performed somewhat
differently. Instead of passing a thread round the field, the exorcist walks
round the field repeating incantations, holding in his hand a pot containing
fire, over which is placed a pan containing Gugal. This ceremony is
generally performed for the protection of sugar-cane crops against the
attacks of jackals. It is believed that an animal entering the field after the
performance of this ceremony has its dādh (gums) stiffened.32
Silence and secrecy are considered essential in working mystic lore, for it is
a belief that if learnt openly such lore loses its power.33
The ceremony for obtaining command over Kāl Bhairav is performed in
perfect silence at midnight on the Kālichaudas, that is the fourteenth day of
the dark half of Ashvin.34
Page 360
Silence and secrecy are also essential in the ceremonies which are
performed for subjugating such evil spirits as Meldi and Shikotar and
Mātās.35
When Vaishnavas make offerings to their gods, the doors of the shrine are
closed.
The initiating ceremonies of the Shakti Panthis and Margi Panthis are also
performed in close secrecy.36
The Shrāvaks have to observe perfect silence at the time of performing the
Shāmag Padakamanu37 (a form of devotion to god).
Some people observe a vow of keeping silent while taking their meals
either for life or during the monsoon.38
There are various legends current among the people regarding the origin of
the Holi holiday. The chief versions are as follows:—
1. In ancient times there lived a demoness named Dhunda who preyed upon
children. Her misdeeds caused great misery to the people, who went to
Vasishtha, the preceptor of Rāma, and implored him to tell them of some
remedy for the mischief wrought by the demoness. Vasishtha told them to
light a pyre in honour of the goddess Holika, which he said, would consume
the demoness. The people accordingly lighted a huge fire, into which the
demoness was driven by boys who led her to the spot by abusing her and
troubling her in many ways. She was reduced to ashes by the fire, and the
people were saved.39
2. A demon named Hiraniāksha had a sister named Holika and a son named
Prahlād. Hiraniāksha bore great enmity to Rāma, while Prahlād was his
devotee. Hiraniāksha did not like his son’s devotion to Rāma, and told him
several times to give it up, and even threatened to take his life. But Prahlād
did not swerve an inch from the path of his devotion. At last, being
desperate, Hiraniāksha decided to kill him, and entrusted his sister with the
mission. Holika raised a big pile of cow-dung cakes, set it on fire, and
performed for subjugating such evil spirits as Meldi and Shikotar and
Mātās.35
When Vaishnavas make offerings to their gods, the doors of the shrine are
closed.
The initiating ceremonies of the Shakti Panthis and Margi Panthis are also
performed in close secrecy.36
The Shrāvaks have to observe perfect silence at the time of performing the
Shāmag Padakamanu37 (a form of devotion to god).
Some people observe a vow of keeping silent while taking their meals
either for life or during the monsoon.38
There are various legends current among the people regarding the origin of
the Holi holiday. The chief versions are as follows:—
1. In ancient times there lived a demoness named Dhunda who preyed upon
children. Her misdeeds caused great misery to the people, who went to
Vasishtha, the preceptor of Rāma, and implored him to tell them of some
remedy for the mischief wrought by the demoness. Vasishtha told them to
light a pyre in honour of the goddess Holika, which he said, would consume
the demoness. The people accordingly lighted a huge fire, into which the
demoness was driven by boys who led her to the spot by abusing her and
troubling her in many ways. She was reduced to ashes by the fire, and the
people were saved.39
2. A demon named Hiraniāksha had a sister named Holika and a son named
Prahlād. Hiraniāksha bore great enmity to Rāma, while Prahlād was his
devotee. Hiraniāksha did not like his son’s devotion to Rāma, and told him
several times to give it up, and even threatened to take his life. But Prahlād
did not swerve an inch from the path of his devotion. At last, being
desperate, Hiraniāksha decided to kill him, and entrusted his sister with the
mission. Holika raised a big pile of cow-dung cakes, set it on fire, and
Page 361
seated herself on the pile, taking Prahlād in her lap. But through the grace
of Rāma, Prahlād escaped uninjured while Holika was reduced to ashes.
3. A demoness called Dhunda had obtained a boon from Shiva to the effect
that she would not meet her death during any of the three seasons of the
year, either by day or by night. At the same time she was warned to beware
of injury from children between sunset and nightfall at the commencement
of a new season. To prevent any possibility of injury from children, she
began to destroy them by preying upon their bodies. This caused a great
panic among the people, who went to Vasishtha and asked his advice as to
how to kill the demoness. He advised them to kill her in the way described
in legend No. I above, and she was killed accordingly.40
4. The Govardhan mountain had two sisters named Holi and Divāli. Holi
was a woman of bad conduct while Divāli’s character was good. Although
unchaste, Holi boasted that she was chaste, and once, to prove her chastity,
she threw herself on to a big fire. She could not bear the pain caused by the
flames, and began to scream aloud, when people beat drums, abused her,
and raised such a din that her screams became inaudible. Hence the custom
of using abusive language and reciting abusive verses during the Holi
holidays. Govardhan could not bear the disgrace attached to his sister’s
reputation. So he threw himself into the fire and met his death without
uttering a word of pain. This has given rise to the custom of throwing into
the Holi fire the cow-dung image of Govardhan, which is installed during
the Divāli holidays.41
On the Holi day sweet dishes are prepared and taken with the morning
meal. Some women observe a vow on this day, and dine once only in the
evening, after worshipping the Holi fire with an offering of a cocoanut and
walking seven times round it.42
In some places, on the day preceding the Holi, which is known as Kamala
Holi, sweet stuffed cakes are prepared, and on the Holi Punema day
vermicelli is eaten.43
of Rāma, Prahlād escaped uninjured while Holika was reduced to ashes.
