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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The book of cheese
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will
have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using
this eBook.
Title: The book of cheese
Author: Charles Thom
W. W. Fisk
Release date: July 25, 2012 [eBook #40318]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/40318
Credits: E-text prepared by Susan Carr, Turgut Dincer, Charlene Taylor, and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
from page images generously made available by Internet Archive
(http://archive.org)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF
CHEESE ***
The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Book of Cheese, by Charles Thom and
Walter Warner Fisk
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will
have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using
this eBook.
Title: The book of cheese
Author: Charles Thom
W. W. Fisk
Release date: July 25, 2012 [eBook #40318]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/40318
Credits: E-text prepared by Susan Carr, Turgut Dincer, Charlene Taylor, and
the Online Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)
from page images generously made available by Internet Archive
(http://archive.org)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOOK OF
CHEESE ***
The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Book of Cheese, by Charles Thom and
Walter Warner Fisk
Page 4
Note: Images of the original pages are available through Internet
Archive. See http://archive.org/details/bookofcheese00thomrich
Transcriber's Note:
The original text contains a large number of words which occur in hyphenated and
spaced forms with comparable frequency. Such inconsistencies have been retained in
this version.
Page numbers out of sequence shown in brackets or in groups, are the actual pages
numbers shown in print.
THE BOOK OF CHEESE
The Rural Text-Book Series
Edited by L. H. BAILEY
Carleton: The Small Grains.
B. M. Duggar: The Physiology of Plant Production.
J. F. Duggar: Southern Field Crops.
Gay: Breeds of Live-Stock.
Gay: Principles and Practice of Judging Live-Stock.
Archive. See http://archive.org/details/bookofcheese00thomrich
Transcriber's Note:
The original text contains a large number of words which occur in hyphenated and
spaced forms with comparable frequency. Such inconsistencies have been retained in
this version.
Page numbers out of sequence shown in brackets or in groups, are the actual pages
numbers shown in print.
THE BOOK OF CHEESE
The Rural Text-Book Series
Edited by L. H. BAILEY
Carleton: The Small Grains.
B. M. Duggar: The Physiology of Plant Production.
J. F. Duggar: Southern Field Crops.
Gay: Breeds of Live-Stock.
Gay: Principles and Practice of Judging Live-Stock.
Page 5
Goff: Principles of Plant Culture.
Guthrie: Book of Butter.
Harper: Animal Husbandry for Schools.
Harris and Stewart: Principles of Agronomy.
Hitchcock: Text-book of Grasses.
Jeffery: Text-Book of Land Drainage.
Jordan: Feeding of Animals. Revised.
Livingston: Field Crop Production.
Lyon: Soils and Fertilizers.
Lyon, Fippin and Buckman: Soils, their Properties and Management.
Mann: Beginnings in Agriculture.
Montgomery: The Corn Crops.
Morgan: Field Crops for the Cotton-Belt.
Mumford. The Breeding of Animals.
Piper: Forage Plants and their Culture.
Sampson: Effective Farming.
Thom and Fisk: The Book of Cheese.
Warren: The Elements of Agriculture.
Warren: Farm Management.
Wheeler: Manures and Fertilizers.
White: Principles of Floriculture.
Widtsoe: Principles of Irrigation Practice.
Fig. 1.—A cheese laboratory in the New York State College of Agriculture at
Cornell University.
Guthrie: Book of Butter.
Harper: Animal Husbandry for Schools.
Harris and Stewart: Principles of Agronomy.
Hitchcock: Text-book of Grasses.
Jeffery: Text-Book of Land Drainage.
Jordan: Feeding of Animals. Revised.
Livingston: Field Crop Production.
Lyon: Soils and Fertilizers.
Lyon, Fippin and Buckman: Soils, their Properties and Management.
Mann: Beginnings in Agriculture.
Montgomery: The Corn Crops.
Morgan: Field Crops for the Cotton-Belt.
Mumford. The Breeding of Animals.
Piper: Forage Plants and their Culture.
Sampson: Effective Farming.
Thom and Fisk: The Book of Cheese.
Warren: The Elements of Agriculture.
Warren: Farm Management.
Wheeler: Manures and Fertilizers.
White: Principles of Floriculture.
Widtsoe: Principles of Irrigation Practice.
Fig. 1.—A cheese laboratory in the New York State College of Agriculture at
Cornell University.
Page 6
THE BOOK OF CHEESE
BY
CHARLES THOM
INVESTIGATOR IN CHEESE, FORMERLY AT CONNECTICUT
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
AND
WALTER W. FISK
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF DAIRY INDUSTRY (CHEESE-MAKING),
NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY
New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1918
All rights reserved
Copyright, 1918,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1918.
Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
BY
CHARLES THOM
INVESTIGATOR IN CHEESE, FORMERLY AT CONNECTICUT
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
AND
WALTER W. FISK
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF DAIRY INDUSTRY (CHEESE-MAKING),
NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY
New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1918
All rights reserved
Copyright, 1918,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1918.
Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
Page 7
PREFACE
Certain products we associate with the manufactures of the household, so
familiar and of such long standing that we do not think of them as requiring
investigation or any special support of science. The older ones of us look
back on cheese as an ancient home product; yet the old-fashioned hard
strong kind has given place to many named varieties, some of them bearing
little resemblance to the product of the kitchen and the buttery. We have
analyzed the processes; discovered microorganisms that hinder or help;
perfected devices and machines; devised tests of many kinds; studied the
chemistry; developed markets for standardized commodities. Here is one of
the old established farm industries that within a generation has passed from
the housewife and the home-made hand press to highly perfected factory
processes employing skilled service and handling milk by the many tons
from whole communities of cows. This is an example of the great changes
in agricultural practice. Cheese-making is now a piece of applied science;
many students in the colleges are studying the subject; no one would think
of undertaking it in the old way: for these reasons this book is written.
This book is intended as a guide in the interpretation of the processes of
making and handling a series of important varieties of cheese. The kinds
here considered are those made commercially in America, or so widely met
in the trade that some knowledge of them is necessary. The relation of
cheese to milk and to its production and composition has been presented in
so far as required for this purpose. The principles and practices underlying
all cheese-making have been brought together into a chapter on curd-
making. A chapter on classification then brings together into synoptical
form our knowledge of groups of varieties. These groups are then discussed
separately. The problems of factory building, factory organization, buying
and testing milk, and the proper marketing of cheese, are briefly discussed.
Such a discussion should be useful to the student, to the beginner in cheese-
making, as a reference book on many varieties in the hands of makers who
specialize in single varieties, and to the housekeeper or teacher of domestic
science. The material has been brought together from the experience of the
Certain products we associate with the manufactures of the household, so
familiar and of such long standing that we do not think of them as requiring
investigation or any special support of science. The older ones of us look
back on cheese as an ancient home product; yet the old-fashioned hard
strong kind has given place to many named varieties, some of them bearing
little resemblance to the product of the kitchen and the buttery. We have
analyzed the processes; discovered microorganisms that hinder or help;
perfected devices and machines; devised tests of many kinds; studied the
chemistry; developed markets for standardized commodities. Here is one of
the old established farm industries that within a generation has passed from
the housewife and the home-made hand press to highly perfected factory
processes employing skilled service and handling milk by the many tons
from whole communities of cows. This is an example of the great changes
in agricultural practice. Cheese-making is now a piece of applied science;
many students in the colleges are studying the subject; no one would think
of undertaking it in the old way: for these reasons this book is written.
This book is intended as a guide in the interpretation of the processes of
making and handling a series of important varieties of cheese. The kinds
here considered are those made commercially in America, or so widely met
in the trade that some knowledge of them is necessary. The relation of
cheese to milk and to its production and composition has been presented in
so far as required for this purpose. The principles and practices underlying
all cheese-making have been brought together into a chapter on curd-
making. A chapter on classification then brings together into synoptical
form our knowledge of groups of varieties. These groups are then discussed
separately. The problems of factory building, factory organization, buying
and testing milk, and the proper marketing of cheese, are briefly discussed.
Such a discussion should be useful to the student, to the beginner in cheese-
making, as a reference book on many varieties in the hands of makers who
specialize in single varieties, and to the housekeeper or teacher of domestic
science. The material has been brought together from the experience of the
Page 8
writers, supplemented by free use of the literature in several languages.
Standard references to this literature are added in the text.
No introduction to the subject of cheese should fail to mention the work of
J. H. Monrad, who has recently passed away. Mr. Monrad never collected
his material into a single publication, but his contributions to chees-
emaking information, scattered widely in trade literature over a period of
thirty years, form an encyclopedia of the subject.
Bulletins of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and United States
Department of Agriculture have been quoted extensively, with citation of
the sources of the material. Personal assistance from Professor W. A.
Stocking and other members of the Dairy Department of Cornell University,
and C. F. Doane of the United States Department of Agriculture, is gladly
acknowledged.
Students cannot learn out of books to make cheese. They may, however, be
aided in understanding the problems from such study. To make cheese
successfully they must have intimate personal touch with some person who
knows cheese. Sympathetic relations with such a teacher day by day in the
cheese-room are essential to success in making cheese which, at its best, is
one of the most attractive of food-products.
The Authors.
Standard references to this literature are added in the text.
No introduction to the subject of cheese should fail to mention the work of
J. H. Monrad, who has recently passed away. Mr. Monrad never collected
his material into a single publication, but his contributions to chees-
emaking information, scattered widely in trade literature over a period of
thirty years, form an encyclopedia of the subject.
Bulletins of the Agricultural Experiment Stations and United States
Department of Agriculture have been quoted extensively, with citation of
the sources of the material. Personal assistance from Professor W. A.
Stocking and other members of the Dairy Department of Cornell University,
and C. F. Doane of the United States Department of Agriculture, is gladly
acknowledged.
Students cannot learn out of books to make cheese. They may, however, be
aided in understanding the problems from such study. To make cheese
successfully they must have intimate personal touch with some person who
knows cheese. Sympathetic relations with such a teacher day by day in the
cheese-room are essential to success in making cheese which, at its best, is
one of the most attractive of food-products.
The Authors.
Page 9
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
CHAPTER I
Page 10
PAGES
General Statement on Cheese 1-4
Nature of cheese, 1; Cheese-making as an art, 2; Cheese-making as a science, 3;
Problems in cheese-making, 4; History, 5.
CHAPTER II
General Statement on Cheese 1-4
Nature of cheese, 1; Cheese-making as an art, 2; Cheese-making as a science, 3;
Problems in cheese-making, 4; History, 5.
CHAPTER II
Page 11
The Milk in Its Relation To Cheese 5-28
Factors affecting the quality, 6; Chemical composition, 7; Factors causing variation
in composition, 8; Milk constituents, 9; Water, 10; Fat, 11 Casein, 12; Milk-sugar,
13; Albumin, 14; Ash, 15 Enzymes, 16; The flavor of feeds eaten by the cow, 17;
Absorption of odors, 18; Effect of condition of the cow, 19; Bacteria in the milk, 20;
Groups of bacteria in milk, 21; Acid fermentation of milk, 22 Bacterium lactis-acidi
group, 23; Colon-aërogenes group, 24; Acid peptonizing group, 25; Bacillus
bulgaricus group, 26; Acid cocci or weak acid-producers, 27; Peptonizing
organisms, 28; Inert types, 29; Alkali-producing bacteria, 30; Butyric fermenting
types, 31; Molds and yeasts, 32; Bacterial contamination of milk, 33; Germicidal
effect of milk, 34; Sources and control of bacteria in milk, 35; The cow, 36; Stable
air, 37; The milker, 38; Utensils, 39 The factory, 40; The control of bacteria, 41;
Fermentation test, 42; The sediment test, 43.
CHAPTER III
Factors affecting the quality, 6; Chemical composition, 7; Factors causing variation
in composition, 8; Milk constituents, 9; Water, 10; Fat, 11 Casein, 12; Milk-sugar,
13; Albumin, 14; Ash, 15 Enzymes, 16; The flavor of feeds eaten by the cow, 17;
Absorption of odors, 18; Effect of condition of the cow, 19; Bacteria in the milk, 20;
Groups of bacteria in milk, 21; Acid fermentation of milk, 22 Bacterium lactis-acidi
group, 23; Colon-aërogenes group, 24; Acid peptonizing group, 25; Bacillus
bulgaricus group, 26; Acid cocci or weak acid-producers, 27; Peptonizing
organisms, 28; Inert types, 29; Alkali-producing bacteria, 30; Butyric fermenting
types, 31; Molds and yeasts, 32; Bacterial contamination of milk, 33; Germicidal
effect of milk, 34; Sources and control of bacteria in milk, 35; The cow, 36; Stable
air, 37; The milker, 38; Utensils, 39 The factory, 40; The control of bacteria, 41;
Fermentation test, 42; The sediment test, 43.
CHAPTER III
Page 12
Coagulating Materials 29-40
Ferments, 44; Nature of rennet, 45; Preparation of rennet extract, 46; Pepsin, 47;
Chemistry of curdling, 48; Use of acid, 49; Robertson's theory, 50; Rennet curd, 51;
Hammarsten's theory, 52 Duclaux theory, 53; Bang's theory, 54; Bosworth's theory,
55.
CHAPTER IV
Ferments, 44; Nature of rennet, 45; Preparation of rennet extract, 46; Pepsin, 47;
Chemistry of curdling, 48; Use of acid, 49; Robertson's theory, 50; Rennet curd, 51;
Hammarsten's theory, 52 Duclaux theory, 53; Bang's theory, 54; Bosworth's theory,
55.
CHAPTER IV
Page 13
Lactic Starters 41-54
Acidifying organisms, 56; Starter, 57; Natural starter, 58; Commercial starter or pure
cultures, 59; Manufacturer's directions, 60; Selecting milk, 61; Pasteurization, 62;
Containers, 63; Adding cultures, 64; Cleanliness, 65; "Mother" starter or startoline,
66; Examining starter, 67; Second day's propagation, 68; Preparations of larger
amount of starter, 69; Amount of mother starter to use, 70 Qualities, 71; How to
carry the mother starter, 72 Starter score-cards, 73; Use of starter, 74; The amount of
starter to use, 75; Starter lot-card, 76.
CHAPTER V
Acidifying organisms, 56; Starter, 57; Natural starter, 58; Commercial starter or pure
cultures, 59; Manufacturer's directions, 60; Selecting milk, 61; Pasteurization, 62;
Containers, 63; Adding cultures, 64; Cleanliness, 65; "Mother" starter or startoline,
66; Examining starter, 67; Second day's propagation, 68; Preparations of larger
amount of starter, 69; Amount of mother starter to use, 70 Qualities, 71; How to
carry the mother starter, 72 Starter score-cards, 73; Use of starter, 74; The amount of
starter to use, 75; Starter lot-card, 76.
CHAPTER V
Page 14
Curd-making 55-80
The composition of the milk, 77; Cheese color, 78 The acidity factor, 79; Acidity of
milk when received, 80; The acid test, 81; Rennet tests, 82; Marschall rennet test,
83; Comparison of acid and rennet test, 84; Control of acid, 85; Acidity and rennet
action, 86; Acidity and expulsion of the whey, 87 Acidity in relation to cheese flavor,
88; Acidity in relation to body and texture of cheese, 89; Acidity in relation to
cheese color, 90; Control of moisture, 91; Relation of moisture to manufacture and
quality, 92; Relation of moisture to acidity, 93 Setting temperature, 94; Strength of
coagulating materials, 95; Amount of coagulating materials to use, 96; Method of
adding rennet, 97; The curdling period, 98; Cutting or breaking the curd, 99; Curd
knives, 100; Heating or "cooking," 101; Draining, 102; Application to cheese, 103.
CHAPTER VI
The composition of the milk, 77; Cheese color, 78 The acidity factor, 79; Acidity of
milk when received, 80; The acid test, 81; Rennet tests, 82; Marschall rennet test,
83; Comparison of acid and rennet test, 84; Control of acid, 85; Acidity and rennet
action, 86; Acidity and expulsion of the whey, 87 Acidity in relation to cheese flavor,
88; Acidity in relation to body and texture of cheese, 89; Acidity in relation to
cheese color, 90; Control of moisture, 91; Relation of moisture to manufacture and
quality, 92; Relation of moisture to acidity, 93 Setting temperature, 94; Strength of
coagulating materials, 95; Amount of coagulating materials to use, 96; Method of
adding rennet, 97; The curdling period, 98; Cutting or breaking the curd, 99; Curd
knives, 100; Heating or "cooking," 101; Draining, 102; Application to cheese, 103.
CHAPTER VI
Page 15
Classification 81-88
Basis of classification, 104; Processed cheeses, 105; Whey cheeses, 106; Soft and
hard cheeses, 107 Relation of moisture to classes, 108; Relation of heat to classes,
109.
CHAPTER VII
Basis of classification, 104; Processed cheeses, 105; Whey cheeses, 106; Soft and
hard cheeses, 107 Relation of moisture to classes, 108; Relation of heat to classes,
109.
CHAPTER VII
Page 16
Cheeses With Sour-milk Flavor 89-110
Skim series, 110; Cottage cheese, 111; Household practice, 112; Factory practice,
113; Buttermilk cheese, 114; Neufchâtel group, 115; Domestic or American
Neufchâtel cheeses, 116; The factory, 117; Cans, 118; Draining racks, 119; Cloths,
120 Molding machinery, 121; Milk for Neufchâtel, 122 Starter, 123; Renneting or
setting, 124; Draining, 125; Cooling Neufchâtel, 126; Pressing, 127 Working and
salting Neufchâtel, 128; Storage, 129 Molding, 130; Skimmed-milk Neufchâtel, 131
Baker's cheese, 132; Domestic Neufchâtel, 133 Partially skim Neufchâtel, 134;
Cream cheese, 135 Neufchâtel specialties, 136; Gervais, 137; European forms
occasionally imported, 138.
CHAPTER VIII
Skim series, 110; Cottage cheese, 111; Household practice, 112; Factory practice,
113; Buttermilk cheese, 114; Neufchâtel group, 115; Domestic or American
Neufchâtel cheeses, 116; The factory, 117; Cans, 118; Draining racks, 119; Cloths,
120 Molding machinery, 121; Milk for Neufchâtel, 122 Starter, 123; Renneting or
setting, 124; Draining, 125; Cooling Neufchâtel, 126; Pressing, 127 Working and
salting Neufchâtel, 128; Storage, 129 Molding, 130; Skimmed-milk Neufchâtel, 131
Baker's cheese, 132; Domestic Neufchâtel, 133 Partially skim Neufchâtel, 134;
Cream cheese, 135 Neufchâtel specialties, 136; Gervais, 137; European forms
occasionally imported, 138.
CHAPTER VIII
Page 17
Soft Cheeses Ripened by Mold 111-133
Hand cheese and its allies, 139; Pennsylvania pot cheese, 140; Appetitost (Appetite
cheese), 141 Ripened Neufchâtel, French process, 142; The Camembert group, 143;
Camembert cheese, 144 Description of Camembert, 145; Conditions of making and
ripening, 146; Outline of making process, 147; Acidity, 148; Ripening the cheese,
149 Composition, 150; Factory, 151; Economic factors, 152; French Brie, 153;
Coulommiers, 154.
CHAPTER IX
Hand cheese and its allies, 139; Pennsylvania pot cheese, 140; Appetitost (Appetite
cheese), 141 Ripened Neufchâtel, French process, 142; The Camembert group, 143;
Camembert cheese, 144 Description of Camembert, 145; Conditions of making and
ripening, 146; Outline of making process, 147; Acidity, 148; Ripening the cheese,
149 Composition, 150; Factory, 151; Economic factors, 152; French Brie, 153;
Coulommiers, 154.
CHAPTER IX
Page 18
Soft Cheeses Ripened by Bacteria 134-148
The Isigny group, 155; Raffiné, 156; Liederkranz cheese, 157; Limburger cheese,
158; The milk, 159; Making the cheese, 160; Draining and salting, 161; Ripening,
162; Marketing and qualities of Limburger, 163; Yield and composition of
Limburger, 164; Münster cheese, 165.
CHAPTER X
The Isigny group, 155; Raffiné, 156; Liederkranz cheese, 157; Limburger cheese,
158; The milk, 159; Making the cheese, 160; Draining and salting, 161; Ripening,
162; Marketing and qualities of Limburger, 163; Yield and composition of
Limburger, 164; Münster cheese, 165.
CHAPTER X
Page 19
Semi-hard Cheeses 149-171
The green mold group, 166; Roquefort cheese, 167; Cow's milk or Façons
Roquefort, 168; Outline of making Roquefort, 169; Ripening of Roquefort, 170;
Gorgonzola, 171; Stilton cheese, 172; Gex, 173; Bacterially-ripened series, 174;
Brick cheese, 175; Making of brick cheese, 176; Ripening brick cheese, 177;
Qualities of brick cheese, 178; Composition and yield, 179; Port du Salut cheese,
180.
CHAPTER XI
The green mold group, 166; Roquefort cheese, 167; Cow's milk or Façons
Roquefort, 168; Outline of making Roquefort, 169; Ripening of Roquefort, 170;
Gorgonzola, 171; Stilton cheese, 172; Gex, 173; Bacterially-ripened series, 174;
Brick cheese, 175; Making of brick cheese, 176; Ripening brick cheese, 177;
Qualities of brick cheese, 178; Composition and yield, 179; Port du Salut cheese,
180.
CHAPTER XI
Page 20
The Hard Cheeses 172-183
The Danish group, 181; The Dutch group, 182 Edam cheese, 183; Method of
manufacture, 184 Salting and curing Edam, 185; Equipment for making Edam
cheese, 186; Qualities and yield of Edam cheese, 187; Gouda cheese, 188; Method
of manufacture, 189; Equipment for Gouda cheese, 190; Composition and yield,
191.
CHAPTER XII
The Danish group, 181; The Dutch group, 182 Edam cheese, 183; Method of
manufacture, 184 Salting and curing Edam, 185; Equipment for making Edam
cheese, 186; Qualities and yield of Edam cheese, 187; Gouda cheese, 188; Method
of manufacture, 189; Equipment for Gouda cheese, 190; Composition and yield,
191.
CHAPTER XII
Page 21
Cheddar Cheese-making 184-221
The lot-card, 192; The milk, 193; Ripening the milk, 194; Setting or coagulating,
195; Cutting, 196; Heating or "cooking" the curd, 197; Removing the whey, 198;
Hot-iron test, 199; Firmness of the curd, 200; Gathering the curd together, 201;
Matting or cheddaring, 202; Milling the curd, 203 Salting, 204; Hooping the curd,
205; Pressing the curd, 206; Dressing the cheese, 207; Handling over-ripe and gassy
milk, 208; Qualities of Cheddar cheese, 209.
CHAPTER XIII
The lot-card, 192; The milk, 193; Ripening the milk, 194; Setting or coagulating,
195; Cutting, 196; Heating or "cooking" the curd, 197; Removing the whey, 198;
Hot-iron test, 199; Firmness of the curd, 200; Gathering the curd together, 201;
Matting or cheddaring, 202; Milling the curd, 203 Salting, 204; Hooping the curd,
205; Pressing the curd, 206; Dressing the cheese, 207; Handling over-ripe and gassy
milk, 208; Qualities of Cheddar cheese, 209.
CHAPTER XIII
Page 22
Composition and Yield of Cheddar Cheese 222-246
Composition of milk, whey and cheese, 210 Relations of fat to casein in normal
milk, 211 Influence of fat in milk on yield of cheese, 212; Fat loss in cheese-making,
213; Effect of bacterial-content of milk on yield of cheese, 214; Factors affecting the
moisture-content of Cheddar, 215 Variations of the Cheddar process, 216; Cheddar-
type cheese from pasteurized milk, 217; Club cheese, 218; The stirred-curd or
granular process, 219 California Jack cheese, 220; The washed-curd process, 221;
English dairy cheese, 222; Pineapple cheese, 223; Leyden, 224; Cheddar cheese
with pimientos, 225; Sage cheese, 226; Skimmed-milk cheese, 227; Full skimmed-
milk Cheddar cheese, 228; Half skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese, 229 Yield and
qualities of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese, 230.
CHAPTER XIV
Composition of milk, whey and cheese, 210 Relations of fat to casein in normal
milk, 211 Influence of fat in milk on yield of cheese, 212; Fat loss in cheese-making,
213; Effect of bacterial-content of milk on yield of cheese, 214; Factors affecting the
moisture-content of Cheddar, 215 Variations of the Cheddar process, 216; Cheddar-
type cheese from pasteurized milk, 217; Club cheese, 218; The stirred-curd or
granular process, 219 California Jack cheese, 220; The washed-curd process, 221;
English dairy cheese, 222; Pineapple cheese, 223; Leyden, 224; Cheddar cheese
with pimientos, 225; Sage cheese, 226; Skimmed-milk cheese, 227; Full skimmed-
milk Cheddar cheese, 228; Half skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese, 229 Yield and
qualities of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese, 230.
CHAPTER XIV
Page 23
Cheddar Cheese Ripening 247-275
Fat, 231; Milk-sugar, 232; The salts, 233 Gases, 234; Casein or proteins, 235;
Causes of ripening changes, 236; Action of the rennet extract, 237; The action of the
bacteria, 238; Conditions affecting the rate of cheese ripening, 239; The length of
time, 240; The temperature of the curing-room, 241; Moisture-content of the cheese,
242; The size of the cheese, 243; The amount of salt used, 244 The amount of rennet
extract, 245; The influence of acid, 246; Care of the cheese in the curing-room, 247;
Evaporation of moisture from the cheese during ripening, 248; Paraffining, 249;
Shipping, 250. Defects in Cheddar cheese: Defects in flavor, 251; Feedy flavors,
252; Acid flavors, 253; Sweet or fruity flavors, 254; Defects in body and texture,
255; Loose or open texture, 256; Dry body, 257 Gassy textured cheese, 258; Acidy,
pasty or soft body and texture, 259; Defects in color, 260 Defects in finish, 261.
Cheddar cheese judging: Securing the sample, 262; How to determine quality, 263;
Causes of variations in score, 264; The score-card, 265.
CHAPTER XV
Fat, 231; Milk-sugar, 232; The salts, 233 Gases, 234; Casein or proteins, 235;
Causes of ripening changes, 236; Action of the rennet extract, 237; The action of the
bacteria, 238; Conditions affecting the rate of cheese ripening, 239; The length of
time, 240; The temperature of the curing-room, 241; Moisture-content of the cheese,
242; The size of the cheese, 243; The amount of salt used, 244 The amount of rennet
extract, 245; The influence of acid, 246; Care of the cheese in the curing-room, 247;
Evaporation of moisture from the cheese during ripening, 248; Paraffining, 249;
Shipping, 250. Defects in Cheddar cheese: Defects in flavor, 251; Feedy flavors,
252; Acid flavors, 253; Sweet or fruity flavors, 254; Defects in body and texture,
255; Loose or open texture, 256; Dry body, 257 Gassy textured cheese, 258; Acidy,
pasty or soft body and texture, 259; Defects in color, 260 Defects in finish, 261.
Cheddar cheese judging: Securing the sample, 262; How to determine quality, 263;
Causes of variations in score, 264; The score-card, 265.
CHAPTER XV
Page 24
The Swiss and Italian Groups 276-292
Swiss cheese: The Swiss factory, 266; The milk, 267; Rennet extract, 268; Starter,
269; The making process, 270; Curing Swiss, 271; Block Swiss, 272 Shipment, 273;
Qualities of Swiss cheese, 274 Composition and yield, 275; The Italian group:
Parmesan, 276; Regianito, 277.
CHAPTER XVI
Swiss cheese: The Swiss factory, 266; The milk, 267; Rennet extract, 268; Starter,
269; The making process, 270; Curing Swiss, 271; Block Swiss, 272 Shipment, 273;
Qualities of Swiss cheese, 274 Composition and yield, 275; The Italian group:
Parmesan, 276; Regianito, 277.
CHAPTER XVI
Page 25
Miscellaneous Varieties and By-products 293-296
Caciocavallo, 278; Sap sago, 279; Albumin cheese, 280; Mysost, Norwegian whey
cheese, 281 Whey butter, 282.
CHAPTER XVII
Caciocavallo, 278; Sap sago, 279; Albumin cheese, 280; Mysost, Norwegian whey
cheese, 281 Whey butter, 282.
CHAPTER XVII
Page 26
Cheese Factory Construction, Equipment, Organization 297-310
Locating the site, 283; The building, 284; Heating plant, 285; Curing-rooms, 286;
Light, 287 Ventilation, 288; Boiler-room, 289; whey tanks, 290; Store-room, 291;
The floors, 292; Arrangement of machinery and rooms, 293; Arrangements for
cleanliness, 294; Equipment and supplies list, 295 Factory organization, 296.
CHAPTER XVIII
Locating the site, 283; The building, 284; Heating plant, 285; Curing-rooms, 286;
Light, 287 Ventilation, 288; Boiler-room, 289; whey tanks, 290; Store-room, 291;
The floors, 292; Arrangement of machinery and rooms, 293; Arrangements for
cleanliness, 294; Equipment and supplies list, 295 Factory organization, 296.
CHAPTER XVIII
Page 27
History and Development of the Cheese Industry in America 311-326
The factory system, 297; Introduction of factory system in Canada, 298;
Introduction of cheddaring, 299; Introduction of Swiss and Limburger, 300 Number
and distribution of cheese factories, 301 Total production of cheese in the United
States, 302; Rank of the leading cheese-producing states, 303; Exportation and
importation of cheese by the United States, 304; Average yearly price of cheese,
305; Canadian cheese statistics, 306; Introduction of cheese-making into new
regions, 307.
CHAPTER XIX
The factory system, 297; Introduction of factory system in Canada, 298;
Introduction of cheddaring, 299; Introduction of Swiss and Limburger, 300 Number
and distribution of cheese factories, 301 Total production of cheese in the United
States, 302; Rank of the leading cheese-producing states, 303; Exportation and
importation of cheese by the United States, 304; Average yearly price of cheese,
305; Canadian cheese statistics, 306; Introduction of cheese-making into new
regions, 307.
CHAPTER XIX
Page 28
Testing 327-342
The fat test, 308; Sampling the milk, 309; Adding the acid, 310; Centrifuging, 311;
Reading the test, 312; testing whey for fat, 313; testing cheese for fat, 314; Reading
the test, 315; The Hart casein test, 316; Solids in the milk, 317; the lactometer, 318;
Calculating the solids not fat in the milk, 319 Testing cheese for moisture, 320.
CHAPTER XX
The fat test, 308; Sampling the milk, 309; Adding the acid, 310; Centrifuging, 311;
Reading the test, 312; testing whey for fat, 313; testing cheese for fat, 314; Reading
the test, 315; The Hart casein test, 316; Solids in the milk, 317; the lactometer, 318;
Calculating the solids not fat in the milk, 319 Testing cheese for moisture, 320.
CHAPTER XX
Page 29
Marketing 343-361
Buying milk, 321; Cheese yield basis of buying milk, 322; Fat basis for payment of
milk, 323 Weight basis or pooling method for payment of milk, 324; Fat-plus-two
method for payment of milk, 325; Comparison of methods, 326; Laws governing the
production and sale of milk, 327 Marketing of cheese, 328; Mercantile exchanges,
329; Marketing perishable varieties, 330; Distribution of price, 331; Standards, 332;
Laws relating to cheese marketing, 333.
CHAPTER XXI
Buying milk, 321; Cheese yield basis of buying milk, 322; Fat basis for payment of
milk, 323 Weight basis or pooling method for payment of milk, 324; Fat-plus-two
method for payment of milk, 325; Comparison of methods, 326; Laws governing the
production and sale of milk, 327 Marketing of cheese, 328; Mercantile exchanges,
329; Marketing perishable varieties, 330; Distribution of price, 331; Standards, 332;
Laws relating to cheese marketing, 333.
CHAPTER XXI
Page 30
Cheese in the Household 362-381
Food value of cheese, 334; Digestibility of cheese, 335; Cheese flavor, 336; Relation
to health, 337 Cheese poisoning, 338; Proper place in the diet, 339; Care of cheese,
340; Food value and price, 341; Methods and recipes for using cheese, 342.
THE BOOK OF CHEESE
Food value of cheese, 334; Digestibility of cheese, 335; Cheese flavor, 336; Relation
to health, 337 Cheese poisoning, 338; Proper place in the diet, 339; Care of cheese,
340; Food value and price, 341; Methods and recipes for using cheese, 342.
THE BOOK OF CHEESE
Page 31
CHAPTER I
GENERAL STATEMENT ON CHEESE
Cheese is a solid or semi-solid protein food product manufactured from
milk. Its solidity depends on the curdling or coagulation of part or all of the
protein and the expulsion of the watery part or whey. The coagulum or curd
so formed incloses part of the milk-serum (technically whey) or watery
portion of the milk, part of the salts, part or all of the fat, and an aliquot part
of the milk-sugar. The loss in manufacture includes a small fraction of the
protein and fat, the larger proportion of the water, salts and milk-sugar.
1. Nature of cheese.—Milk of itself is an exceedingly perishable product.
Cheese preserves the most important nutrient parts of the milk in condition
for consumption over a much longer period. The duration of this period and
the ripening and other changes taking place depend very closely on the
composition of the freshly made cheese. There is an intimate relation
between the water, fat, protein and salt-content of the newly made cheese
and the ripening processes which produce the particular flavors of the
product when it is ready for the consumer. This relation is essentially
biological. A cheese containing 60 to 75 per cent of water, as in "cottage
cheese" (the sour-milk cheese so widely made in the homes), must be eaten
or lost in a very few days. Spoilage is very rapid. In contrast to this, the
Italian Parmesan, with 30 to 32 per cent of water, requires two to three
years for proper ripening.
The cheeses made from soured skim-milk probably represent the most
ancient forms of cheese-making. Their origin is lost in antiquity. The
makers of Roquefort cheese cite passages from Pliny which they think refer
to an early form of that product. It is certain that cheese in some form has
been familiar to man throughout historic times. The technical literature of
cheese-making is, however, essentially recent. The older literature may be
cited to follow the historical changes in details of practice.
2. Cheese-making as an art has been developed to high stages of
perfection in widely separate localities. The best known varieties of cheese
GENERAL STATEMENT ON CHEESE
Cheese is a solid or semi-solid protein food product manufactured from
milk. Its solidity depends on the curdling or coagulation of part or all of the
protein and the expulsion of the watery part or whey. The coagulum or curd
so formed incloses part of the milk-serum (technically whey) or watery
portion of the milk, part of the salts, part or all of the fat, and an aliquot part
of the milk-sugar. The loss in manufacture includes a small fraction of the
protein and fat, the larger proportion of the water, salts and milk-sugar.
1. Nature of cheese.—Milk of itself is an exceedingly perishable product.
Cheese preserves the most important nutrient parts of the milk in condition
for consumption over a much longer period. The duration of this period and
the ripening and other changes taking place depend very closely on the
composition of the freshly made cheese. There is an intimate relation
between the water, fat, protein and salt-content of the newly made cheese
and the ripening processes which produce the particular flavors of the
product when it is ready for the consumer. This relation is essentially
biological. A cheese containing 60 to 75 per cent of water, as in "cottage
cheese" (the sour-milk cheese so widely made in the homes), must be eaten
or lost in a very few days. Spoilage is very rapid. In contrast to this, the
Italian Parmesan, with 30 to 32 per cent of water, requires two to three
years for proper ripening.
The cheeses made from soured skim-milk probably represent the most
ancient forms of cheese-making. Their origin is lost in antiquity. The
makers of Roquefort cheese cite passages from Pliny which they think refer
to an early form of that product. It is certain that cheese in some form has
been familiar to man throughout historic times. The technical literature of
cheese-making is, however, essentially recent. The older literature may be
cited to follow the historical changes in details of practice.
2. Cheese-making as an art has been developed to high stages of
perfection in widely separate localities. The best known varieties of cheese
Page 32
bear the geographical names of the places of their origin. The practices of
making and handling such cheeses have been developed in intimate relation
to climate, local conditions and the habits of the people. So close has been
this adjustment in some cases, that the removal of expert makers of such
cheeses to new regions has resulted in total failure to transplant the industry.
3. Cheese-making as a science has been a comparatively recent
development. It has been partly a natural outgrowth of the desire of
emigrant peoples to carry with them the arts of their ancestral home, partly
the desire to manufacture at home the good things met in foreign travel. Its
development has been largely coincident with the development of the
agricultural school and the science of dairy biology. Even now we have but
a limited knowledge of a few of the 500 or more varieties of cheese named
in the literature. It is desirable to bring together the knowledge of
underlying principles as far as they are known.
No technical description of a cheese-handling process can replace
experience. Descriptions of appearances and textures of curd in terms
definite enough to be understood by beginners have been found to be
impossible. It is possible, however, to lay down principles and essentials of
practice which are common to the industry and form the foundation for
intelligent work. Cheese-making will be a science only as we depart from
the mere repetition of a routine or rule-of-thumb practice and understand
the underlying principles.
4. Problems in cheese-making.—Any understanding of these problems
calls for a working knowledge of the very complex series of factors
involved. These include the chemical composition of the milk, the nature of
rennet and character of its action under the conditions met in cheese-
making, the nature of the micro-organisms in milk, and the methods of
controlling them, their relation to acidity and to the ripening of the cheese.
To these scientific demands must be added acquaintance with the technique
of the whole milk industry, from its production and handling on the farm
through the multiplicity of details of factory installation and organization, to
those intangible factors concerned with the texture, body, odor and taste of
the varied products made from it. Some of these factors can be adequately
described; others have thus far been handed on from worker to worker but
have baffled every effort at standardization or definition.
making and handling such cheeses have been developed in intimate relation
to climate, local conditions and the habits of the people. So close has been
this adjustment in some cases, that the removal of expert makers of such
cheeses to new regions has resulted in total failure to transplant the industry.
3. Cheese-making as a science has been a comparatively recent
development. It has been partly a natural outgrowth of the desire of
emigrant peoples to carry with them the arts of their ancestral home, partly
the desire to manufacture at home the good things met in foreign travel. Its
development has been largely coincident with the development of the
agricultural school and the science of dairy biology. Even now we have but
a limited knowledge of a few of the 500 or more varieties of cheese named
in the literature. It is desirable to bring together the knowledge of
underlying principles as far as they are known.
No technical description of a cheese-handling process can replace
experience. Descriptions of appearances and textures of curd in terms
definite enough to be understood by beginners have been found to be
impossible. It is possible, however, to lay down principles and essentials of
practice which are common to the industry and form the foundation for
intelligent work. Cheese-making will be a science only as we depart from
the mere repetition of a routine or rule-of-thumb practice and understand
the underlying principles.
4. Problems in cheese-making.—Any understanding of these problems
calls for a working knowledge of the very complex series of factors
involved. These include the chemical composition of the milk, the nature of
rennet and character of its action under the conditions met in cheese-
making, the nature of the micro-organisms in milk, and the methods of
controlling them, their relation to acidity and to the ripening of the cheese.
To these scientific demands must be added acquaintance with the technique
of the whole milk industry, from its production and handling on the farm
through the multiplicity of details of factory installation and organization, to
those intangible factors concerned with the texture, body, odor and taste of
the varied products made from it. Some of these factors can be adequately
described; others have thus far been handed on from worker to worker but
have baffled every effort at standardization or definition.
Page 33
5. History.—The recorded history of the common varieties of cheese is
only fragmentary. Practices at one time merely local in origin followed the
lines of emigration. Records of processes of manufacture were not kept.
The continuance of a particular practice depended on the skill and memory
of the emigrant, who called his cheese after the place of origin. Other names
of the same kind were applied by the makers for selling purposes. The
widely known names were thus almost all originally geographical. Some of
them, such as Gorgonzola, are used for cheeses not now made at the places
whose names they bear. Naturally, this method of development has
produced national groups of cheeses which have many common
characteristics but differ in detail. The English cheeses form a typical group
of this kind.
Emigration to America carried English practices across the Atlantic. The
story of cheese-making in America has been so closely linked with the
development of the American Cheddar process that the historical aspects of
the industry in this country are considered under that head in Chapter VIII.
only fragmentary. Practices at one time merely local in origin followed the
lines of emigration. Records of processes of manufacture were not kept.
The continuance of a particular practice depended on the skill and memory
of the emigrant, who called his cheese after the place of origin. Other names
of the same kind were applied by the makers for selling purposes. The
widely known names were thus almost all originally geographical. Some of
them, such as Gorgonzola, are used for cheeses not now made at the places
whose names they bear. Naturally, this method of development has
produced national groups of cheeses which have many common
characteristics but differ in detail. The English cheeses form a typical group
of this kind.
Emigration to America carried English practices across the Atlantic. The
story of cheese-making in America has been so closely linked with the
development of the American Cheddar process that the historical aspects of
the industry in this country are considered under that head in Chapter VIII.
Page 34
CHAPTER II
THE MILK IN ITS RELATION TO CHEESE
The opaque whitish liquid, secreted by the mammary glands of female
mammals for the nourishment of their young, is known as milk. The milk of
the cow is the kind commonly used for cheese-making in America.
6. Factors affecting the quality.—The process of cheese-making begins
with drawing the milk from the udder. The care and treatment the milk
receives, while being drawn, and its subsequent handling, have a decided
influence on its qualities. The process of cheese-making is varied according
to the qualities of the milk. There are five factors that influence the quality
of the milk for cheese-making: (1) its chemical composition; (2) the flavor
of feed eaten by the cow; (3) the absorption of flavors and odors from the
atmosphere; (4) the health of the cow; (5) the bacteria present. The first
factor is dependent on the breed and individuality of the cow. The other four
factors are almost entirely within the control of man. Of these factors,
number five is of the most importance, and is the one most frequently
neglected.
7. Chemical composition.—The high, low and average composition of
milk is approximately as follows:
TABLE I
Composition of Milk
THE MILK IN ITS RELATION TO CHEESE
The opaque whitish liquid, secreted by the mammary glands of female
mammals for the nourishment of their young, is known as milk. The milk of
the cow is the kind commonly used for cheese-making in America.
6. Factors affecting the quality.—The process of cheese-making begins
with drawing the milk from the udder. The care and treatment the milk
receives, while being drawn, and its subsequent handling, have a decided
influence on its qualities. The process of cheese-making is varied according
to the qualities of the milk. There are five factors that influence the quality
of the milk for cheese-making: (1) its chemical composition; (2) the flavor
of feed eaten by the cow; (3) the absorption of flavors and odors from the
atmosphere; (4) the health of the cow; (5) the bacteria present. The first
factor is dependent on the breed and individuality of the cow. The other four
factors are almost entirely within the control of man. Of these factors,
number five is of the most importance, and is the one most frequently
neglected.
7. Chemical composition.—The high, low and average composition of
milk is approximately as follows:
TABLE I
Composition of Milk
Page 35
Water Per Fat Per Casein Per Sugar Per Albumin Ash Per
Cent Cent Cent Cent Per Cent Cent
High 88.90 5.50 3.00 5.00 .72 .73
Low 85.05 3.00 2.10 4.60 .70 .70
Average 87.47 3.80 2.50 4.80 .71 .71
8. Factors causing variation in composition.—The composition of cow's
milk varies according to several factors. The composition of the milk of
different breeds differs to such a degree that whole series of factories are
found with lower or higher figures than these averages on account of
dominant presence of particular kinds of cattle.
The following table shows the usual effect of breed on fat and total solids of
milk:
TABLE II
The Usual Effect of Breed of Cows
on Fat and Total Solids of Milk
Cent Cent Cent Cent Per Cent Cent
High 88.90 5.50 3.00 5.00 .72 .73
Low 85.05 3.00 2.10 4.60 .70 .70
Average 87.47 3.80 2.50 4.80 .71 .71
8. Factors causing variation in composition.—The composition of cow's
milk varies according to several factors. The composition of the milk of
different breeds differs to such a degree that whole series of factories are
found with lower or higher figures than these averages on account of
dominant presence of particular kinds of cattle.
The following table shows the usual effect of breed on fat and total solids of
milk:
TABLE II
The Usual Effect of Breed of Cows
on Fat and Total Solids of Milk
Page 36
Averages
Breed of Cows Fat Total Solids
Per Cent Per Cent
Jersey 5.62 14.74
Guernsey 5.34 14.70
Shorthorn 4.17 13.41
Ayrshire 3.61 12.72
Holstein-Friesian 3.30 11.89
The figures1 in Tables I and II are compiled and averaged from a large
number of analyses made at different agricultural experiment stations.
This variation not only affects the fat, but all constituents of the milk. While
there is a difference in the composition of the milk from cows of different
breeds, there is almost as wide variation in the composition of the milk
from single cows2 of the same breed. With the same cow the stage of
lactation causes a wide variation in the composition of the milk.3 As the
period of lactation advances, the milk increases in percentage of fat and
other solids.
9. Milk constituents.—From the standpoint of the cheese-maker, the
significant constituents of milk are water, fat, casein, milk-sugar, albumin,
ash and enzymes. These will be discussed separately.
10. Water.—The retention of the solids and the elimination of the water are
among the chief considerations in cheese-making. Water forms 84 to 89 per
cent of milk. Cheese-making calls for the reduction of this percentage to
that typical of the particular variety of cheese desired with the least possible
loss of milk solids. This final percentage varies from 30 to 70 per cent with
the variety of cheese. The water has two uses in the cheese: (1) It imparts
smoothness and mellowness to the body of the cheese; (2) it furnishes
suitable conditions for the action of the ripening agents. To some extent the
water may supplement or even replace fat in its effect on the texture of the
cheese. If the cheese is properly made, the water present is in such
combination as to give no suggestion of a wet or "leaky" product.
Breed of Cows Fat Total Solids
Per Cent Per Cent
Jersey 5.62 14.74
Guernsey 5.34 14.70
Shorthorn 4.17 13.41
Ayrshire 3.61 12.72
Holstein-Friesian 3.30 11.89
The figures1 in Tables I and II are compiled and averaged from a large
number of analyses made at different agricultural experiment stations.
This variation not only affects the fat, but all constituents of the milk. While
there is a difference in the composition of the milk from cows of different
breeds, there is almost as wide variation in the composition of the milk
from single cows2 of the same breed. With the same cow the stage of
lactation causes a wide variation in the composition of the milk.3 As the
period of lactation advances, the milk increases in percentage of fat and
other solids.
9. Milk constituents.—From the standpoint of the cheese-maker, the
significant constituents of milk are water, fat, casein, milk-sugar, albumin,
ash and enzymes. These will be discussed separately.
10. Water.—The retention of the solids and the elimination of the water are
among the chief considerations in cheese-making. Water forms 84 to 89 per
cent of milk. Cheese-making calls for the reduction of this percentage to
that typical of the particular variety of cheese desired with the least possible
loss of milk solids. This final percentage varies from 30 to 70 per cent with
the variety of cheese. The water has two uses in the cheese: (1) It imparts
smoothness and mellowness to the body of the cheese; (2) it furnishes
suitable conditions for the action of the ripening agents. To some extent the
water may supplement or even replace fat in its effect on the texture of the
cheese. If the cheese is properly made, the water present is in such
combination as to give no suggestion of a wet or "leaky" product.
Page 37
11. Fat.—Fat is present in the milk in the form of suspended small
transparent globules (as an emulsion). These globules vary in size with the
breed and individuality of the cow and in color from a very light yellow to a
deep yellow shade as sought in butter. Milk with small fat globules is
preferred for cheese-making, because these are not so easily lost in the
process. Milk-fat is made up of several different compounds called
glycerids,4 which are formed by the union of an organic acid with glycerine
as a base.
Fat is important in cheese-making for two reasons: (1) Its influence on the
yield of cheese; (2) its effect on the quality of the cheese. Many of the
details of cheese-making processes have been developed to prevent the loss
of fat in manufacture. The yield of cheese is almost directly in proportion to
the amount of fat in the milk; nevertheless, because the solids not fat do not
increase exactly in proportion to the fat, the cheese yield is not exactly in
proportion to the fat. The fat, however, is a good index of the cheese-
producing power of the milk.
12. Casein.—Cheese-making is possible because of the peculiar properties
of casein. This is the fundamental substance of cheese-making because it
has the capacity to coagulate or curdle under the action of acid and rennet
enzymes. Casein is an extremely complex organic compound.5 Authorities
disagree regarding its exact composition, but it contains varying amounts of
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus and sulfur, and it usually is
combined with some form of lime or calcium phosphate. It belongs to the
general class of nitrogen-containing compounds called proteins. It is present
in milk in the form of extremely minute gelatinous particles in suspension.
Casein is insoluble in water and dilute acids. The acids, when added, cause
a heavy, white, more or less flocculent precipitate. Rennet (Chapter III)
causes the casein to coagulate (curdle), forming a jelly-like mass called
curd, which is the basis of manufacture in most types of cheese. In the
formation of this coagulum (curd), the fat is imprisoned and held. The
casein compounds in the curd hold the moisture and give firmness and
solidity of body to the cheese. Casein contains the protein materials in
which important ripening changes take place. These changes render the
casein more soluble, and are thought to be the source of certain
characteristic cheese flavors.
transparent globules (as an emulsion). These globules vary in size with the
breed and individuality of the cow and in color from a very light yellow to a
deep yellow shade as sought in butter. Milk with small fat globules is
preferred for cheese-making, because these are not so easily lost in the
process. Milk-fat is made up of several different compounds called
glycerids,4 which are formed by the union of an organic acid with glycerine
as a base.
Fat is important in cheese-making for two reasons: (1) Its influence on the
yield of cheese; (2) its effect on the quality of the cheese. Many of the
details of cheese-making processes have been developed to prevent the loss
of fat in manufacture. The yield of cheese is almost directly in proportion to
the amount of fat in the milk; nevertheless, because the solids not fat do not
increase exactly in proportion to the fat, the cheese yield is not exactly in
proportion to the fat. The fat, however, is a good index of the cheese-
producing power of the milk.
12. Casein.—Cheese-making is possible because of the peculiar properties
of casein. This is the fundamental substance of cheese-making because it
has the capacity to coagulate or curdle under the action of acid and rennet
enzymes. Casein is an extremely complex organic compound.5 Authorities
disagree regarding its exact composition, but it contains varying amounts of
carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus and sulfur, and it usually is
combined with some form of lime or calcium phosphate. It belongs to the
general class of nitrogen-containing compounds called proteins. It is present
in milk in the form of extremely minute gelatinous particles in suspension.
Casein is insoluble in water and dilute acids. The acids, when added, cause
a heavy, white, more or less flocculent precipitate. Rennet (Chapter III)
causes the casein to coagulate (curdle), forming a jelly-like mass called
curd, which is the basis of manufacture in most types of cheese. In the
formation of this coagulum (curd), the fat is imprisoned and held. The
casein compounds in the curd hold the moisture and give firmness and
solidity of body to the cheese. Casein contains the protein materials in
which important ripening changes take place. These changes render the
casein more soluble, and are thought to be the source of certain
characteristic cheese flavors.
Page 38
13. Milk-sugar.—Milk-sugar (lactose) is present in solution in the watery
part of the milk. It forms on the average about 5 per cent of cow's milk.
Since it is in solution, cheese retains the aliquot part of the total represented
by the water-content of the cheese, plus any part of the sugar which has
entered into combination with the milk solids during the souring process.
The larger part of the lactose passes off with the whey. Lactose6 is attacked
by the lactic-acid bacteria and by them is changed to lactic acid. Cheeses in
which this souring process goes on quickly, soon contain a large enough
percentage of acid to check the rotting of the cheese by decay organisms.
Without this souring, most varieties of cheese will begin to spoil quickly.
For each variety there is a proper balance between the souring, which
interrupts the growth of many kinds of putrefactive bacteria, and the
development of the forms which are essential to proper ripening.
14. Albumin.—This is a form of protein which is in solution in the milk.
Albumin forms about 0.7 per cent of cow's milk. It is not coagulated by
rennet. Most rennet cheeses, therefore, retain only that portion of the total
albumin held in solution in the water retained, as in the case of milk-sugar.
Albumin is coagulated by heat, forming a film or membrane upon the
surface. There are certain kinds of cheese, such as Ricotte, made by the
recovery of albumin by heating.
15. Ash.—The ash or mineral constituents make up about 0.7 per cent of
cow's milk. This total includes very small amounts of a great many
substances. The exact form of some of the substances is still unknown. Of
these salts, the calcium or lime and phosphorus salts are most important in
cheese-making. They are partially or completely precipitated by
pasteurization. After such precipitation rennet fails to act7 or acts very
slowly; hence pasteurized milk cannot be used for making rennet cheese
unless the lost salts are replaced, or the condition of the casein is changed
by the addition of some substance, before curdling is attempted.
16. Enzymes.—Milk also contains enzymes. These are chemical ferments
secreted by the udder. They have the power to produce changes in organic
compounds without themselves undergoing any change. Minute amounts of
several enzymes are found in milk as follows: Diastase, galactase, lipase,
catalase, peroxidase and reductase. Just what part they play in cheese-
making is not definitely known.
part of the milk. It forms on the average about 5 per cent of cow's milk.
Since it is in solution, cheese retains the aliquot part of the total represented
by the water-content of the cheese, plus any part of the sugar which has
entered into combination with the milk solids during the souring process.
The larger part of the lactose passes off with the whey. Lactose6 is attacked
by the lactic-acid bacteria and by them is changed to lactic acid. Cheeses in
which this souring process goes on quickly, soon contain a large enough
percentage of acid to check the rotting of the cheese by decay organisms.
Without this souring, most varieties of cheese will begin to spoil quickly.
For each variety there is a proper balance between the souring, which
interrupts the growth of many kinds of putrefactive bacteria, and the
development of the forms which are essential to proper ripening.
14. Albumin.—This is a form of protein which is in solution in the milk.
Albumin forms about 0.7 per cent of cow's milk. It is not coagulated by
rennet. Most rennet cheeses, therefore, retain only that portion of the total
albumin held in solution in the water retained, as in the case of milk-sugar.
Albumin is coagulated by heat, forming a film or membrane upon the
surface. There are certain kinds of cheese, such as Ricotte, made by the
recovery of albumin by heating.
15. Ash.—The ash or mineral constituents make up about 0.7 per cent of
cow's milk. This total includes very small amounts of a great many
substances. The exact form of some of the substances is still unknown. Of
these salts, the calcium or lime and phosphorus salts are most important in
cheese-making. They are partially or completely precipitated by
pasteurization. After such precipitation rennet fails to act7 or acts very
slowly; hence pasteurized milk cannot be used for making rennet cheese
unless the lost salts are replaced, or the condition of the casein is changed
by the addition of some substance, before curdling is attempted.
16. Enzymes.—Milk also contains enzymes. These are chemical ferments
secreted by the udder. They have the power to produce changes in organic
compounds without themselves undergoing any change. Minute amounts of
several enzymes are found in milk as follows: Diastase, galactase, lipase,
catalase, peroxidase and reductase. Just what part they play in cheese-
making is not definitely known.
Page 39
17. The flavor of feeds eaten by the cow.—Undesirable flavors in the milk
are due many times to the use of feed with very pronounced flavors. The
most common of these feeds are onions, garlic, turnips, cabbage, decayed
ensilage, various weeds and the like. These undesirable flavors reach the
milk because the substances are volatile and are able to pass through the
tissues of the animal. While feed containing these flavors is being digested,
these volatile substances are not only present in the milk, but in all the
tissues of the animal. By the time the process of digestion is completed, the
volatile flavors have largely passed away. Therefore, if the times of milking
and feeding are properly regulated, a dairy-man may feed considerable
quantities of strong-flavored products, such as turnip, cabbage and others,
without any appreciable effect on the flavor of the milk. To accomplish this
successfully, the cows should be fed immediately before or immediately
after milking, preferably after milking. This allows time for the digestive
process to take place and for the volatile substances to disappear. If,
however, milking is performed three or four hours after feeding, these
volatile substances are present in the milk and flavor it.8
In the case of those plants which grow wild in the pasture, and to which the
cows have continued access, it is more difficult to prevent bad flavor in the
milk. The cows may be allowed to graze for a short time only, and that
immediately after milking, without affecting the flavor of the milk. This
will make it necessary to supplement the pasture with dry feed, or to have
another pasture where these undesirable plants do not grow.
Undesirable flavors are usually noticeable in the milk when the cows are
turned out to pasture for the first time in the spring; and when they are
pastured on rank fall feed, such as second growth clover.
18. Absorption of odors.—Milk, especially when warm, possesses a
remarkable ability to absorb and retain odors from the surrounding
atmosphere.9 For this reason, the milk should be handled only in places free
from such odor. Some of the common sources of these undesirable odors
are bad-smelling stables, strong-smelling feeds in the stable, dirty cows,
aërating milk near hog-pens, barn-yards and swill barrels. The only way to
prevent these undesirable flavors and odors is not to expose the milk to
them. The safest policy is to remove the source of the odor.
are due many times to the use of feed with very pronounced flavors. The
most common of these feeds are onions, garlic, turnips, cabbage, decayed
ensilage, various weeds and the like. These undesirable flavors reach the
milk because the substances are volatile and are able to pass through the
tissues of the animal. While feed containing these flavors is being digested,
these volatile substances are not only present in the milk, but in all the
tissues of the animal. By the time the process of digestion is completed, the
volatile flavors have largely passed away. Therefore, if the times of milking
and feeding are properly regulated, a dairy-man may feed considerable
quantities of strong-flavored products, such as turnip, cabbage and others,
without any appreciable effect on the flavor of the milk. To accomplish this
successfully, the cows should be fed immediately before or immediately
after milking, preferably after milking. This allows time for the digestive
process to take place and for the volatile substances to disappear. If,
however, milking is performed three or four hours after feeding, these
volatile substances are present in the milk and flavor it.8
In the case of those plants which grow wild in the pasture, and to which the
cows have continued access, it is more difficult to prevent bad flavor in the
milk. The cows may be allowed to graze for a short time only, and that
immediately after milking, without affecting the flavor of the milk. This
will make it necessary to supplement the pasture with dry feed, or to have
another pasture where these undesirable plants do not grow.
Undesirable flavors are usually noticeable in the milk when the cows are
turned out to pasture for the first time in the spring; and when they are
pastured on rank fall feed, such as second growth clover.
18. Absorption of odors.—Milk, especially when warm, possesses a
remarkable ability to absorb and retain odors from the surrounding
atmosphere.9 For this reason, the milk should be handled only in places free
from such odor. Some of the common sources of these undesirable odors
are bad-smelling stables, strong-smelling feeds in the stable, dirty cows,
aërating milk near hog-pens, barn-yards and swill barrels. The only way to
prevent these undesirable flavors and odors is not to expose the milk to
them. The safest policy is to remove the source of the odor.
Page 40
19. Effect of condition of the cow.—Any factor which affects the cow is
reflected in the composition and physiological character of the milk. (1)
Colostrum. Milk secreted just before or just after parturition is different in
physical properties and chemical composition from that secreted at any
other time during the lactation period. This milk is known as colostrum. It is
considered unfit for human food, either as milk or in products manufactured
from the milk. Most states10 consider colostrum adulterated milk, and
prohibit the sale of the product for fifteen days preceding and for five days
after parturition. (2) Disease. When disease is detected in the cow, the milk
should at once be discarded as human food. Some diseases are common
both to the cow and to man, such as tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease. If
such diseases are present in the cow, the milk may act as a carrier to man.
Digestive disorders of any sort in the cow are frequently accompanied by
undesirable flavors in the milk. These are not thought to be due to the feed,
but to the abnormal condition of the cow. When the normal condition is
restored, these undesirable flavors disappear.
20. Bacteria in the milk.—Bacteria are microscopic unicellular plants,
without chlorophyll. Besides bacteria, there are other forms of the lower
orders of plants found in milk, such as yeasts and molds. While the bacteria
are normally the more important, frequently yeasts and molds produce
significant changes in milk and other dairy products. Bacteria are very
widely distributed throughout nature. They are so small that they may easily
float in the air or on particles of dust. Many groups of bacteria are so
resistant to adverse conditions of growth that they may be present in a
dormant or spore stage, and, therefore, not be easily recognized; when
suitable environments for growth are again produced, development begins
at once. They are found in all surface water, in the earth and upon all
organic matter. There are a great many different groups of bacteria; some
are beneficial, and some are harmful. As they are so small, it is difficult to
differentiate between the beneficial and harmful kinds, except by the results
produced, or by a careful study in an especially equipped laboratory. The
bacteria multiply very rapidly. This is brought about by fission; that is, the
cell-walls are drawn in at one place around the cell, and when the walls
unite at the center, the cell is divided. There are then two bacteria. In some
cases, division takes place in twenty to thirty minutes. Like other plants,
they are very sensitive to food supply, to temperature and to moisture, as
reflected in the composition and physiological character of the milk. (1)
Colostrum. Milk secreted just before or just after parturition is different in
physical properties and chemical composition from that secreted at any
other time during the lactation period. This milk is known as colostrum. It is
considered unfit for human food, either as milk or in products manufactured
from the milk. Most states10 consider colostrum adulterated milk, and
prohibit the sale of the product for fifteen days preceding and for five days
after parturition. (2) Disease. When disease is detected in the cow, the milk
should at once be discarded as human food. Some diseases are common
both to the cow and to man, such as tuberculosis, foot-and-mouth disease. If
such diseases are present in the cow, the milk may act as a carrier to man.
Digestive disorders of any sort in the cow are frequently accompanied by
undesirable flavors in the milk. These are not thought to be due to the feed,
but to the abnormal condition of the cow. When the normal condition is
restored, these undesirable flavors disappear.
20. Bacteria in the milk.—Bacteria are microscopic unicellular plants,
without chlorophyll. Besides bacteria, there are other forms of the lower
orders of plants found in milk, such as yeasts and molds. While the bacteria
are normally the more important, frequently yeasts and molds produce
significant changes in milk and other dairy products. Bacteria are very
widely distributed throughout nature. They are so small that they may easily
float in the air or on particles of dust. Many groups of bacteria are so
resistant to adverse conditions of growth that they may be present in a
dormant or spore stage, and, therefore, not be easily recognized; when
suitable environments for growth are again produced, development begins
at once. They are found in all surface water, in the earth and upon all
organic matter. There are a great many different groups of bacteria; some
are beneficial, and some are harmful. As they are so small, it is difficult to
differentiate between the beneficial and harmful kinds, except by the results
produced, or by a careful study in an especially equipped laboratory. The
bacteria multiply very rapidly. This is brought about by fission; that is, the
cell-walls are drawn in at one place around the cell, and when the walls
unite at the center, the cell is divided. There are then two bacteria. In some
cases, division takes place in twenty to thirty minutes. Like other plants,
they are very sensitive to food supply, to temperature and to moisture, as
Page 41
conditions of growth. Inasmuch as the bacteria are plant cells, they must
absorb their food from materials in solution. They may live on solid
substances, but the food elements must be rendered soluble before they can
be used. Most bacteria prefer a neutral or slightly acid medium for growth,
rather than an alkaline reaction. Ordinary milk makes a very favorable
medium for the growth of bacteria, because it is an adequate and easily
available food supply.
In milk, certain groups of bacteria are commonly present, but many others
which happen to get into it live and multiply rapidly. A favorable
temperature is very necessary for such organisms to multiply. There is a
range of temperature, more or less wide, at which each group of bacteria
grows and multiplies with the greatest rapidity. This range varies with the
different groups, but most of them find temperatures between 75° F. and 95°
F. the most favorable for growth. Excessive heat kills the bacteria. Low
temperatures stop growth, but kill few if any bacteria. Temperatures of 50°
F. and lower retard the growth of most forms of bacteria found commonly
in milk. Many forms will slowly develop, however, below 50° and some
growth will occur down to the freezing point. Milk held at 50° F. or lower
will remain in good condition long enough to be handled without injury to
quality until received in the cheese factory. In the place of seeds, some
groups of bacteria form spores. The spores are exceedingly resistant to
unfavorable conditions of growth, such as heat, cold, drying, food supply
and even chemical agents. This property makes it difficult to destroy such
bacteria.
21. Groups of bacteria in milk.—Milk when first drawn usually shows an
amphoteric reaction; that is, it will give the acid and alkaline reactions with
litmus paper. Under normal conditions, milk soon begins to undergo
changes, due to the bacteria. Changes produced in this way are called
"fermentations"; the agents causing them, "ferments." Normally the acid
fermentation takes place first, and later other fermentations or changes
begin, which, after a time, so decompose the milk that it will not be suitable
for cheese-making or human consumption.
The following grouping of the organisms in milk is based on their effects on
the milk itself11:
absorb their food from materials in solution. They may live on solid
substances, but the food elements must be rendered soluble before they can
be used. Most bacteria prefer a neutral or slightly acid medium for growth,
rather than an alkaline reaction. Ordinary milk makes a very favorable
medium for the growth of bacteria, because it is an adequate and easily
available food supply.
In milk, certain groups of bacteria are commonly present, but many others
which happen to get into it live and multiply rapidly. A favorable
temperature is very necessary for such organisms to multiply. There is a
range of temperature, more or less wide, at which each group of bacteria
grows and multiplies with the greatest rapidity. This range varies with the
different groups, but most of them find temperatures between 75° F. and 95°
F. the most favorable for growth. Excessive heat kills the bacteria. Low
temperatures stop growth, but kill few if any bacteria. Temperatures of 50°
F. and lower retard the growth of most forms of bacteria found commonly
in milk. Many forms will slowly develop, however, below 50° and some
growth will occur down to the freezing point. Milk held at 50° F. or lower
will remain in good condition long enough to be handled without injury to
quality until received in the cheese factory. In the place of seeds, some
groups of bacteria form spores. The spores are exceedingly resistant to
unfavorable conditions of growth, such as heat, cold, drying, food supply
and even chemical agents. This property makes it difficult to destroy such
bacteria.
21. Groups of bacteria in milk.—Milk when first drawn usually shows an
amphoteric reaction; that is, it will give the acid and alkaline reactions with
litmus paper. Under normal conditions, milk soon begins to undergo
changes, due to the bacteria. Changes produced in this way are called
"fermentations"; the agents causing them, "ferments." Normally the acid
fermentation takes place first, and later other fermentations or changes
begin, which, after a time, so decompose the milk that it will not be suitable
for cheese-making or human consumption.
The following grouping of the organisms in milk is based on their effects on
the milk itself11:
Page 42
I. Acid-producing types.
II. Peptonizing types.
III. Inert types.
IV. Alkali-producing types.
V. Butyric fermenting types.
Each type of bacteria produces more or less specific changes in the milk. As
a general rule, the predominance of one of these types is an aid in the
interpretation of the quality of the product at the time of analysis, such as
the age, the temperature at which it has been held, the conditions under
which it was produced and, in some cases, the general source of the
contamination. The reaction due to certain bacteria is utilized in the
manufacture and handling of dairy products; other groups have deleterious
effects. (See Fig. 2.)
Fig. 2.—Effect of different fermentations of milk: U, Curd pitted with gas holes; G
and O, gassy curds which float; K, smooth, solid desirable curd.
22. Acid fermentation of milk.—By far the most common and important
fermentation taking place in milk is due to the action of the lactic acid-
forming bacteria on the milk-sugar or lactose. The bacteria that bring about
this fermentation may be divided into several groups on the basis of their
morphology, proteolytic activity, gas production, temperature adaptation
and production of substances other than lactic acid. The larger number of
II. Peptonizing types.
III. Inert types.
IV. Alkali-producing types.
V. Butyric fermenting types.
Each type of bacteria produces more or less specific changes in the milk. As
a general rule, the predominance of one of these types is an aid in the
interpretation of the quality of the product at the time of analysis, such as
the age, the temperature at which it has been held, the conditions under
which it was produced and, in some cases, the general source of the
contamination. The reaction due to certain bacteria is utilized in the
manufacture and handling of dairy products; other groups have deleterious
effects. (See Fig. 2.)
Fig. 2.—Effect of different fermentations of milk: U, Curd pitted with gas holes; G
and O, gassy curds which float; K, smooth, solid desirable curd.
22. Acid fermentation of milk.—By far the most common and important
fermentation taking place in milk is due to the action of the lactic acid-
forming bacteria on the milk-sugar or lactose. The bacteria that bring about
this fermentation may be divided into several groups on the basis of their
morphology, proteolytic activity, gas production, temperature adaptation
and production of substances other than lactic acid. The larger number of
Page 43
organisms producing lactic acid in milk also produce other organic acids in
greater or less abundance. Inasmuch as lactic acid is the principal substance
produced, they are called lactic acid organisms. This group contains
different kinds of organisms which may be subdivided into small groups as
follows:
(a) Bacterium lactis-acidi group
(b) Bacterium colon-aërogenes group.
(c) Acid peptonizing group.
(d) Bacillus bulgaricus group.
(e) Acid cocci or weak acid-producing group.
23. Bacterium lactis-acidi group.—There are many strains or varieties in
this group which are closely related in their activities. They are universally
present in milk and are commonly the greatest causal agent in its souring.
They are widely distributed in nature. At a temperature of 65° F. to 95° F.,
these bacteria grow and multiply very rapidly; at 70° F. (approximately 20°
C.) these forms usually outgrow all others. The total amount of acid
produced in milk by these organisms varies from 0.6 of one per cent to 1
per cent acid calculated as pure lactic acid. These forms coagulate milk to a
smooth curd of uniform consistency. In addition to the lactic acid, there are
produced traces of acetic, succinic, formic and proprionic acids, traces of
certain alcohols, aldehydes and esters. Substances other than lactic acid are
not produced by organisms of this group to such an extent as to impart
undesirable flavors to the milk. The action of this group on the milk
proteins is very slight. They produce no visible sign of peptonization. The
B. lactis-acidi group of organisms are essential to the production of the
initial acidity necessary in most types of cheese. The practical culture and
utilization of them for this purpose under factory conditions are discussed in
Chapter IV, entitled "Lactic Starters."
24. Colon-aërogenes group.—This group takes its name from a typical
species, Bacterium coli communis, which is a normal inhabitant of the
intestines of man and animals, and from Bacterium coli aerogenes, which is
similar in many respects to B. coli communis. The initial presence of these
bacteria in milk is indicative of fecal contamination or unclean conditions
of production. These organisms, however, grow and develop in milk very
rapidly at high temperatures of handling. The total acidity produced by
greater or less abundance. Inasmuch as lactic acid is the principal substance
produced, they are called lactic acid organisms. This group contains
different kinds of organisms which may be subdivided into small groups as
follows:
(a) Bacterium lactis-acidi group
(b) Bacterium colon-aërogenes group.
(c) Acid peptonizing group.
(d) Bacillus bulgaricus group.
(e) Acid cocci or weak acid-producing group.
23. Bacterium lactis-acidi group.—There are many strains or varieties in
this group which are closely related in their activities. They are universally
present in milk and are commonly the greatest causal agent in its souring.
They are widely distributed in nature. At a temperature of 65° F. to 95° F.,
these bacteria grow and multiply very rapidly; at 70° F. (approximately 20°
C.) these forms usually outgrow all others. The total amount of acid
produced in milk by these organisms varies from 0.6 of one per cent to 1
per cent acid calculated as pure lactic acid. These forms coagulate milk to a
smooth curd of uniform consistency. In addition to the lactic acid, there are
produced traces of acetic, succinic, formic and proprionic acids, traces of
certain alcohols, aldehydes and esters. Substances other than lactic acid are
not produced by organisms of this group to such an extent as to impart
undesirable flavors to the milk. The action of this group on the milk
proteins is very slight. They produce no visible sign of peptonization. The
B. lactis-acidi group of organisms are essential to the production of the
initial acidity necessary in most types of cheese. The practical culture and
utilization of them for this purpose under factory conditions are discussed in
Chapter IV, entitled "Lactic Starters."
24. Colon-aërogenes group.—This group takes its name from a typical
species, Bacterium coli communis, which is a normal inhabitant of the
intestines of man and animals, and from Bacterium coli aerogenes, which is
similar in many respects to B. coli communis. The initial presence of these
bacteria in milk is indicative of fecal contamination or unclean conditions
of production. These organisms, however, grow and develop in milk very
rapidly at high temperatures of handling. The total acidity produced by
Page 44
these forms is less than that by the Bacterium lactis-acidi group. Of the acid
produced, less than 30 per cent is lactic acid; the other acids are formic,
acetic, proprionic and succinic. The large percentage of these acids, with
comparatively large amounts of certain alcohols, aldehydes and esters,
invariably impart undesirable flavors and odors to the milk. Members of
this group uniformly ferment the lactose with the production of the gases,
carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The milk is coagulated into a lumpy curd,
containing gas pockets.
25. Acid peptonizing group.—These are often associated with colon
organisms. The group includes those bacteria which coagulate milk with an
acid curd and subsequently partly digest it. They grow and multiply rapidly
at a temperature between 65° and 98° F. They impart undesirable flavors
and odors to the milk, which appear to be due to the formation of acids
other than lactic acid, and to action on the milk proteins.
26. Bacillus bulgaricus group.—These organisms grow best at a
temperature of 105° to 115° F. They will develop at lower temperatures, but
not so rapidly. They survive heating to 135° F. without loss of vigor, as
occurs in Swiss cheese-making. They produce from 1 to 4 per cent of acid
in milk, which is practically all lactic acid. They do not produce gas. They
impart no undesirable flavors to the milk.
27. Acid cocci or weak acid-producers.—This group of organisms is not
very well defined. It consists mostly of coccus forms, commonly found in
the air and in the udder. Their presence in the milk may indicate direct
udder contamination. These are regarded as of little importance, unless in
very large number, and they have been only partially studied. They produce
little or no lactic acid, and small amounts of acetic, proprionic, butyric and
caproic acids. These forms rarely create enough acid to coagulate milk.
28. Peptonizing organisms.—This group includes all bacteria which have
a peptonizing effect on the milk. It includes the acid peptonizing organisms,
although they are of primary importance in the acid type of bacteria,
because the acid-producing power is greater than the peptonizing power.
Some of the specific organisms in this class are Bacillus subtilis, Bacterium
prodigiosus and Bacterium liquefaciens. These are commonly found in soil
produced, less than 30 per cent is lactic acid; the other acids are formic,
acetic, proprionic and succinic. The large percentage of these acids, with
comparatively large amounts of certain alcohols, aldehydes and esters,
invariably impart undesirable flavors and odors to the milk. Members of
this group uniformly ferment the lactose with the production of the gases,
carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The milk is coagulated into a lumpy curd,
containing gas pockets.
25. Acid peptonizing group.—These are often associated with colon
organisms. The group includes those bacteria which coagulate milk with an
acid curd and subsequently partly digest it. They grow and multiply rapidly
at a temperature between 65° and 98° F. They impart undesirable flavors
and odors to the milk, which appear to be due to the formation of acids
other than lactic acid, and to action on the milk proteins.
26. Bacillus bulgaricus group.—These organisms grow best at a
temperature of 105° to 115° F. They will develop at lower temperatures, but
not so rapidly. They survive heating to 135° F. without loss of vigor, as
occurs in Swiss cheese-making. They produce from 1 to 4 per cent of acid
in milk, which is practically all lactic acid. They do not produce gas. They
impart no undesirable flavors to the milk.
27. Acid cocci or weak acid-producers.—This group of organisms is not
very well defined. It consists mostly of coccus forms, commonly found in
the air and in the udder. Their presence in the milk may indicate direct
udder contamination. These are regarded as of little importance, unless in
very large number, and they have been only partially studied. They produce
little or no lactic acid, and small amounts of acetic, proprionic, butyric and
caproic acids. These forms rarely create enough acid to coagulate milk.
28. Peptonizing organisms.—This group includes all bacteria which have
a peptonizing effect on the milk. It includes the acid peptonizing organisms,
although they are of primary importance in the acid type of bacteria,
because the acid-producing power is greater than the peptonizing power.
Some of the specific organisms in this class are Bacillus subtilis, Bacterium
prodigiosus and Bacterium liquefaciens. These are commonly found in soil
Page 45
water and in fecal material. The presence of these organisms denotes
contamination from such sources.
29. Inert types.—As the name indicates, these are organisms not known to
have an appreciable effect on milk. The ordinary tests fail to connect them
with important processes; hence they appear to feed upon, but not to affect
the milk in any serious way. Milk ordinarily contains more or less of these
organisms, but no particular significance is attached to their presence.
30. Alkali-producing bacteria.—This group of organisms has only
recently been studied in relation to its action on milk. Investigators still
disagree as to the usual percentage in the normal milk flora. Their presence
in milk has been considered to be relatively unimportant.
31. Butyric fermenting types.—Organisms causing butyric fermentation
may be present in the milk, but seldom become active, because they are
commonly anaërobic and so will not develop in milk kept under ordinary
conditions, and the rapid growth of the lactic acid-forming bacteria prevents
their growth. These organisms act on the milk-fat, decomposing it. Butyric
acid fermentations are more common in old butter and cheese. In these, the
fermentation causes a rancid flavor.
32. Molds and yeasts.—The cattle feed and the air of the barn always
contain considerable numbers of yeasts and mold spores. Yeasts have been
found by Hastings12 to cause an objectionable fermentation in Wisconsin
cheese. No further study of this group as factors in cheese-handling has
been reported. Mold spores, especially those of the blue or green molds
(Penicillum sp.) and the black molds (Mucors), are always abundant in
milk. These spores are carried into all cheeses made from unpasteurized
milk, in numbers sufficient to cover the cheeses with mold if they are
permitted to grow. Pasteurization13 kills most of them. The border-line
series commonly referred to as the streptothrix-actinomyces group are also
very abundant in all forage and are carried in large numbers into all milk
and its products.
33. Bacterial contamination of milk.—When drawn from the cow, milk is
seldom if ever sterile. Organisms usually work their way from the tip of the
teat into the udder and multiply there. The fore milk usually contains more
contamination from such sources.
29. Inert types.—As the name indicates, these are organisms not known to
have an appreciable effect on milk. The ordinary tests fail to connect them
with important processes; hence they appear to feed upon, but not to affect
the milk in any serious way. Milk ordinarily contains more or less of these
organisms, but no particular significance is attached to their presence.
30. Alkali-producing bacteria.—This group of organisms has only
recently been studied in relation to its action on milk. Investigators still
disagree as to the usual percentage in the normal milk flora. Their presence
in milk has been considered to be relatively unimportant.
31. Butyric fermenting types.—Organisms causing butyric fermentation
may be present in the milk, but seldom become active, because they are
commonly anaërobic and so will not develop in milk kept under ordinary
conditions, and the rapid growth of the lactic acid-forming bacteria prevents
their growth. These organisms act on the milk-fat, decomposing it. Butyric
acid fermentations are more common in old butter and cheese. In these, the
fermentation causes a rancid flavor.
32. Molds and yeasts.—The cattle feed and the air of the barn always
contain considerable numbers of yeasts and mold spores. Yeasts have been
found by Hastings12 to cause an objectionable fermentation in Wisconsin
cheese. No further study of this group as factors in cheese-handling has
been reported. Mold spores, especially those of the blue or green molds
(Penicillum sp.) and the black molds (Mucors), are always abundant in
milk. These spores are carried into all cheeses made from unpasteurized
milk, in numbers sufficient to cover the cheeses with mold if they are
permitted to grow. Pasteurization13 kills most of them. The border-line
series commonly referred to as the streptothrix-actinomyces group are also
very abundant in all forage and are carried in large numbers into all milk
and its products.
33. Bacterial contamination of milk.—When drawn from the cow, milk is
seldom if ever sterile. Organisms usually work their way from the tip of the
teat into the udder and multiply there. The fore milk usually contains more
Page 46
organisms than does that drawn later. Most of the bacterial contamination of
the milk is due to the handling after it is drawn from the cow.
34. Germicidal effect of milk.—Authorities agree that when a bacterial
examination of the milk is made, hour by hour, beginning as soon as it is
drawn from the cow, there is no increase in the number of organisms for a
period of several hours at first, but an actual reduction not infrequently
takes place. This is called the "germicidal"14 property of milk. The lower the
temperature of the milk, the longer and less pronounced is the germicidal
action; the higher the temperature, the shorter and more pronounced is this
action.
This is explained as either: (1) a period of selection within which types of
bacteria entering by accident and unadapted for growth die off; or (2) an
actual weak antiseptic power in the milk-serum itself; or (3) the forming of
clusters by the bacteria and so reducing the count.
In working on a small scale or on an experimental basis, this property at
times introduces a factor of difficulty or error which is not to be lost sight of
in the selection of the milk for such purposes.
35. Sources and control of bacteria in milk.—Most of the bacterial
infection of milk is due to lack of care in handling. Some of the common
sources15 of contamination are: the air in the stable; the cow's body; the
milker; the utensils; the method of handling the milk after it is drawn from
the cow; unclean cheese factory conditions.
Since bacteria cause various kinds of fermentation, not only in the milk but
in the products manufactured from it, the question of their control is of
prime importance. There are two ways in which the bacterial growth in milk
used for cheese-making may be controlled: (1) prevention of infection; (2)
the retardation of their development when present. The former is
accomplished by strict cleanliness, the latter by adequate cooling.
36. The cow.—The body of the cow may be a source of bacterial
contamination. Bacteria adhere to the hair of the animal, and to the scales of
the skin, and during the process of milking these are very liable to fall into
the milk. To prevent this, the cow should be curried to remove all loose
material and hair. Just before milking, the udder and flank should be wiped
the milk is due to the handling after it is drawn from the cow.
34. Germicidal effect of milk.—Authorities agree that when a bacterial
examination of the milk is made, hour by hour, beginning as soon as it is
drawn from the cow, there is no increase in the number of organisms for a
period of several hours at first, but an actual reduction not infrequently
takes place. This is called the "germicidal"14 property of milk. The lower the
temperature of the milk, the longer and less pronounced is the germicidal
action; the higher the temperature, the shorter and more pronounced is this
action.
This is explained as either: (1) a period of selection within which types of
bacteria entering by accident and unadapted for growth die off; or (2) an
actual weak antiseptic power in the milk-serum itself; or (3) the forming of
clusters by the bacteria and so reducing the count.
In working on a small scale or on an experimental basis, this property at
times introduces a factor of difficulty or error which is not to be lost sight of
in the selection of the milk for such purposes.
35. Sources and control of bacteria in milk.—Most of the bacterial
infection of milk is due to lack of care in handling. Some of the common
sources15 of contamination are: the air in the stable; the cow's body; the
milker; the utensils; the method of handling the milk after it is drawn from
the cow; unclean cheese factory conditions.
Since bacteria cause various kinds of fermentation, not only in the milk but
in the products manufactured from it, the question of their control is of
prime importance. There are two ways in which the bacterial growth in milk
used for cheese-making may be controlled: (1) prevention of infection; (2)
the retardation of their development when present. The former is
accomplished by strict cleanliness, the latter by adequate cooling.
36. The cow.—The body of the cow may be a source of bacterial
contamination. Bacteria adhere to the hair of the animal, and to the scales of
the skin, and during the process of milking these are very liable to fall into
the milk. To prevent this, the cow should be curried to remove all loose
material and hair. Just before milking, the udder and flank should be wiped
Page 47
with a damp cloth; this removes some of the material, and causes the
remainder to adhere to the cow.
37. Stable air.—If the air of the stable is not clean, it will be a source of
contamination. Particles of dust floating in the air carry more or less
bacteria, and these fall into the milk during the process of milking. To keep
the stable air free from dust at milking time, all operations which stir up
dust, such as feeding, brushing the cows, cleaning the floor, should be
practiced after milking or long enough before so that the dust will have
settled. It is a good plan to close the doors and to sprinkle the floor just
before milking.
38. The milker himself may be a source of contamination. He should be
clean and wear clean clothing. The hands should not be wet with milk
during milking.
Fig. 3.—Types of small-top milk pails.
39. Utensils.—The utensils are an important source of bacterial
contamination. The bacteria lodge in the seams and corners unless these are
well-flushed with solder. From these seams they are not easily removed.
When fresh warm milk is placed into such utensils, the bacteria begin to
grow and multiply. All utensils with which milk comes in contact should
first be rinsed with cold water and then thoroughly washed and finally
scalded with boiling water, and drained or blown absolutely dry. They
should then be placed in an atmosphere free from dust until wanted for use
again. If an aërator is used, this should be operated in pure air, free from
odors and dust. One of the greatest sources of bacterial contamination of
cheese milk is the use of the milk-cans to return whey to the farms for pig
remainder to adhere to the cow.
37. Stable air.—If the air of the stable is not clean, it will be a source of
contamination. Particles of dust floating in the air carry more or less
bacteria, and these fall into the milk during the process of milking. To keep
the stable air free from dust at milking time, all operations which stir up
dust, such as feeding, brushing the cows, cleaning the floor, should be
practiced after milking or long enough before so that the dust will have
settled. It is a good plan to close the doors and to sprinkle the floor just
before milking.
38. The milker himself may be a source of contamination. He should be
clean and wear clean clothing. The hands should not be wet with milk
during milking.
Fig. 3.—Types of small-top milk pails.
39. Utensils.—The utensils are an important source of bacterial
contamination. The bacteria lodge in the seams and corners unless these are
well-flushed with solder. From these seams they are not easily removed.
When fresh warm milk is placed into such utensils, the bacteria begin to
grow and multiply. All utensils with which milk comes in contact should
first be rinsed with cold water and then thoroughly washed and finally
scalded with boiling water, and drained or blown absolutely dry. They
should then be placed in an atmosphere free from dust until wanted for use
again. If an aërator is used, this should be operated in pure air, free from
odors and dust. One of the greatest sources of bacterial contamination of
cheese milk is the use of the milk-cans to return whey to the farms for pig
Page 48
feed. Frequently, sour whey is left in the cans until ready to feed. These
cans are then not properly washed and scalded. The practice of pasteurizing
the whey at the cheese factory is a great help in preventing this source of
infection and the spreading of disease.
The use of a small-top milk pail16 is to be especially recommended in
preventing bacterial contamination. Because of the small opening, bacteria
cannot easily fall into the milk in as large numbers as when the whole top of
the pail is open. (See Fig. 3.)
If a milking machine17 is used, great care must be exercised to see that all
parts that come in contact with the milk are cleaned after each milking, and
then put in a clean place until ready to use again.
40. The factory.—Another source of contamination is the cheese factory
itself. The cheese-maker should keep his factory in the cleanest condition
possible, not only because of the effect on the milk itself, but as a stimulus
for the producers to follow his example. All doors and windows in the
factory should be screened to keep out flies.
41. The control of bacteria.—If, in spite of preventive measures, bacteria
get into the milk, their growth can be retarded by controlling the
temperature. If the temperature of the milk, as soon as drawn, can be
reduced below that at which the bacteria grow and multiply rapidly, it will
retard their development. In general, all milk should be cooled to 50° F. or
below. In cooling the milk, it should not be exposed to dust or odors. One of
the best methods of cooling is to set the can containing the milk into a tub
of cold running water, and then stir. If running water is not available, cold
well-water18 may be used, but the water should be changed several times. If
the milk is not stirred during the cooling process, it will not cool so rapidly,
because the layer of milk next the can will become cold and act as an
insulator to the remainder in the center of the can.
One way to destroy many of the bacteria in milk is by pasteurization. This
consists in heating the milk to such a degree that the bacteria are killed, and
then quickly cooling it. After pasteurization, the milk is so changed that
some kinds of cheese cannot be made successfully.
cans are then not properly washed and scalded. The practice of pasteurizing
the whey at the cheese factory is a great help in preventing this source of
infection and the spreading of disease.
The use of a small-top milk pail16 is to be especially recommended in
preventing bacterial contamination. Because of the small opening, bacteria
cannot easily fall into the milk in as large numbers as when the whole top of
the pail is open. (See Fig. 3.)
If a milking machine17 is used, great care must be exercised to see that all
parts that come in contact with the milk are cleaned after each milking, and
then put in a clean place until ready to use again.
40. The factory.—Another source of contamination is the cheese factory
itself. The cheese-maker should keep his factory in the cleanest condition
possible, not only because of the effect on the milk itself, but as a stimulus
for the producers to follow his example. All doors and windows in the
factory should be screened to keep out flies.
41. The control of bacteria.—If, in spite of preventive measures, bacteria
get into the milk, their growth can be retarded by controlling the
temperature. If the temperature of the milk, as soon as drawn, can be
reduced below that at which the bacteria grow and multiply rapidly, it will
retard their development. In general, all milk should be cooled to 50° F. or
below. In cooling the milk, it should not be exposed to dust or odors. One of
the best methods of cooling is to set the can containing the milk into a tub
of cold running water, and then stir. If running water is not available, cold
well-water18 may be used, but the water should be changed several times. If
the milk is not stirred during the cooling process, it will not cool so rapidly,
because the layer of milk next the can will become cold and act as an
insulator to the remainder in the center of the can.
One way to destroy many of the bacteria in milk is by pasteurization. This
consists in heating the milk to such a degree that the bacteria are killed, and
then quickly cooling it. After pasteurization, the milk is so changed that
some kinds of cheese cannot be made successfully.
Page 49
42. Fermentation test.—When a cheese-maker is having trouble with gas
in his cheese, or bad flavors, he can generally locate the source of difficulty.
This can be done by making a small amount of cheese from each patron's
milk, called a fermentation test.19 Pint or quart fruit jars or milk bottles
make suitable containers. They should be thoroughly washed and scalded,
to be sure they are clean and sterile, and then covered to prevent
contamination. As the milk is delivered to the factory, a sample is taken of
each patron's milk. The best way to secure the sample is to dip the sterile jar
in the can of milk as delivered and fill two-thirds full of milk.
The jars are then set in water at 110° F. to bring the temperature of the milk
to 98° F. The jar should be kept covered. A sink or wash-tub makes a
convenient place in which to keep the jars. When the temperature of the
milk is 98° F., ten drops of rennet extract or pepsin is added to each jar. A
uniform temperature of 98° F. should be maintained in the jars. This will
necessitate the addition of warm water occasionally to the water
surrounding the jars. When the milk is coagulated, the curd is broken up
with a sterile knife. Precaution should be
taken to sterilize the knife after using it in
one jar before putting it into another. The
best way to do this is to hold the knife for
a minute in a pail of boiling water, after
taking it out of each jar. The same
precaution should be observed with the
thermometer. Unless care is taken,
contamination is liable to be carried from
one jar to the other. After cutting, the
whey is poured off. The temperature Fig. 4.—A gang sediment tester, one
should be kept at 98° F. so that the tester removed.
organisms will have a suitable
temperature for growth. The whey should be poured from the jars
occasionally, usually about every half hour.
As the fermentation takes place, different odors will be noticed in different
jars. In ten to twelve hours the jar should be finally examined for odors and
the curd taken out and cut to examine it for gas pockets. By this means, bad
flavors and gas in the cheese can be traced to their sources.
in his cheese, or bad flavors, he can generally locate the source of difficulty.
This can be done by making a small amount of cheese from each patron's
milk, called a fermentation test.19 Pint or quart fruit jars or milk bottles
make suitable containers. They should be thoroughly washed and scalded,
to be sure they are clean and sterile, and then covered to prevent
contamination. As the milk is delivered to the factory, a sample is taken of
each patron's milk. The best way to secure the sample is to dip the sterile jar
in the can of milk as delivered and fill two-thirds full of milk.
The jars are then set in water at 110° F. to bring the temperature of the milk
to 98° F. The jar should be kept covered. A sink or wash-tub makes a
convenient place in which to keep the jars. When the temperature of the
milk is 98° F., ten drops of rennet extract or pepsin is added to each jar. A
uniform temperature of 98° F. should be maintained in the jars. This will
necessitate the addition of warm water occasionally to the water
surrounding the jars. When the milk is coagulated, the curd is broken up
with a sterile knife. Precaution should be
taken to sterilize the knife after using it in
one jar before putting it into another. The
best way to do this is to hold the knife for
a minute in a pail of boiling water, after
taking it out of each jar. The same
precaution should be observed with the
thermometer. Unless care is taken,
contamination is liable to be carried from
one jar to the other. After cutting, the
whey is poured off. The temperature Fig. 4.—A gang sediment tester, one
should be kept at 98° F. so that the tester removed.
organisms will have a suitable
temperature for growth. The whey should be poured from the jars
occasionally, usually about every half hour.
As the fermentation takes place, different odors will be noticed in different
jars. In ten to twelve hours the jar should be finally examined for odors and
the curd taken out and cut to examine it for gas pockets. By this means, bad
flavors and gas in the cheese can be traced to their sources.
Page 50
43. The sediment test.—The presence of solid material or dirt in the milk
is always accompanied by bacterial contamination. By means of the
sediment test, the amount of solid material can be determined. The test
consists of filtering the milk through a layer of cotton; the foreign material
is left on the cotton filter. Various devices for filtering the milk have been
manufactured. (Figs. 4 and 5.) In order to be able to
compare the filters from the different dairy-men's
milk, the same amount of each patron's milk is
filtered, usually about a pint. These tests are usually
made once or twice a month at the factory and the
filters placed on a card where the dairy-men can see
them. Much improvement in the quality of the milk
has been accomplished by the use of the sediment
test. The purpose of this test may be and often is
defeated by the use of efficient strainers. Milk
produced in an unclean way may be rendered nearly
free from sediment if carefully strained. It must be
Fig. 5.—A single remembered that the strainer takes out only the
sediment tester. undissolved substances and that bacteria and soluble
materials which constitute a very large part of the
filth pass through with the milk.
is always accompanied by bacterial contamination. By means of the
sediment test, the amount of solid material can be determined. The test
consists of filtering the milk through a layer of cotton; the foreign material
is left on the cotton filter. Various devices for filtering the milk have been
manufactured. (Figs. 4 and 5.) In order to be able to
compare the filters from the different dairy-men's
milk, the same amount of each patron's milk is
filtered, usually about a pint. These tests are usually
made once or twice a month at the factory and the
filters placed on a card where the dairy-men can see
them. Much improvement in the quality of the milk
has been accomplished by the use of the sediment
test. The purpose of this test may be and often is
defeated by the use of efficient strainers. Milk
produced in an unclean way may be rendered nearly
free from sediment if carefully strained. It must be
Fig. 5.—A single remembered that the strainer takes out only the
sediment tester. undissolved substances and that bacteria and soluble
materials which constitute a very large part of the
filth pass through with the milk.
Page 51
CHAPTER III
COAGULATING MATERIALS
At the present time, two substances are used to coagulate milk for cheese-
making,—rennet extract and commercial pepsin.20 Many substances will
coagulate milk, such as acids and other chemicals. Enzymes in certain
plants will also coagulate it.
The curing or ripening of the cheese seems to depend on the physical and
chemical properties of the curd, on the activity of certain organisms and on
enzymes produced by them or in the milk. Rennet extract and pepsin are the
only known substances which will produce curd of such character as will
permit the desired ripening changes to take place. Until recently, rennet
extract was principally used to coagulate the milk, but because of the
scarcity, pepsin is now being substituted.
44. Ferments.—Many of the common changes taking place in milk are due
to fermentations. The souring of milk is one of the most familiar cases of
fermentation. The important change taking place is the formation of lactic
acid from the milk-sugar. The change is brought about by certain living
organisms, namely, the lactic acid-forming bacteria. Another familiar case
of fermentation is the coagulation of milk by rennet extract or pepsin. In
this case, the change is produced by a chemical substance, not a living
organism. Fermentation may be defined as a chemical change of an organic
compound through the action of living organisms or of chemical agents.
There are two general classes of ferments: (1) living organisms, or
organized ferments; (2) chemical, or unorganized ferments. Organized
ferments are living microorganisms, capable, as a result of their growth, of
causing the changes. Unorganized ferments are chemical substances or
ferments without life, capable of causing marked changes in many complex
organic compounds, while the enzymes themselves undergo little or no
change. These unorganized ferments are such as rennin, pepsin, trypsin,
ptyalin. The rennet and pepsin must, therefore, be very thoroughly mixed
into the milk to insure complete and uniform results, because they act by
COAGULATING MATERIALS
At the present time, two substances are used to coagulate milk for cheese-
making,—rennet extract and commercial pepsin.20 Many substances will
coagulate milk, such as acids and other chemicals. Enzymes in certain
plants will also coagulate it.
The curing or ripening of the cheese seems to depend on the physical and
chemical properties of the curd, on the activity of certain organisms and on
enzymes produced by them or in the milk. Rennet extract and pepsin are the
only known substances which will produce curd of such character as will
permit the desired ripening changes to take place. Until recently, rennet
extract was principally used to coagulate the milk, but because of the
scarcity, pepsin is now being substituted.
44. Ferments.—Many of the common changes taking place in milk are due
to fermentations. The souring of milk is one of the most familiar cases of
fermentation. The important change taking place is the formation of lactic
acid from the milk-sugar. The change is brought about by certain living
organisms, namely, the lactic acid-forming bacteria. Another familiar case
of fermentation is the coagulation of milk by rennet extract or pepsin. In
this case, the change is produced by a chemical substance, not a living
organism. Fermentation may be defined as a chemical change of an organic
compound through the action of living organisms or of chemical agents.
There are two general classes of ferments: (1) living organisms, or
organized ferments; (2) chemical, or unorganized ferments. Organized
ferments are living microorganisms, capable, as a result of their growth, of
causing the changes. Unorganized ferments are chemical substances or
ferments without life, capable of causing marked changes in many complex
organic compounds, while the enzymes themselves undergo little or no
change. These unorganized ferments are such as rennin, pepsin, trypsin,
ptyalin. The rennet and pepsin must, therefore, be very thoroughly mixed
into the milk to insure complete and uniform results, because they act by
Page 52
contact, and theoretically, if they could be recovered, might be used over
and over again. Practically, the amount used is so small a percentage that
recovery would be impractical even if possible.
45. Nature of rennet.—Two enzymes or ferments are found in rennet
extract, rennin and pepsin. They are prepared from the secreting areas of
living membranes of the stomachs of mammalian young. For rennet-
making, these stomachs are most valuable if taken before the young have
received any other feed than milk. Rennin at this stage appears to
predominate over pepsin which is already secreted to some extent. With the
inclusion of other feed, the secretion of pepsin comes to predominate.
Rennin has never been separated entirely from pepsin. Both of these
enzymes are secreted by digestive glands in the same area, perhaps even by
the same glands. They are so closely related that many workers have
regarded them as identical. In practical work the effectiveness of rennet
preparations has been greatest when stomachs which have digested feed
other than milk are excluded. The differences, therefore, however difficult
to define, appear to be important in the commercial preparation of rennet.