3. A demoness called Dhunda had obtained a boon from Shiva to the effect
that she would not meet her death during any of the three seasons of the
year, either by day or by night. At the same time she was warned to beware
of injury from children between sunset and nightfall at the commencement
of a new season. To prevent any possibility of injury from children, she
began to destroy them by preying upon their bodies. This caused a great
panic among the people, who went to Vasishtha and asked his advice as to
how to kill the demoness. He advised them to kill her in the way described
in legend No. I above, and she was killed accordingly.40
4. The Govardhan mountain had two sisters named Holi and Divāli. Holi
was a woman of bad conduct while Divāli’s character was good. Although
unchaste, Holi boasted that she was chaste, and once, to prove her chastity,
she threw herself on to a big fire. She could not bear the pain caused by the
flames, and began to scream aloud, when people beat drums, abused her,
and raised such a din that her screams became inaudible. Hence the custom
of using abusive language and reciting abusive verses during the Holi
holidays. Govardhan could not bear the disgrace attached to his sister’s
reputation. So he threw himself into the fire and met his death without
uttering a word of pain. This has given rise to the custom of throwing into
the Holi fire the cow-dung image of Govardhan, which is installed during
the Divāli holidays.41
On the Holi day sweet dishes are prepared and taken with the morning
meal. Some women observe a vow on this day, and dine once only in the
evening, after worshipping the Holi fire with an offering of a cocoanut and
walking seven times round it.42
In some places, on the day preceding the Holi, which is known as Kamala
Holi, sweet stuffed cakes are prepared, and on the Holi Punema day
vermicelli is eaten.43
Page 362
The fuel for the Holi fire is generally collected by boys. At about two in the
afternoon on the Holi day a party of boys goes from house to house and
receive five to fifteen cow-dung cakes from each household. These cow-
dung cakes are bored, and strung on strings.44
The fuel thus collected is heaped at the village boundary or the end of the
street. All the male residents of the village or street meet at the spot, a pit is
dug, and earthen pots filled with wheat, gram and water mixed together are
placed in the pit and covered with cow-dung cakes. Next, the headman of
the village or the leading resident of the street worships the pile with the
assistance of a Brāhman priest. After worship, the pile is lighted, at the time
fixed by an astrologer,45 by a low caste Hindu, generally a Bhangi or
Kotwāl, as Hindus of good caste consider it a sin to kindle the Holi fuel.
The Bhangi or Kotwāl receives a few dates and cocoanut kernel for this
service.46
The offerings thrown into the Holi fire generally consist of fried juvāri
grain, fried gram and cocoanuts. Flowers of mango trees and tender mango
fruits are also thrown into the Holi fire. It is believed that newly married
pairs, by worshipping the Holi fire, are blessed with long life, prosperity,
and the birth of children. After the principal ceremony is over, they worship
it one by one with the ends of their upper garments tied in a knot, and walk
seven times round the fire with their hands folded, the husband leading the
wife.47
Infants dressed in gay clothes and decked with garlands of dry dates and
bits of cocoanut kernel are also taken to the Holi fire by their parents. The
latter worship the Holi Mātā and walk four times round the fire, taking the
children in their arms. Next they offer cocoanuts to the goddess, which are
either thrown into the fire or distributed among those present.48
Women whose children die in infancy observe a vow of remaining standing
on the Holi day. When the Holi is lighted they worship the fire, after which
they may sit down and take their meal. It is believed that the observance of
this vow ensures long life to children.49
afternoon on the Holi day a party of boys goes from house to house and
receive five to fifteen cow-dung cakes from each household. These cow-
dung cakes are bored, and strung on strings.44
The fuel thus collected is heaped at the village boundary or the end of the
street. All the male residents of the village or street meet at the spot, a pit is
dug, and earthen pots filled with wheat, gram and water mixed together are
placed in the pit and covered with cow-dung cakes. Next, the headman of
the village or the leading resident of the street worships the pile with the
assistance of a Brāhman priest. After worship, the pile is lighted, at the time
fixed by an astrologer,45 by a low caste Hindu, generally a Bhangi or
Kotwāl, as Hindus of good caste consider it a sin to kindle the Holi fuel.