It was the practice until a few years ago for each cheese-maker to prepare
his own rennet extract. Each patron was supposed to supply so many
rennets. Now commercial rennet extract and pepsin are on the market;
however, some Swiss cheese-makers prefer to make their own rennet
extract. For sheep's and goat's milk cheese, some makers hold that rennet
made from kid or lamb stomachs is best for handling the milk of the
respective species. The objection to the cheese-maker preparing his own
rennet extract is that it varies in strength from batch to batch and is liable to
spoil quickly. Taints and bad odors and flavors develop in it and so taint the
cheese.
46. Preparation of rennet extract.—This extract may be manufactured
commercially from digestive stomachs of calves, pigs or sheep. An animal
is given a full meal just before slaughtering; this stimulates a large flow of
the digestive juices, containing the desired enzymes.
The stomach is taken from the animal, cleaned, commonly inflated and
dried. It may be held in the dry condition until needed for use. Such
stomachs are usually spoken of as "rennets" in the trade. Such old rennets
and over again. Practically, the amount used is so small a percentage that
recovery would be impractical even if possible.
45. Nature of rennet.—Two enzymes or ferments are found in rennet
extract, rennin and pepsin. They are prepared from the secreting areas of
living membranes of the stomachs of mammalian young. For rennet-
making, these stomachs are most valuable if taken before the young have
received any other feed than milk. Rennin at this stage appears to
predominate over pepsin which is already secreted to some extent. With the
inclusion of other feed, the secretion of pepsin comes to predominate.
Rennin has never been separated entirely from pepsin. Both of these
enzymes are secreted by digestive glands in the same area, perhaps even by
the same glands. They are so closely related that many workers have
regarded them as identical. In practical work the effectiveness of rennet
preparations has been greatest when stomachs which have digested feed
other than milk are excluded. The differences, therefore, however difficult
to define, appear to be important in the commercial preparation of rennet.
It was the practice until a few years ago for each cheese-maker to prepare
his own rennet extract. Each patron was supposed to supply so many
rennets. Now commercial rennet extract and pepsin are on the market;
however, some Swiss cheese-makers prefer to make their own rennet
extract. For sheep's and goat's milk cheese, some makers hold that rennet
made from kid or lamb stomachs is best for handling the milk of the
respective species. The objection to the cheese-maker preparing his own
rennet extract is that it varies in strength from batch to batch and is liable to
spoil quickly. Taints and bad odors and flavors develop in it and so taint the
cheese.
46. Preparation of rennet extract.—This extract may be manufactured
commercially from digestive stomachs of calves, pigs or sheep. An animal
is given a full meal just before slaughtering; this stimulates a large flow of
the digestive juices, containing the desired enzymes.
The stomach is taken from the animal, cleaned, commonly inflated and
dried. It may be held in the dry condition until needed for use. Such
stomachs are usually spoken of as "rennets" in the trade. Such old rennets
Page 53
may be seen to-day hanging from the rafters of some of the older cheese
factories. When wanted for use, rennets are placed in oak barrels and
covered with water. Before placing them in the barrel, they are cut open so
that the water may have easy access. Salt is usually added to the water at
the rate of 3 to 5 per cent. They are stirred and pounded in this solution
from five to seven days. At the end of this time, they are wrung through a
clothes-wringer to remove the liquid. The rennets are put back into a fresh
solution of salt and water, the object being to obtain all the digestive juices
possible. They are usually soaked from four to six weeks. At the end of this
time, most of the digestive juices will have been removed. The liquid
portion is passed through a filter made of straw, charcoal and sand. When
clean, an excess of salt is added to preserve it.
Such extracts cannot be sterilized by heat because the necessary
temperature would destroy the enzyme. Effective disinfectants cannot be
used in food products. The extract, therefore, should be kept cool to retard
bacterial growth. The extract is kept in wooden barrels, stone jugs or yellow
glass bottles to protect it from light, which is able to destroy its activity.
Rennet extract should be clear, with a clean salty taste and a distinct rennet
flavor. There should be no cloudy appearance and no muddy sediment in
properly preserved rennet. Rennet extract is on the market in the form of a
liquid and a powder, the former being much more common. The
commercial forms of rennet have the advantage in the skill used in their
preparation and standardization. The combined product from large numbers
of stomachs may not be as effective a preparation as the most skillfully
produced sample from the very choicest single stomach, but it gives a
uniformity of result which improves the average product greatly.
47. Pepsin.—Pepsin is on the market in several commercial forms, as a
liquid, scale pepsin and in a granular form known as spongy pepsin. Some
commercial concerns put out a preparation which is a mixture of rennet
extract and commercial pepsin.
48. Chemistry of curdling.—The chemistry of casein21 and of curd
formation under the influence of acid and rennet extract and pepsin has
been the subject of many years' research. While many points remain
unsettled, the general considerations together with a large mass of accepted
factories. When wanted for use, rennets are placed in oak barrels and
covered with water. Before placing them in the barrel, they are cut open so
that the water may have easy access. Salt is usually added to the water at
the rate of 3 to 5 per cent. They are stirred and pounded in this solution
from five to seven days. At the end of this time, they are wrung through a
clothes-wringer to remove the liquid. The rennets are put back into a fresh
solution of salt and water, the object being to obtain all the digestive juices
possible. They are usually soaked from four to six weeks. At the end of this
time, most of the digestive juices will have been removed. The liquid
portion is passed through a filter made of straw, charcoal and sand. When
clean, an excess of salt is added to preserve it.
Such extracts cannot be sterilized by heat because the necessary
temperature would destroy the enzyme. Effective disinfectants cannot be
used in food products. The extract, therefore, should be kept cool to retard
bacterial growth. The extract is kept in wooden barrels, stone jugs or yellow
glass bottles to protect it from light, which is able to destroy its activity.
Rennet extract should be clear, with a clean salty taste and a distinct rennet
flavor. There should be no cloudy appearance and no muddy sediment in
properly preserved rennet. Rennet extract is on the market in the form of a
liquid and a powder, the former being much more common. The
commercial forms of rennet have the advantage in the skill used in their
preparation and standardization. The combined product from large numbers
of stomachs may not be as effective a preparation as the most skillfully
produced sample from the very choicest single stomach, but it gives a
uniformity of result which improves the average product greatly.
47. Pepsin.—Pepsin is on the market in several commercial forms, as a
liquid, scale pepsin and in a granular form known as spongy pepsin. Some
commercial concerns put out a preparation which is a mixture of rennet
extract and commercial pepsin.
48. Chemistry of curdling.—The chemistry of casein21 and of curd
formation under the influence of acid and rennet extract and pepsin has
been the subject of many years' research. While many points remain
unsettled, the general considerations together with a large mass of accepted
Page 54
facts may be presented and some of the unsolved problems pointed out as
left for future researches.
Casein is a white amorphous powder, practically insoluble in water. It is an
acid and as such readily dissolves in solutions of the hydroxides or the
carbonates of alkalies and alkaline earths by forming soluble salts.
Pure casein salt solutions and fresh milk do not coagulate on boiling, but in
the presence of free acid coagulation may take place below the boiling
temperature. The coagulum formed in the case of milk includes fat and
calcium phosphate. The slight pellicle which coats over milk when it is
warmed is of the same composition.
49. Use of acid.—A commonly accepted explanation of the precipitation of
casein by acids is that the casein is held in solution by chemical union with
a base (lime in the case of milk); that added acid removes the base, allowing
the insoluble casein to precipitate; and that excess of acid unites with
casein, forming a compound which is more or less readily soluble.
50. Robertson's theory.—According to Robertson's conception, in a
soluble solution of a protein or its salt, the molecules of the protein unite
with each other to a certain extent, in this way forming polymers. The
reaction is reversible, and the point of equilibrium between the compound
and its polymeric modification varies under the influence of whatever
condition affects the concentration of the protein ions. Addition of water, or
of acid, alkali or salt, or the application of heat has such an effect, and
consequently alters the relative number of heavier molecule-complexes.
Robertson's experiments give evidence that one of the effects of increase of
temperature on a solution of casein is a shifting of the equilibrium in the
direction of the higher complexes. He explains coagulation as being a result
of these molecular aggregates becoming so large as to assume the properties
of matter in mass and to become practically an unstable suspension and
then a precipitate. The acid curd then is casein or some combination of
casein with the precipitant acid.
51. Rennet curd.—Rennet extract and pepsin coagulation differs from
coagulation by acids, and cannot be looked on as a simple removal of the
base from a caseinate. The presence of soluble calcium salts (or other
alkaline earth salts) seems to be essential, and the precipitate formed is not
left for future researches.
Casein is a white amorphous powder, practically insoluble in water. It is an
acid and as such readily dissolves in solutions of the hydroxides or the
carbonates of alkalies and alkaline earths by forming soluble salts.
Pure casein salt solutions and fresh milk do not coagulate on boiling, but in
the presence of free acid coagulation may take place below the boiling
temperature. The coagulum formed in the case of milk includes fat and
calcium phosphate. The slight pellicle which coats over milk when it is
warmed is of the same composition.
49. Use of acid.—A commonly accepted explanation of the precipitation of
casein by acids is that the casein is held in solution by chemical union with
a base (lime in the case of milk); that added acid removes the base, allowing
the insoluble casein to precipitate; and that excess of acid unites with
casein, forming a compound which is more or less readily soluble.
50. Robertson's theory.—According to Robertson's conception, in a
soluble solution of a protein or its salt, the molecules of the protein unite
with each other to a certain extent, in this way forming polymers. The
reaction is reversible, and the point of equilibrium between the compound
and its polymeric modification varies under the influence of whatever
condition affects the concentration of the protein ions. Addition of water, or
of acid, alkali or salt, or the application of heat has such an effect, and
consequently alters the relative number of heavier molecule-complexes.
Robertson's experiments give evidence that one of the effects of increase of
temperature on a solution of casein is a shifting of the equilibrium in the
direction of the higher complexes. He explains coagulation as being a result
of these molecular aggregates becoming so large as to assume the properties
of matter in mass and to become practically an unstable suspension and
then a precipitate. The acid curd then is casein or some combination of
casein with the precipitant acid.
51. Rennet curd.—Rennet extract and pepsin coagulation differs from
coagulation by acids, and cannot be looked on as a simple removal of the
base from a caseinate. The presence of soluble calcium salts (or other
alkaline earth salts) seems to be essential, and the precipitate formed is not
Page 55
casein or a casein salt, but a salt of a slightly different nucleoalbumin called
"paracasein." Many writers, following Halliburton, call this modification
produced by rennin the "casein" and that from which it is derived,
"caseinogen." Foster and a few others have used the term "tyrein" for the
rennet clot.
A number of investigations have been made on the conditions essential or
favorable to formation of the coagulum, especially with regard to the effects
of the degree of acidity and of conditions affecting the amount of calcium
present, either as free soluble salt or bound to the casein. Soluble salts of
calcium, barium and strontium favor or hasten coagulation, while salts of
ammonium, sodium and potassium retard or prevent coagulation.
The bulk of the coagulum from milk is a calcium paracaseinate, but it
carries down with it calcium phosphate and fat, both of which bodies have
been helped to remain in their state of suspension in milk by the presence of
the casein salt. Lindet (1912) has concluded that about one-half of the
phosphorus contained in the rennet curd is in the form of phosphate of lime
(probably tricalcic), the other half being organically combined phosphoric
acid.
52. Hammarsten's theory.—According to Hammarsten (1877, 1896),
whose view has been commonly held, the distinctive effect of the ferment is
not precipitation but the transformation of casein into paracasein. This is
evidenced by the fact that if rennet be allowed to act on solutions free from
lime salts no precipitate occurs; but there is an invisible alteration of the
casein, for now, even if the ferment be destroyed by boiling the solution,
addition of lime salts will cause immediate coagulation. (See also Spiro,
1906.) Hence the process of rennet coagulation is a two-phase process; the
first phase is the transformation of casein by rennin, the second is the
visible coagulation caused by lime salts.
Furthermore, if the purest casein and the purest rennin were used,
Hammarsten always found after coagulation that the filtrate contained very
small amounts of a protein. This protein he designated as the "whey
protein."
In accordance with these observations, Hammarsten (1911) explains the
rennin action "as a cleavage process, in which the chief mass of the casein,
"paracasein." Many writers, following Halliburton, call this modification
produced by rennin the "casein" and that from which it is derived,
"caseinogen." Foster and a few others have used the term "tyrein" for the
rennet clot.
A number of investigations have been made on the conditions essential or
favorable to formation of the coagulum, especially with regard to the effects
of the degree of acidity and of conditions affecting the amount of calcium
present, either as free soluble salt or bound to the casein. Soluble salts of
calcium, barium and strontium favor or hasten coagulation, while salts of
ammonium, sodium and potassium retard or prevent coagulation.
The bulk of the coagulum from milk is a calcium paracaseinate, but it
carries down with it calcium phosphate and fat, both of which bodies have
been helped to remain in their state of suspension in milk by the presence of
the casein salt. Lindet (1912) has concluded that about one-half of the
phosphorus contained in the rennet curd is in the form of phosphate of lime
(probably tricalcic), the other half being organically combined phosphoric
acid.
52. Hammarsten's theory.—According to Hammarsten (1877, 1896),
whose view has been commonly held, the distinctive effect of the ferment is
not precipitation but the transformation of casein into paracasein. This is
evidenced by the fact that if rennet be allowed to act on solutions free from
lime salts no precipitate occurs; but there is an invisible alteration of the
casein, for now, even if the ferment be destroyed by boiling the solution,
addition of lime salts will cause immediate coagulation. (See also Spiro,
1906.) Hence the process of rennet coagulation is a two-phase process; the
first phase is the transformation of casein by rennin, the second is the
visible coagulation caused by lime salts.
Furthermore, if the purest casein and the purest rennin were used,
Hammarsten always found after coagulation that the filtrate contained very
small amounts of a protein. This protein he designated as the "whey
protein."
In accordance with these observations, Hammarsten (1911) explains the
rennin action "as a cleavage process, in which the chief mass of the casein,
Page 56
sometimes more than 90 per cent, is split off as paracasein, a body closely
related to casein, and in the presence of sufficient amounts of lime salts the
paracasein-lime precipitates out while the proteose-like substance (whey-
protein) remains in solution."
By continued action of rennin on paracasein, a further transformation has
been found in several cases (Petry, 1906; Van Herwerden, 1907; Van Dam,
1909), but perhaps due to a contamination of the rennin with pepsin, or to
the identity of these two enzymes. The action which forms paracasein and
whey-protein takes place in a short time (Hammarsten, 1896; Schmidt-
Nielson, 1906). The composition and solubilities of paracasein have
received considerable attention. (See Loevenhart, 1904; Kikkoji, 1909; Van
Slyke and Bosworth, 1912.) It is more readily digested by pepsin-
hydrochloric acid than is casein (Hosl, 1910).
53. Duclaux theory.—Duclaux (1884) and Loevenhart (1904) and others
do not accept Hammarsten's theory; but to most workers it seems probable,
at least, that the action of the rennin is to cause a cleavage of casein with
formation of paracasein. However, the chemical and physical differences
observed between casein and paracasein appear to be so slight that
Loevenhart and some others think that they are only physical, perhaps
differences in the size of the colloid or solution aggregates. Loevenhart
conceives of a large part of the work of the rennet (or of the acid, in acid
and heat coagulation) as being a freeing of the calcium to make it available
for precipitation. Some think that the aggregates of paracasein are larger
than those of casein, but there is more evidence of their being smaller,
which idea corresponds with the findings of Bosworth, though he looks on
the change as a true cleavage.
54. Bang's theory.—Another description of the precipitation is given by
Bang (1911), who studied the progress of the coagulation process by means
of interruptions at definite intervals. His observations confirm the idea that
rennin causes the formation of paracasein, and that the calcium salt serves
only for the precipitation of the paracasein; the rennin has to do also with
the mobilizing of lime salts. According to Bang, before coagulation occurs,
paracaseins with constantly greater affinity for calcium phosphate are
produced. These take up increasing amounts of calcium phosphate, until
finally the combination formed can no longer remain in solution.
related to casein, and in the presence of sufficient amounts of lime salts the
paracasein-lime precipitates out while the proteose-like substance (whey-
protein) remains in solution."
By continued action of rennin on paracasein, a further transformation has
been found in several cases (Petry, 1906; Van Herwerden, 1907; Van Dam,
1909), but perhaps due to a contamination of the rennin with pepsin, or to
the identity of these two enzymes. The action which forms paracasein and
whey-protein takes place in a short time (Hammarsten, 1896; Schmidt-
Nielson, 1906). The composition and solubilities of paracasein have
received considerable attention. (See Loevenhart, 1904; Kikkoji, 1909; Van
Slyke and Bosworth, 1912.) It is more readily digested by pepsin-
hydrochloric acid than is casein (Hosl, 1910).
53. Duclaux theory.—Duclaux (1884) and Loevenhart (1904) and others
do not accept Hammarsten's theory; but to most workers it seems probable,
at least, that the action of the rennin is to cause a cleavage of casein with
formation of paracasein. However, the chemical and physical differences
observed between casein and paracasein appear to be so slight that
Loevenhart and some others think that they are only physical, perhaps
differences in the size of the colloid or solution aggregates. Loevenhart
conceives of a large part of the work of the rennet (or of the acid, in acid
and heat coagulation) as being a freeing of the calcium to make it available
for precipitation. Some think that the aggregates of paracasein are larger
than those of casein, but there is more evidence of their being smaller,
which idea corresponds with the findings of Bosworth, though he looks on
the change as a true cleavage.
54. Bang's theory.—Another description of the precipitation is given by
Bang (1911), who studied the progress of the coagulation process by means
of interruptions at definite intervals. His observations confirm the idea that
rennin causes the formation of paracasein, and that the calcium salt serves
only for the precipitation of the paracasein; the rennin has to do also with
the mobilizing of lime salts. According to Bang, before coagulation occurs,
paracaseins with constantly greater affinity for calcium phosphate are
produced. These take up increasing amounts of calcium phosphate, until
finally the combination formed can no longer remain in solution.
Page 57
55. Bosworth's theory.—By a very recent work of L. L. Van Slyke and A.
W. Bosworth (Van Slyke and Bosworth, 1912, 1913; and Bosworth and Van
Slyke, 1913), in which ash-free casein and paracasein were compared as to
their elementary composition, and as to the salts they form with bases, and
the properties of these salts, it is indicated that the two compounds are alike
in percentage composition and in combining equivalent, the paracasein
molecule being one-half of the casein molecule. Moreover, Bosworth
(1913) has shown that, if the rennin cleavage be carried out under
conditions which avoid autohydrolysis, no other protein is formed; also
that, if the calcium caseinate present be one containing four equivalents of
calcium, the paracaseinate does not precipitate, save in the presence of a
soluble calcium salt, while, if the calcium caseinate be one of two
equivalents of base, rennin does cause immediate coagulation. Bosworth
concludes that the rennin action is a cleavage (probably hydrolytic) of a
molecule of caseinate into two molecules of paracaseinate, the coagulation
being a secondary effect due to a change in solubilities, dicalcium
paracaseinate being soluble in pure water but not in water containing more
than a trace of calcium salt, and the monocalcium caseinate being insoluble
in water. The alkali paracaseinates, as well as caseinates, are soluble. This
explanation seems to promise to harmonize the observations with regard to
acidity and the effects of the presence of soluble salts. This theory
represents, therefore, many years of continuous work at the New York
Experiment Station centered primarily on American Cheddar cheese.
Disputed points remain for further study but these workers have contributed
much toward a clear description of the chemical constitution of casein as
affected by rennet action and bacterial activity.
The investigations of these authors and of Hart with regard to the changes
which the paracasein, the calcium and the phosphorus undergo during the
ripening of cheese (Van Slyke and Hart, 1902, 1905; Van Slyke and
Bosworth, 1907, 1913; Bosworth, 1907) contributed to this interpretation.
Bang, Ivar, Ueber die chemische Vorgang bei der Milchgerinnung durch Lab, Skand. Arch. Physiol.
25, pages 105-144; through Jahresb. u. d. Fortsch. d. Thierchem. 41, pages 221-222, 1911.
Bosworth, A. W., The action of rennin on casein, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 31, 1913.
Bosworth, A. W., Chemical studies of Camembert cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, 1907.
Bosworth, A. W., and L. L. Van Slyke, Preparation and composition of basic calcium caseinate and
paracaseinate, Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 14, pages 207-210, 1913.
Duclaux, Émile, Action de la présure sur le lait, Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 98, pages 526-528, 1884.
W. Bosworth (Van Slyke and Bosworth, 1912, 1913; and Bosworth and Van
Slyke, 1913), in which ash-free casein and paracasein were compared as to
their elementary composition, and as to the salts they form with bases, and
the properties of these salts, it is indicated that the two compounds are alike
in percentage composition and in combining equivalent, the paracasein
molecule being one-half of the casein molecule. Moreover, Bosworth
(1913) has shown that, if the rennin cleavage be carried out under
conditions which avoid autohydrolysis, no other protein is formed; also
that, if the calcium caseinate present be one containing four equivalents of
calcium, the paracaseinate does not precipitate, save in the presence of a
soluble calcium salt, while, if the calcium caseinate be one of two
equivalents of base, rennin does cause immediate coagulation. Bosworth
concludes that the rennin action is a cleavage (probably hydrolytic) of a
molecule of caseinate into two molecules of paracaseinate, the coagulation
being a secondary effect due to a change in solubilities, dicalcium
paracaseinate being soluble in pure water but not in water containing more
than a trace of calcium salt, and the monocalcium caseinate being insoluble
in water. The alkali paracaseinates, as well as caseinates, are soluble. This
explanation seems to promise to harmonize the observations with regard to
acidity and the effects of the presence of soluble salts. This theory
represents, therefore, many years of continuous work at the New York
Experiment Station centered primarily on American Cheddar cheese.
Disputed points remain for further study but these workers have contributed
much toward a clear description of the chemical constitution of casein as
affected by rennet action and bacterial activity.
The investigations of these authors and of Hart with regard to the changes
which the paracasein, the calcium and the phosphorus undergo during the
ripening of cheese (Van Slyke and Hart, 1902, 1905; Van Slyke and
Bosworth, 1907, 1913; Bosworth, 1907) contributed to this interpretation.
Bang, Ivar, Ueber die chemische Vorgang bei der Milchgerinnung durch Lab, Skand. Arch. Physiol.
25, pages 105-144; through Jahresb. u. d. Fortsch. d. Thierchem. 41, pages 221-222, 1911.
Bosworth, A. W., The action of rennin on casein, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 31, 1913.
Bosworth, A. W., Chemical studies of Camembert cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, 1907.
Bosworth, A. W., and L. L. Van Slyke, Preparation and composition of basic calcium caseinate and
paracaseinate, Jour. Biol. Chem. Vol. 14, pages 207-210, 1913.
Duclaux, Émile, Action de la présure sur le lait, Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 98, pages 526-528, 1884.
Page 58
Hammarsten, Olof, Zur Kenntnis des Caseins und der Wirkung des Labfermentes, Nova. Acta
Regiae Soc. Sci. Upsaliensis in Memoriam Quattuor Saec. ab Univ., Upsaliensi Peractorum,
1877.
Hammarsten, Olof, Ueber das Verhalten des Paracaseins zu dem Labenzyme, Zeit. physiol. Chem.
22, pages 103-126, 1896.
Hammarsten, Olof, A text book of physiological chemistry, from the author's 7th German edition,
1911.
Hosl, J., Unterschiede in der tryptischen und peptischen Spaltung des Caseins, Paracaseins und des
Paracaseinkalkes aus Kuh- und Ziegenmilch, Inaug. Diss. Bern., 31 pp., 1910.
Kikkoji, T., Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Caseins und Paracaseins, Zeit. physiol. Chem. No. 61, pages
130-146, 1909.
Lindet, L., Solubilité des albuminoides du lait dans les éléments du sérum; rétrogradation de leur
solubilité sous l'influence du chlorure, Bul. Soc. Chim. (ser. 4) 13, pages 929-935.
Lindet, L., Sur les éléments mineraux contenus dans la caseine du lait, Rep. Eighth Internat. Congr.
of Applied Chem. 19, 199-207, 1912.
Loevenhart, A. S., Ueber die Gerinnung der Milch, Zeit. physiol. Chem. 41, pages 177-205, 1904.
Petry, Eugen, Ueber die Einwirkung des Labferments auf Kasein, Beitrage z. Chem. Physiol. u.
Path. 8, pages 339-364, 1906.
Robertson, T. Brailsford, On the influence of temperature upon the solubility of casein in alkaline
solutions, Jour. Biol. Chem. 5, pages 147-154, 1908.
Schmidt-Nielson, Sigval, Zur Kenntnis des Kaseins und der Labgerinnung, Upsala läkaref. Förh.
(N. F.) No. 11, Suppl.
Hammarsten Festschrift No. XV, 1-26; through Jahresb. u. d. Fortschr. d. Thierchem. No. 36, pages
255-256, 1906.
Spiro, K., Beeinflussung und Natur des Labungsvorganges, Beitrage z. Chem. Physiol. u. Path. 8,
pages 365-369, 1906.
Van Dam, W., Ueber die Wirkung des Labs Auf. Paracaseinkalks, Zeit. physiol. Chem. No. 61, pages
147-163, 1909.
Van Herwerden, M., Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Labwirkung auf Casein, Zeit. physiol. Chem. 52,
pages 184-206, 1907.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, I. Some of the first chemical changes in Cheddar cheese. II.
The acidity of the water extract of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 4, 1907.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Composition and properties of some casein and paracasein
compounds and their relations to cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 26, 1912.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Method of preparing ash-free casein and paracasein, Jour.
Biol. Chem. Vol. 14, pages 203-206, 1913.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Preparation and composition of unsaturated or acid
caseinates and paracaseinates, Ibid. Vol. 14, pages 211-225, 1913.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Valency of molecules and molecular weights of casein and
paracasein, Ibid. Vol. 14, pages 227-230, 1913.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Composition and properties of the brine-soluble compounds
in cheese, Jour. Biol. Chem. 14, pages 231-236, 1913.
Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, A study of some of the salts formed by casein and paracasein with
acids; their relations to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902.
Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Casein and paracasein in some of their relations to bases and
acids, American Chem. Jour. 33, pages 461-996, 1905.
Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Some of the relations of casein and paracasein to bases and acids,
and their application to Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 261, 1905.
Regiae Soc. Sci. Upsaliensis in Memoriam Quattuor Saec. ab Univ., Upsaliensi Peractorum,
1877.
Hammarsten, Olof, Ueber das Verhalten des Paracaseins zu dem Labenzyme, Zeit. physiol. Chem.
22, pages 103-126, 1896.
Hammarsten, Olof, A text book of physiological chemistry, from the author's 7th German edition,
1911.
Hosl, J., Unterschiede in der tryptischen und peptischen Spaltung des Caseins, Paracaseins und des
Paracaseinkalkes aus Kuh- und Ziegenmilch, Inaug. Diss. Bern., 31 pp., 1910.
Kikkoji, T., Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Caseins und Paracaseins, Zeit. physiol. Chem. No. 61, pages
130-146, 1909.
Lindet, L., Solubilité des albuminoides du lait dans les éléments du sérum; rétrogradation de leur
solubilité sous l'influence du chlorure, Bul. Soc. Chim. (ser. 4) 13, pages 929-935.
Lindet, L., Sur les éléments mineraux contenus dans la caseine du lait, Rep. Eighth Internat. Congr.
of Applied Chem. 19, 199-207, 1912.
Loevenhart, A. S., Ueber die Gerinnung der Milch, Zeit. physiol. Chem. 41, pages 177-205, 1904.
Petry, Eugen, Ueber die Einwirkung des Labferments auf Kasein, Beitrage z. Chem. Physiol. u.
Path. 8, pages 339-364, 1906.
Robertson, T. Brailsford, On the influence of temperature upon the solubility of casein in alkaline
solutions, Jour. Biol. Chem. 5, pages 147-154, 1908.
Schmidt-Nielson, Sigval, Zur Kenntnis des Kaseins und der Labgerinnung, Upsala läkaref. Förh.
(N. F.) No. 11, Suppl.
Hammarsten Festschrift No. XV, 1-26; through Jahresb. u. d. Fortschr. d. Thierchem. No. 36, pages
255-256, 1906.
Spiro, K., Beeinflussung und Natur des Labungsvorganges, Beitrage z. Chem. Physiol. u. Path. 8,
pages 365-369, 1906.
Van Dam, W., Ueber die Wirkung des Labs Auf. Paracaseinkalks, Zeit. physiol. Chem. No. 61, pages
147-163, 1909.
Van Herwerden, M., Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Labwirkung auf Casein, Zeit. physiol. Chem. 52,
pages 184-206, 1907.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, I. Some of the first chemical changes in Cheddar cheese. II.
The acidity of the water extract of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 4, 1907.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Composition and properties of some casein and paracasein
compounds and their relations to cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 26, 1912.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Method of preparing ash-free casein and paracasein, Jour.
Biol. Chem. Vol. 14, pages 203-206, 1913.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Preparation and composition of unsaturated or acid
caseinates and paracaseinates, Ibid. Vol. 14, pages 211-225, 1913.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Valency of molecules and molecular weights of casein and
paracasein, Ibid. Vol. 14, pages 227-230, 1913.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Composition and properties of the brine-soluble compounds
in cheese, Jour. Biol. Chem. 14, pages 231-236, 1913.
Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, A study of some of the salts formed by casein and paracasein with
acids; their relations to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902.
Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Casein and paracasein in some of their relations to bases and
acids, American Chem. Jour. 33, pages 461-996, 1905.
Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Some of the relations of casein and paracasein to bases and acids,
and their application to Cheddar cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 261, 1905.
Page 59
Page 60
CHAPTER IV
LACTIC STARTERS
Acidity in cheese-making arises almost exclusively from the lactic acid
produced from the fermentation of milk-sugar (lactose) by bacteria.
Hydrochloric acid is used in the Wisconsin22 process of making pasteurized
milk cheese and sometimes for making skimmed-milk curd for baking
purposes. It is regularly used in precipitating casein not for food but for
manufacturing purposes.
56. Acidifying organisms.—Many species of bacteria have been shown to
possess the power to produce lactic acid by fermenting lactose. In practice,
however, the cheese-maker seeks to control this fermentation by the actual
introduction of the desired organisms and by the production of conditions
which will insure this dominance through natural selection. For this purpose
the initial souring for most types of cheeses is produced by some variety of
the species originally described by Esten23 and commonly referred to as
Bacterium lactis-acidi, but variously named as B. acidi-lactici,
Streptococcus lacticus, B. guntheri by different authors. Organisms of this
series dominate all other species in milk which is incubated at 70° F. They
produce a smooth solid mass without a sign of gas holes and without the
separation of whey from the curd, and develop in milk a maximum acidity
of about 0.90 of one per cent when titrated as lactic acid. (For titration see
Chapter V.) This species is usually present in small numbers in fresh milk.
There are many varieties or strains of the species with differing rates of
activity and measurable differences in acid produced but with
approximately the same qualitative characters. Most commercial starters for
cheese- and butter-making belong to this group of species, although special
mixtures with other organisms are prepared for special purposes. In addition
to this group, most varieties of cheese contain some members of the colon-
aërogenes group. When the milk is in proper condition, the activity of this
group should be held in check by the early and rapid development of acid.
Free development of members of this group usually shows itself in the
presence of gas holes in the curd.
LACTIC STARTERS
Acidity in cheese-making arises almost exclusively from the lactic acid
produced from the fermentation of milk-sugar (lactose) by bacteria.
Hydrochloric acid is used in the Wisconsin22 process of making pasteurized
milk cheese and sometimes for making skimmed-milk curd for baking
purposes. It is regularly used in precipitating casein not for food but for
manufacturing purposes.
56. Acidifying organisms.—Many species of bacteria have been shown to
possess the power to produce lactic acid by fermenting lactose. In practice,
however, the cheese-maker seeks to control this fermentation by the actual
introduction of the desired organisms and by the production of conditions
which will insure this dominance through natural selection. For this purpose
the initial souring for most types of cheeses is produced by some variety of
the species originally described by Esten23 and commonly referred to as
Bacterium lactis-acidi, but variously named as B. acidi-lactici,
Streptococcus lacticus, B. guntheri by different authors. Organisms of this
series dominate all other species in milk which is incubated at 70° F. They
produce a smooth solid mass without a sign of gas holes and without the
separation of whey from the curd, and develop in milk a maximum acidity
of about 0.90 of one per cent when titrated as lactic acid. (For titration see
Chapter V.) This species is usually present in small numbers in fresh milk.
There are many varieties or strains of the species with differing rates of
activity and measurable differences in acid produced but with
approximately the same qualitative characters. Most commercial starters for
cheese- and butter-making belong to this group of species, although special
mixtures with other organisms are prepared for special purposes. In addition
to this group, most varieties of cheese contain some members of the colon-
aërogenes group. When the milk is in proper condition, the activity of this
group should be held in check by the early and rapid development of acid.
Free development of members of this group usually shows itself in the
presence of gas holes in the curd.
Page 61
57. Starter.—The practice of using pure cultures in cheese-making has
brought about the development of factory methods of producing day by day
cultures of the organisms desired, in quantities sufficient to inoculate the
total quantity of milk used in manufacture. For this purpose milk is mostly
used and the product is known as "starter." For cheese-making purposes, a
starter is a substance used in the manufacture of dairy products having a
predominance of lactic acid-forming microorganisms in an active state.
There are two general classes of starter: (1) Natural starter; (2) commercial
starter.
58. Natural starter.—Milk, or other similar substance, which has become
sour or in which large numbers of lactic acid-forming organisms are
present, is called a natural starter when used in the manufacture of dairy
products. To secure clean-flavored milk, the cheese-maker usually selects
the milk of some producer who usually brings good milk and allows it to
sour naturally for use the next day. There is often a variation from day to
day in the milk delivered by the same producer, so that the cheese-maker is
not certain of a uniform quality in his fundamental material. While the
lactic acid-forming organisms are developing, other organisms may also be
present in numbers sufficient to produce bad flavors. If a starter has any
objectionable flavor, it should not be used. Natural starters very commonly
develop objectionable flavors which at first are very difficult to recognize.
When natural starters with objectionable but not easily recognizable odors
are used, the effect may be seen on the cheese. Milk, sour whey and
buttermilk are materials commonly used as natural starter. A common
difficulty in skimmed-milk cheese is caused by the use of buttermilk as a
starter.
59. Commercial starter or pure cultures.—The alternative practice
consists in the introduction of pure cultures of known strains of lactic
bacteria into special milk to make the starter. Since these cultures must be
prepared by a bacteriologist, commercial laboratories have developed a
large business in their production. Many such commercial brands are
manufactured under trade-marked names. Some of these cultures represent
races of lactic bacteria cultivated and cared for efficiently, hence uniformly
valuable over long periods of time. Others carelessly produced are
worthless, or even a peril to the user.
brought about the development of factory methods of producing day by day
cultures of the organisms desired, in quantities sufficient to inoculate the
total quantity of milk used in manufacture. For this purpose milk is mostly
used and the product is known as "starter." For cheese-making purposes, a
starter is a substance used in the manufacture of dairy products having a
predominance of lactic acid-forming microorganisms in an active state.
There are two general classes of starter: (1) Natural starter; (2) commercial
starter.
58. Natural starter.—Milk, or other similar substance, which has become
sour or in which large numbers of lactic acid-forming organisms are
present, is called a natural starter when used in the manufacture of dairy
products. To secure clean-flavored milk, the cheese-maker usually selects
the milk of some producer who usually brings good milk and allows it to
sour naturally for use the next day. There is often a variation from day to
day in the milk delivered by the same producer, so that the cheese-maker is
not certain of a uniform quality in his fundamental material. While the
lactic acid-forming organisms are developing, other organisms may also be
present in numbers sufficient to produce bad flavors. If a starter has any
objectionable flavor, it should not be used. Natural starters very commonly
develop objectionable flavors which at first are very difficult to recognize.
When natural starters with objectionable but not easily recognizable odors
are used, the effect may be seen on the cheese. Milk, sour whey and
buttermilk are materials commonly used as natural starter. A common
difficulty in skimmed-milk cheese is caused by the use of buttermilk as a
starter.
59. Commercial starter or pure cultures.—The alternative practice
consists in the introduction of pure cultures of known strains of lactic
bacteria into special milk to make the starter. Since these cultures must be
prepared by a bacteriologist, commercial laboratories have developed a
large business in their production. Many such commercial brands are
manufactured under trade-marked names. Some of these cultures represent
races of lactic bacteria cultivated and cared for efficiently, hence uniformly
valuable over long periods of time. Others carelessly produced are
worthless, or even a peril to the user.
Page 62
These organisms are usually shipped in small quantities in bottles of liquid
or powder, or in capsules of uniform size. The contents may be either the
culture medium upon which the organisms grew or inert substance designed
merely to hold the bacteria in inactive form. In either solid or liquid form,
the producer of the culture should guarantee its activity up to a plainly
stated date.
It is the problem24 of the cheese-maker or butter-maker to increase this
small amount of lactic acid-forming organisms to such numbers and in such
active condition that it may be used in the factory; while being built up,
these organisms must be kept pure. The usual practice is to allow them to
develop in some material, usually whole milk or skimmed-milk; dissolved
milk powder may be used in the place of milk.
60. Manufacturer's directions.—The manufacturer usually sends
directions with his starter preparation, telling how it should be used to
secure the best result. These directions apply to average conditions and
must be varied to suit the individual instances so that a good starter will be
the result. The directions usually state the amount of milk necessary for the
first inoculation. It is usually a small amount, one or two quarts. After the
specific amount has been selected, this milk should be pasteurized.
61. Selecting milk.—The milk for use in starter-making should be selected
with very much care. Only clean-flavored sweet milk, free from undesirable
micro-organisms, should be used in the preparation of starter. The milk is
ordinarily chosen from a producer whose milk is usually in good condition.
The quality of the milk can be determined by the use of the fermentation
test. (See Chapter II.) It is better to choose only the morning's milk for the
making of starter, because the bacteria have not had so much opportunity to
develop. In no case should the mixed milk be used in the preparation of
starter, as this eliminates all opportunity for selection. The flavor of the
starter will be the same as that of the milk from which it is made.
62. Pasteurization is the process of heating to a high temperature for a
given length of time and quickly cooling. It kills most of the micro-
organisms in the milk. In other words, it makes a clean seed-bed for the
pure culture. The temperatures of pasteurization recommended for starter-
making differ with the authority. A temperature of 180° F. for thirty minutes
or powder, or in capsules of uniform size. The contents may be either the
culture medium upon which the organisms grew or inert substance designed
merely to hold the bacteria in inactive form. In either solid or liquid form,
the producer of the culture should guarantee its activity up to a plainly
stated date.
It is the problem24 of the cheese-maker or butter-maker to increase this
small amount of lactic acid-forming organisms to such numbers and in such
active condition that it may be used in the factory; while being built up,
these organisms must be kept pure. The usual practice is to allow them to
develop in some material, usually whole milk or skimmed-milk; dissolved
milk powder may be used in the place of milk.
60. Manufacturer's directions.—The manufacturer usually sends
directions with his starter preparation, telling how it should be used to
secure the best result. These directions apply to average conditions and
must be varied to suit the individual instances so that a good starter will be
the result. The directions usually state the amount of milk necessary for the
first inoculation. It is usually a small amount, one or two quarts. After the
specific amount has been selected, this milk should be pasteurized.
61. Selecting milk.—The milk for use in starter-making should be selected
with very much care. Only clean-flavored sweet milk, free from undesirable
micro-organisms, should be used in the preparation of starter. The milk is
ordinarily chosen from a producer whose milk is usually in good condition.
The quality of the milk can be determined by the use of the fermentation
test. (See Chapter II.) It is better to choose only the morning's milk for the
making of starter, because the bacteria have not had so much opportunity to
develop. In no case should the mixed milk be used in the preparation of
starter, as this eliminates all opportunity for selection. The flavor of the
starter will be the same as that of the milk from which it is made.
62. Pasteurization is the process of heating to a high temperature for a
given length of time and quickly cooling. It kills most of the micro-
organisms in the milk. In other words, it makes a clean seed-bed for the
pure culture. The temperatures of pasteurization recommended for starter-
making differ with the authority. A temperature of 180° F. for thirty minutes
Page 63
or longer seems to be very satisfactory, since under these conditions nearly
all the micro-organisms in the milk are killed.
63. Containers.—Various kinds of containers may be used for starter-
making. One-quart glass fruit jars or milk bottles make very satisfactory
containers, because the condition of the starter may be seen at any time.
They are also easily cleaned. They have the disadvantage, however, of
being easily broken, if the temperature is suddenly changed, or if severely
jarred. Tin containers may also be used. Such containers are not easily
broken, but they are harder to clean and must be opened to examine the
contents; hence the liability of contamination is very much greater.
This small amount of milk may be pasteurized by placing the container in
water heated to the desired temperature. A very satisfactory arrangement is
to cut of a barrel, and place a steam pipe in it. The barrel can then be filled
partly full of water and heated by steam. The bottles of milk to be
pasteurized are hung in the water in the barrel. Two or three more bottles
should be prepared than it is expected will be used as some of the bottles
are liable to be broken while cooling or heating. The bottles should be filled
about two-thirds full. This leaves room enough to add the mother starter and
later to break up the starter to examine it. It is desirable not to have the milk
or starter touch the cover since contaminations are more likely. It is a good
plan when pasteurizing to have one bottle as a check. This may be filled
with water and left open and the thermometer placed in it. A uniform
temperature may be obtained by shaking the bottles.
64. Adding cultures.—After being pasteurized, the milk should be cooled
to a temperature of 80° F. This is a suitable temperature for the development
of the lactic acid-forming organisms. The commercial or pure culture
should now be added to the milk at the rate specified in the directions. Care
should be exercised in opening bottles not to put the covers in an unclean
place. A sterile dipper is a good place to put them. After the culture has been
added to the milk, it should be mixed thoroughly by shaking the bottle. This
should be repeated every fifteen or twenty minutes for four or five times.
This is done to make certain that the culture is thoroughly mixed with the
milk. The milk should be placed in a room or incubator as near 80° F. as
possible, in order to have a uniform temperature for the growth of the
organisms. The bacteria in the pure culture are more or less dormant so that
all the micro-organisms in the milk are killed.
63. Containers.—Various kinds of containers may be used for starter-
making. One-quart glass fruit jars or milk bottles make very satisfactory
containers, because the condition of the starter may be seen at any time.
They are also easily cleaned. They have the disadvantage, however, of
being easily broken, if the temperature is suddenly changed, or if severely
jarred. Tin containers may also be used. Such containers are not easily
broken, but they are harder to clean and must be opened to examine the
contents; hence the liability of contamination is very much greater.
This small amount of milk may be pasteurized by placing the container in
water heated to the desired temperature. A very satisfactory arrangement is
to cut of a barrel, and place a steam pipe in it. The barrel can then be filled
partly full of water and heated by steam. The bottles of milk to be
pasteurized are hung in the water in the barrel. Two or three more bottles
should be prepared than it is expected will be used as some of the bottles
are liable to be broken while cooling or heating. The bottles should be filled
about two-thirds full. This leaves room enough to add the mother starter and
later to break up the starter to examine it. It is desirable not to have the milk
or starter touch the cover since contaminations are more likely. It is a good
plan when pasteurizing to have one bottle as a check. This may be filled
with water and left open and the thermometer placed in it. A uniform
temperature may be obtained by shaking the bottles.
64. Adding cultures.—After being pasteurized, the milk should be cooled
to a temperature of 80° F. This is a suitable temperature for the development
of the lactic acid-forming organisms. The commercial or pure culture
should now be added to the milk at the rate specified in the directions. Care
should be exercised in opening bottles not to put the covers in an unclean
place. A sterile dipper is a good place to put them. After the culture has been
added to the milk, it should be mixed thoroughly by shaking the bottle. This
should be repeated every fifteen or twenty minutes for four or five times.
This is done to make certain that the culture is thoroughly mixed with the
milk. The milk should be placed in a room or incubator as near 80° F. as
possible, in order to have a uniform temperature for the growth of the
organisms. The bacteria in the pure culture are more or less dormant so that
Page 64
a somewhat higher temperature than the ordinary is necessary to stimulate
their activity. This milk should be coagulated in eighteen to twenty-four
hours, depending largely on the uniformity of the temperature during
incubation.
65. Cleanliness.—To produce a good starter, great care should be exercised
that all utensils coming in contact with the milk are sterile. After the milk is
in the container in which the starter is made, it should be kept covered as
continuously as possible. Thermometers should not be put into it to
ascertain the temperature. When examining the starter, do not dip into it, but
pour out, as this prevents contamination. The cover, when removed from
the container, should be put in a sterile place in such way that the dirt will
not stick to it and later get into the starter.
66. "Mother" starter or startoline.—The thickened sour milk obtained by
inoculating the sweet pasteurized milk with pure culture of lactic acid-
forming bacteria is known as "mother starter" or "startoline."
67. Examining starter.—This starter should be examined carefully as to
physical properties, odor and taste. The coagulation should be smooth, free
from whey and gassy pockets or bubbles. Sometimes the first few
inoculations from a new culture will show signs of gas, but, usually, this
will quickly disappear, and not injure the starter. It should have a clean sour
cream odor and clean, mild, acid flavor. After breaking up it should be thick
and creamy, entirely free from lumps. This starter may have an
objectionable flavor, due to the media in which the organisms were growing
when shipped. In such cases it is necessary to carry the starter one or two
propagations to overcome the flavor, to enliven the micro-organisms and to
secure the quantity desired.
68. Second day's propagation.—For the second day, the milk for the
starter is selected as on the first day. It is pasteurized, and this time cooled
to 70° F. The milk is cooled a trifle colder the second day than the first,
because the organisms have become more active and hence do not require
as high a temperature to grow. Instead of inoculating with powder, as was
done the first day, the mother starter prepared the first day is used. This
requires only a very small amount, perhaps a tablespoonful to a quart bottle.
It should be thoroughly mixed with the milk. This starter may have the
their activity. This milk should be coagulated in eighteen to twenty-four
hours, depending largely on the uniformity of the temperature during
incubation.
65. Cleanliness.—To produce a good starter, great care should be exercised
that all utensils coming in contact with the milk are sterile. After the milk is
in the container in which the starter is made, it should be kept covered as
continuously as possible. Thermometers should not be put into it to
ascertain the temperature. When examining the starter, do not dip into it, but
pour out, as this prevents contamination. The cover, when removed from
the container, should be put in a sterile place in such way that the dirt will
not stick to it and later get into the starter.
66. "Mother" starter or startoline.—The thickened sour milk obtained by
inoculating the sweet pasteurized milk with pure culture of lactic acid-
forming bacteria is known as "mother starter" or "startoline."
67. Examining starter.—This starter should be examined carefully as to
physical properties, odor and taste. The coagulation should be smooth, free
from whey and gassy pockets or bubbles. Sometimes the first few
inoculations from a new culture will show signs of gas, but, usually, this
will quickly disappear, and not injure the starter. It should have a clean sour
cream odor and clean, mild, acid flavor. After breaking up it should be thick
and creamy, entirely free from lumps. This starter may have an
objectionable flavor, due to the media in which the organisms were growing
when shipped. In such cases it is necessary to carry the starter one or two
propagations to overcome the flavor, to enliven the micro-organisms and to
secure the quantity desired.
68. Second day's propagation.—For the second day, the milk for the
starter is selected as on the first day. It is pasteurized, and this time cooled
to 70° F. The milk is cooled a trifle colder the second day than the first,
because the organisms have become more active and hence do not require
as high a temperature to grow. Instead of inoculating with powder, as was
done the first day, the mother starter prepared the first day is used. This
requires only a very small amount, perhaps a tablespoonful to a quart bottle.
It should be thoroughly mixed with the milk. This starter may have the
Page 65
flavor of the media used in the
laboratory culture, therefore may need
to be carried one or two days more to
eliminate it. After the flavor has
become normal, the mother starter is
ready for commercial use.
69. Preparation of larger amount of
starter.—The first thing to determine is
the quantity of starter required. As
much milk should be carefully chosen
as the amount of starter desired. This
milk should then be pasteurized. An
improved starter-can (Fig. 6) may be
used in the pasteurization of the milk
Fig. 6.—An improved starter-can.
and the making of starter, or a milk-can
(Fig. 7) placed in a tub of water in
which there is a steam pipe. The former requires mechanical power to
operate the agitator, but the latter can be used where mechanical power is
not available. In the latter the milk and starter are stirred by hand. This is
the kind of apparatus more often
found in cheese factories.
If possible, this milk should be
pasteurized to 180° F. for thirty
minutes; this kills most of the
bacteria and spores. The milk
should be cooled to 60°-65° F., the
temperature of incubation. This
temperature may be varied with
conditions, so that the starter will be
ready for use at the desired time.
The higher the temperature, the less
time is required to ripen the starter.
Fig. 7.—A simple device for the preparation of
70. Amount of mother starter to starter.
use.—The mother starter prepared the day before is now used to inoculate
the starter milk. The amount to use will depend on:
laboratory culture, therefore may need
to be carried one or two days more to
eliminate it. After the flavor has
become normal, the mother starter is
ready for commercial use.
69. Preparation of larger amount of
starter.—The first thing to determine is
the quantity of starter required. As
much milk should be carefully chosen
as the amount of starter desired. This
milk should then be pasteurized. An
improved starter-can (Fig. 6) may be
used in the pasteurization of the milk
Fig. 6.—An improved starter-can.
and the making of starter, or a milk-can
(Fig. 7) placed in a tub of water in
which there is a steam pipe. The former requires mechanical power to
operate the agitator, but the latter can be used where mechanical power is
not available. In the latter the milk and starter are stirred by hand. This is
the kind of apparatus more often
found in cheese factories.
If possible, this milk should be
pasteurized to 180° F. for thirty
minutes; this kills most of the
bacteria and spores. The milk
should be cooled to 60°-65° F., the
temperature of incubation. This
temperature may be varied with
conditions, so that the starter will be
ready for use at the desired time.
The higher the temperature, the less
time is required to ripen the starter.
Fig. 7.—A simple device for the preparation of
70. Amount of mother starter to starter.
use.—The mother starter prepared the day before is now used to inoculate
the starter milk. The amount to use will depend on:
Page 66
1. Temperature of milk when mother starter is added;
2. Average temperature at which the milk will be kept during the ripening
period;
3. Time allowed for starter to ripen before it is to be used;
4. Vigor and acidity of the mother starter added. There is a very wide range
as to the amount of mother starter required, from 0.5 of one per cent to 10
per cent being used under different conditions.
Some operators prefer to add the mother starter while the milk is at a
temperature of about 90° F., before it has been cooled to the incubating
temperature. This reduces the amount of mother starter necessary.
If an even incubating temperature can be maintained, it will require less
mother starter than if the temperature goes down.
If the ripening period is short, it will require a larger amount of mother
starter, than if the ripening period is longer. If the starter has a low acidity or
weak body indicating that organisms are of low vitality, it will require more
mother starter.
71. Qualities.—The starter, when ready to use, may or may not be
coagulated; a good idea of the quality of the starter may be gained by the
condition of the coagulation. The coagulation should be jelly- or custard-
like, close and smooth, entirely free from gas pockets and should not be
wheyed off.
When broken up, the starter should be of a smooth creamy texture and
entirely free from lumpiness or wateriness. It should have a slightly
pronounced acid aroma. The starter should be free from taints and all
undesirable flavors; the flavor should be a clean, mild acid taste.
72. How to carry the mother starter.—Some mother starter must be
carried from day to day to inoculate the large starter. This may be carried or
made in several ways:
1. Independently: By this method a mother starter is made and carried
entirely separately from the large starter. It requires more time and work,
2. Average temperature at which the milk will be kept during the ripening
period;
3. Time allowed for starter to ripen before it is to be used;
4. Vigor and acidity of the mother starter added. There is a very wide range
as to the amount of mother starter required, from 0.5 of one per cent to 10
per cent being used under different conditions.
Some operators prefer to add the mother starter while the milk is at a
temperature of about 90° F., before it has been cooled to the incubating
temperature. This reduces the amount of mother starter necessary.
If an even incubating temperature can be maintained, it will require less
mother starter than if the temperature goes down.
If the ripening period is short, it will require a larger amount of mother
starter, than if the ripening period is longer. If the starter has a low acidity or
weak body indicating that organisms are of low vitality, it will require more
mother starter.
71. Qualities.—The starter, when ready to use, may or may not be
coagulated; a good idea of the quality of the starter may be gained by the
condition of the coagulation. The coagulation should be jelly- or custard-
like, close and smooth, entirely free from gas pockets and should not be
wheyed off.
When broken up, the starter should be of a smooth creamy texture and
entirely free from lumpiness or wateriness. It should have a slightly
pronounced acid aroma. The starter should be free from taints and all
undesirable flavors; the flavor should be a clean, mild acid taste.
72. How to carry the mother starter.—Some mother starter must be
carried from day to day to inoculate the large starter. This may be carried or
made in several ways:
1. Independently: By this method a mother starter is made and carried
entirely separately from the large starter. It requires more time and work,
Page 67
but is by far the best method. With a good mother starter, there is not so
much danger of the larger starter becoming poor in quality.
2. Mother starter may be made by dipping pasteurized milk from that
prepared for the large starter with sterile jars and then inoculating these jars
separately. By this method, if the milk selected for the large starter is poor,
the mother starter for the next day will be the same. It is very difficult by
this method to carry a uniform, high quality mother starter.
There is danger that the container used for the mother starter may not be
sterile, and there is also danger of contamination in transferring the milk.
3. Another practice is to hold over some of the large starter used to-day for
mother starter. This is by far the easiest method. By this practice, there is no
certainty of the quality of the starter, because there is little or no control of
the mother starter. If the large starter is for some reason not good, there is
no separate reserve of mother starter on which to rely.
73. Starter score-cards.—The use of a score-card tends to analyze the
observations in such a way as to emphasize all the characteristics desired in
the starter. Such an analysis seeks to minimize the personal factor and
produce a standardization of the quality. The score-card finally reduces the
qualities of the starter to a numerical basis for ease of comparison. Many
score-cards have been proposed but the one preferred by the authors is that
used by the Dairy Department of the New York State College of
Agriculture, which is as follows:
Cornell Score-card
much danger of the larger starter becoming poor in quality.
2. Mother starter may be made by dipping pasteurized milk from that
prepared for the large starter with sterile jars and then inoculating these jars
separately. By this method, if the milk selected for the large starter is poor,
the mother starter for the next day will be the same. It is very difficult by
this method to carry a uniform, high quality mother starter.
There is danger that the container used for the mother starter may not be
sterile, and there is also danger of contamination in transferring the milk.
3. Another practice is to hold over some of the large starter used to-day for
mother starter. This is by far the easiest method. By this practice, there is no
certainty of the quality of the starter, because there is little or no control of
the mother starter. If the large starter is for some reason not good, there is
no separate reserve of mother starter on which to rely.
73. Starter score-cards.—The use of a score-card tends to analyze the
observations in such a way as to emphasize all the characteristics desired in
the starter. Such an analysis seeks to minimize the personal factor and
produce a standardization of the quality. The score-card finally reduces the
qualities of the starter to a numerical basis for ease of comparison. Many
score-cards have been proposed but the one preferred by the authors is that
used by the Dairy Department of the New York State College of
Agriculture, which is as follows:
Cornell Score-card
Page 68
Flavor 50 Clean, desirable acid.
Aroma 20 Clean, agreeable acid. No undesirable
aroma.
Acidity 20 0.6 per cent-0.8 per cent.
Body 10 Before breaking up: jelly-like, close,
absence of gas holes. No free whey.
After breaking up: smooth, creamy,
free from granules or flakes.
The qualities mentioned in this score-card can be quickly and easily
determined by examining and tasting the starter and by making an acid test
of a sample. The acid test is conducted as with milk (see Chapter II) except
the starter must be rinsed out of the pipette with pure water. Some starter
score-cards call for a bacterial examination and counting of the starter
organisms. This takes a considerable period of time and is not entirely
necessary. The physical properties and acid test are closely correlated with
the presence of the desired organisms.
74. Use of starter.—If all milk could be clean and sweet and the only
fermentation from it were the clean acid type, a starter would be useless.
Such milk is hard to obtain; therefore, a starter is used to overcome the bad
fermentation. This improves the flavor, body and texture of the cheese. The
common contaminations which the starter will tend to correct are:
1. Gas-producing bacteria.
2. Yeasts.
3. Bad flavors or taints.
The length of time a starter may be carried depends on the accuracy and
carefulness of the maker. This calls for scrupulous attention to the
temperature, the selection of milk and keeping out contaminations. The
maker must remember that a starter is not merely milk, but milk full of a
multitude of tiny plants, very sensitive to food, temperature, clean
surroundings and the quantity of their own acid.
Aroma 20 Clean, agreeable acid. No undesirable
aroma.
Acidity 20 0.6 per cent-0.8 per cent.
Body 10 Before breaking up: jelly-like, close,
absence of gas holes. No free whey.
After breaking up: smooth, creamy,
free from granules or flakes.
The qualities mentioned in this score-card can be quickly and easily
determined by examining and tasting the starter and by making an acid test
of a sample. The acid test is conducted as with milk (see Chapter II) except
the starter must be rinsed out of the pipette with pure water. Some starter
score-cards call for a bacterial examination and counting of the starter
organisms. This takes a considerable period of time and is not entirely
necessary. The physical properties and acid test are closely correlated with
the presence of the desired organisms.
74. Use of starter.—If all milk could be clean and sweet and the only
fermentation from it were the clean acid type, a starter would be useless.
Such milk is hard to obtain; therefore, a starter is used to overcome the bad
fermentation. This improves the flavor, body and texture of the cheese. The
common contaminations which the starter will tend to correct are:
1. Gas-producing bacteria.
2. Yeasts.
3. Bad flavors or taints.
The length of time a starter may be carried depends on the accuracy and
carefulness of the maker. This calls for scrupulous attention to the
temperature, the selection of milk and keeping out contaminations. The
maker must remember that a starter is not merely milk, but milk full of a
multitude of tiny plants, very sensitive to food, temperature, clean
surroundings and the quantity of their own acid.
Page 69
Page 70
75. The amount of starter to use depends on the amount of acid desired in
the milk for any particular kind of cheese. The great abuse of starter is the
practice of using too much. It is better and safer to add starter a little at a
time and several times than to add too much at once. When starter is added
to milk for cheese-making, it should be strained to remove any lumps;
otherwise an uneven color is likely to result.
76. Starter lot-card.—For certain dairy operations, a permanent record is
desired. This is especially true in the making of starter and certain varieties
of cheese. A lot-card not only serves as a record but also points out the
succeeding steps of the operation. This latter is especially useful for
beginners and students. Page 53 shows a desirable lot-card to be used when
making starter. Each operation has been referred to the page in the text
where it is discussed. This makes this particular lot-card an index to the
whole process of starter-making as here treated.
the milk for any particular kind of cheese. The great abuse of starter is the
practice of using too much. It is better and safer to add starter a little at a
time and several times than to add too much at once. When starter is added
to milk for cheese-making, it should be strained to remove any lumps;
otherwise an uneven color is likely to result.
76. Starter lot-card.—For certain dairy operations, a permanent record is
desired. This is especially true in the making of starter and certain varieties
of cheese. A lot-card not only serves as a record but also points out the
succeeding steps of the operation. This latter is especially useful for
beginners and students. Page 53 shows a desirable lot-card to be used when
making starter. Each operation has been referred to the page in the text
where it is discussed. This makes this particular lot-card an index to the
whole process of starter-making as here treated.
Page 71
CHAPTER V
CURD-MAKING
Aside from the purely sour-milk cheeses, the coagulum or curd resulting
from rennet action is the basis of cheese-making. The finished cheese,
whatever its final condition, is primarily dependent on a particular chemical
composition and fairly definite physical characters in the freshly made curd
mass. These characters are determined by a series of factors under control
of the cheese-maker. Assuming the milk to be normal in character, success
depends on the use of a proper combination of these factors. The possible
variations in each factor together with their number makes an almost
infinite series of such combinations possible. The essential steps in the
process are, therefore, presented as underlying all cheese-making. The
special adaptations of each factor are considered in the discussion of the
varieties group by group.
These factors follow:
A. The coagulation group:
1. Fat-content of the milk.
2. The acidity of the milk.
3. The temperature of renneting.
4. The effective quantity of rennet.
5. Curdling period or the time allowed for rennet action.
B. The handling group:
6. Cutting or breaking the curd.
7. Heating (cooking) or not heating.
8. Draining (including pressing, grinding and putting into hoops or
forms).
77. The composition of the milk.—The fat percentage in the milk in the
cheese-vat should be known to the cheese-maker and be strictly under his
control. The fat tester and the separator make this clearly possible. He can
go further. Milk from particular herds whose quality is a matter of record
from the routine test of each patron's milk may be selected and brought
CURD-MAKING
Aside from the purely sour-milk cheeses, the coagulum or curd resulting
from rennet action is the basis of cheese-making. The finished cheese,
whatever its final condition, is primarily dependent on a particular chemical
composition and fairly definite physical characters in the freshly made curd
mass. These characters are determined by a series of factors under control
of the cheese-maker. Assuming the milk to be normal in character, success
depends on the use of a proper combination of these factors. The possible
variations in each factor together with their number makes an almost
infinite series of such combinations possible. The essential steps in the
process are, therefore, presented as underlying all cheese-making. The
special adaptations of each factor are considered in the discussion of the
varieties group by group.
These factors follow:
A. The coagulation group:
1. Fat-content of the milk.
2. The acidity of the milk.
3. The temperature of renneting.
4. The effective quantity of rennet.
5. Curdling period or the time allowed for rennet action.
B. The handling group:
6. Cutting or breaking the curd.
7. Heating (cooking) or not heating.
8. Draining (including pressing, grinding and putting into hoops or
forms).
77. The composition of the milk.—The fat percentage in the milk in the
cheese-vat should be known to the cheese-maker and be strictly under his
control. The fat tester and the separator make this clearly possible. He can
go further. Milk from particular herds whose quality is a matter of record
from the routine test of each patron's milk may be selected and brought
Page 72
together for the manufacturer of cheese of special quality. Control of casein
or lactose, on the contrary, is not nearly so practicable. The purchase of
milk on the fat test has become so well established in most dairy territories,
as to insure the presence and constant use of the tester. A fat test of the
mixed product in the cheese-vat in connection with established tables thus
insures an accurate knowledge of the materials which go into each day's
cheese. For some varieties of cheese, whole milk should always be used.
For other varieties, the addition or removal of fat is regularly recognized as
part of the making process. The presence of added fat or the removal of fat
affects the texture of the product and the details of the process of making.
78. Cheese color.—An alkaline solution of annatto is usually used as a
cheese color. This colors both casein and fat in contrast to butter color
which is an oil solution of the dye and mixes only with the fat. Cheese color
is added to the milk in making some varieties of cheese, and not for others.
When lactic starter is used, the color should be added after the starter and
just before the addition of the rennet. The amount is determined by the color
desired in the cheese. The usual amount varies from one to four ounces to
each thousand pounds of milk. Before adding, the color should be diluted in
either milk or water, preferably water. It should then be mixed thoroughly
with the milk.
79. The acidity factor.—Milk as drawn shows a measurable acidity when
titrated to phenolphthalein with normal sodium hydroxide. This figure
varies with the composition of milk. Casein itself gives a weakly acid
reaction with this indicator. Calculated as lactic acid, this initial acidity
varies within fairly wide limits, records being found from 0.12 to 0.21 of
one per cent or even more widely apart. Commonly, however, such titration
shows 0.14 to 0.17 per cent. Some forms of cheese (Limburger, Swiss, Brie)
are made from absolutely fresh milk. Acidity from bacterial activity is
important as a factor in the making of most types of cheese and probably in
the ripening of all types.
Increasing the acidity of the milk hastens rennet action and within limits
produces increased firmness of the curd. If carried too high, acidity causes a
grainy or sandy curd. Normally fresh milk is sufficiently acid in reaction
when tested to phenolphthalein to permit rennet to act, but the rate of action
increases rapidly with the development of acid. Increase of acidity may be
or lactose, on the contrary, is not nearly so practicable. The purchase of
milk on the fat test has become so well established in most dairy territories,
as to insure the presence and constant use of the tester. A fat test of the
mixed product in the cheese-vat in connection with established tables thus
insures an accurate knowledge of the materials which go into each day's
cheese. For some varieties of cheese, whole milk should always be used.
For other varieties, the addition or removal of fat is regularly recognized as
part of the making process. The presence of added fat or the removal of fat
affects the texture of the product and the details of the process of making.
78. Cheese color.—An alkaline solution of annatto is usually used as a
cheese color. This colors both casein and fat in contrast to butter color
which is an oil solution of the dye and mixes only with the fat. Cheese color
is added to the milk in making some varieties of cheese, and not for others.
When lactic starter is used, the color should be added after the starter and
just before the addition of the rennet. The amount is determined by the color
desired in the cheese. The usual amount varies from one to four ounces to
each thousand pounds of milk. Before adding, the color should be diluted in
either milk or water, preferably water. It should then be mixed thoroughly
with the milk.
79. The acidity factor.—Milk as drawn shows a measurable acidity when
titrated to phenolphthalein with normal sodium hydroxide. This figure
varies with the composition of milk. Casein itself gives a weakly acid
reaction with this indicator. Calculated as lactic acid, this initial acidity
varies within fairly wide limits, records being found from 0.12 to 0.21 of
one per cent or even more widely apart. Commonly, however, such titration
shows 0.14 to 0.17 per cent. Some forms of cheese (Limburger, Swiss, Brie)
are made from absolutely fresh milk. Acidity from bacterial activity is
important as a factor in the making of most types of cheese and probably in
the ripening of all types.
Increasing the acidity of the milk hastens rennet action and within limits
produces increased firmness of the curd. If carried too high, acidity causes a
grainy or sandy curd. Normally fresh milk is sufficiently acid in reaction
when tested to phenolphthalein to permit rennet to act, but the rate of action
increases rapidly with the development of acid. Increase of acidity may be
Page 73
accomplished: (a) by the addition of acid as has been done by Sammis25 and
Bruhn in pasteurized milk for Cheddar cheese; or (b) by the development of
acid through the activity of lactic organisms, which is the usual way. For
renneting, the acidity necessary for particular cheeses runs from that of
absolutely fresh milk still warm (as in French Brie, Limburger, Swiss,
Gorgonzola) through series calling for increase of acidity, hundredth by
hundredth per cent calculated as lactic acid. This ranges from 0.17 to 0.20
per cent as is variously used in American factory Cheddar to about 0.25 to
0.28 per cent as obtained by adding acid in Sammis' method. This method is
discussed under the heading "Cheddar Cheese from Pasteurized Milk" (p.
229) since it requires special apparatus and has not thus far been used with
other types of cheese. For the development of acidity by the action of
bacteria, lactic starter is almost universally used. This may be added in very
small quantities and the acidity secured by closely watching its
development or by adding starter in amount sufficient to obtain the required
acidity at once. In either case, the cheese-maker needs to know the rate of
action of the culture to insure the proper control of the process. The amount
of acid already present when the rennet is added affects not only the texture
of the curd as first found, but within limits indicates also the rate at which
further acidity may be expected to develop.
A series of experiments in making Roquefort were tabulated to show the
rate of acidification from various initial points. In the graphs (Fig. 8) the
curves for acid development are parallel after the determination reaches
0.30 per cent. These experiments were made at a temperature 80° to 84° F.
Milk at the lowest acidities tried developed titratable acid very slowly. A
period of several hours was required to produce sufficient acid to affect the
curd texture. When the acid reached 0.25 per cent by titration, the further
rise was rapid and all the lines became almost straight and parallel after the
titration reached 0.30 per cent. If this rapid souring occurred after the
completion of the cheese-making process, the texture of the experimental
cheese was not measurably affected. In those cases, however, in which 0.30
per cent was reached before the cheese reached its final form in the hoop,
the texture of the ripened cheese was entirely different from that desired for
this variety under experiment. These curves apply directly to but one cheese
process in which a particular combination of acidity, rennet and time is used
to obtain a very delicately balanced result. In other varieties it is equally
Bruhn in pasteurized milk for Cheddar cheese; or (b) by the development of
acid through the activity of lactic organisms, which is the usual way. For
renneting, the acidity necessary for particular cheeses runs from that of
absolutely fresh milk still warm (as in French Brie, Limburger, Swiss,
Gorgonzola) through series calling for increase of acidity, hundredth by
hundredth per cent calculated as lactic acid. This ranges from 0.17 to 0.20
per cent as is variously used in American factory Cheddar to about 0.25 to
0.28 per cent as obtained by adding acid in Sammis' method. This method is
discussed under the heading "Cheddar Cheese from Pasteurized Milk" (p.
229) since it requires special apparatus and has not thus far been used with
other types of cheese. For the development of acidity by the action of
bacteria, lactic starter is almost universally used. This may be added in very
small quantities and the acidity secured by closely watching its
development or by adding starter in amount sufficient to obtain the required
acidity at once. In either case, the cheese-maker needs to know the rate of
action of the culture to insure the proper control of the process. The amount
of acid already present when the rennet is added affects not only the texture
of the curd as first found, but within limits indicates also the rate at which
further acidity may be expected to develop.
A series of experiments in making Roquefort were tabulated to show the
rate of acidification from various initial points. In the graphs (Fig. 8) the
curves for acid development are parallel after the determination reaches
0.30 per cent. These experiments were made at a temperature 80° to 84° F.
Milk at the lowest acidities tried developed titratable acid very slowly. A
period of several hours was required to produce sufficient acid to affect the
curd texture. When the acid reached 0.25 per cent by titration, the further
rise was rapid and all the lines became almost straight and parallel after the
titration reached 0.30 per cent. If this rapid souring occurred after the
completion of the cheese-making process, the texture of the experimental
cheese was not measurably affected. In those cases, however, in which 0.30
per cent was reached before the cheese reached its final form in the hoop,
the texture of the ripened cheese was entirely different from that desired for
this variety under experiment. These curves apply directly to but one cheese
process in which a particular combination of acidity, rennet and time is used
to obtain a very delicately balanced result. In other varieties it is equally
Page 74
important to obtain exactly the adjustment of these factors which will bring
the desired result.
Fig. 8.—The acidification of Roquefort cheese.
80. Acidity of milk when received.—If proper care has been taken, milk
should be delivered to the factory fresh, clean and without the development
of acid. If the milk has not been handled properly, the early stages of
souring or some other unfavorable fermentation will have developed. Such
milk may develop too much acid, or gas, or any one of several
objectionable flavors during the making and ripening of the cheese. Some
cheese-makers become very expert in detecting the first traces of
objectionable qualities, but most makers are dependent on standardized
the desired result.
Fig. 8.—The acidification of Roquefort cheese.
80. Acidity of milk when received.—If proper care has been taken, milk
should be delivered to the factory fresh, clean and without the development
of acid. If the milk has not been handled properly, the early stages of
souring or some other unfavorable fermentation will have developed. Such
milk may develop too much acid, or gas, or any one of several
objectionable flavors during the making and ripening of the cheese. Some
cheese-makers become very expert in detecting the first traces of
objectionable qualities, but most makers are dependent on standardized
Page 75
tests to determine whether milk shall be accepted or rejected, and when
accepted to determine the rate at which it may be expected to respond
during the cheese-making process.
Various tests have been devised to determine the amount of acid present in
milk. There are two tests commonly used in cheese-factories. One is known
as the "acid test" and the other the "rennet test."
81. The acid test26 is made by titrating a known amount of milk (Fig. 9)
against an alkali solution of known strength, using phenolphthalein as an
indicator. The object of the indicator is to tell the condition of the milk,
whether it is acid, alkaline or neutral. The indicator does not change in an
acid solution but turns pink when the solution is or becomes alkaline. To
make the test, a known quantity of the material to be tested is placed in a
white cup, and to this several drops
of indicator are added. As an
indicator, a 1 per cent solution of
phenolphthalein in 95 per cent
alcohol is commonly used. As an
alkali solution, sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) is used in the standardized
strength usually either tenth (N/10)
normal or twentieth (N/20) normal.
This solution should be obtained in
some one of the standardized forms
commercially prepared. The alkali
is added, drop by drop, from a
graduated burette until a faint pink
color appears. This shows that the
acid in the milk has been
neutralized by the alkali. The
amount of alkali that has been used
can be determined from the burette.
Knowing the amount of milk and
alkali solution used, it is easy to
calculate the amount of acid in the
substance tested. The results are Fig. 9.—An acid tester.
usually expressed either as
accepted to determine the rate at which it may be expected to respond
during the cheese-making process.
Various tests have been devised to determine the amount of acid present in
milk. There are two tests commonly used in cheese-factories. One is known
as the "acid test" and the other the "rennet test."
81. The acid test26 is made by titrating a known amount of milk (Fig. 9)
against an alkali solution of known strength, using phenolphthalein as an
indicator. The object of the indicator is to tell the condition of the milk,
whether it is acid, alkaline or neutral. The indicator does not change in an
acid solution but turns pink when the solution is or becomes alkaline. To
make the test, a known quantity of the material to be tested is placed in a
white cup, and to this several drops
of indicator are added. As an
indicator, a 1 per cent solution of
phenolphthalein in 95 per cent
alcohol is commonly used. As an
alkali solution, sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) is used in the standardized
strength usually either tenth (N/10)
normal or twentieth (N/20) normal.
This solution should be obtained in
some one of the standardized forms
commercially prepared. The alkali
is added, drop by drop, from a
graduated burette until a faint pink
color appears. This shows that the
acid in the milk has been
neutralized by the alkali. The
amount of alkali that has been used
can be determined from the burette.
Knowing the amount of milk and
alkali solution used, it is easy to
calculate the amount of acid in the
substance tested. The results are Fig. 9.—An acid tester.
usually expressed either as
Page 76
percentages of lactic acid or preferably as cubic centimeters of normal
alkali required to neutralize 100 or 1000 c.c. of milk. This kind of test is on
the market under different names, such as Mann's, Publow's, Farrington's
and Marschall's.
82. Rennet tests.—Several rennet tests have been devised, but the one most
widely used is the Marschall (Fig. 10). This consists of a 1 c.c. pipette to
measure the rennet extract, a small bottle in which to dilute the extract, a
special cup to hold the milk and a spatula to mix the milk with the rennet
extract. This cup has on the
inside from top to bottom a
scale graduated from 0 at
the top to 10 at the bottom.
There is a hole in the
bottom to allow the milk to
run out.
83. Marschall rennet test.
—To make a Marschall
rennet test, 1 c.c. of rennet
extract is measured, with
the 1 c.c. pipette, and
placed in the bottle. Care
Fig. 10.—Marschall rennet test. should be exercised to
rinse out the pipette. The
bottle is then filled to the mark with cold water. After the milk has been
heated to the setting temperature, 84°-86° F., the cup is filled with milk and
set on the edge of the vat so that the milk running out through the hole in
the bottom of the cup will flow into the vat. Just as the surface of the milk
reaches the 0 mark on the cup, the diluted rennet extract is added and
thoroughly mixed with the milk, using the small spatula to stir it. The rennet
and milk should be mixed until it has run down at least one-half space on
the scale in the cup. As the rennet begins to coagulate the milk, it runs
slower from the hole in the bottom of the cup, until it finally stops. When it
stops, the point on the scale indicated by the surface of the coagulated milk
is noted. The test is recorded by the number of spaces the surface of the
milk lowers from the time the rennet is added until it is coagulated. This test
depends on three factors: the strength of the rennet extract, the temperature
alkali required to neutralize 100 or 1000 c.c. of milk. This kind of test is on
the market under different names, such as Mann's, Publow's, Farrington's
and Marschall's.
82. Rennet tests.—Several rennet tests have been devised, but the one most
widely used is the Marschall (Fig. 10). This consists of a 1 c.c. pipette to
measure the rennet extract, a small bottle in which to dilute the extract, a
special cup to hold the milk and a spatula to mix the milk with the rennet
extract. This cup has on the
inside from top to bottom a
scale graduated from 0 at
the top to 10 at the bottom.
There is a hole in the
bottom to allow the milk to
run out.
83. Marschall rennet test.
—To make a Marschall
rennet test, 1 c.c. of rennet
extract is measured, with
the 1 c.c. pipette, and
placed in the bottle. Care
Fig. 10.—Marschall rennet test. should be exercised to
rinse out the pipette. The
bottle is then filled to the mark with cold water. After the milk has been
heated to the setting temperature, 84°-86° F., the cup is filled with milk and
set on the edge of the vat so that the milk running out through the hole in
the bottom of the cup will flow into the vat. Just as the surface of the milk
reaches the 0 mark on the cup, the diluted rennet extract is added and
thoroughly mixed with the milk, using the small spatula to stir it. The rennet
and milk should be mixed until it has run down at least one-half space on
the scale in the cup. As the rennet begins to coagulate the milk, it runs
slower from the hole in the bottom of the cup, until it finally stops. When it
stops, the point on the scale indicated by the surface of the coagulated milk
is noted. The test is recorded by the number of spaces the surface of the
milk lowers from the time the rennet is added until it is coagulated. This test
depends on three factors: the strength of the rennet extract, the temperature
Page 77
of the milk, the acidity of the milk. The more acid, the quicker the milk will
coagulate. To measure any one of these factors, the other two must be
constant. The variable factor is the acidity of the milk. This test will not
indicate the percentage of acid in the milk, but is simply a comparative test
to be used from day to day; for example, if the rennet test to-day shows
three spaces, and the operator makes that milk into cheese and the process
seems to be normal, it shows that for good results in this factory, milk
should be ripened to show three spaces every day. If the next day the milk
showed four spaces, it should be allowed to ripen more until it shows three
spaces. If it shows only two spaces, this indicates that the milk has too
much acid development or is over-ripe. A cheese-maker will have to
determine at what point to set his milk, because the test will vary from one
factory to another.
84. Comparison of acid and rennet test.—Each of these tests has its
advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of the acid test is that it can
be made as well of warm as cold milk. This is of great importance in
determining whether the milk delivered by any patron is too ripe to be
received. The acidity of other materials, such as whey and starter, can be
determined as well as that of milk. The disadvantages are that it is difficult
to get the alkali solution of the proper strength and the solution is liable to
deteriorate on standing. It requires a careful exact operator to make the test.
The advantages of the rennet test are that it is easy to make, and it requires
no materials that are hard to replace. The disadvantage is that the milk must
be warmed to the same temperature before a comparative test can be made.
The size of the outlet in cups varies. It does not indicate the percentage of
acid present in the milk. It is simply a comparative test. To obtain the best
result, both tests should be used in conjunction.
85. Control of acid.—The control of acidity in curd and cheese is
dependent on the control of the moisture or water-content. The control of
both factors is very important in relation to the quality27 of the cheese. Often
acidity is spoken of when moisture is really intended, and vice versa. The
close relation between the moisture and acidity is due to the presence of the
milk-sugar in solution in the milk-serum which becomes the whey of
cheese-making. Water or moisture in cheese consists of the remnant of this
whey which is not expelled in the making process. During manufacture and
coagulate. To measure any one of these factors, the other two must be
constant. The variable factor is the acidity of the milk. This test will not
indicate the percentage of acid in the milk, but is simply a comparative test
to be used from day to day; for example, if the rennet test to-day shows
three spaces, and the operator makes that milk into cheese and the process
seems to be normal, it shows that for good results in this factory, milk
should be ripened to show three spaces every day. If the next day the milk
showed four spaces, it should be allowed to ripen more until it shows three
spaces. If it shows only two spaces, this indicates that the milk has too
much acid development or is over-ripe. A cheese-maker will have to
determine at what point to set his milk, because the test will vary from one
factory to another.
84. Comparison of acid and rennet test.—Each of these tests has its
advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of the acid test is that it can
be made as well of warm as cold milk. This is of great importance in
determining whether the milk delivered by any patron is too ripe to be
received. The acidity of other materials, such as whey and starter, can be
determined as well as that of milk. The disadvantages are that it is difficult
to get the alkali solution of the proper strength and the solution is liable to
deteriorate on standing. It requires a careful exact operator to make the test.
The advantages of the rennet test are that it is easy to make, and it requires
no materials that are hard to replace. The disadvantage is that the milk must
be warmed to the same temperature before a comparative test can be made.
The size of the outlet in cups varies. It does not indicate the percentage of
acid present in the milk. It is simply a comparative test. To obtain the best
result, both tests should be used in conjunction.
85. Control of acid.—The control of acidity in curd and cheese is
dependent on the control of the moisture or water-content. The control of
both factors is very important in relation to the quality27 of the cheese. Often
acidity is spoken of when moisture is really intended, and vice versa. The
close relation between the moisture and acidity is due to the presence of the
milk-sugar in solution in the milk-serum which becomes the whey of
cheese-making. Water or moisture in cheese consists of the remnant of this
whey which is not expelled in the making process. During manufacture and
Page 78
the ripening process, the milk-sugar is changed to lactic acid. A cheese may
be sweet when first made and after a time become sour because it contains
too much moisture in the form of whey. Excess of whey carries excess of
milk-sugar from which fermentation produces intense acidity.
Various tests have been devised to determine the amount of acid developed
at the different stages of manufacture. These tests are described on page 61.
By the use of such tests, the development of acid during the manufacturing
process can be very accurately determined. There is no quick, accurate test
to determine the amount of moisture in the curd. The cheese-maker has to
rely on his own judgment, guided largely by the appearance, feeling and
condition of the curd.
After the rennet extract has been added, all control of the acid development
is lost. The cheese-maker can determine rather accurately how fast the acid
will develop during the ripening of the milk. This shows the importance of
the proper ripening. The amount of acid developed during the different
stages of the manufacturing process can be approximately followed with the
various acid tests. The manufacturing process should then be varied to
obtain the proper relation between the moisture and the acid present. The
only time that the acidity may be controlled is when the milk is being
ripened. If too much acid is developed before the rennet is added, there is
apt to be too much acid at each stage of the manufacturing process. This is
liable to hurry the cheese-making process and to cause a loss, both in
quality and quantity of cheese, and may cause a high acid or sour cheese. If
sufficient acid is not developed at the time the rennet is added or if the milk
is not sufficiently ripened, the acid is liable not to develop fast enough so
that there will not be sufficient at each step in the cheese-making process.
Such a cheese is called "sweet." There are several conditions which will
cause an over-development of acid. Such a cheese is called "acidy" or
"sour." These factors are within the control of the cheese-maker, hence
should be avoided. A sour cheese shows lack of skill and care on the part of
the cheese-maker.
Conditions causing an acidy or sour cheese:
Receiving sour or high acid milk at the cheese-factory.
Use of too much starter.
Ripening the milk too much before the rennet is added.
be sweet when first made and after a time become sour because it contains
too much moisture in the form of whey. Excess of whey carries excess of
milk-sugar from which fermentation produces intense acidity.
Various tests have been devised to determine the amount of acid developed
at the different stages of manufacture. These tests are described on page 61.
By the use of such tests, the development of acid during the manufacturing
process can be very accurately determined. There is no quick, accurate test
to determine the amount of moisture in the curd. The cheese-maker has to
rely on his own judgment, guided largely by the appearance, feeling and
condition of the curd.
After the rennet extract has been added, all control of the acid development
is lost. The cheese-maker can determine rather accurately how fast the acid
will develop during the ripening of the milk. This shows the importance of
the proper ripening. The amount of acid developed during the different
stages of the manufacturing process can be approximately followed with the
various acid tests. The manufacturing process should then be varied to
obtain the proper relation between the moisture and the acid present. The
only time that the acidity may be controlled is when the milk is being
ripened. If too much acid is developed before the rennet is added, there is
apt to be too much acid at each stage of the manufacturing process. This is
liable to hurry the cheese-making process and to cause a loss, both in
quality and quantity of cheese, and may cause a high acid or sour cheese. If
sufficient acid is not developed at the time the rennet is added or if the milk
is not sufficiently ripened, the acid is liable not to develop fast enough so
that there will not be sufficient at each step in the cheese-making process.
Such a cheese is called "sweet." There are several conditions which will
cause an over-development of acid. Such a cheese is called "acidy" or
"sour." These factors are within the control of the cheese-maker, hence
should be avoided. A sour cheese shows lack of skill and care on the part of
the cheese-maker.
Conditions causing an acidy or sour cheese:
Receiving sour or high acid milk at the cheese-factory.
Use of too much starter.
Ripening the milk too much before the rennet is added.
Page 79
Removing the whey before the curd is properly firmed, hence leaving
it with too much moisture.
Development of too much acid in the whey before the whey is
removed.
Improper relationship between the moisture and acidity at the time of
removing the whey.
Conditions causing deficient acid:
Adding the rennet before sufficient acid has developed.
Not using sufficient starter.
Not developing sufficient acid in the whey.
86. Acidity and rennet action.—The rennet extract acts only in an acid
medium. The greater the acid development, within certain limits, the faster
the action of the rennet. If enough acid has developed to cause a
coagulation of the casein, the rennet will not coagulate the milk. This is one
reason why Cheddar cheese cannot be made from sour milk.
87. Acidity and expulsion of the whey.—The contraction of the curd and
expulsion of the whey are so closely related that they may be treated under
the same heading. The more acid, the faster the whey separates from the
curd, other conditions being uniform. The relation of acidity and firmness
of the curd to temperature of the curd is another important factor in the
successful manufacture of cheese. The higher the acidity, the faster the
temperature of the curd can be raised without any harmful effects. If the
temperature is raised too fast in relation to the acidity, the film surrounding
each piece of curd will become toughened so that the moisture will not be
able to escape. When this condition exists, the curd will feel firm but when
the pieces are broken open the inside is found to be very soft. This results in
a large loss later or may cause a sour cheese. It usually causes an uneven
texture and color in the cheese.
88. Acidity in relation to cheese flavor.—Just what part the acid plays in
the development of cheese flavor is not known. If a certain amount of acid
is not present, the characteristic cheese flavor does not develop. If too much
acid is developed, it gives the cheese a sour flavor which is unpleasant. If
sufficient acid is not developed, the other undesirable factors seem to be
more active, causing very disagreeable flavor and may cause the cheese to
putrefy. A cheese with a low acid usually develops a very mild flavor, and if
it with too much moisture.
Development of too much acid in the whey before the whey is
removed.
Improper relationship between the moisture and acidity at the time of
removing the whey.
Conditions causing deficient acid:
Adding the rennet before sufficient acid has developed.
Not using sufficient starter.
Not developing sufficient acid in the whey.
86. Acidity and rennet action.—The rennet extract acts only in an acid
medium. The greater the acid development, within certain limits, the faster
the action of the rennet. If enough acid has developed to cause a
coagulation of the casein, the rennet will not coagulate the milk. This is one
reason why Cheddar cheese cannot be made from sour milk.
87. Acidity and expulsion of the whey.—The contraction of the curd and
expulsion of the whey are so closely related that they may be treated under
the same heading. The more acid, the faster the whey separates from the
curd, other conditions being uniform. The relation of acidity and firmness
of the curd to temperature of the curd is another important factor in the
successful manufacture of cheese. The higher the acidity, the faster the
temperature of the curd can be raised without any harmful effects. If the
temperature is raised too fast in relation to the acidity, the film surrounding
each piece of curd will become toughened so that the moisture will not be
able to escape. When this condition exists, the curd will feel firm but when
the pieces are broken open the inside is found to be very soft. This results in
a large loss later or may cause a sour cheese. It usually causes an uneven
texture and color in the cheese.
88. Acidity in relation to cheese flavor.—Just what part the acid plays in
the development of cheese flavor is not known. If a certain amount of acid
is not present, the characteristic cheese flavor does not develop. If too much
acid is developed, it gives the cheese a sour flavor which is unpleasant. If
sufficient acid is not developed, the other undesirable factors seem to be
more active, causing very disagreeable flavor and may cause the cheese to
putrefy. A cheese with a low acid usually develops a very mild flavor, and if
Page 80
carried to extremes, as in the case of some washed curd cheese, the true
cheese flavor never develops.
89. Acidity in relation to body and texture of cheese.—If a cheese is to
have a close, smooth, mellow, silky body and texture, a certain amount of
acid development is necessary. If too much acid is developed, the body and
texture will be dry, harsh, sandy, mealy, corky. If the acid is not sufficient
the cheese may be soft or weak bodied, and is usually characterized by
"Swiss curd holes," which are spaces of various sizes usually more or less
round and very shiny on the inside.
90. Acidity in relation to cheese color.—An over-development of acidity
affects the color of a cheese. If this development of acidity is uniform
throughout the cheese, it causes the color to become pale or bleached. If this
development is uneven, due to the uneven distribution of moisture, the color
will be bleached in spots, causing a mottled effect.
91. Control of moisture.28—The cheese-maker must use skill and judgment
in regulating the amount of moisture in relation to the firmness of the curd
and the acid. Since there are no quick accurate tests to determine the
amount of moisture, this is left entirely to the judgment of the operator.
Certain methods of handling the curd reduce the moisture-content, while
others increase it. The cheese-maker must decide how to handle the curd. If
the curd becomes too dry, methods should be employed to increase the
moisture, and vice versa.
Causes of excessive moisture:
Cutting the curd coarse.
Cutting the curd after it has become too hard.
Setting the milk at a high temperature.
Use of excessive amount of rennet extract.
Low acid in the curd at the time of removing the whey.
Not stirring the curd with the hands as the last of the whey is removed.
High piling of the curd during the cheddaring process.
Piling the curd too quickly after removing the whey.
Use of a small amount of salt.
Holding the curd at too low a temperature after the whey is removed.
Soaking the curd in water previous to salting.
cheese flavor never develops.
89. Acidity in relation to body and texture of cheese.—If a cheese is to
have a close, smooth, mellow, silky body and texture, a certain amount of
acid development is necessary. If too much acid is developed, the body and
texture will be dry, harsh, sandy, mealy, corky. If the acid is not sufficient
the cheese may be soft or weak bodied, and is usually characterized by
"Swiss curd holes," which are spaces of various sizes usually more or less
round and very shiny on the inside.
90. Acidity in relation to cheese color.—An over-development of acidity
affects the color of a cheese. If this development of acidity is uniform
throughout the cheese, it causes the color to become pale or bleached. If this
development is uneven, due to the uneven distribution of moisture, the color
will be bleached in spots, causing a mottled effect.
91. Control of moisture.28—The cheese-maker must use skill and judgment
in regulating the amount of moisture in relation to the firmness of the curd
and the acid. Since there are no quick accurate tests to determine the
amount of moisture, this is left entirely to the judgment of the operator.
Certain methods of handling the curd reduce the moisture-content, while
others increase it. The cheese-maker must decide how to handle the curd. If
the curd becomes too dry, methods should be employed to increase the
moisture, and vice versa.
Causes of excessive moisture:
Cutting the curd coarse.
Cutting the curd after it has become too hard.
Setting the milk at a high temperature.
Use of excessive amount of rennet extract.
Low acid in the curd at the time of removing the whey.
Not stirring the curd with the hands as the last of the whey is removed.
High piling of the curd during the cheddaring process.
Piling the curd too quickly after removing the whey.
Use of a small amount of salt.
Holding the curd at too low a temperature after the whey is removed.
Soaking the curd in water previous to salting.
Page 81
Allowing the curd to remain in the whey too long so that it reabsorbs
the whey.
Heating the curd too rapidly.
Causes of insufficient moisture:
Cutting the curd too fine or breaking up the pieces with the rake into
too small pieces.
Cutting the curd too soft.
Stirring the curd too much by hand as the last of the whey is being
removed.
Developing high acid in the curd at the time of removing the whey.
Insufficient piling of the curd during the cheddaring process.
Using a large amount of salt.
High temperature and low humidity in the curing room.
92. Relation of moisture to manufacture and quality.—(1) Flavor: If the
cheese contains too much moisture, it is likely to develop a sour or acidy
flavor. A cheese with a normally high moisture-content usually ripens or
develops a cheese flavor much faster than one with a lower moisture-
content, other conditions being uniform. A cheese with a high moisture-
content is much more liable, during the curing process, to develop
undesirable flavors than is one with a lower moisture-content. (2) Body and
texture: A cheese containing too much moisture is very soft and is difficult
to hold in shape. Such a product breaks down very rapidly and is usually
pasty and sticky in texture. If too little moisture is present, the cheese is
very dry and hard, and cures or ripens very slowly because of the lack of
moisture together with milk-sugar from which acid may be formed. Dry
cheeses are usually harsh, tough and rubbery in texture. Such cheeses also
have poor rinds. (3) Color: If the ideal conditions exist, the moisture will be
evenly distributed throughout the cheese. The spots containing more
moisture will be lighter in color. If a cheese contains so much moisture that
it becomes "acidy," the effect is the same as when too much acid is
developed, that is, the color becomes pale from the action of the acid. (4)
Finish: A cheese containing too much moisture is usually soft. A good rind
does not form. Such a cheese loses its shape very easily, especially in a
warm curing room. (5) Quality: A cheese with a high moisture-content is
usually marketable for only a very short period. Such a product usually
the whey.
Heating the curd too rapidly.
Causes of insufficient moisture:
Cutting the curd too fine or breaking up the pieces with the rake into
too small pieces.
Cutting the curd too soft.
Stirring the curd too much by hand as the last of the whey is being
removed.
Developing high acid in the curd at the time of removing the whey.
Insufficient piling of the curd during the cheddaring process.
Using a large amount of salt.
High temperature and low humidity in the curing room.
92. Relation of moisture to manufacture and quality.—(1) Flavor: If the
cheese contains too much moisture, it is likely to develop a sour or acidy
flavor. A cheese with a normally high moisture-content usually ripens or
develops a cheese flavor much faster than one with a lower moisture-
content, other conditions being uniform. A cheese with a high moisture-
content is much more liable, during the curing process, to develop
undesirable flavors than is one with a lower moisture-content. (2) Body and
texture: A cheese containing too much moisture is very soft and is difficult
to hold in shape. Such a product breaks down very rapidly and is usually
pasty and sticky in texture. If too little moisture is present, the cheese is
very dry and hard, and cures or ripens very slowly because of the lack of
moisture together with milk-sugar from which acid may be formed. Dry
cheeses are usually harsh, tough and rubbery in texture. Such cheeses also
have poor rinds. (3) Color: If the ideal conditions exist, the moisture will be
evenly distributed throughout the cheese. The spots containing more
moisture will be lighter in color. If a cheese contains so much moisture that
it becomes "acidy," the effect is the same as when too much acid is
developed, that is, the color becomes pale from the action of the acid. (4)
Finish: A cheese containing too much moisture is usually soft. A good rind
does not form. Such a cheese loses its shape very easily, especially in a
warm curing room. (5) Quality: A cheese with a high moisture-content is
usually marketable for only a very short period. Such a product usually
Page 82
develops flavor very quickly in comparison to a dry cheese. It must be sold
very soon because if held too long, the flavor becomes so strong as to be
undesirable, and objectionable flavors are liable to develop. In some cases,
such cheeses rot.
93. Relation of moisture to acidity.—From the preceding discussion, it is
evident that the relation between the moisture and acidity is very close, in
fact so intimate that in some cases it is difficult to distinguish one from the
other when the quality of the cheese is considered. The proper relation of
the moisture and the acidity determines the quality of the resulting cheese.
If too much acid is developed during the manufacturing process, the
product will be sour. If too much moisture is retained in the form of whey,
the cheese will be sour. The less acid in the curd, the more moisture in the
form of whey may be retained in the curd without causing a sour cheese.
The proper relationship between the moisture and the acidity must be
maintained or a sour cheese will result.
The relation of the moisture to the acidity also has an influence on the
curing. If the cheese has a low development of acidity and a low moisture-
content, it will cure very slowly. The increasing of either the acidity or
moisture usually increases the rate of cheese ripening, other factors being
the same.
The relation of the acidity and the moisture is so important that it cannot be
neglected without injuring both the quality and quantity of cheese. This
knowledge can be obtained only by experience.
94. Setting temperature.—The temperature of renneting makes very much
difference in the texture of the product. The enzyme rennin is sensitive to
very slight changes in temperature. Below 70° F., its rate of action is very
slow. Beginning with approximately 20 per cent of its maximum
effectiveness at 70° F. (the curdling point for Neufchâtel), it has risen to 65
per cent at 84° F., to 70 per cent at 86° F., as used in Cheddar, to about 80 to
85 per cent at 90-94° F., as used in Limburger. At 105° F. it reaches its
maximum effective working rate to fall from that efficiency to about 50 per
cent at 120° F. Curdling at low temperature lengthens the time required for
the same amount of rennet to curdle a given quantity of the same milk. The
texture of curd produced at temperatures between 70° F. and 84° F. is soft,
very soon because if held too long, the flavor becomes so strong as to be
undesirable, and objectionable flavors are liable to develop. In some cases,
such cheeses rot.
93. Relation of moisture to acidity.—From the preceding discussion, it is
evident that the relation between the moisture and acidity is very close, in
fact so intimate that in some cases it is difficult to distinguish one from the
other when the quality of the cheese is considered. The proper relation of
the moisture and the acidity determines the quality of the resulting cheese.
If too much acid is developed during the manufacturing process, the
product will be sour. If too much moisture is retained in the form of whey,
the cheese will be sour. The less acid in the curd, the more moisture in the
form of whey may be retained in the curd without causing a sour cheese.
The proper relationship between the moisture and the acidity must be
maintained or a sour cheese will result.
The relation of the moisture to the acidity also has an influence on the
curing. If the cheese has a low development of acidity and a low moisture-
content, it will cure very slowly. The increasing of either the acidity or
moisture usually increases the rate of cheese ripening, other factors being
the same.
The relation of the acidity and the moisture is so important that it cannot be
neglected without injuring both the quality and quantity of cheese. This
knowledge can be obtained only by experience.
94. Setting temperature.—The temperature of renneting makes very much
difference in the texture of the product. The enzyme rennin is sensitive to
very slight changes in temperature. Below 70° F., its rate of action is very
slow. Beginning with approximately 20 per cent of its maximum
effectiveness at 70° F. (the curdling point for Neufchâtel), it has risen to 65
per cent at 84° F., to 70 per cent at 86° F., as used in Cheddar, to about 80 to
85 per cent at 90-94° F., as used in Limburger. At 105° F. it reaches its
maximum effective working rate to fall from that efficiency to about 50 per
cent at 120° F. Curdling at low temperature lengthens the time required for
the same amount of rennet to curdle a given quantity of the same milk. The
texture of curd produced at temperatures between 70° F. and 84° F. is soft,
Page 83
jelly-like, friable rather than rubbery. At 86° F. it begins to show toughening
or rubbery characters which become very marked at 90° F. to 94° F. as used
in Limburger. With the increased vigor of action as it passes its maximum
rate of action at 105° F., the texture tends to become loose, floccose to
granular. Aside from the Neufchâtel group, the working range of
temperatures for the renneting period runs from about 84° F. to about 94° F.,
a range of barely 10° F., or the use of 65 per cent to 80 or possibly 85 per
cent of the maximum efficiency of the rennet. Within this range of
temperature, the curd has the physical characters demanded for making
most varieties of cheese.
95. Strength of coagulating materials.—Rennet and pepsin preparations
vary in strength and in keeping quality. With a particular stock, changes go
on to such a degree that the last samples from a barrel of rennet are much
weaker than the earlier ones. Each sample, barrel, keg or bottle should be
tested before used. In continuous work the results of each day's work
furnish the guide for the next day's use of a particular lot of rennet.
96. Amount of coagulating materials to use.—For most varieties of
cheese, sufficient rennet extract or pepsin is added to the milk to give a firm
curd in twenty-five to forty minutes. Of the ordinary commercial rennet
extract, this requires from two and one-half to four ounces to one thousand
pounds of milk. This gives a maximum of one part rennet for each four to
six thousand parts of milk. The great strength of the rennet extract is thus
clearly shown.
97. Method of adding rennet.—Before rennet is added to the milk, it is
diluted in about forty times its volume of cold water, which chills the
enzyme and retards its action until it can be thoroughly mixed with the
milk. If the material is added without such dilution, the concentrated extract
produces instant coagulation in the drops with which it comes in contact,
forming solid masses from which the enzyme escapes only slowly to diffuse
throughout the mass. Uniform coagulation thus becomes impossible. After
the rennet extract has been diluted with cold water, it should be distributed
the entire length of the vat in an even stream from a pail. It should then be
mixed with the milk by stirring from top to bottom for about three to four
minutes. For this purpose, either a long-handled dipper or a wooden rake
may be used. A dipperful should be drawn from the gate and stirred into the
or rubbery characters which become very marked at 90° F. to 94° F. as used
in Limburger. With the increased vigor of action as it passes its maximum
rate of action at 105° F., the texture tends to become loose, floccose to
granular. Aside from the Neufchâtel group, the working range of
temperatures for the renneting period runs from about 84° F. to about 94° F.,
a range of barely 10° F., or the use of 65 per cent to 80 or possibly 85 per
cent of the maximum efficiency of the rennet. Within this range of
temperature, the curd has the physical characters demanded for making
most varieties of cheese.
95. Strength of coagulating materials.—Rennet and pepsin preparations
vary in strength and in keeping quality. With a particular stock, changes go
on to such a degree that the last samples from a barrel of rennet are much
weaker than the earlier ones. Each sample, barrel, keg or bottle should be
tested before used. In continuous work the results of each day's work
furnish the guide for the next day's use of a particular lot of rennet.
96. Amount of coagulating materials to use.—For most varieties of
cheese, sufficient rennet extract or pepsin is added to the milk to give a firm
curd in twenty-five to forty minutes. Of the ordinary commercial rennet
extract, this requires from two and one-half to four ounces to one thousand
pounds of milk. This gives a maximum of one part rennet for each four to
six thousand parts of milk. The great strength of the rennet extract is thus
clearly shown.
97. Method of adding rennet.—Before rennet is added to the milk, it is
diluted in about forty times its volume of cold water, which chills the
enzyme and retards its action until it can be thoroughly mixed with the
milk. If the material is added without such dilution, the concentrated extract
produces instant coagulation in the drops with which it comes in contact,
forming solid masses from which the enzyme escapes only slowly to diffuse
throughout the mass. Uniform coagulation thus becomes impossible. After
the rennet extract has been diluted with cold water, it should be distributed
the entire length of the vat in an even stream from a pail. It should then be
mixed with the milk by stirring from top to bottom for about three to four
minutes. For this purpose, either a long-handled dipper or a wooden rake
may be used. A dipperful should be drawn from the gate and stirred into the
Page 84
vat, otherwise the milk in the gate will fail to coagulate properly because
the rennet diffuses too slowly to reach and affect all the milk at that point.
The milk should be stirred on the top, preferably with the bottom of a
dipper, until signs of coagulation begin to appear. This stirring keeps the
cream from rising. There are various ways or signs to indicate when the
coagulation has gone to the stage at which the mix is about to become thick:
(1) The milk becomes lazy or thicker as the finger is passed through it; (2)
bubbles caused by moving the finger remain on the milk longer, usually
until one can count ten when ready to thicken.
If the milk is stirred too long or after it begins to thicken, the result is a
granular sort of curd, and there will be an abnormally large loss of fat in the
manufacturing process. The addition of the rennet and subsequent stirring
require the exercise of great care and constant attention to details. The
cheese-maker can do nothing else for those few minutes. When through
stirring, it is a good plan in cold weather to cover the vat with a cloth as this
will keep the surface of the curd warm. In summer the same cover will keep
out the flies.
Causes of a delayed coagulation:
(1) Weak rennet extract or too small an amount.
(2) Low temperatures due to inaccurate thermometers.
(3) Pasteurized milk.
(4) Presence of abnormal bacterial ferments.
(5) Presence of preservatives.
(6) Heavily watered milk.
(7) Use of badly rusted29 cans.
(8) Milk containing small amounts of casein or calcium salts.
Causes of uneven coagulation:
(1) Uneven temperature of the mix in the vat, due to lack of agitation.
(2) Uneven distribution of the rennet extract.
(3) Adding rennet to vat too soon after heating, while the sides and
bottom are still hot, causes curd to stick to sides and bottom of the
vat making cutting difficult.
98. The curdling period.—The time allowed for rennet action also affects
the texture of the curd. The enzymes of rennet (rennin and pepsin) do not
the rennet diffuses too slowly to reach and affect all the milk at that point.
The milk should be stirred on the top, preferably with the bottom of a
dipper, until signs of coagulation begin to appear. This stirring keeps the
cream from rising. There are various ways or signs to indicate when the
coagulation has gone to the stage at which the mix is about to become thick:
(1) The milk becomes lazy or thicker as the finger is passed through it; (2)
bubbles caused by moving the finger remain on the milk longer, usually
until one can count ten when ready to thicken.
If the milk is stirred too long or after it begins to thicken, the result is a
granular sort of curd, and there will be an abnormally large loss of fat in the
manufacturing process. The addition of the rennet and subsequent stirring
require the exercise of great care and constant attention to details. The
cheese-maker can do nothing else for those few minutes. When through
stirring, it is a good plan in cold weather to cover the vat with a cloth as this
will keep the surface of the curd warm. In summer the same cover will keep
out the flies.
Causes of a delayed coagulation:
(1) Weak rennet extract or too small an amount.
(2) Low temperatures due to inaccurate thermometers.
(3) Pasteurized milk.
(4) Presence of abnormal bacterial ferments.
(5) Presence of preservatives.
(6) Heavily watered milk.
(7) Use of badly rusted29 cans.
(8) Milk containing small amounts of casein or calcium salts.
Causes of uneven coagulation:
(1) Uneven temperature of the mix in the vat, due to lack of agitation.
(2) Uneven distribution of the rennet extract.
(3) Adding rennet to vat too soon after heating, while the sides and
bottom are still hot, causes curd to stick to sides and bottom of the
vat making cutting difficult.
98. The curdling period.—The time allowed for rennet action also affects
the texture of the curd. The enzymes of rennet (rennin and pepsin) do not
Page 85
cease acting with the thickening of the milk. In many cheeses, the handling
process begins as soon as the curd has become solid enough to split cleanly
before a finger thrust into it. If let stand further, the same curd mass will
continue to harden with the progressive separation of whey; this shows first
as drops ("sweating") on its surface, which then increase in number and size
until they run together and form a sheet of whey. The limit of such action is
difficult to measure. The solidifying process ceases in a period of hours.
The further action of the enzymes is digestive in character and goes on
slowly. It requires a period of weeks or even months to accomplish
measurable results at the working temperatures in use in the trade. Other
ripening agents with more rapid action intervene to shape the final result. It
follows that the rennet factor in the ripening changes found at the end of the
period is almost negligible for most varieties of cheese, although it appears
to be measurable in some varieties.
99. Cutting or breaking30 the curd.—As soon as curd is formed,
separation of whey begins upon the surface and perhaps around the sides of
the vessel. This is accompanied by shrinkage and hardening of the mass. If
the curd remains unbroken, the separation is extremely slow. In cheese-
making practice, such curd masses may be dipped at once into hoops as in
Camembert, dumped in mass into cloths for drainage as in Neufchâtel or, as
in the larger number of cheeses, cut or broken in some characteristic
manner. After the curd mass is firm, the rate at which subsequent changes
take place depends largely on the size of the particles into which the curd is
cut. The smaller the particles, the quicker the water is expelled.
Consequently the development of the acidity and other changes take place
more slowly. For this reason the curd should be cut into pieces of uniform
size. If the work is not properly performed, the pieces of curd of various
sizes will be at different stages of development. The fine particles will be
firm and elastic while the larger particles are still soft and full of whey and
may be developing too much acid. The knives should be inserted into the
curd obliquely so that they will cut their way into the curd and not break it.
The horizontal knife is used lengthwise of the vat and cuts the curd into
layers of uniform thickness. The perpendicular knife then is used
lengthwise and crosswise of the vat. It first cuts the curd into strips and then
into cubes. The knives may have wire blades or steel blades, some operators
process begins as soon as the curd has become solid enough to split cleanly
before a finger thrust into it. If let stand further, the same curd mass will
continue to harden with the progressive separation of whey; this shows first
as drops ("sweating") on its surface, which then increase in number and size
until they run together and form a sheet of whey. The limit of such action is
difficult to measure. The solidifying process ceases in a period of hours.
The further action of the enzymes is digestive in character and goes on
slowly. It requires a period of weeks or even months to accomplish
measurable results at the working temperatures in use in the trade. Other
ripening agents with more rapid action intervene to shape the final result. It
follows that the rennet factor in the ripening changes found at the end of the
period is almost negligible for most varieties of cheese, although it appears
to be measurable in some varieties.
99. Cutting or breaking30 the curd.—As soon as curd is formed,
separation of whey begins upon the surface and perhaps around the sides of
the vessel. This is accompanied by shrinkage and hardening of the mass. If
the curd remains unbroken, the separation is extremely slow. In cheese-
making practice, such curd masses may be dipped at once into hoops as in
Camembert, dumped in mass into cloths for drainage as in Neufchâtel or, as
in the larger number of cheeses, cut or broken in some characteristic
manner. After the curd mass is firm, the rate at which subsequent changes
take place depends largely on the size of the particles into which the curd is
cut. The smaller the particles, the quicker the water is expelled.
Consequently the development of the acidity and other changes take place
more slowly. For this reason the curd should be cut into pieces of uniform
size. If the work is not properly performed, the pieces of curd of various
sizes will be at different stages of development. The fine particles will be
firm and elastic while the larger particles are still soft and full of whey and
may be developing too much acid. The knives should be inserted into the
curd obliquely so that they will cut their way into the curd and not break it.
The horizontal knife is used lengthwise of the vat and cuts the curd into
layers of uniform thickness. The perpendicular knife then is used
lengthwise and crosswise of the vat. It first cuts the curd into strips and then
into cubes. The knives may have wire blades or steel blades, some operators
Page 86
preferring one and some the other. Whichever is used, the blades should be
close enough together to give the fineness of curd desired.
After the knife passes through, the cut faces quickly become covered with a
smooth coating, continuous over all exposed areas. This surface has the
appearance of a smooth elastic coating or film. This can be seen by
carefully breaking a piece in the hand. It is this film which holds the fat
within the pieces of curd. If the film is broken, some of the fat globules are
lost because the rennet extract acts only on the casein and that in turn holds
the fat. All the fat globules which come in contact with the knives as they
pass through the curd will be left between the pieces of curd and will pass
off in the whey. If care is exercised in cutting, the loss of fat will be
confined to what may be called a mechanical loss. This is similar to the loss
of the sawdust when sawing a board. This loss in American Cheddar is
about 0.3 per cent and cannot be avoided. If it is greater than this, it is due
to negligence on the part of the cheese-maker or the poor condition of the
milk. The cutting of the curd into small pieces may be considered a
necessary evil. If the moisture could be expelled from the whole mass
without disturbing it, this fat loss could be prevented. The cutting, breaking
or turning should be done with the greatest care, that the loss may be as
small as possible.
100. Curd knives.—For cutting curd, special knives have been devised
(Fig. 11). They consist of series of parallel blades fixed in a frame to make
cuts equidistant. The blades run vertically in one, horizontally in another.
They are spaced according to the demands of the variety of cheese to be
made. Wires stretched in a frame take the place of blades in some makes of
curd knife.
close enough together to give the fineness of curd desired.
After the knife passes through, the cut faces quickly become covered with a
smooth coating, continuous over all exposed areas. This surface has the
appearance of a smooth elastic coating or film. This can be seen by
carefully breaking a piece in the hand. It is this film which holds the fat
within the pieces of curd. If the film is broken, some of the fat globules are
lost because the rennet extract acts only on the casein and that in turn holds
the fat. All the fat globules which come in contact with the knives as they
pass through the curd will be left between the pieces of curd and will pass
off in the whey. If care is exercised in cutting, the loss of fat will be
confined to what may be called a mechanical loss. This is similar to the loss
of the sawdust when sawing a board. This loss in American Cheddar is
about 0.3 per cent and cannot be avoided. If it is greater than this, it is due
to negligence on the part of the cheese-maker or the poor condition of the
milk. The cutting of the curd into small pieces may be considered a
necessary evil. If the moisture could be expelled from the whole mass
without disturbing it, this fat loss could be prevented. The cutting, breaking
or turning should be done with the greatest care, that the loss may be as
small as possible.
100. Curd knives.—For cutting curd, special knives have been devised
(Fig. 11). They consist of series of parallel blades fixed in a frame to make
cuts equidistant. The blades run vertically in one, horizontally in another.
They are spaced according to the demands of the variety of cheese to be
made. Wires stretched in a frame take the place of blades in some makes of
curd knife.
Page 87
Fig. 11.—Blade and wire curd knives.
101. Heating or "cooking."—Curdling by rennet has already been shown
to be markedly hastened by moderate heating. After the coagulum or curd is
formed, the making process may be completed without the application of
further heat, as in Neufchâtel, Camembert and related forms (Fig. 12) and in
some practices with Limburger. In other forms and especially in the hard
cheeses in which cutting of curd is a prominent part of the process, the curd
after being cut is reheated or "cooked." The cooking process hastens the
removal of the whey, thus shortening the time required to reduce the water-
content of the mass to the percentage most favorable for the type of cheese
desired. The process also produces marked changes in the physical
character of the curd mass. With the rise in temperature the casein becomes
elastic first, then approaches a melting condition and assumes a tough,
almost rubbery consistency. The final texture is the result of the
combination of the amount of rennet added, the temperature, the acidity
reached during the process, and the final water-content of the mass.
101. Heating or "cooking."—Curdling by rennet has already been shown
to be markedly hastened by moderate heating. After the coagulum or curd is
formed, the making process may be completed without the application of
further heat, as in Neufchâtel, Camembert and related forms (Fig. 12) and in
some practices with Limburger. In other forms and especially in the hard
cheeses in which cutting of curd is a prominent part of the process, the curd
after being cut is reheated or "cooked." The cooking process hastens the
removal of the whey, thus shortening the time required to reduce the water-
content of the mass to the percentage most favorable for the type of cheese
desired. The process also produces marked changes in the physical
character of the curd mass. With the rise in temperature the casein becomes
elastic first, then approaches a melting condition and assumes a tough,
almost rubbery consistency. The final texture is the result of the
combination of the amount of rennet added, the temperature, the acidity
reached during the process, and the final water-content of the mass.
Page 88
Fig. 12.—The heat relation. See pages 77 and 87.
102. Draining (including grinding, putting into hoops or forms and
pressing).—The reduction of the water in the curd begins almost as soon as
the curd becomes firm. It is aided by cutting or breaking, by the retention of
the heat applied before renneting and by the secondary heating or cooking
used in making certain groups of cheeses. In many varieties special
apparatus is provided in the form of draining boards, draining racks or bags
to hasten the removal of the whey as fast as it separates. The draining
process continues until the cheese has reached its final form and weight.
The intervening process of matting in the Cheddar group involves a
combination of a souring process with the removal of whey, during which
the cubes of curd become fused into semi-solid masses. If such masses are
102. Draining (including grinding, putting into hoops or forms and
pressing).—The reduction of the water in the curd begins almost as soon as
the curd becomes firm. It is aided by cutting or breaking, by the retention of
the heat applied before renneting and by the secondary heating or cooking
used in making certain groups of cheeses. In many varieties special
apparatus is provided in the form of draining boards, draining racks or bags
to hasten the removal of the whey as fast as it separates. The draining
process continues until the cheese has reached its final form and weight.
The intervening process of matting in the Cheddar group involves a
combination of a souring process with the removal of whey, during which
the cubes of curd become fused into semi-solid masses. If such masses are
Page 89
formed, they must be ground up before the cheese can be given its final
form in the hoop. The draining process, therefore, may take any one of
many forms varying from the direct transfer of freshly formed curd into
hoops in which the entire draining process is completed, to an elaborate
series of operations which end in pressing curd drained to approximately its
final condition before it is placed in the hoop.
103. Application to cheese.—From the discussion of these factors, it is
evident that the cheeses produced will differ widely with the differences in
manipulation. If one considers essential constituent substances separately,
the water-content of the finished product is found to vary from 30 per cent
in Parmesan to 75 per cent in cottage cheese. The fat-content runs from a
trace in some varieties to 60 per cent in some cream cheeses. The texture of
the casein, which gives character to the product, varies from the tough or
glue-like consistency of freshly made Swiss to the buttery condition of a
cream or Neufchâtel cheese. Inside such limits the tastes of different
peoples have led to the manufacture of many kinds of cheese. Each of these
varieties represents some particular combination of curd-making factors and
ripening conditions which produces a cheese suited to the taste of the maker
and consumer of that country or community.
form in the hoop. The draining process, therefore, may take any one of
many forms varying from the direct transfer of freshly formed curd into
hoops in which the entire draining process is completed, to an elaborate
series of operations which end in pressing curd drained to approximately its
final condition before it is placed in the hoop.
103. Application to cheese.—From the discussion of these factors, it is
evident that the cheeses produced will differ widely with the differences in
manipulation. If one considers essential constituent substances separately,
the water-content of the finished product is found to vary from 30 per cent
in Parmesan to 75 per cent in cottage cheese. The fat-content runs from a
trace in some varieties to 60 per cent in some cream cheeses. The texture of
the casein, which gives character to the product, varies from the tough or
glue-like consistency of freshly made Swiss to the buttery condition of a
cream or Neufchâtel cheese. Inside such limits the tastes of different
peoples have led to the manufacture of many kinds of cheese. Each of these
varieties represents some particular combination of curd-making factors and
ripening conditions which produces a cheese suited to the taste of the maker
and consumer of that country or community.
Page 90
CHAPTER VI
CLASSIFICATION
The literature of cheese-making contains reference to more than 500 names
for varieties of cheese. Many of these can be thrown readily into great
groups or families in which there are variations in unessential detail without
modifying the characteristic texture and flavor of the product. Many varietal
names are attached to the product of single factories or factory groups. Such
varieties frequently differ only slightly in size or shape, or in stage of
drainage or of ripening, from widely known varieties or other similar local
forms. The descriptions recorded for such varieties commonly emphasize
minor differences in manipulation without showing differences in essential
factors. Vessels of particular size are prescribed to be made of wood,
earthenware, or of a special metal. These details specify the exact size and
shape of hoops, the use of particular styles of cutting or breaking
instruments and of certain stirring tools, the material and construction of
mats and draining racks.
The descriptions themselves are very commonly inadequate. The variable
factors in cheese-making are fat-content of the milk, acidity, temperature of
setting, amount of rennet, time allowed for curdling and the method of
draining the curd. The differences in practice lie, with few exceptions, in the
amount or intensity of particular factors, not differences in kind or quality
of treatment. Such contrasts are quantitative, not qualitative. A great number
of combinations is possible by small variations of these factors.
Varieties selected as types of groups give marked contrasts in character, but
comparison of large numbers of forms shows that almost every gradation
from group to group can actually be found. Within groups frequently the
same physical results in texture and flavor can be obtained by combinations
or adjustments of factors for the purpose of offsetting or counteracting the
effects of one change in practice by the manipulation of other factors. In
ripening, an equally large range of practices makes possible the
development of very different qualities in mature cheeses from the same lot.
CLASSIFICATION
The literature of cheese-making contains reference to more than 500 names
for varieties of cheese. Many of these can be thrown readily into great
groups or families in which there are variations in unessential detail without
modifying the characteristic texture and flavor of the product. Many varietal
names are attached to the product of single factories or factory groups. Such
varieties frequently differ only slightly in size or shape, or in stage of
drainage or of ripening, from widely known varieties or other similar local
forms. The descriptions recorded for such varieties commonly emphasize
minor differences in manipulation without showing differences in essential
factors. Vessels of particular size are prescribed to be made of wood,
earthenware, or of a special metal. These details specify the exact size and
shape of hoops, the use of particular styles of cutting or breaking
instruments and of certain stirring tools, the material and construction of
mats and draining racks.
The descriptions themselves are very commonly inadequate. The variable
factors in cheese-making are fat-content of the milk, acidity, temperature of
setting, amount of rennet, time allowed for curdling and the method of
draining the curd. The differences in practice lie, with few exceptions, in the
amount or intensity of particular factors, not differences in kind or quality
of treatment. Such contrasts are quantitative, not qualitative. A great number
of combinations is possible by small variations of these factors.
Varieties selected as types of groups give marked contrasts in character, but
comparison of large numbers of forms shows that almost every gradation
from group to group can actually be found. Within groups frequently the
same physical results in texture and flavor can be obtained by combinations
or adjustments of factors for the purpose of offsetting or counteracting the
effects of one change in practice by the manipulation of other factors. In
ripening, an equally large range of practices makes possible the
development of very different qualities in mature cheeses from the same lot.
Page 91
Only a few of the large number of described varieties have obtained even
national importance; fewer still are known outside the country of origin. In
spite of the success of special products when properly advertised, the largest
place in the market is clearly accorded to the standard forms which are
widely known.
104. Basis of classification.—A series of these widely known forms has
been chosen as typical of groups in a system of classification adapted from
the French of Pouriau. No completely satisfactory scheme of classifying all
of these varieties has been devised. The grouping proposed here is based on
the principles of curd-making already discussed together with consideration
of the ripening processes to be discussed with each group. The factors that
actually influence the quality of the final product are separated as
completely as possible from non-essential operative details.
The common use of the terms "soft" and "hard" cheese is based on the
single arbitrary fact of texture. The term "semi-hard" cheese may be
conveniently applied to a miscellaneous group of unrelated families which
are intermediate in texture between such soft forms as Neufchâtel or
Camembert and really hard cheeses like Cheddar or Parmesan. Although
these terms are not made the main basis of the proposed grouping, their
application to sections is indicated. Classification based on the essential
facts of manufacture is, however, really helpful.
Analytical
Tabulation
of Groups
national importance; fewer still are known outside the country of origin. In
spite of the success of special products when properly advertised, the largest
place in the market is clearly accorded to the standard forms which are
widely known.
104. Basis of classification.—A series of these widely known forms has
been chosen as typical of groups in a system of classification adapted from
the French of Pouriau. No completely satisfactory scheme of classifying all
of these varieties has been devised. The grouping proposed here is based on
the principles of curd-making already discussed together with consideration
of the ripening processes to be discussed with each group. The factors that
actually influence the quality of the final product are separated as
completely as possible from non-essential operative details.
The common use of the terms "soft" and "hard" cheese is based on the
single arbitrary fact of texture. The term "semi-hard" cheese may be
conveniently applied to a miscellaneous group of unrelated families which
are intermediate in texture between such soft forms as Neufchâtel or
Camembert and really hard cheeses like Cheddar or Parmesan. Although
these terms are not made the main basis of the proposed grouping, their
application to sections is indicated. Classification based on the essential
facts of manufacture is, however, really helpful.
Analytical
Tabulation
of Groups
Page 92
Section I. Cheeses with sour milk flavor only (Eaten fresh).
(Soft cheeses 45 to 75% water) Page
1. Curdled by souring, Cottage cheese and its allies in America, many
related varieties in Europe 90
2. Curdled by souring and rennet—the Neufchâtel group 95
a. Skim—Skim-milk Neufchâtel 105
b. Part skim to whole milk—American or Domestic Neufchâtel 106
c. With fat added—the cream cheeses of the Neufchâtel group
(both American and European)—such as Cream, Gervais,
Malakoffs, etc. 108
Section II. Cheeses ripened.
Subsection A. Soft cheeses (40 to 50% water).
1. Curdled by souring, heated, then ripened.
Hand cheese, Pennsylvania pot cheese, Harz, etc. 112
2. Curdled by souring, and rennet, ripened.
Ripened (French) Neufchâtel 114
3. Curdled primarily by rennet.
a. Ripened by mold—Camambert, Brie and their allies. 117
b. Ripened by bacteria.
* Made from soft or friable curd
—d'Isigny, Liederkranz, etc. 134
** Made from firm or tough curd
—Limburger and allies. 139
Subsection B. Semi-hard cheeses, firm, well-drained.
(38 to 45% water)
a. Curd not cooked, ripened by molds.
* Made from friable curd—Roquefort 150
** Made from firm or tough curd—Gorgonzola, Stilton and
such French forms as Gex, Septmoncel 158
b. Curd cooked and ripened by bacteria,—brick, Munster, Port du
Salut (Oka) 164
Subsection C. Hard cheeses, cooked and pressed (30 to 40%
water)
a. Ripened without gas holes. 164
1. Dutch—Edam, Gouda. 173
2. Danish. 173
3. The Cheddar group.
* English—Cheddar and numerous related forms known
principally in Great Britain 184
** American—the factory Cheddar of related forms
United States and Canada 173
b. Ripened with the development of gas holes. 164
(Soft cheeses 45 to 75% water) Page
1. Curdled by souring, Cottage cheese and its allies in America, many
related varieties in Europe 90
2. Curdled by souring and rennet—the Neufchâtel group 95
a. Skim—Skim-milk Neufchâtel 105
b. Part skim to whole milk—American or Domestic Neufchâtel 106
c. With fat added—the cream cheeses of the Neufchâtel group
(both American and European)—such as Cream, Gervais,
Malakoffs, etc. 108
Section II. Cheeses ripened.
Subsection A. Soft cheeses (40 to 50% water).
1. Curdled by souring, heated, then ripened.
Hand cheese, Pennsylvania pot cheese, Harz, etc. 112
2. Curdled by souring, and rennet, ripened.
Ripened (French) Neufchâtel 114
3. Curdled primarily by rennet.
a. Ripened by mold—Camambert, Brie and their allies. 117
b. Ripened by bacteria.
* Made from soft or friable curd
—d'Isigny, Liederkranz, etc. 134
** Made from firm or tough curd
—Limburger and allies. 139
Subsection B. Semi-hard cheeses, firm, well-drained.
(38 to 45% water)
a. Curd not cooked, ripened by molds.
* Made from friable curd—Roquefort 150
** Made from firm or tough curd—Gorgonzola, Stilton and
such French forms as Gex, Septmoncel 158
b. Curd cooked and ripened by bacteria,—brick, Munster, Port du
Salut (Oka) 164
Subsection C. Hard cheeses, cooked and pressed (30 to 40%
water)
a. Ripened without gas holes. 164
1. Dutch—Edam, Gouda. 173
2. Danish. 173
3. The Cheddar group.
* English—Cheddar and numerous related forms known
principally in Great Britain 184
** American—the factory Cheddar of related forms
United States and Canada 173
b. Ripened with the development of gas holes. 164
Page 93
* Holes large—Swiss-Emmenthal Gruyère, American Swiss. 173
** Holes small—Parmesan and related varieties. 173
Such a classification brings together series of products in which there is
essential similarity in the final output, however great the differences in
manipulation. It does not consider all varieties and specialties. Some of
these groups are important enough to demand special mention.
105. Processed cheeses.—Cheese of any group may be run through mixing
and molding machines and repackaged in very different form from that
characteristic of the variety. In such treatment, the texture and appearance
may be so changed as to give the effect of a new product. Substances (such
as pimiento) are added to change the flavor. Or the product may be canned
and sterilized with equally great change of flavor and texture. One thus
finds Club made from Cheddar; Pimiento from Cream, Neufchâtel or
Cheddar; similarly olive, nut and other combinations are made. The
possible variations are numerous.
106. Whey cheeses.—Several products bearing cheese names are made
from whey. These take the forms of the recovery of the albumin and casein
separately or in a single product, and the recovery of the milk-sugar either
alone or with the albumin. Whey cheeses have been especially developed
by the Scandinavian people, although some of them have their origin in the
south of Europe. Certain of these varieties are produced on a limited scale
in America.
There are a number of forms fairly widely known that are difficult to place
in this scheme of groups. Among these are Caciocavallo, Sap Sago.
107. Soft and hard cheeses.—Another commonly used classification
makes two groups: (1) soft cheeses; (2) hard cheeses. In such a
classification the semi-hard group presented here is included with the soft
cheeses. Some cheeses of this group are soft in texture. This is correlated
with high water-content, high fat-content or both together.
108. Relation of moisture to classes.—In this classification the water-
content reflected in the texture of the cheese assumes first place. To carry
the analysis somewhat further by showing the correlation between water-
content and certain factors, a tabulation of well-known varieties of typical
** Holes small—Parmesan and related varieties. 173
Such a classification brings together series of products in which there is
essential similarity in the final output, however great the differences in
manipulation. It does not consider all varieties and specialties. Some of
these groups are important enough to demand special mention.
105. Processed cheeses.—Cheese of any group may be run through mixing
and molding machines and repackaged in very different form from that
characteristic of the variety. In such treatment, the texture and appearance
may be so changed as to give the effect of a new product. Substances (such
as pimiento) are added to change the flavor. Or the product may be canned
and sterilized with equally great change of flavor and texture. One thus
finds Club made from Cheddar; Pimiento from Cream, Neufchâtel or
Cheddar; similarly olive, nut and other combinations are made. The
possible variations are numerous.
106. Whey cheeses.—Several products bearing cheese names are made
from whey. These take the forms of the recovery of the albumin and casein
separately or in a single product, and the recovery of the milk-sugar either
alone or with the albumin. Whey cheeses have been especially developed
by the Scandinavian people, although some of them have their origin in the
south of Europe. Certain of these varieties are produced on a limited scale
in America.
There are a number of forms fairly widely known that are difficult to place
in this scheme of groups. Among these are Caciocavallo, Sap Sago.
107. Soft and hard cheeses.—Another commonly used classification
makes two groups: (1) soft cheeses; (2) hard cheeses. In such a
classification the semi-hard group presented here is included with the soft
cheeses. Some cheeses of this group are soft in texture. This is correlated
with high water-content, high fat-content or both together.
108. Relation of moisture to classes.—In this classification the water-
content reflected in the texture of the cheese assumes first place. To carry
the analysis somewhat further by showing the correlation between water-
content and certain factors, a tabulation of well-known varieties of typical
Page 94
groups is presented (Table III). In this table the series of typical dairy
products are first arranged according to water-content of the final product.
Approximate limits of percentages of milk-fat are also given, because milk-
fat frequently affects texture to a degree almost equal to water. Column 4
gives the period within which the more quickly perishable cheeses are
usable, and the length of the ripening for the more solid forms. The
correlation between water-content, texture and the time of keeping is clearly
shown for most varieties.
TABLE III
Correlation Water- and Fat-Content with
Ripening
products are first arranged according to water-content of the final product.
Approximate limits of percentages of milk-fat are also given, because milk-
fat frequently affects texture to a degree almost equal to water. Column 4
gives the period within which the more quickly perishable cheeses are
usable, and the length of the ripening for the more solid forms. The
correlation between water-content, texture and the time of keeping is clearly
shown for most varieties.
TABLE III
Correlation Water- and Fat-Content with
Ripening
Page 95
Per Per
Period Ripening
Variety of Cent Cent
Required Agent
Water Fat
Cheese: Soft,
Cottage 70 trace a few days Bacteria
Skim Neufchâtel 70 trace a few days Bacteria
Neufchâtel 50-60 12-28 a few days Bacteria
Camembert 50 22-30 3-5 weeks Molds
Cream cheese 40-50 35-45 a few days Primarily
bacteria
Semi-hard:
Limburger 40-45 24-30 3-6 months Bacteria
Roquefort 38-40 31-34 3-6 months Mold
Brick 37-42 31-35 3-6 months Bacteria
Hard:
Cheddar 30-39 32-36 6-12 months Bacteria
Swiss 31-34 28-31 9-18 months Bacteria
and yeasts
Parmesan 30-33 2-3 years Bacteria
The soft cheeses are quickly perishable products. Bacteria and molds find
favorable conditions for growth in products with 45 to 75 per cent of water.
If such growth is permitted, enzymic activities follow quickly with resultant
changes in appearance, texture, odor and taste. Refrigeration is necessary to
transport such cheeses to the consumer, if properly ripened. Trade in these
forms may continue throughout the year in cool climates and in places
where adequate refrigeration is available. Practically, however, outside the
large cities this trade in America is at present limited to the cold months;
inside the large cities much reduced quantities of these cheeses continue to
be handled through the year.
In the stricter sense, the soft group of cheeses falls naturally into two series:
(1) the varieties eaten fresh; and (2) the ripened soft cheeses. Those eaten
fresh have a making process which commonly involves the development of
a lactic acid flavor by souring, but no ripening is contemplated after the
product leaves the maker's hands. In the ripened series, after the making
Period Ripening
Variety of Cent Cent
Required Agent
Water Fat
Cheese: Soft,
Cottage 70 trace a few days Bacteria
Skim Neufchâtel 70 trace a few days Bacteria
Neufchâtel 50-60 12-28 a few days Bacteria
Camembert 50 22-30 3-5 weeks Molds
Cream cheese 40-50 35-45 a few days Primarily
bacteria
Semi-hard:
Limburger 40-45 24-30 3-6 months Bacteria
Roquefort 38-40 31-34 3-6 months Mold
Brick 37-42 31-35 3-6 months Bacteria
Hard:
Cheddar 30-39 32-36 6-12 months Bacteria
Swiss 31-34 28-31 9-18 months Bacteria
and yeasts
Parmesan 30-33 2-3 years Bacteria
The soft cheeses are quickly perishable products. Bacteria and molds find
favorable conditions for growth in products with 45 to 75 per cent of water.
If such growth is permitted, enzymic activities follow quickly with resultant
changes in appearance, texture, odor and taste. Refrigeration is necessary to
transport such cheeses to the consumer, if properly ripened. Trade in these
forms may continue throughout the year in cool climates and in places
where adequate refrigeration is available. Practically, however, outside the
large cities this trade in America is at present limited to the cold months;
inside the large cities much reduced quantities of these cheeses continue to
be handled through the year.
In the stricter sense, the soft group of cheeses falls naturally into two series:
(1) the varieties eaten fresh; and (2) the ripened soft cheeses. Those eaten
fresh have a making process which commonly involves the development of
a lactic acid flavor by souring, but no ripening is contemplated after the
product leaves the maker's hands. In the ripened series, after the making
Page 96
process is completed, the essential flavors and textures are developed by the
activity of micro-organisms during ripening periods varying in length but
fairly well-defined for each variety.
In contrast to the soft cheeses, the hard kinds are low in water-content, ripen
more slowly and may be kept through much longer periods. They retain
their form through a wider range of climatic conditions. They develop
flavor slowly and correspondingly deteriorate much more slowly. Such
cheeses are in marketable condition over longer periods. In their
manufacture the cooking of the curd takes a prominent place.
109. Relation of heat to classes.—The close relation between the heat
applied and the product sought forms the basis of a striking series of graphs
(Fig. 12, page 78). These show the changes hour by hour in the heat relation
during the making process of a series of widely known forms, each of
which is chosen as typical. In some of these forms, heat is applied but once
to bring the milk to the renneting temperature typical for the variety.
Subsequent manipulations are accompanied by a steady fall in temperature.
In other forms, the curd when solid is specially heated or "cooked" to bring
about the changes characteristic of the variety. These contrasts are clearly
brought out by the graphs which represent practices well recognized for the
varieties. The detailed process for these groups is considered in succeeding
chapters.
activity of micro-organisms during ripening periods varying in length but
fairly well-defined for each variety.
In contrast to the soft cheeses, the hard kinds are low in water-content, ripen
more slowly and may be kept through much longer periods. They retain
their form through a wider range of climatic conditions. They develop
flavor slowly and correspondingly deteriorate much more slowly. Such
cheeses are in marketable condition over longer periods. In their
manufacture the cooking of the curd takes a prominent place.
109. Relation of heat to classes.—The close relation between the heat
applied and the product sought forms the basis of a striking series of graphs
(Fig. 12, page 78). These show the changes hour by hour in the heat relation
during the making process of a series of widely known forms, each of
which is chosen as typical. In some of these forms, heat is applied but once
to bring the milk to the renneting temperature typical for the variety.
Subsequent manipulations are accompanied by a steady fall in temperature.
In other forms, the curd when solid is specially heated or "cooked" to bring
about the changes characteristic of the variety. These contrasts are clearly
brought out by the graphs which represent practices well recognized for the
varieties. The detailed process for these groups is considered in succeeding
chapters.
Page 97
CHAPTER VII
CHEESES WITH SOUR-MILK FLAVOR
The cheeses with flavor of sour milk are probably more widely used than
any other group. Historically and to a very large degree at present, they are
farm cheeses.31 No estimate of volume of such production in the household
has ever been made. The utilization of surplus milk in this way is of ancient
origin.
With the introduction of the factory system of handling milk, the
manufacture of such cheese in the household was largely dropped. The rise
in price of all food substances and increasing appreciation of the food value
of milk products have made the recovery of all surplus milk in some form
very necessary. The manufacture of cottage, Neufchâtel and cream cheese is
one of the best forms of such recovery which may be adapted to utilize any
grade from skimmed-milk to cream. Large quantities of skimmed-milk have
frequently been lost from the total of human food by the manufacture of
casein for industrial uses, and by use as stock feed.
110. Skim series.—The kinds of cheeses eaten fresh have in common a
very soft texture and the flavor of sour milk, principally lactic acid. The
group falls naturally into two sections: (1) the cheeses made from milk
curdled by souring; (2) those for which the milk is curdled by souring and
rennet. In the latter group both agencies are necessary to the resulting
product. The time required to curdle by souring alone is longer than when
rennet is used; this period is usually longer than necessary for the cream to
rise by gravity; hence the cream is either skimmed off or removed with the
separator beforehand. The curd, therefore, is essentially a skimmed-milk
curd. Casein curdled in this way tends to become granular or "rough," to
feel "sandy" when rubbed between the fingers. Heating is commonly
necessary to lower the water-content of the mass even to 75 per cent. Such
curd tends to become hard or rubbery when heat is applied. In this group,
the best known form is variously called "cottage" cheese, "clabber" cheese,
schmierkäse.
CHEESES WITH SOUR-MILK FLAVOR
The cheeses with flavor of sour milk are probably more widely used than
any other group. Historically and to a very large degree at present, they are
farm cheeses.31 No estimate of volume of such production in the household
has ever been made. The utilization of surplus milk in this way is of ancient
origin.
With the introduction of the factory system of handling milk, the
manufacture of such cheese in the household was largely dropped. The rise
in price of all food substances and increasing appreciation of the food value
of milk products have made the recovery of all surplus milk in some form
very necessary. The manufacture of cottage, Neufchâtel and cream cheese is
one of the best forms of such recovery which may be adapted to utilize any
grade from skimmed-milk to cream. Large quantities of skimmed-milk have
frequently been lost from the total of human food by the manufacture of
casein for industrial uses, and by use as stock feed.
110. Skim series.—The kinds of cheeses eaten fresh have in common a
very soft texture and the flavor of sour milk, principally lactic acid. The
group falls naturally into two sections: (1) the cheeses made from milk
curdled by souring; (2) those for which the milk is curdled by souring and
rennet. In the latter group both agencies are necessary to the resulting
product. The time required to curdle by souring alone is longer than when
rennet is used; this period is usually longer than necessary for the cream to
rise by gravity; hence the cream is either skimmed off or removed with the
separator beforehand. The curd, therefore, is essentially a skimmed-milk
curd. Casein curdled in this way tends to become granular or "rough," to
feel "sandy" when rubbed between the fingers. Heating is commonly
necessary to lower the water-content of the mass even to 75 per cent. Such
curd tends to become hard or rubbery when heat is applied. In this group,
the best known form is variously called "cottage" cheese, "clabber" cheese,
schmierkäse.
Page 98
111. Cottage cheese is made from skimmed-milk, soured by lactic bacteria
until a curd is formed. This is done preferably at about 20° C. (70° F.),
because at this temperature the purely lactic type of organism has been
found to outgrow competing forms which may be present. Starter
containing the desired culture, if properly used, saves much time in the
curdling period. Such curdling requires at least twelve to twenty-four hours,
frequently much longer unless abundant starter is introduced.
112. Household practice.—The details of cottage cheese making in the
home differ widely in separate sections and even in different families in the
same part of the country. The essentials of the practice, common to all,
include: (1) curdling the whole milk by natural souring; (2) removing the
sour cream which is usually used for butter-making; (3) scalding the
curdled skimmed-milk either by slowly heating it in the original vessel
surrounded by hot water or by actually pouring an approximately equal
volume of boiling water into the curdled mass; (4) bagging and draining the
mass until it reaches the desired texture; (5) the kneading of the mass with
the addition of salt and cream. The resulting product varies greatly in
quality. Unfavorable fermentations frequently affect the flavor.32 The
"scalding" varies from a temperature of 90° F. almost to boiling with a
resultant texture varying from almost the smooth buttery consistency of
Neufchâtel to hard coarse granular lumps. The best practice, using clean
well-cared-for milk and draining at low temperature, produces a very
attractive cheese. Such cheese is heated to 90° to 100° F. on the maker's
judgment, drained carefully, kneaded well by hand or by machine with the
addition of cream to give it an attractive texture and flavor.
113. Factory practice.—When cottage cheese is made in the factory,33
separated milk is taken; it should be pasteurized and then soured by a lactic
starter. The souring can be accelerated by the use of a starter, which may be
added at the rate of 0.5 to 5 per cent of the skimmed-milk used, depending
on the amount of starter that can be made. Generally, the more starter
added, the more rapid will be the coagulation and the better will be the
flavor of the cheese. As soon as the milk has thickened, the curd is ready to
be broken up and separated from the whey. This separation is hastened by
the application of heat. Usually the temperature of the curd is raised slightly
before it is broken up; since this makes the curd firmer, there will be a
smaller loss of curd particles in the whey. The curd may be cut with coarse
until a curd is formed. This is done preferably at about 20° C. (70° F.),
because at this temperature the purely lactic type of organism has been
found to outgrow competing forms which may be present. Starter
containing the desired culture, if properly used, saves much time in the
curdling period. Such curdling requires at least twelve to twenty-four hours,
frequently much longer unless abundant starter is introduced.
112. Household practice.—The details of cottage cheese making in the
home differ widely in separate sections and even in different families in the
same part of the country. The essentials of the practice, common to all,
include: (1) curdling the whole milk by natural souring; (2) removing the
sour cream which is usually used for butter-making; (3) scalding the
curdled skimmed-milk either by slowly heating it in the original vessel
surrounded by hot water or by actually pouring an approximately equal
volume of boiling water into the curdled mass; (4) bagging and draining the
mass until it reaches the desired texture; (5) the kneading of the mass with
the addition of salt and cream. The resulting product varies greatly in
quality. Unfavorable fermentations frequently affect the flavor.32 The
"scalding" varies from a temperature of 90° F. almost to boiling with a
resultant texture varying from almost the smooth buttery consistency of
Neufchâtel to hard coarse granular lumps. The best practice, using clean
well-cared-for milk and draining at low temperature, produces a very
attractive cheese. Such cheese is heated to 90° to 100° F. on the maker's
judgment, drained carefully, kneaded well by hand or by machine with the
addition of cream to give it an attractive texture and flavor.
113. Factory practice.—When cottage cheese is made in the factory,33
separated milk is taken; it should be pasteurized and then soured by a lactic
starter. The souring can be accelerated by the use of a starter, which may be
added at the rate of 0.5 to 5 per cent of the skimmed-milk used, depending
on the amount of starter that can be made. Generally, the more starter
added, the more rapid will be the coagulation and the better will be the
flavor of the cheese. As soon as the milk has thickened, the curd is ready to
be broken up and separated from the whey. This separation is hastened by
the application of heat. Usually the temperature of the curd is raised slightly
before it is broken up; since this makes the curd firmer, there will be a
smaller loss of curd particles in the whey. The curd may be cut with coarse
Page 99
Cheddar cheese knives or broken with a rake. The temperature of the curd
should be raised very slowly, at least thirty minutes being taken to reach the
desired final temperature. No set rule can be given as to the exact
temperature to which the curd should be heated. The temperature should be
raised until a point is reached at which the curd, when pressed between the
thumb and the fingers, will stick together and not go back to the milky state.
This temperature is usually from 94° to 100° F., but the cheese-maker must
use his own judgment in this respect. If the curd is heated too much, it will
be hard and dry; on the other hand, if it is not heated sufficiently, the whey
will not separate from the curd and the latter will be very soft and mushy.
When the curd has been heated sufficiently and has become firmed in the
whey, it should be removed from the whey. This may be done either by
letting down one end of the vat and piling the curd in the upper end, or by
dipping out the curd into a cloth bag and allowing the whey to drain, which
it does very rapidly. No treatment can prevent the "roughness" of an acid
curd (this is a fine gritty feeling when rubbed between the fingers), but the
coarse hard grainy texture and lumps characteristic of the highly heated
curd do not develop. Experimental workers have agreed that to have the
proper texture, such curd should contain when finished about 70 to 75 per
cent of water. It should have a mild but clean acid flavor. Such a cheese will
carry about 1 to 2 per cent of salt, without an objectionably salty taste. This
cheese is commonly sold by measure, sometimes in molds or cartons. The
manufacture of all forms of cottage cheese has been largely superseded by
the making of skimmed-milk Neufchâtel or Baker's cheese.
The yield from one hundred pounds of skimmed-milk runs up to fourteen to
nineteen pounds of cheese, when made very wet or from pasteurized milk.
The yield varies with the moisture-content of the cheese, being greater for
cheese with a high content. Too much moisture or whey should not be left
in the curd, however, as this will render it too soft to be handled.
Cottage cheese made by either the home or factory practice is a quickly
perishable article. Although the acid restrains bacteria at first, the high
percentage of water favors the growth of molds which tolerate acidity,
especially Oidium (Oospora) lactis and the Mucors or black molds. These
molds destroy acidity rapidly and thus permit the bacteria of decay to
develop and to produce objectionable taste and odors. Spoilage in these
should be raised very slowly, at least thirty minutes being taken to reach the
desired final temperature. No set rule can be given as to the exact
temperature to which the curd should be heated. The temperature should be
raised until a point is reached at which the curd, when pressed between the
thumb and the fingers, will stick together and not go back to the milky state.
This temperature is usually from 94° to 100° F., but the cheese-maker must
use his own judgment in this respect. If the curd is heated too much, it will
be hard and dry; on the other hand, if it is not heated sufficiently, the whey
will not separate from the curd and the latter will be very soft and mushy.
When the curd has been heated sufficiently and has become firmed in the
whey, it should be removed from the whey. This may be done either by
letting down one end of the vat and piling the curd in the upper end, or by
dipping out the curd into a cloth bag and allowing the whey to drain, which
it does very rapidly. No treatment can prevent the "roughness" of an acid
curd (this is a fine gritty feeling when rubbed between the fingers), but the
coarse hard grainy texture and lumps characteristic of the highly heated
curd do not develop. Experimental workers have agreed that to have the
proper texture, such curd should contain when finished about 70 to 75 per
cent of water. It should have a mild but clean acid flavor. Such a cheese will
carry about 1 to 2 per cent of salt, without an objectionably salty taste. This
cheese is commonly sold by measure, sometimes in molds or cartons. The
manufacture of all forms of cottage cheese has been largely superseded by
the making of skimmed-milk Neufchâtel or Baker's cheese.
The yield from one hundred pounds of skimmed-milk runs up to fourteen to
nineteen pounds of cheese, when made very wet or from pasteurized milk.
The yield varies with the moisture-content of the cheese, being greater for
cheese with a high content. Too much moisture or whey should not be left
in the curd, however, as this will render it too soft to be handled.
Cottage cheese made by either the home or factory practice is a quickly
perishable article. Although the acid restrains bacteria at first, the high
percentage of water favors the growth of molds which tolerate acidity,
especially Oidium (Oospora) lactis and the Mucors or black molds. These
molds destroy acidity rapidly and thus permit the bacteria of decay to
develop and to produce objectionable taste and odors. Spoilage in these
Page 100
products is accelerated by the kneading process which distributes air
throughout the mass and with it all forms of microbial contamination.
114. Buttermilk cheese.—A cheese closely resembling cottage may be
made from buttermilk. If the buttermilk came from cream which was
churned before it became sour, the process is the same as that already
described for the making of cottage cheese from skimmed-milk. If the
buttermilk came from sour cream the process of manufacture is much more
difficult. The casein of sour cream has already been coagulated with acid
and broken during churning into very minute rather hard particles. These
fine particles are difficult to recover. They are so fine that they pass through
the draining cloth or at other times clog it and prevent drainage. They do
not stick together at ordinary temperatures. They cannot be collected by the
use of acid because they have already been coagulated with acid. After
casein has been coagulated with acid, rennet extract will not recoagulate the
particles. The buttermilk may be mixed with sweet skimmed-milk; then as
the latter coagulates, it locks in the casein of the buttermilk so that it can be
collected. If buttermilk from soured cream is used alone, the casein may be
collected34 by neutralizing and heating to 130 to 150° F., and holding until
the casein gathers together. The whey can then be drawn off. Often there is
further difficulty in getting the casein to collect, since the pieces remain so
small that they go through the strainer.
Cheese made entirely from buttermilk is sandy in texture and often not
palatable. If the buttermilk with good flavor is mixed with skimmed-milk, it
makes a good cheese closely resembling cottage.
115. Neufchâtel group.35—The Neufchâtel process originated in northern
France where a number of varieties are included under this as a group
name. Among these are Bondon, Malakoff, Petit Suisse, Petit Carré. The
name designates a general process of curd-making which is applied to
skimmed-milk, whole milk or cream. Some of the resultant cheeses are
ripened; some are eaten fresh. The Neufchâtel cheeses of France gained
such wide recognition for quality that the process of making has become
widely known. In America the manipulations of the French process were
early dropped. The essentials were made the basis of a successful factory
practice which has been widely adopted. The American factory practice is
throughout the mass and with it all forms of microbial contamination.
114. Buttermilk cheese.—A cheese closely resembling cottage may be
made from buttermilk. If the buttermilk came from cream which was
churned before it became sour, the process is the same as that already
described for the making of cottage cheese from skimmed-milk. If the
buttermilk came from sour cream the process of manufacture is much more
difficult. The casein of sour cream has already been coagulated with acid
and broken during churning into very minute rather hard particles. These
fine particles are difficult to recover. They are so fine that they pass through
the draining cloth or at other times clog it and prevent drainage. They do
not stick together at ordinary temperatures. They cannot be collected by the
use of acid because they have already been coagulated with acid. After
casein has been coagulated with acid, rennet extract will not recoagulate the
particles. The buttermilk may be mixed with sweet skimmed-milk; then as
the latter coagulates, it locks in the casein of the buttermilk so that it can be
collected. If buttermilk from soured cream is used alone, the casein may be
collected34 by neutralizing and heating to 130 to 150° F., and holding until
the casein gathers together. The whey can then be drawn off. Often there is
further difficulty in getting the casein to collect, since the pieces remain so
small that they go through the strainer.
Cheese made entirely from buttermilk is sandy in texture and often not
palatable. If the buttermilk with good flavor is mixed with skimmed-milk, it
makes a good cheese closely resembling cottage.
115. Neufchâtel group.35—The Neufchâtel process originated in northern
France where a number of varieties are included under this as a group
name. Among these are Bondon, Malakoff, Petit Suisse, Petit Carré. The
name designates a general process of curd-making which is applied to
skimmed-milk, whole milk or cream. Some of the resultant cheeses are
ripened; some are eaten fresh. The Neufchâtel cheeses of France gained
such wide recognition for quality that the process of making has become
widely known. In America the manipulations of the French process were
early dropped. The essentials were made the basis of a successful factory
practice which has been widely adopted. The American factory practice is
Page 101
discussed here and the French process briefly considered under the heading
Ripened Neufchâtel. (See Chapter VIII.)
116. Domestic or American Neufchâtel cheeses are soft, have clean sour
milk (lactic acid) flavor and are quickly perishable. In all but the coldest
weather, they require refrigeration to reduce deterioration and loss. They
range in fat-content from traces only to 50 per cent and more; in water from
40 to 75 per cent, according to the milk used. In texture Neufchâtel is
smooth, free from gas, free from lumps or roughness when rubbed between
the fingers. This flavor and texture is obtained by a combination of slow
rennet curdling with developing acidity. No further ripening is permitted.
117. The factory.—Neufchâtel factories require the standard dairy
equipment for receiving, weighing, testing, separating, heating, pasteurizing
and cooling the milk. Since many factories produce several products, the
same general dairy equipment may serve for all. In addition to such
equipment, Neufchâtel requires a curdling apparatus which can be held at
70-75° F. This may be a room properly controlled, or a tank where
temperature control is obtained by water and steam. For draining, a room
kept at 60° F. gives nearly the ideal temperature, which must be
supplemented by relative humidity high enough to prevent the exposed
surface of curd from drying during periods of twelve to twenty-four hours.
This requires almost a saturated atmosphere. A room with special molding
machinery is required and tables for wrapping, labeling and boxing the
product are necessary. Box-making machinery is usually an economic
necessity for work on a large scale. Adequate refrigeration is requisite both
to chill the curd before molding and to preserve it after packaging.
Ripened Neufchâtel. (See Chapter VIII.)
116. Domestic or American Neufchâtel cheeses are soft, have clean sour
milk (lactic acid) flavor and are quickly perishable. In all but the coldest
weather, they require refrigeration to reduce deterioration and loss. They
range in fat-content from traces only to 50 per cent and more; in water from
40 to 75 per cent, according to the milk used. In texture Neufchâtel is
smooth, free from gas, free from lumps or roughness when rubbed between
the fingers. This flavor and texture is obtained by a combination of slow
rennet curdling with developing acidity. No further ripening is permitted.
117. The factory.—Neufchâtel factories require the standard dairy
equipment for receiving, weighing, testing, separating, heating, pasteurizing
and cooling the milk. Since many factories produce several products, the
same general dairy equipment may serve for all. In addition to such
equipment, Neufchâtel requires a curdling apparatus which can be held at
70-75° F. This may be a room properly controlled, or a tank where
temperature control is obtained by water and steam. For draining, a room
kept at 60° F. gives nearly the ideal temperature, which must be
supplemented by relative humidity high enough to prevent the exposed
surface of curd from drying during periods of twelve to twenty-four hours.
This requires almost a saturated atmosphere. A room with special molding
machinery is required and tables for wrapping, labeling and boxing the
product are necessary. Box-making machinery is usually an economic
necessity for work on a large scale. Adequate refrigeration is requisite both
to chill the curd before molding and to preserve it after packaging.
Page 102
Fig. 13.—Neufchâtel draining racks.
118. Cans.—For curdling, the "shot-gun" can, about nine inches in diameter
and twenty inches deep, is generally used. This holds thirty to forty pounds
of milk. Increased capacity is dependent, therefore, on the number of units
installed, not on changes in the units themselves.
119. Draining racks.—A draining rack is required for each can of curd.
These racks also are standardized units whose number limits the capacity of
the factory. The design of
these racks (Figs. 13, 14) and
their arrangement in the
draining room are taken from
Bulletin 78 of the Storrs
Agricultural Experiment
Station: "The racks are
rectangular, thirteen inches
wide, thirty-six inches long
and ten inches deep. The
corner posts extend one and
one-half inches beyond the
strips at top and bottom with
the tops rounded as a rule as Fig. 14.—Detail of a Neufchâtel draining rack.
seen in the photograph. The bottom slats fit loosely into notches, hence are
removable for washing purposes. The materials required are four corner
118. Cans.—For curdling, the "shot-gun" can, about nine inches in diameter
and twenty inches deep, is generally used. This holds thirty to forty pounds
of milk. Increased capacity is dependent, therefore, on the number of units
installed, not on changes in the units themselves.
119. Draining racks.—A draining rack is required for each can of curd.
These racks also are standardized units whose number limits the capacity of
the factory. The design of
these racks (Figs. 13, 14) and
their arrangement in the
draining room are taken from
Bulletin 78 of the Storrs
Agricultural Experiment
Station: "The racks are
rectangular, thirteen inches
wide, thirty-six inches long
and ten inches deep. The
corner posts extend one and
one-half inches beyond the
strips at top and bottom with
the tops rounded as a rule as Fig. 14.—Detail of a Neufchâtel draining rack.
seen in the photograph. The bottom slats fit loosely into notches, hence are
removable for washing purposes. The materials required are four corner
Page 103
posts one and one-half by one and one-half inches; nine strips one by three-
eighths by thirty-six inches; six strips one by three-eighths by thirteen
inches, two strips one by three-eighths by twelve and a quarter inches,
notched to receive the bottom slats; all made from pine."
120. Cloths.—For each draining rack, a cloth one yard wide and one and
one-half yards long is required. Cotton sheeting is satisfactory for the
purpose; "even-count, round-thread, unmercerized voile" is suggested by
Dahlberg.36
121. Molding machinery.—For work on a large scale, special power
machines37 are regularly used. These consist of a hopper and worm
delivering a standard size stream of curd through a proper size and shape of
delivery tube. This curd stream is
cut by an automatic device into
the proper lengths to form the
standard cheese. In this way a
uniform size of cheeses is
obtained. Experimental work
with hand apparatus showed that
a worm six inches in diameter is
required to deliver curd in a
smooth column one and one-half
inches square. If the pressure is
not sufficient, the column will
Fig. 15.—Neufchâtel and cream cheese molds.
frill at the edges. Such irregular
surfaces cannot be wrapped
smoothly enough to delay spoilage.
On a small scale, a fair grade of product can be molded through a tin tube
(see Fig. 15) one and three-quarters inches in diameter and ten inches long
in which the curd is compressed by a close fitting plunger operated by hand.
122. Milk for Neufchâtel should be clean, free from gas and taint. Such
milk should preferably be not more than twelve hours old when received
and in no case show higher than 0.20 per cent lactic acid by titration. Milk
testing 4 per cent fat or higher will produce a higher quality of product than
lower grade milk, although every grade from skimmed-milk to cream is
eighths by thirty-six inches; six strips one by three-eighths by thirteen
inches, two strips one by three-eighths by twelve and a quarter inches,
notched to receive the bottom slats; all made from pine."
120. Cloths.—For each draining rack, a cloth one yard wide and one and
one-half yards long is required. Cotton sheeting is satisfactory for the
purpose; "even-count, round-thread, unmercerized voile" is suggested by
Dahlberg.36
121. Molding machinery.—For work on a large scale, special power
machines37 are regularly used. These consist of a hopper and worm
delivering a standard size stream of curd through a proper size and shape of
delivery tube. This curd stream is
cut by an automatic device into
the proper lengths to form the
standard cheese. In this way a
uniform size of cheeses is
obtained. Experimental work
with hand apparatus showed that
a worm six inches in diameter is
required to deliver curd in a
smooth column one and one-half
inches square. If the pressure is
not sufficient, the column will
Fig. 15.—Neufchâtel and cream cheese molds.
frill at the edges. Such irregular
surfaces cannot be wrapped
smoothly enough to delay spoilage.
On a small scale, a fair grade of product can be molded through a tin tube
(see Fig. 15) one and three-quarters inches in diameter and ten inches long
in which the curd is compressed by a close fitting plunger operated by hand.
122. Milk for Neufchâtel should be clean, free from gas and taint. Such
milk should preferably be not more than twelve hours old when received
and in no case show higher than 0.20 per cent lactic acid by titration. Milk
testing 4 per cent fat or higher will produce a higher quality of product than
lower grade milk, although every grade from skimmed-milk to cream is
Page 104
used in producing some form of Neufchâtel. This milk should be
pasteurized unless shown to be free from tuberculosis by proper test of the
cattle. Evidence38 that the organism of tuberculosis will withstand the
regular handling process for cheeses of this group and retain its ability to
cause disease in experimental animals makes the introduction of
pasteurization necessary in this whole group of cheeses. Any effective
pasteurization may be used, but temperatures of 140-145° F. for thirty
minutes have been effective with less changes in the milk than higher
temperatures for shorter periods. The milk should be cooled to curdling
temperature and the starter and rennet added and stirred into the milk in
bulk. The milk may then be quickly distributed into the curdling cans with a
hose or from the gate valve of the mixing vat.
123. Starter.—To insure the development of a clean acid flavor, a small
amount of lactic starter should be used. The quantity to use depends on the
quality of the milk. With skimmed-milk, a pint for each thirty-pound can is
recommended by Matheson and Cammack39 and by Dahlberg. (See page
98.) For whole-milk Neufchâtel, 2 c.c. to a thirty-pound can of milk
commonly gives good results. On this basis 2 ounces of starter would be
sufficient if properly stirred into about 1000 pounds of milk. Too slow
development of acid is preferable to over-rapid souring.
124. Renneting or setting.—The milk should be cooled after pasteurizing
to between 70° and 75° F. Rennet is added at the rate of ½ c.c. to a thirty-
pound can (roughly ⅓ ounce to 1000 pounds). This will thicken the milk
sufficiently in the first few hours to reduce the separation of the cream. For
completion of the curdling and souring process, twelve to eighteen hours
are required. Usually the cans stand overnight at uniform temperature.
When ready to drain, the curd should be firm, smooth and mildly acid.
Whey separating from it should not titrate above 0.35 per cent titrated as
lactic acid.
125. Draining.—A cloth is spread over a draining rack and the contents of
one "shot-gun" can poured upon the cloth with as little breaking as possible.
In this way a large surface is exposed. The room must be kept wet to
prevent the surface of the curd drying to form crusts which stop draining. A
temperature of 60° F. is favorable to the maintenance of proper texture and
humidity without the development of objectionable organisms, especially
pasteurized unless shown to be free from tuberculosis by proper test of the
cattle. Evidence38 that the organism of tuberculosis will withstand the
regular handling process for cheeses of this group and retain its ability to
cause disease in experimental animals makes the introduction of
pasteurization necessary in this whole group of cheeses. Any effective
pasteurization may be used, but temperatures of 140-145° F. for thirty
minutes have been effective with less changes in the milk than higher
temperatures for shorter periods. The milk should be cooled to curdling
temperature and the starter and rennet added and stirred into the milk in
bulk. The milk may then be quickly distributed into the curdling cans with a
hose or from the gate valve of the mixing vat.
123. Starter.—To insure the development of a clean acid flavor, a small
amount of lactic starter should be used. The quantity to use depends on the
quality of the milk. With skimmed-milk, a pint for each thirty-pound can is
recommended by Matheson and Cammack39 and by Dahlberg. (See page
98.) For whole-milk Neufchâtel, 2 c.c. to a thirty-pound can of milk
commonly gives good results. On this basis 2 ounces of starter would be
sufficient if properly stirred into about 1000 pounds of milk. Too slow
development of acid is preferable to over-rapid souring.
124. Renneting or setting.—The milk should be cooled after pasteurizing
to between 70° and 75° F. Rennet is added at the rate of ½ c.c. to a thirty-
pound can (roughly ⅓ ounce to 1000 pounds). This will thicken the milk
sufficiently in the first few hours to reduce the separation of the cream. For
completion of the curdling and souring process, twelve to eighteen hours
are required. Usually the cans stand overnight at uniform temperature.
When ready to drain, the curd should be firm, smooth and mildly acid.
Whey separating from it should not titrate above 0.35 per cent titrated as
lactic acid.
125. Draining.—A cloth is spread over a draining rack and the contents of
one "shot-gun" can poured upon the cloth with as little breaking as possible.
In this way a large surface is exposed. The room must be kept wet to
prevent the surface of the curd drying to form crusts which stop draining. A
temperature of 60° F. is favorable to the maintenance of proper texture and
humidity without the development of objectionable organisms, especially
Page 105
Oidium lactis, which tends to cover every exposed surface in such rooms.
Draining may be hastened by turning the curd or changing the position of
the cloth. In factory practice, the large draining surface reduces the
necessity of handling the curd and reduces the loss of fat. About twelve
hours are required upon the draining racks.
On a small scale with a few cans of curd in the home, any form of draining
rack may be used, such as a potato or berry crate, or the corners of the cloth
may be brought together, tied and the mass hung up. The curd must be
turned by pulling up the corners of the cloth to prevent drying at the edges
and stoppage of draining from the center of the mass. Such treatment
produces much more rapid drainage than the factory practice and involves
proportionately more labor and larger fat losses.
126. Cooling Neufchâtel.—When whey ceases to separate readily, the
corners of the cloth are loosed from the rack, folded diagonally or tied, and
the curd cooled on ice or in refrigerators. When thoroughly chilled the bags
of curd are put into presses, where light but increasing pressure forces more
whey out of the mass. Tests at this time should show about 0.60 per cent
acid in the whey. With low-fat curd every step of the process may be
hastened, but with high-fat care must be exercised to prevent loss of fat
during pressing especially. Any pressing device permitting continuous
pressure with ease of manipulation may be used.
127. Pressing.—The ideals of the maker must determine the extent of
pressing. A high yield is obtained by leaving whey in the curd. If immediate
consumption is certain, such cheese may be satisfactory, but if the cheese is
to be held some days the extra whey carrying more milk-sugar favors
increased acid development. This produces very sour cheese with much
more danger of other fermentations which cause objectionable flavor. Too
much water favors more active bacterial growth as well as produces cheese
too soft for the necessary handling in the market.
In the press, several bags of curd may be piled together. The press should be
released and the bags turned from time to time to insure even drainage.
Several hours of pressing are usually required. The danger of insufficient
pressing is due to the difference of texture between the worked and
unworked curd. Before working, curd carrying 10 per cent excess moisture
Draining may be hastened by turning the curd or changing the position of
the cloth. In factory practice, the large draining surface reduces the
necessity of handling the curd and reduces the loss of fat. About twelve
hours are required upon the draining racks.
On a small scale with a few cans of curd in the home, any form of draining
rack may be used, such as a potato or berry crate, or the corners of the cloth
may be brought together, tied and the mass hung up. The curd must be
turned by pulling up the corners of the cloth to prevent drying at the edges
and stoppage of draining from the center of the mass. Such treatment
produces much more rapid drainage than the factory practice and involves
proportionately more labor and larger fat losses.
126. Cooling Neufchâtel.—When whey ceases to separate readily, the
corners of the cloth are loosed from the rack, folded diagonally or tied, and
the curd cooled on ice or in refrigerators. When thoroughly chilled the bags
of curd are put into presses, where light but increasing pressure forces more
whey out of the mass. Tests at this time should show about 0.60 per cent
acid in the whey. With low-fat curd every step of the process may be
hastened, but with high-fat care must be exercised to prevent loss of fat
during pressing especially. Any pressing device permitting continuous
pressure with ease of manipulation may be used.
127. Pressing.—The ideals of the maker must determine the extent of
pressing. A high yield is obtained by leaving whey in the curd. If immediate
consumption is certain, such cheese may be satisfactory, but if the cheese is
to be held some days the extra whey carrying more milk-sugar favors
increased acid development. This produces very sour cheese with much
more danger of other fermentations which cause objectionable flavor. Too
much water favors more active bacterial growth as well as produces cheese
too soft for the necessary handling in the market.
In the press, several bags of curd may be piled together. The press should be
released and the bags turned from time to time to insure even drainage.
Several hours of pressing are usually required. The danger of insufficient
pressing is due to the difference of texture between the worked and
unworked curd. Before working, curd carrying 10 per cent excess moisture
Page 106
resembles the finished product sufficiently to deceive any but the
experienced maker. But if this curd is transferred to the worker and to the
molding machine, it is found to become soft, pasty and sticky, to lack
"body," hence to make very
unsatisfactory packages and to
spoil very quickly. The masses of
curd should come out of the press
as dry and hard flat cakes.
128. Working and salting
Neufchâtel.—The cakes of curd
go from the press to the working
table. Here they are broken by
hand or by a butter-worker or
kneading machine (Fig. 16). Salt
at the rate of one and one-half
pounds to 100 pounds of curd is
added. If the curd is not
sufficiently pressed, the masses
Fig. 16.—Working Neufchâtel. become mushy or pasty during
the working process. The
working is continued until the whole mass is uniformly smooth and buttery.
129. Storage.—The draining and working processes permit the
contamination of the curd with organisms from the air and from the
apparatus. These are distributed throughout the mass. Air is also worked
thoroughly into the curd. Such a product spoils quickly. Distributing houses
find the Neufchâtel trade uncertain in volume from day to day, hence many
of them store the cheese in bulk and package only fast enough to fill orders.
This minimizes the loss due to spoilage. Such curd may be packed into tubs
and kept for considerable time in cold storage. If molded for the retail trade,
it is more quickly perishable. When packed solidly in mass, curd is largely
protected from spoilage by the exclusion of air and perhaps the quick
exhaustion of free oxygen through the respiration of the micro-organisms
present and by its acidity. This must be supplemented by low temperature to
reduce the loss to a minimum. Even when spoilage begins, it is easily
confined to the slight growth of Oidium lactis or green mold and bacteria on
exposed areas. These can be removed with minimum loss and damage to
experienced maker. But if this curd is transferred to the worker and to the
molding machine, it is found to become soft, pasty and sticky, to lack
"body," hence to make very
unsatisfactory packages and to
spoil very quickly. The masses of
curd should come out of the press
as dry and hard flat cakes.
128. Working and salting
Neufchâtel.—The cakes of curd
go from the press to the working
table. Here they are broken by
hand or by a butter-worker or
kneading machine (Fig. 16). Salt
at the rate of one and one-half
pounds to 100 pounds of curd is
added. If the curd is not
sufficiently pressed, the masses
Fig. 16.—Working Neufchâtel. become mushy or pasty during
the working process. The
working is continued until the whole mass is uniformly smooth and buttery.
129. Storage.—The draining and working processes permit the
contamination of the curd with organisms from the air and from the
apparatus. These are distributed throughout the mass. Air is also worked
thoroughly into the curd. Such a product spoils quickly. Distributing houses
find the Neufchâtel trade uncertain in volume from day to day, hence many
of them store the cheese in bulk and package only fast enough to fill orders.
This minimizes the loss due to spoilage. Such curd may be packed into tubs
and kept for considerable time in cold storage. If molded for the retail trade,
it is more quickly perishable. When packed solidly in mass, curd is largely
protected from spoilage by the exclusion of air and perhaps the quick
exhaustion of free oxygen through the respiration of the micro-organisms
present and by its acidity. This must be supplemented by low temperature to
reduce the loss to a minimum. Even when spoilage begins, it is easily
confined to the slight growth of Oidium lactis or green mold and bacteria on
exposed areas. These can be removed with minimum loss and damage to
Page 107
the mass. On the other hand, such curd molded into the commercial
package of 3 to 6 ounces and wrapped in paper, with tin-foil or carton for
protection, still presents enormously increased surface for the growth of
aerobic forms—especially Oidium lactis, green mold (Roquefort mold is
the usual green species) and accompanying bacteria. Curd in tubs may be
kept some days; in commercial packages lowering of quality (flavor) begins
almost at once.
130. Molding.—When the standard molding machine (Fig. 17) is provided,
curd is brought directly from the refrigerator to the machine. If permitted to
become warm, the mass becomes sticky; when cold it is more readily
handled. The machine is fitted with the special delivery tube for the variety
to be handled, cylindrical for Neufchâtel in its various forms, rectangular in
section for cream. Enough workers should be provided to wrap and label
the cheese without leaving it exposed to contamination or heat. Parchment
paper and tin-foil cut the proper size for each variety and bearing printed
labels are readily obtainable. Each cheese should be wrapped with paper
and tin-foil and put directly into a flat box which holds a standard number
(usually 12 or 24) of the special product.
Fig. 17.—Molding Neufchâtel.
In working with the hand molding tube (Fig. 15) the same care is required.
Chilled curd is forced into a firm smooth mass with the plunger. It is
removed and wrapped when it reaches the regular size of the variety.
package of 3 to 6 ounces and wrapped in paper, with tin-foil or carton for
protection, still presents enormously increased surface for the growth of
aerobic forms—especially Oidium lactis, green mold (Roquefort mold is
the usual green species) and accompanying bacteria. Curd in tubs may be
kept some days; in commercial packages lowering of quality (flavor) begins
almost at once.
130. Molding.—When the standard molding machine (Fig. 17) is provided,
curd is brought directly from the refrigerator to the machine. If permitted to
become warm, the mass becomes sticky; when cold it is more readily
handled. The machine is fitted with the special delivery tube for the variety
to be handled, cylindrical for Neufchâtel in its various forms, rectangular in
section for cream. Enough workers should be provided to wrap and label
the cheese without leaving it exposed to contamination or heat. Parchment
paper and tin-foil cut the proper size for each variety and bearing printed
labels are readily obtainable. Each cheese should be wrapped with paper
and tin-foil and put directly into a flat box which holds a standard number
(usually 12 or 24) of the special product.
Fig. 17.—Molding Neufchâtel.
In working with the hand molding tube (Fig. 15) the same care is required.
Chilled curd is forced into a firm smooth mass with the plunger. It is
removed and wrapped when it reaches the regular size of the variety.
Page 108
All forms when molded go directly into the boxes and then back to the
refrigerators until demanded for actual use. The details of the process differ
according to the form made.
131. Skimmed-milk Neufchâtel.—Separator skimmed-milk is frequently
made into curd by the Neufchâtel process. The absence of fat eliminates the
largest element of loss in manufacture. Each stage of the making process,
therefore, may be shortened. The demand that the curd shall be smooth and
buttery in texture rather than rough or gritty requires the exercise of care in
curdling of milk. The draining and pressing of the curd may be
accomplished much more rapidly than in the fatty cheeses. The final
product should differ from cottage cheese in smoother texture, milder
acidity and, as a rule, cleaner flavor. In composition, the absence of fat must
be largely compensated by leaving more water in the cheese. Such a
product reaches the market with 65 to 75 per cent of water and perhaps 1.25
per cent of salt. Casein forms 20 to 30 per cent of the mass.
These cheeses are very perishable on account of their high water-content.
The destructive effect of microorganisms both in the interior of the cheese
and upon its surface is rapid.
Cheeses of this description may be found in the trade as cottage cheese,
Neufchâtel style, and as Neufchâtel made from skimmed-milk; skimmed-
milk Neufchâtel would be a strictly proper labeling.
132. Baker's cheese.—There is considerable market for skimmed-milk
curd as Baker's cheese. This product is essentially skimmed-milk
Neufchâtel curd, partially drained and sold in bulk. When the bakery is near
by, the curd is frequently shoveled into milk-cans in very wet condition and
sent directly from the factory to the bakery. If the distance is such as to
require considerable time for transportation, the same care is frequently
given as for Neufchâtel curd packed in bulk for storage and transportation.
Great variations in practice are found among the makers of this type of
product. In some cases low grade skimmed-milk is handled on a large scale.
Curdling is done quickly and little care is given to the details of flavor and
texture in the curd. Working in this manner, two men are able to make a ton
of such curd, and ship it out in milk-cans each day. The resulting product,
refrigerators until demanded for actual use. The details of the process differ
according to the form made.
131. Skimmed-milk Neufchâtel.—Separator skimmed-milk is frequently
made into curd by the Neufchâtel process. The absence of fat eliminates the
largest element of loss in manufacture. Each stage of the making process,
therefore, may be shortened. The demand that the curd shall be smooth and
buttery in texture rather than rough or gritty requires the exercise of care in
curdling of milk. The draining and pressing of the curd may be
accomplished much more rapidly than in the fatty cheeses. The final
product should differ from cottage cheese in smoother texture, milder
acidity and, as a rule, cleaner flavor. In composition, the absence of fat must
be largely compensated by leaving more water in the cheese. Such a
product reaches the market with 65 to 75 per cent of water and perhaps 1.25
per cent of salt. Casein forms 20 to 30 per cent of the mass.
These cheeses are very perishable on account of their high water-content.
The destructive effect of microorganisms both in the interior of the cheese
and upon its surface is rapid.
Cheeses of this description may be found in the trade as cottage cheese,
Neufchâtel style, and as Neufchâtel made from skimmed-milk; skimmed-
milk Neufchâtel would be a strictly proper labeling.
132. Baker's cheese.—There is considerable market for skimmed-milk
curd as Baker's cheese. This product is essentially skimmed-milk
Neufchâtel curd, partially drained and sold in bulk. When the bakery is near
by, the curd is frequently shoveled into milk-cans in very wet condition and
sent directly from the factory to the bakery. If the distance is such as to
require considerable time for transportation, the same care is frequently
given as for Neufchâtel curd packed in bulk for storage and transportation.
Great variations in practice are found among the makers of this type of
product. In some cases low grade skimmed-milk is handled on a large scale.
Curdling is done quickly and little care is given to the details of flavor and
texture in the curd. Working in this manner, two men are able to make a ton
of such curd, and ship it out in milk-cans each day. The resulting product,
Page 109
although very deficient in flavor and texture, goes into manufactured
specialties which conceal its deficiencies if considered as cheese.
133. Domestic Neufchâtel.—The name Neufchâtel, unless limited clearly
by the label, should designate a cheese made from fresh whole milk.
Cheeses of this group are produced in a small number of well-equipped
factories scattered widely through the dairy states of the North and
Northeast. Every factory uses one or more trade names for its product. The
same product is frequently relabeled by the distributor who uses his own
trade name instead of that of the maker.
The usual form of package is cylindrical, about 1¾ inches in diameter and
2½ inches long, or sometimes rectangular 2½ by 1½ by 1½ inches. The
cheese is protected by wrapping in parchment paper closely surrounded by
tin-foil. These packages vary from 2½ to 4 ounces. In some cases screw-
topped glass jars are substituted for the tin-foil package. They are
objectionable, first, because of cost and, second, because they are so
commonly associated with less perishable products as to mislead either
dealer or consumer into holding the product for too long a time. The paper
or tin-foil package can be kept only at refrigerator temperature, hence
automatically keeps its possessor reminded of the perishable nature of its
contents.
Neufchâtel of the best quality made from whole milk testing about 4 per
cent fat may be expected to fall within the following limits;40 many grades
contain more water than this at the expense of flavor and keeping quality:
Water 50-55 per cent
Fat 23-28 per cent
Casein 18-21 per cent
Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent
Yield 12-14 lb. per 100 lb. of milk.
134. Partially skim Neufchâtel.—Brands of Neufchâtel made from milk
that would test every gradation from whole milk to separator skimmed-milk
may be found. The quality of the product varies with the skill of the maker
from brands no better than cottage cheese to products scarcely
distinguishable from the best whole-milk Neufchâtel. Many factories that
produce more than one quality of Neufchâtel use labels of different color,
specialties which conceal its deficiencies if considered as cheese.
133. Domestic Neufchâtel.—The name Neufchâtel, unless limited clearly
by the label, should designate a cheese made from fresh whole milk.
Cheeses of this group are produced in a small number of well-equipped
factories scattered widely through the dairy states of the North and
Northeast. Every factory uses one or more trade names for its product. The
same product is frequently relabeled by the distributor who uses his own
trade name instead of that of the maker.
The usual form of package is cylindrical, about 1¾ inches in diameter and
2½ inches long, or sometimes rectangular 2½ by 1½ by 1½ inches. The
cheese is protected by wrapping in parchment paper closely surrounded by
tin-foil. These packages vary from 2½ to 4 ounces. In some cases screw-
topped glass jars are substituted for the tin-foil package. They are
objectionable, first, because of cost and, second, because they are so
commonly associated with less perishable products as to mislead either
dealer or consumer into holding the product for too long a time. The paper
or tin-foil package can be kept only at refrigerator temperature, hence
automatically keeps its possessor reminded of the perishable nature of its
contents.
Neufchâtel of the best quality made from whole milk testing about 4 per
cent fat may be expected to fall within the following limits;40 many grades
contain more water than this at the expense of flavor and keeping quality:
Water 50-55 per cent
Fat 23-28 per cent
Casein 18-21 per cent
Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent
Yield 12-14 lb. per 100 lb. of milk.
134. Partially skim Neufchâtel.—Brands of Neufchâtel made from milk
that would test every gradation from whole milk to separator skimmed-milk
may be found. The quality of the product varies with the skill of the maker
from brands no better than cottage cheese to products scarcely
distinguishable from the best whole-milk Neufchâtel. Many factories that
produce more than one quality of Neufchâtel use labels of different color,
Page 110
different design or both to separate them; for example, blue labels usually
stand for whole milk, red labels represent lower grades. Sometimes the
difference in material is indicated by a clear cut grade mark. Frequently
color, a design of label or both are the only definite marks upon the cheese.
The consumer unfamiliar with the trade practice commonly has no means of
knowing the quality of the product offered. Such cheeses vary in water-
content from 55 to 70 per cent; in fat from 10 to 25 per cent; in casein from
18 to 25 per cent.
135. Cream cheese.—The Neufchâtel process is also used to make cream
cheese. The material utilized is commonly what has been called double
cream. This is produced by separating about half of a given volume of milk
and running the cream into the other half. Usually cream cheese is made in
the same factory as various grades of Neufchâtel. No material is lost. In
some instances, cream cheese is prepared by working thick cream into the
Neufchâtel type of curd from practically skimmed-milk. In working with
high percentages of fat in curd, care must be taken to avoid loss of fat in
draining and pressing. The curd is carefully chilled before pressing to
reduce this loss. This may be done under refrigeration or upon cracked ice.
Otherwise the manipulations of the process are unchanged. The cheeses are
commonly molded in the Neufchâtel machine into square cakes weighing
about 4 ounces and measuring approximately 3 by 2¼ by ⅞ inches. These
are wrapped in paper and tin-foil and handled exactly as Neufchâtel.
Cream cheese of high quality made from reënforced milk testing 7 to 9 per
cent fat may be expected to test approximately as follows:41
Water 38-43 per cent
Fat 43-48 per cent
Protein 13-16 per cent
Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent
Yield 16-18 lb. per 100 lb. of cream.
Increases of water, hence greater yields, are very common but usually
associated with loss in quality both as to flavor and texture, and in more
rapid spoilage; certain brands regularly carry 50 to 60 per cent of fat but
their increased cost of manufacture and sale restricts them to the rôle of
specialties with closely limited distribution. Trade names such as
stand for whole milk, red labels represent lower grades. Sometimes the
difference in material is indicated by a clear cut grade mark. Frequently
color, a design of label or both are the only definite marks upon the cheese.
The consumer unfamiliar with the trade practice commonly has no means of
knowing the quality of the product offered. Such cheeses vary in water-
content from 55 to 70 per cent; in fat from 10 to 25 per cent; in casein from
18 to 25 per cent.
135. Cream cheese.—The Neufchâtel process is also used to make cream
cheese. The material utilized is commonly what has been called double
cream. This is produced by separating about half of a given volume of milk
and running the cream into the other half. Usually cream cheese is made in
the same factory as various grades of Neufchâtel. No material is lost. In
some instances, cream cheese is prepared by working thick cream into the
Neufchâtel type of curd from practically skimmed-milk. In working with
high percentages of fat in curd, care must be taken to avoid loss of fat in
draining and pressing. The curd is carefully chilled before pressing to
reduce this loss. This may be done under refrigeration or upon cracked ice.
Otherwise the manipulations of the process are unchanged. The cheeses are
commonly molded in the Neufchâtel machine into square cakes weighing
about 4 ounces and measuring approximately 3 by 2¼ by ⅞ inches. These
are wrapped in paper and tin-foil and handled exactly as Neufchâtel.
Cream cheese of high quality made from reënforced milk testing 7 to 9 per
cent fat may be expected to test approximately as follows:41
Water 38-43 per cent
Fat 43-48 per cent
Protein 13-16 per cent
Salt 0.5-1.25 per cent
Yield 16-18 lb. per 100 lb. of cream.
Increases of water, hence greater yields, are very common but usually
associated with loss in quality both as to flavor and texture, and in more
rapid spoilage; certain brands regularly carry 50 to 60 per cent of fat but
their increased cost of manufacture and sale restricts them to the rôle of
specialties with closely limited distribution. Trade names such as
Page 111
Philadelphia Cream, Cow Brand, Eagle Brand, Square Cream, Blue Label
and many other factory brands are on the market.
136. Neufchâtel specialties.—Neufchâtel or cream cheese curd is
frequently mixed with some flavoring substance, such as pimiento (pickled
Spanish peppers), olives, nuts, spices or other cheeses, such as Roquefort.
These bear appropriate trade names and form a very attractive addition to
our varieties of cheese. Among the names found are Pimiento, Olive, Nut,
and Pim-olive or Olimento.
137. Gervais is a brand of cream cheese made in Paris and sold widely in
France and even in other continental countries. It occasionally comes to
America. As made in Paris, these cheeses are flat cakes containing
approximately 40 per cent water and 35-45 per cent fat. It clearly differs
only in detail from the square cream cheeses made in America. The name
Gervais is the property of a particular company. Since the cheese differs in
no essential feature from other cream cheeses, this name should not be
applied to a domestic cream brand.
138. European forms occasionally imported.—Among the cheeses
related to Neufchâtel as they reach the market are the "White" cheeses of
southern Europe. These differ greatly in quality according to their source
and to their content of cow, sheep, goat's milk or some combination of
these. This texture and flavor link them with unripened Neufchâtel. The
time required for importation puts a minimum possible period of ten to
fifteen days between production and consumption with a probable period of
at least one month for most samples. As they come to America, these forms
usually show fermentive changes beyond those tolerated in the domestic
product. This may take either of several forms: (1) intensification of acid
flavor with the intensification of the characteristic flavors of the particular
brand; (2) the development of old or rancid flavors; (3) the development of
Oidium and partial softening of the mass through its agency; (4) the growth
of Roquefort mold and development of the flavor associated with that
organism. This last form was found in a shipment of Hungarian Briuse
which showed about 40 per cent fat, 14 per cent protein and 43 per cent
water.
and many other factory brands are on the market.
136. Neufchâtel specialties.—Neufchâtel or cream cheese curd is
frequently mixed with some flavoring substance, such as pimiento (pickled
Spanish peppers), olives, nuts, spices or other cheeses, such as Roquefort.
These bear appropriate trade names and form a very attractive addition to
our varieties of cheese. Among the names found are Pimiento, Olive, Nut,
and Pim-olive or Olimento.
137. Gervais is a brand of cream cheese made in Paris and sold widely in
France and even in other continental countries. It occasionally comes to
America. As made in Paris, these cheeses are flat cakes containing
approximately 40 per cent water and 35-45 per cent fat. It clearly differs
only in detail from the square cream cheeses made in America. The name
Gervais is the property of a particular company. Since the cheese differs in
no essential feature from other cream cheeses, this name should not be
applied to a domestic cream brand.
138. European forms occasionally imported.—Among the cheeses
related to Neufchâtel as they reach the market are the "White" cheeses of
southern Europe. These differ greatly in quality according to their source
and to their content of cow, sheep, goat's milk or some combination of
these. This texture and flavor link them with unripened Neufchâtel. The
time required for importation puts a minimum possible period of ten to
fifteen days between production and consumption with a probable period of
at least one month for most samples. As they come to America, these forms
usually show fermentive changes beyond those tolerated in the domestic
product. This may take either of several forms: (1) intensification of acid
flavor with the intensification of the characteristic flavors of the particular
brand; (2) the development of old or rancid flavors; (3) the development of
Oidium and partial softening of the mass through its agency; (4) the growth
of Roquefort mold and development of the flavor associated with that
organism. This last form was found in a shipment of Hungarian Briuse
which showed about 40 per cent fat, 14 per cent protein and 43 per cent
water.
Page 112
Page 113
CHAPTER VIII
SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY MOLD
The ripened soft cheeses include a series of groups of varieties which, in
addition to initial souring, have been subjected to special ripening
processes, and which in the ripened condition are soft in texture and mostly
have high flavors. The varieties in each group have in common some
essential principles of manufacture together with a ripening process
dominated by a characteristic group of organisms. In certain groups, the
ripening is dominated by a yellowish or orange viscid surface slime
containing Oidium lactis and bacteria; in another series, the characteristic
organism is a mold of the genus Penicillium (P. Camemberti). Referring to
the analysis of groups (page 83), the ripened soft cheeses are found to fall
into three well-marked groups, one of which may perhaps be subdivided as
indicated. The series curdled by souring alone begins with approximately
cottage cheese curd and develops high flavors by ripening, as in "hand"
cheese. Ripened Neufchâtel curdled by souring and rennet together finds its
basis in Neufchâtel curd also but modifies the final product until the
familiar flavor and texture of the unripened form are no longer
recognizable. Among the forms curdled by rennet alone the Camembert
series contains one form, Coulommiers, which is occasionally used unripe,
but represents in general a mold-ripened group of highly flavored forms.
The series of soft rennet cheeses ripened by bacteria may be broadly
designated the Limburger group.
139. Hand cheese and its allies.—Among skim cheeses, there is a series of
forms largely German in origin in which curd not far removed from cottage
cheese is the basis of the product. Harz cheese is one of the best-known of
these forms as studied by Eckles and Rahn.42 One of these forms, hand
cheese,43 is manufactured on a commercial basis in farm dairies among
families of German descent principally in Pennsylvania, and on a factory
basis in a few places in New York, northern Illinois and Wisconsin. On the
small scale, curd is made by natural souring or by use of starter, heated to
expel water, cooled and molded by hand into cakes two to three inches in
diameter and one-half to three-quarters inch in thickness. The freshly
SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY MOLD
The ripened soft cheeses include a series of groups of varieties which, in
addition to initial souring, have been subjected to special ripening
processes, and which in the ripened condition are soft in texture and mostly
have high flavors. The varieties in each group have in common some
essential principles of manufacture together with a ripening process
dominated by a characteristic group of organisms. In certain groups, the
ripening is dominated by a yellowish or orange viscid surface slime
containing Oidium lactis and bacteria; in another series, the characteristic
organism is a mold of the genus Penicillium (P. Camemberti). Referring to
the analysis of groups (page 83), the ripened soft cheeses are found to fall
into three well-marked groups, one of which may perhaps be subdivided as
indicated. The series curdled by souring alone begins with approximately
cottage cheese curd and develops high flavors by ripening, as in "hand"
cheese. Ripened Neufchâtel curdled by souring and rennet together finds its
basis in Neufchâtel curd also but modifies the final product until the
familiar flavor and texture of the unripened form are no longer
recognizable. Among the forms curdled by rennet alone the Camembert
series contains one form, Coulommiers, which is occasionally used unripe,
but represents in general a mold-ripened group of highly flavored forms.
The series of soft rennet cheeses ripened by bacteria may be broadly
designated the Limburger group.
139. Hand cheese and its allies.—Among skim cheeses, there is a series of
forms largely German in origin in which curd not far removed from cottage
cheese is the basis of the product. Harz cheese is one of the best-known of
these forms as studied by Eckles and Rahn.42 One of these forms, hand
cheese,43 is manufactured on a commercial basis in farm dairies among
families of German descent principally in Pennsylvania, and on a factory
basis in a few places in New York, northern Illinois and Wisconsin. On the
small scale, curd is made by natural souring or by use of starter, heated to
expel water, cooled and molded by hand into cakes two to three inches in
diameter and one-half to three-quarters inch in thickness. The freshly
Page 114
formed cakes are placed upon a shelf to dry. There they are turned daily
until fairly firm, then packed in rolls into wooden boxes and ripened in a
cool damp room. In this ripening there is a prompt development of a heavy
viscous slime, which consists of Oidium and bacteria. Other molds forming
loose cottony mycelium are brushed off if they appear. The proper
consistency of this slimy covering depends on a close adjustment of water-
content in the cheese with temperature and relative humidity in the ripening
room. If conditions are too dry, the cheeses harden quickly or if less dry
they are attacked by green or blue-green molds. If too wet, the slimy
covering becomes too soft and watery, or secondarily covered with loose
shimmering masses of mold (Mucor sp.). Ripening should proceed slowly
and occupy a period of six to eight weeks.
140. Pennsylvania pot cheese.—A form of "pot" cheese is made in certain
counties of Pennsylvania, principally for local use. Production of this
cheese on a factory basis is now being attempted. The steps in manufacture
are about as follows:44 (1) The home-made type of cottage cheese curd is
prepared, put into a crock or pot and covered carefully; (2) kept in a warm
place (in kitchen usually); (3) stirred from time to time, until it has ripened
to a semi-liquid condition. This occurs very rapidly under the attack of
Oidium lactis accompanied by bacteria. Within a period of three to seven
days, according to the temperature and to the water-content of the mass, the
granules of curd become covered with a wrinkled gelatinous almost viscid
mass of mold mycelium beneath which is a layer of semi-liquid curd with a
strong characteristic odor and taste. This ripened or semi-liquid part reaches
about half the total mass in four or five days at favorable temperatures. (4)
The vessel is then placed in a larger vessel of water and heated over the fire
with constant stirring until the whole mass is melted and smooth. (5) Butter
or cream, and salt or other flavor is finally added, stirred in and the liquid
cheese poured into molds or jelly glasses to cool. If properly made and
cooked, the resultant cheese has a soft buttery consistency with an
agreeable flavor, which frequently resembles that of Camembert cheese.
141. Appetitost (Appetite cheese).—A Danish buttermilk cheese is made
under this name. Sour buttermilk is heated, by some to boiling temperature
but others (Monrad45) prefer 120° F., stirred thoroughly and allowed to
settle. The whey is removed as far as possible. The semi-liquid mass is
covered and set in a warm place. Fermentation becomes active. This tends
until fairly firm, then packed in rolls into wooden boxes and ripened in a
cool damp room. In this ripening there is a prompt development of a heavy
viscous slime, which consists of Oidium and bacteria. Other molds forming
loose cottony mycelium are brushed off if they appear. The proper
consistency of this slimy covering depends on a close adjustment of water-
content in the cheese with temperature and relative humidity in the ripening
room. If conditions are too dry, the cheeses harden quickly or if less dry
they are attacked by green or blue-green molds. If too wet, the slimy
covering becomes too soft and watery, or secondarily covered with loose
shimmering masses of mold (Mucor sp.). Ripening should proceed slowly
and occupy a period of six to eight weeks.
140. Pennsylvania pot cheese.—A form of "pot" cheese is made in certain
counties of Pennsylvania, principally for local use. Production of this
cheese on a factory basis is now being attempted. The steps in manufacture
are about as follows:44 (1) The home-made type of cottage cheese curd is
prepared, put into a crock or pot and covered carefully; (2) kept in a warm
place (in kitchen usually); (3) stirred from time to time, until it has ripened
to a semi-liquid condition. This occurs very rapidly under the attack of
Oidium lactis accompanied by bacteria. Within a period of three to seven
days, according to the temperature and to the water-content of the mass, the
granules of curd become covered with a wrinkled gelatinous almost viscid
mass of mold mycelium beneath which is a layer of semi-liquid curd with a
strong characteristic odor and taste. This ripened or semi-liquid part reaches
about half the total mass in four or five days at favorable temperatures. (4)
The vessel is then placed in a larger vessel of water and heated over the fire
with constant stirring until the whole mass is melted and smooth. (5) Butter
or cream, and salt or other flavor is finally added, stirred in and the liquid
cheese poured into molds or jelly glasses to cool. If properly made and
cooked, the resultant cheese has a soft buttery consistency with an
agreeable flavor, which frequently resembles that of Camembert cheese.
141. Appetitost (Appetite cheese).—A Danish buttermilk cheese is made
under this name. Sour buttermilk is heated, by some to boiling temperature
but others (Monrad45) prefer 120° F., stirred thoroughly and allowed to
settle. The whey is removed as far as possible. The semi-liquid mass is
covered and set in a warm place. Fermentation becomes active. This tends
Page 115
to make the curd more viscous or sticky. It is then kneaded and allowed to
ferment again. This process is repeated until the mass is yellowish and soft
but tough or viscous. When thoroughly fermented, the mass is again heated
to 120° F., and 6 per cent salt is added together with spice; both are worked
in and the cheese is formed into fancy shapes for sale.
142. Ripened Neufchâtel, French process.—Neufchâtel as a ripened
cheese is made rather widely in France but it is produced on an especially
large scale in Seine-Inferieure.46 Some factories use whole milk, or milk
with added cream, others skimmed-milk.47 The whole-milk brands of
Neufchâtel are those which have the widest reputation. For making this
cheese, the working room is held as closely as possible at 15-16° C. (58-60°
F.). The milk is strained into earthen vessels holding twenty liters. Rennet is
added to the freshly drawn milk at about 30° C. (86° F.) in amount
sufficient to produce coagulation in about twenty-four hours. Draining racks
of various forms are covered with cloth. The vessels of curd are dumped
upon the racks. The whey separates slowly and drains off through the cloth.
About twelve hours are allowed for this process. The corners of the cloth
are then brought together and folded in or tied and the mass pressed to
complete the drainage. The finished curd is worked or kneaded to produce a
smooth and uniform texture. This process of curd-making is essentially the
same as the American factory process of making Neufchâtel. The ripening
process has been entirely dropped in America. The curd is finally molded in
metal forms 5 cm. (2 inches) in diameter and about 6.7 cm. (about 3 inches)
high, open at both ends. These molds are filled, the freshly formed cheeses
are pressed out with a plunger or piston and their surfaces smoothed with a
wooden knife.