The Bhangi or Kotwāl receives a few dates and cocoanut kernel for this
service.46
The offerings thrown into the Holi fire generally consist of fried juvāri
grain, fried gram and cocoanuts. Flowers of mango trees and tender mango
fruits are also thrown into the Holi fire. It is believed that newly married
pairs, by worshipping the Holi fire, are blessed with long life, prosperity,
and the birth of children. After the principal ceremony is over, they worship
it one by one with the ends of their upper garments tied in a knot, and walk
seven times round the fire with their hands folded, the husband leading the
wife.47
Infants dressed in gay clothes and decked with garlands of dry dates and
bits of cocoanut kernel are also taken to the Holi fire by their parents. The
latter worship the Holi Mātā and walk four times round the fire, taking the
children in their arms. Next they offer cocoanuts to the goddess, which are
either thrown into the fire or distributed among those present.48
Women whose children die in infancy observe a vow of remaining standing
on the Holi day. When the Holi is lighted they worship the fire, after which
they may sit down and take their meal. It is believed that the observance of
this vow ensures long life to children.49
Page 363
Although the Holi itself falls on the full-moon day of Fālgun the rejoicings
connected with it commence from the first day of that month. The principal
feature of the rejoicings consists in indulging in indecent and vulgar songs
and language. Vulgar songs or fāgs in honour of the goddess Holi are also
sung. Songs are composed abusing each caste, and sung addressing passers
by, by groups of boys who have full license during the Holi holidays to
indulge in all sorts of pranks and abuses.
Some make wooden blocks with engravings of vulgar and indecent words,
dip them in coloured water, and press them on the clothes of passers by.
Others make naked idols of mud, and place them on the tops of houses.50
The day following the Holi is known as Dhul Pādavo or Dhuleti. On this
day people indulge in the throwing of cow-dung, black pigments, urine,
mud, coloured water and red powder.50
In some places, on the Dhuleti day, a game is played with a cocoanut. The
players form themselves into two parties and stand opposite to one another.
Midway between them is placed a cocoanut. Each party tries to take away
the cocoanut, and prevents the other from so doing by throwing stones and
cow-dung cakes. The party which succeeds in taking away the cocoanut
wins the game.51
Amongst Dheds, Kolis, Rāvals and other low castes a post of the wood of
the tamarind tree is planted in the ground and surrounded by women
holding whips and cords in their hands. A party of men run to the women to
drive them away and take possession of the post. The women prevent them
from doing so by striking them with all their might with the whips and
cords in their hands. This struggle commences at 10 A. M. on the Dhuleti
day and continues till one o’clock in the morning on the following day. At
last the men succeed in carrying away the post, thus ending the game.52
In some places, a man is tied to a bier as if he were a corpse, and carried on
the shoulders of four men to the post of tamarind wood, followed by a party
connected with it commence from the first day of that month. The principal
feature of the rejoicings consists in indulging in indecent and vulgar songs
and language. Vulgar songs or fāgs in honour of the goddess Holi are also
sung. Songs are composed abusing each caste, and sung addressing passers
by, by groups of boys who have full license during the Holi holidays to
indulge in all sorts of pranks and abuses.
Some make wooden blocks with engravings of vulgar and indecent words,
dip them in coloured water, and press them on the clothes of passers by.
Others make naked idols of mud, and place them on the tops of houses.50
The day following the Holi is known as Dhul Pādavo or Dhuleti. On this
day people indulge in the throwing of cow-dung, black pigments, urine,
mud, coloured water and red powder.50
In some places, on the Dhuleti day, a game is played with a cocoanut. The
players form themselves into two parties and stand opposite to one another.
Midway between them is placed a cocoanut. Each party tries to take away
the cocoanut, and prevents the other from so doing by throwing stones and
cow-dung cakes. The party which succeeds in taking away the cocoanut
wins the game.51
Amongst Dheds, Kolis, Rāvals and other low castes a post of the wood of
the tamarind tree is planted in the ground and surrounded by women
holding whips and cords in their hands. A party of men run to the women to
drive them away and take possession of the post. The women prevent them
from doing so by striking them with all their might with the whips and
cords in their hands. This struggle commences at 10 A. M. on the Dhuleti
day and continues till one o’clock in the morning on the following day. At
last the men succeed in carrying away the post, thus ending the game.52
In some places, a man is tied to a bier as if he were a corpse, and carried on
the shoulders of four men to the post of tamarind wood, followed by a party
Page 364
of men and women wailing aloud, to the great merriment of the crowd
assembled near the post to witness the struggle described above.53
Sometimes contests are held between two parties of boys in singing vulgar
songs. The contest commences by one of the parties singing a song. The
other party responds to it by singing another song, which is generally more
indecent than the song sung first. The contest goes on like this, and the
party which fails to respond to its rival is said to be defeated.53
The immoral practices described above are only to be seen among low caste
people, and even their women take part in these practices.
The women of higher castes wear rich clothes and ornaments on the Dhuleti
day, and sing songs in their houses. At times they throw coloured water and
red powder at each other.54
In big temples a festivity called Ful Dol is observed, in which water
coloured with the flowers of the Khākhra (Butea frondosa) is thrown by the
party assembled, and kundaliās or indecent songs are sung in a loud
voice.55
In some temples, holy songs are sung at night and prayers are held. At the
end, fried juvāri, gram and sweets are distributed as the grace of God.56
The boys who take an active part in the Holi celebrations are known as
geraiyās or holiās. For two or three nights before the Holi they steal fuel for
the Holi fire and beat and abuse those who try to prevent them from so
doing. They also recite coarse songs and play with dirt and mud freely.
Parties of them go from shop to shop and obtain by force dates and fried
gram.57
At midnight of the Holi day a bower is erected in the centre of the village
with bits of broken earthen vessels and cocoanut shells. A fool, generally a
son-in-law of some low caste Hindu in the village, is induced, by the
promise of dates and cocoanut kernel, to dress in a coat on which are drawn
naked pictures. A garland of worn out shoes is tied round his neck and he is
assembled near the post to witness the struggle described above.53
Sometimes contests are held between two parties of boys in singing vulgar
songs. The contest commences by one of the parties singing a song. The
other party responds to it by singing another song, which is generally more
indecent than the song sung first. The contest goes on like this, and the
party which fails to respond to its rival is said to be defeated.53
The immoral practices described above are only to be seen among low caste
people, and even their women take part in these practices.