After molding is completed, the cheeses are salted by sprinkling the entire
surface with fine dry salt as the cheese is held in the hand. In this way each
cheese receives and absorbs 3 to 4 per cent salt. After salting, the cheeses
are arranged upon boards and allowed to drain twenty-four hours. They are
then removed to the first or drying room. The frames of the drying room
(secherie) are covered with straw and the cheeses are placed carefully upon
the straw to avoid contact with each other. They are turned each day to
present a fresh surface to the straw during a period of two to three weeks in
the drying room (secherie). Mold begins to show as white cottony
mycelium after five to six days, and slowly turns to "blue" (bluish green).
ferment again. This process is repeated until the mass is yellowish and soft
but tough or viscous. When thoroughly fermented, the mass is again heated
to 120° F., and 6 per cent salt is added together with spice; both are worked
in and the cheese is formed into fancy shapes for sale.
142. Ripened Neufchâtel, French process.—Neufchâtel as a ripened
cheese is made rather widely in France but it is produced on an especially
large scale in Seine-Inferieure.46 Some factories use whole milk, or milk
with added cream, others skimmed-milk.47 The whole-milk brands of
Neufchâtel are those which have the widest reputation. For making this
cheese, the working room is held as closely as possible at 15-16° C. (58-60°
F.). The milk is strained into earthen vessels holding twenty liters. Rennet is
added to the freshly drawn milk at about 30° C. (86° F.) in amount
sufficient to produce coagulation in about twenty-four hours. Draining racks
of various forms are covered with cloth. The vessels of curd are dumped
upon the racks. The whey separates slowly and drains off through the cloth.
About twelve hours are allowed for this process. The corners of the cloth
are then brought together and folded in or tied and the mass pressed to
complete the drainage. The finished curd is worked or kneaded to produce a
smooth and uniform texture. This process of curd-making is essentially the
same as the American factory process of making Neufchâtel. The ripening
process has been entirely dropped in America. The curd is finally molded in
metal forms 5 cm. (2 inches) in diameter and about 6.7 cm. (about 3 inches)
high, open at both ends. These molds are filled, the freshly formed cheeses
are pressed out with a plunger or piston and their surfaces smoothed with a
wooden knife.
After molding is completed, the cheeses are salted by sprinkling the entire
surface with fine dry salt as the cheese is held in the hand. In this way each
cheese receives and absorbs 3 to 4 per cent salt. After salting, the cheeses
are arranged upon boards and allowed to drain twenty-four hours. They are
then removed to the first or drying room. The frames of the drying room
(secherie) are covered with straw and the cheeses are placed carefully upon
the straw to avoid contact with each other. They are turned each day to
present a fresh surface to the straw during a period of two to three weeks in
the drying room (secherie). Mold begins to show as white cottony
mycelium after five to six days, and slowly turns to "blue" (bluish green).
Page 116
When the cheeses are well covered with this moldy rind, they are removed
to the ripening cellar. In the ripening cellar also the cheeses stand upon
straw. They are turned over every three or four days at first, then allowed to
stand for a longer period.
When ripe, a Neufchâtel cheese so made weighs about 125 grams. One liter
of milk makes 225 grams of such cheese. The ripening of Neufchâtel has
never been fully studied, but a series of these cheeses were obtained by one
of the authors; cultures were made and examined.48 The salt-content in the
first place was found to be so high that Oidium lactis was eliminated as an
active factor in the ripening. The mold proved to be on some cheeses
Penicillium Camemberti, the typical mold of Camembert as it is made in
Normandy, on others P. Camemberti var. Rogeri, the pure white form as
used under the patents of M. Georges Roger in the region of Seine-et-Marne
to the eastward of Paris and called by him and by Mazé P. candidum. The
physical condition of the ripened curd and the flavors encountered were
those associated with these two species by many hundreds of experiments
during the Camembert investigation in Connecticut.49 These facts justify the
conclusion that ripened Neufchâtel is first soured by lactic organisms, then
so salted as to eliminate or reduce to a minimum the characteristic activities
of Oidium lactis, while the proteolytic action and the physical changes are
closely similar to those of Camembert which is ripened primarily by the
same molds.
143. The Camembert group.—The soft cheeses ripened by molds are
French in origin. Their manufacture has spread into Germany, Italy and
America. Of the series, the most widely known is Camembert, which will
be described as typical for the group. Brie, Coulommiers, Robbiola and
Ripened Neufchâtel belong to this series.
144. Camembert cheese.—The origin of Camembert is given by French
authorities as 1791 in the Commune of Camembert near Vimoutiers in
Orne, France. From a very restricted production at first, Camembert-making
has spread through the region from Caen in the west to Havre, Rouen and a
considerable area east of Paris. In America Camembert began to be made in
one factory about 1900. Several other factories followed by 1906. The
difficulties and losses encountered led to the abandonment of these
undertakings, until at the outbreak of the European war in 1914 but one
to the ripening cellar. In the ripening cellar also the cheeses stand upon
straw. They are turned over every three or four days at first, then allowed to
stand for a longer period.
When ripe, a Neufchâtel cheese so made weighs about 125 grams. One liter
of milk makes 225 grams of such cheese. The ripening of Neufchâtel has
never been fully studied, but a series of these cheeses were obtained by one
of the authors; cultures were made and examined.48 The salt-content in the
first place was found to be so high that Oidium lactis was eliminated as an
active factor in the ripening. The mold proved to be on some cheeses
Penicillium Camemberti, the typical mold of Camembert as it is made in
Normandy, on others P. Camemberti var. Rogeri, the pure white form as
used under the patents of M. Georges Roger in the region of Seine-et-Marne
to the eastward of Paris and called by him and by Mazé P. candidum. The
physical condition of the ripened curd and the flavors encountered were
those associated with these two species by many hundreds of experiments
during the Camembert investigation in Connecticut.49 These facts justify the
conclusion that ripened Neufchâtel is first soured by lactic organisms, then
so salted as to eliminate or reduce to a minimum the characteristic activities
of Oidium lactis, while the proteolytic action and the physical changes are
closely similar to those of Camembert which is ripened primarily by the
same molds.
143. The Camembert group.—The soft cheeses ripened by molds are
French in origin. Their manufacture has spread into Germany, Italy and
America. Of the series, the most widely known is Camembert, which will
be described as typical for the group. Brie, Coulommiers, Robbiola and
Ripened Neufchâtel belong to this series.
144. Camembert cheese.—The origin of Camembert is given by French
authorities as 1791 in the Commune of Camembert near Vimoutiers in
Orne, France. From a very restricted production at first, Camembert-making
has spread through the region from Caen in the west to Havre, Rouen and a
considerable area east of Paris. In America Camembert began to be made in
one factory about 1900. Several other factories followed by 1906. The
difficulties and losses encountered led to the abandonment of these
undertakings, until at the outbreak of the European war in 1914 but one
Page 117
factory was making Camembert and that only on an experimental scale.
Meanwhile the United States Department of Agriculture and the Storrs
Experiment Station had taken up and solved, on an experimental basis, most
of the problems arising in these commercial failures. A shortage of product
at the outbreak of the war brought about the re-establishment of a series of
factories. The product as put on the market indicates that a permanent
establishment of Camembert-making is entirely practicable.
Camembert cheese is made from cow's milk either whole or very slightly
skimmed; the removal of about 0.5 per cent of fat has been found to be
desirable if not actually necessary.
145. Description of Camembert.50—These cheeses are made in sizes 2½
to 4½ inches in diameter and 1¼ to 1½ inches in thickness. They are
ripened by the agency of molds and bacteria which form a felt-like rind
over their whole surface, ⅟16 to ⅛ of an inch in thickness. This rind may be
dry and gray or grayish-green, consisting of a felt-like surface of mold on
the outside, below which a harder portion consists of mold embedded in
partially dried cheese, or the moldy part may be more or less completely
overgrown or displaced by yellowish or reddish slime composed mainly of
bacteria. Good cheeses may have either appearance.
Inside the rind, the cheese is softened progressively from the rind toward
the center from all sides, so that a fully ripe cheese has no hard sour curd in
the center, but is completely softened. No mold should be visible inside the
rind, but the moldy rind itself is necessary because the ripening is caused by
the enzymes secreted by the organisms of the rind into the cheese. As the
curd ripens, the changed portion assumes a slightly deeper color than the
unripe curd as a result of chemical changes. Well-ripened cheeses vary from
nearly a fluid texture to the consistency of moderately soft butter. The
ripening of Camembert is finished in wooden boxes which protect the
cheeses from breaking after they become soft and during the market period.
146. Conditions of making and ripening.—These processes depend on a
very close adjustment between the composition of the freshly made cheese
and the temperature and humidity of the rooms in which the cheeses are
made and ripened. Very slight failures in control bring loss in ultimate
results. The room for making Camembert should be maintained between
Meanwhile the United States Department of Agriculture and the Storrs
Experiment Station had taken up and solved, on an experimental basis, most
of the problems arising in these commercial failures. A shortage of product
at the outbreak of the war brought about the re-establishment of a series of
factories. The product as put on the market indicates that a permanent
establishment of Camembert-making is entirely practicable.
Camembert cheese is made from cow's milk either whole or very slightly
skimmed; the removal of about 0.5 per cent of fat has been found to be
desirable if not actually necessary.
145. Description of Camembert.50—These cheeses are made in sizes 2½
to 4½ inches in diameter and 1¼ to 1½ inches in thickness. They are
ripened by the agency of molds and bacteria which form a felt-like rind
over their whole surface, ⅟16 to ⅛ of an inch in thickness. This rind may be
dry and gray or grayish-green, consisting of a felt-like surface of mold on
the outside, below which a harder portion consists of mold embedded in
partially dried cheese, or the moldy part may be more or less completely
overgrown or displaced by yellowish or reddish slime composed mainly of
bacteria. Good cheeses may have either appearance.
Inside the rind, the cheese is softened progressively from the rind toward
the center from all sides, so that a fully ripe cheese has no hard sour curd in
the center, but is completely softened. No mold should be visible inside the
rind, but the moldy rind itself is necessary because the ripening is caused by
the enzymes secreted by the organisms of the rind into the cheese. As the
curd ripens, the changed portion assumes a slightly deeper color than the
unripe curd as a result of chemical changes. Well-ripened cheeses vary from
nearly a fluid texture to the consistency of moderately soft butter. The
ripening of Camembert is finished in wooden boxes which protect the
cheeses from breaking after they become soft and during the market period.
146. Conditions of making and ripening.—These processes depend on a
very close adjustment between the composition of the freshly made cheese
and the temperature and humidity of the rooms in which the cheeses are
made and ripened. Very slight failures in control bring loss in ultimate
results. The room for making Camembert should be maintained between
Page 118
60° and 70° F. and should be wet enough to reduce drying to a minimum.
The essentials of apparatus are comparatively inexpensive. Work on a
factory basis calls, however, for the installation of special tables and other
apparatus to utilize space and labor to advantage. Rooms are protected from
change of weather by double sash in the windows. Flies must be excluded
by close-meshed screens for all doors and windows with movable sash. The
equipment installed in such a room is shown in Fig. 18. Curdling cans are
ranged on a shelf a few inches above the floor along one side of the room
below an open tin trough with side branches. This open trough brings the
milk from the mixing vat to the curdling cans. (The open tin trough offers
no lodgment for dirt.) The cans hold about 200 pounds of milk, are about 12
inches in diameter at bottom, and 20 to 24 inches at top. They are heavily
tinned. Iron trucks as high as the shelf and with tops the same diameter as
the bottoms of the cans form a convenient method of bringing cans of curd
to the very edge of the draining tables.
Fig. 18.—Camembert cheese-making room in an American factory.
The wooden draining tables are placed about 32 inches above the floor;
they are usually made of 2-inch lumber, have raised edges and slope slightly
The essentials of apparatus are comparatively inexpensive. Work on a
factory basis calls, however, for the installation of special tables and other
apparatus to utilize space and labor to advantage. Rooms are protected from
change of weather by double sash in the windows. Flies must be excluded
by close-meshed screens for all doors and windows with movable sash. The
equipment installed in such a room is shown in Fig. 18. Curdling cans are
ranged on a shelf a few inches above the floor along one side of the room
below an open tin trough with side branches. This open trough brings the
milk from the mixing vat to the curdling cans. (The open tin trough offers
no lodgment for dirt.) The cans hold about 200 pounds of milk, are about 12
inches in diameter at bottom, and 20 to 24 inches at top. They are heavily
tinned. Iron trucks as high as the shelf and with tops the same diameter as
the bottoms of the cans form a convenient method of bringing cans of curd
to the very edge of the draining tables.
Fig. 18.—Camembert cheese-making room in an American factory.
The wooden draining tables are placed about 32 inches above the floor;
they are usually made of 2-inch lumber, have raised edges and slope slightly
Page 119
toward the wall.
Whey and wash
water are thus
carried to a draining
trough along the
wall. For cheese-
making, each is
covered with a strip
of matting consisting
of wooden strips
held together by
thread (Fig. 19). The
strip of matting
should be exactly the
width and length of
the table. The hoops
Fig. 19.—Draining mat for Camembert cheese.
used are heavy tin,
with edges turned and soldered, about 5 inches high, 4⅝ inches in diameter
with three rows of holes about ⅟12 inch in diameter and 2 inches apart in
the row. These hoops are placed as thickly as possible upon the mats.
147. Outline of making process.—The making process51 is summarized as
follows (Thom, 1909):
Starter.—From 0.5 to 1.0 per cent of active starter is added to milk kept
overnight below 60°F.
Acidity at renneting.—Milk titrated to phenolphthalein should test 0.20 to
0.23 per cent calculated as lactic acid.
Temperance of renneting.—84°-86° F. is used for Camembert.
Rennet.—From 3 to 5 oz. of standard rennet extract to 1000 lb. milk (10-15
c.c. per 100 lb. milk) produces a curd of proper texture.
Curdling time.—To reach the proper condition for handling, 1¼ to 1½ hours
or longer is required. This is indicated by the onset of "sweating" or the
separation of large drops of whey on the surface of the solid curd.
Whey and wash
water are thus
carried to a draining
trough along the
wall. For cheese-
making, each is
covered with a strip
of matting consisting
of wooden strips
held together by
thread (Fig. 19). The
strip of matting
should be exactly the
width and length of
the table. The hoops
Fig. 19.—Draining mat for Camembert cheese.
used are heavy tin,
with edges turned and soldered, about 5 inches high, 4⅝ inches in diameter
with three rows of holes about ⅟12 inch in diameter and 2 inches apart in
the row. These hoops are placed as thickly as possible upon the mats.
147. Outline of making process.—The making process51 is summarized as
follows (Thom, 1909):
Starter.—From 0.5 to 1.0 per cent of active starter is added to milk kept
overnight below 60°F.
Acidity at renneting.—Milk titrated to phenolphthalein should test 0.20 to
0.23 per cent calculated as lactic acid.
Temperance of renneting.—84°-86° F. is used for Camembert.
Rennet.—From 3 to 5 oz. of standard rennet extract to 1000 lb. milk (10-15
c.c. per 100 lb. milk) produces a curd of proper texture.
Curdling time.—To reach the proper condition for handling, 1¼ to 1½ hours
or longer is required. This is indicated by the onset of "sweating" or the
separation of large drops of whey on the surface of the solid curd.
Page 120
Dipping.—A long-handled dipper is used to transfer curd from cans to
hoops. This can be lowered into the hoop. This transfer is to be done with
the least possible breaking. One dipperful is transferred at a time to each of
a series of hoops. By the time the series is covered, some drainage has
occurred and a second dipperful is added to the contents of the hoop. In this
way the hoop is filled within a period of two to four hours.
Draining.—Hoops when properly filled have taken in approximately 2
quarts of milk each. No pressure is used. Cheeses drain by gravity. They
stand unturned until the following morning when they should be firm
enough to permit turning without removing the hoops. The cheeses when
firm enough to handle (usually on the third morning) are salted by dusting
the entire surface with coarse salt and permitting all that adheres to remain.
The cheeses should then be removed to a room at about 58°F. to prevent too
rapid leakage of water and salt from their surfaces. Ripe cheeses of good
quality show a total salt-content varying from 2.25 to 3 per cent with an
average of about 2.5 per cent. When so handled there is slight, if any, loss
of water and salt in the salting period of twenty-four to forty-eight hours. At
the end of the salting period such cheeses should carry 55 to 57 per cent
water or slightly more.
148. Acidity.—The essential biological factor in the making period of
Camembert is proper souring. The milk should be free from gassy
organisms. The lactic starter required should introduce the typical lactic
organism (Streptococcus lacticus) in numbers sufficient to suppress all
other forms during the next twenty-four hours. The amount of acid starter
introduced, however, plus the acid resulting from growth during the
curdling period, should not produce a grainy acid curd. The temperatures of
handling are such as to favor this group of organisms if properly introduced
and permit the development of nearly 1 per cent of acid (estimated as lactic)
by the second morning. Cheeses with such acid are fairly free from further
danger from bacterial activity. Members of the high-acid group (B.
Bulgaricus and allies) may be found in these cheeses but do not appear to
develop in numbers sufficient to affect the cheese to any marked degree.
hoops. This can be lowered into the hoop. This transfer is to be done with
the least possible breaking. One dipperful is transferred at a time to each of
a series of hoops. By the time the series is covered, some drainage has
occurred and a second dipperful is added to the contents of the hoop. In this
way the hoop is filled within a period of two to four hours.
Draining.—Hoops when properly filled have taken in approximately 2
quarts of milk each. No pressure is used. Cheeses drain by gravity. They
stand unturned until the following morning when they should be firm
enough to permit turning without removing the hoops. The cheeses when
firm enough to handle (usually on the third morning) are salted by dusting
the entire surface with coarse salt and permitting all that adheres to remain.
The cheeses should then be removed to a room at about 58°F. to prevent too
rapid leakage of water and salt from their surfaces. Ripe cheeses of good
quality show a total salt-content varying from 2.25 to 3 per cent with an
average of about 2.5 per cent. When so handled there is slight, if any, loss
of water and salt in the salting period of twenty-four to forty-eight hours. At
the end of the salting period such cheeses should carry 55 to 57 per cent
water or slightly more.
148. Acidity.—The essential biological factor in the making period of
Camembert is proper souring. The milk should be free from gassy
organisms. The lactic starter required should introduce the typical lactic
organism (Streptococcus lacticus) in numbers sufficient to suppress all
other forms during the next twenty-four hours. The amount of acid starter
introduced, however, plus the acid resulting from growth during the
curdling period, should not produce a grainy acid curd. The temperatures of
handling are such as to favor this group of organisms if properly introduced
and permit the development of nearly 1 per cent of acid (estimated as lactic)
by the second morning. Cheeses with such acid are fairly free from further
danger from bacterial activity. Members of the high-acid group (B.
Bulgaricus and allies) may be found in these cheeses but do not appear to
develop in numbers sufficient to affect the cheese to any marked degree.
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Fig. 20.—Halloir, the first ripening room for Camembert in an American factory.
Page 122
Page 123
149. Ripening the cheese.—The cheese is now ready for the ripening
rooms (Fig. 20). For this process temperatures between 52° and 58°F. are
desirable; lower temperatures only delay the process; higher temperatures
favor undesirable fermentations. The cheeses rest upon coarse matting (Fr.
clayons) consisting of round wooden rods about the size of a pencil
separated 1-1¼ inches and held in position by wire strands. Assuming
cheeses of optimum composition as indicated above, the relative humidity
of the ripening rooms should be 86 to 88 per cent. Higher humidities
produce too rapid development of slimy coatings; too low humidity is
indicated by drying, shrinkage and the growth of green molds on the
surface. A slight and very slow evaporation is demanded; by this the water-
content of the cheeses is reduced 3 to 6 per cent in two weeks. During the
first two weeks of ripening, the cheeses commonly show some growth of
yeast and Oidium lactis first, followed by cottony white areas of
Camembert mold (Penicillium Camemberti). This mold must be introduced
by inoculation in new factories but once firmly established in the factory
will propagate itself if conditions are kept favorable. Climatic conditions in
most dairy sections of America have been sufficiently unfavorable to make
more or less continuous use of pure cultures desirable. At the end of two
weeks, Camembert cheeses should show a well-established rind, consisting
of a well-matted felt work of mold hyphæ through the outer 2 mm. (⅟12
inch) of the whole surface of the cheese. More or less of the pale gray-green
fruit of the characteristic Penicillium Camemberti can usually be seen.
Beginning at about twelve to fourteen days,52 a softening of the curd is first
directly detectable under the rind. This is preceded by the disappearance of
the acidity of the curd, which progresses inward. The softening of the curd
follows closely the lowering of the acidity. Thus a litmus test taken along
the cut face of a Camembert cheese at any stage of softening will always
show a sharp acid reaction in the solid sour portion which changes to
alkaline just before the softening due to proteolytic action becomes
noticeable. These two changes appear to be due to enzymes secreted by the
mycelium of the Penicillium Camemberti and Oidium lactis which
constitute the most active factors in the ripening. Some accessory bacterial
action is indicated but of minor importance in the changes found.
To avoid loss from breaking, after the softening of the curd has fairly
begun, the cheeses must be removed from the coarse matting to smooth
rooms (Fig. 20). For this process temperatures between 52° and 58°F. are
desirable; lower temperatures only delay the process; higher temperatures
favor undesirable fermentations. The cheeses rest upon coarse matting (Fr.
clayons) consisting of round wooden rods about the size of a pencil
separated 1-1¼ inches and held in position by wire strands. Assuming
cheeses of optimum composition as indicated above, the relative humidity
of the ripening rooms should be 86 to 88 per cent. Higher humidities
produce too rapid development of slimy coatings; too low humidity is
indicated by drying, shrinkage and the growth of green molds on the
surface. A slight and very slow evaporation is demanded; by this the water-
content of the cheeses is reduced 3 to 6 per cent in two weeks. During the
first two weeks of ripening, the cheeses commonly show some growth of
yeast and Oidium lactis first, followed by cottony white areas of
Camembert mold (Penicillium Camemberti). This mold must be introduced
by inoculation in new factories but once firmly established in the factory
will propagate itself if conditions are kept favorable. Climatic conditions in
most dairy sections of America have been sufficiently unfavorable to make
more or less continuous use of pure cultures desirable. At the end of two
weeks, Camembert cheeses should show a well-established rind, consisting
of a well-matted felt work of mold hyphæ through the outer 2 mm. (⅟12
inch) of the whole surface of the cheese. More or less of the pale gray-green
fruit of the characteristic Penicillium Camemberti can usually be seen.
Beginning at about twelve to fourteen days,52 a softening of the curd is first
directly detectable under the rind. This is preceded by the disappearance of
the acidity of the curd, which progresses inward. The softening of the curd
follows closely the lowering of the acidity. Thus a litmus test taken along
the cut face of a Camembert cheese at any stage of softening will always
show a sharp acid reaction in the solid sour portion which changes to
alkaline just before the softening due to proteolytic action becomes
noticeable. These two changes appear to be due to enzymes secreted by the
mycelium of the Penicillium Camemberti and Oidium lactis which
constitute the most active factors in the ripening. Some accessory bacterial
action is indicated but of minor importance in the changes found.
To avoid loss from breaking, after the softening of the curd has fairly
begun, the cheeses must be removed from the coarse matting to smooth
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boards where they are watched and turned repeatedly, or as in the more
common practice, wrapped at once in parchment paper and boxed. The
ripening may be completed in either way. The conditions necessary are such
as to favor the extension of slimy areas of bacteria over part or all of the
rind to the exclusion of further development of gray-green fruiting areas of
mold.
Complete softening may occur in three weeks in cheeses in which
evaporation has gone on too slowly. Such cheeses are found to contain 51 to
55 per cent of water when ripe and decay very quickly. If handled properly,
the water-content should fall from about 57 per cent at the beginning of
ripening to 48 per cent at its completion which should require a minimum
period of about four weeks. It is more desirable that a cheese four weeks old
show a thin core of sour curd in the center than that it be entirely liquid at
that age.
Fig. 21.—Very soft Camembert cheese.
150. Composition.—Properly ripe Camembert shows about the following
range of composition: Water 47 to 49 per cent; fat 25 to 28 per cent; protein
18 to 21 per cent; salt 2.2 per cent to 2.8 per cent. Variations outside these
limits are usually associated with less desirable qualities. The approximate
limits and characters outlined for Camembert still leave a considerable
latitude for variations in practice which characterize the output of particular
factories in a producing group. At one extreme are brands of Camembert
common practice, wrapped at once in parchment paper and boxed. The
ripening may be completed in either way. The conditions necessary are such
as to favor the extension of slimy areas of bacteria over part or all of the
rind to the exclusion of further development of gray-green fruiting areas of
mold.
Complete softening may occur in three weeks in cheeses in which
evaporation has gone on too slowly. Such cheeses are found to contain 51 to
55 per cent of water when ripe and decay very quickly. If handled properly,
the water-content should fall from about 57 per cent at the beginning of
ripening to 48 per cent at its completion which should require a minimum
period of about four weeks. It is more desirable that a cheese four weeks old
show a thin core of sour curd in the center than that it be entirely liquid at
that age.
Fig. 21.—Very soft Camembert cheese.
150. Composition.—Properly ripe Camembert shows about the following
range of composition: Water 47 to 49 per cent; fat 25 to 28 per cent; protein
18 to 21 per cent; salt 2.2 per cent to 2.8 per cent. Variations outside these
limits are usually associated with less desirable qualities. The approximate
limits and characters outlined for Camembert still leave a considerable
latitude for variations in practice which characterize the output of particular
factories in a producing group. At one extreme are brands of Camembert
Page 125
cheese which are very soft (Fig. 21), some of them actually liquid when
ripe, and which have very strong odor and taste; one such brand has held
first place in the trade of certain American cities for years. Another popular
brand when fully ripe is well covered with yellow-orange viscid slime53 but
is fairly firm in texture with high flavor; still others show dry moldy
surfaces and mild flavors. The product of certain factories is always
characterized by the presence and characteristic ammoniacal odor of
Penicillium brevicaule.
Each of these forms seems to appeal to some classes of consumers, so that
in handling imported Camembert the trade comes to assign the product to
specific groups of purchasers according to the conditions observed at its
arrival from Europe.
Fig. 22.—Camembert cheese factory at Lisieux, France. The square windows are
seen in the second-floor rooms.
151. Factory.—The type of factory to be used in making and ripening
Camembert must be adjusted to the climate. This product originated in the
Normandy section of France which is but a few feet above sea level, is
swept by winds from the Gulf Stream, and has a narrow range of
temperature, with highly humid conditions. In that region, every effort must
be made to secure ventilation to carry off the necessary amount of
evaporation water. In contrast, most of the dairy sections of America have
ripe, and which have very strong odor and taste; one such brand has held
first place in the trade of certain American cities for years. Another popular
brand when fully ripe is well covered with yellow-orange viscid slime53 but
is fairly firm in texture with high flavor; still others show dry moldy
surfaces and mild flavors. The product of certain factories is always
characterized by the presence and characteristic ammoniacal odor of
Penicillium brevicaule.
Each of these forms seems to appeal to some classes of consumers, so that
in handling imported Camembert the trade comes to assign the product to
specific groups of purchasers according to the conditions observed at its
arrival from Europe.
Fig. 22.—Camembert cheese factory at Lisieux, France. The square windows are
seen in the second-floor rooms.
151. Factory.—The type of factory to be used in making and ripening
Camembert must be adjusted to the climate. This product originated in the
Normandy section of France which is but a few feet above sea level, is
swept by winds from the Gulf Stream, and has a narrow range of
temperature, with highly humid conditions. In that region, every effort must
be made to secure ventilation to carry off the necessary amount of
evaporation water. In contrast, most of the dairy sections of America have
Page 126
land instead of sea breezes, much higher altitudes, much greater extremes of
temperature and a lower range of relative humidities. The conditions of an
upstairs room full of windows in Normandy (Fig. 22) are most readily
reproduced in rooms partly or completely below ground in this country. The
industry calls for the production and maintenance of a specific set of
working conditions. These are furnished by nature in northern France,
probably also in certain Pacific coast areas, but must be artificially obtained
where the climate is unfavorable.
152. Economic factors.—Camembert cheeses show a yield of about 13
pounds to 100 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent fat. At roughly one-half
pound each, the number of cheeses will be approximately twenty-six.
Assuming no losses and a wholesale price of 15 cents each, the wholesale
value of 100 pounds of milk would be $3.90. The labor cost of production is
high, the package represents (box, wrapping and label) at least 1½ cents a
cheese. The time between the purchase and the consumption of the cheese
will average about one month. Few cheeses actually remain this length of
time in the possession of the maker. This short investment period, therefore,
is a distinct advantage of Camembert. Among disadvantages, however, the
extremely perishable character of the fully ripe cheese makes provision of
an adequate and constant market essential. Losses due to failures in
manufacturing or ripening conditions are also frequent. Excessive heat in
summer and very cold periods in winter are both unfavorable. The
Camembert-maker cannot, therefore, use the cheapest milk of the summer
months at all and the losses entailed by failure of control in winter fall on
the most costly milk of the year. Camembert requires, therefore, careful
selection of the location for manufacture and ripening, effective control of
conditions throughout the period and adequate marketing facilities.
Camembert at its best is one of the finest of all cheeses; when bad, it
becomes quickly inedible and is a total loss.
153. French Brie.54—Brie cheese has its center of production in Seine-et-
Marne, east of Paris in northern France. The apparatus, arrangement of the
factories and details of manipulation differ from those described for
Camembert, but the final product is in flavor and texture closely related to
Camembert. Brie cheeses are the same thickness as Camembert, 1 to 1¼
inches; in diameter, however, there are three or more sizes varying from 8
to 16 inches, or even greater. The largest cheeses weigh 5 to 6 pounds. As in
temperature and a lower range of relative humidities. The conditions of an
upstairs room full of windows in Normandy (Fig. 22) are most readily
reproduced in rooms partly or completely below ground in this country. The
industry calls for the production and maintenance of a specific set of
working conditions. These are furnished by nature in northern France,
probably also in certain Pacific coast areas, but must be artificially obtained
where the climate is unfavorable.
152. Economic factors.—Camembert cheeses show a yield of about 13
pounds to 100 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent fat. At roughly one-half
pound each, the number of cheeses will be approximately twenty-six.
Assuming no losses and a wholesale price of 15 cents each, the wholesale
value of 100 pounds of milk would be $3.90. The labor cost of production is
high, the package represents (box, wrapping and label) at least 1½ cents a
cheese. The time between the purchase and the consumption of the cheese
will average about one month. Few cheeses actually remain this length of
time in the possession of the maker. This short investment period, therefore,
is a distinct advantage of Camembert. Among disadvantages, however, the
extremely perishable character of the fully ripe cheese makes provision of
an adequate and constant market essential. Losses due to failures in
manufacturing or ripening conditions are also frequent. Excessive heat in
summer and very cold periods in winter are both unfavorable. The
Camembert-maker cannot, therefore, use the cheapest milk of the summer
months at all and the losses entailed by failure of control in winter fall on
the most costly milk of the year. Camembert requires, therefore, careful
selection of the location for manufacture and ripening, effective control of
conditions throughout the period and adequate marketing facilities.
Camembert at its best is one of the finest of all cheeses; when bad, it
becomes quickly inedible and is a total loss.
153. French Brie.54—Brie cheese has its center of production in Seine-et-
Marne, east of Paris in northern France. The apparatus, arrangement of the
factories and details of manipulation differ from those described for
Camembert, but the final product is in flavor and texture closely related to
Camembert. Brie cheeses are the same thickness as Camembert, 1 to 1¼
inches; in diameter, however, there are three or more sizes varying from 8
to 16 inches, or even greater. The largest cheeses weigh 5 to 6 pounds. As in
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Camembert, practices of making and ripening vary to such a degree as to
produce various qualities of product. These run from whole milk through all
shades of skimming. Perhaps the best established practice puts the cheese-
making room next to the stalls of the cows. The milk is drawn, strained
directly into the curdling cans and renneted while still warm,—86-92° F.
(30-33° C.). No lactic starter is added and no ripening period is given to the
milk. The other manipulations differ only in detail from Camembert.
Ripening of Brie follows the same course with the same organic agents,
namely, Camembert mold (Penicillium Camemberti) and Oidium lactis with
the accompaniment of a mixture of slimy organisms upon the surface of the
cheese. The process admits of many minor modifications each capable of
affecting the product in a characteristic way. The judgment and skill of the
maker is given a wide opportunity to establish and work toward a particular
ideal of appearance and texture and flavor. Brands with characteristic
qualities, therefore, command their own market.
Brie as known in France must not be confused with the American
"d'Isigny," or with the particular sizes of that type which have been called
Brie on account of diameter only. Very little Brie as known in France has
been made in America and only a limited amount has been imported for
very restricted trade.
154. Coulommiers.—Another member of the Camembert group is called,
from its place of origin, Coulommiers. This form is made at the same
thickness as Camembert and about 5¼ inches in diameter. It appears as
either a ripened or unripe cheese. As a ripened cheese, Coulommiers is not
essentially different from Camembert except that some brands are made
without salting. As a cheese eaten unripe, it has certain advantages over the
other cheeses with the flavor of sour milk only. The cottage and (American)
Neufchâtel group of cheeses comprises the best known forms with the acid
flavor. These cheeses are very perishable in nature. On the other hand,
Coulommiers as eaten fresh can be held and used over a much longer time
without loss. Coulommiers55 in this sense is simply a fresh Camembert.
Such a cheese, when ready for the salting process, is a firm sour mass, close
textured, almost impervious to air and but slowly permeable to liquids.
Spoilage in such a cheese begins only on the outside, and not throughout
the mass as in cottage cheese or Neufchâtel. Successive portions of such a
cheese can be removed daily over a considerable period with no loss of
produce various qualities of product. These run from whole milk through all
shades of skimming. Perhaps the best established practice puts the cheese-
making room next to the stalls of the cows. The milk is drawn, strained
directly into the curdling cans and renneted while still warm,—86-92° F.
(30-33° C.). No lactic starter is added and no ripening period is given to the
milk. The other manipulations differ only in detail from Camembert.
Ripening of Brie follows the same course with the same organic agents,
namely, Camembert mold (Penicillium Camemberti) and Oidium lactis with
the accompaniment of a mixture of slimy organisms upon the surface of the
cheese. The process admits of many minor modifications each capable of
affecting the product in a characteristic way. The judgment and skill of the
maker is given a wide opportunity to establish and work toward a particular
ideal of appearance and texture and flavor. Brands with characteristic
qualities, therefore, command their own market.
Brie as known in France must not be confused with the American
"d'Isigny," or with the particular sizes of that type which have been called
Brie on account of diameter only. Very little Brie as known in France has
been made in America and only a limited amount has been imported for
very restricted trade.
154. Coulommiers.—Another member of the Camembert group is called,
from its place of origin, Coulommiers. This form is made at the same
thickness as Camembert and about 5¼ inches in diameter. It appears as
either a ripened or unripe cheese. As a ripened cheese, Coulommiers is not
essentially different from Camembert except that some brands are made
without salting. As a cheese eaten unripe, it has certain advantages over the
other cheeses with the flavor of sour milk only. The cottage and (American)
Neufchâtel group of cheeses comprises the best known forms with the acid
flavor. These cheeses are very perishable in nature. On the other hand,
Coulommiers as eaten fresh can be held and used over a much longer time
without loss. Coulommiers55 in this sense is simply a fresh Camembert.
Such a cheese, when ready for the salting process, is a firm sour mass, close
textured, almost impervious to air and but slowly permeable to liquids.
Spoilage in such a cheese begins only on the outside, and not throughout
the mass as in cottage cheese or Neufchâtel. Successive portions of such a
cheese can be removed daily over a considerable period with no loss of
Page 128
substance aside from slight scraping at times and little or no change in
flavor. This product has very tangible merit for manufacture and use on the
farm in many sections of America.
flavor. This product has very tangible merit for manufacture and use on the
farm in many sections of America.
Page 129
CHAPTER IX
SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY BACTERIA
A bacterially-ripened series of cheeses parallels the mold-ripened group as
typified by Camembert. Although the varieties overlap, these may be
roughly grouped as: (1) those made from friable or soft curd; (2) those
made from firm or rubbery curd. In the first group, the curd is set at 86° F.,
or below; in the second, the rennet is added at 90° F. or above. In the first,
the lower temperature and long curdling time with ripened milk gives a soft
friable curd which may be toughened somewhat by cutting and stirring in
the whey. This section is typified by d'Isigny, American Brie, Liederkranz.
In the second, curdling of unripened milk at temperatures of 90° F. or above
insures a smooth elastic curd which fuses more or less completely into the
firm rubbery mass typified by freshly made Limburger.
155. The Isigny group.—A series of names, d'Isigny, Brie, Brie d'Isigny,
combined with trade names, are used for a domestic cheese, made in a small
number of factories distributed over New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan,
Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa and California. The cheeses sold under the
separate varietal names differ only in diameter; their thickness is fairly
uniform; the process of manufacture and ripening with resultant textures
and flavors furnishes no fundamental varietal characters, although the
products of the several factories show noticeable differences in market
quality. D'Isigny, while the name of a French town famous for butter
production, is not used to designate a cheese in France. It may, therefore, be
accepted as a French name arbitrarily applied to a domestic product. Brie as
used in France is a markedly different cheese (p. 131), and the name should
be dropped from this form as made in America. As used for a member of
this series made in America, it merely means cheese 7 to 15 inches in
diameter. The cheese partakes of the characters of French Livarot, and of
Pont l'Eveque without exactly reproducing either form.
The milk varies from separator skim to whole milk, with resultant
differences in quality. Freedom from gas is essential to the best results. The
milk is curdled at 85° to 86° F. with sufficient rennet to produce a very firm
SOFT CHEESES RIPENED BY BACTERIA
A bacterially-ripened series of cheeses parallels the mold-ripened group as
typified by Camembert. Although the varieties overlap, these may be
roughly grouped as: (1) those made from friable or soft curd; (2) those
made from firm or rubbery curd. In the first group, the curd is set at 86° F.,
or below; in the second, the rennet is added at 90° F. or above. In the first,
the lower temperature and long curdling time with ripened milk gives a soft
friable curd which may be toughened somewhat by cutting and stirring in
the whey. This section is typified by d'Isigny, American Brie, Liederkranz.
In the second, curdling of unripened milk at temperatures of 90° F. or above
insures a smooth elastic curd which fuses more or less completely into the
firm rubbery mass typified by freshly made Limburger.
155. The Isigny group.—A series of names, d'Isigny, Brie, Brie d'Isigny,
combined with trade names, are used for a domestic cheese, made in a small
number of factories distributed over New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan,
Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa and California. The cheeses sold under the
separate varietal names differ only in diameter; their thickness is fairly
uniform; the process of manufacture and ripening with resultant textures
and flavors furnishes no fundamental varietal characters, although the
products of the several factories show noticeable differences in market
quality. D'Isigny, while the name of a French town famous for butter
production, is not used to designate a cheese in France. It may, therefore, be
accepted as a French name arbitrarily applied to a domestic product. Brie as
used in France is a markedly different cheese (p. 131), and the name should
be dropped from this form as made in America. As used for a member of
this series made in America, it merely means cheese 7 to 15 inches in
diameter. The cheese partakes of the characters of French Livarot, and of
Pont l'Eveque without exactly reproducing either form.
The milk varies from separator skim to whole milk, with resultant
differences in quality. Freedom from gas is essential to the best results. The
milk is curdled at 85° to 86° F. with sufficient rennet to produce a very firm
Page 130
curd within a period of one and one-half hours. Curd is then cut in two
directions, allowed to stand a few minutes or gently agitated to produce a
very slight toughness or "worked" condition, then scooped into hoops 4½ to
5 inches in height and varying in diameter from 2½ to 15 inches according
to the size selected for manufacture. To aid in the escape of whey, three
rows of holes ⅟12 inch in diameter and 2 inches apart in the row are made in
each hoop. The hoops are arranged upon draining tables with more or less
corrugated surface, which for best drainage should be covered with matting.
The cheeses are allowed to drain without pressure. They are commonly
turned the second morning, although they are sometimes solid enough to
turn within the first day. When fully drained, the cheeses are salted by
rubbing coarse salt on the surface, after which they stand an extra day. They
are then arranged upon shelves in a ripening room held between 50° and
60° F. with humidity so high that evaporation is kept at a minimum. In this
room, a surface slime develops quickly. This consists of bacteria of several
forms, yeasts, Oidium lactis and accidental species of other molds. During
this ripening, the cheeses are turned, rubbed with the hands, washed with
salt water and scraped if infected with molds which produce colored
colonies. In the course of ripening, the slimy surface layer acquires a
yellowish orange color with the strong odor and taste characteristic of the
series.
Brands of d'Isigny are made from every grade between separator skim and
whole milk. They reach the market in condition all the way from "Kosher"
forms56 which are eaten entirely unripe, to brands which approximate the
qualities of Limburger and others which approach Port du Salut.
The biology and chemistry of the ripening of this type of cheese have not
been completely followed. An initial souring process always takes place
quickly. Oidium lactis is always present in some degree on the surface, but
the organisms in the yellowish to orange slime on the surface of the cheese
appear to produce the characteristic odor and taste. These appear to be due
to the development of volatile fatty acids, such as valerianic and caproic,
which diffuse throughout the cheese, even penetrating the unripened sour
portions. The same odor and taste in varying intensity are present in
Limburger, Brick, and a long series of German varieties not handled in
America.
directions, allowed to stand a few minutes or gently agitated to produce a
very slight toughness or "worked" condition, then scooped into hoops 4½ to
5 inches in height and varying in diameter from 2½ to 15 inches according
to the size selected for manufacture. To aid in the escape of whey, three
rows of holes ⅟12 inch in diameter and 2 inches apart in the row are made in
each hoop. The hoops are arranged upon draining tables with more or less
corrugated surface, which for best drainage should be covered with matting.
The cheeses are allowed to drain without pressure. They are commonly
turned the second morning, although they are sometimes solid enough to
turn within the first day. When fully drained, the cheeses are salted by
rubbing coarse salt on the surface, after which they stand an extra day. They
are then arranged upon shelves in a ripening room held between 50° and
60° F. with humidity so high that evaporation is kept at a minimum. In this
room, a surface slime develops quickly. This consists of bacteria of several
forms, yeasts, Oidium lactis and accidental species of other molds. During
this ripening, the cheeses are turned, rubbed with the hands, washed with
salt water and scraped if infected with molds which produce colored
colonies. In the course of ripening, the slimy surface layer acquires a
yellowish orange color with the strong odor and taste characteristic of the
series.
Brands of d'Isigny are made from every grade between separator skim and
whole milk. They reach the market in condition all the way from "Kosher"
forms56 which are eaten entirely unripe, to brands which approximate the
qualities of Limburger and others which approach Port du Salut.
The biology and chemistry of the ripening of this type of cheese have not
been completely followed. An initial souring process always takes place
quickly. Oidium lactis is always present in some degree on the surface, but
the organisms in the yellowish to orange slime on the surface of the cheese
appear to produce the characteristic odor and taste. These appear to be due
to the development of volatile fatty acids, such as valerianic and caproic,
which diffuse throughout the cheese, even penetrating the unripened sour
portions. The same odor and taste in varying intensity are present in
Limburger, Brick, and a long series of German varieties not handled in
America.
Page 131
High-flavored cheeses such as these, form an acceptable part of the meal in
cases in which the intensity of other flavors is such as to mask entirely the
milder flavors of Camembert or cream cheese.
In composition, a characteristic whole-milk brand of this group showed the
following analysis:57 water, 45.5 per cent; fat, 25.28 per cent; protein, 18.22
per cent.
156. Raffiné.58—This cheese is made in the French settlement of the Isle of
Orleans in the St. Lawrence River. The practice seems to have been brought
from France and represents an intermediate product between Camembert
and perhaps Livarot, a cheese on the borderline between Camembert and
Isigny as made in America. The outline of the making process as given
follows: Milk freshly drawn is curdled without cooling, at approximately
90° F. The rennet is prepared on the farm. About one-half hour is required
for curdling. The curd is cut into 2-inch cubes. Whey is removed as fast as
it separates. About two hours are required for draining. The curd then goes
into the hoops. The metal hoops, which are closed at one end, are 6 inches
high, 4½ inches in diameter, with holes about ⅟16 inch at intervals of about
½ inch, and stand upon three legs about 1 inch in height. When filled, the
cheeses are left on a draining table. Some salt is put on top while draining.
When the volume is reduced to one-half, the cheese is turned. The draining
room is kept at about 70° F. After they are firm enough to handle, drainage
is completed on racks covered with rush matting. These are arranged on
special racks. The cheeses are turned twice a day, and washed in slightly
salted water every two days. After each washing, they are drained for two
hours on cloth, and placed on clean matting. This treatment continues about
fifteen days.
After fifteen days on the matting, the cheeses are ready for ripening. They
are first covered with cold brine and let stand twenty-four hours. The
cheeses are packed in rolls or tiers in boxes, covered with cloth and ripened
at 45° F. They must be kept moist; if signs of drying appear, moisture must
be added. If the cheeses develop yellow slime, they are washed with clear
water and rinsed in water with salt added. After a ripening period of three
weeks, the cheeses should begin to be soft when pressed with the finger.
The growth of molds must be prevented by washing the boxes, cloths, and
washing and scraping the cheeses if necessary. When the cheeses are ready
cases in which the intensity of other flavors is such as to mask entirely the
milder flavors of Camembert or cream cheese.
In composition, a characteristic whole-milk brand of this group showed the
following analysis:57 water, 45.5 per cent; fat, 25.28 per cent; protein, 18.22
per cent.
156. Raffiné.58—This cheese is made in the French settlement of the Isle of
Orleans in the St. Lawrence River. The practice seems to have been brought
from France and represents an intermediate product between Camembert
and perhaps Livarot, a cheese on the borderline between Camembert and
Isigny as made in America. The outline of the making process as given
follows: Milk freshly drawn is curdled without cooling, at approximately
90° F. The rennet is prepared on the farm. About one-half hour is required
for curdling. The curd is cut into 2-inch cubes. Whey is removed as fast as
it separates. About two hours are required for draining. The curd then goes
into the hoops. The metal hoops, which are closed at one end, are 6 inches
high, 4½ inches in diameter, with holes about ⅟16 inch at intervals of about
½ inch, and stand upon three legs about 1 inch in height. When filled, the
cheeses are left on a draining table. Some salt is put on top while draining.
When the volume is reduced to one-half, the cheese is turned. The draining
room is kept at about 70° F. After they are firm enough to handle, drainage
is completed on racks covered with rush matting. These are arranged on
special racks. The cheeses are turned twice a day, and washed in slightly
salted water every two days. After each washing, they are drained for two
hours on cloth, and placed on clean matting. This treatment continues about
fifteen days.
After fifteen days on the matting, the cheeses are ready for ripening. They
are first covered with cold brine and let stand twenty-four hours. The
cheeses are packed in rolls or tiers in boxes, covered with cloth and ripened
at 45° F. They must be kept moist; if signs of drying appear, moisture must
be added. If the cheeses develop yellow slime, they are washed with clear
water and rinsed in water with salt added. After a ripening period of three
weeks, the cheeses should begin to be soft when pressed with the finger.
The growth of molds must be prevented by washing the boxes, cloths, and
washing and scraping the cheeses if necessary. When the cheeses are ready
Page 132
for the market, they are scraped clean and white, wrapped separately in
cheese-cloth or parchment paper and packed into the boxes. Ripe cheeses
are about 5 inches in diameter, 1 inch thick and weigh a little over 5 ounces.
The outline of the Raffiné process follows:
coagulation by rennet 30 minutes
cutting and draining curd 2 hours
draining in hoops 10 hours
stand on mats 15 days
ripening in boxes 21 days
Total period 36 days
The treatment described closely resembles the handling of Livarot cheese in
the department of Calvados, France.
157. Liederkranz cheese.—Among the specialties in the bacterial group is
Liederkranz, made from curd with the soft friable texture of a Camembert,
molded in rectangular blocks of about 4 ounces in weight and ripened very
completely. Although this name is the private brand of a single factory, it
has become widely known with the effect of creating a type name in the
American market. Analysis of this brand of cheese gives about 55 per cent
water, 25 per cent fat, 17 per cent protein, which indicates a whole milk
cheese.
158. Limburger cheese59 derives its name from the town of Limburg in
Belgium. The manufacture of this cheese is now widely practiced in Europe
and in certain parts of the United States, especially in New York and
Wisconsin. Practically no cheese of this name is at present imported, and
the practices described are limited to those in American factories.
159. The milk.—Limburger cheese is probably best known on account of
its pronounced odor. Because of this characteristic pungent smell, it is often
thought that the cheese is made in dirty or unsanitary places. On the
contrary, Limburger cheese is usually made in small factories which are
clean and sanitary. Because of the constant attention required, a cheese-
maker can handle only about 2000-2500 pounds of milk a day, and then
some help is necessary to care for the cheeses in the curing room.60 The
discussion of the milk given in Chapter II applies to that to be made into
cheese-cloth or parchment paper and packed into the boxes. Ripe cheeses
are about 5 inches in diameter, 1 inch thick and weigh a little over 5 ounces.
The outline of the Raffiné process follows:
coagulation by rennet 30 minutes
cutting and draining curd 2 hours
draining in hoops 10 hours
stand on mats 15 days
ripening in boxes 21 days
Total period 36 days
The treatment described closely resembles the handling of Livarot cheese in
the department of Calvados, France.
157. Liederkranz cheese.—Among the specialties in the bacterial group is
Liederkranz, made from curd with the soft friable texture of a Camembert,
molded in rectangular blocks of about 4 ounces in weight and ripened very
completely. Although this name is the private brand of a single factory, it
has become widely known with the effect of creating a type name in the
American market. Analysis of this brand of cheese gives about 55 per cent
water, 25 per cent fat, 17 per cent protein, which indicates a whole milk
cheese.
158. Limburger cheese59 derives its name from the town of Limburg in
Belgium. The manufacture of this cheese is now widely practiced in Europe
and in certain parts of the United States, especially in New York and
Wisconsin. Practically no cheese of this name is at present imported, and
the practices described are limited to those in American factories.
159. The milk.—Limburger cheese is probably best known on account of
its pronounced odor. Because of this characteristic pungent smell, it is often
thought that the cheese is made in dirty or unsanitary places. On the
contrary, Limburger cheese is usually made in small factories which are
clean and sanitary. Because of the constant attention required, a cheese-
maker can handle only about 2000-2500 pounds of milk a day, and then
some help is necessary to care for the cheeses in the curing room.60 The
discussion of the milk given in Chapter II applies to that to be made into
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Limburger cheese; however, Limburger requires sweeter milk than do some
of the other types. To be sure of obtaining very sweet milk, it is the usual
practice for the milk to be delivered without cooling morning and evening
at the cheese factory. The cheese is made twice a day. Because the milk
must be delivered twice daily, it is obtained from only a few producers near
the factory. A factory usually does not have more than eight to twelve
patrons. Because of the small number of patrons, it is comparatively easy to
obtain a supply of fresh clean milk.
of the other types. To be sure of obtaining very sweet milk, it is the usual
practice for the milk to be delivered without cooling morning and evening
at the cheese factory. The cheese is made twice a day. Because the milk
must be delivered twice daily, it is obtained from only a few producers near
the factory. A factory usually does not have more than eight to twelve
patrons. Because of the small number of patrons, it is comparatively easy to
obtain a supply of fresh clean milk.
Page 134
Fig. 23.—A common type of Limburger cheese factory.
The factories are variously built. A common type takes advantage of sloping
ground so that the floor at one end may be on the ground level and run
backward into a hillside until the other end is a cellar with small windows at
the ceiling opening at the ground level (Fig. 23). The family of the cheese-
maker often lives in the same building above the factory.
160. Making the cheese.—Limburger cheese is made from the whole milk.
When the milk is received at the factory, it is placed in the cheese vat. As
the milk is delivered both morning and evening without cooling, it reaches
the factory at a temperature of 90 to 96° F. In some cases the night's and
morning's milk is mixed and then warmed to about 94° F. This practice is
not recommended but is frequently adopted, when the supply of milk
becomes too small to work in two lots. As soon as all of the milk has been
delivered, the cheese-making process begins. No starter is used. The milk is
not ripened because no acid development during the making process is
desired. The milk is set or curdled at the temperature at which it is received
at the factory, usually from 90 to 96° F. Sufficient rennet extract is used to
give a firm coagulation in twenty to thirty minutes. This usually requires 2½
to 3 ounces of rennet extract for each 1000 pounds of milk: This is diluted
in about forty times its own volume of cold water and added to the milk.
(For method of adding rennet extract to milk, see Chapter V.) When the
coagulum has become firm so that it will split clean over the finger, the curd
The factories are variously built. A common type takes advantage of sloping
ground so that the floor at one end may be on the ground level and run
backward into a hillside until the other end is a cellar with small windows at
the ceiling opening at the ground level (Fig. 23). The family of the cheese-
maker often lives in the same building above the factory.
160. Making the cheese.—Limburger cheese is made from the whole milk.
When the milk is received at the factory, it is placed in the cheese vat. As
the milk is delivered both morning and evening without cooling, it reaches
the factory at a temperature of 90 to 96° F. In some cases the night's and
morning's milk is mixed and then warmed to about 94° F. This practice is
not recommended but is frequently adopted, when the supply of milk
becomes too small to work in two lots. As soon as all of the milk has been
delivered, the cheese-making process begins. No starter is used. The milk is
not ripened because no acid development during the making process is
desired. The milk is set or curdled at the temperature at which it is received
at the factory, usually from 90 to 96° F. Sufficient rennet extract is used to
give a firm coagulation in twenty to thirty minutes. This usually requires 2½
to 3 ounces of rennet extract for each 1000 pounds of milk: This is diluted
in about forty times its own volume of cold water and added to the milk.
(For method of adding rennet extract to milk, see Chapter V.) When the
coagulum has become firm so that it will split clean over the finger, the curd
Page 135
is ready to cut. Coarse Cheddar cheese knives are used. Sometimes only the
perpendicular knife is employed, and the curd is broken up while being
stirred with the hands and rake. This usually causes a large fat loss. After
cutting, the curd is stirred first by hand and later with an ordinary wooden
hay rake. Usually the curd is not "cooked" or heated after setting, though
occasionally it is brought up as high as 96° F. to 98° F. If the curd does not
firm up, the temperature may be raised to 98° to 100° F. to aid in expelling
the moisture.
When ready to dip, the curd should still be in large soft shiny pieces. It
requires from one hour to an hour and thirty minutes from the time the
rennet extract is added until the curd is ready to dip. When, in the judgment
of the cheese-maker, the curd has become sufficiently firmed in the whey,
the whey is drawn down to the surface of the curd. The curd is then dipped
into the Limburger molds. These molds are 5 inches square by 8 inches
deep without top or bottom. Usually there are five or six of these molds
built together into a section. These molds are placed on a draining table
beside the vat and the curd is ladled into them with a large tin ladle. The
draining table has strips on both sides and one end and slants toward the
other end so that the whey will drain from the curd and yet not go on the
floor except at the one end. This makes it easy to save and catch the whey
for stock feed.
161. Draining and salting Limburger.—In some factories, a clean piece
of burlap is put on the draining table and the molds and curd placed on the
burlap. This aids in the rapid draining of the whey from the curd and
prevents the loss of curd particles. The curd should be turned frequently in
the mold to obtain uniform draining. The molds are transferred to the
salting room as soon as well drained, usually in about twelve hours, but
sometimes they are left until the following morning. Here they are placed
on another draining table, which has strips about 5 inches high on the sides
and one end. The cheeses are placed along this board, each cheese being
separated by a piece of board 4 inches high and 5 inches wide. When the
row is filled, a long strip the length of the table is placed against the row.
Another row is laid down against this strip in the same manner as the first,
and so on until several rows are on the table. The last long strip is held
firmly in place by sticks wedged between it and the opposite side of the
table. These strips and pieces form a mold for each cheese while draining.
perpendicular knife is employed, and the curd is broken up while being
stirred with the hands and rake. This usually causes a large fat loss. After
cutting, the curd is stirred first by hand and later with an ordinary wooden
hay rake. Usually the curd is not "cooked" or heated after setting, though
occasionally it is brought up as high as 96° F. to 98° F. If the curd does not
firm up, the temperature may be raised to 98° to 100° F. to aid in expelling
the moisture.
When ready to dip, the curd should still be in large soft shiny pieces. It
requires from one hour to an hour and thirty minutes from the time the
rennet extract is added until the curd is ready to dip. When, in the judgment
of the cheese-maker, the curd has become sufficiently firmed in the whey,
the whey is drawn down to the surface of the curd. The curd is then dipped
into the Limburger molds. These molds are 5 inches square by 8 inches
deep without top or bottom. Usually there are five or six of these molds
built together into a section. These molds are placed on a draining table
beside the vat and the curd is ladled into them with a large tin ladle. The
draining table has strips on both sides and one end and slants toward the
other end so that the whey will drain from the curd and yet not go on the
floor except at the one end. This makes it easy to save and catch the whey
for stock feed.
161. Draining and salting Limburger.—In some factories, a clean piece
of burlap is put on the draining table and the molds and curd placed on the
burlap. This aids in the rapid draining of the whey from the curd and
prevents the loss of curd particles. The curd should be turned frequently in
the mold to obtain uniform draining. The molds are transferred to the
salting room as soon as well drained, usually in about twelve hours, but
sometimes they are left until the following morning. Here they are placed
on another draining table, which has strips about 5 inches high on the sides
and one end. The cheeses are placed along this board, each cheese being
separated by a piece of board 4 inches high and 5 inches wide. When the
row is filled, a long strip the length of the table is placed against the row.
Another row is laid down against this strip in the same manner as the first,
and so on until several rows are on the table. The last long strip is held
firmly in place by sticks wedged between it and the opposite side of the
table. These strips and pieces form a mold for each cheese while draining.
Page 136
Usually the cheeses are turned several times in this period to obtain a
uniform expulsion of whey. In about twenty-four hours the cheeses are
ready to be salted. This is done by applying the salt to the outside of the
cheese. The edges are rolled in a box of salt and the salt then rubbed on the
two broad surfaces. Any excess salt is brushed from the cheese with the
hand. The cheeses are then laid on a draining table in single layers. The
second day, they are salted again in the same way and piled two deep; they
are salted again the third day and piled three or four layers deep. The salting
room or cellar should have a temperature of 60° F. and be fairly damp. The
amount of salt used is very important. The tendency is to use too much salt.
This retards the ripening process and in extreme cases gives the cheese a
salty taste. If not enough salt is used, the cheese will deteriorate very
rapidly on account of the development of undesirable types of fermentation.
The cheeses when salted are then placed in the curing room, which is a
cellar, usually beyond the salting room. This cellar should have a
temperature of 58° to 64° F. and a relative humidity of 95 per cent of
saturation. In winter it is necessary to have a fire to keep the rooms warm,
otherwise the cheese would cure very slowly or not at all. In some factories
the curing and salting cellars are a single room.
162. Ripening Limburger.—When first placed in the curing cellar, the
cheeses are put on edge close together, and as they cure are gradually
separated. While in the curing cellar, the cheese must be rubbed frequently
by hand and washed, usually with salt water. The object of the rubbing is to
keep the surface of the cheese moist and prevent the growth of molds. The
drier the cheese and the more mold, the oftener the cheeses must be rubbed.
The drying or the evaporation from the cheese can be retarded by sprinkling
the floor of the cellar with water. When first placed in the curing cellar, they
are usually rubbed daily; after a few days they are rubbed every other day
and finally as often as the cheese-maker can find time to work at them. The
more the cheeses are rubbed, the better the rind.
In the curing of Limburger cheese, protein compounds are attacked by the
micro-organisms. Certain highly-flavored fatty acids are commonly
produced.61 This change works most rapidly near the outside and more
slowly toward the center of the cheese. The stage of ripening can be
determined by examining the cheese. When first made, a cheese is harsh
and hard and the outside is more or less white: as the curing changes take
uniform expulsion of whey. In about twenty-four hours the cheeses are
ready to be salted. This is done by applying the salt to the outside of the
cheese. The edges are rolled in a box of salt and the salt then rubbed on the
two broad surfaces. Any excess salt is brushed from the cheese with the
hand. The cheeses are then laid on a draining table in single layers. The
second day, they are salted again in the same way and piled two deep; they
are salted again the third day and piled three or four layers deep. The salting
room or cellar should have a temperature of 60° F. and be fairly damp. The
amount of salt used is very important. The tendency is to use too much salt.
This retards the ripening process and in extreme cases gives the cheese a
salty taste. If not enough salt is used, the cheese will deteriorate very
rapidly on account of the development of undesirable types of fermentation.
The cheeses when salted are then placed in the curing room, which is a
cellar, usually beyond the salting room. This cellar should have a
temperature of 58° to 64° F. and a relative humidity of 95 per cent of
saturation. In winter it is necessary to have a fire to keep the rooms warm,
otherwise the cheese would cure very slowly or not at all. In some factories
the curing and salting cellars are a single room.
162. Ripening Limburger.—When first placed in the curing cellar, the
cheeses are put on edge close together, and as they cure are gradually
separated. While in the curing cellar, the cheese must be rubbed frequently
by hand and washed, usually with salt water. The object of the rubbing is to
keep the surface of the cheese moist and prevent the growth of molds. The
drier the cheese and the more mold, the oftener the cheeses must be rubbed.
The drying or the evaporation from the cheese can be retarded by sprinkling
the floor of the cellar with water. When first placed in the curing cellar, they
are usually rubbed daily; after a few days they are rubbed every other day
and finally as often as the cheese-maker can find time to work at them. The
more the cheeses are rubbed, the better the rind.
In the curing of Limburger cheese, protein compounds are attacked by the
micro-organisms. Certain highly-flavored fatty acids are commonly
produced.61 This change works most rapidly near the outside and more
slowly toward the center of the cheese. The stage of ripening can be
determined by examining the cheese. When first made, a cheese is harsh
and hard and the outside is more or less white: as the curing changes take
Page 137
place, the cheese becomes soft and pasty or buttery. The outside color
changes from a whitish to a yellowish and finally even a reddish brown. It
requires considerable time for the ripening agents to work from the outside
to the center of the cheese. As ripening progresses, Limburger cheeses tend
to become soft enough to break in handling. If such cheeses are wrapped in
manila paper after three to four weeks of ripening and packed in boxes,
losses from handling are eliminated. One loose board is left on each box
and the boxes remain in the ripening cellar until the cheese-maker decides
by removal and examination of cheeses from time to time that they are
ready for shipment. When fully ripe, the cheese spoils very quickly. Unless
handled very carefully, the outer part may actually rot before the interior is
fully ripe. The cheeses are shipped from the factory when they are eight to
ten weeks old. They are then placed in cold storage, which checks the
action of the ripening agents and so lengthens the commercial life of the
cheese.
163. Marketing and qualities of Limburger.—As shipped from the
factory, each cheese is wrapped in heavy manila paper and frequently also
in tin-foil. The cheeses are packed in boxes which hold forty-eight. Each
cheese weighs about two pounds.
Limburger cheese should be regular in shape. The rind should not be
cracked or broken nor the sides bulged, nor should it be lopsided. It should
have the pronounced characteristic flavor, without other objectionable
flavors due to undesirable fermentations. The body should be uniform
throughout. It is common to find cheeses that have not a uniform body, due
to lack of curing; a small part of the interior at the center will be hard and
not cured, while the remainder of the cheese will be soft and buttery. The
color should be uniform. When not entirely cured, the uncured part at the
center is usually of a lighter color.
The cheese should contain the proper amount of salt. The most common
defect is in the flavor. If the milk is not free from bad odors and flavors,
these are apt to be more pronounced in the cheese than in the milk. (For
care of milk see Chapter II.) Gas-forming fermentations are very bad in this
variety of cheese as they cannot be controlled and give the cheese a bad
flavor and a "gassy body." When a cheese is gassy, the sides are most liable
to be bulged and the body is full of gas holes or pockets. Another defect is a
changes from a whitish to a yellowish and finally even a reddish brown. It
requires considerable time for the ripening agents to work from the outside
to the center of the cheese. As ripening progresses, Limburger cheeses tend
to become soft enough to break in handling. If such cheeses are wrapped in
manila paper after three to four weeks of ripening and packed in boxes,
losses from handling are eliminated. One loose board is left on each box
and the boxes remain in the ripening cellar until the cheese-maker decides
by removal and examination of cheeses from time to time that they are
ready for shipment. When fully ripe, the cheese spoils very quickly. Unless
handled very carefully, the outer part may actually rot before the interior is
fully ripe. The cheeses are shipped from the factory when they are eight to
ten weeks old. They are then placed in cold storage, which checks the
action of the ripening agents and so lengthens the commercial life of the
cheese.
163. Marketing and qualities of Limburger.—As shipped from the
factory, each cheese is wrapped in heavy manila paper and frequently also
in tin-foil. The cheeses are packed in boxes which hold forty-eight. Each
cheese weighs about two pounds.
Limburger cheese should be regular in shape. The rind should not be
cracked or broken nor the sides bulged, nor should it be lopsided. It should
have the pronounced characteristic flavor, without other objectionable
flavors due to undesirable fermentations. The body should be uniform
throughout. It is common to find cheeses that have not a uniform body, due
to lack of curing; a small part of the interior at the center will be hard and
not cured, while the remainder of the cheese will be soft and buttery. The
color should be uniform. When not entirely cured, the uncured part at the
center is usually of a lighter color.
The cheese should contain the proper amount of salt. The most common
defect is in the flavor. If the milk is not free from bad odors and flavors,
these are apt to be more pronounced in the cheese than in the milk. (For
care of milk see Chapter II.) Gas-forming fermentations are very bad in this
variety of cheese as they cannot be controlled and give the cheese a bad
flavor and a "gassy body." When a cheese is gassy, the sides are most liable
to be bulged and the body is full of gas holes or pockets. Another defect is a
Page 138
sour cheese. This is caused by the development of too much acid in the milk
or during the manufacturing process. A sour cheese usually cures slowly
and has a pronounced sour taste. The body is hard and bitter.
If the cheese contains too much moisture, it will cure rapidly and the body
will be very soft and pasty. In extreme cases it will be so soft that it will run
when the rind is broken. On the other hand if the cheese does not contain
sufficient moisture, it will cure very slowly and the body will be hard and
dry and sometimes crumbly. There is no standard score-card for judging
Limburger cheese. The Wisconsin Cheese-makers Association62 uses the
following score-card for Limburger:
Flavor 40
Texture 40
Color 10
Salt 5
Style 5
——
Total 100
164. Yield and composition of Limburger.—The yield of cheese depends
on: (1) the amount of fat and other solids in the milk from which it is made;
(2) the amount of moisture incorporated into cheese; (3) the loss of solids
during the manufacturing process.
The yield varies from 12 to 14 pounds of cheese from 100 pounds of milk.
The more fat and other solids in the milk, the more cheese can be made
from 100 pounds of the milk. The more moisture incorporated into the
cheese, the larger the yield. The quality of the cheese and the amount of
solids determine the amount of moisture that can be incorporated into the
cheese. The greater the losses during the manufacturing process, the less is
the yield. The composition of Limburger cheese is affected by the same
factors as the yield. The average cheese probably carries from 40 to 42 per
cent of moisture. Limburger cheeses will vary in composition from this
analysis about as follows: water 38 to 44 percent, protein 21 to 25 percent,
fat 25 to 30 percent. The differences in practice in factory groups are
considerable. Certain markets call for more solid brands, others for the very
soft forms.
or during the manufacturing process. A sour cheese usually cures slowly
and has a pronounced sour taste. The body is hard and bitter.
If the cheese contains too much moisture, it will cure rapidly and the body
will be very soft and pasty. In extreme cases it will be so soft that it will run
when the rind is broken. On the other hand if the cheese does not contain
sufficient moisture, it will cure very slowly and the body will be hard and
dry and sometimes crumbly. There is no standard score-card for judging
Limburger cheese. The Wisconsin Cheese-makers Association62 uses the
following score-card for Limburger:
Flavor 40
Texture 40
Color 10
Salt 5
Style 5
——
Total 100
164. Yield and composition of Limburger.—The yield of cheese depends
on: (1) the amount of fat and other solids in the milk from which it is made;
(2) the amount of moisture incorporated into cheese; (3) the loss of solids
during the manufacturing process.
The yield varies from 12 to 14 pounds of cheese from 100 pounds of milk.
The more fat and other solids in the milk, the more cheese can be made
from 100 pounds of the milk. The more moisture incorporated into the
cheese, the larger the yield. The quality of the cheese and the amount of
solids determine the amount of moisture that can be incorporated into the
cheese. The greater the losses during the manufacturing process, the less is
the yield. The composition of Limburger cheese is affected by the same
factors as the yield. The average cheese probably carries from 40 to 42 per
cent of moisture. Limburger cheeses will vary in composition from this
analysis about as follows: water 38 to 44 percent, protein 21 to 25 percent,
fat 25 to 30 percent. The differences in practice in factory groups are
considerable. Certain markets call for more solid brands, others for the very
soft forms.
Page 139
165. Münster cheese originated in Germany near the city whose name it
bears. There is a limited demand for this variety in America; therefore it is
not extensively made. It is usually manufactured from whole milk in a
Limburger or Brick cheese factory. The process of manufacture is between
that of these two varieties in temperatures used, firmness of curd and
amount of moisture in the curd and cheese. The process is probably more
like that of Limburger. The curd is firmed more in the whey than for
Limburger, and more acid is developed. The cheeses are pressed or drained
in round forms 7 inches in diameter and 6 inches high. The hoops are lined
with cloth to prevent the loss of curd particles while draining. When the
cheeses are sufficiently drained, until they are firm enough to hold their
shape, the cloths are removed. The cheese is salted by rubbing dry salt on
the surface or soaking the cheese in brine. The product is handled in the
curing room very much the same as Limburger or Brick cheese. When
sufficiently ripe, each cheese is wrapped in parchment paper and placed in a
separate wooden box. This cheese, when cured, has a characteristic flavor
which is between that of Limburger and Brick. The body is more or less
open. The essential factor in the manufacture of Münster cheese is clean
milk. Bad fermentations, such as produce gas and bad flavors, seriously
interfere with the manufacture and sale of the product. The cheese is usually
made in the late fall and winter, when it is difficult to manufacture
Limburger.
bears. There is a limited demand for this variety in America; therefore it is
not extensively made. It is usually manufactured from whole milk in a
Limburger or Brick cheese factory. The process of manufacture is between
that of these two varieties in temperatures used, firmness of curd and
amount of moisture in the curd and cheese. The process is probably more
like that of Limburger. The curd is firmed more in the whey than for
Limburger, and more acid is developed. The cheeses are pressed or drained
in round forms 7 inches in diameter and 6 inches high. The hoops are lined
with cloth to prevent the loss of curd particles while draining. When the
cheeses are sufficiently drained, until they are firm enough to hold their
shape, the cloths are removed. The cheese is salted by rubbing dry salt on
the surface or soaking the cheese in brine. The product is handled in the
curing room very much the same as Limburger or Brick cheese. When
sufficiently ripe, each cheese is wrapped in parchment paper and placed in a
separate wooden box. This cheese, when cured, has a characteristic flavor
which is between that of Limburger and Brick. The body is more or less
open. The essential factor in the manufacture of Münster cheese is clean
milk. Bad fermentations, such as produce gas and bad flavors, seriously
interfere with the manufacture and sale of the product. The cheese is usually
made in the late fall and winter, when it is difficult to manufacture
Limburger.
Page 140
CHAPTER X
SEMI-HARD CHEESES
Between the quickly perishable soft cheeses and the typical hard group, are
two series of varieties, one ripened by green mold and best known by
Roquefort, the other ripened by bacteria and typified by Brick cheese.
These cheeses are fairly firm, hold their shape well, ripen over a period
varying from a few weeks to several months and their marketable period is
comparatively long. In texture they are intermediate between the conditions
known as "soft" and "hard." In water-content, they range at their best from
37 to 45 percent. Outside these limits, the cheeses are often marketable but
they lose in quality63 and trueness to type.
166. The green mold group.—There are three well-known semi-hard
cheeses ripened by green or blue-green mold.64 The mold is an incidental
factor in certain other forms but none of these forms has won larger than
local or purely national recognition. French Roquefort, on the contrary, is
probably the most widely known of all cheeses. Stilton, to a small degree at
least, has followed the English to the many lands they inhabit. Gorgonzola,
although made in Italy alone, has a large market in other parts of Europe
and in America. In the manipulations of manufacture, these forms are not
closely related but they resemble each other in that each becomes streaked
or marbled by the growth of green mold (Penicillium Roqueforti) through
open spaces within the cheese. The "blue-veined" or marbled cheeses have
a characteristic taste which is developed in its most typical form in
Roquefort.
167.—This is a rennet cheese made from sheep's milk (with occasional and
minor admixture of goat's and cow's milk) in the section of southern France
centering about Roquefort in Aveyron. The practices are standardized and
controlled by a few companies, thus reaching exceptional uniformity.
Roquefort is uncolored, open, made from firm but brittle or crumbly, not
tough or waxy curd. Each cheese is about 7¼ inches (20 cm.) in diameter
and 3¼ inches (9 cm.) in thickness without a definite rind, and when ripe
enough for market is scraped carefully, closely covered with tin-foil and
SEMI-HARD CHEESES
Between the quickly perishable soft cheeses and the typical hard group, are
two series of varieties, one ripened by green mold and best known by
Roquefort, the other ripened by bacteria and typified by Brick cheese.
These cheeses are fairly firm, hold their shape well, ripen over a period
varying from a few weeks to several months and their marketable period is
comparatively long. In texture they are intermediate between the conditions
known as "soft" and "hard." In water-content, they range at their best from
37 to 45 percent. Outside these limits, the cheeses are often marketable but
they lose in quality63 and trueness to type.
166. The green mold group.—There are three well-known semi-hard
cheeses ripened by green or blue-green mold.64 The mold is an incidental
factor in certain other forms but none of these forms has won larger than
local or purely national recognition. French Roquefort, on the contrary, is
probably the most widely known of all cheeses. Stilton, to a small degree at
least, has followed the English to the many lands they inhabit. Gorgonzola,
although made in Italy alone, has a large market in other parts of Europe
and in America. In the manipulations of manufacture, these forms are not
closely related but they resemble each other in that each becomes streaked
or marbled by the growth of green mold (Penicillium Roqueforti) through
open spaces within the cheese. The "blue-veined" or marbled cheeses have
a characteristic taste which is developed in its most typical form in
Roquefort.
167.—This is a rennet cheese made from sheep's milk (with occasional and
minor admixture of goat's and cow's milk) in the section of southern France
centering about Roquefort in Aveyron. The practices are standardized and
controlled by a few companies, thus reaching exceptional uniformity.
Roquefort is uncolored, open, made from firm but brittle or crumbly, not
tough or waxy curd. Each cheese is about 7¼ inches (20 cm.) in diameter
and 3¼ inches (9 cm.) in thickness without a definite rind, and when ripe
enough for market is scraped carefully, closely covered with tin-foil and
Page 141
kept in refrigerators. The cut cheese shows extensive open spaces which are
lined with green mold. This cheese, in addition to a strong cheesy odor and
taste, has a peppery or burning quality which according to Currie65 is due to
the formation of volatile fatty acids such as caproic, caprylic and capric
from the butter-fat of the sheep's milk used. A series for Roquefort cheeses
selected for excellent quality was found by Dox66 to show the following
composition:
TABLE IV
Composition of Roquefort Cheese
lined with green mold. This cheese, in addition to a strong cheesy odor and
taste, has a peppery or burning quality which according to Currie65 is due to
the formation of volatile fatty acids such as caproic, caprylic and capric
from the butter-fat of the sheep's milk used. A series for Roquefort cheeses
selected for excellent quality was found by Dox66 to show the following
composition:
TABLE IV
Composition of Roquefort Cheese
Page 142
Water Fat Protein Ash Salt
Per Per Per Per Per
Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent
Fat 38.69 32.31 21.39 6.14 4.14
Minimum 37.49 31.50 19.14 5.18 3.64
Maximum 40.10 33.53 23.06 6.81 4.88
The composition of the sheep's milk of the Roquefort producing region is
reported by Marre:67
TABLE V
Composition of Sheep's Milk
Per Per Per Per Per
Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent
Fat 38.69 32.31 21.39 6.14 4.14
Minimum 37.49 31.50 19.14 5.18 3.64
Maximum 40.10 33.53 23.06 6.81 4.88
The composition of the sheep's milk of the Roquefort producing region is
reported by Marre:67
TABLE V
Composition of Sheep's Milk
Page 143
Water Casein Fat Lactose Ash
Per Per Per Per Per
Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent
Range 76-83 5-8 5.5-10.5 4 to 5 .8-1.2
Average 79.5 6.5 8.0 4.5 1.0
The cheeses when properly made in the local factories are transported to
Roquefort for ripening in the famous caves which have made possible the
development of a great industry.
The Roquefort caves were originally natural openings leading back into the
face of a cliff until they reached a deep, narrow fault or crack in the rock
leading to the plains above. The cooler air from the plains came down this
crack over moist and dripping rocks and issued through these clefts in a
cold moisture-laden current which kept the caves about 50 to 55° F. and
moist enough to ripen the cheeses without shrinkage. As the business
outgrew the natural caves, great cellars, some of them five or six floors
deep, were excavated and tunnels were dug back to the crack so that the
strong ventilating current reaches every part of the cellars and keeps both
temperature and relative humidity favorable to the ripening of the cheeses.
168. Cow's milk or Façons Roquefort.—The supply of Roquefort is
automatically limited by the supply of sheep's milk. The sheep gives milk
only about five months in the year and at best a scant average of about a
pint a day to a sheep. Sheep's milk for cheese-making is not produced,
therefore, outside of very limited regions. Some cow's and goat's milk
unavoidably finds its way regularly into the industry itself. Attempts were
naturally made to substitute cow's milk. Outside the controlled area,
factories were established for this purpose. The quality of the product did
not equal that of the Roquefort factories, and French courts decreed that the
name Roquefort should not be used for such products. Although some local
success was obtained, not much progress was made against the intrenched
Roquefort industry. Similar attempts to make such a product in Germany68
were tried on an extensive scale but failed. More recently, under the
inspiration of Conn, the United States Department of Agriculture and the
Storrs Experiment Station have studied the possibilities of such an industry.
Per Per Per Per Per
Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent
Range 76-83 5-8 5.5-10.5 4 to 5 .8-1.2
Average 79.5 6.5 8.0 4.5 1.0
The cheeses when properly made in the local factories are transported to
Roquefort for ripening in the famous caves which have made possible the
development of a great industry.
The Roquefort caves were originally natural openings leading back into the
face of a cliff until they reached a deep, narrow fault or crack in the rock
leading to the plains above. The cooler air from the plains came down this
crack over moist and dripping rocks and issued through these clefts in a
cold moisture-laden current which kept the caves about 50 to 55° F. and
moist enough to ripen the cheeses without shrinkage. As the business
outgrew the natural caves, great cellars, some of them five or six floors
deep, were excavated and tunnels were dug back to the crack so that the
strong ventilating current reaches every part of the cellars and keeps both
temperature and relative humidity favorable to the ripening of the cheeses.
168. Cow's milk or Façons Roquefort.—The supply of Roquefort is
automatically limited by the supply of sheep's milk. The sheep gives milk
only about five months in the year and at best a scant average of about a
pint a day to a sheep. Sheep's milk for cheese-making is not produced,
therefore, outside of very limited regions. Some cow's and goat's milk
unavoidably finds its way regularly into the industry itself. Attempts were
naturally made to substitute cow's milk. Outside the controlled area,
factories were established for this purpose. The quality of the product did
not equal that of the Roquefort factories, and French courts decreed that the
name Roquefort should not be used for such products. Although some local
success was obtained, not much progress was made against the intrenched
Roquefort industry. Similar attempts to make such a product in Germany68
were tried on an extensive scale but failed. More recently, under the
inspiration of Conn, the United States Department of Agriculture and the
Storrs Experiment Station have studied the possibilities of such an industry.
Page 144
Although the work is not completed, the preliminary reports69 have
indicated the fundamental principles which must underlie such
development.
169. Outline of making Roquefort.—Some of the results of these
experiments are summarized in the following paragraphs:
Milk.—Clean-flavored fresh milk testing 4-4.2 per cent fat and up to 2.8 per
cent casein gives the best results. The milk with a high percentage of
cheese-making solids forms a firmer curd, hence works up better in the
process than milk of lower quality.
Acidity.—The milk is ripened by lactic starter up to an acidity of 0.23 per
cent titrated as lactic acid at the time rennet is added. This gives a firm curd,
which drains to the desired water-content but is low enough to prevent the
toughening effect of too high acid. A very slight increase in initial acid—1
to 2 hundredths per cent—combined with the rate at which acidity is
developing introduces such physical changes in texture as to make the final
texture of Roquefort impossible.
Temperature.—Rennet is added at or below 84° F. Every degree of heat
adds definitely to the efficiency of rennet. Below 82° F., curdling becomes
slower and the coagulum softer and more difficult to drain. The sheep's
milk curd is made from 76° to 84° F. but sheep's milk has about twice the
cheese solids found in cow's milk. It was found necessary to raise the
temperature as high as texture would permit. However, at 86° F. the
physical character of the curd tends to become tough or waxy in handling.
At 84° F. the curd remains brittle and crumbly. It was, therefore, necessary
to keep the curdling temperature down to 84° F.
Renneting or setting.—Rennet at a rate of 3 to 4 ounces of standard liquid
rennet to 1000 pounds (10 to 12 c.c. to 100 pounds) was found to give the
best curd under experimental conditions.
Curdling time.—One and one-half to two hours gave most satisfactory
results in forming curd. This should be very firm and stand until it begins to
"sweat," until beads of whey have begun to collect upon its surface.
Cutting.—The cow's milk curd gave best results when cut in two directions
with the half-inch curd knife. The resulting columns, a half inch square in
indicated the fundamental principles which must underlie such
development.
169. Outline of making Roquefort.—Some of the results of these
experiments are summarized in the following paragraphs:
Milk.—Clean-flavored fresh milk testing 4-4.2 per cent fat and up to 2.8 per
cent casein gives the best results. The milk with a high percentage of
cheese-making solids forms a firmer curd, hence works up better in the
process than milk of lower quality.
Acidity.—The milk is ripened by lactic starter up to an acidity of 0.23 per
cent titrated as lactic acid at the time rennet is added. This gives a firm curd,
which drains to the desired water-content but is low enough to prevent the
toughening effect of too high acid. A very slight increase in initial acid—1
to 2 hundredths per cent—combined with the rate at which acidity is
developing introduces such physical changes in texture as to make the final
texture of Roquefort impossible.
Temperature.—Rennet is added at or below 84° F. Every degree of heat
adds definitely to the efficiency of rennet. Below 82° F., curdling becomes
slower and the coagulum softer and more difficult to drain. The sheep's
milk curd is made from 76° to 84° F. but sheep's milk has about twice the
cheese solids found in cow's milk. It was found necessary to raise the
temperature as high as texture would permit. However, at 86° F. the
physical character of the curd tends to become tough or waxy in handling.
At 84° F. the curd remains brittle and crumbly. It was, therefore, necessary
to keep the curdling temperature down to 84° F.
Renneting or setting.—Rennet at a rate of 3 to 4 ounces of standard liquid
rennet to 1000 pounds (10 to 12 c.c. to 100 pounds) was found to give the
best curd under experimental conditions.
Curdling time.—One and one-half to two hours gave most satisfactory
results in forming curd. This should be very firm and stand until it begins to
"sweat," until beads of whey have begun to collect upon its surface.
Cutting.—The cow's milk curd gave best results when cut in two directions
with the half-inch curd knife. The resulting columns, a half inch square in
Page 145
cross-section, may be handled without excessive losses.
Draining.—The cut curd is dipped to a draining rack covered with cloth
with as little breaking as possible. During the draining process, a certain
amount of turning is necessary to facilitate the separation and escape of the
whey. If handled too much, losses of fat are increased and the curd becomes
tough or waxy instead of remaining brittle or crumbly. When properly
handled, not over 0.35 per cent of fat is lost. Under favorable conditions,
four-ninths to two-thirds of the original weight of curd will separate and run
off as whey in twenty to thirty minutes. The curd meanwhile is exposed to
the air of the room and cools toward room temperature. If cooling goes too
far, further drainage is interfered with. Hence the curd is put into the hoop
and the drainage completed while the cheese is reaching its final form.
Hoop.—Hoops for cow's milk Roquefort must be 7½ inches in diameter
and about 5¾ inches high to hold curd enough to produce a cheese the size
of the standard Roquefort when completely drained. Sheep's milk with its
higher percentage of solids does not require such high hoops. The curd as it
goes into the hoop should be a soft, pulpy mass with no suggestion of
toughness.
Inoculation with mold.—The mold for Roquefort cheese (Penicillium
Roqueforti70) is readily grown in pure culture in ordinary loaves of bread.
For this purpose loaves hot from the oven are quickly drenched with or
immersed in hot paraffine to form an impervious crust to retain moisture as
well as to keep out contaminations. It is then allowed to cool. The interior
of each loaf is inoculated by drawing a suspension of P. Roqueforti spores
in water into a sterile pipette (10 c.c.) which is then thrust through the
paraffined crust to the center of the loaf of bread and allowed to empty
there. The hole is sealed up with paraffine. These loaves are incubated for
about a month at room temperature. When cut, every open space should be
found lined with the green spores of the mold. When dry enough, the mass
may be powdered, and put into an ordinary pepper box. When the curd is
ready to go into the hoop, this mold powder is sprinkled upon it from the
pepper box.
Handling.—Freshly made cheeses are turned within the first hour to insure
the proper smoothness of both sides. Further draining is best accomplished
Draining.—The cut curd is dipped to a draining rack covered with cloth
with as little breaking as possible. During the draining process, a certain
amount of turning is necessary to facilitate the separation and escape of the
whey. If handled too much, losses of fat are increased and the curd becomes
tough or waxy instead of remaining brittle or crumbly. When properly
handled, not over 0.35 per cent of fat is lost. Under favorable conditions,
four-ninths to two-thirds of the original weight of curd will separate and run
off as whey in twenty to thirty minutes. The curd meanwhile is exposed to
the air of the room and cools toward room temperature. If cooling goes too
far, further drainage is interfered with. Hence the curd is put into the hoop
and the drainage completed while the cheese is reaching its final form.
Hoop.—Hoops for cow's milk Roquefort must be 7½ inches in diameter
and about 5¾ inches high to hold curd enough to produce a cheese the size
of the standard Roquefort when completely drained. Sheep's milk with its
higher percentage of solids does not require such high hoops. The curd as it
goes into the hoop should be a soft, pulpy mass with no suggestion of
toughness.
Inoculation with mold.—The mold for Roquefort cheese (Penicillium
Roqueforti70) is readily grown in pure culture in ordinary loaves of bread.
For this purpose loaves hot from the oven are quickly drenched with or
immersed in hot paraffine to form an impervious crust to retain moisture as
well as to keep out contaminations. It is then allowed to cool. The interior
of each loaf is inoculated by drawing a suspension of P. Roqueforti spores
in water into a sterile pipette (10 c.c.) which is then thrust through the
paraffined crust to the center of the loaf of bread and allowed to empty
there. The hole is sealed up with paraffine. These loaves are incubated for
about a month at room temperature. When cut, every open space should be
found lined with the green spores of the mold. When dry enough, the mass
may be powdered, and put into an ordinary pepper box. When the curd is
ready to go into the hoop, this mold powder is sprinkled upon it from the
pepper box.
Handling.—Freshly made cheeses are turned within the first hour to insure
the proper smoothness of both sides. Further draining is best accomplished
Page 146
in a room at about 64° F. with a relative humidity of 85 to 90 per cent. If the
surface of the cheese becomes too dry, a rind is formed. No real rind is
permitted on Roquefort. If the temperature is too high, slime forms quickly
and unfavorable fermentation may occur. Slime (bacteria and Oidium lactis
usually) must be scraped when it becomes too heavy.
Salting.71—Experimental cheeses were found to give the best results when
at the end of about three days' drainage they contained about 50 per cent
water. Such cheeses were salted by sprinkling the entire surface lightly,
replaced upon the drain boards for one day, salted again and piled in two's.
After another day they received the third salting and were piled in three's
for two days longer. A total of about 10 per cent by weight of salt was used
to secure an absorption of 4 per cent. At the same time the water-content
dropped to 40 to 43 per cent. After salting is completed, the cheeses are
brushed and punched with holes to permit oxygen to enter.72 They are then
ready for ripening.
170. Ripening of Roquefort.—The ripening of experimental Roquefort has
required four to six months at a relative humidity of 85 to 90 per cent. This
relative humidity is just below the equilibrium relative humidity of the
cheese, hence permits a shrinkage of 2 to 4 per cent in the water-content of
the cheese. This makes it possible to control the amount of surface slime
developed.
If the relative humidity goes too high, the surface slime of bacteria and
yeasts becomes very heavy, soft and almost liquid, and follows the openings
into the cheese with resultant damage to appearance and flavor. Even under
the conditions at Roquefort, this slime must be removed by rubbing or
scraping several times to avoid injury to the cheeses, together with the
production of bad odor and taste. If the humidity becomes too low, the
surface becomes dry, hard and cracks open, the friable crumbly texture is
injured, and there is considerable loss in weight. Salt forms about 4 per cent
of the cheese. This is in solution in the water present, which is about 40 per
cent, and makes a brine of about 10 per cent strength. This strength of brine
does not prevent the growth of the Roquefort mold (Penicillium Roqueforti)
but does hinder the development of Oidium lactis in the open spaces within
the cheese. Accurate adjustment of temperature and relative humidity in the
ripening rooms to salt and water-content in the cheese is essential to proper
surface of the cheese becomes too dry, a rind is formed. No real rind is
permitted on Roquefort. If the temperature is too high, slime forms quickly
and unfavorable fermentation may occur. Slime (bacteria and Oidium lactis
usually) must be scraped when it becomes too heavy.
Salting.71—Experimental cheeses were found to give the best results when
at the end of about three days' drainage they contained about 50 per cent
water. Such cheeses were salted by sprinkling the entire surface lightly,
replaced upon the drain boards for one day, salted again and piled in two's.
After another day they received the third salting and were piled in three's
for two days longer. A total of about 10 per cent by weight of salt was used
to secure an absorption of 4 per cent. At the same time the water-content
dropped to 40 to 43 per cent. After salting is completed, the cheeses are
brushed and punched with holes to permit oxygen to enter.72 They are then
ready for ripening.
170. Ripening of Roquefort.—The ripening of experimental Roquefort has
required four to six months at a relative humidity of 85 to 90 per cent. This
relative humidity is just below the equilibrium relative humidity of the
cheese, hence permits a shrinkage of 2 to 4 per cent in the water-content of
the cheese. This makes it possible to control the amount of surface slime
developed.
If the relative humidity goes too high, the surface slime of bacteria and
yeasts becomes very heavy, soft and almost liquid, and follows the openings
into the cheese with resultant damage to appearance and flavor. Even under
the conditions at Roquefort, this slime must be removed by rubbing or
scraping several times to avoid injury to the cheeses, together with the
production of bad odor and taste. If the humidity becomes too low, the
surface becomes dry, hard and cracks open, the friable crumbly texture is
injured, and there is considerable loss in weight. Salt forms about 4 per cent
of the cheese. This is in solution in the water present, which is about 40 per
cent, and makes a brine of about 10 per cent strength. This strength of brine
does not prevent the growth of the Roquefort mold (Penicillium Roqueforti)
but does hinder the development of Oidium lactis in the open spaces within
the cheese. Accurate adjustment of temperature and relative humidity in the
ripening rooms to salt and water-content in the cheese is essential to proper
Page 147
ripening. These conditions are furnished by the unique natural conditions of
the caves of Roquefort. The production of such cheeses elsewhere depends
either on the discovery of another locality with closely similar conditions or
on the artificial production and control of the necessary temperature and
relative humidity. This has been done on an experimental basis by the use of
cold storage apparatus combined with proper humidifiers.
The differences between working with sheep's and with cow's milk lie in
the making process rather than in the ripening. Sheep's milk freshly drawn
shows a higher acidity than cow's milk, probably on account of the acid
reaction of its greater casein content. With nearly double the total solids of
cow's milk, the yield to one hundred pounds is much greater, consequently
the drainage of the curd is much more easily handled.
Once made and salted, the cheeses require very nearly the same conditions
of ripening. The resultant products are alike in appearance and texture. In
flavor, cow's milk Roquefort differs in character from sheep's milk cheese
to such a degree as to be recognized by taste. The difference was found by
Currie73 to be due to an actual difference in the combination of fatty acids
present.
Although these differences in character are recognizable by the expert in
testing the cheese, as well as by chemical analysis, cow's milk Roquefort
would satisfy that large proportion of consumers who use such cheese only
in connection with other fairly high flavored foods. The demands for
technical skill and factory equipment are not naturally greater than for many
other lines of cheese-making. The gradual development of a cow's milk
Roquefort may be anticipated.
the caves of Roquefort. The production of such cheeses elsewhere depends
either on the discovery of another locality with closely similar conditions or
on the artificial production and control of the necessary temperature and
relative humidity. This has been done on an experimental basis by the use of
cold storage apparatus combined with proper humidifiers.
The differences between working with sheep's and with cow's milk lie in
the making process rather than in the ripening. Sheep's milk freshly drawn
shows a higher acidity than cow's milk, probably on account of the acid
reaction of its greater casein content. With nearly double the total solids of
cow's milk, the yield to one hundred pounds is much greater, consequently
the drainage of the curd is much more easily handled.
Once made and salted, the cheeses require very nearly the same conditions
of ripening. The resultant products are alike in appearance and texture. In
flavor, cow's milk Roquefort differs in character from sheep's milk cheese
to such a degree as to be recognized by taste. The difference was found by
Currie73 to be due to an actual difference in the combination of fatty acids
present.
Although these differences in character are recognizable by the expert in
testing the cheese, as well as by chemical analysis, cow's milk Roquefort
would satisfy that large proportion of consumers who use such cheese only
in connection with other fairly high flavored foods. The demands for
technical skill and factory equipment are not naturally greater than for many
other lines of cheese-making. The gradual development of a cow's milk
Roquefort may be anticipated.
Page 148
Fig. 24.—Gorgonzola ripening establishment in valley near Lecco.
171. Gorgonzola74 is a rennet cheese made from fresh whole cow's milk, in
northern Italy. It takes its name from the village of Gorgonzola, a few miles
from Milan, but the manufacture of the cheese has spread over a wide area.
The cheeses are made on farms and in factories from which they are
transported for ripening to cool valleys of the Alps, principally near Lecco
(Fig. 24). Boeggild introduced the making of a cheese after the Gorgonzola
process into Denmark about 1885. This industry has been successful on a
small scale since that time. Gorgonzola cheeses are about 30 cm. (12
inches) in diameter and 18 cm. (7 inches) thick and weigh 15 to 20 pounds.
As exported they are usually heavily coated75 with a mixture usually barite,
tallow and lard colored with annatto or other cheese color. This coating
prevents shrinkage or mold on the surface of the cheese in transit. When cut
these cheeses vary greatly. All show marbling with mold (Roquefort mold).
During their ripening they become very slimy at the surface. To open up air
spaces for mold growth, this slime is scraped off and holes are punched into
the cheeses. These holes are readily seen in the final product. Some show
crumbly texture, well distributed mold, as in Roquefort, with flavor
approaching that cheese; in others the texture is waxy rather than crumbly, a
condition correlated regularly with different character in the flavor.
Frequently in whole areas or in small pockets, slime consisting of bacteria
and Oidium has followed the openings into the cheese and affects its odor
and taste.
171. Gorgonzola74 is a rennet cheese made from fresh whole cow's milk, in
northern Italy. It takes its name from the village of Gorgonzola, a few miles
from Milan, but the manufacture of the cheese has spread over a wide area.
The cheeses are made on farms and in factories from which they are
transported for ripening to cool valleys of the Alps, principally near Lecco
(Fig. 24). Boeggild introduced the making of a cheese after the Gorgonzola
process into Denmark about 1885. This industry has been successful on a
small scale since that time. Gorgonzola cheeses are about 30 cm. (12
inches) in diameter and 18 cm. (7 inches) thick and weigh 15 to 20 pounds.
As exported they are usually heavily coated75 with a mixture usually barite,
tallow and lard colored with annatto or other cheese color. This coating
prevents shrinkage or mold on the surface of the cheese in transit. When cut
these cheeses vary greatly. All show marbling with mold (Roquefort mold).
During their ripening they become very slimy at the surface. To open up air
spaces for mold growth, this slime is scraped off and holes are punched into
the cheeses. These holes are readily seen in the final product. Some show
crumbly texture, well distributed mold, as in Roquefort, with flavor
approaching that cheese; in others the texture is waxy rather than crumbly, a
condition correlated regularly with different character in the flavor.
Frequently in whole areas or in small pockets, slime consisting of bacteria
and Oidium has followed the openings into the cheese and affects its odor
and taste.