The women of higher castes wear rich clothes and ornaments on the Dhuleti
day, and sing songs in their houses. At times they throw coloured water and
red powder at each other.54
In big temples a festivity called Ful Dol is observed, in which water
coloured with the flowers of the Khākhra (Butea frondosa) is thrown by the
party assembled, and kundaliās or indecent songs are sung in a loud
voice.55
In some temples, holy songs are sung at night and prayers are held. At the
end, fried juvāri, gram and sweets are distributed as the grace of God.56
The boys who take an active part in the Holi celebrations are known as
geraiyās or holiās. For two or three nights before the Holi they steal fuel for
the Holi fire and beat and abuse those who try to prevent them from so
doing. They also recite coarse songs and play with dirt and mud freely.
Parties of them go from shop to shop and obtain by force dates and fried
gram.57
At midnight of the Holi day a bower is erected in the centre of the village
with bits of broken earthen vessels and cocoanut shells. A fool, generally a
son-in-law of some low caste Hindu in the village, is induced, by the
promise of dates and cocoanut kernel, to dress in a coat on which are drawn
naked pictures. A garland of worn out shoes is tied round his neck and he is
Page 365
mounted on a donkey. He is then called Vālam and taken from the bower
through the village accompanied with music and crowds of people, who
utter in a loud voice coarse and vulgar expressions as the procession moves
on. At times they play jokes with the Vālam, and give him blows on the
head with their fists.58
In some places, this procession is called Vālama Vālami and is celebrated
on the night preceding the Holi. Two poor stupid persons are dressed as
bride and bridegroom, the latter in a ridiculously grotesque dress. They are
married on the following morning, when vulgar songs are sung. The Vālam
and Vālami are represented by two naked idols, made of rags, of a man and
a woman. They are carried through the village in a noisy procession and
married on an altar of black earthen vessels. They are then placed erect on
two wooden posts side be side.59
In some villages, a large stone is placed in a spacious compound in the
centre of the village, and broken earthen vessels are suspended over it with
cords from the wooden bower erected over the stone. An ass is brought to
the spot, and a fool decked with a garland of worn out shoes is mounted on
it with his face turned towards the tail of the ass. He holds the tail of the ass
in his hands as reins and is carried in procession through the village to be
brought back to the bower and married to another fool, dust, ashes and
water being freely used in the service.60
In some localities naked images of a husband and wife are set in a cart and
taken through the village accompanied with music, the crowd singing
indecent songs all the way long.61
On the Holi holiday children are presented with harda (garlands of balls
made of sugar) by their relatives and the friends of their families.62
The Holi fire is extinguished by women on the morning of the following
day. The earthen vessels containing wheat and gram which are put into the
pit of the Holi before the fire is lighted are then taken out. The grain is
cooked by the fire of Holi, and is called Ghugari. It is distributed among the
through the village accompanied with music and crowds of people, who
utter in a loud voice coarse and vulgar expressions as the procession moves
on. At times they play jokes with the Vālam, and give him blows on the
head with their fists.58
In some places, this procession is called Vālama Vālami and is celebrated
on the night preceding the Holi. Two poor stupid persons are dressed as
bride and bridegroom, the latter in a ridiculously grotesque dress. They are
married on the following morning, when vulgar songs are sung. The Vālam
and Vālami are represented by two naked idols, made of rags, of a man and
a woman. They are carried through the village in a noisy procession and
married on an altar of black earthen vessels. They are then placed erect on
two wooden posts side be side.59
In some villages, a large stone is placed in a spacious compound in the
centre of the village, and broken earthen vessels are suspended over it with
cords from the wooden bower erected over the stone. An ass is brought to
the spot, and a fool decked with a garland of worn out shoes is mounted on
it with his face turned towards the tail of the ass. He holds the tail of the ass
in his hands as reins and is carried in procession through the village to be
brought back to the bower and married to another fool, dust, ashes and
water being freely used in the service.60
In some localities naked images of a husband and wife are set in a cart and
taken through the village accompanied with music, the crowd singing
indecent songs all the way long.61
On the Holi holiday children are presented with harda (garlands of balls
made of sugar) by their relatives and the friends of their families.62
The Holi fire is extinguished by women on the morning of the following
day. The earthen vessels containing wheat and gram which are put into the
pit of the Holi before the fire is lighted are then taken out. The grain is
cooked by the fire of Holi, and is called Ghugari. It is distributed among the
Page 366
villagers, the belief being that those who eat it are protected against disease
by the goddess of the Holi.63
There are many other superstitious beliefs held by people in connection
with the Holi.
According to one belief, those who expose themselves to the heat of the
Holi fire keep good health during the ensuing year. According to some, this
can be secured by eating sugar-cane heated over the fire. Juvāri stems
heated over the fire are given to cattle with the same object.64
Some believe that if salt heated over the Holi fire is given to cattle it
protects them against epidemics.64
Virgins take home a little of the Holi fire and light five cow-dung cakes
with it in the courtyard of their house. When the cakes are burnt, the ashes
are removed and the spot is purified with a plaster of cow-dung. Next, they
draw some auspicious figures on the spot and worship them for a number of
days in the belief that this ensures good health to their brothers.65
Among Gujarāt Hindus no special ceremonies are performed when a girl
attains puberty, except that on the third or fifth day she is bathed by an
unwidowed woman and dressed in green or saffron-coloured robes. She is
given rice in milk, sweetened with sugar, and is presented with a piece of
green satin.66
In some places, the girl is bathed on the fourth day and given kansār to eat.
She then bows to her mother-in-law and makes her a present of half a rupee.
The mother-in-law blesses her and presents her with a bodice cloth.67
After the bath, a mark with red powder is made on her forehead and she is
taken to the temple of the family deity.68
In some places, the red powder mark is made under the girl’s right arm in
the belief that this ensures to her the birth of many children.69
by the goddess of the Holi.63
There are many other superstitious beliefs held by people in connection
with the Holi.
According to one belief, those who expose themselves to the heat of the
Holi fire keep good health during the ensuing year. According to some, this
can be secured by eating sugar-cane heated over the fire. Juvāri stems
heated over the fire are given to cattle with the same object.64
Some believe that if salt heated over the Holi fire is given to cattle it
protects them against epidemics.64
Virgins take home a little of the Holi fire and light five cow-dung cakes
with it in the courtyard of their house. When the cakes are burnt, the ashes
are removed and the spot is purified with a plaster of cow-dung. Next, they
draw some auspicious figures on the spot and worship them for a number of
days in the belief that this ensures good health to their brothers.65
Among Gujarāt Hindus no special ceremonies are performed when a girl
attains puberty, except that on the third or fifth day she is bathed by an
unwidowed woman and dressed in green or saffron-coloured robes. She is
given rice in milk, sweetened with sugar, and is presented with a piece of
green satin.66
In some places, the girl is bathed on the fourth day and given kansār to eat.
She then bows to her mother-in-law and makes her a present of half a rupee.
The mother-in-law blesses her and presents her with a bodice cloth.67
After the bath, a mark with red powder is made on her forehead and she is
taken to the temple of the family deity.68
In some places, the red powder mark is made under the girl’s right arm in
the belief that this ensures to her the birth of many children.69
Page 367
In some localities the girl is bathed on the third day, dainty dishes are
served her, and she is presented with a cocoanut by each of her kinsfolk.70
In some castes, when a girl attains puberty, a feast of cooked rice and
molasses is given to the caste people. In other castes, pieces of cocoanut
kernel are distributed among children, and the girl is presented with a robe
and bodice by her parents-in-law.71
In some castes, a girl is not allowed to cook before she attains puberty.72
No ceremonies are performed when a boy attains puberty, probably because
in the case of boys the change is not so marked as in the case of girls.
1 See p. 14 Supra. ↑
2 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
3 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
4 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
5 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
6 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
7 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
8 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
9 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
10 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
11 The School Master of Movaiya. ↑
12 The School Masters of Zinzuvāda and Devalia. ↑
13 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
14 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
15 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
16 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
17 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
served her, and she is presented with a cocoanut by each of her kinsfolk.70
In some castes, when a girl attains puberty, a feast of cooked rice and
molasses is given to the caste people. In other castes, pieces of cocoanut
kernel are distributed among children, and the girl is presented with a robe
and bodice by her parents-in-law.71
In some castes, a girl is not allowed to cook before she attains puberty.72
No ceremonies are performed when a boy attains puberty, probably because