Page 149
Experimental Gorgonzola cheeses comparable with the Italian product were
made with cow's milk ripened as for Roquefort or higher, to 0.25-0.30 per
cent (titrated as lactic acid), curdled at 86° F. (30° C.), cut into cubes and
slightly stirred, then dipped to a draining board for about one-half hour, and
put into the hoop. The cheeses drained quickly to about 50 percent water
and developed a surface rind as in the harder cheeses. Cut surfaces showed
a fairly open cheese in which mold grew readily. These cheeses were salted
to taste, not to a specified percentage. They ripened with the same irregular
results and the characteristic range of flavors found in Gorgonzola. To avoid
the rotting of the cheese by surface growths, they were exposed to low
humidities for a time and cracks opened at the surfaces, as seen in the
ripening rooms at Lecco (Fig. 24). The texture was more or less waxy or
tough, which was correlated with the slightly higher heat at renneting
together with the stirring or "working" of the curd. Comparative analyses of
a series of imported cheeses confirm the interpretation that the salt-content
of Roquefort, 4 per cent approximately, prevents the invasion of the interior
of the cheese by Oidium. No complete study of the ripening of Gorgonzola
has been made. As far as followed, it consists in an initial souring process
followed by ripening by molds and slime organisms. At its best, Gorgonzola
is nearly equal to Roquefort but the percentage of such quality is low. In
spite of its irregular quality, England has used larger amounts of
Gorgonzola than of Roquefort. Considerable quantities have been imported
for the Italian trade in the United States.
made with cow's milk ripened as for Roquefort or higher, to 0.25-0.30 per
cent (titrated as lactic acid), curdled at 86° F. (30° C.), cut into cubes and
slightly stirred, then dipped to a draining board for about one-half hour, and
put into the hoop. The cheeses drained quickly to about 50 percent water
and developed a surface rind as in the harder cheeses. Cut surfaces showed
a fairly open cheese in which mold grew readily. These cheeses were salted
to taste, not to a specified percentage. They ripened with the same irregular
results and the characteristic range of flavors found in Gorgonzola. To avoid
the rotting of the cheese by surface growths, they were exposed to low
humidities for a time and cracks opened at the surfaces, as seen in the
ripening rooms at Lecco (Fig. 24). The texture was more or less waxy or
tough, which was correlated with the slightly higher heat at renneting
together with the stirring or "working" of the curd. Comparative analyses of
a series of imported cheeses confirm the interpretation that the salt-content
of Roquefort, 4 per cent approximately, prevents the invasion of the interior
of the cheese by Oidium. No complete study of the ripening of Gorgonzola
has been made. As far as followed, it consists in an initial souring process
followed by ripening by molds and slime organisms. At its best, Gorgonzola
is nearly equal to Roquefort but the percentage of such quality is low. In
spite of its irregular quality, England has used larger amounts of
Gorgonzola than of Roquefort. Considerable quantities have been imported
for the Italian trade in the United States.
Page 150
Fig. 25.—Gorgonzola cheese curing-room.
172. Stilton cheese bears the name of an English village76 in which it was
first sold. It is made from cow's milk and is typically a whole milk cheese,
although part skim cheeses are regularly made and sold as lower grades. In
the Stilton-making counties, the milk from Shorthorn cattle testing about
3.5 to 4.0 per cent fat is preferred to richer or poorer grades. Such milk is
curdled with rennet at about 86° F. in about one hour; the curd is cut, dipped
to a draining table covered with cloth and drained slowly over a period of
several hours, commonly overnight. During this period considerable acidity
is developed. The curd is then milled or broken by hand, salted, packed into
hoops 15 to 16 inches high and 7 inches in diameter. These hoops are made
from heavy tin (Fig. 26) with four rows of holes about 3/10 inch in
diameter. The freshly filled hoops are allowed to stand and drain without
pressure in a room at about 70° F. (Fig. 26). Such cheeses are turned every
day for several days. When solid enough to stand the hoops are removed,
the cheeses are scraped or rubbed with a knife until the surface is smooth,
and commonly wrapped with a cloth bandage to maintain the shape, if the
cheese is still too soft to stand firmly. In the factories, several rooms are
used with varying temperature and relative humidities, which makes it
possible to place each cheese under the condition best suited to its texture
172. Stilton cheese bears the name of an English village76 in which it was
first sold. It is made from cow's milk and is typically a whole milk cheese,
although part skim cheeses are regularly made and sold as lower grades. In
the Stilton-making counties, the milk from Shorthorn cattle testing about
3.5 to 4.0 per cent fat is preferred to richer or poorer grades. Such milk is
curdled with rennet at about 86° F. in about one hour; the curd is cut, dipped
to a draining table covered with cloth and drained slowly over a period of
several hours, commonly overnight. During this period considerable acidity
is developed. The curd is then milled or broken by hand, salted, packed into
hoops 15 to 16 inches high and 7 inches in diameter. These hoops are made
from heavy tin (Fig. 26) with four rows of holes about 3/10 inch in
diameter. The freshly filled hoops are allowed to stand and drain without
pressure in a room at about 70° F. (Fig. 26). Such cheeses are turned every
day for several days. When solid enough to stand the hoops are removed,
the cheeses are scraped or rubbed with a knife until the surface is smooth,
and commonly wrapped with a cloth bandage to maintain the shape, if the
cheese is still too soft to stand firmly. In the factories, several rooms are
used with varying temperature and relative humidities, which makes it
possible to place each cheese under the condition best suited to its texture
Page 151
and condition of ripeness. In general, the dairy sections of England are
much more humid than those of America and there are less violent changes
in temperature. Stilton cheese-making has grown up to take advantage of
this climatic factor in handling the product. Transplantation of such an
industry necessitates a mastery not only of the manipulations but a grasp of
the fundamental principles underlying the process and a readjustment of
practices to preserve those principles.
much more humid than those of America and there are less violent changes
in temperature. Stilton cheese-making has grown up to take advantage of
this climatic factor in handling the product. Transplantation of such an
industry necessitates a mastery not only of the manipulations but a grasp of
the fundamental principles underlying the process and a readjustment of
practices to preserve those principles.
Page 152
Fig. 26.—Stilton cheeses in hoops, draining.
Stilton is, then, a soured curd cheese in whose ripening a very prominent
part is played by the green mold (usually some strain of P. Roqueforti)
which grows throughout the cavities of its mass77. At its best, it has
attractive texture and flavor. Much of it fails to reach high quality on
account of the invasion of bacteria, Oidium lactis, and very frequently
myriads of cheese mites. The following analysis was furnished as typical
Stilton is, then, a soured curd cheese in whose ripening a very prominent
part is played by the green mold (usually some strain of P. Roqueforti)
which grows throughout the cavities of its mass77. At its best, it has
attractive texture and flavor. Much of it fails to reach high quality on
account of the invasion of bacteria, Oidium lactis, and very frequently
myriads of cheese mites. The following analysis was furnished as typical
Page 153
for ripe cheese by Miles Benson,78 late professor of dairying at Reading,
England: Water 31 per cent, fat 36 per cent, casein 29 per cent, mineral
constituents including salt about 4 per cent. Approximately the same figures
are given by Primrose McConnell (Agricultural Note Book). The low
percentage of salt is another factor of uncertainty in the control of this
Stilton product, as in Gorgonzola, since these cheeses are commonly high in
water-content at first and are thus subject to invasion by Oidium.
Stilton has been made on a small scale in Canada79 and occasionally
attempted in the United States. No serious effort to develop an industry of
commercial importance has been made in America. Comparative study of
the cheeses ripened by green mold tends to the conviction that the
adaptation of the Roquefort practice to the use of cow's milk offers a more
satisfactory basis for experiment than efforts to establish a Stilton or a
Gorgonzola industry.
173. Gex.—A cheese under this name made in southern France resembles,
in its general character as a ripened cheese, the English Stilton and Italian
Gorgonzola. Although it has no commercial importance, reference is made
to this cheese to show that mold-ripened cheeses have been developed
entirely independently in different countries to bring about the same general
character of product.
174. Bacterially ripened series.—The semi-hard cheeses ripened by
bacteria stand half-way between true Limburger and the hard forms. In fact,
brands of Limburger are readily found which approach the texture and
ripening of Brick cheese. In the same way, Brick cheeses are often found
which have the appearance, texture and much of the flavor of the Cheddars
with only a trace of the taste of Limburger. Port du Salut, Oka, Münster, in
France Livarot, in the Balkan regions Kascoval, belong in this series.
175. Brick cheese.—The name of this cheese is probably due to the
finished product being about the size and shape of a brick. It is similar to
the German cheese Bäckstein and may have been developed from it. It is
typically a sweet-curd cheese, made from milk freshly drawn, without
permitting the development of appreciable quantities of acidity until after
the curd has been put into the hoop. In the making process, it is
intermediate between Limburger and the cheeses of the Cheddar group.
England: Water 31 per cent, fat 36 per cent, casein 29 per cent, mineral
constituents including salt about 4 per cent. Approximately the same figures
are given by Primrose McConnell (Agricultural Note Book). The low
percentage of salt is another factor of uncertainty in the control of this
Stilton product, as in Gorgonzola, since these cheeses are commonly high in
water-content at first and are thus subject to invasion by Oidium.
Stilton has been made on a small scale in Canada79 and occasionally
attempted in the United States. No serious effort to develop an industry of
commercial importance has been made in America. Comparative study of
the cheeses ripened by green mold tends to the conviction that the
adaptation of the Roquefort practice to the use of cow's milk offers a more
satisfactory basis for experiment than efforts to establish a Stilton or a
Gorgonzola industry.
173. Gex.—A cheese under this name made in southern France resembles,
in its general character as a ripened cheese, the English Stilton and Italian
Gorgonzola. Although it has no commercial importance, reference is made
to this cheese to show that mold-ripened cheeses have been developed
entirely independently in different countries to bring about the same general
character of product.
174. Bacterially ripened series.—The semi-hard cheeses ripened by
bacteria stand half-way between true Limburger and the hard forms. In fact,
brands of Limburger are readily found which approach the texture and
ripening of Brick cheese. In the same way, Brick cheeses are often found
which have the appearance, texture and much of the flavor of the Cheddars
with only a trace of the taste of Limburger. Port du Salut, Oka, Münster, in
France Livarot, in the Balkan regions Kascoval, belong in this series.
175. Brick cheese.—The name of this cheese is probably due to the
finished product being about the size and shape of a brick. It is similar to
the German cheese Bäckstein and may have been developed from it. It is
typically a sweet-curd cheese, made from milk freshly drawn, without
permitting the development of appreciable quantities of acidity until after
the curd has been put into the hoop. In the making process, it is
intermediate between Limburger and the cheeses of the Cheddar group.
Page 154
Some cheese-makers use an ordinary cheese vat, others a copper kettle in
manufacturing.
It is the usual practice to deliver the milk to the cheese factory both
morning and evening, without cooling. Cheese is made twice a day. In some
cases the milk is delivered only once a day, and extra precautions must then
be taken to care for the milk properly.
The discussion of the care of milk in Chapter II applies to that for Brick
cheese. For the best quality of cheese, the milk in the vat should show about
0.15 of 1 per cent acidity and never above 0.18 of 1 per cent.80
176. Making of Brick cheese.81—The milk is received at the cheese factory
at a temperature of about 92° to 96° F. For the best results, the acidity
should be determined (by the acid test) to decide on the amount of starter to
use. Few Brick cheese-makers use an acid test or a starter but these
precautions would improve the product of many factories. For method of
using the acid test, see Chapter V. Chapter IV discusses the preparation and
use of starter. Usually 0.25 to 0.50 of 1 per cent of starter is the amount
required. A small amount of starter is used to aid the development of lactic
acid and for the beneficial effect it has on the flavor. A very small
development of acid is desired after adding the starter; therefore the change
in acidity should be very carefully watched with the acid test. The vat is
usually set when the acid test shows 0.16 of 1 per cent acidity. The more
acid in the milk, the less starter should be employed. Sufficient rennet
extract should be used to give a coagulation suitable for cutting in thirty to
thirty-five minutes. For method of adding the rennet extract, see Chapter V.
When the coagulum is firm enough for the curd to break clean over the
finger, it is ready to cut. The curd is cut with coarse knives into ⅜- or ½-
inch cubes. After cutting, the curd is let stand three to five minutes, then
stirred with the hands for a few minutes until the whey begins to separate
and then stirred with the rake. Some makers do not stir by hand but use the
rake directly after cutting. When this is done, great care must be exercised
to stir the curd without breaking up the pieces, because this causes a loss of
fat. After cutting the curd is stirred for twenty to thirty minutes before the
steam is turned on. The curd is heated very slowly at first and more rapidly
during the last stages of cooking. The curd is cooked to a temperature of
110° to 115° F. The lower the temperature that can be used to produce firm
manufacturing.
It is the usual practice to deliver the milk to the cheese factory both
morning and evening, without cooling. Cheese is made twice a day. In some
cases the milk is delivered only once a day, and extra precautions must then
be taken to care for the milk properly.
The discussion of the care of milk in Chapter II applies to that for Brick
cheese. For the best quality of cheese, the milk in the vat should show about
0.15 of 1 per cent acidity and never above 0.18 of 1 per cent.80
176. Making of Brick cheese.81—The milk is received at the cheese factory
at a temperature of about 92° to 96° F. For the best results, the acidity
should be determined (by the acid test) to decide on the amount of starter to
use. Few Brick cheese-makers use an acid test or a starter but these
precautions would improve the product of many factories. For method of
using the acid test, see Chapter V. Chapter IV discusses the preparation and
use of starter. Usually 0.25 to 0.50 of 1 per cent of starter is the amount
required. A small amount of starter is used to aid the development of lactic
acid and for the beneficial effect it has on the flavor. A very small
development of acid is desired after adding the starter; therefore the change
in acidity should be very carefully watched with the acid test. The vat is
usually set when the acid test shows 0.16 of 1 per cent acidity. The more
acid in the milk, the less starter should be employed. Sufficient rennet
extract should be used to give a coagulation suitable for cutting in thirty to
thirty-five minutes. For method of adding the rennet extract, see Chapter V.
When the coagulum is firm enough for the curd to break clean over the
finger, it is ready to cut. The curd is cut with coarse knives into ⅜- or ½-
inch cubes. After cutting, the curd is let stand three to five minutes, then
stirred with the hands for a few minutes until the whey begins to separate
and then stirred with the rake. Some makers do not stir by hand but use the
rake directly after cutting. When this is done, great care must be exercised
to stir the curd without breaking up the pieces, because this causes a loss of
fat. After cutting the curd is stirred for twenty to thirty minutes before the
steam is turned on. The curd is heated very slowly at first and more rapidly
during the last stages of cooking. The curd is cooked to a temperature of
110° to 115° F. The lower the temperature that can be used to produce firm
Page 155
curd, the better the texture of the cheese. After cutting and during the
cooking, the curd must be constantly stirred so that lumps will not form.
When the curd forms lumps, the moisture is not evenly expelled. This
results in uneven texture and curing. Sometimes some salt is added to the
curd in the vat to restrain souring. The curd is stirred after cooking until it is
sufficiently firm. It remains usually in the whey for a total period of one and
one-fourth to one and one-half hours from the time of cutting. It is then
dipped into forms 10 inches long by 5 inches wide by 8 inches deep. The
forms are without top or bottom and are placed on a draining table. This
table is so constructed that the whey can be saved for stock feed. When
ready to "dip," the whey is drawn down to the surface of the curd in the vat,
then the curd is dipped into the forms or hoops. Care must be taken to get
the same amount of curd into each form to produce the cheeses of uniform
size. Each cheese is turned several times to insure even draining and even
reduction of the temperature. While draining, a follower is placed in each
hoop and a weight placed on each cheese. Usually a brick is used for this
weight. A cheese is allowed to drain or press for ten to fifteen hours. It is
then placed on the salting table and rubbed with coarse salt. While on the
salting table, a cheese is placed on its broad side. Some cheese-makers
prefer to salt their cheeses by soaking them in a salt brine. This brine should
be strong enough to float an egg. Salting requires three days. The cheeses
are then brushed free from excess salt and taken to the cellar to cure or
ripen.
177. Ripening Brick cheese.—For this process, the cellars are kept at
about 90 percent relative humidity and a temperature of 60° to 65° F. Some
prefer a temperature for curing as high as 68° F. During the curing, the
surfaces of the cheese are kept moist and mold growths kept down by
rubbing or brushing the cheese with pure water or salt and water. In the
curing cellars the cheeses are placed on shelves; at first they are set close
together and as they cure, they are separated. During curing, the color
changes from a whitish to a reddish brown. The cheese cures from the
outside toward the center. When first made, the product is harsh and hard in
texture but during the ripening process it becomes mellow and smooth. The
cheeses remain on the curing shelves for four to six weeks, after which they
are wrapped in heavy waxed paper and boxed. A cheese ready for market
cooking, the curd must be constantly stirred so that lumps will not form.
When the curd forms lumps, the moisture is not evenly expelled. This
results in uneven texture and curing. Sometimes some salt is added to the
curd in the vat to restrain souring. The curd is stirred after cooking until it is
sufficiently firm. It remains usually in the whey for a total period of one and
one-fourth to one and one-half hours from the time of cutting. It is then
dipped into forms 10 inches long by 5 inches wide by 8 inches deep. The
forms are without top or bottom and are placed on a draining table. This
table is so constructed that the whey can be saved for stock feed. When
ready to "dip," the whey is drawn down to the surface of the curd in the vat,
then the curd is dipped into the forms or hoops. Care must be taken to get
the same amount of curd into each form to produce the cheeses of uniform
size. Each cheese is turned several times to insure even draining and even
reduction of the temperature. While draining, a follower is placed in each
hoop and a weight placed on each cheese. Usually a brick is used for this
weight. A cheese is allowed to drain or press for ten to fifteen hours. It is
then placed on the salting table and rubbed with coarse salt. While on the
salting table, a cheese is placed on its broad side. Some cheese-makers
prefer to salt their cheeses by soaking them in a salt brine. This brine should
be strong enough to float an egg. Salting requires three days. The cheeses
are then brushed free from excess salt and taken to the cellar to cure or
ripen.
177. Ripening Brick cheese.—For this process, the cellars are kept at
about 90 percent relative humidity and a temperature of 60° to 65° F. Some
prefer a temperature for curing as high as 68° F. During the curing, the
surfaces of the cheese are kept moist and mold growths kept down by
rubbing or brushing the cheese with pure water or salt and water. In the
curing cellars the cheeses are placed on shelves; at first they are set close
together and as they cure, they are separated. During curing, the color
changes from a whitish to a reddish brown. The cheese cures from the
outside toward the center. When first made, the product is harsh and hard in
texture but during the ripening process it becomes mellow and smooth. The
cheeses remain on the curing shelves for four to six weeks, after which they
are wrapped in heavy waxed paper and boxed. A cheese ready for market
Page 156
usually weighs about five pounds. A Brick cheese box is 5 inches deep by
20 inches wide by 3 feet long, and holds 110 to 115 pounds of cheese.
178. Qualities of Brick cheese.—The cheeses should be neat and attractive
and the rind not cracked or broken. The sides should be square and not
bulged. The cheese should have a clean, characteristic Brick cheese flavor.
The body and texture should be mellow and smooth and when rubbed
between the thumb and forefinger, should break down like cold butter. The
color should be uniform. The cheese should contain the proper amount of
salt and moisture. One of the worst faults with Brick cheese is bad flavor.
This is many times due to the cheese-maker not using clean flavored starter.
It may also be due to bad flavored milk. A Brick cheese-maker has no
means of controlling gassy fermentations. These show themselves in the
bad flavor of the cheese and in the porous body. They also cause the cheese
to bulge. If detected, gassy milk should be rejected. If too much acid is
developed, a sour cheese is the result. This will not cure normally and
usually has a sour flavor. The body will be brittle and mealy. If too much
salt is used, the cheese may have a salty taste and it will cure very slowly. If
not enough salt is used, the cheese may cure too rapidly and undesirable
flavors and fermentations develop. The cheese must have the proper
moisture-content; if too much moisture is present, the cheese cures too fast
and is soft and pasty in body; if not enough moisture, then the reverse is
true. Tabulation of cheeses of special quality, as submitted in scoring
contests, show an average water-content of 37 to 38 per cent, with
occasional cheeses verging toward Limburger in texture and flavor with 40
to 42 per cent water, and others indistinguishable from Cheddar, with water-
content as low as 34 per cent.
The Wisconsin Cheese-makers Association uses the following score-card
for the judging of Brick cheese on a scale of 100:
Flavor 40
Texture 40
Color 10
Salt 5
Style 5
——
Total 100
20 inches wide by 3 feet long, and holds 110 to 115 pounds of cheese.
178. Qualities of Brick cheese.—The cheeses should be neat and attractive
and the rind not cracked or broken. The sides should be square and not
bulged. The cheese should have a clean, characteristic Brick cheese flavor.
The body and texture should be mellow and smooth and when rubbed
between the thumb and forefinger, should break down like cold butter. The
color should be uniform. The cheese should contain the proper amount of
salt and moisture. One of the worst faults with Brick cheese is bad flavor.
This is many times due to the cheese-maker not using clean flavored starter.
It may also be due to bad flavored milk. A Brick cheese-maker has no
means of controlling gassy fermentations. These show themselves in the
bad flavor of the cheese and in the porous body. They also cause the cheese
to bulge. If detected, gassy milk should be rejected. If too much acid is
developed, a sour cheese is the result. This will not cure normally and
usually has a sour flavor. The body will be brittle and mealy. If too much
salt is used, the cheese may have a salty taste and it will cure very slowly. If
not enough salt is used, the cheese may cure too rapidly and undesirable
flavors and fermentations develop. The cheese must have the proper
moisture-content; if too much moisture is present, the cheese cures too fast
and is soft and pasty in body; if not enough moisture, then the reverse is
true. Tabulation of cheeses of special quality, as submitted in scoring
contests, show an average water-content of 37 to 38 per cent, with
occasional cheeses verging toward Limburger in texture and flavor with 40
to 42 per cent water, and others indistinguishable from Cheddar, with water-
content as low as 34 per cent.
The Wisconsin Cheese-makers Association uses the following score-card
for the judging of Brick cheese on a scale of 100:
Flavor 40
Texture 40
Color 10
Salt 5
Style 5
——
Total 100
Page 157
179. Composition and yield.—The composition of Brick cheese varies
within wide limits. The average cheese probably contains from 37 to 39 per
cent of water, although many cheeses are above and below this average;
Doane and Lawson82 give the fat as 28.86 per cent, proteins 23.8 per cent
and total ash 4.20 per cent.
The composition and yield are both affected by: (1) the moisture-content of
the cheese; (2) composition of the milk from which made; and (3) losses
during the manufacturing process. The average yield of Brick cheese is 11
to 13 pounds to 100 pounds of milk.
180. Port du Salut cheese.—The Trappist monks originated this type of
cheese in their monasteries in France. Under the name of their community
Oka, it has been made and sold widely by the Trappist Fathers of Quebec.
In recent years, factories independent of the order have made such cheese
both in America and in Europe.
The following outline of the making process indicates the close relationship
between Port du Salut and Brick cheeses. Whole milk or milk not over one-
fifth skimmed is ripened to medium acidity, then heated to 90° to 95° F.
according to season and acidity. Rennet enough is added (see Chapter V) to
curdle in thirty to forty minutes, although some makers shorten the time to
twenty minutes. When formed, the curd is cut into small cubes and excess
of whey is dipped away. The constantly stirred mass is then heated or
cooked to 100° to 105° F. within a period of ten to twelve minutes or
according to some makers twenty to thirty minutes. It is allowed to stand a
few minutes to settle. Most of the whey is then drawn and the mass is
stirred vigorously to prevent fusion of the curd granules. The curd is ready
for the hoop when the particles are about the size of grains of wheat and do
not stick together when squeezed with the hand. The individual grains of
curd should crumble easily between the fingers. The hot curd is transferred
directly to the hoops without cooling. For this purpose, a hoop is set upon
the table covered with a cloth and the curd dipped into the cloth. The edges
of the cloth are then folded over. In this condition the cheese is transferred
to the press where gradually increasing pressure begins with 3 to 4 pounds
and reaches about 70 pounds. To insure proper shape, cheeses are turned
and put into fresh cloths at the end of the first hour and turned subsequently
several times during the pressing period of about twelve hours.83
within wide limits. The average cheese probably contains from 37 to 39 per
cent of water, although many cheeses are above and below this average;
Doane and Lawson82 give the fat as 28.86 per cent, proteins 23.8 per cent
and total ash 4.20 per cent.
The composition and yield are both affected by: (1) the moisture-content of
the cheese; (2) composition of the milk from which made; and (3) losses
during the manufacturing process. The average yield of Brick cheese is 11
to 13 pounds to 100 pounds of milk.
180. Port du Salut cheese.—The Trappist monks originated this type of
cheese in their monasteries in France. Under the name of their community
Oka, it has been made and sold widely by the Trappist Fathers of Quebec.
In recent years, factories independent of the order have made such cheese
both in America and in Europe.
The following outline of the making process indicates the close relationship
between Port du Salut and Brick cheeses. Whole milk or milk not over one-
fifth skimmed is ripened to medium acidity, then heated to 90° to 95° F.
according to season and acidity. Rennet enough is added (see Chapter V) to
curdle in thirty to forty minutes, although some makers shorten the time to
twenty minutes. When formed, the curd is cut into small cubes and excess
of whey is dipped away. The constantly stirred mass is then heated or
cooked to 100° to 105° F. within a period of ten to twelve minutes or
according to some makers twenty to thirty minutes. It is allowed to stand a
few minutes to settle. Most of the whey is then drawn and the mass is
stirred vigorously to prevent fusion of the curd granules. The curd is ready
for the hoop when the particles are about the size of grains of wheat and do
not stick together when squeezed with the hand. The individual grains of
curd should crumble easily between the fingers. The hot curd is transferred
directly to the hoops without cooling. For this purpose, a hoop is set upon
the table covered with a cloth and the curd dipped into the cloth. The edges
of the cloth are then folded over. In this condition the cheese is transferred
to the press where gradually increasing pressure begins with 3 to 4 pounds
and reaches about 70 pounds. To insure proper shape, cheeses are turned
and put into fresh cloths at the end of the first hour and turned subsequently
several times during the pressing period of about twelve hours.83
Page 158
Port du Salut cheeses are salted by rubbing fine salt on the surface by hand
at the rate of 1.2 to 2 per cent of the weight of the cheese. After about two
days in the salting process, they are put into the ripening cellars. The cellars
are wet, since they reach 90 to 95 per cent relative humidity at a
temperature of about 55° F. After two days in the cellar, the cheeses are
plungedto the shelves where they are rubbed every day into a tank of
saturated brine to which a trace of cheese color has been added. As they
come out of these tanks, they are yellowish and greasy or slimy. They are
returned with a cloth or by hands wet in brine. After about one week they
are again plunged in the brine. Treatment with brine tends to insure a firm
rind. The cheeses are rubbed more or less regularly with brine through the
whole ripening period.
After six weeks, such cheese may be eaten. The cut surface of Port du Salut
is creamy in color, may or may not show small holes. In texture it is soft
enough to spread readily under pressure without losing its shape in
handling. In flavor the cheese is a mild form belonging to the Limburger
group.
Port du Salut cheeses as imported from France usually are firm round cakes
about 1½ inches thick, weighing about 3 pounds.
at the rate of 1.2 to 2 per cent of the weight of the cheese. After about two
days in the salting process, they are put into the ripening cellars. The cellars
are wet, since they reach 90 to 95 per cent relative humidity at a
temperature of about 55° F. After two days in the cellar, the cheeses are
plungedto the shelves where they are rubbed every day into a tank of
saturated brine to which a trace of cheese color has been added. As they
come out of these tanks, they are yellowish and greasy or slimy. They are
returned with a cloth or by hands wet in brine. After about one week they
are again plunged in the brine. Treatment with brine tends to insure a firm
rind. The cheeses are rubbed more or less regularly with brine through the
whole ripening period.
After six weeks, such cheese may be eaten. The cut surface of Port du Salut
is creamy in color, may or may not show small holes. In texture it is soft
enough to spread readily under pressure without losing its shape in
handling. In flavor the cheese is a mild form belonging to the Limburger
group.
Port du Salut cheeses as imported from France usually are firm round cakes
about 1½ inches thick, weighing about 3 pounds.
Page 159
CHAPTER XI
THE HARD CHEESES
The hard cheeses form a great series of groups, whose most prominent
physical character is their firm or hard texture. This is correlated with
comparatively low water-content, which is usually between 30 and 40 per
cent. Although certain varieties occasionally test above 40 per cent water,
this deviation is accompanied by quick ripening and rapid spoilage. These
varieties of cheese are staple products with long marketable periods;
therefore they may be handled in large lots, shipped, carted and stored
freely without the losses such treatment would entail in soft cheese. The
retailer frequently buys hard cheese by the ton, not by the cheese or by the
box.
In making, these varieties are characterized as cooked and pressed cheeses.
Although both the heating of a curd and the pressing of a newly made
cheese occur among semi-hard forms, these practices appear in their most
typical forms in the hard cheeses.
The hard cheeses show two types of texture. A cut cheese may appear
smooth, free from holes or with a few angular cracks or seams, or it may
show round holes or "eyes." In the smooth textured forms every effort is
made to prevent gassy fermentations, usually by controlling the
fermentation of the curd in the making process. When "eyes" are present,
the end sought has been a development of a particular form of gassy
fermentation which gives this appearance and brings about the
characteristic ripening texture and flavor.
The hard cheeses have been developed in groups of national varieties. The
best known of these groups are those which may be represented by English
Cheddar, American Factory Cheddar, Danish, the Edam of Holland, Swiss
and Parmesan with many related varieties in Italy and neighboring countries
of southern Europe.
181. The Danish group.—The Danish cheeses are related in appearance
and flavor to the English group represented by Cheddar. The demand for
THE HARD CHEESES
The hard cheeses form a great series of groups, whose most prominent
physical character is their firm or hard texture. This is correlated with
comparatively low water-content, which is usually between 30 and 40 per
cent. Although certain varieties occasionally test above 40 per cent water,
this deviation is accompanied by quick ripening and rapid spoilage. These
varieties of cheese are staple products with long marketable periods;
therefore they may be handled in large lots, shipped, carted and stored
freely without the losses such treatment would entail in soft cheese. The
retailer frequently buys hard cheese by the ton, not by the cheese or by the
box.
In making, these varieties are characterized as cooked and pressed cheeses.
Although both the heating of a curd and the pressing of a newly made
cheese occur among semi-hard forms, these practices appear in their most
typical forms in the hard cheeses.
The hard cheeses show two types of texture. A cut cheese may appear
smooth, free from holes or with a few angular cracks or seams, or it may
show round holes or "eyes." In the smooth textured forms every effort is
made to prevent gassy fermentations, usually by controlling the
fermentation of the curd in the making process. When "eyes" are present,
the end sought has been a development of a particular form of gassy
fermentation which gives this appearance and brings about the
characteristic ripening texture and flavor.
The hard cheeses have been developed in groups of national varieties. The
best known of these groups are those which may be represented by English
Cheddar, American Factory Cheddar, Danish, the Edam of Holland, Swiss
and Parmesan with many related varieties in Italy and neighboring countries
of southern Europe.
181. The Danish group.—The Danish cheeses are related in appearance
and flavor to the English group represented by Cheddar. The demand for
Page 160
butter in Europe has been so great that the Danish cheese-makers have
developed skim and part skim varieties largely to the exclusion of the whole
milk form. Skillful handling of their process has resulted in a product which
has had a very large and appreciative market in England and Germany.
182. The Dutch group.—Edam and Gouda are the two forms of cheese
made in Holland and most widely known among other peoples. Both reach
America in considerable quantities; both are shipped in large amounts to
tropical countries. Although attempts have been made to manufacture them
in America, no commercial production of these cheeses has been successful.
Although whole milk grades of these cheeses are known, they are to a large
measure part skim in manufacture. The presence of one or both of these
forms in every large market in America makes the general facts of their
production of general interest. Parts of a report on experimental work in the
making of Edam and Gouda are, therefore, given here.
183. Edam cheese84 is a sweet-curd type, made from partially skimmed-
milk. It comes to the market in the form of round red balls, each weighing
from 3½ to 4 pounds when cured. It is largely manufactured in northern
Holland and derives its name from a town famous as a market for this kind
of cheese.85 Milk from which one-fourth to one-third of the fat has been
removed is used. Too great pains cannot be taken in regard to the condition
of the milk. It should be fresh, free from every trace of taint; in brief, it
should be in as perfect condition as possible.
184. Method of manufacture.—The following paragraphs give the steps in
the manufacture of Edam cheese:
Treatment of milk before adding rennet.—The temperature of the milk
should be brought up to a point not below 85° F. nor much above 88° F.
When the desired temperature has become constant, the coloring matter
should be added. Cheese color is used at the rate of 1½ to 2 ounces for 1000
pounds of milk. The coloring matter should, of course, be added to the milk
and thoroughly incorporated by stirring before the rennet is added.
Addition of rennet to milk.—The rennet should not be added until the milk
has reached the desired temperature (85° to 88° F.) and this temperature has
become constant. When the temperature reaches the desired point and
remains there stationary, the rennet extract is added. Rennet extract may be
developed skim and part skim varieties largely to the exclusion of the whole
milk form. Skillful handling of their process has resulted in a product which
has had a very large and appreciative market in England and Germany.
182. The Dutch group.—Edam and Gouda are the two forms of cheese
made in Holland and most widely known among other peoples. Both reach
America in considerable quantities; both are shipped in large amounts to
tropical countries. Although attempts have been made to manufacture them
in America, no commercial production of these cheeses has been successful.
Although whole milk grades of these cheeses are known, they are to a large
measure part skim in manufacture. The presence of one or both of these
forms in every large market in America makes the general facts of their
production of general interest. Parts of a report on experimental work in the
making of Edam and Gouda are, therefore, given here.
183. Edam cheese84 is a sweet-curd type, made from partially skimmed-
milk. It comes to the market in the form of round red balls, each weighing
from 3½ to 4 pounds when cured. It is largely manufactured in northern
Holland and derives its name from a town famous as a market for this kind
of cheese.85 Milk from which one-fourth to one-third of the fat has been
removed is used. Too great pains cannot be taken in regard to the condition
of the milk. It should be fresh, free from every trace of taint; in brief, it
should be in as perfect condition as possible.
184. Method of manufacture.—The following paragraphs give the steps in
the manufacture of Edam cheese:
Treatment of milk before adding rennet.—The temperature of the milk
should be brought up to a point not below 85° F. nor much above 88° F.
When the desired temperature has become constant, the coloring matter
should be added. Cheese color is used at the rate of 1½ to 2 ounces for 1000
pounds of milk. The coloring matter should, of course, be added to the milk
and thoroughly incorporated by stirring before the rennet is added.
Addition of rennet to milk.—The rennet should not be added until the milk
has reached the desired temperature (85° to 88° F.) and this temperature has
become constant. When the temperature reaches the desired point and
remains there stationary, the rennet extract is added. Rennet extract may be
Page 161
used, 4½ to 5½ ounces being taken for 1000 pounds of milk, or enough to
coagulate the milk in the desired time, at the actual temperature used. The
milk should be completely coagulated, ready for cutting, in about twelve to
eighteen minutes from the time the rennet is added. The same precaution
observed in making Cheddar cheese should be followed in making Edam
cheese with reference to care in adding the rennet, such as careful, accurate
measurement, dilution with pure water before addition to milk.
Cutting the curd for Edam.—When the curd breaks clean across the finger,
it should be cut; it is cut a very little softer than in the Cheddar process as
ordinarily practiced. As stated, this stage of hardness in the curd which fits
it for cutting should come in twelve to eighteen minutes after the rennet is
added. First, a vertical knife is used and the curd is cut lengthwise, after
which it is allowed to stand until the slices of curd begin to show the
separation of whey. Then the vertical knife is used in cutting crosswise,
after which the horizontal knife is at once used. Any curd adhering to the
bottom and sides of the vat is carefully removed by the hand, after which
the curd-knife is again passed through the mass of curd lengthwise and
crosswise, continuing the cutting until the curd has been cut as uniformly as
possible into very small pieces.
Treatment of Edam curd after cutting.—When the cutting is completed, one
commences at once to heat the curd up to the temperature of 93° to 96° F.
The heating is done as quickly as possible. While the heating is in progress,
the curd is kept constantly agitated to prevent settling and consequent
overheating. As soon as the curd shows signs of hardening, which the
experience of the worker will enable him to determine, the whey is drawn
off until the upper surface of the curd appears, when one should commence
to fill the press molds.
Filling molds, pressing and dressing Edam.—The molds, which are
described later in detail, are well soaked in warm water previous to use, in
order to prevent too sudden chilling of curd and consequent checking of
separation of whey. As soon as whey is drawn off, as indicated above, one
begins to fill the pressing molds (Fig. 27). The filling should be done as
rapidly as possible to prevent too great cooling of curd. When the curd has
been put into the molds, its temperature should not be below 88° F. Unless
care is taken to keep the curd covered, the portion that is last put into the
coagulate the milk in the desired time, at the actual temperature used. The
milk should be completely coagulated, ready for cutting, in about twelve to
eighteen minutes from the time the rennet is added. The same precaution
observed in making Cheddar cheese should be followed in making Edam
cheese with reference to care in adding the rennet, such as careful, accurate
measurement, dilution with pure water before addition to milk.
Cutting the curd for Edam.—When the curd breaks clean across the finger,
it should be cut; it is cut a very little softer than in the Cheddar process as
ordinarily practiced. As stated, this stage of hardness in the curd which fits
it for cutting should come in twelve to eighteen minutes after the rennet is
added. First, a vertical knife is used and the curd is cut lengthwise, after
which it is allowed to stand until the slices of curd begin to show the
separation of whey. Then the vertical knife is used in cutting crosswise,
after which the horizontal knife is at once used. Any curd adhering to the
bottom and sides of the vat is carefully removed by the hand, after which
the curd-knife is again passed through the mass of curd lengthwise and
crosswise, continuing the cutting until the curd has been cut as uniformly as
possible into very small pieces.
Treatment of Edam curd after cutting.—When the cutting is completed, one
commences at once to heat the curd up to the temperature of 93° to 96° F.
The heating is done as quickly as possible. While the heating is in progress,
the curd is kept constantly agitated to prevent settling and consequent
overheating. As soon as the curd shows signs of hardening, which the
experience of the worker will enable him to determine, the whey is drawn
off until the upper surface of the curd appears, when one should commence
to fill the press molds.
Filling molds, pressing and dressing Edam.—The molds, which are
described later in detail, are well soaked in warm water previous to use, in
order to prevent too sudden chilling of curd and consequent checking of
separation of whey. As soon as whey is drawn off, as indicated above, one
begins to fill the pressing molds (Fig. 27). The filling should be done as
rapidly as possible to prevent too great cooling of curd. When the curd has
been put into the molds, its temperature should not be below 88° F. Unless
care is taken to keep the curd covered, the portion that is last put into the
Page 162
molds may become too much cooled. In making
Edam cheese on a small scale, it is a good plan to
squeeze the moisture out with the hands as much as
possible and then break it up again before putting in
the molds, when the curd should be pressed into the
mold firmly by the hands. The molds should be
filled as nearly alike as possible. The cheese should
Fig. 27.—Edam cheese weigh from 5 to 5¼ pounds each when ready for the
mold. press. When the filling of molds is completed, they
are put under continual pressure of 20 to 25 pounds
for about twenty-five or thirty minutes. While the cheese is being pressed,
some sweet whey is heated to a temperature of 125° or 130° F., and this
whey should not be allowed to go below 120° F. at any time while it is
being used. When the cheeses are taken from their molds, each is put into
the warm whey for two minutes, then removed and dressed. For dressing
Edam cheese, the ordinary cheese bandage cloth is used. This is cut into
strips, which should be long enough to reach entirely around the cheese and
overlap an inch or so, and which should be wide enough to cover allbut a
small portion of the ends of the cheese when put in place. Before putting on
the bandage, all rough projections should be carefully pared from the
cheese. In putting on, the cheese is held in one hand and the bandage is
wrapped carefully around the cheese, so that the whole is covered, except a
small portion on the upper and lower surface of the cheese. These bare spots
are covered by small pieces of bandage cloth of a size sufficient to fill the
bare surface. The bandage is kept wet with the warm sweet whey, thus
facilitating the process of dressing. After each cheese is dressed, it should
be replaced in the dressing mold, care being taken that the bandage remains
in place and leaves no portion of the surface of the cheese uncovered and in
direct contact with the mold. The cheese is then put under continual
pressure of 60 to 120 pounds and kept for six to twelve hours.
185. Salting and curing Edam.—There are two methods which may be
employed in salting,—dry and wet. In dry-salting, when the cheese is
finally taken from the press, it is removed from the press mold, its bandage
is removed completely, and the cheese placed in another mold, quite
similar, known as the salting mold. Each cheese is placed in a salting mold
with a coating of fine salt completely surrounding it. The cheese is salted in
Edam cheese on a small scale, it is a good plan to
squeeze the moisture out with the hands as much as
possible and then break it up again before putting in
the molds, when the curd should be pressed into the
mold firmly by the hands. The molds should be
filled as nearly alike as possible. The cheese should
Fig. 27.—Edam cheese weigh from 5 to 5¼ pounds each when ready for the
mold. press. When the filling of molds is completed, they
are put under continual pressure of 20 to 25 pounds
for about twenty-five or thirty minutes. While the cheese is being pressed,
some sweet whey is heated to a temperature of 125° or 130° F., and this
whey should not be allowed to go below 120° F. at any time while it is
being used. When the cheeses are taken from their molds, each is put into
the warm whey for two minutes, then removed and dressed. For dressing
Edam cheese, the ordinary cheese bandage cloth is used. This is cut into
strips, which should be long enough to reach entirely around the cheese and
overlap an inch or so, and which should be wide enough to cover allbut a
small portion of the ends of the cheese when put in place. Before putting on
the bandage, all rough projections should be carefully pared from the
cheese. In putting on, the cheese is held in one hand and the bandage is
wrapped carefully around the cheese, so that the whole is covered, except a
small portion on the upper and lower surface of the cheese. These bare spots
are covered by small pieces of bandage cloth of a size sufficient to fill the
bare surface. The bandage is kept wet with the warm sweet whey, thus
facilitating the process of dressing. After each cheese is dressed, it should
be replaced in the dressing mold, care being taken that the bandage remains
in place and leaves no portion of the surface of the cheese uncovered and in
direct contact with the mold. The cheese is then put under continual
pressure of 60 to 120 pounds and kept for six to twelve hours.
185. Salting and curing Edam.—There are two methods which may be
employed in salting,—dry and wet. In dry-salting, when the cheese is
finally taken from the press, it is removed from the press mold, its bandage
is removed completely, and the cheese placed in another mold, quite
similar, known as the salting mold. Each cheese is placed in a salting mold
with a coating of fine salt completely surrounding it. The cheese is salted in
Page 163
this way once each day for five or six days. Each day the cheese should be
turned when it is replaced in the mold, so that it will not be rounded on one
end more than the other.
In the method of wet-salting, the cheese is placed in a tank of salt brine,
made by dissolving common salt in water in the proportion of about 1
pound of salt to 2½ quarts of water. Each cheese is turned once a day and
should be left in the brine seven or eight days. When the cheese is taken
from the salting mold or salt bath, it is placed in warm water and given a
vigorous, thorough brushing in order to remove all slimy or greasy
substances that may have accumulated on the outer surface. When the
surface is well cleansed, the cheese is carefully wiped dry with a linen
towel and placed upon a shelf in the curing-room. In being put on the
shelves, the cheeses should be placed in contact so as to support one
another, until they have flattened out at both ends so much that they can
stand upright alone. Then they are moved far enough apart to allow a little
air space between them. Another method of securing the flattened ends is to
support each cheese on opposite sides by wedge-shaped pieces of wood.
After being placed on the shelves in the curing-room, they are turned once a
day and rubbed with the bare hand during the first month, twice a week
during the second month and once a week after that. When any slimy
substance appears on the surface of the cheese, it should be washed off at
once with warm water or sweet whey. The special conditions of the curing-
room will be noticed in detail below. When the cheeses are about two
months old, they can be prepared for market in the following manner: They
are first made smooth on the surface by being turned in a lathe or in some
other manner, after which the surface is colored. For coloring, some
carmine is dissolved in alcohol or ammonia to secure the proper shade, and
in this color-bath the cheeses are placed for about one minute, when they
are removed and allowed to drain, and as soon as they are dry the outside of
each cheese is rubbed with boiled linseed oil, in order to prevent checking.
They are then wrapped in tin-foil, which is done very much like the
bandaging. Care must be taken to put on the tin-foil so that it presents a
smooth, neat appearance. The cheeses are finally packed in boxes,
containing twelve cheeses in each box, arranged in two layers of six each
with a separate partition for each cheese.
turned when it is replaced in the mold, so that it will not be rounded on one
end more than the other.
In the method of wet-salting, the cheese is placed in a tank of salt brine,
made by dissolving common salt in water in the proportion of about 1
pound of salt to 2½ quarts of water. Each cheese is turned once a day and
should be left in the brine seven or eight days. When the cheese is taken
from the salting mold or salt bath, it is placed in warm water and given a
vigorous, thorough brushing in order to remove all slimy or greasy
substances that may have accumulated on the outer surface. When the
surface is well cleansed, the cheese is carefully wiped dry with a linen
towel and placed upon a shelf in the curing-room. In being put on the
shelves, the cheeses should be placed in contact so as to support one
another, until they have flattened out at both ends so much that they can
stand upright alone. Then they are moved far enough apart to allow a little
air space between them. Another method of securing the flattened ends is to
support each cheese on opposite sides by wedge-shaped pieces of wood.
After being placed on the shelves in the curing-room, they are turned once a
day and rubbed with the bare hand during the first month, twice a week
during the second month and once a week after that. When any slimy
substance appears on the surface of the cheese, it should be washed off at
once with warm water or sweet whey. The special conditions of the curing-
room will be noticed in detail below. When the cheeses are about two
months old, they can be prepared for market in the following manner: They
are first made smooth on the surface by being turned in a lathe or in some
other manner, after which the surface is colored. For coloring, some
carmine is dissolved in alcohol or ammonia to secure the proper shade, and
in this color-bath the cheeses are placed for about one minute, when they
are removed and allowed to drain, and as soon as they are dry the outside of
each cheese is rubbed with boiled linseed oil, in order to prevent checking.
They are then wrapped in tin-foil, which is done very much like the
bandaging. Care must be taken to put on the tin-foil so that it presents a
smooth, neat appearance. The cheeses are finally packed in boxes,
containing twelve cheeses in each box, arranged in two layers of six each
with a separate partition for each cheese.
Page 164
186. Equipment for making Edam cheese.—Careful attention must be
given to the moisture and temperature of the curing-room. This room should
be well ventilated, quite moist and its temperature kept between 50° and
65° F. These are conditions not easy to secure in any ordinary room. Some
form of cellar is best adapted for these conditions. The amount of moisture
can be determined by an instrument known as a hygrometer. In a curing-
room suited for Edam cheese, the moisture should be between 85 and 95
per cent, or a little short of saturation. When the temperature is between 50°
and 65° F., the moisture is between 85 and 95 per cent if the wet-bulb
thermometer is from 1 to 2° F. (or ½ to 1° C.) below the dry-bulb
thermometer. Cheese will check or crack and be spoiled for market, if the
degree of moisture is not kept high enough.
Aside from the molds, press and salting vat, the same apparatus that is used
in making Cheddar can be used for Edam cheese. The pressing mold is
turned preferably from white wood or, in any case, from wood that will not
taint. Each mold consists of two parts; the lower constitutes the main part of
the mold, the upper portion is simply a cover. The lower portion or body of
the mold has several holes in the bottom, from which the whey flows when
the cheese is pressed. Care must be taken to prevent these holes being
stopped up by curd. This part of the mold is about six inches deep and six
inches in diameter across the top. The salting mold has no cover and the
bottom is provided with only one hole for the out-flow of whey; in other
respects it is much like the pressing mold.
187. Qualities and yield of Edam cheese.—The flavor of a perfect Edam
cheese is difficult to describe. It is mild, clean, and pleasantly saline. In
imperfect Edams, the flavor is more or less sour and offensive. In body, a
perfect Edam cheese is solid, rather dry and mealy or crumbly. In texture, it
should be close and free from pores. In the experiments here reported the
amount of fat in 100 pounds of the partially skimmed-milk varied from 2.45
to 3.20 pounds and averaged 2.77 pounds. Of this amount, from 0.30 to
0.51 pound of fat was lost in the whey, with an average of 0.39 pound. The
yield of cheese from 100 pounds of milk varied from 9.60 to 11.82 pounds
and averaged 10.56 pounds.
188. Gouda cheese.86—This Dutch variety is a sweet-curd cheese made
from whole milk. In shape, the Gouda cheese is somewhat like a Cheddar
given to the moisture and temperature of the curing-room. This room should
be well ventilated, quite moist and its temperature kept between 50° and
65° F. These are conditions not easy to secure in any ordinary room. Some
form of cellar is best adapted for these conditions. The amount of moisture
can be determined by an instrument known as a hygrometer. In a curing-
room suited for Edam cheese, the moisture should be between 85 and 95
per cent, or a little short of saturation. When the temperature is between 50°
and 65° F., the moisture is between 85 and 95 per cent if the wet-bulb
thermometer is from 1 to 2° F. (or ½ to 1° C.) below the dry-bulb
thermometer. Cheese will check or crack and be spoiled for market, if the
degree of moisture is not kept high enough.
Aside from the molds, press and salting vat, the same apparatus that is used
in making Cheddar can be used for Edam cheese. The pressing mold is
turned preferably from white wood or, in any case, from wood that will not
taint. Each mold consists of two parts; the lower constitutes the main part of
the mold, the upper portion is simply a cover. The lower portion or body of
the mold has several holes in the bottom, from which the whey flows when
the cheese is pressed. Care must be taken to prevent these holes being
stopped up by curd. This part of the mold is about six inches deep and six
inches in diameter across the top. The salting mold has no cover and the
bottom is provided with only one hole for the out-flow of whey; in other
respects it is much like the pressing mold.
187. Qualities and yield of Edam cheese.—The flavor of a perfect Edam
cheese is difficult to describe. It is mild, clean, and pleasantly saline. In
imperfect Edams, the flavor is more or less sour and offensive. In body, a
perfect Edam cheese is solid, rather dry and mealy or crumbly. In texture, it
should be close and free from pores. In the experiments here reported the
amount of fat in 100 pounds of the partially skimmed-milk varied from 2.45
to 3.20 pounds and averaged 2.77 pounds. Of this amount, from 0.30 to
0.51 pound of fat was lost in the whey, with an average of 0.39 pound. The
yield of cheese from 100 pounds of milk varied from 9.60 to 11.82 pounds
and averaged 10.56 pounds.
188. Gouda cheese.86—This Dutch variety is a sweet-curd cheese made
from whole milk. In shape, the Gouda cheese is somewhat like a Cheddar
Page 165
with the sharp edges rounded off and sloping toward the outer
circumference at the middle from the end faces. They usually weigh 10 or
12 pounds, though they vary in weight from 8 to 16 pounds. They are
largely manufactured in southern Holland, and derive their name from the
town in which they were first made. Fresh sweet milk that has been
produced and cared for in the best possible manner should be used.
189. Method of manufacture.—The processes of manufacturing Gouda
cheese are as follows:
Treatment of milk before adding rennet.—The temperature of the milk
should be brought up to a point not below 88° F. nor much above 90° F.
When the desired temperature has been reached and has become constant,
the coloring matter is added. One ounce of cheese color for about 1200
pounds of milk may be used. The coloring matter should be thoroughly
incorporated by stirring before the rennet is added.
Addition of rennet to milk.—The rennet should not be added until the milk
has reached the desired temperature (88 to 90° F.) and this temperature has
become constant. The milk should be completely coagulated, ready for
cutting, in fifteen or twenty minutes. The same precautions should be used
in adding rennet as those previously mentioned in connection with the
manufacture of Edam cheese.
Cutting the curd.—The curd should be cut when it is of about the hardness
generally observed for cutting in the Cheddar process. The cutting is done
as in the Cheddar process except that the curd is cut a little finer in the
Gouda cheese. Curd should be about the size of peas or wheat kernels when
ready for press and as uniform in size as possible.
Treatment of curd after cutting.—After the cutting is completed, heating
and stirring is begun at once. The heating and constant stirring is continued
until the curd reaches a temperature of 104° F., which should require from
thirty to forty minutes. When the curd becomes rubber-like in feeling, the
whey should be run off. The whey should be entirely sweet when it is
removed.
Pressing and dressing Gouda.—After the whey is off, the curd is put in
molds at once without salting (Fig. 28). Pains should be taken in this
circumference at the middle from the end faces. They usually weigh 10 or
12 pounds, though they vary in weight from 8 to 16 pounds. They are
largely manufactured in southern Holland, and derive their name from the
town in which they were first made. Fresh sweet milk that has been
produced and cared for in the best possible manner should be used.
189. Method of manufacture.—The processes of manufacturing Gouda
cheese are as follows:
Treatment of milk before adding rennet.—The temperature of the milk
should be brought up to a point not below 88° F. nor much above 90° F.
When the desired temperature has been reached and has become constant,
the coloring matter is added. One ounce of cheese color for about 1200
pounds of milk may be used. The coloring matter should be thoroughly
incorporated by stirring before the rennet is added.
Addition of rennet to milk.—The rennet should not be added until the milk
has reached the desired temperature (88 to 90° F.) and this temperature has
become constant. The milk should be completely coagulated, ready for
cutting, in fifteen or twenty minutes. The same precautions should be used
in adding rennet as those previously mentioned in connection with the
manufacture of Edam cheese.
Cutting the curd.—The curd should be cut when it is of about the hardness
generally observed for cutting in the Cheddar process. The cutting is done
as in the Cheddar process except that the curd is cut a little finer in the
Gouda cheese. Curd should be about the size of peas or wheat kernels when
ready for press and as uniform in size as possible.
Treatment of curd after cutting.—After the cutting is completed, heating
and stirring is begun at once. The heating and constant stirring is continued
until the curd reaches a temperature of 104° F., which should require from
thirty to forty minutes. When the curd becomes rubber-like in feeling, the
whey should be run off. The whey should be entirely sweet when it is
removed.
Pressing and dressing Gouda.—After the whey is off, the curd is put in
molds at once without salting (Fig. 28). Pains should be taken in this
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process to keep the temperature of the curd as near 100° F. as possible. Each
cheese is placed under continuous pressure amounting to ten or twenty
times its own weight and kept for about half an hour. The first bandage is
put on in very much the same manner as in Edam cheese making. The
cheese is then put in press again for about one hour.
The first bandage is then taken off and a second one
like the first put on with great care, taking pains to
make the bandage smooth, capping the ends as
before. The cheese is then put in press again and left
twelve hours or more.
Salting and curing.—When Gouda cheese is taken
Fig. 28.—Gouda cheese
from the press, the bandage is removed and it is
mold.
placed for twenty-four hours in a curing-room like
that used for Edam cheese, as previously described.
Each cheese is then rubbed all over with dry salt until the salt begins to
dissolve, and this same treatment is continued twice a day for ten days. At
the end of that time, each cheese is carefully and thoroughly washed in
warm water and dried with a clean linen towel. The cheeses are then placed
on the shelves of the curing-room, turned once a day and rubbed. The
temperature and moisture are controlled as described in the curing process
of Edam cheese. If the outer surfaces of the cheese become slimy at any
time, they are carefully washed in warm water and dried with clean towels.
Under these conditions, cheese ripens in two or three months.
190. Equipment for Gouda cheese.—The molds, press and curing-room
are the only equipment needed in the making of Gouda cheese that differ
from that employed in making Cheddar cheese. The mold used for Gouda
cheese consists of two portions, which are shown separately in Fig. 28.
These molds are made of heavy pressed tin. The inside diameter at the
middle is about 10 inches, that of the ends about 6½ inches. The height of
the mold is about 5½ inches, and this represents the thickness of the cheese,
but by pushing the upper down into the lower portion, the thickness can be
decreased as desired.
191. Composition and yield of Gouda.—In work with milk averaging 4.2
per cent of fat there were lost in the whey from 0.29 to 0.43 per cent with an
average of 0.35 per cent of fat. The loss of fat appears to be not much
cheese is placed under continuous pressure amounting to ten or twenty
times its own weight and kept for about half an hour. The first bandage is
put on in very much the same manner as in Edam cheese making. The
cheese is then put in press again for about one hour.
The first bandage is then taken off and a second one
like the first put on with great care, taking pains to
make the bandage smooth, capping the ends as
before. The cheese is then put in press again and left
twelve hours or more.
Salting and curing.—When Gouda cheese is taken
Fig. 28.—Gouda cheese
from the press, the bandage is removed and it is
mold.
placed for twenty-four hours in a curing-room like
that used for Edam cheese, as previously described.
Each cheese is then rubbed all over with dry salt until the salt begins to
dissolve, and this same treatment is continued twice a day for ten days. At
the end of that time, each cheese is carefully and thoroughly washed in
warm water and dried with a clean linen towel. The cheeses are then placed
on the shelves of the curing-room, turned once a day and rubbed. The
temperature and moisture are controlled as described in the curing process
of Edam cheese. If the outer surfaces of the cheese become slimy at any
time, they are carefully washed in warm water and dried with clean towels.
Under these conditions, cheese ripens in two or three months.
190. Equipment for Gouda cheese.—The molds, press and curing-room
are the only equipment needed in the making of Gouda cheese that differ
from that employed in making Cheddar cheese. The mold used for Gouda
cheese consists of two portions, which are shown separately in Fig. 28.
These molds are made of heavy pressed tin. The inside diameter at the
middle is about 10 inches, that of the ends about 6½ inches. The height of
the mold is about 5½ inches, and this represents the thickness of the cheese,
but by pushing the upper down into the lower portion, the thickness can be
decreased as desired.
191. Composition and yield of Gouda.—In work with milk averaging 4.2
per cent of fat there were lost in the whey from 0.29 to 0.43 per cent with an
average of 0.35 per cent of fat. The loss of fat appears to be not much
Page 167
greater than the average loss met with in cheese factories in making
Cheddar cheese. From 100 pounds of milk, there were made from 11.60 to
13.35 pounds of green cheese, with an average of 12.50 pounds. The
percentage of water in the experimental cheese varied from 41.25 to 45.43
per cent and averaged 43.50 per cent.
Cheddar cheese. From 100 pounds of milk, there were made from 11.60 to
13.35 pounds of green cheese, with an average of 12.50 pounds. The
percentage of water in the experimental cheese varied from 41.25 to 45.43
per cent and averaged 43.50 per cent.
Page 168
CHAPTER XII
CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKING
Cheddar is the best known cheese throughout the United States and the one
most commonly made in factories. The Cheddar process was brought to
America by English immigrants. Similar to Cheddar cheese are Pineapple,
English Dairy, Sage cheese, skimmed-milk and California Jack cheese
made in this country, and Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Wensleydale and
Cheshire made in England. The Cheddar cheese process as employed in the
factories to-day has been modified and improved since it was first
introduced into this country by the early immigrants. The following
description87 includes only the practices as found in the factories to-day if
whole milk is used. Skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese is discussed later.
Fig. 29.—Delivering milk to the cheese factory.
192. The lot-card.—The Cheddar process involves several hours of
manipulation and includes many details which should be closely and
accurately observed and recorded. The necessity of carrying observations of
CHEDDAR CHEESE-MAKING
Cheddar is the best known cheese throughout the United States and the one
most commonly made in factories. The Cheddar process was brought to
America by English immigrants. Similar to Cheddar cheese are Pineapple,
English Dairy, Sage cheese, skimmed-milk and California Jack cheese
made in this country, and Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Wensleydale and
Cheshire made in England. The Cheddar cheese process as employed in the
factories to-day has been modified and improved since it was first
introduced into this country by the early immigrants. The following
description87 includes only the practices as found in the factories to-day if
whole milk is used. Skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese is discussed later.
Fig. 29.—Delivering milk to the cheese factory.
192. The lot-card.—The Cheddar process involves several hours of
manipulation and includes many details which should be closely and
accurately observed and recorded. The necessity of carrying observations of
Page 169
several different factors at the same time makes a scheme of recording data
essential to convenient work. For this purpose, a lot-card for Cheddar
cheese is introduced here and the pages given to particular factors are
indicated in the space intended for the recording of observations. The
manufacture of Cheddar cheese is a complicated process, because several
factors must be given attention at the same time. A careful record of the
observations of each step in the successive handling of each lot of milk puts
the operator in possession of a permanent record of his experience. This
record has several uses. It may help to convince patrons of the importance
of eliminating faults in the milk; it furnishes the cheese-maker a cumulative
record of his experiences in handling milk with special qualities, such as
high or low fat-content, over-acidity or taints. Since Cheddar ripening
covers a period of weeks and months, no operator can remember particular
lots of milk sufficiently well to be able to use his experience on the
interpretation of the qualities found in the ripened product.
193. The milk.—It is the usual practice to deliver the milk to the cheese
factory each morning (Fig. 29). The night's milk is cooled and kept clean
and cold until delivered at the factory. It is advisable not to mix the cold
night's milk and the warm morning's milk, but to deliver them in separate
cans to the cheese factory at the same time. The milk is weighed, sample for
fat test taken and then run into the vat (Fig. 30). The receiving or taking in
of the milk is one of the most important parts of the cheese factory work. It
is practically as important as the actual manufacturing of the cheese.
essential to convenient work. For this purpose, a lot-card for Cheddar
cheese is introduced here and the pages given to particular factors are
indicated in the space intended for the recording of observations. The
manufacture of Cheddar cheese is a complicated process, because several
factors must be given attention at the same time. A careful record of the
observations of each step in the successive handling of each lot of milk puts
the operator in possession of a permanent record of his experience. This
record has several uses. It may help to convince patrons of the importance
of eliminating faults in the milk; it furnishes the cheese-maker a cumulative
record of his experiences in handling milk with special qualities, such as
high or low fat-content, over-acidity or taints. Since Cheddar ripening
covers a period of weeks and months, no operator can remember particular
lots of milk sufficiently well to be able to use his experience on the
interpretation of the qualities found in the ripened product.
193. The milk.—It is the usual practice to deliver the milk to the cheese
factory each morning (Fig. 29). The night's milk is cooled and kept clean
and cold until delivered at the factory. It is advisable not to mix the cold
night's milk and the warm morning's milk, but to deliver them in separate
cans to the cheese factory at the same time. The milk is weighed, sample for
fat test taken and then run into the vat (Fig. 30). The receiving or taking in
of the milk is one of the most important parts of the cheese factory work. It
is practically as important as the actual manufacturing of the cheese.
Page 170
Page 171
Fig. 30.—Receiving, sampling, weighing and running the milk into the cheese vat.
Any milk high in acid or with a bad flavor should be avoided. It is often bad
policy to reject the milk, for a neighboring factory will accept it and the
factory not only loses the milk but also the patron. Factories should have an
agreement to prevent this. The acidity can be determined by the acid test,
but the detection of flavors must be made by the cheese-maker himself with
the aid of smell and taste. Many of the bad flavors in the cheese can be
traced to the poor quality of the milk. One of the worst qualities in milk and
cheese is the presence of gas-producing organisms.88 Any milk which shows
gassy fermentation should be rejected, for it is difficult to make cheese from
this and at best there will be a large loss during the manufacturing process.
The cheese may have a bad flavor and develop "pin-holes" and in extreme
cases may puff up like a ball. The person receiving the milk should talk to
the farmers or dairy-men about the proper care of the utensils and milk. He
must see that the cans are kept clean. One very bad practice is to deliver
milk and take home whey in the same cans. The cans, as they are brought
back from the cheese factory full of whey, are often left in the barn or near a
hog-pen until the whey is fed. Unless such cans are emptied immediately on
returning to the farm and then rinsed out with cold water, thoroughly
washed and scalded, bad flavors may develop in the cheese. It is thought
that this causes "fruity" or sweet flavor, which resembles that of fruits such
as raspberries, strawberries or pineapples.
Any milk high in acid or with a bad flavor should be avoided. It is often bad
policy to reject the milk, for a neighboring factory will accept it and the
factory not only loses the milk but also the patron. Factories should have an
agreement to prevent this. The acidity can be determined by the acid test,
but the detection of flavors must be made by the cheese-maker himself with
the aid of smell and taste. Many of the bad flavors in the cheese can be
traced to the poor quality of the milk. One of the worst qualities in milk and
cheese is the presence of gas-producing organisms.88 Any milk which shows
gassy fermentation should be rejected, for it is difficult to make cheese from
this and at best there will be a large loss during the manufacturing process.
The cheese may have a bad flavor and develop "pin-holes" and in extreme
cases may puff up like a ball. The person receiving the milk should talk to
the farmers or dairy-men about the proper care of the utensils and milk. He
must see that the cans are kept clean. One very bad practice is to deliver
milk and take home whey in the same cans. The cans, as they are brought
back from the cheese factory full of whey, are often left in the barn or near a
hog-pen until the whey is fed. Unless such cans are emptied immediately on
returning to the farm and then rinsed out with cold water, thoroughly
washed and scalded, bad flavors may develop in the cheese. It is thought
that this causes "fruity" or sweet flavor, which resembles that of fruits such
as raspberries, strawberries or pineapples.
Page 172
194. Ripening the milk.—A slight development of acidity is required: (a)
to obtain the formation of a firm curd; and (b) to establish immediate
dominance of a desirable type of lactic organism which will produce the
large amount of acid required later in the cheddaring process. The
development of this acidification before the addition of rennet is known as
the ripening of the milk. The extent of ripening advised by different schools
of makers has varied from an acidity of 0.20 of 1 per cent or even slightly
higher percentage titrated as lactic acid, to about 0.17 of 1 per cent as now
preferred by some of the most successful groups of workers. The ripeness
of the milk can also be determined by the use of the rennet test.
The milk may be ripened by allowing the lactic organisms already present
in the milk to develop naturally. This requires considerable time and while
the lactic acid-forming bacteria are developing, other and undesirable
fermentations may be taking place, so that the good results which should
follow the uninterrupted development of the lactic acid-forming organisms
are lost. Starter is commonly used to produce the desired ripening of the
milk. (For the preparation of starter see Chapter IV.)
Fig. 31.—Steel cheese vat.
Some makers put the starter into the empty vat (Fig. 31) and add the milk as
it is received; others add it to the total volume of cold milk and then begin
to heat it. Whenever the starter is used, it should be strained to remove
lumps. These lumps might cause a mottled color in the cheese. The best
practice calls for an acidity or a rennet test of the mixed milk after it has
been brought to the setting temperature in the vat. With milk tested at this
stage and the volume of milk in the vat known, the cheese-maker is able to
to obtain the formation of a firm curd; and (b) to establish immediate
dominance of a desirable type of lactic organism which will produce the
large amount of acid required later in the cheddaring process. The
development of this acidification before the addition of rennet is known as
the ripening of the milk. The extent of ripening advised by different schools
of makers has varied from an acidity of 0.20 of 1 per cent or even slightly
higher percentage titrated as lactic acid, to about 0.17 of 1 per cent as now
preferred by some of the most successful groups of workers. The ripeness
of the milk can also be determined by the use of the rennet test.
The milk may be ripened by allowing the lactic organisms already present
in the milk to develop naturally. This requires considerable time and while
the lactic acid-forming bacteria are developing, other and undesirable
fermentations may be taking place, so that the good results which should
follow the uninterrupted development of the lactic acid-forming organisms
are lost. Starter is commonly used to produce the desired ripening of the
milk. (For the preparation of starter see Chapter IV.)
Fig. 31.—Steel cheese vat.
Some makers put the starter into the empty vat (Fig. 31) and add the milk as
it is received; others add it to the total volume of cold milk and then begin
to heat it. Whenever the starter is used, it should be strained to remove
lumps. These lumps might cause a mottled color in the cheese. The best
practice calls for an acidity or a rennet test of the mixed milk after it has
been brought to the setting temperature in the vat. With milk tested at this
stage and the volume of milk in the vat known, the cheese-maker is able to
Page 173
calculate closely the amount of starter needed. When the quantity of starter
to use is in doubt, the amount added should be under rather than over the
estimate, since the need of more can be determined by making frequent
rennet and acid tests in a very few minutes without damage to the cheese. If
too much starter has been used, acid or sour cheese is usually obtained, with
loss in market quality.
An over-development of acidity at any stage of the manufacturing process
affects the flavor, body and texture, color and finish of the cheese. The
product is known as a sour cheese, and can usually be identified by its sour
taste and smell. A sour cheese while curing will seldom develop a normal
Cheddar flavor and the texture will be hard and harsh and very brittle. The
body will not be smooth but harsh and grainy. The over-development of
acid will show by fading or bleaching the color. A sour cheese usually leaks
whey for a few days after being placed on the curing-room shelves.
Ripening the milk is one of the most important parts of cheese-making.
Proper ripening places the acid fermentations under the control of the
cheese-maker so that he may know what results will follow his labors. The
operator can control the acidity while ripening the milk, but after the rennet
is added all control of the acidity is lost. From that time, the moisture must
be regulated in proportion to the acidity.
Before setting, the milk should be ripened to such a point as to leave at least
two and one-half hours from the time that the rennet extract is added until
the acid development has reached the stage at which it is necessary to
remove the whey. By the acid test the milk may vary from 0.16 to 0.18 of 1
per cent, but no definite statement can be given for the rennet test. This can
be determined only by comparison from day to day. For operation of rennet
test see Chapter V. During this period of two and one-half hours, the curd is
formed, then cut, and the temperature is raised from 84° or 86° F. (the
temperature at which the rennet extract is added) to about 98° to 100° F.
The curd must be kept agitated so that the particles will not mat together;
this is necessary to obtain sufficient contraction of the particles of curd with
the proper reduction of water-content. If the milk becomes too ripe (too
sour) before the rennet is added, there will not be sufficient time for these
steps to take place naturally. In such cases special means are required to
firm the curd. These result in a loss of both quality and quantity of cheese.
to use is in doubt, the amount added should be under rather than over the
estimate, since the need of more can be determined by making frequent
rennet and acid tests in a very few minutes without damage to the cheese. If
too much starter has been used, acid or sour cheese is usually obtained, with
loss in market quality.
An over-development of acidity at any stage of the manufacturing process
affects the flavor, body and texture, color and finish of the cheese. The
product is known as a sour cheese, and can usually be identified by its sour
taste and smell. A sour cheese while curing will seldom develop a normal
Cheddar flavor and the texture will be hard and harsh and very brittle. The
body will not be smooth but harsh and grainy. The over-development of
acid will show by fading or bleaching the color. A sour cheese usually leaks
whey for a few days after being placed on the curing-room shelves.
Ripening the milk is one of the most important parts of cheese-making.
Proper ripening places the acid fermentations under the control of the
cheese-maker so that he may know what results will follow his labors. The
operator can control the acidity while ripening the milk, but after the rennet
is added all control of the acidity is lost. From that time, the moisture must
be regulated in proportion to the acidity.
Before setting, the milk should be ripened to such a point as to leave at least
two and one-half hours from the time that the rennet extract is added until
the acid development has reached the stage at which it is necessary to
remove the whey. By the acid test the milk may vary from 0.16 to 0.18 of 1
per cent, but no definite statement can be given for the rennet test. This can
be determined only by comparison from day to day. For operation of rennet
test see Chapter V. During this period of two and one-half hours, the curd is
formed, then cut, and the temperature is raised from 84° or 86° F. (the
temperature at which the rennet extract is added) to about 98° to 100° F.
The curd must be kept agitated so that the particles will not mat together;
this is necessary to obtain sufficient contraction of the particles of curd with
the proper reduction of water-content. If the milk becomes too ripe (too
sour) before the rennet is added, there will not be sufficient time for these
steps to take place naturally. In such cases special means are required to
firm the curd. These result in a loss of both quality and quantity of cheese.
Page 174
On the other hand, if the milk is not ripened, but the rennet extract added,
regardless of the acid development, one of the important natural forces for
expelling the moisture is lost. The time required for the particles of curd to
contract is much prolonged, the expulsion of whey is usually inadequate
and the curd remains in a soft or wet condition. Using too much starter is
almost equally bad, for although it hastens the making process, it produces
a sour or acid cheese.
195. Setting or coagulating.—The milk for Cheddar cheese-making is
heated to 86° to 88° F. or occasionally a slightly lower temperature. This
temperature is found by experiment to give the texture of curd most
favorable for the desired results. Although some cheese-makers work as low
as 84° F., the texture of such curd is too soft and coagulates too slowly. The
very slight change of 2° F. produces curd which coagulates more quickly
and is tougher and firmer.
If the cheeses are to be colored, the color should be added after all the
starter. It should be thoroughly and evenly mixed with the milk to insure an
even color in the cheese. If the color is added before the starter, there are
likely to be white specks in the cheese, on account of the coagulated casein
in the starter. The amount of color to use depends on the tint desired in the
cheese. It varies from ⅓ to ½ ounce to 1000 pounds of milk for a light straw
color to 1½ to 2 ounces for 1000 pounds of milk for a deep red color.
Enough rennet should be used to produce a curd firm enough to cut in
twenty-five to thirty-five minutes. The necessary amount will vary with the
strength of the rennet extract itself, with the acidity, the temperature, the
nature of the lot of milk, and with the individual aims of the maker in which
he adjusts the other factors to his preferences as to rapidity of rennet action.
With the usual commercial extract, the needed amount ranges from 2.5 to 4
ounces for 1000 pounds of milk. As for all varieties of cheese, the rennet
extract should be diluted in cold water at about one part rennet to forty parts
water and thoroughly stirred into the milk. (See Chapter V.)
196. Cutting.—The object of cutting is to obtain an even expulsion of the
moisture from the curd. The curd is cut as soon as it becomes firm enough.
To determine this, various tests may be used. Some operators test it by
pressing it away from the side of the vat, considering it ready to cut when it
regardless of the acid development, one of the important natural forces for
expelling the moisture is lost. The time required for the particles of curd to
contract is much prolonged, the expulsion of whey is usually inadequate
and the curd remains in a soft or wet condition. Using too much starter is
almost equally bad, for although it hastens the making process, it produces
a sour or acid cheese.
195. Setting or coagulating.—The milk for Cheddar cheese-making is
heated to 86° to 88° F. or occasionally a slightly lower temperature. This
temperature is found by experiment to give the texture of curd most
favorable for the desired results. Although some cheese-makers work as low
as 84° F., the texture of such curd is too soft and coagulates too slowly. The
very slight change of 2° F. produces curd which coagulates more quickly
and is tougher and firmer.
If the cheeses are to be colored, the color should be added after all the
starter. It should be thoroughly and evenly mixed with the milk to insure an
even color in the cheese. If the color is added before the starter, there are
likely to be white specks in the cheese, on account of the coagulated casein
in the starter. The amount of color to use depends on the tint desired in the
cheese. It varies from ⅓ to ½ ounce to 1000 pounds of milk for a light straw
color to 1½ to 2 ounces for 1000 pounds of milk for a deep red color.
Enough rennet should be used to produce a curd firm enough to cut in
twenty-five to thirty-five minutes. The necessary amount will vary with the
strength of the rennet extract itself, with the acidity, the temperature, the
nature of the lot of milk, and with the individual aims of the maker in which
he adjusts the other factors to his preferences as to rapidity of rennet action.
With the usual commercial extract, the needed amount ranges from 2.5 to 4
ounces for 1000 pounds of milk. As for all varieties of cheese, the rennet
extract should be diluted in cold water at about one part rennet to forty parts
water and thoroughly stirred into the milk. (See Chapter V.)
196. Cutting.—The object of cutting is to obtain an even expulsion of the
moisture from the curd. The curd is cut as soon as it becomes firm enough.
To determine this, various tests may be used. Some operators test it by
pressing it away from the side of the vat, considering it ready to cut when it
Page 175
separates cleanly from the metal. The test most commonly used is to insert
the index finger obliquely into the curd, then to start to split the curd with
the thumb and finally to raise the finger gently; if ready to cut, the curd will
split cleanly over the finger and clear whey will separate to fill the opened
crack. Another arbitrary but more or less satisfactory rule is that the time
from adding the rennet until cutting should be two and one-half times that
from the addition of rennet until the first sign of coagulation is observed.
The condition of the curd itself is the best guide to show when it is ready to
cut. The condition of the curd is constantly changing, so that in a large vat,
if the cutting is not begun until the curd is in the best condition, by the time
the last of the curd is cut it will be too hard or firm. It is better to begin
while the curd is a trifle too soft so that the cutting will be taking place
while the curd is at the proper stage. At best the last of the curd may
become too hard. If too hard, it will break ahead of the knife instead of cut.
Breaking causes more fat loss than cutting because there is more surface
exposed and hence more fat globules. The softer the curd when cut, the
quicker and easier the moisture can be expelled.
If the curd is cut when soft, care must be exercised not to stir it too hard
immediately after cutting. Soft curd breaks very easily. When the curd is cut
soft and then stirred vigorously, there is a larger loss of fat than when the
curd becomes hard before it is cut.
Two knives are used to cut the curd. (See Fig. 11.) These knives may have
either wire or blades for cutting. The space between the wires or blades
varies from 5/16 to ½ inch. Knives used should have blades or wires close
enough together to cut the pieces as small as desired, without a second
cutting. When the curd has to be cut a second time it usually results in
pieces of uneven sizes, because the pieces already cut cannot be evenly split
in two.
One set of knives has horizontal and the other perpendicular blades or
wires. The curd is cut the long way of the vat with the horizontal knife and
lengthwise and crosswise with the perpendicular knife so that the result is
small cubes or oblongs of curd. Some cheese-makers prefer to use one knife
first and some the other, but the result should be a curd cut into pieces of
uniform size. The smaller the particles of curd or cubes are cut, the quicker
the index finger obliquely into the curd, then to start to split the curd with
the thumb and finally to raise the finger gently; if ready to cut, the curd will
split cleanly over the finger and clear whey will separate to fill the opened
crack. Another arbitrary but more or less satisfactory rule is that the time
from adding the rennet until cutting should be two and one-half times that
from the addition of rennet until the first sign of coagulation is observed.
The condition of the curd itself is the best guide to show when it is ready to
cut. The condition of the curd is constantly changing, so that in a large vat,
if the cutting is not begun until the curd is in the best condition, by the time
the last of the curd is cut it will be too hard or firm. It is better to begin
while the curd is a trifle too soft so that the cutting will be taking place
while the curd is at the proper stage. At best the last of the curd may
become too hard. If too hard, it will break ahead of the knife instead of cut.
Breaking causes more fat loss than cutting because there is more surface
exposed and hence more fat globules. The softer the curd when cut, the
quicker and easier the moisture can be expelled.
If the curd is cut when soft, care must be exercised not to stir it too hard
immediately after cutting. Soft curd breaks very easily. When the curd is cut
soft and then stirred vigorously, there is a larger loss of fat than when the
curd becomes hard before it is cut.
Two knives are used to cut the curd. (See Fig. 11.) These knives may have
either wire or blades for cutting. The space between the wires or blades
varies from 5/16 to ½ inch. Knives used should have blades or wires close
enough together to cut the pieces as small as desired, without a second
cutting. When the curd has to be cut a second time it usually results in
pieces of uneven sizes, because the pieces already cut cannot be evenly split
in two.
One set of knives has horizontal and the other perpendicular blades or
wires. The curd is cut the long way of the vat with the horizontal knife and
lengthwise and crosswise with the perpendicular knife so that the result is
small cubes or oblongs of curd. Some cheese-makers prefer to use one knife
first and some the other, but the result should be a curd cut into pieces of
uniform size. The smaller the particles of curd or cubes are cut, the quicker
Page 176
the curd will firm up or cook. If not cut uniformly, the changes taking place
later in the curd particles will not be uniform,—the small pieces will be
hard and dry while the large ones will be soft and mushy.
Fig. 32.—The proper way to put the knife into the curd.
Care should be taken to let the knife cut its way into the curd (Fig. 32). If
the knife is pushed into the curd, it will break it and cause a large loss of fat.
The same is true when taking the knives out of the curd. The loss of fat due
to cutting is very similar to the loss of sawdust when sawing a board. It may
be considered a necessary evil. The loss due to cutting is about 0.3 of 1 per
cent of fat in the whey and the loss of casein about 0.1 of 1 per cent in the
whey.
197. Heating or "cooking" the curd.—After the curd is cut, the pieces
(cubes) rapidly settle to the bottom of the vat and tend to mat together. To
prevent this, the curd must be kept stirred. When stirring first begins, the
curd is soft and very readily broken. Some cheese-makers prefer to stir by
hand for the first few minutes after cutting, while the curd is soft. The
importance of careful handling can hardly be over-emphasized. No matter
how well the curd has been cut, if the stirring is performed in a careless
manner in the early stages, it will be broken into uneven sized pieces and a
considerable loss of fat will result. A wooden hay rake or a McPherson curd
agitator (Figs. 33, 34) may be used to stir the curd. Mechanical curd
agitators are used in some cheese factories. There are several makes. (See
Fig. 35.) These agitators save much hand labor, although some stirring by
hand must be done in connection with them. The mechanical agitators do
not stir the curd in the corners of the vat; this must be done with the hand
later in the curd particles will not be uniform,—the small pieces will be
hard and dry while the large ones will be soft and mushy.
Fig. 32.—The proper way to put the knife into the curd.
Care should be taken to let the knife cut its way into the curd (Fig. 32). If
the knife is pushed into the curd, it will break it and cause a large loss of fat.
The same is true when taking the knives out of the curd. The loss of fat due
to cutting is very similar to the loss of sawdust when sawing a board. It may
be considered a necessary evil. The loss due to cutting is about 0.3 of 1 per
cent of fat in the whey and the loss of casein about 0.1 of 1 per cent in the
whey.
197. Heating or "cooking" the curd.—After the curd is cut, the pieces
(cubes) rapidly settle to the bottom of the vat and tend to mat together. To
prevent this, the curd must be kept stirred. When stirring first begins, the
curd is soft and very readily broken. Some cheese-makers prefer to stir by
hand for the first few minutes after cutting, while the curd is soft. The
importance of careful handling can hardly be over-emphasized. No matter
how well the curd has been cut, if the stirring is performed in a careless
manner in the early stages, it will be broken into uneven sized pieces and a
considerable loss of fat will result. A wooden hay rake or a McPherson curd
agitator (Figs. 33, 34) may be used to stir the curd. Mechanical curd
agitators are used in some cheese factories. There are several makes. (See
Fig. 35.) These agitators save much hand labor, although some stirring by
hand must be done in connection with them. The mechanical agitators do
not stir the curd in the corners of the vat; this must be done with the hand
Page 177
rake. It is the usual practice
to stir the curd
immediately after cutting
for five to ten minutes
before the mechanical
agitators are used. This is
necessary to give the curd
a slight chance to firm as
the mechanical agitators
tend to break it up. After
Fig. 33.—Acme curd rake.
cutting, a thin film forms
on each piece of curd. This film
holds the curd particles, especially
the fat. Breaking the films on the
cubes causes loss of fat. If lumps
form at the early stage, by matting
of the curd particles, violent stirring
is required to separate them. When
such lumps are broken up, new
cleavage lines are formed with loss
of fat, because the original films Fig. 34.—McPherson curd agitator.
surrounding the soft curd fuse so
firmly that the curd cubes do not separate but actually break. New surfaces
are thus formed with consequent fat loss. Rapid shrinkage with expulsion of
whey takes place during the first few minutes of gentle agitation. Before
any heat is applied to the vat, sufficient whey should have separated or
formed to float each piece of curd separately. This will require ten to fifteen
minutes from the time of cutting.
to stir the curd
immediately after cutting
for five to ten minutes
before the mechanical
agitators are used. This is
necessary to give the curd
a slight chance to firm as
the mechanical agitators
tend to break it up. After
Fig. 33.—Acme curd rake.
cutting, a thin film forms
on each piece of curd. This film
holds the curd particles, especially
the fat. Breaking the films on the
cubes causes loss of fat. If lumps
form at the early stage, by matting
of the curd particles, violent stirring
is required to separate them. When
such lumps are broken up, new
cleavage lines are formed with loss
of fat, because the original films Fig. 34.—McPherson curd agitator.
surrounding the soft curd fuse so
firmly that the curd cubes do not separate but actually break. New surfaces
are thus formed with consequent fat loss. Rapid shrinkage with expulsion of
whey takes place during the first few minutes of gentle agitation. Before
any heat is applied to the vat, sufficient whey should have separated or
formed to float each piece of curd separately. This will require ten to fifteen
minutes from the time of cutting.
Page 178
Fig. 35.—Two types of mechanical curd agitators.
Thus far the first of three distinct factors which expel the moisture from the
curd has been considered: (1) the action of the rennet; (2) the development
of the lactic acid; and (3) the application of heat. These forces must have
time to act naturally. If heat is applied too soon after the curd is cut or if the
temperature is raised too rapidly, it causes a thick film to form on the pieces
of curd which interferes with the escape of the whey. The outside of the
curd becomes firm but the inside remains very soft. A curd which is cooked
on the outside only feels firm when stirred by hand in the whey, but when a
handful is squeezed the soft centers are noticed. To firm such curd masses
requires violent stirring, which will break the thick tough film. This allows
the moisture to escape and also increases the fat loss. The rapidity of
heating should depend on the condition of the curd and the amount of acid
developed. The heat should keep pace with these. When ready to raise the
temperature, the least amount of steam possible should be allowed to pass
through the valve. This should raise the temperature very gradually. If heat
is applied too quickly at first, it will cause the curd to lump. A safe rule is to
raise the temperature one degree in the first five minutes after the steam has
been turned on. The heating should progress slowly until the whole mass of
curd in the vat has reached a temperature of 90° to 92° F. The usual
temperature to which the curd is heated or cooked is 98° F. to 100° F. The
lower the temperature that can be used and properly firm the curd, the better
Thus far the first of three distinct factors which expel the moisture from the
curd has been considered: (1) the action of the rennet; (2) the development
of the lactic acid; and (3) the application of heat. These forces must have
time to act naturally. If heat is applied too soon after the curd is cut or if the
temperature is raised too rapidly, it causes a thick film to form on the pieces
of curd which interferes with the escape of the whey. The outside of the
curd becomes firm but the inside remains very soft. A curd which is cooked
on the outside only feels firm when stirred by hand in the whey, but when a
handful is squeezed the soft centers are noticed. To firm such curd masses
requires violent stirring, which will break the thick tough film. This allows
the moisture to escape and also increases the fat loss. The rapidity of
heating should depend on the condition of the curd and the amount of acid
developed. The heat should keep pace with these. When ready to raise the
temperature, the least amount of steam possible should be allowed to pass
through the valve. This should raise the temperature very gradually. If heat
is applied too quickly at first, it will cause the curd to lump. A safe rule is to
raise the temperature one degree in the first five minutes after the steam has
been turned on. The heating should progress slowly until the whole mass of
curd in the vat has reached a temperature of 90° to 92° F. The usual
temperature to which the curd is heated or cooked is 98° F. to 100° F. The
lower the temperature that can be used and properly firm the curd, the better
Page 179
will be the body of the cheese. If the curd is heated too high, it will become
hard, which causes a dry hard "corky" cheese. After this temperature has
been reached, there is not such a tendency for the curd particles to stick
together nor are they so easily broken in stirring. It should require, under
normal conditions, not less than thirty to forty-five minutes, from the time
the steam is turned on, to raise temperature of the curd from the setting
temperature to that necessary to "firm" the curd. If a shorter time is allowed
to raise the temperature, the curd will not have opportunity to contract
naturally.
The temperature required to expel the moisture properly varies with the
percentage of fat in the milk. If rich in fat (4.5 to 5.5 per cent) milk requires
a temperature of 98° to 104° F. to firm the curd, while the same result can
be accomplished with milk testing 3.0 to 3.5 per cent fat at a temperature of
94° to 96° F. A higher temperature is needed in winter than in summer
because the milk is usually richer in fat. In a water-jacketed vat, allowance
must always be made for the rise in temperature due to the water
surrounding it. The water may be removed if there is danger of the
temperature going too high. However, it is better to gauge the heat so that
the water may be left, as this helps to hold the curd at an even temperature,
especially in cold weather. In a steam-heated vat there is not so much
danger of the temperature running up.
The stirring must be kept up after the steam has been turned off until the
curd has reached such a stage of contraction that it will not readily pack or
mat in the bottom of the vat. After the curd reaches this stage it may be
allowed to settle to the bottom and stirred only occasionally until it is time
to remove the whey. If the cheese room is not warm and there is danger of
the curd cooling, a cover should be placed on the vat. The curd should not
be allowed to settle for more than fifteen minutes without stirring to keep
each piece separate. This is necessary to obtain uniform contraction of all
curd masses.
198. Removing the whey.—To permit the normal changes in the curd to
take place naturally, two and one-half hours from the time the rennet extract
is added is ordinarily required before the whey is drawn. The time of
removing the whey is determined by two factors: one, the acid
development, and the other, the firmness of the curd. For the best results, it
hard, which causes a dry hard "corky" cheese. After this temperature has
been reached, there is not such a tendency for the curd particles to stick
together nor are they so easily broken in stirring. It should require, under
normal conditions, not less than thirty to forty-five minutes, from the time
the steam is turned on, to raise temperature of the curd from the setting
temperature to that necessary to "firm" the curd. If a shorter time is allowed
to raise the temperature, the curd will not have opportunity to contract
naturally.
The temperature required to expel the moisture properly varies with the
percentage of fat in the milk. If rich in fat (4.5 to 5.5 per cent) milk requires
a temperature of 98° to 104° F. to firm the curd, while the same result can
be accomplished with milk testing 3.0 to 3.5 per cent fat at a temperature of
94° to 96° F. A higher temperature is needed in winter than in summer
because the milk is usually richer in fat. In a water-jacketed vat, allowance
must always be made for the rise in temperature due to the water
surrounding it. The water may be removed if there is danger of the
temperature going too high. However, it is better to gauge the heat so that
the water may be left, as this helps to hold the curd at an even temperature,
especially in cold weather. In a steam-heated vat there is not so much
danger of the temperature running up.
The stirring must be kept up after the steam has been turned off until the
curd has reached such a stage of contraction that it will not readily pack or
mat in the bottom of the vat. After the curd reaches this stage it may be
allowed to settle to the bottom and stirred only occasionally until it is time
to remove the whey. If the cheese room is not warm and there is danger of
the curd cooling, a cover should be placed on the vat. The curd should not
be allowed to settle for more than fifteen minutes without stirring to keep
each piece separate. This is necessary to obtain uniform contraction of all
curd masses.
198. Removing the whey.—To permit the normal changes in the curd to
take place naturally, two and one-half hours from the time the rennet extract
is added is ordinarily required before the whey is drawn. The time of
removing the whey is determined by two factors: one, the acid
development, and the other, the firmness of the curd. For the best results, it
Page 180
is better to have the firmness of the curd a trifle ahead of the acid
development. When the proper acid development has been reached, the
whey must be removed, regardless of the firmness of the curd. If the curd
has not become firm enough by natural forces, when the acid development
has reached the proper stage to remove the whey, it must be firmed by other
means. If it is not firm enough, either by natural or artificial means, when
the whey is removed, a sour cheese is the result. The acid development
should not be allowed to go beyond 0.16 to 0.19 of 1 per cent acidity in the
whey by the acid test or ⅟16 to ⅟8 of an inch of acid on the hot-iron test,
before the whey is removed.
199. Hot-iron test.89—This test is employed to determine the amount of
acid in the curd. A piece of iron, such as an iron pipe two feet long, is
heated in the fire to proper temperature. If the iron is too hot it will burn the
curd, and if not hot enough the curd will not stick to the iron. When hot, it is
taken from the fire and wiped clean with a cloth. A handful of curd is taken
from the vat and squeezed dry, either in the hand or in a cloth. This curd is
carefully pressed against the hot iron and drawn away. If the iron is at the
right temperature and the curd has sufficient acid development, the curd
will stick to the iron and when pulled away will form fine threads. The
length of these threads determines the amount of acid in the curd. The acid
is usually spoken of in terms of the length of threads, as ⅟8 inch of acid, ½
inch of acid and the like. The curd must have a slight development of acid
before it will stick to the iron. This test takes advantage of the peculiar
properties90 of curd which are produced by the action of the acid on the
casein.
200. Firmness of the curd.—The cheese-maker must be able to judge the
firmness of the curd by physical examination. The particles of curd should
have shrunken to about one-half their original size and should be of uniform
consistency throughout; they should not have any soft centers. The curd
should be firm and springy. When a double handful is pressed and suddenly
released, the curd particles should spring apart. The curd should have a
"shotty" feeling when in the whey. If the curd has attained the proper
firmness, and the acid has not reached the correct stage to remove the whey,
it may be left in the whey until sufficient acid development has been
attained. This is liable to cause the curd to become too firm and to result in
development. When the proper acid development has been reached, the
whey must be removed, regardless of the firmness of the curd. If the curd
has not become firm enough by natural forces, when the acid development
has reached the proper stage to remove the whey, it must be firmed by other
means. If it is not firm enough, either by natural or artificial means, when
the whey is removed, a sour cheese is the result. The acid development
should not be allowed to go beyond 0.16 to 0.19 of 1 per cent acidity in the
whey by the acid test or ⅟16 to ⅟8 of an inch of acid on the hot-iron test,
before the whey is removed.
199. Hot-iron test.89—This test is employed to determine the amount of
acid in the curd. A piece of iron, such as an iron pipe two feet long, is
heated in the fire to proper temperature. If the iron is too hot it will burn the
curd, and if not hot enough the curd will not stick to the iron. When hot, it is
taken from the fire and wiped clean with a cloth. A handful of curd is taken
from the vat and squeezed dry, either in the hand or in a cloth. This curd is
carefully pressed against the hot iron and drawn away. If the iron is at the
right temperature and the curd has sufficient acid development, the curd
will stick to the iron and when pulled away will form fine threads. The
length of these threads determines the amount of acid in the curd. The acid
is usually spoken of in terms of the length of threads, as ⅟8 inch of acid, ½
inch of acid and the like. The curd must have a slight development of acid
before it will stick to the iron. This test takes advantage of the peculiar
properties90 of curd which are produced by the action of the acid on the
casein.
200. Firmness of the curd.—The cheese-maker must be able to judge the
firmness of the curd by physical examination. The particles of curd should
have shrunken to about one-half their original size and should be of uniform
consistency throughout; they should not have any soft centers. The curd
should be firm and springy. When a double handful is pressed and suddenly
released, the curd particles should spring apart. The curd should have a
"shotty" feeling when in the whey. If the curd has attained the proper
firmness, and the acid has not reached the correct stage to remove the whey,
it may be left in the whey until sufficient acid development has been
attained. This is liable to cause the curd to become too firm and to result in
Page 181
a hard dry cheese. If there is no
evidence of the presence of
undesirable organisms, such as
bad odors, or gas holes in the
curd, it is better to remove the
whey and develop the acid when
the curd is in the "pack." The
pack refers to the first piling of
the curd.
The whey may be removed either
by means of a faucet or gate in
the vat or by a siphon (Fig. 36).
With either form of removal a
whey-strainer (Fig. 37) should be
Fig. 36.—Whey siphon with strainer. used to prevent loss of curd
particles. It requires considerable
time for the whey to escape from a large vat. After the curd has been heated
to the proper temperature, it is well to remove a portion of the whey. In
doing this the surface of the whey should not be drawn down quite to the
top of the curd. When ready, the remaining whey can be quickly removed.
If it is decided that the curd is not firm enough, when the whey is drawn
down to the surface of the curd and the acid has developed sufficiently, the
curd should be firmed up in the whey by stirring it vigorously by hand
before the remainder of the whey is removed. This is commonly called
"hand stirring." This difficulty results either from the use of too much
starter or from holding the milk until too much acid development has taken
place before adding the rennet. Hand stirring accomplishes what natural
forces would accomplish if given sufficient time. If the curd does not firm
naturally in the whey, there is a large loss of fat and other solids, because
the pieces of curd will have to be broken up to allow the water to escape
from the soft centers of these masses. This loss can usually be reduced by
firming the curd in the whey or adding water rather than by stirring without
either water or whey. If the curd is not properly firmed, it carries extra whey
into the cheese. With the increase in whey, the amount of milk-sugar carried
into the cheese increases. This extra milk-sugar attacked by bacteria
produces an excess of lactic acid, which results in "sour" cheeses. This
evidence of the presence of
undesirable organisms, such as
bad odors, or gas holes in the
curd, it is better to remove the
whey and develop the acid when
the curd is in the "pack." The
pack refers to the first piling of
the curd.
The whey may be removed either
by means of a faucet or gate in
the vat or by a siphon (Fig. 36).
With either form of removal a
whey-strainer (Fig. 37) should be
Fig. 36.—Whey siphon with strainer. used to prevent loss of curd
particles. It requires considerable
time for the whey to escape from a large vat. After the curd has been heated
to the proper temperature, it is well to remove a portion of the whey. In
doing this the surface of the whey should not be drawn down quite to the
top of the curd. When ready, the remaining whey can be quickly removed.
If it is decided that the curd is not firm enough, when the whey is drawn
down to the surface of the curd and the acid has developed sufficiently, the
curd should be firmed up in the whey by stirring it vigorously by hand
before the remainder of the whey is removed. This is commonly called
"hand stirring." This difficulty results either from the use of too much
starter or from holding the milk until too much acid development has taken
place before adding the rennet. Hand stirring accomplishes what natural
forces would accomplish if given sufficient time. If the curd does not firm
naturally in the whey, there is a large loss of fat and other solids, because
the pieces of curd will have to be broken up to allow the water to escape
from the soft centers of these masses. This loss can usually be reduced by
firming the curd in the whey or adding water rather than by stirring without
either water or whey. If the curd is not properly firmed, it carries extra whey
into the cheese. With the increase in whey, the amount of milk-sugar carried
into the cheese increases. This extra milk-sugar attacked by bacteria
produces an excess of lactic acid, which results in "sour" cheeses. This
Page 182
explains why the curd is placed beyond
the danger of over-development of acid by
removing so large a portion of the whey.
If the curd is properly firmed in the whey
and the whey is removed before too much
acid has developed, it is impossible to
make a sour cheese.
201. Gathering the curd together.—
Before the last of the whey has been
removed, the curd should be pushed back
from the faucet into the upper two-thirds
of the vat and spread in an even layer.
This layer should be six to eight inches
thick. The curd can be pushed back with
the rake or a board which will fit
crosswise in the vat, in which are many
holes. As soon as the whey has been
removed so that there is not enough to
wash the curd into the lower part of the
vat, the vat should be tilted and a ditch
eight to ten inches wide cut in the curd
through the center. The curd from the Fig. 37.—Whey strainer with spout to fit
ditch should be removed to either side and into the gate in the vat.
spread evenly. As soon as all the whey has been removed, the pieces of curd
scattered about in the vat should be gathered up and placed with the
remainder.
In some factories, instead of matting the curd in the vat, a curd sink is used.
This is a wooden receptacle about the size of the vat but not so deep, with a
slatted false bottom. It is fitted with castors so that it can be easily moved
about. A cloth is placed in the sink and the curd and whey are dipped upon
the cloth. The whey escapes very rapidly through the cloth. The curd sink is
an advantage in those cases in which it is desirable to remove the whey
from the curd quickly, such as high acid curds which have to be hand stirred
to firm the curd. The disadvantage lies in the work required to keep the sink
and the large cloth clean.
the danger of over-development of acid by
removing so large a portion of the whey.