in the case of boys the change is not so marked as in the case of girls.
1 See p. 14 Supra. ↑
2 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
3 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
4 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
5 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
6 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
7 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
8 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
9 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
10 The School Master of Jodia. ↑
11 The School Master of Movaiya. ↑
12 The School Masters of Zinzuvāda and Devalia. ↑
13 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
14 The School Master of Bhāyāvadar. ↑
15 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
16 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
17 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
Page 368
18 The School Master of Chok. ↑
19 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
20 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
21 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
22 The School Master of Pātan Vāv. ↑
23 The School Master of Moti Murad. ↑
24 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
25 The School Master of Pātan Vāv. ↑
26 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
27 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
28 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
29 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
30 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
31 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
32 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
33 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
34 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
35 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
36 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
37 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
38 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
39 The School Masters of Dhānk and Ganod. ↑
40 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
41 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
42 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
43 The School Master of Moti Khiroli. ↑
44 The School Masters of Dhānk and Songadh. ↑
19 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
20 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
21 The School Master of Jetpur. ↑
22 The School Master of Pātan Vāv. ↑
23 The School Master of Moti Murad. ↑
24 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
25 The School Master of Pātan Vāv. ↑
26 The School Master of Sānka. ↑
27 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
28 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
29 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
30 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
31 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
32 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
33 The School Master of Kotda Sangani. ↑
34 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
35 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
36 The School Master of Devalia. ↑
37 The School Master of Limbdi. ↑
38 The School Master of Ganod. ↑
39 The School Masters of Dhānk and Ganod. ↑
40 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
41 Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
42 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
43 The School Master of Moti Khiroli. ↑
44 The School Masters of Dhānk and Songadh. ↑
Page 369
45 This is generally in the evening or an hour or two after nightfall. ↑
46 The School Masters of Zinzuvāda and Moti Marad. ↑
47 The School Masters of Dhānk and Vanod. ↑
48 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
49 The School Master of Todia. ↑
50 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
51 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
52 The School Masters of Zinzuvāda and Todia. ↑
53 The School Master of Todia. ↑
54 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
55 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
56 The School Master of Todia. ↑
57 The School Master of Pātan Vāv. ↑
58 The School Masters of Ganod, Vanod and Dhānk. ↑
59 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
60 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
61 The School Master of Todia. ↑
62 The School Master of Songadh and Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
63 The School Master of Pātan Vāv. ↑
64 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
65 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
66 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
67 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
68 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
69 The School Master of Chok. ↑
70 The School Mistress of Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
71 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
46 The School Masters of Zinzuvāda and Moti Marad. ↑
47 The School Masters of Dhānk and Vanod. ↑
48 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
49 The School Master of Todia. ↑
50 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