If the curd is properly firmed in the whey
and the whey is removed before too much
acid has developed, it is impossible to
make a sour cheese.
201. Gathering the curd together.—
Before the last of the whey has been
removed, the curd should be pushed back
from the faucet into the upper two-thirds
of the vat and spread in an even layer.
This layer should be six to eight inches
thick. The curd can be pushed back with
the rake or a board which will fit
crosswise in the vat, in which are many
holes. As soon as the whey has been
removed so that there is not enough to
wash the curd into the lower part of the
vat, the vat should be tilted and a ditch
eight to ten inches wide cut in the curd
through the center. The curd from the Fig. 37.—Whey strainer with spout to fit
ditch should be removed to either side and into the gate in the vat.
spread evenly. As soon as all the whey has been removed, the pieces of curd
scattered about in the vat should be gathered up and placed with the
remainder.
In some factories, instead of matting the curd in the vat, a curd sink is used.
This is a wooden receptacle about the size of the vat but not so deep, with a
slatted false bottom. It is fitted with castors so that it can be easily moved
about. A cloth is placed in the sink and the curd and whey are dipped upon
the cloth. The whey escapes very rapidly through the cloth. The curd sink is
an advantage in those cases in which it is desirable to remove the whey
from the curd quickly, such as high acid curds which have to be hand stirred
to firm the curd. The disadvantage lies in the work required to keep the sink
and the large cloth clean.
Page 183
202. Matting or cheddaring is the distinctive feature of the Cheddar
process. It is the piling and matting of the curd. Whether the curd is matted
in the vat or in the curd sink, the process is practically the same. The object
of cheddaring is three-fold: (1) to control the incorporation of moisture; (2)
to control undesirable ferments, if present in the curd; (3) to develop the
texture desired in the cheeses.
After the curd in the vat has become matted so that the particles stick
together, the masses on either side of the central channel are cut crosswise
into strips with a cheese knife (Fig. 38). The width of the strip depends on
the water-content of the curd at this stage. The more water, the smaller
should be the pieces of curd. This allows the whey to drain away much
more rapidly. As soon as the strips of curd are cut, they should be turned
over or stood on edge. A drain should be left along the middle line of the vat
and on each side. This
permits the whey to run away
freely. If, on the other hand,
the outlet is dammed up, the
curd may become "whey- Fig. 38.—A cheese knife.
soaked." This produces a soft
mushy cheese which sometimes is "acidy" or sour. After the curd is turned
each time, all crumbs of curd broken off should be brushed underneath the
masses of curd so that they will mat with it. They should never be placed on
top of the curd because they will not unite but will become dry and hard. If
the crumbs are not kept brushed up, they become dry and will cause an
open textured granular cheese and possibly lumps in the cheese. After the
pieces of curd have been turned several times, and the whey has fairly
completely drained away, they may be piled first two deep, then three deep
and so on, the depth of the piling being gauged by the softness or amount of
water in the curd and the temperature. The higher the curd is piled, the more
water it will retain (assimilate), so that the amount of moisture in the curd is
regulated by the size of the pieces into which it is cut and the rapidity and
depth to which it is piled.
The curd should not be left too long from the time it is turned until it is
turned again. This period is usually about ten to fifteen minutes. The
moister the curd, the more often it should be turned. In turning, care should
be taken to keep the ends at the same temperature as the remainder. This
process. It is the piling and matting of the curd. Whether the curd is matted
in the vat or in the curd sink, the process is practically the same. The object
of cheddaring is three-fold: (1) to control the incorporation of moisture; (2)
to control undesirable ferments, if present in the curd; (3) to develop the
texture desired in the cheeses.
After the curd in the vat has become matted so that the particles stick
together, the masses on either side of the central channel are cut crosswise
into strips with a cheese knife (Fig. 38). The width of the strip depends on
the water-content of the curd at this stage. The more water, the smaller
should be the pieces of curd. This allows the whey to drain away much
more rapidly. As soon as the strips of curd are cut, they should be turned
over or stood on edge. A drain should be left along the middle line of the vat
and on each side. This
permits the whey to run away
freely. If, on the other hand,
the outlet is dammed up, the
curd may become "whey- Fig. 38.—A cheese knife.
soaked." This produces a soft
mushy cheese which sometimes is "acidy" or sour. After the curd is turned
each time, all crumbs of curd broken off should be brushed underneath the
masses of curd so that they will mat with it. They should never be placed on
top of the curd because they will not unite but will become dry and hard. If
the crumbs are not kept brushed up, they become dry and will cause an
open textured granular cheese and possibly lumps in the cheese. After the
pieces of curd have been turned several times, and the whey has fairly
completely drained away, they may be piled first two deep, then three deep
and so on, the depth of the piling being gauged by the softness or amount of
water in the curd and the temperature. The higher the curd is piled, the more
water it will retain (assimilate), so that the amount of moisture in the curd is
regulated by the size of the pieces into which it is cut and the rapidity and
depth to which it is piled.
The curd should not be left too long from the time it is turned until it is
turned again. This period is usually about ten to fifteen minutes. The
moister the curd, the more often it should be turned. In turning, care should
be taken to keep the ends at the same temperature as the remainder. This
Page 184
can be done by piling them inside, thereby keeping them warm. There is a
tendency for the ends of the pieces of curd to remain granular and so cause
an open-textured cheese.
During the cheddaring process, the temperature should be reduced
uniformly and gradually. If there is danger of the curd becoming too cold,
the vat should be covered and a pail of hot water may be placed inside, if it
is deemed necessary. The temperature of the curd should not be allowed to
go below 85° to 90° F. If kept too warm, the curd will become soft and
plastic, and if too cold, it will not mat together.
While the curd is being turned and piled, its physical properties are
changing. The acid develops. When the cheddaring process is completed,
the curd should be elastic, smooth and fibrous. The curd should have the
close meaty texture desired in the cheese. If this step in the process is
neglected, defects may appear later in the body, texture and flavor of the
cheese. Attempts to pile the curd too fast result in a soft, mushy, open-
textured product. Such cheese has mechanical holes, in which moisture
collects, and so is likely to cause rot while curing.
If gas is detected either before or during the cheddaring process, the curd
should be piled until the gas holes are no longer round but flat. If the gas
holes are not flattened or obliterated during this process, the cheeses will be
very liable to puff on the shelves in the curing-room. The curd should be
handled until the gas holes flatten out evenly, although this may require
considerable time. At best, gassy curd will never produce the highest grade
of cheese.
Cheddaring or piling the curd is not thoroughly understood by most cheese-
makers. Because the moisture contains the milk-sugar, there is danger of
having so much moisture present in the cheese that it will become sour from
the action of the lactic acid-forming bacteria on the milk-sugar. A cheese
may be sweet when made and later become sour because it contains too
much moisture or milk-sugar. This is known as "shelf souring." For the
proper cheddaring of a curd, it is necessary that it be properly firmed in the
whey. If the moisture is not evenly incorporated, the cheese will have a
mottled color. The pieces that have the more moisture will be lighter
tendency for the ends of the pieces of curd to remain granular and so cause
an open-textured cheese.
During the cheddaring process, the temperature should be reduced
uniformly and gradually. If there is danger of the curd becoming too cold,
the vat should be covered and a pail of hot water may be placed inside, if it
is deemed necessary. The temperature of the curd should not be allowed to
go below 85° to 90° F. If kept too warm, the curd will become soft and
plastic, and if too cold, it will not mat together.
While the curd is being turned and piled, its physical properties are
changing. The acid develops. When the cheddaring process is completed,
the curd should be elastic, smooth and fibrous. The curd should have the
close meaty texture desired in the cheese. If this step in the process is
neglected, defects may appear later in the body, texture and flavor of the
cheese. Attempts to pile the curd too fast result in a soft, mushy, open-
textured product. Such cheese has mechanical holes, in which moisture
collects, and so is likely to cause rot while curing.
If gas is detected either before or during the cheddaring process, the curd
should be piled until the gas holes are no longer round but flat. If the gas
holes are not flattened or obliterated during this process, the cheeses will be
very liable to puff on the shelves in the curing-room. The curd should be
handled until the gas holes flatten out evenly, although this may require
considerable time. At best, gassy curd will never produce the highest grade
of cheese.
Cheddaring or piling the curd is not thoroughly understood by most cheese-
makers. Because the moisture contains the milk-sugar, there is danger of
having so much moisture present in the cheese that it will become sour from
the action of the lactic acid-forming bacteria on the milk-sugar. A cheese
may be sweet when made and later become sour because it contains too
much moisture or milk-sugar. This is known as "shelf souring." For the
proper cheddaring of a curd, it is necessary that it be properly firmed in the
whey. If the moisture is not evenly incorporated, the cheese will have a
mottled color. The pieces that have the more moisture will be lighter
Page 185
colored. If the proper amount of moisture is not incorporated, the cheese
will be dry and hard, and if too much, soft and pasty.
203. Milling the curd.—The large pieces formed by the cheddaring process
must be cut into small ones before the curd can be easily put into the hoop.
This is called "milling." Properly milled curd can be salted evenly, cools
more quickly and uniformly and can be distributed evenly in the hoops.
The proper time to "mill" the curd is determined by its physical condition.
Some curds will cheddar much more rapidly than others, hence no definite
length of time can be given. Curd, when ready to mill, should have a fibrous
texture somewhat like the white meat of a chicken breast. The pieces of
curd should split very easily. When cut, the curd should show a close, solid,
smooth interior. The amount of lactic acid developed may vary within rather
wide limits. The hot iron may show strings ½ to 1 inch long. The acidity (by
titration of the freshly separating whey) may be 0.45 to 0.65 of 1 per cent. If
the curd has been properly made, that is, firmed up in the whey with the
proper acidity so far, acid development during the cheddaring process will
take care of itself. The physical condition remains the principal means of
determining the time when the curd should be milled.
Fig. 39.—Gosselin curd-mill.
will be dry and hard, and if too much, soft and pasty.
203. Milling the curd.—The large pieces formed by the cheddaring process
must be cut into small ones before the curd can be easily put into the hoop.
This is called "milling." Properly milled curd can be salted evenly, cools
more quickly and uniformly and can be distributed evenly in the hoops.
The proper time to "mill" the curd is determined by its physical condition.
Some curds will cheddar much more rapidly than others, hence no definite
length of time can be given. Curd, when ready to mill, should have a fibrous
texture somewhat like the white meat of a chicken breast. The pieces of
curd should split very easily. When cut, the curd should show a close, solid,
smooth interior. The amount of lactic acid developed may vary within rather
wide limits. The hot iron may show strings ½ to 1 inch long. The acidity (by
titration of the freshly separating whey) may be 0.45 to 0.65 of 1 per cent. If
the curd has been properly made, that is, firmed up in the whey with the
proper acidity so far, acid development during the cheddaring process will
take care of itself. The physical condition remains the principal means of
determining the time when the curd should be milled.
Fig. 39.—Gosselin curd-mill.
Page 186
Fig. 40.—Barnard curd-mill..
Fig. 41.—Junker curd-mill...
Fig. 42.—Harris curd-mill...
There are many kinds and styles of curd-mills on the market. Gosselin,
Barnard, Pohl, Junker, Victor, Harris are well-known kinds (Figs. 39-42).
Some are hand, others power mills. Some of these tear the curd into pieces
of unequal size, others cut it into uniform pieces. A mill that will do the
work with the least possible pressure on the curd and which will cut it into
small uniform-sized pieces is most desirable. The ideal mill should release
the least fat and leave the curd in the best condition to receive the salt. It is
Fig. 41.—Junker curd-mill...
Fig. 42.—Harris curd-mill...
There are many kinds and styles of curd-mills on the market. Gosselin,
Barnard, Pohl, Junker, Victor, Harris are well-known kinds (Figs. 39-42).
Some are hand, others power mills. Some of these tear the curd into pieces
of unequal size, others cut it into uniform pieces. A mill that will do the
work with the least possible pressure on the curd and which will cut it into
small uniform-sized pieces is most desirable. The ideal mill should release
the least fat and leave the curd in the best condition to receive the salt. It is
Page 187
impossible to run curd through any mill without exposing some fat on the
freshly cut surfaces, and if the curd is put under pressure, more fat will be
pressed out and lost. Cutting in the mill, like cutting the curd after
coagulation by rennet, may be called a necessary evil. There is an
unavoidable mechanical loss which may be greater or less according to the
mill used. If the curd has been properly handled so that the water in it has
become thoroughly assimilated (properly incorporated), this loss will be
reduced to the minimum. If the curd contains free moisture and many of the
particles have soft interiors, a stream of white whey will run down the vat
as the curd masses are cut. Some samples of such white whey will test as
high as 15 per cent fat. This not only causes a loss in yield but in quality of
cheese, according to the amount of fat lost. White whey is an indication of
loss of fat. If the proper amount of moisture is present and is so thoroughly
incorporated in the curd that it
can be separated only by
evaporation, the ideal condition
has been reached. While milling,
the cut curd should be stirred as
fast as milled to prevent matting
Fig. 43.—A curd fork. again and to allow odors to
escape. This stirring is usually
performed with a curd fork (Fig. 43). At the same time the temperature will
be lowered. The milled curd should be spread evenly over the upper three-
quarters of the bottom of the vat. The flavor of the curd that has been made
from tainted milk can be very much improved by stirring at this time so that
air can enter.
A gassy curd, which has been held until the holes have become flattened,
should be stirred very frequently during this stage to allow the gas to
escape, thereby improving the flavor.
204. Salting.—Salt is added to Cheddar curd for several purposes: (1) for
its taste; (2) to aid in the removal of the whey and to harden and shrink the
curd; (3) to influence the fermentation by slowing down acidification,
checking the growth of unfavorable organisms and delaying ripening. The
salt should be pure. It should be coarse-grained, because the large grains
dissolve more slowly and permit its absorption to a much larger extent than
freshly cut surfaces, and if the curd is put under pressure, more fat will be
pressed out and lost. Cutting in the mill, like cutting the curd after
coagulation by rennet, may be called a necessary evil. There is an
unavoidable mechanical loss which may be greater or less according to the
mill used. If the curd has been properly handled so that the water in it has
become thoroughly assimilated (properly incorporated), this loss will be
reduced to the minimum. If the curd contains free moisture and many of the
particles have soft interiors, a stream of white whey will run down the vat
as the curd masses are cut. Some samples of such white whey will test as
high as 15 per cent fat. This not only causes a loss in yield but in quality of
cheese, according to the amount of fat lost. White whey is an indication of
loss of fat. If the proper amount of moisture is present and is so thoroughly
incorporated in the curd that it
can be separated only by
evaporation, the ideal condition
has been reached. While milling,
the cut curd should be stirred as
fast as milled to prevent matting
Fig. 43.—A curd fork. again and to allow odors to
escape. This stirring is usually
performed with a curd fork (Fig. 43). At the same time the temperature will
be lowered. The milled curd should be spread evenly over the upper three-
quarters of the bottom of the vat. The flavor of the curd that has been made
from tainted milk can be very much improved by stirring at this time so that
air can enter.
A gassy curd, which has been held until the holes have become flattened,
should be stirred very frequently during this stage to allow the gas to
escape, thereby improving the flavor.
204. Salting.—Salt is added to Cheddar curd for several purposes: (1) for
its taste; (2) to aid in the removal of the whey and to harden and shrink the
curd; (3) to influence the fermentation by slowing down acidification,
checking the growth of unfavorable organisms and delaying ripening. The
salt should be pure. It should be coarse-grained, because the large grains
dissolve more slowly and permit its absorption to a much larger extent than
Page 188
the fine-grained salt. Salt that dissolves slowly is, therefore, to be sought for
this purpose.
The following factors must be considered in determining the amount of salt
to be used: (1) the amount of curd from the milk; (2) the percentage of
water in the curd; (3) the acidity of the curd; (4) the particular market form
of cheese desired. The custom of determining the quantity of salt by the
weight of milk is an inaccurate practice. The amount of salt should be based
on the amount of curd. If the amount of fat in the milk is known, a fairly
accurate estimate of the amount of curd can be made. It would be more
accurate to weigh the curd before salting, but this is not practicable or
necessary to insure a good quality of cheese. The amount of salt varies from
1½ to 2½ pounds of salt to the curd from each 1000 pounds of milk.
The salt should not be added directly after milling because, at that time, it
would cause a large loss of fat. After milling there should be time before
salting for the freshly cut surfaces to dry or "heal over." When first milled
the curd has a dry harsh feeling; when ready to salt it will feel soft and
mellow and some moisture can usually be squeezed out easily. Fifteen to
twenty minutes from the time of milling are required before the curd is
ready for the salt. When ready, the curd should be spread evenly over the
bottom of the vat. The salt should be carefully weighed, and then applied,
evenly, over the surface of the curd, in two or three applications. The curd
should be thoroughly stirred after each application of salt. While the salt is
being dissolved and absorbed, the
curd should be stirred
occasionally to prevent lumps
from forming.
205. Hooping the curd.—When
the salt has become dissolved and
Fig. 44.—Wilson press hoop. A, complete hoop; the curd as soft and mellow as
B, bottom cover with wide flange; C, top cover before the salt was added, it is
with narrow flange; D, closed body; E, bandager. ready to be put into the hoop.
Various sized hoops may be used,
depending on the desired size of the cheese. Two types are the Wilson and
the Fraser (Figs. 44, 45). With either type, a dampened press cloth should be
cut just to fit the bottom of the hoop. A starched circle may or may not be
this purpose.
The following factors must be considered in determining the amount of salt
to be used: (1) the amount of curd from the milk; (2) the percentage of
water in the curd; (3) the acidity of the curd; (4) the particular market form
of cheese desired. The custom of determining the quantity of salt by the
weight of milk is an inaccurate practice. The amount of salt should be based
on the amount of curd. If the amount of fat in the milk is known, a fairly
accurate estimate of the amount of curd can be made. It would be more
accurate to weigh the curd before salting, but this is not practicable or
necessary to insure a good quality of cheese. The amount of salt varies from
1½ to 2½ pounds of salt to the curd from each 1000 pounds of milk.
The salt should not be added directly after milling because, at that time, it
would cause a large loss of fat. After milling there should be time before
salting for the freshly cut surfaces to dry or "heal over." When first milled
the curd has a dry harsh feeling; when ready to salt it will feel soft and
mellow and some moisture can usually be squeezed out easily. Fifteen to
twenty minutes from the time of milling are required before the curd is
ready for the salt. When ready, the curd should be spread evenly over the
bottom of the vat. The salt should be carefully weighed, and then applied,
evenly, over the surface of the curd, in two or three applications. The curd
should be thoroughly stirred after each application of salt. While the salt is
being dissolved and absorbed, the
curd should be stirred
occasionally to prevent lumps
from forming.
205. Hooping the curd.—When
the salt has become dissolved and
Fig. 44.—Wilson press hoop. A, complete hoop; the curd as soft and mellow as
B, bottom cover with wide flange; C, top cover before the salt was added, it is
with narrow flange; D, closed body; E, bandager. ready to be put into the hoop.
Various sized hoops may be used,
depending on the desired size of the cheese. Two types are the Wilson and
the Fraser (Figs. 44, 45). With either type, a dampened press cloth should be
cut just to fit the bottom of the hoop. A starched circle may or may not be
Page 189
used; if used, it should be placed on
top of the press cloth. The bandage
now commonly employed is the
seamless one which comes in the
form of a tube of various sizes for
different sized hoops. The lengths
of bandage cut for each hoop or
cheese depend on the height of the
cheese plus about one and one-half
inches' lap on each end. The Fig. 45.—Fraser press hoop. A, complete hoop;
bandage, after being cut the desired B, bandager; C, follower; D, fibrous press ring.
length, is placed on the part of the hoop made to hold it, so that it is
suspended about the side of the hoop and laps about one and one-half
inches on the bottom. The bandage should be free from ravelings and
placed squarely in the hoop.
The hoop is now ready to fill with curd. Enough hoops should be prepared
to hold all the day's curd as fast as it is ready. In order to have all the
cheeses as nearly as possible of the same size, it is advisable to weigh the
curd into the hoops. The curd may be measured into the hoops, but this is
not so accurate. The curd may be dipped with a
flat-sided curd pail or a curd scoop into the
hoops (Fig. 46).
206. Pressing the curd.—The natural changes
sought in the curd require a period of at least
five hours between the time of setting (addition
of the rennet) and the pressing of the curd. Less Fig. 46.—Curd scoop and pail.
time than this involves loss in yield and quality
of the cheese. In other words, the time requirement for these changes cannot
be ignored. The object of pressing is not primarily to remove whey but to
produce the physical conditions essential to ripening the cheese in a mass
and put it in convenient form for handling. The whey should have been
removed during the cooking and cheddaring. When ready for the press, the
temperature of the curd should be about 80° to 85° F.; it should be brought
down to this point during the milling, salting and hooping processes. If the
curd is put to press too warm or too cold, the following results may be
expected:
top of the press cloth. The bandage
now commonly employed is the
seamless one which comes in the
form of a tube of various sizes for
different sized hoops. The lengths
of bandage cut for each hoop or
cheese depend on the height of the
cheese plus about one and one-half
inches' lap on each end. The Fig. 45.—Fraser press hoop. A, complete hoop;
bandage, after being cut the desired B, bandager; C, follower; D, fibrous press ring.
length, is placed on the part of the hoop made to hold it, so that it is
suspended about the side of the hoop and laps about one and one-half
inches on the bottom. The bandage should be free from ravelings and
placed squarely in the hoop.
The hoop is now ready to fill with curd. Enough hoops should be prepared
to hold all the day's curd as fast as it is ready. In order to have all the
cheeses as nearly as possible of the same size, it is advisable to weigh the
curd into the hoops. The curd may be measured into the hoops, but this is
not so accurate. The curd may be dipped with a
flat-sided curd pail or a curd scoop into the
hoops (Fig. 46).
206. Pressing the curd.—The natural changes
sought in the curd require a period of at least
five hours between the time of setting (addition
of the rennet) and the pressing of the curd. Less Fig. 46.—Curd scoop and pail.
time than this involves loss in yield and quality
of the cheese. In other words, the time requirement for these changes cannot
be ignored. The object of pressing is not primarily to remove whey but to
produce the physical conditions essential to ripening the cheese in a mass
and put it in convenient form for handling. The whey should have been
removed during the cooking and cheddaring. When ready for the press, the
temperature of the curd should be about 80° to 85° F.; it should be brought
down to this point during the milling, salting and hooping processes. If the
curd is put to press too warm or too cold, the following results may be
expected:
Page 190
Too high temperature during pressing produces several faults, as:
(1) Favors the development of undesirable ferments.
(2) Causes excessive loss of fat.
(3) Gives the curd pieces a greasy surface so that they will not readily
pass into a compact cheese. If a cheese is greasy, the bandages
will not stick.
(4) Favors the formation of mechanical holes in the cheese.
(5) Causes "seamy" color in the cheese by the collection of fat between
pieces of curd.
Too low temperature has its difficulties, such as:
(1) The pieces of curd will not fuse together.
(2) The rind does not form properly.
(3) It appears to cause mottled cheese.
Fig. 47.—Continuous pressure gang cheese-press.
(1) Favors the development of undesirable ferments.
(2) Causes excessive loss of fat.
(3) Gives the curd pieces a greasy surface so that they will not readily
pass into a compact cheese. If a cheese is greasy, the bandages
will not stick.
(4) Favors the formation of mechanical holes in the cheese.
(5) Causes "seamy" color in the cheese by the collection of fat between
pieces of curd.
Too low temperature has its difficulties, such as:
(1) The pieces of curd will not fuse together.
(2) The rind does not form properly.
(3) It appears to cause mottled cheese.
Fig. 47.—Continuous pressure gang cheese-press.
Page 191
Fig. 48.—Filling the hoops and pressing the curd.
The commonly used gang press may or may not have an arrangement to
cause continuous pressure to be applied to the cheese (Figs. 47, 48). When
fresh cheeses are first placed in the press, the pressure should be applied
very gradually. The curd, after being cut through the mill, will have many
exposed fat globules. A heavy pressure at first will force out the whey set
free by the extracting power of the salt. The whey will carry away the
exposed fat globules, and therefore reduce the yield. As soon as white whey
starts from the hoops, the increased application of the pressure should be
stopped until the whey regains the appearance of clear brine. More pressure
can then be gradually applied until full pressure is reached. The cheeses
should remain under heavy pressure for one-half to one hour, when they
should be removed from the press and dressed.
207. Dressing the cheese.—When ready to dress the cheese, the press is
opened and the hoops turned down. The hoops are opened so that the
bandages can be lapped over the top of the cheeses about 1½ inches. Before
turning a bandage down, it should be carefully pulled up to remove any
wrinkles from the sides of the cheese, but not hard enough to pull it free
from the bottom. After it is pulled up, the bandage should be lapped over
the top about 1½ inches, and if not even should be trimmed with a sharp
knife. It should then be sopped down with warm water. Plenty of warm
The commonly used gang press may or may not have an arrangement to
cause continuous pressure to be applied to the cheese (Figs. 47, 48). When
fresh cheeses are first placed in the press, the pressure should be applied
very gradually. The curd, after being cut through the mill, will have many
exposed fat globules. A heavy pressure at first will force out the whey set
free by the extracting power of the salt. The whey will carry away the
exposed fat globules, and therefore reduce the yield. As soon as white whey
starts from the hoops, the increased application of the pressure should be
stopped until the whey regains the appearance of clear brine. More pressure
can then be gradually applied until full pressure is reached. The cheeses
should remain under heavy pressure for one-half to one hour, when they
should be removed from the press and dressed.
207. Dressing the cheese.—When ready to dress the cheese, the press is
opened and the hoops turned down. The hoops are opened so that the
bandages can be lapped over the top of the cheeses about 1½ inches. Before
turning a bandage down, it should be carefully pulled up to remove any
wrinkles from the sides of the cheese, but not hard enough to pull it free
from the bottom. After it is pulled up, the bandage should be lapped over
the top about 1½ inches, and if not even should be trimmed with a sharp
knife. It should then be sopped down with warm water. Plenty of warm
Page 192
water to wet the bandage and cloths helps to form a good rind. If starched
circles are used, one should be placed on the top of the cheese and sopped
down with warm water. If not, the press cloth should be wrung out of warm
water and put on smoothly, so there will be no wrinkles. The hoop is then
put together and placed back in the press under heavy pressure for twelve to
eighteen hours. The pressure should be sufficient to cause the curd particles
to unite so that the surface of the cheese will be smooth. The next day the
cheeses are taken from the hoops and placed in the curing-room. If they do
not come out of the hoop easily, they may be loosened by cutting between
the sides of the cheese and the hoop with a knife. A special thin-bladed
knife for this purpose is called a speed knife (Fig. 49). Care should be taken
not to cut the bandage when trying to loosen the cheese. If starched circles
are used, the press cloths are removed from the cheese, when they are put in
the curing-room. If neither starched circles nor press cloth are left on the
cheese in the curing-room, the rind
will crack on account of drying out
on the exposed surface. This allows
mold and insects to enter the
cheese. The flavor, body and texture Fig. 49.—Speed knife.
and color of the cheese are all
dependent on the skill of the cheese-maker and the quality of the milk from
which it is made. The finish is dependent entirely on the skill and
carefulness of the maker. An operator should see that the cheese press is
straight so that there will be no crocked cheese and that the bandage and
press cloths are properly put on, because the finish or appearance of the
cheese is an index of his ability.
208. Handling over-ripe and gassy milk.—Because it is sometimes
necessary to make over-ripe91 or gassy milk92 into cheese, special directions
or precautions are necessary. The best way is to reject this milk. When it is
necessary to make it into cheese, the losses are much more than with
normal milk. It is a question of making as good a cheese as possible, and
the subject of losses is ignored.
(1) Over-ripe milk.—The fact that the milk is over-ripe shows that there is
already too much acid present. Every effort must be made to get the curd as
firm as possible in the whey with the acid development as low as possible
or before the acid has had time to develop any more than can be helped.
circles are used, one should be placed on the top of the cheese and sopped
down with warm water. If not, the press cloth should be wrung out of warm
water and put on smoothly, so there will be no wrinkles. The hoop is then
put together and placed back in the press under heavy pressure for twelve to
eighteen hours. The pressure should be sufficient to cause the curd particles
to unite so that the surface of the cheese will be smooth. The next day the
cheeses are taken from the hoops and placed in the curing-room. If they do
not come out of the hoop easily, they may be loosened by cutting between
the sides of the cheese and the hoop with a knife. A special thin-bladed
knife for this purpose is called a speed knife (Fig. 49). Care should be taken
not to cut the bandage when trying to loosen the cheese. If starched circles
are used, the press cloths are removed from the cheese, when they are put in
the curing-room. If neither starched circles nor press cloth are left on the
cheese in the curing-room, the rind
will crack on account of drying out
on the exposed surface. This allows
mold and insects to enter the
cheese. The flavor, body and texture Fig. 49.—Speed knife.
and color of the cheese are all
dependent on the skill of the cheese-maker and the quality of the milk from
which it is made. The finish is dependent entirely on the skill and
carefulness of the maker. An operator should see that the cheese press is
straight so that there will be no crocked cheese and that the bandage and
press cloths are properly put on, because the finish or appearance of the
cheese is an index of his ability.
208. Handling over-ripe and gassy milk.—Because it is sometimes
necessary to make over-ripe91 or gassy milk92 into cheese, special directions
or precautions are necessary. The best way is to reject this milk. When it is
necessary to make it into cheese, the losses are much more than with
normal milk. It is a question of making as good a cheese as possible, and
the subject of losses is ignored.
(1) Over-ripe milk.—The fact that the milk is over-ripe shows that there is
already too much acid present. Every effort must be made to get the curd as
firm as possible in the whey with the acid development as low as possible
or before the acid has had time to develop any more than can be helped.
Page 193
Although the milk is over-ripe, it is a good plan to add about ¼ of 1 per cent
of starter just before the rennet. This starter will not begin to work until the
curd is being cheddared and it will help the flavor, especially if any bad
fermentation should be present.
The rennet is added at 80° F., as this lower temperature tends to check the
acid development. More rennet is used, commonly from 4 to 4½ ounces to
1000 pounds of milk. This gives a quicker coagulation. The curd is cut soft,
as this tends to expel the moisture more quickly. The heat is turned on
sooner after cutting. The time to turn it on and the length of time to heat are
determined by the amount of acid. A curd should not be heated in less than
fifteen minutes. If the curd has enough acid and has not begun to firm up
much, the whey should be drawn down to the surface of the curd, water the
temperature of the whey and curd put into the vat, and the curd firmed up in
this water. The water washes the acid out of the curd and because of the
lack of milk-sugar checks the acid development.
If the milk is not so ripe and the curd nearly firm enough, the whey may be
drawn off and the curd firmed up by hard stirring in the vat or sink. The
curd should not be pushed back enough to be very deep or thick when ready
to cheddar.
The curd should be cut into very small pieces to cheddar. The smaller the
pieces, the faster the whey drains away. Sometimes it is necessary to cut the
curd into pieces six inches square. The pieces should not be piled but should
be turned often and stood on edge to let the whey drain away and
sometimes pressed with the hands to force the whey out. It is often all one
man can do to keep the curd turned.
of starter just before the rennet. This starter will not begin to work until the
curd is being cheddared and it will help the flavor, especially if any bad
fermentation should be present.
The rennet is added at 80° F., as this lower temperature tends to check the
acid development. More rennet is used, commonly from 4 to 4½ ounces to
1000 pounds of milk. This gives a quicker coagulation. The curd is cut soft,
as this tends to expel the moisture more quickly. The heat is turned on
sooner after cutting. The time to turn it on and the length of time to heat are
determined by the amount of acid. A curd should not be heated in less than
fifteen minutes. If the curd has enough acid and has not begun to firm up
much, the whey should be drawn down to the surface of the curd, water the
temperature of the whey and curd put into the vat, and the curd firmed up in
this water. The water washes the acid out of the curd and because of the
lack of milk-sugar checks the acid development.
If the milk is not so ripe and the curd nearly firm enough, the whey may be
drawn off and the curd firmed up by hard stirring in the vat or sink. The
curd should not be pushed back enough to be very deep or thick when ready
to cheddar.
The curd should be cut into very small pieces to cheddar. The smaller the
pieces, the faster the whey drains away. Sometimes it is necessary to cut the
curd into pieces six inches square. The pieces should not be piled but should
be turned often and stood on edge to let the whey drain away and
sometimes pressed with the hands to force the whey out. It is often all one
man can do to keep the curd turned.
Page 194
Fig. 50.—At the left is a regular shaped, close, solid textured cheese; at the right
one puffed up with gas.
The curd is not cheddared very long but is milled early so that the whey can
escape. If it is thought that the cheese will be sour, the curd should be
washed in cold water to remove the acid and milk-sugar. A little more salt is
sometimes used. A product made from over-ripe milk, no matter how
skillful the cheese-maker, will show traces of a sour cheese.
(2) Gassy milk.—If a cheese-maker knows that there is "gassy"
fermentation, he should add more starter and develop more acid when
ripening the milk to try to overcome this. There are different kinds of gassy
fermentation. Some produce acid and some do not. Some will not show
until the cheeses have been on the curing-room shelves several days. Others
will cause the curd to float in the whey. Usually the gas shows as pin-holes
while the curd is being cheddared.
Fig. 51.—This shows the same cheeses as in Fig. 50, cut open to show the solid
and gassy texture.
The gas causes tiny round holes in the cheese, resulting in the cheese
swelling or puffing out of shape and sometimes breaking open (Figs. 50,
51). The only time to overcome the gas is during the cheddaring process.
The curd is piled and repiled until the holes flatten out. This shows that the
gas-producing organisms have weakened and will not cause any more
one puffed up with gas.
The curd is not cheddared very long but is milled early so that the whey can
escape. If it is thought that the cheese will be sour, the curd should be
washed in cold water to remove the acid and milk-sugar. A little more salt is
sometimes used. A product made from over-ripe milk, no matter how
skillful the cheese-maker, will show traces of a sour cheese.
(2) Gassy milk.—If a cheese-maker knows that there is "gassy"
fermentation, he should add more starter and develop more acid when
ripening the milk to try to overcome this. There are different kinds of gassy
fermentation. Some produce acid and some do not. Some will not show
until the cheeses have been on the curing-room shelves several days. Others
will cause the curd to float in the whey. Usually the gas shows as pin-holes
while the curd is being cheddared.
Fig. 51.—This shows the same cheeses as in Fig. 50, cut open to show the solid
and gassy texture.
The gas causes tiny round holes in the cheese, resulting in the cheese
swelling or puffing out of shape and sometimes breaking open (Figs. 50,
51). The only time to overcome the gas is during the cheddaring process.
The curd is piled and repiled until the holes flatten out. This shows that the
gas-producing organisms have weakened and will not cause any more
Page 195
holes. Because the curd has to be piled so many times and so long, the
pieces become very thin. The curd is ready to mill when most of the holes
have flattened. After milling, the curd should be stirred and aired for some
time before salting to allow the bad odor to escape.
Because of the high acid development, it often happens that the cheese will
not be gassy but will be sour. At best a cheese made from milk having gassy
fermentation will have a bad flavor. The quality of the cheese can be no
better than that of the milk from which it is made, plus the skill of the
cheese-maker.
209. Qualities of Cheddar cheese.—The cheese should be neat, clean and
attractive. If unclean, and the bandage not put on the cheese properly, it
shows that the manufacturer is not particular to keep the curing-room
shelves tidy nor careful and painstaking in dressing. The cheese should not
be lopsided or bulged. When cut, it should have a uniformly colored
interior. The principal color defects are too high, or too light color, mottled
or seamy. The texture should be solid and close. A common defect is
mechanical holes or openings and another is gas pockets. The body can be
tested by rubbing the cheese between the thumb and fingers. It should be
smooth and waxy and free from lumps. It should rub down like cold butter.
The common defects are graininess and lumpiness. Graininess may be
caused by too much acid or too much moisture in the cheese. Lumpiness is
due to uneven curing. If too much moisture is present, the body will be soft
and mushy; if not enough moisture, the body will be hard and dry.
The cheese should have a pleasant, clean, mild aroma and the characteristic
flavor which is usually somewhat similar to that of nuts and so is spoken of
as a nutty flavor.
pieces become very thin. The curd is ready to mill when most of the holes
have flattened. After milling, the curd should be stirred and aired for some
time before salting to allow the bad odor to escape.
Because of the high acid development, it often happens that the cheese will
not be gassy but will be sour. At best a cheese made from milk having gassy
fermentation will have a bad flavor. The quality of the cheese can be no
better than that of the milk from which it is made, plus the skill of the
cheese-maker.
209. Qualities of Cheddar cheese.—The cheese should be neat, clean and
attractive. If unclean, and the bandage not put on the cheese properly, it
shows that the manufacturer is not particular to keep the curing-room
shelves tidy nor careful and painstaking in dressing. The cheese should not
be lopsided or bulged. When cut, it should have a uniformly colored
interior. The principal color defects are too high, or too light color, mottled
or seamy. The texture should be solid and close. A common defect is
mechanical holes or openings and another is gas pockets. The body can be
tested by rubbing the cheese between the thumb and fingers. It should be
smooth and waxy and free from lumps. It should rub down like cold butter.
The common defects are graininess and lumpiness. Graininess may be
caused by too much acid or too much moisture in the cheese. Lumpiness is
due to uneven curing. If too much moisture is present, the body will be soft
and mushy; if not enough moisture, the body will be hard and dry.
The cheese should have a pleasant, clean, mild aroma and the characteristic
flavor which is usually somewhat similar to that of nuts and so is spoken of
as a nutty flavor.
Page 196
CHAPTER XIII
COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF CHEDDAR CHEESE
So many factors affect the composition and yield of Cheddar cheese that no
positive or exact statement can be made unless other facts are definitely
known. The following factors affect both the composition and yield:
1. The chemical composition of the milk.
2. Amount of moisture incorporated into the cheese.
3. The amount of solids lost in cheese-making.
4. The skill of the cheese-maker.
5. The bacterial-content of the milk.
210. Composition of milk, whey and cheese.—The following Tables93 VI,
VII, VIII, which are the average of forty-eight factories for the season of
1893, show the minimum, maximum and average composition:
TABLE VI
Average Composition of the Milk
COMPOSITION AND YIELD OF CHEDDAR CHEESE
So many factors affect the composition and yield of Cheddar cheese that no
positive or exact statement can be made unless other facts are definitely
known. The following factors affect both the composition and yield:
1. The chemical composition of the milk.
2. Amount of moisture incorporated into the cheese.
3. The amount of solids lost in cheese-making.
4. The skill of the cheese-maker.
5. The bacterial-content of the milk.
210. Composition of milk, whey and cheese.—The following Tables93 VI,
VII, VIII, which are the average of forty-eight factories for the season of
1893, show the minimum, maximum and average composition:
TABLE VI
Average Composition of the Milk
Page 197
Minimum Maximum Average
Water 86.28 88.30 87.28
Total solids 11.70 13.72 12.72
Fat 3.30 4.40 3.77
Casein 2.20 2.85 2.48
Albumin 0.52 0.81 0.69
Sugar and ash, etc. 5.63 5.89 5.78
TABLE VII
Average Composition of the Whey
Water 86.28 88.30 87.28
Total solids 11.70 13.72 12.72
Fat 3.30 4.40 3.77
Casein 2.20 2.85 2.48
Albumin 0.52 0.81 0.69
Sugar and ash, etc. 5.63 5.89 5.78
TABLE VII
Average Composition of the Whey
Page 198
Minimum Maximum Average
Water 92.75 93.28 93.00
Total solids 6.72 7.25 7.00
Fat 0.24 0.51 0.38
Casein, albumin 0.66 0.90 0.86
Sugar and ash, etc. 5.63 5.86 5.76
TABLE VIII
Average Composition of the Green Cheese
Water 92.75 93.28 93.00
Total solids 6.72 7.25 7.00
Fat 0.24 0.51 0.38
Casein, albumin 0.66 0.90 0.86
Sugar and ash, etc. 5.63 5.86 5.76
TABLE VIII
Average Composition of the Green Cheese
Page 199
Minimum Maximum Average
Water 33.16 43.80 37.33
Total solids 66.84 56.11 62.67
Fat 30.00 35.89 33.41
Casein 20.80 25.48 23.39
Sugar and ash, etc. 4.86 7.02 5.89
Table VI shows the minimum, maximum and average composition of the
milk and Table VIII the composition of the cheese made from that milk. The
average composition of the cheese in Table VIII shows that it contains
37.33 per cent of water. The tendency to-day seems to be for a softer cheese
so that the average would probably be higher. Table VIII also shows the
wide variation in the composition of the cheese. The moisture and total
solids both vary about 10 per cent. In order to judge the variation in
composition, one must know the composition of the milk and the moisture-
content of the cheese and then only a very inaccurate estimate of the
composition of the cheese can be formed.
211. Relation of fat to casein in normal milk.—In order to understand the
relation of the composition of the milk to yield of cheese, one must be
familiar with the relation of the fat to the casein in normal milk. The
following table94 shows the relation of fat to casein in normal milk:
TABLE IX
Summary Showing the Relation of Fat to Casein in
Normal Milk
Water 33.16 43.80 37.33
Total solids 66.84 56.11 62.67
Fat 30.00 35.89 33.41
Casein 20.80 25.48 23.39
Sugar and ash, etc. 4.86 7.02 5.89
Table VI shows the minimum, maximum and average composition of the
milk and Table VIII the composition of the cheese made from that milk. The
average composition of the cheese in Table VIII shows that it contains
37.33 per cent of water. The tendency to-day seems to be for a softer cheese
so that the average would probably be higher. Table VIII also shows the
wide variation in the composition of the cheese. The moisture and total
solids both vary about 10 per cent. In order to judge the variation in
composition, one must know the composition of the milk and the moisture-
content of the cheese and then only a very inaccurate estimate of the
composition of the cheese can be formed.
211. Relation of fat to casein in normal milk.—In order to understand the
relation of the composition of the milk to yield of cheese, one must be
familiar with the relation of the fat to the casein in normal milk. The
following table94 shows the relation of fat to casein in normal milk:
TABLE IX
Summary Showing the Relation of Fat to Casein in
Normal Milk
Page 200
Average
Average Average
Pounds of
Per Cent Number Per Cent Per Cent
Casein for
Group of Fat in of of Fat in of Casein
Each Pound
Milk Samples Each in Each
of Fat in
Group Group
Milk
I 3.0-3.5 22 3.35 2.20 0.66
II 3.5-4.0 112 3.72 2.46 0.66
III 4.0-4.5 78 4.15 2.70 0.65
IV 4.5-5.0 16 4.74 3.05 0.64
V 5.0-5.25 7 5.13 3.12 0.61
Table IX shows that the pounds of casein for each pound of fat are not
constant but that the casein does not increase in proportion to the fat above
4.0 per cent of fat in the milk.
212. Influence of fat in milk on yield of cheese.—The following table
shows the influence which fat in the milk has on the yield of cheese:94
TABLE X
Summary Showing Relation of Fat in Milk to Yield of
Cheese
Average Average
Pounds of
Per Cent Number Per Cent Per Cent
Casein for
Group of Fat in of of Fat in of Casein
Each Pound
Milk Samples Each in Each
of Fat in
Group Group
Milk
I 3.0-3.5 22 3.35 2.20 0.66
II 3.5-4.0 112 3.72 2.46 0.66
III 4.0-4.5 78 4.15 2.70 0.65
IV 4.5-5.0 16 4.74 3.05 0.64
V 5.0-5.25 7 5.13 3.12 0.61
Table IX shows that the pounds of casein for each pound of fat are not
constant but that the casein does not increase in proportion to the fat above
4.0 per cent of fat in the milk.
212. Influence of fat in milk on yield of cheese.—The following table
shows the influence which fat in the milk has on the yield of cheese:94
TABLE X
Summary Showing Relation of Fat in Milk to Yield of
Cheese
Page 201
Pounds of
Pounds of
Sverage Per Green Cheese
Green Cheese
Group Cent of Fat in Made from
Made for 1 Lb.
Milk 100 Lb.
of Fat in Milk
of Milk
I 3.35 9.14 2.73
II 3.72 10.04 2.73
III 4.15 11.34 2.70
IV 4.74 12.85 2.71
V 5.13 13.62 2.66
Table X shows that as the fat in the milk increases, the pounds of cheese
made from 100 pounds of that milk increases; but the amount of cheese
made for each pound of fat in the milk does not increase. This is due to the
fact pointed out in Table IX, namely, that as the fat increases in the milk the
casein does not increase in the rich milk in proportion to the fat. From
Tables IX and X this conclusion may be drawn: that as the percentage of fat
increases in the milk the more cheese can be made from 100 pounds of that
milk, but after the increase in fat gets above 4 per cent the amount of cheese
that can be made for each pound of fat in the milk is decreased because the
casein does not increase in proportion to the fat. No exact statement of yield
can be made without first stating the moisture-content of the cheese. The
losses also must be considered.
Van Slyke95 in the following Table XI shows the effect of the fat-content of
normal milk on the yield of cheese.
The moisture-content of all the cheeses is reduced to a uniform basis of 37
per cent. (See cut showing yield of cheese, Fig. 52.)
Pounds of
Sverage Per Green Cheese
Green Cheese
Group Cent of Fat in Made from
Made for 1 Lb.
Milk 100 Lb.
of Fat in Milk
of Milk
I 3.35 9.14 2.73
II 3.72 10.04 2.73
III 4.15 11.34 2.70
IV 4.74 12.85 2.71
V 5.13 13.62 2.66
Table X shows that as the fat in the milk increases, the pounds of cheese
made from 100 pounds of that milk increases; but the amount of cheese
made for each pound of fat in the milk does not increase. This is due to the
fact pointed out in Table IX, namely, that as the fat increases in the milk the
casein does not increase in the rich milk in proportion to the fat. From
Tables IX and X this conclusion may be drawn: that as the percentage of fat
increases in the milk the more cheese can be made from 100 pounds of that
milk, but after the increase in fat gets above 4 per cent the amount of cheese
that can be made for each pound of fat in the milk is decreased because the
casein does not increase in proportion to the fat. No exact statement of yield
can be made without first stating the moisture-content of the cheese. The
losses also must be considered.
Van Slyke95 in the following Table XI shows the effect of the fat-content of
normal milk on the yield of cheese.
The moisture-content of all the cheeses is reduced to a uniform basis of 37
per cent. (See cut showing yield of cheese, Fig. 52.)
Page 202
Fig. 52.—The figures represent the relative yield of cheese containing different
percentages of fat, but all have a uniform content of 37 per cent water.
TABLE XI
Table Showing the Effect of the Fat-Content of
Normal Milk on the Yield of Cheese
percentages of fat, but all have a uniform content of 37 per cent water.
TABLE XI
Table Showing the Effect of the Fat-Content of
Normal Milk on the Yield of Cheese
Page 203
Amount of Pounds of
Per Cent of Cheese Made Amount of Cheese
Per Cent of Fat
Casein in frm 100 Lb. Made for Each
in the Milk
the Milk 100 Lb. Pound of Fat
of Milk in the Milk
3.00 2.10 8.30 2.77
3.25 2.20 8.88 2.73
3.50 2.30 9.45 2.70
3.75 2.40 10.03 2.67
4.00 2.50 10.60 2.65
4.25 2.60 11.17 2.63
4.50 2.70 11.74 2.61
4.75 2.80 12.31 2.59
5.00 2.90 12.90 2.58
213. Fat loss in cheese-making.—The amount of solids lost in the whey
also affects the yield. The following table gives the amount of fat lost in
whey with normal milk containing different percentages of fat:
TABLE XII
Summary Showing Amount of Fat in Milk Lost in
Cheese-making
Per Cent of Cheese Made Amount of Cheese
Per Cent of Fat
Casein in frm 100 Lb. Made for Each
in the Milk
the Milk 100 Lb. Pound of Fat
of Milk in the Milk
3.00 2.10 8.30 2.77
3.25 2.20 8.88 2.73
3.50 2.30 9.45 2.70
3.75 2.40 10.03 2.67
4.00 2.50 10.60 2.65
4.25 2.60 11.17 2.63
4.50 2.70 11.74 2.61
4.75 2.80 12.31 2.59
5.00 2.90 12.90 2.58
213. Fat loss in cheese-making.—The amount of solids lost in the whey
also affects the yield. The following table gives the amount of fat lost in
whey with normal milk containing different percentages of fat:
TABLE XII
Summary Showing Amount of Fat in Milk Lost in
Cheese-making
Page 204
Pounds of Fat Lost Per Cent of Fat
Pounds of Fat in
Group in Whey for 100 in Milk Lost
100 Lb. of Milk
Lb. of Milk in Whey
I 3 to 3.5 0.32 9.55
II 3.5 to 4 0.33 8.33
III 4 to 4.5 0.32 7.70
IV 4.5 to 5 0.28 5.90
V 5 to 5.25 0.31 6.00
Table XII shows that the percentage of fat in the whey is approximately the
same for milk high or low in fat. But the milk low in fat loses a higher
percentage of the total milk-fat in each 100 pounds of whey.
214. Effect of bacterial-content of milk on yield of cheese.—The
bacterial-content96 of the milk influences the yield by affecting both the
moisture-content and the losses. If the milk is sour or has bad fermentation,
the losses will be increased because the curd cannot be carefully handled,
and the moisture cannot be incorporated to the extent that it can in clean
milk, without injury to the quality. The proper-cooling of the milk in one
instance increased the yield 0.3 pound of cheese for each 100 pounds of
milk. The more moisture that can be incorporated into the cheese up to the
legal limit, the greater the yield.
215. Factors affecting the moisture-content of Cheddar.—The amount of
moisture that can be incorporated in a curd depends on several factors.97
The following increase the moisture-content control of the cheese:
1. Cutting the curd coarse.
2. High setting temperature.
3. Low acid in the curd at time of removing whey.
4. Not stirring the curd with the hand as the last of the whey is
removed.
5. Slow pressure.
6. High piling of the curd in the cheddaring process.
7. Small amount of salt.
8. Holding the curd at low temperature after the whey is removed.
Pounds of Fat in
Group in Whey for 100 in Milk Lost
100 Lb. of Milk
Lb. of Milk in Whey
I 3 to 3.5 0.32 9.55
II 3.5 to 4 0.33 8.33
III 4 to 4.5 0.32 7.70
IV 4.5 to 5 0.28 5.90
V 5 to 5.25 0.31 6.00
Table XII shows that the percentage of fat in the whey is approximately the
same for milk high or low in fat. But the milk low in fat loses a higher
percentage of the total milk-fat in each 100 pounds of whey.
214. Effect of bacterial-content of milk on yield of cheese.—The
bacterial-content96 of the milk influences the yield by affecting both the
moisture-content and the losses. If the milk is sour or has bad fermentation,
the losses will be increased because the curd cannot be carefully handled,
and the moisture cannot be incorporated to the extent that it can in clean
milk, without injury to the quality. The proper-cooling of the milk in one
instance increased the yield 0.3 pound of cheese for each 100 pounds of
milk. The more moisture that can be incorporated into the cheese up to the
legal limit, the greater the yield.
215. Factors affecting the moisture-content of Cheddar.—The amount of
moisture that can be incorporated in a curd depends on several factors.97
The following increase the moisture-content control of the cheese:
1. Cutting the curd coarse.
2. High setting temperature.
3. Low acid in the curd at time of removing whey.
4. Not stirring the curd with the hand as the last of the whey is
removed.
5. Slow pressure.
6. High piling of the curd in the cheddaring process.
7. Small amount of salt.
8. Holding the curd at low temperature after the whey is removed.
Page 205
9. Large amount of rennet.
10. Cutting the curd hard.
The following factors decrease the moisture-content of the cheese:
1. Fine cutting.
2. Low setting temperature.
3. High acid in the curd at time of removing the whey.
4. Stirring the curd with the hand as the last of the whey is removed.
5. Fast pressure.
6. Low piling of the curd in the cheddaring process.
7. Large amount of salt.
8. Holding the curd at high temperature after the whey is removed.
9. Small amount of rennet.
10. Cutting the curd soft.
From this discussion, it is evident that the yield of cheese from 100 pounds
of milk increases with higher percentages of fat and casein in the milk, with
reduced losses of solids during manufacture, with the absence of
undesirable fermentations, and with the incorporation of large amounts of
water.
216. Variations of the Cheddar process.—The Cheddar process, as
already described, is widely employed in cheese factories. Many varieties
are found, however, and varietal names are used for such products. A whole
series of these forms are either locally or widely made in England and
taught in the English dairy schools. Some of these varieties resemble the
factory Cheddar product fairly closely; others are clearly different products.
A typical series of the variations as developed in America will be
considered.
In the commercial trade Cheddar cheese is usually designated by some
name which indicates its size. The size of the cheese is determined by that
of the hoops. The hoops vary both in diameter and height. The table on the
following page shows the usual sizes of the hoops and the weight and name
applied to the cheese.
217. Cheddar-type cheese from pasteurized milk.—Sammis and Bruhn98
have described a variation of the Cheddar process to overcome the
10. Cutting the curd hard.
The following factors decrease the moisture-content of the cheese:
1. Fine cutting.
2. Low setting temperature.
3. High acid in the curd at time of removing the whey.
4. Stirring the curd with the hand as the last of the whey is removed.
5. Fast pressure.
6. Low piling of the curd in the cheddaring process.
7. Large amount of salt.
8. Holding the curd at high temperature after the whey is removed.
9. Small amount of rennet.
10. Cutting the curd soft.
From this discussion, it is evident that the yield of cheese from 100 pounds
of milk increases with higher percentages of fat and casein in the milk, with
reduced losses of solids during manufacture, with the absence of
undesirable fermentations, and with the incorporation of large amounts of
water.
216. Variations of the Cheddar process.—The Cheddar process, as
already described, is widely employed in cheese factories. Many varieties
are found, however, and varietal names are used for such products. A whole
series of these forms are either locally or widely made in England and
taught in the English dairy schools. Some of these varieties resemble the
factory Cheddar product fairly closely; others are clearly different products.
A typical series of the variations as developed in America will be
considered.
In the commercial trade Cheddar cheese is usually designated by some
name which indicates its size. The size of the cheese is determined by that
of the hoops. The hoops vary both in diameter and height. The table on the
following page shows the usual sizes of the hoops and the weight and name
applied to the cheese.
217. Cheddar-type cheese from pasteurized milk.—Sammis and Bruhn98
have described a variation of the Cheddar process to overcome the
Page 206
difficulties of making cheese from pasteurized milk. Such milk curdles in
very unsatisfactory manner unless some chemical is added to compensate
for the salts lost and to offset the other changes resulting from heat. For this
purpose, they found the use of hydrochloric acid satisfactory.
TABLE XIII
Size of Cheese Hoops, Weight, and Term Applied to Cheese
very unsatisfactory manner unless some chemical is added to compensate
for the salts lost and to offset the other changes resulting from heat. For this
purpose, they found the use of hydrochloric acid satisfactory.
TABLE XIII
Size of Cheese Hoops, Weight, and Term Applied to Cheese
Page 207
Weight of
Diameter of Height of Term Applied to
Cheese
Hoop Cheese Cheese
Pounds
6-7 in. 7-8 in. 9-11 Young America
Tapers 5-7 in. 10-14 in. 10-16 Long Horn
12-14 in. 3½-4½ in. 18-24 Daisy or Picnic
14-15½ in. 4-6 in. 30-40 Twin (two in same box)
14-16 in. 4-7 in. 35-40 Flat
13½-15 in. 10-12 in. 40-50 Cheddar
14-16 in. 12-15 in. 75-90 Export
"The acidulation of milk with hydrochloric acid after pasteurization is
accomplished without difficulty or danger of curdling by running a small
stream of the acid, of normal concentration, into the cooled milk as it flows
from the continuous pasteurizer into the cheese vat. One pound of normal-
strength acid is sufficient to raise 100 pounds of milk from 0.16 percent to
0.25 percent acidity (calculated as per cent of lactic acid). The amount of
acid needed each day to bring the milk up to 0.25 per cent acidity is read
from a table or calculated from the weight of the milk and its acidity,
determined by the use of Manns's acid test (titration with tenth-normal
sodium hydrate and phenolphthalein). The preparation of standard-strength
acid in carboy lots for this work and the acidulation of milk present no great
difficulty to any one who is able to handle Manns's acid test correctly.
"After the milk is pasteurized and acidulated three-fourths per cent of first-
class starter is added and the vat is heated to 85°. It is set with rennet, using
2 ounces of rennet per thousand pounds of milk, so that the milk begins to
curdle in 7 minutes and is cut with three-eighth inch knives in 25 minutes.
All portions of the work after adding rennet are carried out in an unvarying
routine manner, according to a fixed-time schedule every day. As soon as
the rennet has been added the cheese maker is able to calculate the exact
time of day when each of the succeeding operations should be performed,
and the work of making the cheese is thus simplified and systematized. It is
possible that the routine process here described may be varied somewhat
with advantage at different factories."
Diameter of Height of Term Applied to
Cheese
Hoop Cheese Cheese
Pounds
6-7 in. 7-8 in. 9-11 Young America
Tapers 5-7 in. 10-14 in. 10-16 Long Horn
12-14 in. 3½-4½ in. 18-24 Daisy or Picnic
14-15½ in. 4-6 in. 30-40 Twin (two in same box)
14-16 in. 4-7 in. 35-40 Flat
13½-15 in. 10-12 in. 40-50 Cheddar
14-16 in. 12-15 in. 75-90 Export
"The acidulation of milk with hydrochloric acid after pasteurization is
accomplished without difficulty or danger of curdling by running a small
stream of the acid, of normal concentration, into the cooled milk as it flows
from the continuous pasteurizer into the cheese vat. One pound of normal-
strength acid is sufficient to raise 100 pounds of milk from 0.16 percent to
0.25 percent acidity (calculated as per cent of lactic acid). The amount of
acid needed each day to bring the milk up to 0.25 per cent acidity is read
from a table or calculated from the weight of the milk and its acidity,
determined by the use of Manns's acid test (titration with tenth-normal
sodium hydrate and phenolphthalein). The preparation of standard-strength
acid in carboy lots for this work and the acidulation of milk present no great
difficulty to any one who is able to handle Manns's acid test correctly.
"After the milk is pasteurized and acidulated three-fourths per cent of first-
class starter is added and the vat is heated to 85°. It is set with rennet, using
2 ounces of rennet per thousand pounds of milk, so that the milk begins to
curdle in 7 minutes and is cut with three-eighth inch knives in 25 minutes.
All portions of the work after adding rennet are carried out in an unvarying
routine manner, according to a fixed-time schedule every day. As soon as
the rennet has been added the cheese maker is able to calculate the exact
time of day when each of the succeeding operations should be performed,
and the work of making the cheese is thus simplified and systematized. It is
possible that the routine process here described may be varied somewhat
with advantage at different factories."
Page 208
This cheese usually lacks characteristic Cheddar flavor or contains it in very
mild form. It therefore satisfies only those who seek very mild flavored
products. Efforts are now being made to find a flavor producing substance
or organism which will bring the flavor of this product more nearly to that
of typical Cheddar.
218. Club cheese is known by a variety of trade names. It is made from
Cheddar cheese, so that it is especially liked by persons who care for strong
Cheddar flavor. It has a soft texture so that it spreads easily, and is therefore
much used for sandwiches. Well-ripened or old Cheddar cheese is ground in
a food chopper. The older the Cheddar, the stronger will be the flavor of the
club cheese. Cheese of good flavor should be used. In order to do away
with all lumps in the texture, it is sometimes necessary to run the mixed
cheese through the food chopper a second time. While all lumps must be
worked out, care should be taken not to work the cheese so much that it will
become salvy and sticky.
Usually a little pepper is added, to give the cheese a biting taste. Some
manufacturers add a great variety of substances, but these are not necessary
and destroy the flavor of the cheese.
Club cheese may be wrapped in tin-foil or put up in air-tight glass jars. The
latter practice, while more expensive, has the advantage of making the
cheese keep longer; but for local trade tin-foil is just as satisfactory as glass.
In filling the glass, care must be taken not to leave any air spaces between
the cheese and the glass, as this is likely to permit the cheese to mold. A
glass jar can be filled and air spaces prevented by first smearing a very thin
layer of cheese over the glass.
219. The stirred-curd or granular process.—The original practice as
brought from England and followed in the farm dairies before the
development of the factory system is now known variously as the "stirred-
curd" or "granular curd" process. With the introduction of the cheese
factory, as known to-day, this system was replaced by the Cheddar cheese.
The old farm process is still used on some farms and in a few factories. As
the name indicates, the curd for such cheeses is kept stirred so that it
remains in granular condition instead of being allowed to mat as in the
Cheddar process.
mild form. It therefore satisfies only those who seek very mild flavored
products. Efforts are now being made to find a flavor producing substance
or organism which will bring the flavor of this product more nearly to that
of typical Cheddar.
218. Club cheese is known by a variety of trade names. It is made from
Cheddar cheese, so that it is especially liked by persons who care for strong
Cheddar flavor. It has a soft texture so that it spreads easily, and is therefore
much used for sandwiches. Well-ripened or old Cheddar cheese is ground in
a food chopper. The older the Cheddar, the stronger will be the flavor of the
club cheese. Cheese of good flavor should be used. In order to do away
with all lumps in the texture, it is sometimes necessary to run the mixed
cheese through the food chopper a second time. While all lumps must be
worked out, care should be taken not to work the cheese so much that it will
become salvy and sticky.
Usually a little pepper is added, to give the cheese a biting taste. Some
manufacturers add a great variety of substances, but these are not necessary
and destroy the flavor of the cheese.
Club cheese may be wrapped in tin-foil or put up in air-tight glass jars. The
latter practice, while more expensive, has the advantage of making the
cheese keep longer; but for local trade tin-foil is just as satisfactory as glass.
In filling the glass, care must be taken not to leave any air spaces between
the cheese and the glass, as this is likely to permit the cheese to mold. A
glass jar can be filled and air spaces prevented by first smearing a very thin
layer of cheese over the glass.
219. The stirred-curd or granular process.—The original practice as
brought from England and followed in the farm dairies before the
development of the factory system is now known variously as the "stirred-
curd" or "granular curd" process. With the introduction of the cheese
factory, as known to-day, this system was replaced by the Cheddar cheese.
The old farm process is still used on some farms and in a few factories. As
the name indicates, the curd for such cheeses is kept stirred so that it
remains in granular condition instead of being allowed to mat as in the
Cheddar process.
Page 209
The early steps of the two processes are identical. They diverge at the point
at which in the factory Cheddar process the whey is drawn and the curd is
allowed to mat. In some factories the curd and part of the whey are dipped
into a curd sink. This allows the whey to escape more easily and quickly. In
the stirred-curd process, the pieces of curd are kept separated by stirring and
not allowed to mat. The whey is drawn off and the stirring continued by
hand. After stirring fifteen to twenty minutes, the curd becomes so dry as
not to mat easily. As soon as the curd has reached this stage, the salt is
evenly and thoroughly mixed with it. More salt is added than in the
Cheddar process because the curd is more moist than Cheddar curd at the
time of salting. The whey freely separating carries away much of the salt.
The quantity of salt to use depends on the amount of whey draining from
the curd. After salting, the curd is allowed to cool, with occasional stirring
to prevent the formation of lumps. The advantage of the stirred-curd
practice lies in the shorter time required for making cheese and in the
greater yield due to increased water-content. It has several disadvantages,
among them being: (1) lack of control of undesirable fermentation; if gas
organisms are present, the cheeses more frequently huff than with the
Cheddar system; (2) there is more fat lost while stirring the curd, hence
quality and yield suffer; (3) the water is not so thoroughly incorporated,
which more frequently results in mottled cheeses; (4) the body is commonly
soft and "weak," shows mechanical holes, and cures too rapidly. These
faults are closely correlated with the presence of higher percentages of
water than in cheeses made by the Cheddar process. In other words, the
stirred-curd process usually produces a cheese with higher water-content,
hence more subject to the development of unfavorable fermentation than
the Cheddar cheeses.
220. California Jack cheese99 is very similar to the stirred-curd or granular
process. This cheese was originally made in Monterey County on the coast
of California, about twenty-five years ago, in small quantities, but after it
was found to sell well other counties started to manufacture it. As Monterey
was the first county to make this product, it was named "Monterey" cheese.
In order to distinguish the cheese made in other counties from this, it was
suggested that it be given a name and, consequently, it was called "Jack"
cheese. This has been accepted as its true name. The cheese is made mostly
at which in the factory Cheddar process the whey is drawn and the curd is
allowed to mat. In some factories the curd and part of the whey are dipped
into a curd sink. This allows the whey to escape more easily and quickly. In
the stirred-curd process, the pieces of curd are kept separated by stirring and
not allowed to mat. The whey is drawn off and the stirring continued by
hand. After stirring fifteen to twenty minutes, the curd becomes so dry as
not to mat easily. As soon as the curd has reached this stage, the salt is
evenly and thoroughly mixed with it. More salt is added than in the
Cheddar process because the curd is more moist than Cheddar curd at the
time of salting. The whey freely separating carries away much of the salt.
The quantity of salt to use depends on the amount of whey draining from
the curd. After salting, the curd is allowed to cool, with occasional stirring
to prevent the formation of lumps. The advantage of the stirred-curd
practice lies in the shorter time required for making cheese and in the
greater yield due to increased water-content. It has several disadvantages,
among them being: (1) lack of control of undesirable fermentation; if gas
organisms are present, the cheeses more frequently huff than with the
Cheddar system; (2) there is more fat lost while stirring the curd, hence
quality and yield suffer; (3) the water is not so thoroughly incorporated,
which more frequently results in mottled cheeses; (4) the body is commonly
soft and "weak," shows mechanical holes, and cures too rapidly. These
faults are closely correlated with the presence of higher percentages of
water than in cheeses made by the Cheddar process. In other words, the
stirred-curd process usually produces a cheese with higher water-content,
hence more subject to the development of unfavorable fermentation than
the Cheddar cheeses.
220. California Jack cheese99 is very similar to the stirred-curd or granular
process. This cheese was originally made in Monterey County on the coast
of California, about twenty-five years ago, in small quantities, but after it
was found to sell well other counties started to manufacture it. As Monterey
was the first county to make this product, it was named "Monterey" cheese.
In order to distinguish the cheese made in other counties from this, it was
suggested that it be given a name and, consequently, it was called "Jack"
cheese. This has been accepted as its true name. The cheese is made mostly
Page 210
by Portuguese and Italian-Swiss, although some of the best of the variety is
now manufactured near Modesto, California.
This cheese is adapted for manufacture on small dairy farms, where there is
inexpensive and scanty equipment. The smaller sizes of cheese are made
and ripened quickly. It has become widely used in California.
The cheese is made every morning, from evening's and morning's milk. The
former is put into the cheese vat at night, and morning's milk is added as
milking is going on. When the milk is all in the vat, it is immediately
warmed to 86° to 88° F. and rennet extract is added (when milk has 0.2 to
0.21 of 1 per cent acidity) at the rate of 6 to 8 ounces to 1000 pounds of
milk. No coloring matter is used. It is ready for the curd-knife in thirty to
thirty-five minutes, its readiness being determined the same as in making
Cheddar cheese. The curd is first cut lengthwise of the vat with the
horizontal curd-knife and allowed to stand until the whey rises over and
partly covers the curd, when it is cut again with the vertical curd-knife
crosswise of the vat. It is then hand-stirred, gently at first, and the stirring is
finished with the rake.
Either a steam-heating or self-heating vat is used (the steam-heating vat is
preferred) and temperature increased about one degree in five minutes. The
curd is heated to 98° F. in winter, and to 105° F. to 110° F. in summer. After
temperature is up, it is stirred occasionally with a rake until the whey is
drawn at 0.14 to 0.15 of 1 per cent acidity.
The curd is hand-stirred as soon as the whey is nearly drained off, and raked
to each side of the vat to drain more thoroughly, when it is quickly stirred
again to keep it from lumping or matting. Salt is now added at the rate of
1½ pounds to 100 pounds of curd, and stirred in thoroughly several times.
During the salting process, cold water is allowed to run under the vat, the
hot water having been run off previously.
Curd is put into cloths at a temperature of 80° to 85° F. No cheese hoops are
used. Two sets of press cloths are necessary; one set is ready to use while
the other is still on the cheese in the press. These press cloths are about one
yard square. The press cloths are all laid out evenly one on top of the other,
as many as there are cheeses. They are then taken together and spread out
over the top of a large, open tin milk-pail, and pushed down in the center to
now manufactured near Modesto, California.
This cheese is adapted for manufacture on small dairy farms, where there is
inexpensive and scanty equipment. The smaller sizes of cheese are made
and ripened quickly. It has become widely used in California.
The cheese is made every morning, from evening's and morning's milk. The
former is put into the cheese vat at night, and morning's milk is added as
milking is going on. When the milk is all in the vat, it is immediately
warmed to 86° to 88° F. and rennet extract is added (when milk has 0.2 to
0.21 of 1 per cent acidity) at the rate of 6 to 8 ounces to 1000 pounds of
milk. No coloring matter is used. It is ready for the curd-knife in thirty to
thirty-five minutes, its readiness being determined the same as in making
Cheddar cheese. The curd is first cut lengthwise of the vat with the
horizontal curd-knife and allowed to stand until the whey rises over and
partly covers the curd, when it is cut again with the vertical curd-knife
crosswise of the vat. It is then hand-stirred, gently at first, and the stirring is
finished with the rake.
Either a steam-heating or self-heating vat is used (the steam-heating vat is
preferred) and temperature increased about one degree in five minutes. The
curd is heated to 98° F. in winter, and to 105° F. to 110° F. in summer. After
temperature is up, it is stirred occasionally with a rake until the whey is
drawn at 0.14 to 0.15 of 1 per cent acidity.
The curd is hand-stirred as soon as the whey is nearly drained off, and raked
to each side of the vat to drain more thoroughly, when it is quickly stirred
again to keep it from lumping or matting. Salt is now added at the rate of
1½ pounds to 100 pounds of curd, and stirred in thoroughly several times.
During the salting process, cold water is allowed to run under the vat, the
hot water having been run off previously.
Curd is put into cloths at a temperature of 80° to 85° F. No cheese hoops are
used. Two sets of press cloths are necessary; one set is ready to use while
the other is still on the cheese in the press. These press cloths are about one
yard square. The press cloths are all laid out evenly one on top of the other,
as many as there are cheeses. They are then taken together and spread out
over the top of a large, open tin milk-pail, and pushed down in the center to
Page 211
the bottom of the pail, with the edges hanging over the top. A common one-
gallon lard pail is used to measure the curd into the press cloths. A lard pail
full will make a cheese weighing six and one-half pounds, which is the
popular size. After a pailful has been put into the press cloth, the four
corners are caught up with the left hand, while with the right hand the curd
is formed round and the press cloth straightened and the other corners in
turn taken up. The press cloth is now taken up tight over the curd with the
left hand, while the cheese is given a rolling motion on the table with the
right hand, pressing at the same time to expel some of the whey. This twists
the press cloth tight over the curd, where it is tied with a stout string. After
fixing them all (as many as there are cheeses) in this way, they are ready for
the press.
The cheeses are pressed between two wooden planks, 12 inches wide, 1½
inches thick, by whatever length is required for the number of cheeses to be
pressed. One plank is nailed on supports at a convenient height from the
floor on a little slant for the whey to drain off better. The cheeses in the
press cloths are placed at the proper distance apart so they do not touch.
Then the other plank is put squarely over the top of the cheese and levers
about four feet long at an interval of five feet are placed over this plank,
from a cleat in the wall, on the other end of which is placed a heavy weight
of about 100 pounds, which acts as an automatic pressure. The cheeses are
left in the press until the next morning, when they are taken out and put on
the shelves in the curing-room. The cheeses have no bandage or covering,
and do not seem to crock, and they form a very good rind.
The cheese is a sweet variety, weighs six and one-half pounds cured and
cures in about three weeks ready to ship, and sells at 16 to 25 cents a pound
wholesale. Most of the work seems to lie in forming and rolling the curd in
press cloths before pressing. Trouble is experienced by the makers,
especially in warm climates in summer, in not having the milk at a uniform
acidity when rennet is added. Great improvements could be made in this
cheese by using an acidimeter, paraffining and curing the cheese in an even
temperature, not much over 60° F.
Old and hard Jack cheese is also employed for grating and cooking, while
the fresh is used for the table.
gallon lard pail is used to measure the curd into the press cloths. A lard pail
full will make a cheese weighing six and one-half pounds, which is the
popular size. After a pailful has been put into the press cloth, the four
corners are caught up with the left hand, while with the right hand the curd
is formed round and the press cloth straightened and the other corners in
turn taken up. The press cloth is now taken up tight over the curd with the
left hand, while the cheese is given a rolling motion on the table with the
right hand, pressing at the same time to expel some of the whey. This twists
the press cloth tight over the curd, where it is tied with a stout string. After
fixing them all (as many as there are cheeses) in this way, they are ready for
the press.
The cheeses are pressed between two wooden planks, 12 inches wide, 1½
inches thick, by whatever length is required for the number of cheeses to be
pressed. One plank is nailed on supports at a convenient height from the
floor on a little slant for the whey to drain off better. The cheeses in the
press cloths are placed at the proper distance apart so they do not touch.
Then the other plank is put squarely over the top of the cheese and levers
about four feet long at an interval of five feet are placed over this plank,
from a cleat in the wall, on the other end of which is placed a heavy weight
of about 100 pounds, which acts as an automatic pressure. The cheeses are
left in the press until the next morning, when they are taken out and put on
the shelves in the curing-room. The cheeses have no bandage or covering,
and do not seem to crock, and they form a very good rind.
The cheese is a sweet variety, weighs six and one-half pounds cured and
cures in about three weeks ready to ship, and sells at 16 to 25 cents a pound
wholesale. Most of the work seems to lie in forming and rolling the curd in
press cloths before pressing. Trouble is experienced by the makers,
especially in warm climates in summer, in not having the milk at a uniform
acidity when rennet is added. Great improvements could be made in this
cheese by using an acidimeter, paraffining and curing the cheese in an even
temperature, not much over 60° F.
Old and hard Jack cheese is also employed for grating and cooking, while
the fresh is used for the table.
Page 212
221. The washed-curd process has been developed in recent years largely
in the state of New York. In this method, a regular Cheddar curd is made up
to the time of milling. This curd is washed or soaked in cold water during or
directly after milling. The theoretical object of this washing is to carry away
bad flavors and to reduce over-development of acidity by washing away all
traces of whey. However, cheese-makers soon found that it increased the
yield and this led some to carry it to extremes.
After the curd has been milled, it is covered with cold water. The
temperature of this water ranges from 50° F. to 70° F. The curd is stirred in
this water for various lengths of time according to the judgment of the
cheese-maker. This time varies from five minutes to one hour. Sometimes
the vat is partly filled with water and the curd milled directly into the water.
This process has certain advantages and disadvantages.
The advantages are: if too much acid has developed in the curd, this
washing will reduce it so that the cheese will not be sour. Sometimes when
bad flavors are present in the curd, washing will tend to overcome or
remove them. Its disadvantages are: the larger yield due to excessive
soaking tempts the makers to soak curd beyond the time needed to relieve
the initially sour condition. Curd soaked in this way produces cheeses
containing percentages of water so high as to lower their quality. This
increases the yield sometimes as much as 3 to 5 per cent. Such a cheese is
very soft in texture and does not cure like a Cheddar cheese which has not
been washed. Part of the lactic acid, milk-sugar100 and the inorganic salts are
removed by this washing. A washed-curd cheese will sometimes rot, due to
the activity of the putrefactive bacteria, and to the lack of the restraining
effect of the lactic acid-forming bacteria. Some washed-curd cheeses are so
soft that they will not retain their normal shape.
A washed-curd cheese is never sour because the milk-sugar and lactic acid
have been removed by washing.
222. English dairy cheese.—In some localities cheeses are still made on
the farms. These are mostly produced after the stirred-curd process, hence
are soft-bodied and open-textured. They usually weigh ten to twelve pounds
and are three to four inches thick and twelve inches in diameter.
in the state of New York. In this method, a regular Cheddar curd is made up
to the time of milling. This curd is washed or soaked in cold water during or
directly after milling. The theoretical object of this washing is to carry away
bad flavors and to reduce over-development of acidity by washing away all
traces of whey. However, cheese-makers soon found that it increased the
yield and this led some to carry it to extremes.
After the curd has been milled, it is covered with cold water. The
temperature of this water ranges from 50° F. to 70° F. The curd is stirred in
this water for various lengths of time according to the judgment of the
cheese-maker. This time varies from five minutes to one hour. Sometimes
the vat is partly filled with water and the curd milled directly into the water.
This process has certain advantages and disadvantages.
The advantages are: if too much acid has developed in the curd, this
washing will reduce it so that the cheese will not be sour. Sometimes when
bad flavors are present in the curd, washing will tend to overcome or
remove them. Its disadvantages are: the larger yield due to excessive
soaking tempts the makers to soak curd beyond the time needed to relieve
the initially sour condition. Curd soaked in this way produces cheeses
containing percentages of water so high as to lower their quality. This
increases the yield sometimes as much as 3 to 5 per cent. Such a cheese is
very soft in texture and does not cure like a Cheddar cheese which has not
been washed. Part of the lactic acid, milk-sugar100 and the inorganic salts are
removed by this washing. A washed-curd cheese will sometimes rot, due to
the activity of the putrefactive bacteria, and to the lack of the restraining
effect of the lactic acid-forming bacteria. Some washed-curd cheeses are so
soft that they will not retain their normal shape.
A washed-curd cheese is never sour because the milk-sugar and lactic acid
have been removed by washing.
222. English dairy cheese.—In some localities cheeses are still made on
the farms. These are mostly produced after the stirred-curd process, hence
are soft-bodied and open-textured. They usually weigh ten to twelve pounds
and are three to four inches thick and twelve inches in diameter.
Page 213
223. Pineapple cheese.—This variety derives its name from the fact that
the cheeses are made in about the size and shape of a pineapple. The curd is
made after the Cheddar process from either whole milk or partly skimmed
milk. It is pressed in molds shaped like a pineapple. The cheeses are then
hung in nets to give the checked appearance on the surface. They are rubbed
with linseed oil to prevent the surface cracking, and finally are shellacked.
224. Leyden.—Among specialties, a cheese called Leyden originating in
Holland is made in Michigan and New York. This is a part skim cheese
heavily spiced with caraway seed. The ripe cheese is colored red as it goes
to market.
225. Cheddar cheese with pimientos.—Recently some Cheddar cheeses
have been made with pimientos added. This gives a mixture of
characteristic Cheddar and pimiento flavors, which seems to be desired by
some persons. An ordinary Cheddar curd is made and the pimientos added
just before salting. The pimientos are ground rather coarsely and then added
to the curd together with the liquid which was with the pimientos in the can.
The pimiento should be thoroughly and evenly mixed with the curd to
insure a uniform distribution and mottled color in the cheese. The salt is
then applied. The remainder of the process is the same as for ordinary
Cheddar cheese.
226. Sage cheese is a product flavored from the leaves of the ordinary
garden sage. It is made by two methods: one, in which the sage leaves are
used, and the other, in which a part of the curd is colored to imitate that
given by the sage leaves, and sage oil or tea is used to give the flavor.
In the leaf method, a regular Cheddar cheese curd is made up to the time of
salting. Just before the salt is added, sage leaves are mixed with the curd.
The leaves should be dried and freed from stems and other coarse particles
and the leaves themselves broken up rather finely. The leaves are then
added at the rate of 3 ounces for every 1000 pounds of milk. Care must be
exercised to see that the leaves are evenly mixed through the curd or an
evenly mottled cheese will not result. The salt is then added. This sequence
seems to increase the absorption of the flavor by the curd.
If these cheeses are consumed as soon as well cured, no fault can be found.
On the other hand, if they are held for any length of time, yellow areas form
the cheeses are made in about the size and shape of a pineapple. The curd is
made after the Cheddar process from either whole milk or partly skimmed
milk. It is pressed in molds shaped like a pineapple. The cheeses are then
hung in nets to give the checked appearance on the surface. They are rubbed
with linseed oil to prevent the surface cracking, and finally are shellacked.
224. Leyden.—Among specialties, a cheese called Leyden originating in
Holland is made in Michigan and New York. This is a part skim cheese
heavily spiced with caraway seed. The ripe cheese is colored red as it goes
to market.
225. Cheddar cheese with pimientos.—Recently some Cheddar cheeses
have been made with pimientos added. This gives a mixture of
characteristic Cheddar and pimiento flavors, which seems to be desired by
some persons. An ordinary Cheddar curd is made and the pimientos added
just before salting. The pimientos are ground rather coarsely and then added
to the curd together with the liquid which was with the pimientos in the can.
The pimiento should be thoroughly and evenly mixed with the curd to
insure a uniform distribution and mottled color in the cheese. The salt is
then applied. The remainder of the process is the same as for ordinary
Cheddar cheese.
226. Sage cheese is a product flavored from the leaves of the ordinary
garden sage. It is made by two methods: one, in which the sage leaves are
used, and the other, in which a part of the curd is colored to imitate that
given by the sage leaves, and sage oil or tea is used to give the flavor.
In the leaf method, a regular Cheddar cheese curd is made up to the time of
salting. Just before the salt is added, sage leaves are mixed with the curd.
The leaves should be dried and freed from stems and other coarse particles
and the leaves themselves broken up rather finely. The leaves are then
added at the rate of 3 ounces for every 1000 pounds of milk. Care must be
exercised to see that the leaves are evenly mixed through the curd or an
evenly mottled cheese will not result. The salt is then added. This sequence
seems to increase the absorption of the flavor by the curd.
If these cheeses are consumed as soon as well cured, no fault can be found.
On the other hand, if they are held for any length of time, yellow areas form
Page 214
about each piece of sage leaf; the leaves decay rapidly and spoil the cheese.
This method gives a very true flavored sage cheese, the only objection
being that it cannot be held in storage for any length of time without a
marked deterioration.
In the other method of making sage cheese, either a vat with a movable
partition or a large and a small vat must be used. In many cases the
receiving can is used as the small vat. After the milk is properly ripened and
ready to set, one-sixth to one-seventh of the milk is put into the small vat.
To this small vat, green coloring matter is added. Juice from the leaves of
corn, clover, or spinach was formerly used as coloring. Consequently the
manufacture of sage cheese by this method was limited to the seasons of the
year when these leaves could be obtained. Now, however, the dairy supply
houses have a harmless green color paste which is much cheaper and can be
secured at any season of the year. The amount of color paste to use will vary
from 30 to 35 c.c. for every 1000 pounds of total milk. This should be
added to the small vat of milk. It gives a green milk and later a green curd.
Both vats are worked along together, until the time for removing the whey.
Then the partition in the vat is removed or the small vat is mixed with the
large one. The green curd should then be evenly mixed with the white one
or an even green mottled cheese will not result. The curds should not be
mixed until they are well firmed or the white curd will take on a greenish
cast and spoil the appearance of the cheese.
After the whey is removed, the curd is allowed to mat as in ordinary
Cheddar but care must be exercised to pile the curd so that it cannot spread
or "draw" out. If it does draw out, the small green spots will be stretched
out and large blotches or patches of green will be the result. The cheese-
maker must watch the curd closely or he may not secure the much desired
small green mottles. When the curd is well matted, it is milled as in
Cheddar. Just before the salt is added, the sage extract is applied to the curd.
The sage extract can be obtained from dairy supply houses, or a sage tea
can be made by steeping the sage leaves. In many cases the commercial
extract gives the cheese a strong disagreeable flavor, but not a true sage
flavor. The sage tea gives a flavor more like that of the leaves themselves.
Too much of the extract or the leaves will give a very rank flavor. The sage
This method gives a very true flavored sage cheese, the only objection
being that it cannot be held in storage for any length of time without a
marked deterioration.
In the other method of making sage cheese, either a vat with a movable
partition or a large and a small vat must be used. In many cases the
receiving can is used as the small vat. After the milk is properly ripened and
ready to set, one-sixth to one-seventh of the milk is put into the small vat.
To this small vat, green coloring matter is added. Juice from the leaves of
corn, clover, or spinach was formerly used as coloring. Consequently the
manufacture of sage cheese by this method was limited to the seasons of the
year when these leaves could be obtained. Now, however, the dairy supply
houses have a harmless green color paste which is much cheaper and can be
secured at any season of the year. The amount of color paste to use will vary
from 30 to 35 c.c. for every 1000 pounds of total milk. This should be
added to the small vat of milk. It gives a green milk and later a green curd.
Both vats are worked along together, until the time for removing the whey.
Then the partition in the vat is removed or the small vat is mixed with the
large one. The green curd should then be evenly mixed with the white one
or an even green mottled cheese will not result. The curds should not be
mixed until they are well firmed or the white curd will take on a greenish
cast and spoil the appearance of the cheese.
After the whey is removed, the curd is allowed to mat as in ordinary
Cheddar but care must be exercised to pile the curd so that it cannot spread
or "draw" out. If it does draw out, the small green spots will be stretched
out and large blotches or patches of green will be the result. The cheese-
maker must watch the curd closely or he may not secure the much desired
small green mottles. When the curd is well matted, it is milled as in
Cheddar. Just before the salt is added, the sage extract is applied to the curd.
The sage extract can be obtained from dairy supply houses, or a sage tea
can be made by steeping the sage leaves. In many cases the commercial
extract gives the cheese a strong disagreeable flavor, but not a true sage
flavor. The sage tea gives a flavor more like that of the leaves themselves.
Too much of the extract or the leaves will give a very rank flavor. The sage
Page 215
extract can best be put on the curd by means of a sprayer or atomizer with
which it can be evenly sprayed over the entire surface. The extract should
be applied two or three times and the curd well stirred after each
application. The amount of the extract to use depends altogether on its
strength; an ounce of the extract or three ounces of sage tea to 1000 pounds
of milk is about the correct amount. After the extract has been added, the
salt is used at the same rate as with a normal Cheddar curd and the sage
curd is carried along the same as a Cheddar.
This extract method gives a sage cheese mottled with small green spots
which somewhat resemble the green of sage leaves. A cheese made in this
way can be held for a long time, as nothing has been added which can
decay. The only objection to this method is that the sage extract may not
give a true sage flavor. Therefore, the maker must try to obtain the best
extract possible or make his own from the sage leaves.
227. Skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.101—The process of making
skimmed-milk cheese after the Cheddar process is varied with the amount
of fat left in the milk. Before attempting to make skimmed-milk Cheddar,
one should become familiar with the process for whole-milk Cheddar.
Skimmed-milk cheeses are usually highly colored.
When part skimmed-milk cheese is manufactured, there is often difficulty
in getting the milk in the vat to test the desired percentage of fat. Some
cheese-makers skim all the milk and then put in the desired amount of
cream. This practice seems wasteful, not only because of the cost of
separation, but because the fat will not mix easily with the milk but will
tend to float on the surface. If the fat floats, there will be a large loss. After
a very few trials an operator can tell about how much of the whole milk
must be skimmed in order to have the mixed skimmed-milk and whole milk
test the desired percentage of fat. The necessary percentage of fat in the
mixed milk to produce cheese of a certain grade can be determined by
testing the cheese by the Babcock test. (See Chapter XIX.)
228. Full skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.—In the summer there is not
much demand for full skimmed-milk cheese, but it is made in large quantity
in winter. The method of manufacture is as follows:
which it can be evenly sprayed over the entire surface. The extract should
be applied two or three times and the curd well stirred after each
application. The amount of the extract to use depends altogether on its
strength; an ounce of the extract or three ounces of sage tea to 1000 pounds
of milk is about the correct amount. After the extract has been added, the
salt is used at the same rate as with a normal Cheddar curd and the sage
curd is carried along the same as a Cheddar.
This extract method gives a sage cheese mottled with small green spots
which somewhat resemble the green of sage leaves. A cheese made in this
way can be held for a long time, as nothing has been added which can
decay. The only objection to this method is that the sage extract may not
give a true sage flavor. Therefore, the maker must try to obtain the best
extract possible or make his own from the sage leaves.
227. Skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.101—The process of making
skimmed-milk cheese after the Cheddar process is varied with the amount
of fat left in the milk. Before attempting to make skimmed-milk Cheddar,
one should become familiar with the process for whole-milk Cheddar.
Skimmed-milk cheeses are usually highly colored.
When part skimmed-milk cheese is manufactured, there is often difficulty
in getting the milk in the vat to test the desired percentage of fat. Some
cheese-makers skim all the milk and then put in the desired amount of
cream. This practice seems wasteful, not only because of the cost of
separation, but because the fat will not mix easily with the milk but will
tend to float on the surface. If the fat floats, there will be a large loss. After
a very few trials an operator can tell about how much of the whole milk
must be skimmed in order to have the mixed skimmed-milk and whole milk
test the desired percentage of fat. The necessary percentage of fat in the
mixed milk to produce cheese of a certain grade can be determined by
testing the cheese by the Babcock test. (See Chapter XIX.)
228. Full skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.—In the summer there is not
much demand for full skimmed-milk cheese, but it is made in large quantity
in winter. The method of manufacture is as follows:
Page 216
Skimmed-milk as it comes from the separator is at a temperature of about
88° to 90° F.; it is ripened and set at this temperature. It is ripened rather
highly on the acid test, from 0.18 to 0.20 of 1 per cent, and to correspond on
the rennet test which will not be many spaces. In about twenty-five to thirty
minutes it is coagulated ready for cutting. The curd of skimmed-milk cheese
is cut a little softer than is that of whole-milk cheese. Milk is usually set at
88° to 90° F. The curd is not ordinarily cooked above this temperature. If
the milk was 84° to 86° F. when set, then the curd should be raised to 88° to
90° F. The curd firms in the whey very rapidly. When firm enough, it should
have a slight development of acid. On the acid test it should show 0.17 to
0.19 per cent, and on the hot iron ⅟8 to ¼ of an inch. The milk should be
ripe enough or starter enough should have been used, so that the acid will
continue to develop in the "pack" very rapidly. During the cheddaring
process the curd is piled more rapidly and in higher piles than is customary
with whole-milk cheese. This is necessary to incorporate or assimilate a
large percentage of water or whey in the cheese. Therefore the process of
skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese is much shorter. More acid is developed
with the skimmed-milk than with the whole-milk cheese because it seems
necessary to develop proper texture. If the acid is not developed
sufficiently, the cheese will be very rubbery and cure very slowly, in which
case bad fermentation and flavor may and often do develop. The curd is
turned, piled or cheddared in the vat until it begins to become meaty and
fibrous. If there is danger of too much acid, the curd may be rinsed off with
water. It is then milled and salted at the rate of 1 or 1¼ pounds of salt to the
curd from each 1000 pounds of milk. The remainder of the process is the
same as that for making whole-milk cheese.
229. Half skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.—No definite directions can be
given for the manufacture of part skimmed-milk cheese, because the
process varies with the amount of fat left in the milk. As the fat is
decreased, the process becomes more like that for making full skimmed-
milk cheese; as the fat is increased, the process becomes more like that for
whole-milk cheese. However, the process of making half skimmed-milk
cheese is about midway between the two. The milk is ripened more than it
would be for whole-milk cheese, usually until it tests from 0.15 to 0.17 of 1
per cent acid. The curd is coagulated and cut the same as for the other
skimmed-milk cheeses. It is cooked to a temperature just sufficient to firm
88° to 90° F.; it is ripened and set at this temperature. It is ripened rather
highly on the acid test, from 0.18 to 0.20 of 1 per cent, and to correspond on
the rennet test which will not be many spaces. In about twenty-five to thirty
minutes it is coagulated ready for cutting. The curd of skimmed-milk cheese
is cut a little softer than is that of whole-milk cheese. Milk is usually set at
88° to 90° F. The curd is not ordinarily cooked above this temperature. If
the milk was 84° to 86° F. when set, then the curd should be raised to 88° to
90° F. The curd firms in the whey very rapidly. When firm enough, it should
have a slight development of acid. On the acid test it should show 0.17 to
0.19 per cent, and on the hot iron ⅟8 to ¼ of an inch. The milk should be
ripe enough or starter enough should have been used, so that the acid will
continue to develop in the "pack" very rapidly. During the cheddaring
process the curd is piled more rapidly and in higher piles than is customary
with whole-milk cheese. This is necessary to incorporate or assimilate a
large percentage of water or whey in the cheese. Therefore the process of
skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese is much shorter. More acid is developed
with the skimmed-milk than with the whole-milk cheese because it seems
necessary to develop proper texture. If the acid is not developed
sufficiently, the cheese will be very rubbery and cure very slowly, in which
case bad fermentation and flavor may and often do develop. The curd is
turned, piled or cheddared in the vat until it begins to become meaty and
fibrous. If there is danger of too much acid, the curd may be rinsed off with
water. It is then milled and salted at the rate of 1 or 1¼ pounds of salt to the
curd from each 1000 pounds of milk. The remainder of the process is the
same as that for making whole-milk cheese.
229. Half skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.—No definite directions can be
given for the manufacture of part skimmed-milk cheese, because the
process varies with the amount of fat left in the milk. As the fat is
decreased, the process becomes more like that for making full skimmed-
milk cheese; as the fat is increased, the process becomes more like that for
whole-milk cheese. However, the process of making half skimmed-milk
cheese is about midway between the two. The milk is ripened more than it
would be for whole-milk cheese, usually until it tests from 0.15 to 0.17 of 1
per cent acid. The curd is coagulated and cut the same as for the other
skimmed-milk cheeses. It is cooked to a temperature just sufficient to firm
Page 217
the curd, usually from 94° to 96° F. The lower the temperature at which the
curd can be cooked and yet become firm, the better is the texture of the
cheese. When the curd has firmed enough, or when sufficient acid
development, from 0.15 to 0.17 of 1 per cent, has taken place, the whey is
removed. The curd is then turned, piled or cheddared. A skimmed-milk curd
may be piled much more rapidly than a whole-milk curd without danger of
injuring it. When the curd becomes meaty or fibrous, it is milled. It should
be salted at the rate of 1¼ to 2 pounds of salt to the curd from each 1000
pounds of milk. The remainder of the process is the same as that for making
whole-milk cheese.
The cheese-maker should observe the following points when making
skimmed-milk cheese: (1) Have clean-flavored sweet milk; (2) use clean-
flavored commercial starter; (3) ripen the milk sufficiently, but not too
much; (4) firm the curd at as low a temperature as possible; (5) have the
curd properly firmed when the whey is drawn; (6) cheddar the curd faster
than the curd from whole milk; (7) make the cheeses all the same size; (8)
keep the cheese neat and clean in the curing-room.
230. Yield and qualities of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.—The results
of skimming different percentages of whole milk containing varying
percentages of fat are given in the following table. As the percentage of fat
in the milk decreases, the yield of cheese also decreases, according to the
table. As the percentage of fat decreases in the milk, the percentage of
moisture in the cheese increases, showing that moisture is substituted for
fat. The yield of cheese from 100 pounds of milk is also given in this table.
This yield varies with the amount of moisture incorporated into the cheese,
the amount of solids not fat in the milk, and the solids lost in the whey.
TABLE XIV
Table Showing the Composition and Yield of Skimmed-milk
Cheddar Cheese
curd can be cooked and yet become firm, the better is the texture of the
cheese. When the curd has firmed enough, or when sufficient acid
development, from 0.15 to 0.17 of 1 per cent, has taken place, the whey is
removed. The curd is then turned, piled or cheddared. A skimmed-milk curd
may be piled much more rapidly than a whole-milk curd without danger of
injuring it. When the curd becomes meaty or fibrous, it is milled. It should
be salted at the rate of 1¼ to 2 pounds of salt to the curd from each 1000
pounds of milk. The remainder of the process is the same as that for making
whole-milk cheese.
The cheese-maker should observe the following points when making
skimmed-milk cheese: (1) Have clean-flavored sweet milk; (2) use clean-
flavored commercial starter; (3) ripen the milk sufficiently, but not too
much; (4) firm the curd at as low a temperature as possible; (5) have the
curd properly firmed when the whey is drawn; (6) cheddar the curd faster
than the curd from whole milk; (7) make the cheeses all the same size; (8)
keep the cheese neat and clean in the curing-room.
230. Yield and qualities of skimmed-milk Cheddar cheese.—The results
of skimming different percentages of whole milk containing varying
percentages of fat are given in the following table. As the percentage of fat
in the milk decreases, the yield of cheese also decreases, according to the
table. As the percentage of fat decreases in the milk, the percentage of
moisture in the cheese increases, showing that moisture is substituted for
fat. The yield of cheese from 100 pounds of milk is also given in this table.
This yield varies with the amount of moisture incorporated into the cheese,
the amount of solids not fat in the milk, and the solids lost in the whey.
TABLE XIV
Table Showing the Composition and Yield of Skimmed-milk
Cheddar Cheese
Page 218
Percentage Number Composition of the Cheese
Percentage of Fat in of Pounds
Percentage
of the the Milk in of Cheese
of Fat in Percentage
Milk the Vat from 100 Percentage Percentage
the Milk of Total
Skimmed After Pounds of of Fat of Water
Skimming Milk Solids
4.7 50 2.4 9.92 54.74 22.00 45.25
4.7 60 2.0 9.74 52.46 17.50 47.54
4.7 70 1.5 9.26 49.87 13.50 50.13
4.7 80 1.0 8.42 48.26 10.00 51.74
4.0 50 2.0 9.70 53.29 21.00 46.71
4.0 60 1.6 9.50 50.89 17.00 49.11
4.0 70 1.2 9.30 48.06 13.50 51.94
4.0 80 0.9 9.20 45.24 10.50 54.76
3.5 50 1.8 8.54 54.20 19.50 45.80
3.5 60 1.5 8.10 51.10 16.50 48.90
3.5 70 1.1 7.44 52.62 13.00 47.38
3.5 80 0.9 7.00 49.64 9.54 50.36
3.4 50 1.9 8.24102 54.50 20.00 45.50
3.4 60 1.5 7.82 52.05 16.50 47.95
┌ 1.4 ┌ 7.80 ┌ 49.04 ┌ 14.00 ┌ 50.96
3.4 70
└ 1.2 └ 7.28 └ 50.76 └ 14.00 └ 49.24
3.4 80 0.9 7.24 47.41 10.50 52.59
In some creameries and cheese factories, the milk is skimmed and the
cream made into butter and the skimmed-milk into cheese by the Cheddar
process. In making cheese without the milk-fat, it is difficult to standardize
a method that will produce the flavor and body of the whole-milk Cheddar
cheese. A skimmed-milk cheese lacks the softness and mellowness of
texture of the whole-milk product. It is very likely to be tough, dry or
leathery. It is attempted to remedy this defect by incorporating more
moisture into the skimmed-milk cheese. The added moisture tends to
replace the fat in giving a soft mellow body. It requires skill on the part of
the cheese-maker to incorporate moisture to take the place of the fat in
giving the cheese mellowness and smoothness of body.
The grades of skimmed-milk cheese vary between rather wide limits—from
those made entirely of skimmed-milk to those made of milk from which
only a small amount of fat has been removed and which are almost like
Percentage of Fat in of Pounds
Percentage
of the the Milk in of Cheese
of Fat in Percentage
Milk the Vat from 100 Percentage Percentage
the Milk of Total
Skimmed After Pounds of of Fat of Water
Skimming Milk Solids
4.7 50 2.4 9.92 54.74 22.00 45.25
4.7 60 2.0 9.74 52.46 17.50 47.54
4.7 70 1.5 9.26 49.87 13.50 50.13
4.7 80 1.0 8.42 48.26 10.00 51.74
4.0 50 2.0 9.70 53.29 21.00 46.71
4.0 60 1.6 9.50 50.89 17.00 49.11
4.0 70 1.2 9.30 48.06 13.50 51.94
4.0 80 0.9 9.20 45.24 10.50 54.76
3.5 50 1.8 8.54 54.20 19.50 45.80
3.5 60 1.5 8.10 51.10 16.50 48.90
3.5 70 1.1 7.44 52.62 13.00 47.38
3.5 80 0.9 7.00 49.64 9.54 50.36
3.4 50 1.9 8.24102 54.50 20.00 45.50
3.4 60 1.5 7.82 52.05 16.50 47.95
┌ 1.4 ┌ 7.80 ┌ 49.04 ┌ 14.00 ┌ 50.96
3.4 70
└ 1.2 └ 7.28 └ 50.76 └ 14.00 └ 49.24
3.4 80 0.9 7.24 47.41 10.50 52.59
In some creameries and cheese factories, the milk is skimmed and the
cream made into butter and the skimmed-milk into cheese by the Cheddar
process. In making cheese without the milk-fat, it is difficult to standardize
a method that will produce the flavor and body of the whole-milk Cheddar
cheese. A skimmed-milk cheese lacks the softness and mellowness of
texture of the whole-milk product. It is very likely to be tough, dry or
leathery. It is attempted to remedy this defect by incorporating more
moisture into the skimmed-milk cheese. The added moisture tends to
replace the fat in giving a soft mellow body. It requires skill on the part of
the cheese-maker to incorporate moisture to take the place of the fat in
giving the cheese mellowness and smoothness of body.
The grades of skimmed-milk cheese vary between rather wide limits—from
those made entirely of skimmed-milk to those made of milk from which
only a small amount of fat has been removed and which are almost like
Page 219
whole-milk cheese. Because of the gradations of skimmed-milk cheese, it is
difficult to make anything but general statements and to base comparisons
with whole-milk cheese.
difficult to make anything but general statements and to base comparisons
with whole-milk cheese.
Page 220
CHAPTER XIV
CHEDDAR CHEESE RIPENING
Freshly made Cheddar cheese is hard, tough and elastic and lacks
characteristic cheese flavor. In this condition it is called "green," unripe or
not cured. Before the cheese is ready to be eaten, it passes through a
complex series of changes which are collectively known as ripening. In the
ripening process the texture becomes soft and mellow and the characteristic
cheese flavors develop. Cheese ripening must be considered from two view-
points, first, the changes taking place inside the cheese and secondly the
outside conditions necessary for ripening. Some of the chemical changes
during ripening are known, while others are not understood. The different
agents causing ripening, and the constituents of the milk, will be discussed.
231. Fat.—Numerous investigations have been made to ascertain what
chemical changes the fat undergoes in the ripening process. Suzuki,103 in
studying the fat, found no enzyme capable of producing lactic acid or
volatile fatty acids. However, these acids were found in increasing amounts
during the ripening process and after the lactose had disappeared. Acetic
and propionic acids reached a maximum at three months and then
decreased, while butyric and caproic acids continually increased during the
experimental period covered. Formic acid was detected in the whole-milk
cheese only at the five and one-half month stage. In the judgment of the
experimenter the principal source of acetic and propionic acids was
probably lactates. Traces of these acids may have had their origin in protein
decomposition or further fermentation of glycerine. The principal sources
indicated for butyric and caproic acids were fats and proteins.
The distillate from the experimental cheese was designated "flavor
solution" and contained alcohols and esters, giving a close resemblance to
the cheese aroma. The "flavor solution" from the mild whole-milk cheese
contained esters made up largely of ethyl alcohol and acetic acid, while
from the more pungent skimmed-milk cheese the esters were largely
compounds of ethyl alcohol and caproic and butyric acids. The alcohol may
have come from the lactose fermentation. It appears to be an important
CHEDDAR CHEESE RIPENING
Freshly made Cheddar cheese is hard, tough and elastic and lacks
characteristic cheese flavor. In this condition it is called "green," unripe or
not cured. Before the cheese is ready to be eaten, it passes through a
complex series of changes which are collectively known as ripening. In the
ripening process the texture becomes soft and mellow and the characteristic
cheese flavors develop. Cheese ripening must be considered from two view-
points, first, the changes taking place inside the cheese and secondly the
outside conditions necessary for ripening. Some of the chemical changes
during ripening are known, while others are not understood. The different
agents causing ripening, and the constituents of the milk, will be discussed.
231. Fat.—Numerous investigations have been made to ascertain what
chemical changes the fat undergoes in the ripening process. Suzuki,103 in
studying the fat, found no enzyme capable of producing lactic acid or
volatile fatty acids. However, these acids were found in increasing amounts
during the ripening process and after the lactose had disappeared. Acetic
and propionic acids reached a maximum at three months and then
decreased, while butyric and caproic acids continually increased during the
experimental period covered. Formic acid was detected in the whole-milk
cheese only at the five and one-half month stage. In the judgment of the
experimenter the principal source of acetic and propionic acids was
probably lactates. Traces of these acids may have had their origin in protein
decomposition or further fermentation of glycerine. The principal sources
indicated for butyric and caproic acids were fats and proteins.
The distillate from the experimental cheese was designated "flavor
solution" and contained alcohols and esters, giving a close resemblance to
the cheese aroma. The "flavor solution" from the mild whole-milk cheese
contained esters made up largely of ethyl alcohol and acetic acid, while
from the more pungent skimmed-milk cheese the esters were largely
compounds of ethyl alcohol and caproic and butyric acids. The alcohol may
have come from the lactose fermentation. It appears to be an important
Page 221
factor in flavor production. The agencies operative in the production of
volatile acids and syntheses of esters are as yet undefined.
232. Milk-sugar.—The milk-sugar (lactose) is changed into lactic acid by
the lactic acid-forming organisms, within the first few days after the cheese
is made. This acid is combined with the other constituents as fast as it is
formed. After a few days, the milk-sugar will have entirely disappeared
from the cheese.104 The relation between the milk-sugar and lactic acid is
very close. It is necessary that milk-sugar be present in order later to have
the lactic acid develop.
233. The salts.—Just what changes the salts105 undergo or how they
combine with the other compounds is not definitely known. It is supposed
that the calcium salts first combine with the phosphates and later, as the
lactic acid is formed, they combine with the lactic acid, forming a calcium
lactate.
234. Gases.—In the process of cheese ripening, gases are formed, the
commonest being carbon dioxide.106 Exactly how this gas is formed is not
known. It may be due to the formation of lactic acid from the milk-sugar or
to the living organisms in the cheese.
235. Casein or proteins.—Complex ripening changes in the cheese take
place in the casein compounds or proteins. Because of the complex
chemical nature of the proteins and the various agents acting on them, it is
difficult to follow these changes. This has led to different opinions
regarding the ripening process. The various compounds thought to be
formed from the casein or proteins are as follows:107
Paracasein (formed by the action of the rennet on the casein). Insoluble in
brine and warm 5 per cent salt brine.
Protein. Soluble in warm 5 per cent salt brine.
Protein. Insoluble in warm salt brine or water.
Paranuclein. A protein soluble in water and precipitable by dilute
hydrochloric acid.
volatile acids and syntheses of esters are as yet undefined.
232. Milk-sugar.—The milk-sugar (lactose) is changed into lactic acid by
the lactic acid-forming organisms, within the first few days after the cheese
is made. This acid is combined with the other constituents as fast as it is
formed. After a few days, the milk-sugar will have entirely disappeared
from the cheese.104 The relation between the milk-sugar and lactic acid is
very close. It is necessary that milk-sugar be present in order later to have
the lactic acid develop.
233. The salts.—Just what changes the salts105 undergo or how they
combine with the other compounds is not definitely known. It is supposed
that the calcium salts first combine with the phosphates and later, as the
lactic acid is formed, they combine with the lactic acid, forming a calcium
lactate.
234. Gases.—In the process of cheese ripening, gases are formed, the
commonest being carbon dioxide.106 Exactly how this gas is formed is not
known. It may be due to the formation of lactic acid from the milk-sugar or
to the living organisms in the cheese.
235. Casein or proteins.—Complex ripening changes in the cheese take
place in the casein compounds or proteins. Because of the complex
chemical nature of the proteins and the various agents acting on them, it is
difficult to follow these changes. This has led to different opinions
regarding the ripening process. The various compounds thought to be
formed from the casein or proteins are as follows:107
Paracasein (formed by the action of the rennet on the casein). Insoluble in
brine and warm 5 per cent salt brine.
Protein. Soluble in warm 5 per cent salt brine.
Protein. Insoluble in warm salt brine or water.
Paranuclein. A protein soluble in water and precipitable by dilute
hydrochloric acid.
Page 222
Caseoses and proteoses. Protein derivations soluble in water and not
coagulated by heat.
Peptones. Protein derivations simpler than the proteoses, soluble in water
and not coagulated by heat.
Amido acids. Protein derivations soluble in water, least complex except
ammonia.
Ammonia. The simplest protein derivations.
From the discussion of the constituents in the milk and cheese, it is evident
that practically all the principal ripening changes are concerned with those
taking place in the proteins.
236. Causes of ripening changes.—Authorities disagree as to the exact
agents which cause the ripening changes. Some think they are due to the
action of the enzymes in the rennet and those secreted in the milk. Others
hold that these changes are due entirely to bacterial action. A combination
of the two seems probable. The action of the rennet extract renders the
casein insoluble and in the ripening process the proteins become soluble,
the degree depending on the length of time the cheese is ripened. The
amount of water-soluble proteins and protein derivatives is used as a
measure of the extent of cheese ripening, considered from a chemical
standpoint.
237. Action of the rennet extract.—Some authorities hold that rennet
extract contains two enzymes, rennin and pepsin, while others think it is a
single peptic ferment. These enzymes produce effects108 closely related to, if
not identical with, those of pepsin in the following particulars: neither the
rennet enzyme nor pepsin causes much, if any, proteolytic change except in
the presence of acid; the quantitative results of proteolysis furnished by the
rennet enzyme and pepsin agree closely, when working on the same
material under comparable conditions; the classes of soluble nitrogen
compounds formed by the two enzymes are the same, both quantitatively
and qualitatively; neither enzyme forms any considerable amount of amido
compounds and neither produces any ammonia; the soluble nitrogen
compounds formed by both enzymes are confined to the group of
compounds known as paranuclein, caseoses and peptones.
coagulated by heat.
Peptones. Protein derivations simpler than the proteoses, soluble in water
and not coagulated by heat.
Amido acids. Protein derivations soluble in water, least complex except
ammonia.
Ammonia. The simplest protein derivations.
From the discussion of the constituents in the milk and cheese, it is evident
that practically all the principal ripening changes are concerned with those
taking place in the proteins.
236. Causes of ripening changes.—Authorities disagree as to the exact
agents which cause the ripening changes. Some think they are due to the
action of the enzymes in the rennet and those secreted in the milk. Others
hold that these changes are due entirely to bacterial action. A combination
of the two seems probable. The action of the rennet extract renders the
casein insoluble and in the ripening process the proteins become soluble,
the degree depending on the length of time the cheese is ripened. The
amount of water-soluble proteins and protein derivatives is used as a
measure of the extent of cheese ripening, considered from a chemical
standpoint.
237. Action of the rennet extract.—Some authorities hold that rennet
extract contains two enzymes, rennin and pepsin, while others think it is a
single peptic ferment. These enzymes produce effects108 closely related to, if
not identical with, those of pepsin in the following particulars: neither the
rennet enzyme nor pepsin causes much, if any, proteolytic change except in
the presence of acid; the quantitative results of proteolysis furnished by the
rennet enzyme and pepsin agree closely, when working on the same
material under comparable conditions; the classes of soluble nitrogen
compounds formed by the two enzymes are the same, both quantitatively
and qualitatively; neither enzyme forms any considerable amount of amido
compounds and neither produces any ammonia; the soluble nitrogen
compounds formed by both enzymes are confined to the group of
compounds known as paranuclein, caseoses and peptones.
Page 223
Rennet exerts a digestive effect on the casein109 which is intensified by the
development of acid in the curd. The soluble nitrogenous products formed
in Cheddar cheese by the rennet enzymes are the albumoses and the higher
peptones. Experiments show that no flavor develops until the amido acids
and ammonia are formed. When the rennet enzymes were the only digesting
ferments in the cheese, there was no trace of cheese flavor. This is probably
due to the fact that the rennet enzyme changed the casein into caseoses and
peptones but did not form amido acids and ammonia. Some authorities110
think that the enzyme galactase carries the ripening of the protein from this
stage. The question arises whether these intermediate compounds must be
found before other agents can form the amido acids and ammonia.
TABLE XV111
Showing the Effect of Different Amounts of Reneet
Extracts on the Rate of Formation of Soluble
Nitrogen Compounds in Cheese Ripening
development of acid in the curd. The soluble nitrogenous products formed
in Cheddar cheese by the rennet enzymes are the albumoses and the higher
peptones. Experiments show that no flavor develops until the amido acids
and ammonia are formed. When the rennet enzymes were the only digesting
ferments in the cheese, there was no trace of cheese flavor. This is probably
due to the fact that the rennet enzyme changed the casein into caseoses and
peptones but did not form amido acids and ammonia. Some authorities110
think that the enzyme galactase carries the ripening of the protein from this
stage. The question arises whether these intermediate compounds must be
found before other agents can form the amido acids and ammonia.
TABLE XV111
Showing the Effect of Different Amounts of Reneet
Extracts on the Rate of Formation of Soluble
Nitrogen Compounds in Cheese Ripening
Page 224
Quantity of Per Cent of Water Soluble Nitrogen Compounds in the Cheese
Rennet Added
per 100 Lb. of
Milk Initial 32 days 80 days 270 days
2 oz 0.14 0.47 0.68 1.30
2 oz 0.14 0.47 0.68 1.30
4 oz 0.16 0.75 1.13 1.74
8 oz 0.16 0.90 1.50 1.97
16 oz 0.14 1.26 1.70 2.04
The above table shows that the more rennet extract used the faster the
cheese cures, measured by the amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds
formed in the cheese.
238. The action of the bacteria.—Authorities112 disagree as to the groups
of bacteria found in Cheddar cheese. This may be due to lack of proper
classification. Some of the groups are: Bacterium lactis acidi, B. coli
communis, B. lactis aerogenes, B. casei, Streptococci, B.113 Bulgaricum and
Micrococci. Authorities agree that the B. lactis acidi group is the most
prominent. This group makes up 90 per cent or more of the total bacteria
flora of the cheese in the early stages of ripening. In the course of a few
weeks, however, this group is largely replaced by the B. casei group.114
TABLE XVI
Showing the Number of Bacteria to a Gram in Cheddar
Cheese as Determined by Lactose-Agar Plate
Cultures
Rennet Added
per 100 Lb. of
Milk Initial 32 days 80 days 270 days
2 oz 0.14 0.47 0.68 1.30
2 oz 0.14 0.47 0.68 1.30
4 oz 0.16 0.75 1.13 1.74
8 oz 0.16 0.90 1.50 1.97
16 oz 0.14 1.26 1.70 2.04
The above table shows that the more rennet extract used the faster the
cheese cures, measured by the amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds
formed in the cheese.
238. The action of the bacteria.—Authorities112 disagree as to the groups
of bacteria found in Cheddar cheese. This may be due to lack of proper
classification. Some of the groups are: Bacterium lactis acidi, B. coli
communis, B. lactis aerogenes, B. casei, Streptococci, B.113 Bulgaricum and
Micrococci. Authorities agree that the B. lactis acidi group is the most
prominent. This group makes up 90 per cent or more of the total bacteria
flora of the cheese in the early stages of ripening. In the course of a few
weeks, however, this group is largely replaced by the B. casei group.114
TABLE XVI
Showing the Number of Bacteria to a Gram in Cheddar
Cheese as Determined by Lactose-Agar Plate
Cultures
Page 225
Cheese Number
Time of Plating
580. 581. 582. 583.
Milk 8,000,000 500,000 700,000 500,000
Curd at salting time 160,000,000 326,000,000 912,000,000 839,000,000
12 hours 332,000,000 1,048,000,000 623,000,000 965,000,000
1 day 586,000,000 736,000,000 709,000,000 569,000,000
2 days 235,000,000 405,000,000 848,000,000 580,000,000
4 days 235,000,000 405,000,000 848,000,000 580,000,000
6 days 165,000,000 184,000,000 853,000,000 184,000,000
14 days 51,000,000 211,000,000 369,000,000 401,000,000
21 days 284,000,000 290,000,000 348,000,000 319,000,000
28 days 285,000,000 453,000,000 314,000,000 144,000,000
35 days 104,000,000 261,000,000 326,000,000 504,000,000
49 days 132,000,000 228,000,000 436,000,000 661,000,000
70 days 128,000,000 291,000,000 193,000,000 168,000,000
98 days 114,000,000 212,000,000 45,000,000 55,000,000
From Wis. Bul. 150.
The large number of bacteria in the cheese is very striking. The number as
given in the accompanying table is not that actually in the cheese, as it is
very difficult to obtain the sample in suitable condition for plating.115
The principal action of the lactic acid-forming bacteria in the cheese
ripening is the changing of the milk-sugar or lactose into lactic acid and the
formation of small amounts of other substances, such as acetic, succinic and
formic acids, alcohol, aldehydes and esters and some gases, carbon dioxide
and hydrogen. While the amount of these substances other than lactic acid
is small, it is thought that the effect of these on the cheese may be
important. Heinemann shows116 that lactic acid exists in two optical
modifications, the levorotatory and dextrorotary acids. In cheese they are
usually found in the inactive or racemic form, the levorotatory and
dextrorotary acids being present in equal amounts. What importance the
question of optical activity of the lactic acid may assume is not definitely
known. Just as some groups of bacteria have a specific effect on the lactose,
producing only one modification of lactic acid, so bacteria attacking lactic
acid may exercise a selective action and use only one or the other optically
active modification. In other words, the early flora of cheese-ripening
Time of Plating
580. 581. 582. 583.
Milk 8,000,000 500,000 700,000 500,000
Curd at salting time 160,000,000 326,000,000 912,000,000 839,000,000
12 hours 332,000,000 1,048,000,000 623,000,000 965,000,000
1 day 586,000,000 736,000,000 709,000,000 569,000,000
2 days 235,000,000 405,000,000 848,000,000 580,000,000
4 days 235,000,000 405,000,000 848,000,000 580,000,000
6 days 165,000,000 184,000,000 853,000,000 184,000,000
14 days 51,000,000 211,000,000 369,000,000 401,000,000
21 days 284,000,000 290,000,000 348,000,000 319,000,000
28 days 285,000,000 453,000,000 314,000,000 144,000,000
35 days 104,000,000 261,000,000 326,000,000 504,000,000
49 days 132,000,000 228,000,000 436,000,000 661,000,000
70 days 128,000,000 291,000,000 193,000,000 168,000,000
98 days 114,000,000 212,000,000 45,000,000 55,000,000
From Wis. Bul. 150.
The large number of bacteria in the cheese is very striking. The number as
given in the accompanying table is not that actually in the cheese, as it is
very difficult to obtain the sample in suitable condition for plating.115
The principal action of the lactic acid-forming bacteria in the cheese
ripening is the changing of the milk-sugar or lactose into lactic acid and the
formation of small amounts of other substances, such as acetic, succinic and
formic acids, alcohol, aldehydes and esters and some gases, carbon dioxide
and hydrogen. While the amount of these substances other than lactic acid
is small, it is thought that the effect of these on the cheese may be
important. Heinemann shows116 that lactic acid exists in two optical
modifications, the levorotatory and dextrorotary acids. In cheese they are
usually found in the inactive or racemic form, the levorotatory and
dextrorotary acids being present in equal amounts. What importance the
question of optical activity of the lactic acid may assume is not definitely
known. Just as some groups of bacteria have a specific effect on the lactose,
producing only one modification of lactic acid, so bacteria attacking lactic
acid may exercise a selective action and use only one or the other optically
active modification. In other words, the early flora of cheese-ripening
Page 226
bacteria may determine the later flora by the production of a form of lactic
acid attacked by one group of bacteria and not by another, and the effect on
the flavor will differ accordingly. The amount of lactic acid in the cheese
increases for a time, then decreases.
The errors in determining lactic acid are considerable. It seems that the
tendency is toward an increase of lactic acid in the cheese long after the
lactose has disappeared. Two explanations are offered: one, that in the lactic
acid fermentation an intermediate compound or compounds are formed
which exist for some time, the conversion into lactic acid being complete at
about three months; the other is that lactic acid is formed as a product of
paracasein proteolysis.
The lactic acid formed in cheese ripening does not exist in a free state but
reacts with the calcium salts in the cheese and forms calcium lactates. It is
thought that there is sufficient of these salts to neutralize all the acid
formed, and therefore the acid does not enter into combination with the
paracasein salts. It has been found that lactates are the principal source of
acetic and propionic acids. These are supposed to have some effect on the
flavor of the cheese.
The effect of lactic acid as a determinant of bacterial and enzymic changes
is very important. Early in the ripening process, lactic acid suppresses the
growth of undesirable micro-organisms. It also furnishes the acid medium
necessary for the best action of both the coagulating and peptic enzymes.
The importance of the lactic acid bacteria in cheese ripening has been
summed up by Hastings117 as follows: "The functions of this group of
bacteria in Cheddar cheese are through their by-product lactic acid as
follows: (a) To favor the curdling of milk by rennet. (b) The bacteria of the
milk are held in great part in the curd. Through the acid they influence the
shrinkage of the curd and expulsion of the whey, (c) The acid so changes
the nature of the curd as to cause 'matting,' or 'cheddaring' of the curd, (d)
The acid activates the pepsin of the rennet extract, (e) The acid prevents the
growth of putrefactive bacteria in the cheese. (f) It has been shown that
Bacterium lactis acidi is able to form acid in the absence of the living cell.
(g) The development of Bacterium lactis acidi is followed by the growth of
another group of acid-forming bacteria, the Bacillus Bulgaricus group.
acid attacked by one group of bacteria and not by another, and the effect on
the flavor will differ accordingly. The amount of lactic acid in the cheese
increases for a time, then decreases.
The errors in determining lactic acid are considerable. It seems that the
tendency is toward an increase of lactic acid in the cheese long after the
lactose has disappeared. Two explanations are offered: one, that in the lactic
acid fermentation an intermediate compound or compounds are formed
which exist for some time, the conversion into lactic acid being complete at
about three months; the other is that lactic acid is formed as a product of
paracasein proteolysis.
The lactic acid formed in cheese ripening does not exist in a free state but
reacts with the calcium salts in the cheese and forms calcium lactates. It is
thought that there is sufficient of these salts to neutralize all the acid
formed, and therefore the acid does not enter into combination with the
paracasein salts. It has been found that lactates are the principal source of
acetic and propionic acids. These are supposed to have some effect on the
flavor of the cheese.
The effect of lactic acid as a determinant of bacterial and enzymic changes
is very important. Early in the ripening process, lactic acid suppresses the
growth of undesirable micro-organisms. It also furnishes the acid medium
necessary for the best action of both the coagulating and peptic enzymes.
The importance of the lactic acid bacteria in cheese ripening has been
summed up by Hastings117 as follows: "The functions of this group of
bacteria in Cheddar cheese are through their by-product lactic acid as
follows: (a) To favor the curdling of milk by rennet. (b) The bacteria of the
milk are held in great part in the curd. Through the acid they influence the
shrinkage of the curd and expulsion of the whey, (c) The acid so changes
the nature of the curd as to cause 'matting,' or 'cheddaring' of the curd, (d)
The acid activates the pepsin of the rennet extract, (e) The acid prevents the
growth of putrefactive bacteria in the cheese. (f) It has been shown that
Bacterium lactis acidi is able to form acid in the absence of the living cell.
(g) The development of Bacterium lactis acidi is followed by the growth of
another group of acid-forming bacteria, the Bacillus Bulgaricus group.
Page 227
They reach numbers comparable with those of the first group, reaching their
maximum number within the first month of ripening. Since they develop
after the fermentation of the milk-sugar, they must have some other source
of carbon and of energy than milk-sugar." It is also probable that other
groups constantly present contribute to the changes.
From the preceding discussion it is evident that each of the ripening agents
has its important part to play in the ripening process and a normal ripening
of the cheese is a composite result of these various agencies.
239. Conditions affecting the rate of cheese ripening.—The rate at which
these agents cause ripening of the cheese depends on several factors.118
Most of these factors are within the control of man. They are as follows: the
length of time; temperature of the curing-room; moisture-content of the
cheese; size of the cheese; the quantity of salt used; the amount of rennet;
the influence of acid.
240. The length of time.—The water-soluble nitrogen compounds increase
as the cheese ages, other conditions being uniform. The rate of increase is
not uniform; it is much more rapid in the early than in the succeeding stages
of ripening.
241. The temperature of the curing-room.—Very few cheese factories
have made any provision for regulating the temperature of the curing-room.
Without such provision the temperature follows closely that of the outside
air. In some cases the curing-room is located over the boiler-room and
hence becomes very hot. In the cheese warehouses, provision has been
made to control the temperature very closely. Experiments show that the
soluble nitrogen compounds increase, on the average, closely in proportion
to an increase of temperature, when the other conditions are uniform.
The temperature of the curing-room has a material effect on the quality of
the cheese. Cheese made from the same day's milk, and part cured at 40° F.,
part at 50° F., part at 60° F. show considerable differences, the greatest
seeming to be in the flavor and texture. Those kept at the low temperature
cure more slowly and develop a milder flavor, those at the higher
temperature cure faster and develop undesirable flavors. At the higher
temperature the undesirable organisms seem to be more active. Some very
skillful makers and judges of cheese have always contended that if Cheddar
maximum number within the first month of ripening. Since they develop
after the fermentation of the milk-sugar, they must have some other source
of carbon and of energy than milk-sugar." It is also probable that other
groups constantly present contribute to the changes.
From the preceding discussion it is evident that each of the ripening agents
has its important part to play in the ripening process and a normal ripening
of the cheese is a composite result of these various agencies.
239. Conditions affecting the rate of cheese ripening.—The rate at which
these agents cause ripening of the cheese depends on several factors.118
Most of these factors are within the control of man. They are as follows: the
length of time; temperature of the curing-room; moisture-content of the
cheese; size of the cheese; the quantity of salt used; the amount of rennet;
the influence of acid.
240. The length of time.—The water-soluble nitrogen compounds increase
as the cheese ages, other conditions being uniform. The rate of increase is
not uniform; it is much more rapid in the early than in the succeeding stages
of ripening.
241. The temperature of the curing-room.—Very few cheese factories
have made any provision for regulating the temperature of the curing-room.
Without such provision the temperature follows closely that of the outside
air. In some cases the curing-room is located over the boiler-room and
hence becomes very hot. In the cheese warehouses, provision has been
made to control the temperature very closely. Experiments show that the
soluble nitrogen compounds increase, on the average, closely in proportion
to an increase of temperature, when the other conditions are uniform.
The temperature of the curing-room has a material effect on the quality of
the cheese. Cheese made from the same day's milk, and part cured at 40° F.,
part at 50° F., part at 60° F. show considerable differences, the greatest
seeming to be in the flavor and texture. Those kept at the low temperature
cure more slowly and develop a milder flavor, those at the higher
temperature cure faster and develop undesirable flavors. At the higher
temperature the undesirable organisms seem to be more active. Some very
skillful makers and judges of cheese have always contended that if Cheddar
Page 228
is properly made, firmed to the body and texture of a high-class cheese,
ripening at 55 to 60° F. gives a higher quality. Such a cheese must be low in
moisture, perhaps 3 to 5 per cent lower than one cured successfully by the
cold process.
The following tables119 XVII, XVIII show the effect of different
temperatures of curing cheese on the total score and on the points of the
flavor, body and texture:
TABLE XVII
Table Showing the Relation of
Temperature of Curing to Total
Scores
ripening at 55 to 60° F. gives a higher quality. Such a cheese must be low in
moisture, perhaps 3 to 5 per cent lower than one cured successfully by the
cold process.
The following tables119 XVII, XVIII show the effect of different
temperatures of curing cheese on the total score and on the points of the
flavor, body and texture:
TABLE XVII
Table Showing the Relation of
Temperature of Curing to Total
Scores
Page 229
Time of Plating Cheese Number
40° 95.7
50° 94,2
60° 91.7
TABLE XVIII
Table Showing the Relation of
Temperature of Curing to Score of
Body and Texture, and Flavor
40° 95.7
50° 94,2
60° 91.7
TABLE XVIII
Table Showing the Relation of
Temperature of Curing to Score of
Body and Texture, and Flavor
Page 230
Temperature of Curing 40° F. 50° F. 60° F.
Body and texture 23.4 32.0 22.2
Flavor 47.4 46.4 44.8
Of the three temperatures of curing, the lowest gave a higher total score and
a higher score for flavor, body and texture.
The curing temperature should not go low enough to freeze the cheese, as
this lowers the quality. The cheese will cure very slowly and have a mealy
texture.
242. Moisture-content of the cheese.—Other conditions being equal, there
is a larger amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds in cheese
containing more moisture than in that containing less moisture. Therefore, a
high moisture-content of the cheese causes it to cure faster. The presence of
moisture also serves to dilute the fermentation products which otherwise
would accumulate and thus check the action of the ripening agents.
243. The size of the cheese.—Cheeses of large size usually cure faster than
smaller ones, under the same conditions. This is due to the fact that the
large cheeses lose their moisture less rapidly by evaporation and therefore
after the early period of ripening have a higher water-content.
244. The amount of salt.—The relation of salt to the rate of ripening is
more or less directly associated with the moisture-content of the cheese,
since an increase in the amount of salt decreases the moisture. Thus, cheese
containing more salt forms water-soluble nitrogen compounds more slowly
than that containing less salt. The salt also has a direct effect in retarding
one or more of the ripening agents.
245. The amount of rennet extract.—The use of increased amounts of
rennet extract in cheese-making, other conditions being uniform, results in
the production of increased quantities of soluble nitrogen compounds in a
given period of time, especially such compounds as paranuclein, caseoses
and peptones.
Body and texture 23.4 32.0 22.2
Flavor 47.4 46.4 44.8
Of the three temperatures of curing, the lowest gave a higher total score and
a higher score for flavor, body and texture.
The curing temperature should not go low enough to freeze the cheese, as
this lowers the quality. The cheese will cure very slowly and have a mealy
texture.
242. Moisture-content of the cheese.—Other conditions being equal, there
is a larger amount of water-soluble nitrogen compounds in cheese
containing more moisture than in that containing less moisture. Therefore, a
high moisture-content of the cheese causes it to cure faster. The presence of
moisture also serves to dilute the fermentation products which otherwise
would accumulate and thus check the action of the ripening agents.
243. The size of the cheese.—Cheeses of large size usually cure faster than
smaller ones, under the same conditions. This is due to the fact that the
large cheeses lose their moisture less rapidly by evaporation and therefore
after the early period of ripening have a higher water-content.
244. The amount of salt.—The relation of salt to the rate of ripening is
more or less directly associated with the moisture-content of the cheese,
since an increase in the amount of salt decreases the moisture. Thus, cheese
containing more salt forms water-soluble nitrogen compounds more slowly
than that containing less salt. The salt also has a direct effect in retarding
one or more of the ripening agents.
245. The amount of rennet extract.—The use of increased amounts of
rennet extract in cheese-making, other conditions being uniform, results in
the production of increased quantities of soluble nitrogen compounds in a
given period of time, especially such compounds as paranuclein, caseoses
and peptones.
Page 231
246. The influence of acid.—It is necessary that acid be present but the
exact relation of varying quantities of acid to the chemical changes of the
ripening process is not fully known. If too much acid is present, it imparts a
sour taste to the cheese. It also causes the texture of the cheese to be mealy
or sandy instead of smooth and waxy.
Conditions that may increase the rate of ripening:
1. Increase of temperature.
2. Larger amounts of rennet.
3. More moisture in the cheese.
4. Less salt.
5. Large size of the cheese.
6. Moderate amount of acid.
Conditions that may retard ripening:
1. Decrease of temperature.
2. Smaller amounts of rennet.
3. Less moisture in the cheese.
4. More salt.
5. Small size of the cheese.
6. No acid or an excess of acid.
247. Care of the cheese in the curing-room.—The cheeses need daily
attention while in the curing-room (Fig. 53). They should be turned every
day to prevent sticking and molding to the shelf and to secure an even
evaporation of moisture. If not turned, the moisture will not evaporate
evenly from all surfaces and will result in an uneven distribution in the
cheese, which causes uneven curing, and usually gives the product an
uneven color.
The surface of the cheese should be watched to see that the cloths stick. If
they do not, the surface will crack, due to the evaporation of the moisture. If
the cloths are loosened, they should be removed and the surface of the
cheese greased with butter. The grease will tend to prevent the rind from
cracking. If the surface of the cheese is not smooth, due to wrinkles in the
exact relation of varying quantities of acid to the chemical changes of the
ripening process is not fully known. If too much acid is present, it imparts a
sour taste to the cheese. It also causes the texture of the cheese to be mealy
or sandy instead of smooth and waxy.
Conditions that may increase the rate of ripening:
1. Increase of temperature.
2. Larger amounts of rennet.
3. More moisture in the cheese.
4. Less salt.
5. Large size of the cheese.
6. Moderate amount of acid.
Conditions that may retard ripening:
1. Decrease of temperature.
2. Smaller amounts of rennet.
3. Less moisture in the cheese.
4. More salt.
5. Small size of the cheese.
6. No acid or an excess of acid.
247. Care of the cheese in the curing-room.—The cheeses need daily
attention while in the curing-room (Fig. 53). They should be turned every
day to prevent sticking and molding to the shelf and to secure an even
evaporation of moisture. If not turned, the moisture will not evaporate
evenly from all surfaces and will result in an uneven distribution in the
cheese, which causes uneven curing, and usually gives the product an
uneven color.
The surface of the cheese should be watched to see that the cloths stick. If
they do not, the surface will crack, due to the evaporation of the moisture. If
the cloths are loosened, they should be removed and the surface of the
cheese greased with butter. The grease will tend to prevent the rind from
cracking. If the surface of the cheese is not smooth, due to wrinkles in the
Page 232
bandage, or if it cracks, due to the lack of cloths, it furnishes the
opportunity for insects to lay their eggs and the larvæ to develop within the
cheese. Molds also lodge and grow in such cracks.
Fig. 53.—Cheddar cheese curing-room.
The cheese should be kept clean while in the curing-room. This means that
the hands of the person handling the cheese must be clean. The shelves
should be washed with good cleaning solution and scalded with hot water
whenever they become greasy or moldy.
Some means should be provided for regulating the temperature and
humidity of the curing-room. In most factories this is accomplished by
opening the doors and windows at night to admit the cool air and closing
them in the morning to keep out the hot air. Care should be taken to keep
the doors and windows closely secured. The windows should have shades to
keep out the sun. If the room becomes too dry, the floor may be dampened
with cold water.
The length of time in the curing-room depends on how often shipment is
made to some central warehouse or to the market. This usually varies from
two to six weeks.
opportunity for insects to lay their eggs and the larvæ to develop within the
cheese. Molds also lodge and grow in such cracks.
Fig. 53.—Cheddar cheese curing-room.
The cheese should be kept clean while in the curing-room. This means that
the hands of the person handling the cheese must be clean. The shelves
should be washed with good cleaning solution and scalded with hot water
whenever they become greasy or moldy.
Some means should be provided for regulating the temperature and
humidity of the curing-room. In most factories this is accomplished by
opening the doors and windows at night to admit the cool air and closing
them in the morning to keep out the hot air. Care should be taken to keep
the doors and windows closely secured. The windows should have shades to
keep out the sun. If the room becomes too dry, the floor may be dampened
with cold water.
The length of time in the curing-room depends on how often shipment is
made to some central warehouse or to the market. This usually varies from
two to six weeks.
Page 233
When the surface of the cheese becomes dry and the rind is well formed,
the cheese may be paraffined. It usually requires four to six days after
cheeses are taken from the hoop before they are ready for this process. The
object of paraffining is to prevent the escape of moisture and to keep the
cheese from molding.
248. Evaporation of moisture from the cheese during ripening.—The
losses due to evaporation while the cheeses are curing are a considerable
item. The rate of evaporation depends on the temperature and humidity of
the curing-room, the size of the cheese, the moisture-content and protection
to the surface.
Table XIX120 shows the effect of size of cheese and temperature of the
curing-room, on losses while curing. This table shows that the evaporation
of moisture is more as the size of the cheese decreases and the temperature
is increased. This is probably due to the fact that the smaller cheese has
more surface to a pound than a large cheese. The evaporation increases with
temperature, probably because of lowered relative humidity. The humidity
can be tested with an hygrometer.
TABLE XIX
Showing the Variation of Losses in Weight of
Cheddar Cheese while Curing, Due to Size of
Cheese and Temperature of Curing-Room
the cheese may be paraffined. It usually requires four to six days after
cheeses are taken from the hoop before they are ready for this process. The
object of paraffining is to prevent the escape of moisture and to keep the
cheese from molding.
248. Evaporation of moisture from the cheese during ripening.—The
losses due to evaporation while the cheeses are curing are a considerable
item. The rate of evaporation depends on the temperature and humidity of
the curing-room, the size of the cheese, the moisture-content and protection
to the surface.
Table XIX120 shows the effect of size of cheese and temperature of the
curing-room, on losses while curing. This table shows that the evaporation
of moisture is more as the size of the cheese decreases and the temperature
is increased. This is probably due to the fact that the smaller cheese has
more surface to a pound than a large cheese. The evaporation increases with
temperature, probably because of lowered relative humidity. The humidity
can be tested with an hygrometer.
TABLE XIX
Showing the Variation of Losses in Weight of
Cheddar Cheese while Curing, Due to Size of
Cheese and Temperature of Curing-Room
Page 234
Weight of Cheese in Weight Lost per 100 Pounds of Cheese in 20 Weeks at
Pounds 40° F. 50° F. 60° F.
70 2.5 2.4 4.2
45 2.7 3.7 5.1
35 3.9 5.9 8.5
12½ 4.6 8.1 12.0
The higher the moisture-content of the cheese, usually the more rapid is the
evaporation. This is due to several causes: there is more moisture to
evaporate; the moisture is not so well incorporated; a moist cheese does not
form so good a rind.
249.Paraffining121 consists of dipping the cheese in melted paraffin at a
temperature of about 220° F. for six seconds. Fig. 54 shows an apparatus for
paraffining. This leaves a very thin coat of paraffin on the cheese; at a lower
temperature, a thicker coat would be left. The thicker coating is more liable
to crack and peel off. If the cheese is not perfectly dry before it is treated,
the paraffin will blister and crack off.
Before a cheese is paraffined, the press cloth is removed and also the
starched circles, if loose. After a cheese has been paraffined, if the coating
is not broken, the loss due to evaporation is greatly reduced. The amount of
paraffin to coat a 35-pound cheese will depend on the temperature of the
paraffin and the length of time the cheese is immersed. Usually at 220° F. it
requires about 0.15 of a pound for each 35-pound cheese. After the cheeses
have been paraffined, they may be left on the curing-room shelves or boxed
ready to ship.
250. Shipping.—When ready to ship, each cheese should be carefully and
accurately weighed and boxed. Usually these cheeses are boxed after being
paraffined. If press cloths are left on the cheese in the curing-room, they
should be removed just before weighing. These cloths should not be left in a
pile in the factory after being removed as they have been known to heat and
sometimes cause fires. They should be washed clean and dried ready for use
again. If starched circles are used, they should be left on the cheese. A scale
Pounds 40° F. 50° F. 60° F.
70 2.5 2.4 4.2
45 2.7 3.7 5.1
35 3.9 5.9 8.5
12½ 4.6 8.1 12.0
The higher the moisture-content of the cheese, usually the more rapid is the
evaporation. This is due to several causes: there is more moisture to
evaporate; the moisture is not so well incorporated; a moist cheese does not
form so good a rind.
249.Paraffining121 consists of dipping the cheese in melted paraffin at a
temperature of about 220° F. for six seconds. Fig. 54 shows an apparatus for
paraffining. This leaves a very thin coat of paraffin on the cheese; at a lower
temperature, a thicker coat would be left. The thicker coating is more liable
to crack and peel off. If the cheese is not perfectly dry before it is treated,
the paraffin will blister and crack off.
Before a cheese is paraffined, the press cloth is removed and also the
starched circles, if loose. After a cheese has been paraffined, if the coating
is not broken, the loss due to evaporation is greatly reduced. The amount of
paraffin to coat a 35-pound cheese will depend on the temperature of the
paraffin and the length of time the cheese is immersed. Usually at 220° F. it
requires about 0.15 of a pound for each 35-pound cheese. After the cheeses
have been paraffined, they may be left on the curing-room shelves or boxed
ready to ship.
250. Shipping.—When ready to ship, each cheese should be carefully and
accurately weighed and boxed. Usually these cheeses are boxed after being
paraffined. If press cloths are left on the cheese in the curing-room, they
should be removed just before weighing. These cloths should not be left in a
pile in the factory after being removed as they have been known to heat and
sometimes cause fires. They should be washed clean and dried ready for use
again. If starched circles are used, they should be left on the cheese. A scale
Page 235
board should be placed on each end of
the cheese to prevent its sticking to the
box and also to keep the box from
wearing the surface of the cheese.
The box should be a trifle larger in
diameter than the cheese so that the
latter can be easily placed in it. The
sides of the box should be the same
height as the cheese.
The weight of each cheese should be
neatly and accurately marked on each
box. Care should be exercised to keep
the boxes clean.
Fig. 54.—A paraffiner for cheese.
DEFECTS IN CHEDDAR CHEESE
A great number of defects may occur in Cheddar cheese. Certain of these
are due to known causes and proper remedies are definable, while neither
cause nor remedy has been found for other defects. Some of the common
defects and their causes and remedies are discussed under different
headings of the score-card as: defects in flavor, their causes and remedies;
defects in body and texture, their causes and remedies; defects in color,
their causes and remedies; defects in finish and their causes and remedies.
251. Defects in flavor.—Any flavor differing from the characteristic
Cheddar cheese is a defect. Certain of these defective flavors can be
recognized and causes and remedies given for them, while others may be
distinguished as such but no cause or remedy can be given.
252. Feedy flavors.—Flavors may be characteristic of certain feeding
stuffs. Feeding strong-flavored foods, such as turnips, cabbage, decayed
silage, certain weeds and sometimes rank green feed, give their peculiar
the cheese to prevent its sticking to the
box and also to keep the box from
wearing the surface of the cheese.
The box should be a trifle larger in
diameter than the cheese so that the
latter can be easily placed in it. The
sides of the box should be the same
height as the cheese.
The weight of each cheese should be
neatly and accurately marked on each
box. Care should be exercised to keep
the boxes clean.
Fig. 54.—A paraffiner for cheese.
DEFECTS IN CHEDDAR CHEESE
A great number of defects may occur in Cheddar cheese. Certain of these
are due to known causes and proper remedies are definable, while neither
cause nor remedy has been found for other defects. Some of the common
defects and their causes and remedies are discussed under different
headings of the score-card as: defects in flavor, their causes and remedies;
defects in body and texture, their causes and remedies; defects in color,
their causes and remedies; defects in finish and their causes and remedies.
251. Defects in flavor.—Any flavor differing from the characteristic
Cheddar cheese is a defect. Certain of these defective flavors can be
recognized and causes and remedies given for them, while others may be
distinguished as such but no cause or remedy can be given.
252. Feedy flavors.—Flavors may be characteristic of certain feeding
stuffs. Feeding strong-flavored foods, such as turnips, cabbage, decayed
silage, certain weeds and sometimes rank green feed, give their peculiar
Page 236
flavors to both milk and cheese. Freshly drawn milk usually absorbs these
odors from the air in barns filled with such foods. Certain of these materials
may be fed just after milking in moderate amounts without affecting the
milk drawn at the next milking. Others should not be used. Milk should not
be exposed to strong volatile odors. Some of the objectionable odors may
be removed by airing the curd for a longer time after milling before the salt
is applied.
253. Acid flavors.—A cheese with an acid flavor has a pronounced sour
smell and taste. This is caused by the over-development of acid which may
be due to any of the following causes: (a) receiving milk at the factory
which is sour or has too high development of acid; (b) using too much
starter; (c) ripening the milk too much before adding rennet; (d) not firming
the curd sufficiently in the whey before removing the latter; (e) developing
too much acid in the whey before it is removed; (f) retaining too much
moisture in the curd.
The trouble can be reduced or eliminated by one or more of the following
precautions: (a) receiving only clean, sweet milk at the cheese factory; (b)
maintaining the proper relation between the moisture and acidity; (c) adding
the rennet at the proper acidity; (d) using less starter; (e) adding the rennet
extract so that there will be sufficient time to firm the curd before the acid
has developed to such a stage that it will be necessary to draw the whey; (f)
producing the proper final water-content in the newly made cheese.
254. Sweet or fruity flavors.—These are the sweet flavors characteristic of
strawberry, raspberry and the like. Such flavors are very objectionable and
usually increase with the age of the cheese. They appear to be caused by:
(a) carrying both milk and whey in the same cans without properly cleaning
them; (b) exposing milk near hog-pens where whey is fed; (c) dirty whey
tanks at the cheese factory; (d) micro-organisms which get into the milk
through any unclean conditions.
These troubles can be controlled: (a) if milk and whey must be carried in
the same cans, the cans should be emptied immediately on arrival at the
farm and thoroughly washed and scalded; (b) the whey vat at the factory
should be kept clean and sweet; (c) the starter must have the proper clean
flavor.
odors from the air in barns filled with such foods. Certain of these materials
may be fed just after milking in moderate amounts without affecting the
milk drawn at the next milking. Others should not be used. Milk should not
be exposed to strong volatile odors. Some of the objectionable odors may
be removed by airing the curd for a longer time after milling before the salt
is applied.
253. Acid flavors.—A cheese with an acid flavor has a pronounced sour
smell and taste. This is caused by the over-development of acid which may
be due to any of the following causes: (a) receiving milk at the factory
which is sour or has too high development of acid; (b) using too much
starter; (c) ripening the milk too much before adding rennet; (d) not firming
the curd sufficiently in the whey before removing the latter; (e) developing
too much acid in the whey before it is removed; (f) retaining too much
moisture in the curd.
The trouble can be reduced or eliminated by one or more of the following
precautions: (a) receiving only clean, sweet milk at the cheese factory; (b)
maintaining the proper relation between the moisture and acidity; (c) adding
the rennet at the proper acidity; (d) using less starter; (e) adding the rennet
extract so that there will be sufficient time to firm the curd before the acid
has developed to such a stage that it will be necessary to draw the whey; (f)
producing the proper final water-content in the newly made cheese.
254. Sweet or fruity flavors.—These are the sweet flavors characteristic of
strawberry, raspberry and the like. Such flavors are very objectionable and
usually increase with the age of the cheese. They appear to be caused by:
(a) carrying both milk and whey in the same cans without properly cleaning
them; (b) exposing milk near hog-pens where whey is fed; (c) dirty whey
tanks at the cheese factory; (d) micro-organisms which get into the milk
through any unclean conditions.
These troubles can be controlled: (a) if milk and whey must be carried in
the same cans, the cans should be emptied immediately on arrival at the
farm and thoroughly washed and scalded; (b) the whey vat at the factory
should be kept clean and sweet; (c) the starter must have the proper clean
flavor.
Page 237
Other defects may be classed as "off flavors," "dirty flavors," "bitter
flavors" and the like. These are undoubtedly due to unsanitary conditions
whereby undesirable organisms get into the milk, even though the particular
organism is often not determined. The flavors may be improved by the use
of a clean-flavored commercial starter and by airing the curd after milling
before salting. The best remedy is to remove the source of the difficulty.
255. Defects in body and texture.—The body and texture should be close.
A sample rubbed between the thumb and fingers should be smooth and
waxy. Any condition which causes a body and texture other than this is to
be avoided.
256. Loose or open texture.—A cheese with this defect is full of
irregularly shaped holes and usually soft or weak-bodied. This is serious if
the cheese is to be held for some time. Moisture and fat are likely to collect
in these holes and cause the cheese to deteriorate, thereby shortening its
commercial life.
Several causes may bring about this condition: (a) insufficient cheddaring;
(b) pressing at too high a temperature; (c) inadequate pressing; (d)
development of too little acid.
The corresponding remedies are: (a) cheddar the curd until the holes are
closed and the curd is solid; (b) cool the curd to 80° F. before putting to
press; (c) press the curd longer, possibly twenty-four to twenty-six hours;
(d) develop a little higher acid in the whey before removing the curd.
257. Dry body.—A cheese with this defect is usually firm, hard and dry,
sometimes rubbery or corky. This may result from lack of moisture, fat or
both, and may be due to the following causes: (a) making the cheese from
partly skimmed-milk; (b) heating the curd in the whey for too long a time;
(c) heating the curd too high; (d) stirring the curd too much in the whey or
as the last of the whey is removed; (e) using too much salt; (f) developing of
too much acid in the whey; (g) curing the cheese in too hot or too dry a
curing-room; (h) not piling the curd high or fast enough in the cheddaring
process.
The cause should be located and the corresponding remedy found, as
follows: (a) make cheese only from whole milk; (b) draw the whey sooner;
flavors" and the like. These are undoubtedly due to unsanitary conditions
whereby undesirable organisms get into the milk, even though the particular
organism is often not determined. The flavors may be improved by the use
of a clean-flavored commercial starter and by airing the curd after milling
before salting. The best remedy is to remove the source of the difficulty.
255. Defects in body and texture.—The body and texture should be close.
A sample rubbed between the thumb and fingers should be smooth and
waxy. Any condition which causes a body and texture other than this is to
be avoided.
256. Loose or open texture.—A cheese with this defect is full of
irregularly shaped holes and usually soft or weak-bodied. This is serious if
the cheese is to be held for some time. Moisture and fat are likely to collect
in these holes and cause the cheese to deteriorate, thereby shortening its
commercial life.
Several causes may bring about this condition: (a) insufficient cheddaring;
(b) pressing at too high a temperature; (c) inadequate pressing; (d)
development of too little acid.
The corresponding remedies are: (a) cheddar the curd until the holes are
closed and the curd is solid; (b) cool the curd to 80° F. before putting to
press; (c) press the curd longer, possibly twenty-four to twenty-six hours;
(d) develop a little higher acid in the whey before removing the curd.
257. Dry body.—A cheese with this defect is usually firm, hard and dry,
sometimes rubbery or corky. This may result from lack of moisture, fat or
both, and may be due to the following causes: (a) making the cheese from
partly skimmed-milk; (b) heating the curd in the whey for too long a time;
(c) heating the curd too high; (d) stirring the curd too much in the whey or
as the last of the whey is removed; (e) using too much salt; (f) developing of
too much acid in the whey; (g) curing the cheese in too hot or too dry a
curing-room; (h) not piling the curd high or fast enough in the cheddaring
process.
The cause should be located and the corresponding remedy found, as
follows: (a) make cheese only from whole milk; (b) draw the whey sooner;
Page 238
(c) firm the curd at as low temperature as possible in the whey; (d) stir the
curd in the whey only enough to keep the curd particles separated but do
not hand-stir it; (e) use less salt; (f) develop less acid in the whey; (g) cure
the cheese in a cool moist curing-room; (h) pile the curd sooner and higher
during the cheddaring process.
The number of causes which may singly or in combination produce dry
cheese demands experience and technical skill that calls for the
development of a high degree of judgment.
258. Gassy textured cheese.—Gassy cheese has large numbers of very
small round or slightly flattened holes. When round these are called "pin-
holes," and when slightly flattened "fish eye" openings. These are due to the
formation of gas by the micro-organisms in the cheese. When a cheese is
gassy, it usually puffs up from gas pressure as in the rising of bread. If
enough gas is formed, it will cause the cheese to break or crack open.
Instead of being flat on the ends, such a cheese becomes so nearly spherical
as to roll from the shelf at times.
The gas-producing organisms enter because of unclean conditions
somewhere in the handling of the milk and the making of the cheese. Some
of the common sources of gas organisms are: (a) unclean milkers; (b) dirty
cows; (c) aërating the milk in impure air, especially air from hog-pens
where the whey is fed; (d) allowing the cows to wade in stagnant water or
in mud or in filthy barnyards and then not thoroughly cleaning the cows
before milking; (e) exposing the milk to the dust from hay and feed; (f)
dirty whey tanks; (g) drawing milk and whey in the same cans without
afterward thoroughly washing them; (h) unclean utensils in the factory; (i)
using gassy starter; (j) ripening cheese at high temperatures.
Some of these causes are within the control of the cheese-maker after the
making process is begun. Many of them are avoided only by eternal
vigilance. Among the recommendations for meeting gassy curd are the
following: use only milk produced under clean sanitary conditions; use a
clean commercial starter.
If gas is suspected in the milk, a larger percentage of commercial starter
should be used. More acid must be developed before the whey is removed.
curd in the whey only enough to keep the curd particles separated but do
not hand-stir it; (e) use less salt; (f) develop less acid in the whey; (g) cure
the cheese in a cool moist curing-room; (h) pile the curd sooner and higher
during the cheddaring process.
The number of causes which may singly or in combination produce dry
cheese demands experience and technical skill that calls for the
development of a high degree of judgment.
258. Gassy textured cheese.—Gassy cheese has large numbers of very
small round or slightly flattened holes. When round these are called "pin-
holes," and when slightly flattened "fish eye" openings. These are due to the
formation of gas by the micro-organisms in the cheese. When a cheese is
gassy, it usually puffs up from gas pressure as in the rising of bread. If
enough gas is formed, it will cause the cheese to break or crack open.
Instead of being flat on the ends, such a cheese becomes so nearly spherical
as to roll from the shelf at times.
The gas-producing organisms enter because of unclean conditions
somewhere in the handling of the milk and the making of the cheese. Some
of the common sources of gas organisms are: (a) unclean milkers; (b) dirty
cows; (c) aërating the milk in impure air, especially air from hog-pens
where the whey is fed; (d) allowing the cows to wade in stagnant water or
in mud or in filthy barnyards and then not thoroughly cleaning the cows
before milking; (e) exposing the milk to the dust from hay and feed; (f)
dirty whey tanks; (g) drawing milk and whey in the same cans without
afterward thoroughly washing them; (h) unclean utensils in the factory; (i)
using gassy starter; (j) ripening cheese at high temperatures.
Some of these causes are within the control of the cheese-maker after the
making process is begun. Many of them are avoided only by eternal
vigilance. Among the recommendations for meeting gassy curd are the
following: use only milk produced under clean sanitary conditions; use a
clean commercial starter.
If gas is suspected in the milk, a larger percentage of commercial starter
should be used. More acid must be developed before the whey is removed.
Page 239
If the gas shows while cheddaring, the curd should be piled and repiled
until the holes flatten out before milling.
The curd should be kept warm during the piling or cheddaring process. This
may be accomplished by covering the vat and setting a pail or two of hot
water in it. After milling, the curd should be stirred and aired for a
considerable length of time before salting. This will aërate the curd and
allow it to cool. The cheese should then be placed in a cool curing-room.
(See handling of gassy milk.)
259. Acidy, pasty or soft body and texture.—A cheese with acidy body
may be either hard and dry or soft and moist. It has a mealy or sandy feeling
when rubbed between the fingers. The causes and remedies are the same as
for cheeses with acid flavors. When rubbed between the fingers, it is pasty
and sticks to the fingers. It is caused by the cheese containing too much
water. (See control of moisture.)
260. Defects in color.—Any color which is not uniform is a defect. The
proper color depends on the market requirement. Some markets prefer a
white and others a yellow cheese; however, if the color is uniform, it is not
defective.
Mottled color is a spotted or variegated marking of the cheese. Several
causes may give the same general effect: (a) uneven distribution of
moisture, the curd having extra moisture being lighter in color; (b)
neglecting to strain the starter; (c) adding the starter after the cheese color
has been added; (d) mixing the curd from different vats.
Remedies for this mottled color are: (a) to maintain a uniform assimilation
of moisture (see discussion of moisture); (b) to strain the starter to break up
the lumps before adding to the milk; (c) to add all of the starter before
adding the cheese color; (d) not to mix curds from different vats.
Seamy color.—In "seamy" colored cheese, the outline of each piece of curd
may be seen. There is usually a line where the surfaces of the curd come
together. It may be caused by the pieces of curd becoming greasy or so cold
that they will not cement. This may be remedied by having the curd at a
temperature of 80° to 85° F. when put to press. If it is greasy, this may be
removed by washing the curd in cold water.
until the holes flatten out before milling.
The curd should be kept warm during the piling or cheddaring process. This
may be accomplished by covering the vat and setting a pail or two of hot
water in it. After milling, the curd should be stirred and aired for a
considerable length of time before salting. This will aërate the curd and
allow it to cool. The cheese should then be placed in a cool curing-room.
(See handling of gassy milk.)
259. Acidy, pasty or soft body and texture.—A cheese with acidy body
may be either hard and dry or soft and moist. It has a mealy or sandy feeling
when rubbed between the fingers. The causes and remedies are the same as
for cheeses with acid flavors. When rubbed between the fingers, it is pasty
and sticks to the fingers. It is caused by the cheese containing too much
water. (See control of moisture.)
260. Defects in color.—Any color which is not uniform is a defect. The
proper color depends on the market requirement. Some markets prefer a
white and others a yellow cheese; however, if the color is uniform, it is not
defective.
Mottled color is a spotted or variegated marking of the cheese. Several
causes may give the same general effect: (a) uneven distribution of
moisture, the curd having extra moisture being lighter in color; (b)
neglecting to strain the starter; (c) adding the starter after the cheese color
has been added; (d) mixing the curd from different vats.
Remedies for this mottled color are: (a) to maintain a uniform assimilation
of moisture (see discussion of moisture); (b) to strain the starter to break up
the lumps before adding to the milk; (c) to add all of the starter before
adding the cheese color; (d) not to mix curds from different vats.
Seamy color.—In "seamy" colored cheese, the outline of each piece of curd
may be seen. There is usually a line where the surfaces of the curd come
together. It may be caused by the pieces of curd becoming greasy or so cold
that they will not cement. This may be remedied by having the curd at a
temperature of 80° to 85° F. when put to press. If it is greasy, this may be
removed by washing the curd in cold water.
Page 240
Acid color.—This is a bleached or faded color and is caused by the
development of too much acid. (See acid flavor for causes and remedies,
page 266.)
261. Defects in finish.—Defects of this class differ from those previously
mentioned in being entirely within the control of the cheese-maker. All are
due to carelessness or lack of skill in manipulation. Anything which detracts
from the neat, clean, workmanlike appearance of the cheese is a defect that
may interfere with the sale of an article intrinsically good. Some of the
common defects are: (a) unclean surfaces or dirty cheese; (b) cracked rinds;
(c) moldy surfaces; (d) uneven sizes; (e) cracked cheese; (f) wrinkled
bandages; (g) uneven edges.
CHEDDAR CHEESE JUDGING
Judging of cheese is the comparison of the qualities of one product with
those of another. To make this easier it is customary to reduce the qualities
of the cheese to a numerical basis. This is accomplished by the use of a
score-card, which recognizes certain qualities and gives to each a numerical
value. Each of these score-cards gives a perfect cheese a numerical score of
100. Two score-cards are used to judge cheese, one for export and the other
for home-trade product. The latter is more commonly used.
Export Score-card Home-trade Score-card
Flavor 45 Flavor 50
Body and texture 30 Body and texture 25
Color 15 Color 15
Finish 10 Finish 10
—— ——
Total 100 Total 100
The same qualities are recognized in each score-card, but different
numerical values are given them.
262. Securing the sample.—The sample of cheese to be examined is best
obtained by means of a cheese-trier (Fig. 55). This is a piece of steel about
five or six inches long fitted with a suitable handle. It is semicircular in
shape, about ½ to ¾ of an inch in diameter. The edges and end are
sharpened to aid in cutting. This is inserted into the cheese and turned
development of too much acid. (See acid flavor for causes and remedies,
page 266.)
261. Defects in finish.—Defects of this class differ from those previously
mentioned in being entirely within the control of the cheese-maker. All are
due to carelessness or lack of skill in manipulation. Anything which detracts
from the neat, clean, workmanlike appearance of the cheese is a defect that
may interfere with the sale of an article intrinsically good. Some of the
common defects are: (a) unclean surfaces or dirty cheese; (b) cracked rinds;
(c) moldy surfaces; (d) uneven sizes; (e) cracked cheese; (f) wrinkled
bandages; (g) uneven edges.
CHEDDAR CHEESE JUDGING
Judging of cheese is the comparison of the qualities of one product with
those of another. To make this easier it is customary to reduce the qualities
of the cheese to a numerical basis. This is accomplished by the use of a
score-card, which recognizes certain qualities and gives to each a numerical
value. Each of these score-cards gives a perfect cheese a numerical score of
100. Two score-cards are used to judge cheese, one for export and the other
for home-trade product. The latter is more commonly used.
Export Score-card Home-trade Score-card
Flavor 45 Flavor 50
Body and texture 30 Body and texture 25
Color 15 Color 15
Finish 10 Finish 10
—— ——
Total 100 Total 100
The same qualities are recognized in each score-card, but different
numerical values are given them.
262. Securing the sample.—The sample of cheese to be examined is best
obtained by means of a cheese-trier (Fig. 55). This is a piece of steel about
five or six inches long fitted with a suitable handle. It is semicircular in
shape, about ½ to ¾ of an inch in diameter. The edges and end are
sharpened to aid in cutting. This is inserted into the cheese and turned
Page 241
around and then drawn out.
It removes a long cylinder
of cheese, commonly
called a "plug." This plug
should be drawn from the
Fig. 55.—A cheese-trier.
top rather than from the
side of the cheese, because when the bandage is cut it often splits, due to the
pressure against it and so exposes the cheese.
263. How to determine quality.—As soon as the plug has been removed, it
should be passed quickly under the nose to detect any volatile odors which
are liable to leave the cheese quickly. Next, the compactness of the plug
should be noticed and the color carefully examined. Then the outer end of
the plug should be broken off and placed back in the cheese in the hole
made by the trier. It should be about an inch long and pushed in so that the
surface of the cheese is smooth. This prevents mold and insects entering the
cheese. Usually the cheese will mold after a short time where the plug has
been removed. The remainder of the plug should be saved for determining
the flavor and the body and texture.
The flavor can be determined by the first odor obtained from the cheese on
the trier and by mixing or crushing a piece of the plug between the thumb
and fore-finger and then noting the odor. Mixing and thoroughly warming
causes the odor to be much more pronounced. The cheese should seldom be
tasted to determine the flavor, for when many are to be judged, they all taste
alike after the first five or six. This is probably due to the cheese adhering to
the teeth, tongue and other parts of the mouth, making it difficult to cleanse
the mouth sufficiently. The body and texture can be determined by the
appearance and the feeling of the cheese when rubbed between the thumb
and fingers. The body and texture are distinct, yet they are more or less
interchanged. The body refers to the cheese as a whole and the texture to
the arrangement of the parts of the whole. The openness of texture or the
holes can be noted when the plug is first removed. The firmness of body
and smoothness of texture can be determined when the cheese is rubbed
between the thumb and fingers. The color can be judged when the plug is
first removed. The finish or appearance may be noted either before or after
the other qualities by carefully examining the cheese.
It removes a long cylinder
of cheese, commonly
called a "plug." This plug
should be drawn from the
Fig. 55.—A cheese-trier.
top rather than from the
side of the cheese, because when the bandage is cut it often splits, due to the
pressure against it and so exposes the cheese.
263. How to determine quality.—As soon as the plug has been removed, it
should be passed quickly under the nose to detect any volatile odors which
are liable to leave the cheese quickly. Next, the compactness of the plug
should be noticed and the color carefully examined. Then the outer end of
the plug should be broken off and placed back in the cheese in the hole
made by the trier. It should be about an inch long and pushed in so that the
surface of the cheese is smooth. This prevents mold and insects entering the
cheese. Usually the cheese will mold after a short time where the plug has
been removed. The remainder of the plug should be saved for determining
the flavor and the body and texture.
The flavor can be determined by the first odor obtained from the cheese on
the trier and by mixing or crushing a piece of the plug between the thumb
and fore-finger and then noting the odor. Mixing and thoroughly warming
causes the odor to be much more pronounced. The cheese should seldom be
tasted to determine the flavor, for when many are to be judged, they all taste
alike after the first five or six. This is probably due to the cheese adhering to
the teeth, tongue and other parts of the mouth, making it difficult to cleanse
the mouth sufficiently. The body and texture can be determined by the
appearance and the feeling of the cheese when rubbed between the thumb
and fingers. The body and texture are distinct, yet they are more or less
interchanged. The body refers to the cheese as a whole and the texture to
the arrangement of the parts of the whole. The openness of texture or the
holes can be noted when the plug is first removed. The firmness of body
and smoothness of texture can be determined when the cheese is rubbed
between the thumb and fingers. The color can be judged when the plug is
first removed. The finish or appearance may be noted either before or after
the other qualities by carefully examining the cheese.
Page 242
Cheddar cheese should have a neat, clean, attractive appearance; when cut it
should show a close, solid, uniformly colored interior. It should have a
clear, pleasant, mild aroma and a nutty flavor. It should possess a mellow,
silky, meaty texture and when rubbed between the thumb and fore-finger
should be smooth and free from hard particles.
should show a close, solid, uniformly colored interior. It should have a
clear, pleasant, mild aroma and a nutty flavor. It should possess a mellow,
silky, meaty texture and when rubbed between the thumb and fore-finger
should be smooth and free from hard particles.
Page 243
264. Causes of variations in score.—It is very seldom, if ever, that a
cheese is given a perfect score, for it usually has one or more defects which
may be hardly noticeable or very pronounced. The seriousness of the defect
cheese is given a perfect score, for it usually has one or more defects which
may be hardly noticeable or very pronounced. The seriousness of the defect
Page 244
is determined by the individual tastes of the judges and the market
requirements. It is customary for the judge to pick out several samples and
score them in order to fix the standard and if there are several judges this
serves to unify their standard. Ordinarily judges will vary because of their
individual tastes, unless they begin with a uniform standard.
Certain markets require cheese with given qualities which on other markets
would be considered defects. For example, the Boston market requires a
very soft, pasty cheese which other markets would consider undesirable.
The cheese is constantly undergoing changes due to the ripening agents so
that it may not always be scored the same. For example, a cheese may have
little or no flavor and after several weeks a very considerable flavor may
have developed. This is probably due to the action of the ripening agents,
and therefore the second time it would be scored differently.
265. The score-card.—When judging several samples of cheese, the type
of score-card on the opposite page is used for each one.
This gives the date of judging and the sample number, the judge's name and
reasons for cutting the score and recommendations to avoid these troubles.
requirements. It is customary for the judge to pick out several samples and
score them in order to fix the standard and if there are several judges this
serves to unify their standard. Ordinarily judges will vary because of their
individual tastes, unless they begin with a uniform standard.
Certain markets require cheese with given qualities which on other markets
would be considered defects. For example, the Boston market requires a
very soft, pasty cheese which other markets would consider undesirable.
The cheese is constantly undergoing changes due to the ripening agents so
that it may not always be scored the same. For example, a cheese may have
little or no flavor and after several weeks a very considerable flavor may
have developed. This is probably due to the action of the ripening agents,
and therefore the second time it would be scored differently.
265. The score-card.—When judging several samples of cheese, the type
of score-card on the opposite page is used for each one.
This gives the date of judging and the sample number, the judge's name and
reasons for cutting the score and recommendations to avoid these troubles.
Page 245
CHAPTER XV
THE SWISS AND ITALIAN GROUPS
Certain varieties of hard cheese of foreign origin are now made to some
extent in this country. If not manufactured in sufficient quantities to supply
the demand, the remainder is imported. These hard cheeses are now
considered.
SWISS CHEESE
Swiss cheese, variously known as Gruyère, Emmenthal, Schweitzer and
Swiss, had its origin in the Alpine cantons of Switzerland. From this region
its manufacture has been carried by Swiss dairy-men and emigrant farmers
into widely separate lands. The Swiss colonies settled in the United States
in the Mohawk Valley and in Cattaraugus County, New York; in Wayne,
Stark, Summit, Columbiana and Tuscarawas counties of Ohio, and in Green
and Dodge counties in Wisconsin. Of all these, the Wisconsin colonies have
become the most extensive. Similar colonies have developed the making of
this type of cheese in Sweden and Finland.
266. The Swiss factory.—Swiss cheese cannot be made in a vat like other
types for reasons that will be explained later. In place of the vat is used a
kettle, generally of copper, and it may or may not be jacketed for steam or
for hot water (Fig. 56). These kettles vary in capacity from 600 to 3000
pounds of milk. The cheese-maker takes the best care possible of his kettle,
for an unclean utensil is one of the easiest sources of contamination of the
milk. When the kettle is not jacketed, and it is only in recent years that this
has been done, it is suspended in a fireplace by means of a crane
arrangement.
This fireplace uses wood, and is built of brick or stone, so that the kettle
rests on the edge and is provided with a door which swings upon another
crane, and can be closed while the fire is going. When the kettle is swung
on a crane, it is possible to swing it under the weigh-stand for filling. This
requires a lid to swing down over the fire, and keep the room free from
smoke. The chimney generally has a rather high stack to secure a good
THE SWISS AND ITALIAN GROUPS
Certain varieties of hard cheese of foreign origin are now made to some
extent in this country. If not manufactured in sufficient quantities to supply
the demand, the remainder is imported. These hard cheeses are now
considered.
SWISS CHEESE
Swiss cheese, variously known as Gruyère, Emmenthal, Schweitzer and
Swiss, had its origin in the Alpine cantons of Switzerland. From this region
its manufacture has been carried by Swiss dairy-men and emigrant farmers
into widely separate lands. The Swiss colonies settled in the United States
in the Mohawk Valley and in Cattaraugus County, New York; in Wayne,
Stark, Summit, Columbiana and Tuscarawas counties of Ohio, and in Green
and Dodge counties in Wisconsin. Of all these, the Wisconsin colonies have
become the most extensive. Similar colonies have developed the making of
this type of cheese in Sweden and Finland.
266. The Swiss factory.—Swiss cheese cannot be made in a vat like other
types for reasons that will be explained later. In place of the vat is used a
kettle, generally of copper, and it may or may not be jacketed for steam or
for hot water (Fig. 56). These kettles vary in capacity from 600 to 3000
pounds of milk. The cheese-maker takes the best care possible of his kettle,
for an unclean utensil is one of the easiest sources of contamination of the
milk. When the kettle is not jacketed, and it is only in recent years that this
has been done, it is suspended in a fireplace by means of a crane
arrangement.
This fireplace uses wood, and is built of brick or stone, so that the kettle
rests on the edge and is provided with a door which swings upon another
crane, and can be closed while the fire is going. When the kettle is swung
on a crane, it is possible to swing it under the weigh-stand for filling. This
requires a lid to swing down over the fire, and keep the room free from
smoke. The chimney generally has a rather high stack to secure a good
Page 246
draft. This kettle is fastened to the crane
by a large iron band passing around the
neck, to which a bail or handle is
attached. The kettle may be raised or
lowered by means of a simple screw on
this beam. The crane consists of a heavy
beam working in sockets in the floor and
a beam or cross brace, which has another
and shorter beam braced to it, to take the
weight of the kettle.
The weigh-stand, and its efficient
location, is a matter of extreme
Fig. 56.—Swiss-cheese kettle.
importance. It is elevated a little above the
remainder of the floor to allow gravity to do the work. The next most
important equipment is the press and draining table. The table is made of
wood or stone, and has a slight slope to allow the whey to drain off. The
press is generally a jack screw which, braced against a beam, will exert an
enormous pressure on the table below.
Swiss cheeses are made in two styles, the "round" or drum and the "block"
or rectangular forms, each of which has its advantages. For the round style,
which is most commonly made, the forms for hooping are of metal or of
elm wood, and consist of strips of a given width, generally six inches, but of
an undetermined length. These strips are then made into a circle and held by
a cord, which is easily lengthened or shortened, thus varying the diameter
of the hoop.
Besides these hoops, cheese boards or followers are needed. These are
heavy circular boards, of a size to fit that of the cheese generally made, and
are banded with iron around the edge and cross-braced on the bottom for
rigidity. The small tools of the factory consist of knives to cut the curd, and
of a "Swiss harp" or other similar tool to stir the curd. Many clean bandages
are also needed, and a kettle brake.
267. The milk.—Swiss cheese requires clean sweet milk. Dirt, high acid
and infections with undesirable bacteria involve difficulties of manufacture
and frequent losses of cheese. One common practice rejects milk if it shows
by a large iron band passing around the
neck, to which a bail or handle is
attached. The kettle may be raised or
lowered by means of a simple screw on
this beam. The crane consists of a heavy
beam working in sockets in the floor and
a beam or cross brace, which has another
and shorter beam braced to it, to take the
weight of the kettle.
The weigh-stand, and its efficient
location, is a matter of extreme
Fig. 56.—Swiss-cheese kettle.
importance. It is elevated a little above the
remainder of the floor to allow gravity to do the work. The next most
important equipment is the press and draining table. The table is made of
wood or stone, and has a slight slope to allow the whey to drain off. The
press is generally a jack screw which, braced against a beam, will exert an
enormous pressure on the table below.
Swiss cheeses are made in two styles, the "round" or drum and the "block"
or rectangular forms, each of which has its advantages. For the round style,
which is most commonly made, the forms for hooping are of metal or of
elm wood, and consist of strips of a given width, generally six inches, but of
an undetermined length. These strips are then made into a circle and held by
a cord, which is easily lengthened or shortened, thus varying the diameter
of the hoop.
Besides these hoops, cheese boards or followers are needed. These are
heavy circular boards, of a size to fit that of the cheese generally made, and
are banded with iron around the edge and cross-braced on the bottom for
rigidity. The small tools of the factory consist of knives to cut the curd, and
of a "Swiss harp" or other similar tool to stir the curd. Many clean bandages
are also needed, and a kettle brake.
267. The milk.—Swiss cheese requires clean sweet milk. Dirt, high acid
and infections with undesirable bacteria involve difficulties of manufacture
and frequent losses of cheese. One common practice rejects milk if it shows
Page 247
acidity above 0.15 per cent. To secure milk in this condition, factories are
small and located so close to the producing farms as to secure 1000 to 3000
pounds of milk delivered warm from the cow twice a day. The cheese is
made twice daily from this fresh milk. If, however, milk is properly cared
for, it is possible to mix night's and morning's milk without bad results. In
fact, in working experimentally with high grade milk and taking precautions
against loss of fat, it has been necessary to skim (separate) part of the milk,
thus reducing the ratio of fat to casein. Analysis of good Swiss cheeses
shows that the desired texture is more uniformly obtained with milk in
which the fat is less than the normal ratio. This assumes that the
manufacturing loss is kept down so that the fat removed offsets the extra
loss from curd-breaking.
268. Rennet extract.—Most Swiss cheese-makers prefer to make their own
rennet extract from the stomach. This results in a product which is not
uniform in strength and so requires good judgment to secure the desired
coagulation in the allotted time. Some cheese-makers roll fifteen to twenty
well salted calves' stomachs together and dry them. From this they cut off a
definite amount each day to be soaked for twenty-four hours in two to five
quarts of whey at 86° F. Four quarts of this solution added to 2000 pounds
of milk at 90° F. should produce a curd ready for cutting in twenty to thirty
minutes.
269. Starter.—Makers do not agree as to the use of "starters" for Swiss
cheese. Those opposed to such use say that a starter will give the cheese a
decided Cheddar flavor, while those in favor of it state that it will control
undesirable fermentations, and that, with the use of a starter, it is possible to
make Swiss cheese throughout the year, and have uniform success.
Doane,122 working with Bacillus Bulgaricus as a starter, found that these
starters did not always overcome the undesirable fermentations. If a cheese-
maker is having difficulty to develop the holes or "eyes," this may be
overcome by making a starter123 as follows from good cheese and whey or
milk: Select a cheese which has the desirable "eyes" or holes and a good
flavor. Grind up some of this and add about ¼ of a pound to one gallon of
milk or whey. Hold this for twenty-four hours at a warm temperature (85°
to 90° F.). Strain it into the vat of milk just before the rennet is added.
small and located so close to the producing farms as to secure 1000 to 3000
pounds of milk delivered warm from the cow twice a day. The cheese is
made twice daily from this fresh milk. If, however, milk is properly cared
for, it is possible to mix night's and morning's milk without bad results. In
fact, in working experimentally with high grade milk and taking precautions
against loss of fat, it has been necessary to skim (separate) part of the milk,
thus reducing the ratio of fat to casein. Analysis of good Swiss cheeses
shows that the desired texture is more uniformly obtained with milk in
which the fat is less than the normal ratio. This assumes that the
manufacturing loss is kept down so that the fat removed offsets the extra
loss from curd-breaking.
268. Rennet extract.—Most Swiss cheese-makers prefer to make their own
rennet extract from the stomach. This results in a product which is not
uniform in strength and so requires good judgment to secure the desired
coagulation in the allotted time. Some cheese-makers roll fifteen to twenty
well salted calves' stomachs together and dry them. From this they cut off a
definite amount each day to be soaked for twenty-four hours in two to five
quarts of whey at 86° F. Four quarts of this solution added to 2000 pounds
of milk at 90° F. should produce a curd ready for cutting in twenty to thirty
minutes.
269. Starter.—Makers do not agree as to the use of "starters" for Swiss
cheese. Those opposed to such use say that a starter will give the cheese a
decided Cheddar flavor, while those in favor of it state that it will control
undesirable fermentations, and that, with the use of a starter, it is possible to
make Swiss cheese throughout the year, and have uniform success.
Doane,122 working with Bacillus Bulgaricus as a starter, found that these
starters did not always overcome the undesirable fermentations. If a cheese-
maker is having difficulty to develop the holes or "eyes," this may be
overcome by making a starter123 as follows from good cheese and whey or
milk: Select a cheese which has the desirable "eyes" or holes and a good
flavor. Grind up some of this and add about ¼ of a pound to one gallon of
milk or whey. Hold this for twenty-four hours at a warm temperature (85°
to 90° F.). Strain it into the vat of milk just before the rennet is added.
Page 248
270. The making process.—The milk is delivered twice a day without
cooling. It usually reaches the factory at a temperature of 92° to 96° F. It is
strained into the kettle, and starter and rennet added at the same temperature
as received. (For method of adding rennet, see Chapter V.) Enough rennet
should be used to give a coagulation ready for cutting in twenty to thirty
minutes. The firmness of the curd is tested by inserting the index finger in
an oblique position, then raising it slightly and with the thumb of the same
hand starting the curd to break or crack. When the curd is coagulated ready
for cutting, it will give a clear break over the finger.
It is important to keep the temperature uniform while coagulation is in
process, and this is best accomplished by the use of a little pan arrangement
which fits into the top of the kettle. When this is full of water at 100° F., the
temperature of the air above the milk will be about 90° F. When the curd is
ready for cutting, a scoop may be used and the top layer carefully turned
under to equalize the temperature more closely.
Cutting the curd.—In some cheese factories, knives resembling Cheddar
cheese knives are employed to cut the curd. In other factories, a "Swiss
harp" is used to break the curd. The curd is usually cut or broken into pieces
about the size of kernels of corn. The practice of "breaking" curd instead of
cutting it with sharp curd-knives produces excessive loss at times.
Experimental study has shown that the loss of fat may be kept as low as 0.3
per cent if modern curd-knives are substituted for the breaking tool
formerly used. Study of Swiss cheeses of all grades supports the opinion
that the removal of a small part of fat from usual grades of factory milk
produces a better quality of product than the use of rich whole milk. This
may be accomplished through the escape of fat in the whey on account of
breaking the curd and stirring it vigorously, or by skimming a part of the
milk which is then curdled, cut and stirred under such conditions as to
minimize the loss of fat.
Cooking the curd.—After cutting, the curd is stirred in the whey for about
twenty minutes before the steam is turned on and is then heated to 128° to
135° F. While this heating is in progress, constant stirring must be given to
avoid matting. This excessive stirring breaks the curd up into pieces about
the size of wheat kernels, and accounts for the large fat loss, which is one of
the main sources of loss in making Swiss cheese. This stirring is
cooling. It usually reaches the factory at a temperature of 92° to 96° F. It is
strained into the kettle, and starter and rennet added at the same temperature
as received. (For method of adding rennet, see Chapter V.) Enough rennet
should be used to give a coagulation ready for cutting in twenty to thirty
minutes. The firmness of the curd is tested by inserting the index finger in
an oblique position, then raising it slightly and with the thumb of the same
hand starting the curd to break or crack. When the curd is coagulated ready
for cutting, it will give a clear break over the finger.
It is important to keep the temperature uniform while coagulation is in
process, and this is best accomplished by the use of a little pan arrangement
which fits into the top of the kettle. When this is full of water at 100° F., the
temperature of the air above the milk will be about 90° F. When the curd is
ready for cutting, a scoop may be used and the top layer carefully turned
under to equalize the temperature more closely.
Cutting the curd.—In some cheese factories, knives resembling Cheddar
cheese knives are employed to cut the curd. In other factories, a "Swiss
harp" is used to break the curd. The curd is usually cut or broken into pieces
about the size of kernels of corn. The practice of "breaking" curd instead of
cutting it with sharp curd-knives produces excessive loss at times.
Experimental study has shown that the loss of fat may be kept as low as 0.3
per cent if modern curd-knives are substituted for the breaking tool
formerly used. Study of Swiss cheeses of all grades supports the opinion
that the removal of a small part of fat from usual grades of factory milk
produces a better quality of product than the use of rich whole milk. This
may be accomplished through the escape of fat in the whey on account of
breaking the curd and stirring it vigorously, or by skimming a part of the
milk which is then curdled, cut and stirred under such conditions as to
minimize the loss of fat.
Cooking the curd.—After cutting, the curd is stirred in the whey for about
twenty minutes before the steam is turned on and is then heated to 128° to
135° F. While this heating is in progress, constant stirring must be given to
avoid matting. This excessive stirring breaks the curd up into pieces about
the size of wheat kernels, and accounts for the large fat loss, which is one of
the main sources of loss in making Swiss cheese. This stirring is
Page 249
accomplished by a rotary motion, and the use of a brake, which is a piece of
wood closely fitting the side of the kettle. This creates an eddy in the
current at that point and gives a more uniform distribution of temperature.
The process of cooking takes from thirty to forty minutes, and at the end of
that time the degree of toughness may be determined by making a roll of
curd in the hand, and noticing the break when it is given a quick flip. A
short sharp break indicates the desired toughness.
Draining and hooping.—In this process, the cheese-makers' skill is
displayed. With the hoop prepared, and the curd at the correct stage of
toughness, the operator takes a press cloth, wets it in whey, slips it over a
flexible iron ring which can be made to fit the shape of the kettle, gives the
contents of the kettle a few swift revolutions, then suddenly reverses the
motion, with the result that the contents form into a cone, and the ring and
bandage are dexterously slipped under this cone, and drawn up to the
surface of the whey with a rope or chain and pulley. This part of the process
is the most important, as a cheese must have a smooth firm rind, else it will
quickly crack. With too large a batch of milk, the curd can be cut into two
pieces and hooped separately. With the mass of curd at the top of the whey,
the piece of perforated iron plate just the size of the hoop is slipped under
the mass, and attached to the pulley by four chains. Then the top of the
mass is carefully leveled off, because while still in the whey, it cannot mat
badly and so tend to develop a rind crack. Now the mass is raised clear of
the whey, and run along a short track to the drain table, where it is put in the
press.
Pressing.—The mass of curd is dropped into the hoop, the edges of the
cloth carefully folded under, and the cloth laid on top, then the pressure is
applied, gradually at first, but increasing until the final pressure is about
fifteen to twenty pounds to a pound of cheese.
During the first few hours the cloths must be changed frequently, and the
cheese carefully turned over each time, to secure a more uniform rind. After
a time the changes are less frequent, and at the end of twenty-four hours the
cheese is taken to the salting-room.
Salting may be done by either the brine or dry method. To prepare a brine
bath, add salt to a tank of water until it will float an egg, and add a pailful or
wood closely fitting the side of the kettle. This creates an eddy in the
current at that point and gives a more uniform distribution of temperature.
The process of cooking takes from thirty to forty minutes, and at the end of
that time the degree of toughness may be determined by making a roll of
curd in the hand, and noticing the break when it is given a quick flip. A
short sharp break indicates the desired toughness.
Draining and hooping.—In this process, the cheese-makers' skill is
displayed. With the hoop prepared, and the curd at the correct stage of
toughness, the operator takes a press cloth, wets it in whey, slips it over a
flexible iron ring which can be made to fit the shape of the kettle, gives the
contents of the kettle a few swift revolutions, then suddenly reverses the
motion, with the result that the contents form into a cone, and the ring and
bandage are dexterously slipped under this cone, and drawn up to the
surface of the whey with a rope or chain and pulley. This part of the process
is the most important, as a cheese must have a smooth firm rind, else it will
quickly crack. With too large a batch of milk, the curd can be cut into two
pieces and hooped separately. With the mass of curd at the top of the whey,
the piece of perforated iron plate just the size of the hoop is slipped under
the mass, and attached to the pulley by four chains. Then the top of the
mass is carefully leveled off, because while still in the whey, it cannot mat
badly and so tend to develop a rind crack. Now the mass is raised clear of
the whey, and run along a short track to the drain table, where it is put in the
press.
Pressing.—The mass of curd is dropped into the hoop, the edges of the
cloth carefully folded under, and the cloth laid on top, then the pressure is
applied, gradually at first, but increasing until the final pressure is about
fifteen to twenty pounds to a pound of cheese.
During the first few hours the cloths must be changed frequently, and the
cheese carefully turned over each time, to secure a more uniform rind. After
a time the changes are less frequent, and at the end of twenty-four hours the
cheese is taken to the salting-room.
Salting may be done by either the brine or dry method. To prepare a brine
bath, add salt to a tank of water until it will float an egg, and add a pailful or
Page 250
more of salt every few days thereafter to keep up the strength. The cheese is
then placed in this bath and left for three to five days, depending on the
saltiness desired. As the cheese floats with a little of the rind above the
surface, it should be turned a few times to insure uniformity of salting. With
dry salting, the salt is rubbed on the cheese by hand or with a stiff brush,
and any excess carefully wiped off, leaving only a slight sprinkle on the
surface to work into the cheese.
271. Curing Swiss.—From the salting-room, the cheese goes to the first
one of two curing-rooms, where the unique process of the development of
the characteristic eyes takes place.
During the curing period of either round or block Swiss, constant attention
must be paid to the cheese. They must be turned every day at first, and then
every second or third day toward the end of the curing period. Also, great
care must be taken that no mold starts growing, as it will soon work into the
cheese, and spoil its flavor. The best way of preventing mold is by washing
the cheese, in either clean or slightly salted water, as often as possible. A
stiff brush is mostly used for this.
The development of the "eyes" or holes is the difficult part of the whole
process. It is not known exactly what causes the development, but it is
attributed to micro-organisms or enzymes. The gas in these eyes has been
examined and found to be carbon dioxide and free nitrogen. Sometimes
hydrogen is found. This comes from the original fermentation of the milk-
sugar and remains to contaminate the normal eye. The nitrogen124 is
included from the original air. Propionic acid is formed at the same time as
the eyes, and they are said to be the result of a propionic ferment of lactic
acid. The interior of the cheese is anaërobic, due to low permeability and
high oxygen-absorbing quality. This propionic bacterium cannot, however,
account for all the carbon dioxide produced.
After the eyes have started, their further development depends on
temperature and humidity of the air, and on the moisture of the cheese, as
regulated by the amount of salt used. The first room has a temperature of
70° F. to start the eyes, which is later lowered in the second curing-room to
about 60° to check the development. When any local fermentive action
starts, it may be checked by rubbing salt on the affected part. The humidity
then placed in this bath and left for three to five days, depending on the
saltiness desired. As the cheese floats with a little of the rind above the
surface, it should be turned a few times to insure uniformity of salting. With
dry salting, the salt is rubbed on the cheese by hand or with a stiff brush,
and any excess carefully wiped off, leaving only a slight sprinkle on the
surface to work into the cheese.
271. Curing Swiss.—From the salting-room, the cheese goes to the first
one of two curing-rooms, where the unique process of the development of
the characteristic eyes takes place.
During the curing period of either round or block Swiss, constant attention
must be paid to the cheese. They must be turned every day at first, and then
every second or third day toward the end of the curing period. Also, great
care must be taken that no mold starts growing, as it will soon work into the
cheese, and spoil its flavor. The best way of preventing mold is by washing
the cheese, in either clean or slightly salted water, as often as possible. A
stiff brush is mostly used for this.
The development of the "eyes" or holes is the difficult part of the whole
process. It is not known exactly what causes the development, but it is
attributed to micro-organisms or enzymes. The gas in these eyes has been
examined and found to be carbon dioxide and free nitrogen. Sometimes
hydrogen is found. This comes from the original fermentation of the milk-
sugar and remains to contaminate the normal eye. The nitrogen124 is
included from the original air. Propionic acid is formed at the same time as
the eyes, and they are said to be the result of a propionic ferment of lactic
acid. The interior of the cheese is anaërobic, due to low permeability and
high oxygen-absorbing quality. This propionic bacterium cannot, however,
account for all the carbon dioxide produced.
After the eyes have started, their further development depends on
temperature and humidity of the air, and on the moisture of the cheese, as
regulated by the amount of salt used. The first room has a temperature of
70° F. to start the eyes, which is later lowered in the second curing-room to
about 60° to check the development. When any local fermentive action
starts, it may be checked by rubbing salt on the affected part. The humidity
Page 251
of the room is very important, because a cheese will quickly dry out in a dry
room, due to evaporation from the surface. To prevent this, it is well to
spray the floor with water, or to have a steam jet in the room.
If the curd has been cooked too long the cheese may be too dry. Such
cheeses may be piled two or more deep in the curing-room. It is held by
some cheese-makers that this process causes them to absorb more moisture.
Probably this is due to the checking of evaporation.
The development of the "eyes" may be watched by trying the following test:
Place the middle finger on the cheese and let the first finger slip from it,
striking the cheese smartly; a dull sound indicates solidity, while a ring
indicates a hole, and an expert maker can tell the size of the holes by the
sound. This requires long practice for the operator to become proficient.
After a cheese has remained in the first room for about two weeks and the
holes are well started, it is removed to the second curing-room, which is
held at a cooler temperature and slightly drier atmosphere. The cheeses are
held in this room from three to ten months, depending on market
conditions, and capacity of the curing-rooms. In Switzerland, it is
customary to hold cheese to secure a well ripened product, while in
America most of the cheeses are shipped comparatively green, hence do not
bring so high a price.
272. Block Swiss.—In making block Swiss, the same procedure is followed
through the cooking stage. Then the curd is pressed in a square form or in
one large piece, each form six inches square on the ends and twenty inches
long, and later cut into sections. These are then pressed, salted and cured in
the same way as round forms. In this type of cheese there is a much smaller
cross-section; therefore the development of holes is much more easily
controlled on account of the ease with which the salt can work into the
cheese and control undesirable ferments. As it is easy to control, this variety
is made in the fall and winter when the ferments are especially hard to keep
in check. However, this cheese has the disadvantage of cutting eye-
development short by the rapid entrance of salt.
The curing consists of the developing of the flavor and eyes and the
changing in body and texture. Just what causes these changes is not known.
room, due to evaporation from the surface. To prevent this, it is well to
spray the floor with water, or to have a steam jet in the room.
If the curd has been cooked too long the cheese may be too dry. Such
cheeses may be piled two or more deep in the curing-room. It is held by
some cheese-makers that this process causes them to absorb more moisture.
Probably this is due to the checking of evaporation.
The development of the "eyes" may be watched by trying the following test:
Place the middle finger on the cheese and let the first finger slip from it,
striking the cheese smartly; a dull sound indicates solidity, while a ring
indicates a hole, and an expert maker can tell the size of the holes by the
sound. This requires long practice for the operator to become proficient.
After a cheese has remained in the first room for about two weeks and the
holes are well started, it is removed to the second curing-room, which is
held at a cooler temperature and slightly drier atmosphere. The cheeses are
held in this room from three to ten months, depending on market
conditions, and capacity of the curing-rooms. In Switzerland, it is
customary to hold cheese to secure a well ripened product, while in
America most of the cheeses are shipped comparatively green, hence do not
bring so high a price.
272. Block Swiss.—In making block Swiss, the same procedure is followed
through the cooking stage. Then the curd is pressed in a square form or in
one large piece, each form six inches square on the ends and twenty inches
long, and later cut into sections. These are then pressed, salted and cured in
the same way as round forms. In this type of cheese there is a much smaller
cross-section; therefore the development of holes is much more easily
controlled on account of the ease with which the salt can work into the
cheese and control undesirable ferments. As it is easy to control, this variety
is made in the fall and winter when the ferments are especially hard to keep
in check. However, this cheese has the disadvantage of cutting eye-
development short by the rapid entrance of salt.
The curing consists of the developing of the flavor and eyes and the
changing in body and texture. Just what causes these changes is not known.
Page 252
273. Shipment.—When ready for shipment, the drum cheeses of the same
general diameter are sorted out and packed four to six in a cask. Care must
be taken to put boards between them to prevent sticking. These are called
scale-boards, and are made of thin sections of wood fiber. The cheeses are
crowded into the cask to make a snug fit, and the head carefully fastened.
274. Qualities of Swiss cheese.—The peculiar Swiss cheese flavor may be
characterized as a hazel-nut taste. It is a trifle sweet and very tempting. The
"eyes" or holes should be about the size of a cherry with a dull shine to the
inner lining. The "eyes" usually contain a small amount of a briny tasting
liquid. These eyes should be uniformly distributed. The color should be
uniform. The cheese should have a neat, clean, attractive appearance, and
the rind should not be cracked or broken.
There are several common defects in Swiss cheese. If the milk is not clean-
flavored, the cheese will have the same flavor as the milk. The greatest
difficulty is to produce the eyes or holes. A cheese which does not have
these is called "blind." A product which has many small pin-holes due to
gassy fermentations is called a "niszler"; this means a cheese with a
thousand eyes. If gas forms in the cheese and causes cracks, it is called
"glaesler." If the cheese contains too much moisture, it will be soft and
pasty. Such a cheese does not readily form eyes.
275. Composition and yield.—A large number of analyses of Swiss cheese
have been made but there is wide variation. This is due to the fact that the
composition and yield are both dependent on the following factors:
composition of the milk, losses during manufacture, amount of moisture in
the cheese. The losses in Swiss cheese are much larger than with some of
the other hard cheeses, such as Cheddar. This is because more fat is lost in
the whey, due to breaking instead of cutting the curd and the subsequent
hard stirring. The possibility of reducing these excessive losses has already
been indicated.
Swiss cheeses of high grade show about the following range of
composition:
Water 30-34 per cent
Fat 30-34 per cent
general diameter are sorted out and packed four to six in a cask. Care must
be taken to put boards between them to prevent sticking. These are called
scale-boards, and are made of thin sections of wood fiber. The cheeses are
crowded into the cask to make a snug fit, and the head carefully fastened.
274. Qualities of Swiss cheese.—The peculiar Swiss cheese flavor may be
characterized as a hazel-nut taste. It is a trifle sweet and very tempting. The
"eyes" or holes should be about the size of a cherry with a dull shine to the
inner lining. The "eyes" usually contain a small amount of a briny tasting
liquid. These eyes should be uniformly distributed. The color should be
uniform. The cheese should have a neat, clean, attractive appearance, and
the rind should not be cracked or broken.
There are several common defects in Swiss cheese. If the milk is not clean-
flavored, the cheese will have the same flavor as the milk. The greatest
difficulty is to produce the eyes or holes. A cheese which does not have
these is called "blind." A product which has many small pin-holes due to
gassy fermentations is called a "niszler"; this means a cheese with a
thousand eyes. If gas forms in the cheese and causes cracks, it is called
"glaesler." If the cheese contains too much moisture, it will be soft and
pasty. Such a cheese does not readily form eyes.
275. Composition and yield.—A large number of analyses of Swiss cheese
have been made but there is wide variation. This is due to the fact that the
composition and yield are both dependent on the following factors:
composition of the milk, losses during manufacture, amount of moisture in
the cheese. The losses in Swiss cheese are much larger than with some of
the other hard cheeses, such as Cheddar. This is because more fat is lost in
the whey, due to breaking instead of cutting the curd and the subsequent
hard stirring. The possibility of reducing these excessive losses has already
been indicated.
Swiss cheeses of high grade show about the following range of
composition:
Water 30-34 per cent
Fat 30-34 per cent
Page 253
Protein 26-30 per cent
Salt (NaCl) 1-1.4 per cent
The water-content of this type of cheese is low and the protein-content is
proportionately high. Both conditions lead to firm textures, long ripening
and long keeping periods.