51 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
52 The School Masters of Zinzuvāda and Todia. ↑
53 The School Master of Todia. ↑
54 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
55 The School Master of Luvaria. ↑
56 The School Master of Todia. ↑
57 The School Master of Pātan Vāv. ↑
58 The School Masters of Ganod, Vanod and Dhānk. ↑
59 The School Master of Kolki. ↑
60 The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
61 The School Master of Todia. ↑
62 The School Master of Songadh and Mr. K. D. Desāi. ↑
63 The School Master of Pātan Vāv. ↑
64 The School Master of Songadh. ↑
65 The School Master of Khirāsara. ↑
66 The School Master of Dhānk. ↑
67 The School Master of Vanod. ↑
68 The School Master of Dadvi. ↑
69 The School Master of Chok. ↑
70 The School Mistress of Barton Female Training College, Rājkot. ↑
71 The School Master of Chhatrāsa. ↑
Page 370
72 The School Master of Uptela. ↑
Page 371
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Metadata
Title: Folklore Notes. Vol. I Gujarat
Author: Reginald Edward Enthoven (1869–1952) Info
Author: Arthur Mason Tippetts Jackson (1866– Info
1909)
Language: English
Original publication 1914
date:
Catalog entries
Related WorldCat catalog page: 458989633
Encoding
Revision History
2017-12-01 Started.
Availability
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the
terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org .
This eBook is produced by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
www.pgdp.net .
Scans for this book are available from the Internet Archive (copy 1 , 2 ).
Metadata
Title: Folklore Notes. Vol. I Gujarat
Author: Reginald Edward Enthoven (1869–1952) Info
Author: Arthur Mason Tippetts Jackson (1866– Info
1909)
Language: English
Original publication 1914
date:
Catalog entries
Related WorldCat catalog page: 458989633
Encoding
Revision History
2017-12-01 Started.
Page 372
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Page Source Correction Edit
distance
6, 20, [Not in source] , 1
35, 38,
38, 49,
51, 51,
62, 76,
95, 96,
96, 96,
98,
104,
104,
106,
114,
118,
118,
126,
128,
128,
129,
129,
130,
133,
133,
134,
134,
139,
This Project Gutenberg eBook contains external references. These links may
not work for you.
Corrections
The following corrections have been applied to the text:
Page Source Correction Edit
distance
6, 20, [Not in source] , 1
35, 38,
38, 49,
51, 51,
62, 76,
95, 96,
96, 96,
98,
104,
104,
106,
114,
118,
118,
126,
128,
128,
129,
129,
130,
133,
133,
134,
134,
139,
Page 373
143,
144,
149,
157,
157
7 Bhishma Bhīshma 1/0
10 . ? 1
12 Mahārakshasas Mahārākshasas 1/0
13 Dâkans Dākans 1/0
15, 55 red lead red-lead 1
16 Lapsi Lāpsi 1/0
17 cometeries cemeteries 1
17 Phansolens Phaseoleus 3
18 Shītalā Shitalā 1/0
18, 22, [Not in source] . 1
30, 33,
33, 34,
36, 36,
41, 43,
45, 46,
51, 63,
65, 74,
77, 82,
86, 88,
103,
105,
118,
120,
121,
122,
125,
128,
129,
130,
144,
149,
157,
157
7 Bhishma Bhīshma 1/0
10 . ? 1
12 Mahārakshasas Mahārākshasas 1/0
13 Dâkans Dākans 1/0
15, 55 red lead red-lead 1
16 Lapsi Lāpsi 1/0
17 cometeries cemeteries 1
17 Phansolens Phaseoleus 3
18 Shītalā Shitalā 1/0
18, 22, [Not in source] . 1
30, 33,
33, 34,
36, 36,
41, 43,
45, 46,
51, 63,
65, 74,
77, 82,
86, 88,
103,
105,
118,
120,
121,
122,
125,
128,
129,
130,
Page 374
131,
134,
134,
135,
137,
138,
148,
152,
157,
158,
158,
158,
159,
161,
163,
167,
169,
169,
172,
173,
173
19 time times 1
19 Sanka Sānkā 2/0
21 Yajur-veda Yajurveda 1
23 विष्णुर्ब्राम्ह्मणो विष्णुर्ब्राह्मणो 2/1
25 longi folia longifolia 1
26 phera pherā 1/0
26 lakh—choryasi lakh-choryasi 1
29 Chaturmās Chāturmās 1/0
30, 31,
60,
132 , . 1
34 mriga—lānchhana mriga-lānchhana 1
34 thereyb thereby 2
134,
134,
135,
137,
138,
148,
152,
157,
158,
158,
158,
159,
161,
163,
167,
169,
169,
172,
173,
173
19 time times 1
19 Sanka Sānkā 2/0
21 Yajur-veda Yajurveda 1
23 विष्णुर्ब्राम्ह्मणो विष्णुर्ब्राह्मणो 2/1
25 longi folia longifolia 1
26 phera pherā 1/0
26 lakh—choryasi lakh-choryasi 1
29 Chaturmās Chāturmās 1/0
30, 31,
60,
132 , . 1
34 mriga—lānchhana mriga-lānchhana 1
34 thereyb thereby 2
Page 375
39 Phasoleus Phaseolus 2
41 Rāmchandra Rāmachandra 1
43 phasoleus Phaseolus 3
44 heigth height 2
45, 56,
72, 75,
92, 96,
103,
114,
126 , [Deleted] 1
45 Gāyatri-
Gayatrī-purashchara purashcharan 3/1
45 Gayatri-mantra Gāyatrī-mantra 2/0
45 Jamnāshtami Janmāshtami 2
45,
146 [Not in source] of 3
48 Vaśawad Vasāwad 2/0
49 Josi Joshi 1
53 Metha Mehta 2
54, 54 , ; 1
54 — 1
55 Shoolmasters Schoolmasters 1
56, 61,
136 . , 1
56 marriagable marriageable 1
57 Dwārka Dwārkā 1/0
58 Laṇkā Laṅkā 2/0
59 Shatruṇjaya Shatruñjaya 1/0
61 diametre diameter 2
63 phaselus phaseolus 1
65 Kota Kotda 1
66 peformance performance 1
41 Rāmchandra Rāmachandra 1
43 phasoleus Phaseolus 3
44 heigth height 2
45, 56,
72, 75,
92, 96,
103,
114,
126 , [Deleted] 1
45 Gāyatri-
Gayatrī-purashchara purashcharan 3/1
45 Gayatri-mantra Gāyatrī-mantra 2/0
45 Jamnāshtami Janmāshtami 2
45,
146 [Not in source] of 3
48 Vaśawad Vasāwad 2/0
49 Josi Joshi 1
53 Metha Mehta 2
54, 54 , ; 1
54 — 1
55 Shoolmasters Schoolmasters 1
56, 61,
136 . , 1
56 marriagable marriageable 1
57 Dwārka Dwārkā 1/0
58 Laṇkā Laṅkā 2/0
59 Shatruṇjaya Shatruñjaya 1/0
61 diametre diameter 2
63 phaselus phaseolus 1
65 Kota Kotda 1
66 peformance performance 1
Page 376
68, 68 Anjani Anjanī 1/0
68 ; , 1
68 [Not in source] a 2
70 [Not in source] ‘ 1
73 Husen-pir Husen-pīr 1/0
74, 74,
75 Pir Pīr 1/0
74 decendants descendants 1
76 Rājā’s Rāj’s 1
77 Jamnāshtamī Janmāshtamī 2
78 Kanaknath Kanaknāth 1/0
79 bhuwās bhuvās 1
81 tot he to the 2
82,
121 . [Deleted] 1
82 Kotda-sangani Kotda-Sangani 1
83, 83,
85 Dhank Dhhank 1
84 Kal-bhairav Kāl-bhairav 1/0
84 offering offerings 1
85 काशिकापुराधिनाथ काशिकापुराधिनाथं 1/0
86 follow follows 1
86 subsquently subsequently 1
89 Similar similar 1
92 Bhima Bhīma 1/0
93 passer by passer-by 1
94 khapan kaphan 2
95 Ashivini Ashvini 1
96 bellmetal bell-metal 1
97,
134 Áshvin Āshvin 1/0
68 ; , 1
68 [Not in source] a 2
70 [Not in source] ‘ 1
73 Husen-pir Husen-pīr 1/0
74, 74,
75 Pir Pīr 1/0
74 decendants descendants 1
76 Rājā’s Rāj’s 1
77 Jamnāshtamī Janmāshtamī 2
78 Kanaknath Kanaknāth 1/0
79 bhuwās bhuvās 1
81 tot he to the 2
82,
121 . [Deleted] 1
82 Kotda-sangani Kotda-Sangani 1
83, 83,
85 Dhank Dhhank 1
84 Kal-bhairav Kāl-bhairav 1/0
84 offering offerings 1
85 काशिकापुराधिनाथ काशिकापुराधिनाथं 1/0
86 follow follows 1
86 subsquently subsequently 1
89 Similar similar 1
92 Bhima Bhīma 1/0
93 passer by passer-by 1
94 khapan kaphan 2
95 Ashivini Ashvini 1
96 bellmetal bell-metal 1
97,
134 Áshvin Āshvin 1/0
Page 377
97 radialus radiatus 1
98 Sangni Sangani 1
101 is are 3
103 Sidadhapur Siddhapur 1
103 Bhādarwā Bhādarvā 1
103 annivesary anniversary 1
104 childrens’ children’s 2
104 dactyton dactylon 1
106 - — 1
108 Azadiarchta Azadirachta 2
109 wtth with 1
109,
160 Master Masters 1
109 Gebanshā Gebānshā 1/0
110 Pujari Pujāri 1/0
110 Swāmin-nārāyān Swāmi-nārāyān 1
110 pe onages personages 2
110 m tained maintained 3
111 Girnar Girnār 1/0
112 Scohol School 2
113 eason reason 1
113 lápsi lāpsi 1/0
115 childern children 2
117 Dhánk Dhānk 1/0
117 fotune fortune 1
117,
118 1. (1) 2
117 Schol School 1
118 [Not in source] ” 1
120 Aśhvin Āshvin 2/0
121 Prophets’ Prophet’s 2
98 Sangni Sangani 1
101 is are 3
103 Sidadhapur Siddhapur 1
103 Bhādarwā Bhādarvā 1
103 annivesary anniversary 1
104 childrens’ children’s 2
104 dactyton dactylon 1
106 - — 1
108 Azadiarchta Azadirachta 2
109 wtth with 1
109,
160 Master Masters 1
109 Gebanshā Gebānshā 1/0
110 Pujari Pujāri 1/0
110 Swāmin-nārāyān Swāmi-nārāyān 1
110 pe onages personages 2
110 m tained maintained 3
111 Girnar Girnār 1/0
112 Scohol School 2
113 eason reason 1
113 lápsi lāpsi 1/0
115 childern children 2
117 Dhánk Dhānk 1/0
117 fotune fortune 1
117,
118 1. (1) 2
117 Schol School 1
118 [Not in source] ” 1
120 Aśhvin Āshvin 2/0
121 Prophets’ Prophet’s 2
Page 378
124 [Not in source] 1
124 ’ ” 1
124 crea ures creatures 1
125 SchoolMaster School Master 1
126 influeuce influence 1
126 Inpector Inspector 1
126 processess processes 1
127 east north-east 6
128 w ich which 1
128 Mastr Master 1
128 Saptsasani Saptasani 1
129 Venod Vanod 1
130 Kāl Bhairav Kāl-Bhairav 1
130 cross roads cross-roads 1
132 Jyestha Jyeshta 2
132 child bed child-bed 1
134 Dasāi Desāi 1
134 Seva seva 1
134 dudhbāk dudhpāk 1
134 happen happens 1
137 [Not in source] ’ 1
138 [Not in source] ( 1
139 The the 1
139 Vasvad Vasavad 1
139 Kālbhairav Kāl-bhairav 1
140 Girl Girls’ 2
140 School-Mistress School Mistress 1
141 go s goes 1
144 cowdunged cow-dunged 1
144 cynadon cynodon 1
124 ’ ” 1
124 crea ures creatures 1
125 SchoolMaster School Master 1
126 influeuce influence 1
126 Inpector Inspector 1
126 processess processes 1
127 east north-east 6
128 w ich which 1
128 Mastr Master 1
128 Saptsasani Saptasani 1
129 Venod Vanod 1
130 Kāl Bhairav Kāl-Bhairav 1
130 cross roads cross-roads 1
132 Jyestha Jyeshta 2
132 child bed child-bed 1
134 Dasāi Desāi 1
134 Seva seva 1
134 dudhbāk dudhpāk 1
134 happen happens 1
137 [Not in source] ’ 1
138 [Not in source] ( 1
139 The the 1
139 Vasvad Vasavad 1
139 Kālbhairav Kāl-bhairav 1
140 Girl Girls’ 2
140 School-Mistress School Mistress 1
141 go s goes 1
144 cowdunged cow-dunged 1
144 cynadon cynodon 1
Page 379
145 Gāyatri-
Gāyatri-purashcaran purashcharan 1
145 Jamāshtami Janmāshtami 1
146 [Not in source] ) 1
146 Râjkot Rājkot 1/0
147 Gunjar Gunjār 1/0
151 Mimuspos Mimusops 2
151 bronchites bronchitis 1
152 reconcilation reconciliation 1
154 [Not in source] a 2
154 Sonka Sanka 1
156 Schaol School 1
157 raddish radish 1
158 Raddish Radish 1
163 Gāyatri-
Gāyatripurascharan purashcharan 2
164 Bhādarva Bhādarvā 1/0
164 [Not in source] cow is 7
164 efficatious efficacious 1
164,
170 Māta Mātā 1/0
165 Himālayās Himālayas 1/0
167 Ananakuta Annakuta 1
168 Marad Murad 1
170 d stributed distributed 1
Gāyatri-purashcaran purashcharan 1
145 Jamāshtami Janmāshtami 1
146 [Not in source] ) 1
146 Râjkot Rājkot 1/0
147 Gunjar Gunjār 1/0
151 Mimuspos Mimusops 2
151 bronchites bronchitis 1
152 reconcilation reconciliation 1
154 [Not in source] a 2
154 Sonka Sanka 1
156 Schaol School 1
157 raddish radish 1
158 Raddish Radish 1
163 Gāyatri-
Gāyatripurascharan purashcharan 2
164 Bhādarva Bhādarvā 1/0
164 [Not in source] cow is 7
164 efficatious efficacious 1
164,
170 Māta Mātā 1/0
165 Himālayās Himālayas 1/0
167 Ananakuta Annakuta 1
168 Marad Murad 1
170 d stributed distributed 1
Page 380
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