The following score-card is used to judge both block and drum Swiss
cheese:
Flavor 35
Appearance on trier holes 30
Texture 20
Salt 10
Style 5
——
100
The yield of Swiss cheese varies from 8 to 11 pounds to 100 pounds of
milk. The more solids in the milk, the more moisture incorporated in the
cheese; the smaller the loss of solids in the manufacturing process, the
larger will be the yield from a given amount of milk.
THE ITALIAN GROUP125
A group of varieties, best known in America by Parmesan, are made in Italy
with related forms in Greece and European Turkey. These forms are very
hard, usually uncolored, with small eyes or holes. They are made in large
cheeses which ripen very slowly. Cow's milk is regularly used for Parmesan
and Grana in northern Italy; other varieties contain goat or sheep milk or
various mixtures. Aside from Parmesan, few of the other forms are known
outside the place of origin except as they are exported in a small way to
satisfy the demand of emigrants from these regions.
276. Parmesan.—One type of Italian cheese, however, the Parmesan, has
become very widely known. In general the consuming trade does not
discriminate between Parmesan, Grana and closely related forms. Parmesan
is made in large cheeses which require one to three years for proper
Salt (NaCl) 1-1.4 per cent
The water-content of this type of cheese is low and the protein-content is
proportionately high. Both conditions lead to firm textures, long ripening
and long keeping periods.
The following score-card is used to judge both block and drum Swiss
cheese:
Flavor 35
Appearance on trier holes 30
Texture 20
Salt 10
Style 5
——
100
The yield of Swiss cheese varies from 8 to 11 pounds to 100 pounds of
milk. The more solids in the milk, the more moisture incorporated in the
cheese; the smaller the loss of solids in the manufacturing process, the
larger will be the yield from a given amount of milk.
THE ITALIAN GROUP125
A group of varieties, best known in America by Parmesan, are made in Italy
with related forms in Greece and European Turkey. These forms are very
hard, usually uncolored, with small eyes or holes. They are made in large
cheeses which ripen very slowly. Cow's milk is regularly used for Parmesan
and Grana in northern Italy; other varieties contain goat or sheep milk or
various mixtures. Aside from Parmesan, few of the other forms are known
outside the place of origin except as they are exported in a small way to
satisfy the demand of emigrants from these regions.
276. Parmesan.—One type of Italian cheese, however, the Parmesan, has
become very widely known. In general the consuming trade does not
discriminate between Parmesan, Grana and closely related forms. Parmesan
is made in large cheeses which require one to three years for proper
Page 254
ripening; in texture it is very hard with small eyes or holes formed by very
slow fermentation. Such cheeses are ripened in large storehouses in which
hundreds and even thousands are brought together and cared for by experts.
The surfaces of these cheeses are kept clean and free from insects by
rubbing with linseed oil. So hard are these forms that the cheese-trier is not
used in testing, but the texture of the surface is tested by pricking with an
awl-like tool and the stage of eye-formation and associated ripening is
determined by the sound given out when the cheeses are tapped with a
hammer.
When ripe, the cheeses of this group are used in cooking principally. The
broken cheese is grated and added to macaroni, spaghetti and other cooked
cheese dishes. Parmesan is usually made from partly skimmed-milk; the
ratio of fat to protein in analysis runs from 1:2 to 3:4 in contrast to the
normal relation of about 4:3 in whole-milk cheese. In water-content much
variation is found, but ripe Parmesan is usually about 30 per cent water.
Other members of the group are made with different amounts of skimming,
some of them from whole milk. The group in general represents the
requirements of cheese for the trade of warmer regions (see Mayo and
Elling): (1) a low fat-content so incorporated that the cheese does not
become greasy or oily in hot weather; (2) a water-content low enough to
prevent rapid spoilage during the necessary exposure of handling under
warm conditions.
The equipment for Parmesan manufacture has more resemblance to that of
the Swiss factory than the English and American cheeses. The milk is
curdled in deep copper kettles (Fig. 57), below which there is commonly a
provision for direct heating by fire which is sometimes carried on a truck,
and therefore can be withdrawn when heating is sufficient. The steam-
jacketed kettle has replaced this earlier form to a large measure.
slow fermentation. Such cheeses are ripened in large storehouses in which
hundreds and even thousands are brought together and cared for by experts.
The surfaces of these cheeses are kept clean and free from insects by
rubbing with linseed oil. So hard are these forms that the cheese-trier is not
used in testing, but the texture of the surface is tested by pricking with an
awl-like tool and the stage of eye-formation and associated ripening is
determined by the sound given out when the cheeses are tapped with a
hammer.
When ripe, the cheeses of this group are used in cooking principally. The
broken cheese is grated and added to macaroni, spaghetti and other cooked
cheese dishes. Parmesan is usually made from partly skimmed-milk; the
ratio of fat to protein in analysis runs from 1:2 to 3:4 in contrast to the
normal relation of about 4:3 in whole-milk cheese. In water-content much
variation is found, but ripe Parmesan is usually about 30 per cent water.
Other members of the group are made with different amounts of skimming,
some of them from whole milk. The group in general represents the
requirements of cheese for the trade of warmer regions (see Mayo and
Elling): (1) a low fat-content so incorporated that the cheese does not
become greasy or oily in hot weather; (2) a water-content low enough to
prevent rapid spoilage during the necessary exposure of handling under
warm conditions.
The equipment for Parmesan manufacture has more resemblance to that of
the Swiss factory than the English and American cheeses. The milk is
curdled in deep copper kettles (Fig. 57), below which there is commonly a
provision for direct heating by fire which is sometimes carried on a truck,
and therefore can be withdrawn when heating is sufficient. The steam-
jacketed kettle has replaced this earlier form to a large measure.
Page 255
Fig. 57.—Parmesan cheese kettles.
The general character of the manufacturing process is indicated in the
following abstract of one of the methods. Many variations are to be found.
The milk for Parmesan is allowed to stand overnight. Some acidity is,
therefore, developed in contrast to the absolutely fresh condition of the milk
used in Swiss and the acidification developed during the making of Cheddar
(Fascetti). It is then skimmed, heated to 72° to 75° F. Rennet is added in
amount sufficient to produce firm curd in one hour or slightly less. When
the curd is firm, a wood fire is made under the kettle and the curd is broken
with a special implement into small particles. After breaking, four grains of
powdered sulfur to twenty-two gallons of milk are added. The curd is
stirred with a rake. By the time the temperature rises to 77° F., the curd
should be in very small pieces. Stirring and heating continue until the
temperature reaches 131° F. At this temperature, it stands fifteen minutes,
after which it is removed from the fire (or the fire is drawn). Nine-tenths of
the whey is then drawn. The cheese-maker then collects the curd into a
compact lump under which he slips a cheese cloth. With the aid of an
assistant he removes the mass to a perforated vessel for draining. After this
the curd goes into large wooden hoops, lined with cloth, which stand upon a
slanting draining table until evening. No pressure is used. Before night they
are taken to the cellar. The cloths are removed next day. After standing four
days, they are salted by covering the upper surface with coarse salt. This is
repeated with daily turning for twenty days, then salted on alternate days for
another period of twenty days. At the end of the forty days' salting, the
cheese is removed from the hoop, scraped, sprinkled with whey and the rind
rubbed smooth. A dressing of linseed oil either with or without bone black
is applied.
The general character of the manufacturing process is indicated in the
following abstract of one of the methods. Many variations are to be found.
The milk for Parmesan is allowed to stand overnight. Some acidity is,
therefore, developed in contrast to the absolutely fresh condition of the milk
used in Swiss and the acidification developed during the making of Cheddar
(Fascetti). It is then skimmed, heated to 72° to 75° F. Rennet is added in
amount sufficient to produce firm curd in one hour or slightly less. When
the curd is firm, a wood fire is made under the kettle and the curd is broken
with a special implement into small particles. After breaking, four grains of
powdered sulfur to twenty-two gallons of milk are added. The curd is
stirred with a rake. By the time the temperature rises to 77° F., the curd
should be in very small pieces. Stirring and heating continue until the
temperature reaches 131° F. At this temperature, it stands fifteen minutes,
after which it is removed from the fire (or the fire is drawn). Nine-tenths of
the whey is then drawn. The cheese-maker then collects the curd into a
compact lump under which he slips a cheese cloth. With the aid of an
assistant he removes the mass to a perforated vessel for draining. After this
the curd goes into large wooden hoops, lined with cloth, which stand upon a
slanting draining table until evening. No pressure is used. Before night they
are taken to the cellar. The cloths are removed next day. After standing four
days, they are salted by covering the upper surface with coarse salt. This is
repeated with daily turning for twenty days, then salted on alternate days for
another period of twenty days. At the end of the forty days' salting, the
cheese is removed from the hoop, scraped, sprinkled with whey and the rind
rubbed smooth. A dressing of linseed oil either with or without bone black
is applied.
Page 256
Fig. 58.—A typical cheese-market in France.
The cheeses are kept in special ripening rooms, and rubbed frequently with
linseed oil to keep the surfaces free from molds and vermin. Careful
grading as to quality of product and consequent response to ripening
conditions produce cheeses of many degrees of excellence. Those in which
a ripening of three to four years is possible are most highly esteemed.
277. Regianito.—A cheese of the Italian group is now made in Argentina
and imported to the United States under the name Regianito.
The cheeses are kept in special ripening rooms, and rubbed frequently with
linseed oil to keep the surfaces free from molds and vermin. Careful
grading as to quality of product and consequent response to ripening
conditions produce cheeses of many degrees of excellence. Those in which
a ripening of three to four years is possible are most highly esteemed.
277. Regianito.—A cheese of the Italian group is now made in Argentina
and imported to the United States under the name Regianito.
Page 257
CHAPTER XVI
MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES AND BY-PRODUCTS
As already discussed in Chapter VI, there are a large number of varieties of
cheese. Very many are entirely unknown in America. A considerable
number of forms are occasionally imported and may be found by visiting
the markets and delicatessen stores in the foreign districts of our large
cities. Certain forms not widely known are made in America in a few
factories or are imported in sufficient quantity to call for brief discussion.
Some of these are brought together here.
The importance of the by-products of cheese-making has not been
sufficiently recognized, for manufacture on a large scale is only beginning
to be appreciated in America. Certain cheese names, such as Mysost, are
applied to whey products. In addition, milk-sugar is extensively made and
whey-butter has been carefully studied and found to be practicable under
some conditions.
278. Caciocavallo originated in Italy, but is now made in certain factories
of New York and Ohio. Some factories in Lombardy126 use whole milk,
others use half-skimmed milk. The latter practice is probably the more
common. In making this cheese, the milk is coagulated with rennet, cut and
firmed in the whey, allowed to settle and the whey drawn. The curd is then
piled on the draining table and allowed to mat or fuse into fairly solid
masses. After several hours of draining and matting, the curd is cut into
strips and placed in a vat of hot water. In the hot water, the blocks of solid
curd melt into taffy-like masses which are worked and molded by hand into
more or less standard shapes. Indian club or ten-pin forms are most
commonly produced. When the proper shape has been gained, each mass is
thrown into cold water which solidifies it in that form. Cheese masses heat
and cool slowly; several hours of cooling are required to insure a firm
cheese. The newly made cheeses are salted in a brine bath, then hung by a
string to ripen. Sometimes these cheeses are eaten fresh, again they are
ripened several months. They vary in size from one to six pounds. Cornalba
gives the composition of Italian Caciocavallo made from whole milk as
MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES AND BY-PRODUCTS
As already discussed in Chapter VI, there are a large number of varieties of
cheese. Very many are entirely unknown in America. A considerable
number of forms are occasionally imported and may be found by visiting
the markets and delicatessen stores in the foreign districts of our large
cities. Certain forms not widely known are made in America in a few
factories or are imported in sufficient quantity to call for brief discussion.
Some of these are brought together here.
The importance of the by-products of cheese-making has not been
sufficiently recognized, for manufacture on a large scale is only beginning
to be appreciated in America. Certain cheese names, such as Mysost, are
applied to whey products. In addition, milk-sugar is extensively made and
whey-butter has been carefully studied and found to be practicable under
some conditions.
278. Caciocavallo originated in Italy, but is now made in certain factories
of New York and Ohio. Some factories in Lombardy126 use whole milk,
others use half-skimmed milk. The latter practice is probably the more
common. In making this cheese, the milk is coagulated with rennet, cut and
firmed in the whey, allowed to settle and the whey drawn. The curd is then
piled on the draining table and allowed to mat or fuse into fairly solid
masses. After several hours of draining and matting, the curd is cut into
strips and placed in a vat of hot water. In the hot water, the blocks of solid
curd melt into taffy-like masses which are worked and molded by hand into
more or less standard shapes. Indian club or ten-pin forms are most
commonly produced. When the proper shape has been gained, each mass is
thrown into cold water which solidifies it in that form. Cheese masses heat
and cool slowly; several hours of cooling are required to insure a firm
cheese. The newly made cheeses are salted in a brine bath, then hung by a
string to ripen. Sometimes these cheeses are eaten fresh, again they are
ripened several months. They vary in size from one to six pounds. Cornalba
gives the composition of Italian Caciocavallo made from whole milk as
Page 258
water 32 to 34 per cent, fat 34 to 36 per cent, protein 28.5 to 29.5 per cent,
salt 1.7 to 1.8 per cent; when made from half skimmed-milk, water 28 per
cent, fat 27 to 28 per cent, protein 35 to 40 per cent, salt 2.2 per cent. Other
analyses vary widely from these figures on account of the differing fat-
content of the milk. No standardized practice has been established in
America.
Provolono resembles Caciocavallo in method of manufacture and
composition, the main difference being in the shape of the cheese. It is more
or less round and is held by a coarse net made of small rope. The cheeses
are treated while curing the same as Caciocavallo.
279. Sap sago.—This hard green cheese imported from Switzerland is
made in cakes, tapering from perhaps two inches in diameter to a rounded
top with a height of about two inches. These are made from skimmed-milk
curd, partially ripened then mixed with powdered leaves of Melilotus
cœruleus, a clover-like plant. The mixture is then pressed into the market
form and dried until very hard. It is handled without special care since the
water-content is so low that fermentations are exceedingly slow. This low-
priced cheese may be used in cooking.
280. Albumin cheese.127—In the rennet cheeses, the albumin, which
constitutes about 0.7 per cent of the milk, passes off in the whey. This
albumin is not curdled by rennet. It is, however, coagulated by heating. The
presence of acid hastens such coagulation but does not cause it when used
alone. When the whey is heated to about 200° F., the albumin rises and may
be skimmed off. In this form it is recovered and used. It may be shaped is
hoops under pressure, as Ricotte, an Italian form. This cheese is pressed
firmly and dried. Such albumin is frequently prepared as a poultry feed.
281. Mysost, Norwegian whey cheese.—The whey contains nearly 5 per
cent of milk-sugar which can be recovered by boiling. The Norwegian
process which produces Mysost consists in raising the whey to the boiling
point, skimming off the albumin as it rises, then concentrating the
remainder of the whey. As it reaches sufficient concentration, the albumin is
thoroughly stirred back into the mass and the mass finally cooled into
forms. Mysost is a brown, hard brittle mass consisting principally of
caramelized milk-sugar. Analysis shows such percentage composition as
salt 1.7 to 1.8 per cent; when made from half skimmed-milk, water 28 per
cent, fat 27 to 28 per cent, protein 35 to 40 per cent, salt 2.2 per cent. Other
analyses vary widely from these figures on account of the differing fat-
content of the milk. No standardized practice has been established in
America.
Provolono resembles Caciocavallo in method of manufacture and
composition, the main difference being in the shape of the cheese. It is more
or less round and is held by a coarse net made of small rope. The cheeses
are treated while curing the same as Caciocavallo.
279. Sap sago.—This hard green cheese imported from Switzerland is
made in cakes, tapering from perhaps two inches in diameter to a rounded
top with a height of about two inches. These are made from skimmed-milk
curd, partially ripened then mixed with powdered leaves of Melilotus
cœruleus, a clover-like plant. The mixture is then pressed into the market
form and dried until very hard. It is handled without special care since the
water-content is so low that fermentations are exceedingly slow. This low-
priced cheese may be used in cooking.
280. Albumin cheese.127—In the rennet cheeses, the albumin, which
constitutes about 0.7 per cent of the milk, passes off in the whey. This
albumin is not curdled by rennet. It is, however, coagulated by heating. The
presence of acid hastens such coagulation but does not cause it when used
alone. When the whey is heated to about 200° F., the albumin rises and may
be skimmed off. In this form it is recovered and used. It may be shaped is
hoops under pressure, as Ricotte, an Italian form. This cheese is pressed
firmly and dried. Such albumin is frequently prepared as a poultry feed.
281. Mysost, Norwegian whey cheese.—The whey contains nearly 5 per
cent of milk-sugar which can be recovered by boiling. The Norwegian
process which produces Mysost consists in raising the whey to the boiling
point, skimming off the albumin as it rises, then concentrating the
remainder of the whey. As it reaches sufficient concentration, the albumin is
thoroughly stirred back into the mass and the mass finally cooled into
forms. Mysost is a brown, hard brittle mass consisting principally of
caramelized milk-sugar. Analysis shows such percentage composition as
Page 259
follows: water 10 to 20 per cent, protein 10 to 15 per cent, milk-sugar 30 to
55 per cent. Mysost is found in the larger markets of the United States.
Primost is an albumin cheese somewhat similar to Ricotte and Mysost. It is
made by precipitating the albumin by acid and heat. The main difference is
in the firmness of the cheese. This is regulated by drying.
282. Whey butter.128—The loss of a percentage of fat, rarely less than 0.3
per cent and in some cheeses very much greater, has led to the making of
whey butter. For this purpose a separator is introduced and all whey is
separated daily. The fat recovered in the form of cream is then ripened and
churned. Whey butter is not rated as equal to butter made from whole milk
but a fair market can usually be found for the product. The recovery of 0.25
per cent fat means two and one-half pounds of fat to 1000 pounds of whey.
This will make about three pounds of butter.
Whether whey butter shall be made depends on the volume of business, the
extra equipment required, the extra help necessary and the market for the
product. As a rule, whey butter is economically recoverable only in large
factories. It is not considered advisable to attempt to make it unless one has
the whey from 10,000 pounds of milk. In some instances, the combination
of small cheese factories with one churning plant has proved to be
economical. The objection to the making of whey butter is, that it stimulates
carelessness on the part of the cheese-maker because he thinks that the fat
will be recovered by skimming. He does not realize that the other milk
solids are being reduced in the same proportion as the fat, to the great loss
in yield of cheese.
55 per cent. Mysost is found in the larger markets of the United States.
Primost is an albumin cheese somewhat similar to Ricotte and Mysost. It is
made by precipitating the albumin by acid and heat. The main difference is
in the firmness of the cheese. This is regulated by drying.
282. Whey butter.128—The loss of a percentage of fat, rarely less than 0.3
per cent and in some cheeses very much greater, has led to the making of
whey butter. For this purpose a separator is introduced and all whey is
separated daily. The fat recovered in the form of cream is then ripened and
churned. Whey butter is not rated as equal to butter made from whole milk
but a fair market can usually be found for the product. The recovery of 0.25
per cent fat means two and one-half pounds of fat to 1000 pounds of whey.
This will make about three pounds of butter.
Whether whey butter shall be made depends on the volume of business, the
extra equipment required, the extra help necessary and the market for the
product. As a rule, whey butter is economically recoverable only in large
factories. It is not considered advisable to attempt to make it unless one has
the whey from 10,000 pounds of milk. In some instances, the combination
of small cheese factories with one churning plant has proved to be
economical. The objection to the making of whey butter is, that it stimulates
carelessness on the part of the cheese-maker because he thinks that the fat
will be recovered by skimming. He does not realize that the other milk
solids are being reduced in the same proportion as the fat, to the great loss
in yield of cheese.
Page 260
CHAPTER XVII
CHEESE FACTORY CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, ORGANIZATION
The principal factor in determining the location of a cheese factory is the
available supply of milk. This is usually ascertained by making a canvass,
and finding out the number of cows whose milk would be brought to the
factory. The quantity of milk or the number of cows necessary to insure
sufficient milk for the successful operation of the factory, depends on the
variety of cheese to be made. When making types of cheese for which very
sweet milk is necessary, the milk must be delivered twice a day. This
demand limits the area from which the factory can secure its supply. The
length of time the cheeses are held in the curing-room and the work
necessary to care for them also limits the area which the factory can serve,
because a very large amount of milk cannot be handled when the cheese
must be given considerable attention in the curing-rooms. Swiss, Limburger
and Brick cheese factories usually do not require a large supply of milk;
therefore the factories may be built close together. The size of the Cheddar
cheese factories varies but it is generally considered unprofitable to make
Cheddar cheese unless there are 5000 pounds of milk available daily.
Conditions have changed so that at present different kinds of cheese are
made from the surplus milk in market milk plants. In such cases a uniform
supply is not absolutely necessary. The climate must also be suitable for the
industry.
283. Locating the site.—In a farming community, several factory sites are
usually available. It is best to consider carefully the desirable features of
each before trying to make a definite choice. Many of the present cheese
factories were located in hollows because it was easy to secure a supply of
water, but no thought or attention was given to the disposal of the sewage.
The following points should be considered in choosing a site:
(1) Drainage.—A factory should be so located that it has good drainage.
Ground that slopes away from the factory makes the disposal of sewage
easy. Sewage should not be allowed to run out on the ground and left to
decay, thus forming a breeding place for flies, but should run into a
CHEESE FACTORY CONSTRUCTION, EQUIPMENT, ORGANIZATION
The principal factor in determining the location of a cheese factory is the
available supply of milk. This is usually ascertained by making a canvass,
and finding out the number of cows whose milk would be brought to the
factory. The quantity of milk or the number of cows necessary to insure
sufficient milk for the successful operation of the factory, depends on the
variety of cheese to be made. When making types of cheese for which very
sweet milk is necessary, the milk must be delivered twice a day. This
demand limits the area from which the factory can secure its supply. The
length of time the cheeses are held in the curing-room and the work
necessary to care for them also limits the area which the factory can serve,
because a very large amount of milk cannot be handled when the cheese
must be given considerable attention in the curing-rooms. Swiss, Limburger
and Brick cheese factories usually do not require a large supply of milk;
therefore the factories may be built close together. The size of the Cheddar
cheese factories varies but it is generally considered unprofitable to make
Cheddar cheese unless there are 5000 pounds of milk available daily.
Conditions have changed so that at present different kinds of cheese are
made from the surplus milk in market milk plants. In such cases a uniform
supply is not absolutely necessary. The climate must also be suitable for the
industry.
283. Locating the site.—In a farming community, several factory sites are
usually available. It is best to consider carefully the desirable features of
each before trying to make a definite choice. Many of the present cheese
factories were located in hollows because it was easy to secure a supply of
water, but no thought or attention was given to the disposal of the sewage.
The following points should be considered in choosing a site:
(1) Drainage.—A factory should be so located that it has good drainage.
Ground that slopes away from the factory makes the disposal of sewage
easy. Sewage should not be allowed to run out on the ground and left to
decay, thus forming a breeding place for flies, but should run into a
Page 261
cesspool or septic tank.129 Even in a porous soil, a cesspool frequently clogs
and gives trouble. The septic tank seems to be the best method to dispose of
the sewage unless the factory is so located that connection can be made
with a city sewage system.
(2) Water.—An abundant supply of pure water is essential to a factory. This
may come either from deep wells or springs. The value of a never-failing
water supply cannot be overestimated.
(3) Exposure.—The factory should be so located that the receiving room is
away from the prevailing winds. This prevents dust being blown into the
factory. The curing-room should be on the side not exposed to the sun as
this will keep it cool. Fig. 59 shows a clean cheese factory of the ordinary
type. When it is desirable to cure the cheese in a cellar, it is better to locate
the factory on the side of a hill. Then the receiving and manufacturing room
may be on the ground level and the curing-room, a cellar, back of the
manufacturing room and yet all on the same level. This saves carrying the
cheese up and down stairs.
(4) Accessibility to market should not be overlooked. Often the quality of
the cheese is injured by long hauls. An important item in marketing both
milk and cheese is the use of the automobile. By its use the products are not
so long in transit, and losses from exposure in delivery are reduced. Both
milk and cheese, when exposed to the heat of the sun for any length of time,
become warm. This gives undesirable organisms chance to develop.
and gives trouble. The septic tank seems to be the best method to dispose of
the sewage unless the factory is so located that connection can be made
with a city sewage system.
(2) Water.—An abundant supply of pure water is essential to a factory. This
may come either from deep wells or springs. The value of a never-failing
water supply cannot be overestimated.
(3) Exposure.—The factory should be so located that the receiving room is
away from the prevailing winds. This prevents dust being blown into the
factory. The curing-room should be on the side not exposed to the sun as
this will keep it cool. Fig. 59 shows a clean cheese factory of the ordinary
type. When it is desirable to cure the cheese in a cellar, it is better to locate
the factory on the side of a hill. Then the receiving and manufacturing room
may be on the ground level and the curing-room, a cellar, back of the
manufacturing room and yet all on the same level. This saves carrying the
cheese up and down stairs.
(4) Accessibility to market should not be overlooked. Often the quality of
the cheese is injured by long hauls. An important item in marketing both
milk and cheese is the use of the automobile. By its use the products are not
so long in transit, and losses from exposure in delivery are reduced. Both
milk and cheese, when exposed to the heat of the sun for any length of time,
become warm. This gives undesirable organisms chance to develop.
Page 262
Fig. 59.—A cheese factory of neat appearance.
284. The building.—Details of construction or estimates of cost will be
omitted in the present discussion. A local contractor can do this
satisfactorily and also the cost of materials is constantly changing. Only
general considerations as they apply to the manufacture of the product will
be taken up.
The building may be constructed of wood, stone, various bricks or concrete.
The kind of material will depend on the relative cost of materials in the
local market and on the amount of money available for building.
285. Heating plant.—Many of the older factories have no heating plants
and some are so poorly constructed that they cannot be warmed. Means of
heating should be provided, either by steam or a stove. The loss due to
freezing is an item which is entirely avoided in factories properly heated.
286. Curing-rooms.—The size of the curing-rooms will depend on the
amount of cheese to be handled and its location on the variety of cheese to
be manufactured. In every case, some provision should be made to control
humidity and temperature. If the room becomes hot and dry, evaporation
from the cheese will be much more rapid. In a hot curing-room, undesirable
types of ferments are more likely to develop and to injure the quality of the
cheese.
284. The building.—Details of construction or estimates of cost will be
omitted in the present discussion. A local contractor can do this
satisfactorily and also the cost of materials is constantly changing. Only
general considerations as they apply to the manufacture of the product will
be taken up.
The building may be constructed of wood, stone, various bricks or concrete.
The kind of material will depend on the relative cost of materials in the
local market and on the amount of money available for building.
285. Heating plant.—Many of the older factories have no heating plants
and some are so poorly constructed that they cannot be warmed. Means of
heating should be provided, either by steam or a stove. The loss due to
freezing is an item which is entirely avoided in factories properly heated.
286. Curing-rooms.—The size of the curing-rooms will depend on the
amount of cheese to be handled and its location on the variety of cheese to
be manufactured. In every case, some provision should be made to control
humidity and temperature. If the room becomes hot and dry, evaporation
from the cheese will be much more rapid. In a hot curing-room, undesirable
types of ferments are more likely to develop and to injure the quality of the
cheese.
Page 263
287. Light.—The importance of light should be emphasized. It acts as a
stimulant to keep things clean. It also makes the factory more cheerful.
There should be numerous windows to give plenty of light. A skylight may
often serve both as a source of light and ventilation.
288. Ventilation.—Plenty of ventilation should be provided. This may be
accomplished by means of the windows or skylight. However, it is a good
precaution to have at least one ventilator to carry off the steam and control
the circulation of air. All openings should be carefully screened to keep out
flies.
289. Boiler-room.—The boiler-room should be easily accessible from the
manufacturing rooms. A gauge located in the latter should tell the steam
pressure. Windows or doors should be so located that the flues of the boiler
can be cleaned. The coal supply should be handy. Great care should be
exercised to keep the boiler-room clean for otherwise the dirt will be
tracked all over the factory.
290. Whey tanks should be kept clean. Daily washing is absolutely
necessary to prevent offensive odors. Pasteurization of whey has been
found requisite to prevent the spread of disease if raw milk is used.130 This
is required by law in some states. It is sometimes accomplished by heat
with steam coils; in other cases by running live steam directly into the
whey. Whey tanks may be made of wood or steel. The acid of the whey
seems to eat and decompose concrete.
291. Store-room.—There should be a separate room or a place in the attic
where the supplies can be kept. This saves much waste and keeps the
factory cleaner and more tidy.
292. The floors.—The floor is the most important part of the building. It
should be of non-absorbent material, which can be easily cleaned, and it
should not leak. Concrete makes the best floor of any material used at
present. It should slope very gently to the drain. The corners between the
floor and side walls should be rounding to make cleaning easy. The drain
should be provided with bell traps to prevent the entrance of sewer gas into
the factory. If the traps and floor about them are slightly depressed, it will
help to make the floor drain more quickly. A catch-basin should be provided
stimulant to keep things clean. It also makes the factory more cheerful.
There should be numerous windows to give plenty of light. A skylight may
often serve both as a source of light and ventilation.
288. Ventilation.—Plenty of ventilation should be provided. This may be
accomplished by means of the windows or skylight. However, it is a good
precaution to have at least one ventilator to carry off the steam and control
the circulation of air. All openings should be carefully screened to keep out
flies.
289. Boiler-room.—The boiler-room should be easily accessible from the
manufacturing rooms. A gauge located in the latter should tell the steam
pressure. Windows or doors should be so located that the flues of the boiler
can be cleaned. The coal supply should be handy. Great care should be
exercised to keep the boiler-room clean for otherwise the dirt will be
tracked all over the factory.
290. Whey tanks should be kept clean. Daily washing is absolutely
necessary to prevent offensive odors. Pasteurization of whey has been
found requisite to prevent the spread of disease if raw milk is used.130 This
is required by law in some states. It is sometimes accomplished by heat
with steam coils; in other cases by running live steam directly into the
whey. Whey tanks may be made of wood or steel. The acid of the whey
seems to eat and decompose concrete.
291. Store-room.—There should be a separate room or a place in the attic
where the supplies can be kept. This saves much waste and keeps the
factory cleaner and more tidy.
292. The floors.—The floor is the most important part of the building. It
should be of non-absorbent material, which can be easily cleaned, and it
should not leak. Concrete makes the best floor of any material used at
present. It should slope very gently to the drain. The corners between the
floor and side walls should be rounding to make cleaning easy. The drain
should be provided with bell traps to prevent the entrance of sewer gas into
the factory. If the traps and floor about them are slightly depressed, it will
help to make the floor drain more quickly. A catch-basin should be provided
Page 264
just outside the factory for all solid material which might clog the sewer
pipe. This should be cleaned three or four times a year.
pipe. This should be cleaned three or four times a year.
Page 265
Fig. 60.—A well arranged Cheddar cheese factory, including the equipment for the
manufacture of whey butter.
293. Arrangement of machinery and rooms.—The rooms and machinery should be
arranged so that the work will follow the natural sequence of the process with as little
inconvenience as possible. Some of the points to be observed in this connection are: vats
should be near the weigh-can; boiler-room near the work room; cheese presses near the
vats; cheese presses near the curing-rooms and the like.
Fig. 60 shows a well arranged Cheddar cheese factory. The necessary machinery and
rooms for the manufacture of whey butter are included. In this plan, the attic contains the
store-room and the whey tanks. The whey is forced from the vats into the tanks with a
steam jet and then runs by gravity to the separator. Slides are provided in the walls of the
ice storage to regulate the flow of air into the curing-room and butter refrigerator. In order
to have a smaller boiler, a gasolene engine is used to run the separator, churn and curd-
mill. The plan can be modified to use the upstairs for a curing-room so that the size of the
factory may be reduced. The whey butter could be shifted to a small room where the
curing-room now is and the boiler-room added as a "lean-to" at one side of the building.
This would materially reduce the size of the main building.
Another plan (Fig. 61) shows the arrangement of a Cheddar cheese factory without the
whey butter apparatus. The location of the drain between the vats might be criticized. In
manufacture of whey butter.
293. Arrangement of machinery and rooms.—The rooms and machinery should be
arranged so that the work will follow the natural sequence of the process with as little
inconvenience as possible. Some of the points to be observed in this connection are: vats
should be near the weigh-can; boiler-room near the work room; cheese presses near the
vats; cheese presses near the curing-rooms and the like.
Fig. 60 shows a well arranged Cheddar cheese factory. The necessary machinery and
rooms for the manufacture of whey butter are included. In this plan, the attic contains the
store-room and the whey tanks. The whey is forced from the vats into the tanks with a
steam jet and then runs by gravity to the separator. Slides are provided in the walls of the
ice storage to regulate the flow of air into the curing-room and butter refrigerator. In order
to have a smaller boiler, a gasolene engine is used to run the separator, churn and curd-
mill. The plan can be modified to use the upstairs for a curing-room so that the size of the
factory may be reduced. The whey butter could be shifted to a small room where the
curing-room now is and the boiler-room added as a "lean-to" at one side of the building.
This would materially reduce the size of the main building.
Another plan (Fig. 61) shows the arrangement of a Cheddar cheese factory without the
whey butter apparatus. The location of the drain between the vats might be criticized. In
Page 266
Fig. 62 is shown the arrangement of a combined butter and cheese factory. Fig. 63 shows
the possible arrangement of a Limburger factory. The size of this factory could be reduced
by having the salting tables closer together.
Fig. 61.—Plan of Cheddar cheese factory without whey
butter equipment. 1, Boiler; 2, sink; 3, hot water barrel
for scalding utensils; 4, cheese vats; 5, 6, cheese presses;
7, weigh-can; 8, desk; 9, Babcock tester; 10, shelf;
11, paraffine tank; 12, cheese shelves.
In a Cheddar cheese factory, the curing-room may be over the manufacturing room. This
makes considerable work in carrying the cheese up and down. A small elevator may be
used for this purpose. The same principle holds in cheese factories in which other varieties
of cheese are made; the floors should be on one level so far as possible. There is danger of
the overhead curing-room becoming too hot and causing the cheese to leak fat. Shelves or
tables should be provided on which to put and keep the utensils. The utensils should never
be placed on the floor.
the possible arrangement of a Limburger factory. The size of this factory could be reduced
by having the salting tables closer together.
Fig. 61.—Plan of Cheddar cheese factory without whey
butter equipment. 1, Boiler; 2, sink; 3, hot water barrel
for scalding utensils; 4, cheese vats; 5, 6, cheese presses;
7, weigh-can; 8, desk; 9, Babcock tester; 10, shelf;
11, paraffine tank; 12, cheese shelves.
In a Cheddar cheese factory, the curing-room may be over the manufacturing room. This
makes considerable work in carrying the cheese up and down. A small elevator may be
used for this purpose. The same principle holds in cheese factories in which other varieties
of cheese are made; the floors should be on one level so far as possible. There is danger of
the overhead curing-room becoming too hot and causing the cheese to leak fat. Shelves or
tables should be provided on which to put and keep the utensils. The utensils should never
be placed on the floor.
Page 267
Fig. 62.—1, Boiler; 2, engine; 3, water pump; 4, work
bench; 5, wash sink; 6, press; 7, elevator; 8, cheese vats;
9, separator; 10, milk heater; 11, milk receiving vat;
12, press; 13, shelf; 14, Babcock tester; 15, weigh-can;
16, churn; 17, starter; 18, cream ripener and pasteurizer;
19, refrigerator; 20, milk sheet and sample jar; 21, milk
pump.
294. Arrangements for cleanliness.—A sink for washing the utensils should be provided
and boiling water to scald them after washing. After being scalded, tin utensils dry quickly
without rusting. The boiling water may be obtained by placing a steam pipe in a barrel of
water and turning on the steam. The utensils can then be washed clean, dipped in this
barrel of boiling water and put in their place. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on
keeping the factory itself, the utensils and the surroundings clean. This will prevent the
development of mold. Cases are known in which the cheese factory was allowed to
become very dirty, so that a red mold developed. This eventually got into the cheese and
caused red spots.131 They are called rust spots. All doors and windows should be screened
to keep out flies.
bench; 5, wash sink; 6, press; 7, elevator; 8, cheese vats;
9, separator; 10, milk heater; 11, milk receiving vat;
12, press; 13, shelf; 14, Babcock tester; 15, weigh-can;
16, churn; 17, starter; 18, cream ripener and pasteurizer;
19, refrigerator; 20, milk sheet and sample jar; 21, milk
pump.
294. Arrangements for cleanliness.—A sink for washing the utensils should be provided
and boiling water to scald them after washing. After being scalded, tin utensils dry quickly
without rusting. The boiling water may be obtained by placing a steam pipe in a barrel of
water and turning on the steam. The utensils can then be washed clean, dipped in this
barrel of boiling water and put in their place. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on
keeping the factory itself, the utensils and the surroundings clean. This will prevent the
development of mold. Cases are known in which the cheese factory was allowed to
become very dirty, so that a red mold developed. This eventually got into the cheese and
caused red spots.131 They are called rust spots. All doors and windows should be screened
to keep out flies.
Page 268
Fig. 63.—A Limburger cheese factory.
295. Equipment and supplies list.—The following utensils will be needed in a Cheddar
cheese factory to handle 10,000 pounds of milk daily: 1 5-H. P. boiler; 1 60-gallon weigh-
can; 1 conductor head and trough; 1 platform scale; 1 Babcock tester, glassware and
sample bottles; 2 700-gallon cheese vats; 2 gang cheese presses; 1 curd-mill; 2 curd-
knives; 30 cheese hoops; 1 whey strainer; 1 curd scoop; 1 long-handled dipper; 1 strainer
dipper; 1 siphon; 1 cheese knife; 1 glass graduate; 1 cheese-trier; 1 speed knife; 1
paraffine tank; 1 Marschall rennet test; 1 lactometer; 1 milk can hoist; 1 acid test; 1 sink; 1
40-quart milk can; 3 pails; 3 shot-gun cans for starter; 3 thermometers; brushes and
brooms; 1 Wisconsin curd test or fruit jars for same; 1 set counter scales; 2 curd rakes.
If whey butter is made, the equipment should include: Tanks to hold the whey; separator;
cream ripening vat; churn; butter-worker; butter refrigerator; large boiler and steam engine
or gasolene engine.
The following supplies will be needed for the making of the cheese: Bandages; boxes;
scale boards; starched circles; rennet extract or pepsin; cheese color; press cloths;
paraffine; formaldehyde; alkali; indicator;
sulfuric acid.
When choosing the utensils, the ease of
cleaning and sanitary construction should
not be overlooked. One of the most
unsanitary utensils in a factory is a dipper
Fig. 64.—A sanitary dipper with a solid handle.
with a hollow handle. Fig 64 shows a dipper
with a solid handle which any tinsmith can make. The seams of all utensils should be
flushed full of solder, to make cleaning easy. When ready to clean or wash any utensils
which have come in contact with milk or its products, the steps are as follows: rinse in
cold water, wash in warm water in which some washing-soda has been dissolved, rinse
clean, scald in boiling water. Never use a cloth to wash utensils; a brush is more sanitary.
296. Factory organization.—There are two general classes of organizations132 to operate
cheese factories, one the proprietary and the other the coöperative. Unless the kind of
organization is what the dairy-men desire, dissatisfaction is sure to result.
295. Equipment and supplies list.—The following utensils will be needed in a Cheddar
cheese factory to handle 10,000 pounds of milk daily: 1 5-H. P. boiler; 1 60-gallon weigh-
can; 1 conductor head and trough; 1 platform scale; 1 Babcock tester, glassware and
sample bottles; 2 700-gallon cheese vats; 2 gang cheese presses; 1 curd-mill; 2 curd-
knives; 30 cheese hoops; 1 whey strainer; 1 curd scoop; 1 long-handled dipper; 1 strainer
dipper; 1 siphon; 1 cheese knife; 1 glass graduate; 1 cheese-trier; 1 speed knife; 1
paraffine tank; 1 Marschall rennet test; 1 lactometer; 1 milk can hoist; 1 acid test; 1 sink; 1
40-quart milk can; 3 pails; 3 shot-gun cans for starter; 3 thermometers; brushes and
brooms; 1 Wisconsin curd test or fruit jars for same; 1 set counter scales; 2 curd rakes.
If whey butter is made, the equipment should include: Tanks to hold the whey; separator;
cream ripening vat; churn; butter-worker; butter refrigerator; large boiler and steam engine
or gasolene engine.
The following supplies will be needed for the making of the cheese: Bandages; boxes;
scale boards; starched circles; rennet extract or pepsin; cheese color; press cloths;
paraffine; formaldehyde; alkali; indicator;
sulfuric acid.
When choosing the utensils, the ease of
cleaning and sanitary construction should
not be overlooked. One of the most
unsanitary utensils in a factory is a dipper
Fig. 64.—A sanitary dipper with a solid handle.
with a hollow handle. Fig 64 shows a dipper
with a solid handle which any tinsmith can make. The seams of all utensils should be
flushed full of solder, to make cleaning easy. When ready to clean or wash any utensils
which have come in contact with milk or its products, the steps are as follows: rinse in
cold water, wash in warm water in which some washing-soda has been dissolved, rinse
clean, scald in boiling water. Never use a cloth to wash utensils; a brush is more sanitary.
296. Factory organization.—There are two general classes of organizations132 to operate
cheese factories, one the proprietary and the other the coöperative. Unless the kind of
organization is what the dairy-men desire, dissatisfaction is sure to result.
Page 269
(1) Proprietary organization.—Under this form of organization, one person owns and
operates the factory. The dairy-men are paid a stated price for milk, or the milk is made
into cheese for a stated price a pound. The proprietor receives all profits and assumes all
losses.
So far as the dairy-man is concerned, the stock company is a proprietary organization. The
gains and losses are shared by each member according to the amount of money invested.
(2) Coöperative organization.—In a true coöperative cheese factory each patron is an
owner, as the name indicates. The object of this organization is to reduce the cost of
manufacture rather than pay large dividends, so that the dairy-man with a large herd and
small capital invested in the factory obtains more returns than the one who owns
considerable capital and has a small herd. Many cheese factories are coöperative in name
only and proprietary in operation. The state of Wisconsin has a law which tends to stop
this defect and defines what organizations may use the term or name, coöperative.
The constitution of a coöperative organization should state: 1, Name; 2, object; 3, officers
and duties of officers; 4, manager or other person to run business; 5, capital stock; 6,
meetings; 7, voting power; 8, amendments.
Some of the most important statements which should appear in the constitution are
mentioned in the following sentences. A statement should show what persons are eligible
to membership in the organization. It is a careless plan simply to say that the duties of the
officers are those usually defined in such an organization. This may lead to confusion and
neglect, or both. Direct statements should be made explaining the exact duties of each
officer. The limits of the authority of the manager or person who runs the business should
be explicitly stated. The manager then knows just what his duties are and what matters or
parts of the business must be considered by other officers or committees. The amount of
capital stock and the number and value of each share should be exactly stated. The
constitution should state when and where the regular meetings must be held and by whom
and when special meetings may be called. This gives every member ample notice of the
regular meetings. Some method or means should be provided to notify each member of
the special meetings.
The voting power should be definitely stated, whether it is limited to shares of capital
stock or by members or by number of cows owned by each member. It is necessary to
indicate just how amendments to the constitution may be made. Each member should
know before the final vote just what changes are being proposed. Types of constitutions
may be found in the following references:
Elliott, W. J., Creameries and cheese factories; organization, building and equipment, Mont. Exp. Sta. Bul. 53, 1904.
Farrington, E. H., and G. H. Benkendorf, Organization and construction of creameries and cheese factories, Wis. Exp.
Sta. Bul. 244, 1915.
Van Slyke, L. L., and C. A. Publow, The science and practice of cheese making, pages 447-453, 1909.
Iowa Exp. Sta. Bul. 139, 1913. Creamery organization and construction.
operates the factory. The dairy-men are paid a stated price for milk, or the milk is made
into cheese for a stated price a pound. The proprietor receives all profits and assumes all
losses.
So far as the dairy-man is concerned, the stock company is a proprietary organization. The
gains and losses are shared by each member according to the amount of money invested.
(2) Coöperative organization.—In a true coöperative cheese factory each patron is an
owner, as the name indicates. The object of this organization is to reduce the cost of
manufacture rather than pay large dividends, so that the dairy-man with a large herd and
small capital invested in the factory obtains more returns than the one who owns
considerable capital and has a small herd. Many cheese factories are coöperative in name
only and proprietary in operation. The state of Wisconsin has a law which tends to stop
this defect and defines what organizations may use the term or name, coöperative.
The constitution of a coöperative organization should state: 1, Name; 2, object; 3, officers
and duties of officers; 4, manager or other person to run business; 5, capital stock; 6,
meetings; 7, voting power; 8, amendments.
Some of the most important statements which should appear in the constitution are
mentioned in the following sentences. A statement should show what persons are eligible
to membership in the organization. It is a careless plan simply to say that the duties of the
officers are those usually defined in such an organization. This may lead to confusion and
neglect, or both. Direct statements should be made explaining the exact duties of each
officer. The limits of the authority of the manager or person who runs the business should
be explicitly stated. The manager then knows just what his duties are and what matters or
parts of the business must be considered by other officers or committees. The amount of
capital stock and the number and value of each share should be exactly stated. The
constitution should state when and where the regular meetings must be held and by whom
and when special meetings may be called. This gives every member ample notice of the
regular meetings. Some method or means should be provided to notify each member of
the special meetings.
The voting power should be definitely stated, whether it is limited to shares of capital
stock or by members or by number of cows owned by each member. It is necessary to
indicate just how amendments to the constitution may be made. Each member should
know before the final vote just what changes are being proposed. Types of constitutions
may be found in the following references:
Elliott, W. J., Creameries and cheese factories; organization, building and equipment, Mont. Exp. Sta. Bul. 53, 1904.
Farrington, E. H., and G. H. Benkendorf, Organization and construction of creameries and cheese factories, Wis. Exp.
Sta. Bul. 244, 1915.
Van Slyke, L. L., and C. A. Publow, The science and practice of cheese making, pages 447-453, 1909.
Iowa Exp. Sta. Bul. 139, 1913. Creamery organization and construction.
Page 270
Page 271
CHAPTER XVIII
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEESE INDUSTRY IN AMERICA
Just when the first cheese was made is not known. By the time the first immigrants came
to America, cheese-making was rather generally known in Europe, so that the early
settlers brought with them and practiced established methods. The countries of Europe
developed different kinds of cheese and have since become noted for such particular
varieties, for example: France, Camembert and Roquefort; Switzerland, Swiss cheese;
England, Stilton and Cheddar; Germany, Limburger; Holland, Edam and Gouda; Italy,
Parmesan and its allies, also Gorgonzola cheese. The manufacture of these various cheeses
has been attempted in this country. Because of the difference in climatic conditions and in
some cases the use of milk of sheep or goats, it was and still is difficult to manufacture
some of the European cheeses in America. Since the climatic conditions of this country
and certain parts of England are somewhat similar, the manufacture of the cheeses of
England predominated, and there was also more information on their manufacture. These
are probably the reasons why the United States and Canada have become famous for
Cheddar cheese.
The first cheeses of the Cheddar group were made on the farms. The work was usually
performed by women, and the process was very simple. The methods were crude, and the
cheeses were made in a more or less haphazard way. The milk of the evening was placed
in a cheese tub in the dairy room and cooled to a temperature that would prevent souring.
In most cases the cream that had raised to the surface of the night's milk was removed in
the morning. This was considered an act of economy, for it was thought that in the process
of manufacture it would all pass off in the whey and be lost. The morning's milk was then
mixed with that of the evening and warmed to the setting temperature by placing a portion
in a tin pail and suspending it in a kettle of hot water. When hot, it was emptied into the
tub of cold milk. By transferring back and forth, the setting temperature was finally
reached. Few of these settlers owned thermometers. Consequently, cheese-makers were
obliged to depend on the sense of feeling to determine temperature.
One of the serious difficulties of the early manufacture was the production of rennet of a
uniform strength. After the addition of the rennet and as soon as the coagulated milk
became firm enough, it was broken into as small pieces as could be conveniently made, a
wooden knife being used for the purpose. After standing ten minutes it was stirred by
hand, breaking the pieces finer, and the temperature was gradually brought to 98° F.,
aiming as near blood heat as could be judged by the sense of feeling. It was kept at this
temperature until the moisture was out of the curd and it would squeak between the teeth.
The whey was drawn off and the curd stirred until dry, salted and put to press. All the curd
of one day was made into a cheese. This resulted in small uneven-sized cheese. Since such
cheeses were made from the milk of single dairies with all the surroundings clean, the
flavor was usually good but the texture was open and soft. The method of caring for the
HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEESE INDUSTRY IN AMERICA
Just when the first cheese was made is not known. By the time the first immigrants came
to America, cheese-making was rather generally known in Europe, so that the early
settlers brought with them and practiced established methods. The countries of Europe
developed different kinds of cheese and have since become noted for such particular
varieties, for example: France, Camembert and Roquefort; Switzerland, Swiss cheese;
England, Stilton and Cheddar; Germany, Limburger; Holland, Edam and Gouda; Italy,
Parmesan and its allies, also Gorgonzola cheese. The manufacture of these various cheeses
has been attempted in this country. Because of the difference in climatic conditions and in
some cases the use of milk of sheep or goats, it was and still is difficult to manufacture
some of the European cheeses in America. Since the climatic conditions of this country
and certain parts of England are somewhat similar, the manufacture of the cheeses of
England predominated, and there was also more information on their manufacture. These
are probably the reasons why the United States and Canada have become famous for
Cheddar cheese.
The first cheeses of the Cheddar group were made on the farms. The work was usually
performed by women, and the process was very simple. The methods were crude, and the
cheeses were made in a more or less haphazard way. The milk of the evening was placed
in a cheese tub in the dairy room and cooled to a temperature that would prevent souring.
In most cases the cream that had raised to the surface of the night's milk was removed in
the morning. This was considered an act of economy, for it was thought that in the process
of manufacture it would all pass off in the whey and be lost. The morning's milk was then
mixed with that of the evening and warmed to the setting temperature by placing a portion
in a tin pail and suspending it in a kettle of hot water. When hot, it was emptied into the
tub of cold milk. By transferring back and forth, the setting temperature was finally
reached. Few of these settlers owned thermometers. Consequently, cheese-makers were
obliged to depend on the sense of feeling to determine temperature.
One of the serious difficulties of the early manufacture was the production of rennet of a
uniform strength. After the addition of the rennet and as soon as the coagulated milk
became firm enough, it was broken into as small pieces as could be conveniently made, a
wooden knife being used for the purpose. After standing ten minutes it was stirred by
hand, breaking the pieces finer, and the temperature was gradually brought to 98° F.,
aiming as near blood heat as could be judged by the sense of feeling. It was kept at this
temperature until the moisture was out of the curd and it would squeak between the teeth.
The whey was drawn off and the curd stirred until dry, salted and put to press. All the curd
of one day was made into a cheese. This resulted in small uneven-sized cheese. Since such
cheeses were made from the milk of single dairies with all the surroundings clean, the
flavor was usually good but the texture was open and soft. The method of caring for the
Page 272
cheese and marketing was entirely different from that practiced at the present time. All the
cheeses made during the entire season were held until fall and marketed at one time. They
were packed in casks four to six in a package, one on top of the other. The earliest date
when single boxed cheeses were on the market was 1841.
Between 1820 and 1840, a small export trade in cheese was started. As this demand for
cheese increased, particularly in England, it became necessary to change the methods
employed in manufacture. The farm dairy cheese was rather an open-textured sweet curd
product. If not, it was due more to accident than to any intention of the cheese-maker to
improve the quality. One of the early complaints from England was that the cheeses were
too small and uneven in size. The practice of making on the farm continued until about
1851, when the factory system was started, although home manufactures continued after
that time. Following are the reasons for the change from the farm to factory system: (1)
England demanded larger cheese; (2) the farm product was not uniform; (3) the quality of
the farm cheese did not suit the English trade; (4) factories saved much labor on the farms;
and (5) could secure higher prices.
297. The factory system.—Where and by whom the first Cheddar cheese factory in
America was started is not definitely known. Jesse Williams of Oneida County, New York,
is supposed by many to have been the first to build and operate under the factory system,
in 1851. Cheese factories were opened in Ohio and Wisconsin about 1860. In the period
1860 to 1870, a large number of cheese factories were built in the various states,
especially New York, Ohio and Wisconsin.
298. Introduction of factory system in Canada.—In 1863, Harvey Farrington of
Herkimer, New York, was so impressed with the opportunity of developing the cheese
factory system in Canada that he sold out his business in New York and established the
first Canadian cheese factory in the town of Norwich, Ontario. It was accepted at once by
Canadian farmers, and factory cheese-making increased rapidly. In 1866, a small quantity
of cheese was exported and from that time the export trade of Canada has been large and
growing. Ontario and Quebec are now the leading provinces in the production of cheese.
299. Introduction of cheddaring.—The factories at first used the same process as the
farms, namely the stirred-curd process. In 1867, Robert McAdam introduced the English
Cheddar system in a factory near Herkimer, New York. This is the Cheddar system as
known to-day. It produces the closer bodied cheese demanded by the export trade. This
introduction made Herkimer County famous for its cheese.
300. Introduction of Swiss and Limburger.—In 1870, factories for Limburger, Swiss
and Brick cheese were started and have gradually increased. In New York such plants are
located around Boonville in Oneida County, and Theresa, in Jefferson County. In
Wisconsin, Swiss cheese-making was begun by a colony of Swiss who came to New
Glarus, Green County. It is now made in Green, Lafayette, Iowa, Grant, Dane and Rock
counties. Limburger and Brick are manufactured in Dodge, Fond du Lac, Winnebago,
Marathon, La Crosse, Buffalo, Trempealeau, Clark, Washington, Dunn, Barron and
Lincoln counties. In the southeastern part of Ohio Swiss cheese is produced. Ohio and
cheeses made during the entire season were held until fall and marketed at one time. They
were packed in casks four to six in a package, one on top of the other. The earliest date
when single boxed cheeses were on the market was 1841.
Between 1820 and 1840, a small export trade in cheese was started. As this demand for
cheese increased, particularly in England, it became necessary to change the methods
employed in manufacture. The farm dairy cheese was rather an open-textured sweet curd
product. If not, it was due more to accident than to any intention of the cheese-maker to
improve the quality. One of the early complaints from England was that the cheeses were
too small and uneven in size. The practice of making on the farm continued until about
1851, when the factory system was started, although home manufactures continued after
that time. Following are the reasons for the change from the farm to factory system: (1)
England demanded larger cheese; (2) the farm product was not uniform; (3) the quality of
the farm cheese did not suit the English trade; (4) factories saved much labor on the farms;
and (5) could secure higher prices.
297. The factory system.—Where and by whom the first Cheddar cheese factory in
America was started is not definitely known. Jesse Williams of Oneida County, New York,
is supposed by many to have been the first to build and operate under the factory system,
in 1851. Cheese factories were opened in Ohio and Wisconsin about 1860. In the period
1860 to 1870, a large number of cheese factories were built in the various states,
especially New York, Ohio and Wisconsin.
298. Introduction of factory system in Canada.—In 1863, Harvey Farrington of
Herkimer, New York, was so impressed with the opportunity of developing the cheese
factory system in Canada that he sold out his business in New York and established the
first Canadian cheese factory in the town of Norwich, Ontario. It was accepted at once by
Canadian farmers, and factory cheese-making increased rapidly. In 1866, a small quantity
of cheese was exported and from that time the export trade of Canada has been large and
growing. Ontario and Quebec are now the leading provinces in the production of cheese.
299. Introduction of cheddaring.—The factories at first used the same process as the
farms, namely the stirred-curd process. In 1867, Robert McAdam introduced the English
Cheddar system in a factory near Herkimer, New York. This is the Cheddar system as
known to-day. It produces the closer bodied cheese demanded by the export trade. This
introduction made Herkimer County famous for its cheese.
300. Introduction of Swiss and Limburger.—In 1870, factories for Limburger, Swiss
and Brick cheese were started and have gradually increased. In New York such plants are
located around Boonville in Oneida County, and Theresa, in Jefferson County. In
Wisconsin, Swiss cheese-making was begun by a colony of Swiss who came to New
Glarus, Green County. It is now made in Green, Lafayette, Iowa, Grant, Dane and Rock
counties. Limburger and Brick are manufactured in Dodge, Fond du Lac, Winnebago,
Marathon, La Crosse, Buffalo, Trempealeau, Clark, Washington, Dunn, Barron and
Lincoln counties. In the southeastern part of Ohio Swiss cheese is produced. Ohio and
Page 273
Wisconsin have manufactured more of these cheeses, especially Swiss, than any other
states. This is probably due to the fact that the conditions are more nearly like those of
Switzerland.
When the cities in New York began to grow, an increased demand for market milk was
felt. The result was that the dairy-men could not supply both the cities and the cheese
factories with milk. A large part of the cheese was being exported and most of it had
always been partly skimmed. The amount of skimming, therefore, was largely increased.
Then other animal fats were substituted for the milk-fat. This product was known as
"filled" cheese. The delay in controlling the practice of making skimmed-milk and filled
cheese ruined the export trade. In Canada laws prohibited the making of filled cheese and
as a consequence Canadian Cheddar cheese is still very popular in England. However,
with the control of skimmed-milk cheese-making and the elimination of filled cheese, the
volume continued to grow and to find outlet in local consumption. New York probably
exported more cheese than any other state. Wisconsin shipped cheese into other regions,
especially the southern states in which no cheeses were made. Some Wisconsin cheeses
were shipped to the New York market from time to time, but in October, 1913, the first
quotations133 were made in New York City for Wisconsin products.
301. Number and distribution of cheese factories.—The following list and maps (Figs.
65, 66) compiled in 1914 by the United States Department of Agriculture Dairy Division,
show the number of cheese factories in the different states and their location:
Fig. 65.—Map showing the distribution of cheese factories in the principal cheese-
producing states.
Arizona 3 New Hampshire 2
California 93 New York 995
Colorado 8 North Dakota 3
Connecticut 2 Ohio 111
Delaware 1 Oklahoma 1
Illinois 50 Oregon 42
Indiana 13 Pennsylvania 106
states. This is probably due to the fact that the conditions are more nearly like those of
Switzerland.
When the cities in New York began to grow, an increased demand for market milk was
felt. The result was that the dairy-men could not supply both the cities and the cheese
factories with milk. A large part of the cheese was being exported and most of it had
always been partly skimmed. The amount of skimming, therefore, was largely increased.
Then other animal fats were substituted for the milk-fat. This product was known as
"filled" cheese. The delay in controlling the practice of making skimmed-milk and filled
cheese ruined the export trade. In Canada laws prohibited the making of filled cheese and
as a consequence Canadian Cheddar cheese is still very popular in England. However,
with the control of skimmed-milk cheese-making and the elimination of filled cheese, the
volume continued to grow and to find outlet in local consumption. New York probably
exported more cheese than any other state. Wisconsin shipped cheese into other regions,
especially the southern states in which no cheeses were made. Some Wisconsin cheeses
were shipped to the New York market from time to time, but in October, 1913, the first
quotations133 were made in New York City for Wisconsin products.
301. Number and distribution of cheese factories.—The following list and maps (Figs.
65, 66) compiled in 1914 by the United States Department of Agriculture Dairy Division,
show the number of cheese factories in the different states and their location:
Fig. 65.—Map showing the distribution of cheese factories in the principal cheese-
producing states.
Arizona 3 New Hampshire 2
California 93 New York 995
Colorado 8 North Dakota 3
Connecticut 2 Ohio 111
Delaware 1 Oklahoma 1
Illinois 50 Oregon 42
Indiana 13 Pennsylvania 106
Page 274
Iowa 25 South Dakota 1
Kansas 1 Utah 8
Maine 5 Vermont 35
Michigan 196 Virginia 3
Minnesota 74 Washington 15
Missouri 4 West Virginia 1
Montana 1 Wisconsin 1720
Nebraska 1 ——
3520
302. Total production of cheese in the United States.—The following figures (Table
XX) compiled by the United States Census show the total production of cheese and the
amount made on farms and in factories in the United States by ten-year periods:
TABLE XX
Showing the Total Production of Cheese and Part Made on Farms and in Factories in the United States by Ten-
year Periods
1849 Total 103,663,927 pounds
1859 Total 105,535,893 pounds
1869 Total 162,927,382 pounds
1879 Total 243,157,850 pounds
1889 On farms 18,726,818 pounds
In factories 238,035,065 pounds
Total 256,761,883 pounds
1899 On farm 16,372,330 pounds
In factories 281,972,324 pounds
Total 298,344,654 pounds
1909 On farms 9,405,864 pounds
In factories 311,126,317 pounds
Total 320,532,181 pounds
Comparing the figures of 1899 with those of 1909, it is seen that the total production of
cheese in the United States increased 22,187,539 pounds, or an increase of 7.4 per cent in
1909 over 1899. During the same years the amount made on the farms decreased
6,966,454 pounds, or a decrease of 42.6 per cent, while the amount made in factories
increased 29,153,933 pounds or 10.3 per cent.
303. Rank of the leading cheese-producing states.—The rank of the leading cheese
states according to the number of factories in 1914 was: Wisconsin 1720, New York 995,
Michigan 196, Ohio 111, Pennsylvania 106.
The table on the opposite page (Table XXI) shows the amount of cheese produced by the
five states with the largest number of factories. This table indicates that New York led in
the production of cheese until some time between 1899 and 1909. This is probably
because, New York having so many cities, the demand for market milk is so large that it is
sold as such instead of being manufactured into cheese. There is about the same number of
milch cows in New York and Wisconsin. However, Wisconsin is credited with more
Kansas 1 Utah 8
Maine 5 Vermont 35
Michigan 196 Virginia 3
Minnesota 74 Washington 15
Missouri 4 West Virginia 1
Montana 1 Wisconsin 1720
Nebraska 1 ——
3520
302. Total production of cheese in the United States.—The following figures (Table
XX) compiled by the United States Census show the total production of cheese and the
amount made on farms and in factories in the United States by ten-year periods:
TABLE XX
Showing the Total Production of Cheese and Part Made on Farms and in Factories in the United States by Ten-
year Periods
1849 Total 103,663,927 pounds
1859 Total 105,535,893 pounds
1869 Total 162,927,382 pounds
1879 Total 243,157,850 pounds
1889 On farms 18,726,818 pounds
In factories 238,035,065 pounds
Total 256,761,883 pounds
1899 On farm 16,372,330 pounds
In factories 281,972,324 pounds
Total 298,344,654 pounds
1909 On farms 9,405,864 pounds
In factories 311,126,317 pounds
Total 320,532,181 pounds
Comparing the figures of 1899 with those of 1909, it is seen that the total production of
cheese in the United States increased 22,187,539 pounds, or an increase of 7.4 per cent in
1909 over 1899. During the same years the amount made on the farms decreased
6,966,454 pounds, or a decrease of 42.6 per cent, while the amount made in factories
increased 29,153,933 pounds or 10.3 per cent.
303. Rank of the leading cheese-producing states.—The rank of the leading cheese
states according to the number of factories in 1914 was: Wisconsin 1720, New York 995,
Michigan 196, Ohio 111, Pennsylvania 106.
The table on the opposite page (Table XXI) shows the amount of cheese produced by the
five states with the largest number of factories. This table indicates that New York led in
the production of cheese until some time between 1899 and 1909. This is probably
because, New York having so many cities, the demand for market milk is so large that it is
sold as such instead of being manufactured into cheese. There is about the same number of
milch cows in New York and Wisconsin. However, Wisconsin is credited with more
Page 275
cheese in 1909 than New York ever produced and this
output probably will increase, as there are
considerable areas of undeveloped agricultural land in
Wisconsin. It is also interesting to note that Ohio is
falling off in cheese production. This may be due to
the increased demand for market milk. On the other
hand, production has increased in Pennsylvania.
Fig. 66.—Showing the cheese factories
in the Pacific coast states.
TABLE XXI
Showing the Amount of Cheese Made in five Leading States by Ten-year Periods
State Year 1859 Year 1869 Year 1879 Year 1889 Year 1899 Year 1909 Year 1914
Amount in
pounds
Amount in Amount in Amount in Amount in Amount in Amount in
from
pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds
factories
only
Wisconsin 1,104,300 3,288,581 19,535,324 54,614,861 79,384,298 148,906,910 205,920,915
New York 48,548,289 100,776,012 129,163,714 124,086,524 130,010,584 105,584,947 97,614,024
Michigan 1,641,897 2,321,801 3,953,585 5,370,460 10,753,758 13,673,336 13,267,145
Ohio 21,618,893 24,153,876 32,531,683 22,254,054 19,363,528 12,473,834 8,717,996
Penn. 2,508,556 2,792,676 8,966,737 5,457,897 11,124,610 12,676,713 14,808,573
304. Exportation and importation of cheese by the United States.—The accompanying
table shows the exports and imports of cheese from 1851 to 1916 and their values, in so
far as the figures are available.
output probably will increase, as there are
considerable areas of undeveloped agricultural land in
Wisconsin. It is also interesting to note that Ohio is
falling off in cheese production. This may be due to
the increased demand for market milk. On the other
hand, production has increased in Pennsylvania.
Fig. 66.—Showing the cheese factories
in the Pacific coast states.
TABLE XXI
Showing the Amount of Cheese Made in five Leading States by Ten-year Periods
State Year 1859 Year 1869 Year 1879 Year 1889 Year 1899 Year 1909 Year 1914
Amount in
pounds
Amount in Amount in Amount in Amount in Amount in Amount in
from
pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds
factories
only
Wisconsin 1,104,300 3,288,581 19,535,324 54,614,861 79,384,298 148,906,910 205,920,915
New York 48,548,289 100,776,012 129,163,714 124,086,524 130,010,584 105,584,947 97,614,024
Michigan 1,641,897 2,321,801 3,953,585 5,370,460 10,753,758 13,673,336 13,267,145
Ohio 21,618,893 24,153,876 32,531,683 22,254,054 19,363,528 12,473,834 8,717,996
Penn. 2,508,556 2,792,676 8,966,737 5,457,897 11,124,610 12,676,713 14,808,573
304. Exportation and importation of cheese by the United States.—The accompanying
table shows the exports and imports of cheese from 1851 to 1916 and their values, in so
far as the figures are available.
Page 276
Fig. 67.—Showing relationship of total production, exports and imports of cheese.
One noteworthy item in Table XXII is that the exports have gradually decreased and
imports increased. This is probably because immigrants have demanded the cheeses of
their native country which were not made in America. The exports for the years 1915 and
1916 are interesting as they show the effect of the war on the cheese industry, the imports
being gradually decreased and the exports greatly increased.
TABLE XXII
Showing the Imports and Exports of Cheese by the United States
from 1851-1916
One noteworthy item in Table XXII is that the exports have gradually decreased and
imports increased. This is probably because immigrants have demanded the cheeses of
their native country which were not made in America. The exports for the years 1915 and
1916 are interesting as they show the effect of the war on the cheese industry, the imports
being gradually decreased and the exports greatly increased.
TABLE XXII
Showing the Imports and Exports of Cheese by the United States
from 1851-1916
Page 277
Year Imports Exports
Amount in pounds Value in dollars Amount in pounds Value in dollars
1851 603,398 —— 10,361,189 ——
1852 514,337 —— 6,650,420 ——
1853 874,949 —— 3,763,932 ——
1854 969,417 —— 7,003,974 ——
1855 1,526,942 —— 4,846,568 ——
1856 1,384,272 —— 8,737,029 ——
1857 1,400,252 —— 6,453,072 ——
1858 1,589,066 —— 8,098,527 ——
1859 1,409,420 —— 7,103,323 ——
1860 1,401,161 —— 15,515,799 ——
1861 1,090,835 —— 32,361,428 ——
1862 594,822 —— 34,052,678 ——
1863 545,966 —— 42,045,054 ——
1864 836,127 —— 47,751,329 ——
1865 985,362 —— 53,154,318 ——
1866 —— —— 36,411,985 ——
1867 1,738,657 —— 52,352,127 ——
1868 2,997,994 —— 51,097,203 ——
1869 —— —— 39,960,367 ——
1870 —— —— 57,296,327 ——
1871 —— —— 63,698,867 ——
1872 —— —— 66,204,025 ——
1873 —— —— 80,366,540 ——
1874 —— —— 90,611,077 ——
1875 —— —— 101,010,853 ——
1876 —— —— 97,676,264 ——
1877 —— —— 107,364,666 ——
1878 —— —— 123,783,736 ——
1879 —— —— 141,654,474 ——
1880 —— —— 127,553,907 ——
1881 —— —— 147,995,614 ——
1882 —— —— 127,989,782 ——
1883 —— —— 99,220,467 ——
1884 6,243,014 —— 112,869,575 ——
1885 6,247,560 —— 111,992,990 ——
1886 6,309,124 —— 91,877,235 ——
1887 6,592,192 —— 81,255,994 ——
1888 8,750,185 —— 88,008,458 ——
1889 8,207,026 —— 84,999,828 ——
1890 9,263,573 —— 95,376,053 ——
1891 8,863,640 —— 82,133,876 ——
1892 8,305,288 —— 82,100,221 ——
1893 10,195,924 —— 81,350,923 ——
1894 8,742,851 —— 73,852,134 ——
1895 10,276,293 —— 60,448,421 ——
1896 10,728,397 —— 36,777,291 ——
1897 12,319,122 —— 50,944,617 ——
1898 10,012,188 —— 53,167,280 ——
1900 13,455,990 —— 48,419,353 ——
1901 15,329,099 —— 39,813,517 ——
Amount in pounds Value in dollars Amount in pounds Value in dollars
1851 603,398 —— 10,361,189 ——
1852 514,337 —— 6,650,420 ——
1853 874,949 —— 3,763,932 ——
1854 969,417 —— 7,003,974 ——
1855 1,526,942 —— 4,846,568 ——
1856 1,384,272 —— 8,737,029 ——
1857 1,400,252 —— 6,453,072 ——
1858 1,589,066 —— 8,098,527 ——
1859 1,409,420 —— 7,103,323 ——
1860 1,401,161 —— 15,515,799 ——
1861 1,090,835 —— 32,361,428 ——
1862 594,822 —— 34,052,678 ——
1863 545,966 —— 42,045,054 ——
1864 836,127 —— 47,751,329 ——
1865 985,362 —— 53,154,318 ——
1866 —— —— 36,411,985 ——
1867 1,738,657 —— 52,352,127 ——
1868 2,997,994 —— 51,097,203 ——
1869 —— —— 39,960,367 ——
1870 —— —— 57,296,327 ——
1871 —— —— 63,698,867 ——
1872 —— —— 66,204,025 ——
1873 —— —— 80,366,540 ——
1874 —— —— 90,611,077 ——
1875 —— —— 101,010,853 ——
1876 —— —— 97,676,264 ——
1877 —— —— 107,364,666 ——
1878 —— —— 123,783,736 ——
1879 —— —— 141,654,474 ——
1880 —— —— 127,553,907 ——
1881 —— —— 147,995,614 ——
1882 —— —— 127,989,782 ——
1883 —— —— 99,220,467 ——
1884 6,243,014 —— 112,869,575 ——
1885 6,247,560 —— 111,992,990 ——
1886 6,309,124 —— 91,877,235 ——
1887 6,592,192 —— 81,255,994 ——
1888 8,750,185 —— 88,008,458 ——
1889 8,207,026 —— 84,999,828 ——
1890 9,263,573 —— 95,376,053 ——
1891 8,863,640 —— 82,133,876 ——
1892 8,305,288 —— 82,100,221 ——
1893 10,195,924 —— 81,350,923 ——
1894 8,742,851 —— 73,852,134 ——
1895 10,276,293 —— 60,448,421 ——
1896 10,728,397 —— 36,777,291 ——
1897 12,319,122 —— 50,944,617 ——
1898 10,012,188 —— 53,167,280 ——
1900 13,455,990 —— 48,419,353 ——
1901 15,329,099 —— 39,813,517 ——
Page 278
1902 17,067,714 $2,551,366 27,203,184 $2,745,597
1903 20,671,384 3,183,224 18,987,178 2,250,229
1904 22,707,103 3,284,811 23,335,172 2,452,239
1905 3,379,600 3,284,811 10,134,424 1,084,044
1906 27,286,866 4,303,830 16,562,451 1,940,620
1907 33,848,766 5,704,012 17,285,230 2,012,626
1908 5,586,706 5,704,012 8,439,031 1,092,053
1909 35,548,143 5,866,154 6,822,842 857,091
1910 40,817,524 7,053,570 2,846,709 441,017
1911 45,568,797 7,053,570 10,366,605 1,288,279
1912 46,542,007 8,807,249 6,337,559 898,035
1913 49,387,944 9,185,184 2,599,058 441,186
1914 63,784,313 11,010,693 2,427,577 414,124
1915 50,138,520 9,370,048 55,362,917 8,463,174
1916 30,087,999 7,058,420 44,394,301 7,430,089
The graph (Fig. 67) represents the total production and the exports and imports of cheese
into the United States.
305. Average yearly price of cheese.—The following table shows the average yearly
price of Cheddar cheese in the United States:
TABLE XXIII
Showing the Average Yearly Price of
Cheese, 1892-1916
1903 20,671,384 3,183,224 18,987,178 2,250,229
1904 22,707,103 3,284,811 23,335,172 2,452,239
1905 3,379,600 3,284,811 10,134,424 1,084,044
1906 27,286,866 4,303,830 16,562,451 1,940,620
1907 33,848,766 5,704,012 17,285,230 2,012,626
1908 5,586,706 5,704,012 8,439,031 1,092,053
1909 35,548,143 5,866,154 6,822,842 857,091
1910 40,817,524 7,053,570 2,846,709 441,017
1911 45,568,797 7,053,570 10,366,605 1,288,279
1912 46,542,007 8,807,249 6,337,559 898,035
1913 49,387,944 9,185,184 2,599,058 441,186
1914 63,784,313 11,010,693 2,427,577 414,124
1915 50,138,520 9,370,048 55,362,917 8,463,174
1916 30,087,999 7,058,420 44,394,301 7,430,089
The graph (Fig. 67) represents the total production and the exports and imports of cheese
into the United States.
305. Average yearly price of cheese.—The following table shows the average yearly
price of Cheddar cheese in the United States:
TABLE XXIII
Showing the Average Yearly Price of
Cheese, 1892-1916
Page 279
Year Cents
1892 9.4
1893 9.4
1894 9.7
1895 9.1
1896 8.4
1897 9.1
1898 8.6
1899 8.6
1900 10.2
1901 9.9
1902 11.9
1903 11.9
1904 10.5
1905 10.7
1906 11.7
1907 11.6
1908 12.9
1909 12.6
1910 15.5
1911 12.4
1912 14.2
1913 17.0
1914 17.1
1915 15.3
1916 16.7
The graph (Fig. 68) shows that the average yearly price has increased from 9.4 cents a
pound to 16.7 cents.
Fig. 68.—Average yearly price of cheese.
1892 9.4
1893 9.4
1894 9.7
1895 9.1
1896 8.4
1897 9.1
1898 8.6
1899 8.6
1900 10.2
1901 9.9
1902 11.9
1903 11.9
1904 10.5
1905 10.7
1906 11.7
1907 11.6
1908 12.9
1909 12.6
1910 15.5
1911 12.4
1912 14.2
1913 17.0
1914 17.1
1915 15.3
1916 16.7
The graph (Fig. 68) shows that the average yearly price has increased from 9.4 cents a
pound to 16.7 cents.
Fig. 68.—Average yearly price of cheese.
Page 280
306. Canadian cheese statistics.—The following statistics show the development of the
industry in Canada. The figures in Table XXIV show the number of cheese factories, the
amount of milk received and the total production in Canada.
Table XXIV indicates that the number of cheese factories has decreased but that the
production has increased. Because of the scarcity of figures, conclusions would not be
accurate.
The figures in Table XXV of the exports and imports show that the exports gradually
decreased and the imports increased. If the production has increased, as shown in Table
XXIV, more cheese must be consumed by the Canadians. The effect of the war is probably
seen in the year 1916, when the imports are decreased and the exports increased.
TABLE XXIV
Showing the Number of Cheese Factories, Amount of Milk
Received and the Factory Production of Cheese
industry in Canada. The figures in Table XXIV show the number of cheese factories, the
amount of milk received and the total production in Canada.
Table XXIV indicates that the number of cheese factories has decreased but that the
production has increased. Because of the scarcity of figures, conclusions would not be
accurate.
The figures in Table XXV of the exports and imports show that the exports gradually
decreased and the imports increased. If the production has increased, as shown in Table
XXIV, more cheese must be consumed by the Canadians. The effect of the war is probably
seen in the year 1916, when the imports are decreased and the exports increased.
TABLE XXIV
Showing the Number of Cheese Factories, Amount of Milk
Received and the Factory Production of Cheese
Page 281
Number of Cheese Factory Production of
Year Pounds of Milk Delivered
Factories Cheese
1900 —— —— 220,833,269
1907 —— —— 204,788,583
1910 2291 —— 199,904,205
1915 1871 1,501,946,221 183,887,837
1916 1813 1,503,997,215 192,968,597
TABLE XXV
Showing the Amount and Value of Canadian Exports and Imports of
Cheese
Year Pounds of Milk Delivered
Factories Cheese
1900 —— —— 220,833,269
1907 —— —— 204,788,583
1910 2291 —— 199,904,205
1915 1871 1,501,946,221 183,887,837
1916 1813 1,503,997,215 192,968,597
TABLE XXV
Showing the Amount and Value of Canadian Exports and Imports of
Cheese
Page 282
Year Number of Cheese Factories Pounds of Milk Delivered
Amount in Pounds Value in Dollars Amount in Pounds Value in Dollars
1880 40,368,000 $3,893,000
1890 94,260,000 9,372,212
1900 185,984,000 19,856,324
1910 180,859,000 21,607,692 683,778 ——
1911 181,895,000 20,739,507 866,653 ——
1912 163,450,000 20,888,818 919,189 ——
1913 155,216,000 20,697,000 1,495,758 ——
1914 144,478,000 18,866,000 1,512,108 ——
1915 137,601,000 19,213,000 1,162,456 ——
1916 168,961,000 —— 971,821 ——
If the total population of the United States is figured at 100 million and the difference
between the exports and imports found and added to the total production, it shows that the
average person must consume about three and one-half pounds of cheese in a year.
In the past few years there has been considerable demand for more of the foreign cheeses,
such as Camembert and Roquefort.
307. Introduction of cheese-making into new regions.—The manufacture of Cheddar
cheese is being encouraged in new regions, in the Alleghany Mountains, in Virginia, West
Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and in the western states. There has also sprung up a
considerable demand for the lactic acid group of cheeses, especially Neufchâtel and
Cottage, so that while the cheese industry may decline in certain sections, the total
production will probably increase. In the proper locations or sections, the cheese industry
has a very bright future. The development of the skimmed-milk cheeses will undoubtedly
be given considerable attention in the next few years.
References
N. Y. Dept. Agr. Bul. 54, The Dairy Industry in New York State.
N. Y. Produce Rev. and American Creamery.
Vol. 34, No. 3, page 108.
Vol. 37, No. 16, page 684.
Vol. 37, No. 16, page 666.
Vol. 37, No. 9, page 411.
Vol. 33, No. 11, page 482.
Vol. 36, No. 23, page 1078.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1897, pages 113-149.
U. S. Census.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Year Books.
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.
Statistical abstract of the U. S.
Canadian Dept. Agr. 1915, Report of the dairy and cold storage commissioner.
Amount in Pounds Value in Dollars Amount in Pounds Value in Dollars
1880 40,368,000 $3,893,000
1890 94,260,000 9,372,212
1900 185,984,000 19,856,324
1910 180,859,000 21,607,692 683,778 ——
1911 181,895,000 20,739,507 866,653 ——
1912 163,450,000 20,888,818 919,189 ——
1913 155,216,000 20,697,000 1,495,758 ——
1914 144,478,000 18,866,000 1,512,108 ——
1915 137,601,000 19,213,000 1,162,456 ——
1916 168,961,000 —— 971,821 ——
If the total population of the United States is figured at 100 million and the difference
between the exports and imports found and added to the total production, it shows that the
average person must consume about three and one-half pounds of cheese in a year.
In the past few years there has been considerable demand for more of the foreign cheeses,
such as Camembert and Roquefort.
307. Introduction of cheese-making into new regions.—The manufacture of Cheddar
cheese is being encouraged in new regions, in the Alleghany Mountains, in Virginia, West
Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and in the western states. There has also sprung up a
considerable demand for the lactic acid group of cheeses, especially Neufchâtel and
Cottage, so that while the cheese industry may decline in certain sections, the total
production will probably increase. In the proper locations or sections, the cheese industry
has a very bright future. The development of the skimmed-milk cheeses will undoubtedly
be given considerable attention in the next few years.
References
N. Y. Dept. Agr. Bul. 54, The Dairy Industry in New York State.
N. Y. Produce Rev. and American Creamery.
Vol. 34, No. 3, page 108.
Vol. 37, No. 16, page 684.
Vol. 37, No. 16, page 666.
Vol. 37, No. 9, page 411.
Vol. 33, No. 11, page 482.
Vol. 36, No. 23, page 1078.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1897, pages 113-149.
U. S. Census.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Year Books.
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce.
Statistical abstract of the U. S.
Canadian Dept. Agr. 1915, Report of the dairy and cold storage commissioner.
Page 283
Dominion of Canada, Census and Statistics office, Rept. 1915.
Page 284
CHAPTER XIX
TESTING
In connection with marketing, a certain amount of testing of the products should be
practiced, to determine exactly the results and grades of products. This includes the testing
of the whole milk, whey and cheese for fat, the milk for casein, and the cheese for
moisture. In factories in which the milk is bought on the fat basis, it is necessary to test
each patron's milk for fat. If there is a cheese-moisture law in the state, it is necessary to
test for moisture. The whey should be tested to learn the loss of fat in the manufacturing
process and to ascertain whether the losses have been reduced to the minimum.
308. The fat test.—The test commonly used to determine the fat in milk is known as the
Babcock. The principle of this test is as follows: Fat exists in the form of very small
globules. Because the fat globules are lighter than the other milk constituents, under the
influence of the force of gravity most of them rise to the surface. There, mixed with the
other milk substances, these globules form a layer of cream. Babcock found that by adding
to the milk sulfuric acid of proper strength and temperature, the casein, the milk-sugar and
the albumin are decomposed and the sticky quality of the milk is destroyed. The acid does
not decompose the fat but leaves it free to come to the surface of the mixture. Under
centrifugal force, this fat is quickly brought to the surface. By using a known quantity of
milk and having a scale graduated in percentage of the amount of milk, the percentage of
fat can be determined. Fig. 69 shows the necessary equipment.
Fig. 69.—Apparatus necessary to test milk and whey for fat and total solids.
There are three kinds of bottles employed in making the test, one with a very large neck
which is used when testing materials high in fat-content such as cream, butter and cheese.
TESTING
In connection with marketing, a certain amount of testing of the products should be
practiced, to determine exactly the results and grades of products. This includes the testing
of the whole milk, whey and cheese for fat, the milk for casein, and the cheese for
moisture. In factories in which the milk is bought on the fat basis, it is necessary to test
each patron's milk for fat. If there is a cheese-moisture law in the state, it is necessary to
test for moisture. The whey should be tested to learn the loss of fat in the manufacturing
process and to ascertain whether the losses have been reduced to the minimum.
308. The fat test.—The test commonly used to determine the fat in milk is known as the
Babcock. The principle of this test is as follows: Fat exists in the form of very small
globules. Because the fat globules are lighter than the other milk constituents, under the
influence of the force of gravity most of them rise to the surface. There, mixed with the
other milk substances, these globules form a layer of cream. Babcock found that by adding
to the milk sulfuric acid of proper strength and temperature, the casein, the milk-sugar and
the albumin are decomposed and the sticky quality of the milk is destroyed. The acid does
not decompose the fat but leaves it free to come to the surface of the mixture. Under
centrifugal force, this fat is quickly brought to the surface. By using a known quantity of
milk and having a scale graduated in percentage of the amount of milk, the percentage of
fat can be determined. Fig. 69 shows the necessary equipment.
Fig. 69.—Apparatus necessary to test milk and whey for fat and total solids.
There are three kinds of bottles employed in making the test, one with a very large neck
which is used when testing materials high in fat-content such as cream, butter and cheese.
Page 285
This is generally called a cream-test bottle. It is graduated from 0 to 50 per cent. When
testing materials with a small amount of fat such as whey, skim-milk and buttermilk, a test
bottle with two necks is used, one with a small bore for the fat and the other neck with a
larger bore to add the milk, acid, water. It is graduated from 0 to 0.5 of 1 per cent. There is
a third bottle between the other two to test whole milk. This is known as a whole-milk
bottle. It is graduated from 0 to 8 per cent. All of the glassware should comply with the
laws.
309. Sampling the milk.—One of the most important parts of testing is to obtain a fair
sample of the milk. The milk to be tested may be in a vat or in a farmer's can or a
composite sample jar. If the milk is bought on the fat basis, that of each patron is not
tested daily, but a small quantity, about half an ounce, is taken each day and placed in a
jar; this is known as a composite sample. It is the usual practice to number the patrons and
have a sample bottle for each patron with his number on it. Some substance must be added
to preserve the milk and to keep it from souring or coagulating. It is difficult to secure a
fair sample of sour milk. A wide-mouthed jar is preferred for keeping milk samples. This
must be kept closed to prevent evaporation. Each day when milk is added to the composite
sample, the bottles should be shaken to prevent the cream drying. Composite samples are
tested at least twice a month. The milk may be mixed to obtain a fair sample, by stirring in
the vat or by pouring from one bottle to another. Vigorous shaking should be avoided as
this is likely to cause churning. One should see that all the cream is removed from the
sides of the sample bottle and that it is evenly distributed through the milk. The sample of
milk is now measured out with the pipette. This is graduated to deliver 18 grams of milk,
and holds 17.6 c.c. Hold the pipette between the thumb and second finger of the right hand
with the tip below the surface of the milk, draw the milk by suction with the lips until it is
filled well above the graduation. Quickly place the forefinger over the opening and at right
angles to the pipette. By gently and carefully raising the forefinger, allow the milk to run
down until the surface is exactly level with the graduation. To obtain an accurate reading,
the pipette should be on a level with the eye. Then with the left hand, hold the milk test
bottle in a slanting position and place the tip of the pipette into it about one-third of an
inch and at a slight angle. Now let the milk slowly flow down the side of the neck of the
bottle, making certain that none is blown out by the escaping air. When all has run out of
the pipette, blow out the drop which remains in the tip. Then measure out another sample
in the same way, as the test should be made in duplicate.
310. Adding the acid.—The sulfuric acid should have a specific gravity between 1.82 and
1.83. It should be kept in glass-stoppered bottles or carboys to prevent the absorption of
moisture from the air, which will reduce its strength. Acid that is too strong might burn the
fat. The acid is a strong poison and will burn if it comes in contact with the flesh or the
clothing. In such case, it should be removed by washing with plenty of water. An alkaline
substance such as ammonia or bicarbonate of soda should be applied to remove any acid
not washed away.
The acid measure holds 17.5 c.c. and it should be filled to the graduation. Then this acid
should be added to the test bottle. The bottle should be held at an angle and slowly rotated
testing materials with a small amount of fat such as whey, skim-milk and buttermilk, a test
bottle with two necks is used, one with a small bore for the fat and the other neck with a
larger bore to add the milk, acid, water. It is graduated from 0 to 0.5 of 1 per cent. There is
a third bottle between the other two to test whole milk. This is known as a whole-milk
bottle. It is graduated from 0 to 8 per cent. All of the glassware should comply with the
laws.
309. Sampling the milk.—One of the most important parts of testing is to obtain a fair
sample of the milk. The milk to be tested may be in a vat or in a farmer's can or a
composite sample jar. If the milk is bought on the fat basis, that of each patron is not
tested daily, but a small quantity, about half an ounce, is taken each day and placed in a
jar; this is known as a composite sample. It is the usual practice to number the patrons and
have a sample bottle for each patron with his number on it. Some substance must be added
to preserve the milk and to keep it from souring or coagulating. It is difficult to secure a
fair sample of sour milk. A wide-mouthed jar is preferred for keeping milk samples. This
must be kept closed to prevent evaporation. Each day when milk is added to the composite
sample, the bottles should be shaken to prevent the cream drying. Composite samples are
tested at least twice a month. The milk may be mixed to obtain a fair sample, by stirring in
the vat or by pouring from one bottle to another. Vigorous shaking should be avoided as
this is likely to cause churning. One should see that all the cream is removed from the
sides of the sample bottle and that it is evenly distributed through the milk. The sample of
milk is now measured out with the pipette. This is graduated to deliver 18 grams of milk,
and holds 17.6 c.c. Hold the pipette between the thumb and second finger of the right hand
with the tip below the surface of the milk, draw the milk by suction with the lips until it is
filled well above the graduation. Quickly place the forefinger over the opening and at right
angles to the pipette. By gently and carefully raising the forefinger, allow the milk to run
down until the surface is exactly level with the graduation. To obtain an accurate reading,
the pipette should be on a level with the eye. Then with the left hand, hold the milk test
bottle in a slanting position and place the tip of the pipette into it about one-third of an
inch and at a slight angle. Now let the milk slowly flow down the side of the neck of the
bottle, making certain that none is blown out by the escaping air. When all has run out of
the pipette, blow out the drop which remains in the tip. Then measure out another sample
in the same way, as the test should be made in duplicate.
310. Adding the acid.—The sulfuric acid should have a specific gravity between 1.82 and
1.83. It should be kept in glass-stoppered bottles or carboys to prevent the absorption of
moisture from the air, which will reduce its strength. Acid that is too strong might burn the
fat. The acid is a strong poison and will burn if it comes in contact with the flesh or the
clothing. In such case, it should be removed by washing with plenty of water. An alkaline
substance such as ammonia or bicarbonate of soda should be applied to remove any acid
not washed away.
The acid measure holds 17.5 c.c. and it should be filled to the graduation. Then this acid
should be added to the test bottle. The bottle should be held at an angle and slowly rotated
Page 286
so that the acid will rinse down any milk remaining in the neck of the bottle. Immediately
mix the acid and milk by whirling the body of the bottle in a circle five or six inches in
diameter. The mixture should not be allowed to go into the neck of the bottle while
mixing. Continue shaking for about a minute after all the curd has disappeared. One
should avoid pointing the neck of the bottle toward any person in the mixing operation.
The acid unites with all the milk substances except the fat and generates much heat.
311. Centrifuging.—There are two machines in common use for centrifuging, one that
runs by mechanical power and the other smaller and runs by hand. If the machine and
atmosphere are very cold, the apparatus can be warmed by placing hot water in it. This is
not necessary in a steam machine. In a factory where there are a number of samples to
test, a power machine is usually employed. In this machine there are pockets or cups in
which to set the test bottles. The machine or disk must be balanced by placing bottles in
opposite pockets. These pockets are hinged so that when standing still the bottle is in an
upright position and when the centrifuge is running, it is in a horizontal position. The
machine should then be covered and started running. It should be run at the speed
indicated. After five minutes, stop the machine and fill the bottles with boiling water up to
the neck. This can be done without taking the bottles out of the machine. A pipette or
slender-spouted vessel may be used to add the water. Whirl the bottles two minutes, then
add more boiling water to bring the fat column into the graduated part of the neck of the
bottle. Then whirl one minute. The test should be read at once or the bottles kept at a
temperature of 130° to 140° F. until ready to read.
312. Reading the test.—To read the test, subtract the reading at the bottom of the fat
column from that at the highest point. The curved meniscus which always forms at the top
of the fat column should be included in the reading. Duplicate samples should not vary
more than O.2 of 1 per cent. Standard Babcock test bottles and pipettes should always be
used. In some states the agricultural experiment stations examine all glassware and mark it
to make certain that it conforms to the requirements of the state law. In New York,
glassware found to be correct is branded "S. B.," which means State Brand. In some states
a person must have a license to test milk or cream, when it is paid for on the fat test. Such
a person must pass an examination to show that he understands the test before a license,
will be granted. The license may be revoked if the work is not honestly performed.
313. Testing whey for fat.—Because of the small amount of fat in whey, it is difficult to
obtain a representative sample. The best way, if the entire amount cannot be placed in a
vat and stirred, is to catch a little of the whey at intervals as it is being drawn from the vat.
The sample to be tested is measured with the pipette the same as the milk and placed in
the skimmed-milk test bottle. The same acid is used to test whey as to test milk but
because there are not so many solids to destroy, not so much is used. If as much acid is
used with whey as with milk, it will burn the fat and so interfere with the reading of the
test. Just enough acid is added to destroy the milk substances except the fat, or enough to
turn the contents of the test bottle dark brown. This usually requires filling the acid
measure one-quarter of an inch under the graduation. The remainder of the test is the same
as for whole milk.
mix the acid and milk by whirling the body of the bottle in a circle five or six inches in
diameter. The mixture should not be allowed to go into the neck of the bottle while
mixing. Continue shaking for about a minute after all the curd has disappeared. One
should avoid pointing the neck of the bottle toward any person in the mixing operation.
The acid unites with all the milk substances except the fat and generates much heat.
311. Centrifuging.—There are two machines in common use for centrifuging, one that
runs by mechanical power and the other smaller and runs by hand. If the machine and
atmosphere are very cold, the apparatus can be warmed by placing hot water in it. This is
not necessary in a steam machine. In a factory where there are a number of samples to
test, a power machine is usually employed. In this machine there are pockets or cups in
which to set the test bottles. The machine or disk must be balanced by placing bottles in
opposite pockets. These pockets are hinged so that when standing still the bottle is in an
upright position and when the centrifuge is running, it is in a horizontal position. The
machine should then be covered and started running. It should be run at the speed
indicated. After five minutes, stop the machine and fill the bottles with boiling water up to
the neck. This can be done without taking the bottles out of the machine. A pipette or
slender-spouted vessel may be used to add the water. Whirl the bottles two minutes, then
add more boiling water to bring the fat column into the graduated part of the neck of the
bottle. Then whirl one minute. The test should be read at once or the bottles kept at a
temperature of 130° to 140° F. until ready to read.
312. Reading the test.—To read the test, subtract the reading at the bottom of the fat
column from that at the highest point. The curved meniscus which always forms at the top
of the fat column should be included in the reading. Duplicate samples should not vary
more than O.2 of 1 per cent. Standard Babcock test bottles and pipettes should always be
used. In some states the agricultural experiment stations examine all glassware and mark it
to make certain that it conforms to the requirements of the state law. In New York,
glassware found to be correct is branded "S. B.," which means State Brand. In some states
a person must have a license to test milk or cream, when it is paid for on the fat test. Such
a person must pass an examination to show that he understands the test before a license,
will be granted. The license may be revoked if the work is not honestly performed.
313. Testing whey for fat.—Because of the small amount of fat in whey, it is difficult to
obtain a representative sample. The best way, if the entire amount cannot be placed in a
vat and stirred, is to catch a little of the whey at intervals as it is being drawn from the vat.
The sample to be tested is measured with the pipette the same as the milk and placed in
the skimmed-milk test bottle. The same acid is used to test whey as to test milk but
because there are not so many solids to destroy, not so much is used. If as much acid is
used with whey as with milk, it will burn the fat and so interfere with the reading of the
test. Just enough acid is added to destroy the milk substances except the fat, or enough to
turn the contents of the test bottle dark brown. This usually requires filling the acid
measure one-quarter of an inch under the graduation. The remainder of the test is the same
as for whole milk.
Page 287
314. Testing cheese for fat.—The sample of cheese to test for fat is obtained by removing
the sample with a cheese-trier. This sample is called a "plug." Different plugs from the
same cheese will test various percentages of fat so that it is difficult to secure a
representative sample. The usual practice is to take three plugs, one near the center,
another near the outside and the third between the first two. The plugs should be put into
glass-stoppered bottles to prevent the evaporation of moisture. These plugs are then
chopped up very fine. It is of course impossible to measure the cheese as with milk and
whey, but it is weighed (Fig. 70). If the cheese is soft it can be stirred with a spatula until
well mixed. A soft cheese usually sticks to the neck of the test bottle. After being weighed,
it can be dissolved in a little sodium hydroxide and poured into the bottle. Different
amounts may be used, commonly 4½ or 6 grams, but 6 grams is to be preferred. This is
placed in the Babcock cream bottle since there will usually be more fat than can be read in
a milk bottle. After the material has been placed in the test bottle, about two-thirds of an
acid-measure of warm water is added to assist in dissolving the cheese.
Fig. 70.—Apparatus necessary to test cheese for fat.
The acid is added the same as with the milk. If all the cheese particles are not destroyed,
and therefore do not disappear, a little more acid will complete the solution. Centrifuging
is performed as with the milk.
315. Reading the test.—In a cream-test bottle the neck is so much wider that there is a
much larger meniscus. In order to obtain an accurate result, the meniscus should be
removed. This is done by carefully adding a substance called glymol, which is a mineral
oil colored red. Usually about one-quarter of an inch of glymol is added to the fat column.
This should not mix with the fat. The bottles should be placed in a hot water bath 135° to
140° F. for four minutes before reading. The temperature at reading should be 135° to
140° F. The reading is then taken from the bottom of the fat column to the line between
this and the glymol. The bottle is graduated for 18 grams of material, but as only a part of
18 grams of cheese was used for the test, the reading should be multiplied by the part of
the sample with a cheese-trier. This sample is called a "plug." Different plugs from the
same cheese will test various percentages of fat so that it is difficult to secure a
representative sample. The usual practice is to take three plugs, one near the center,
another near the outside and the third between the first two. The plugs should be put into
glass-stoppered bottles to prevent the evaporation of moisture. These plugs are then
chopped up very fine. It is of course impossible to measure the cheese as with milk and
whey, but it is weighed (Fig. 70). If the cheese is soft it can be stirred with a spatula until
well mixed. A soft cheese usually sticks to the neck of the test bottle. After being weighed,
it can be dissolved in a little sodium hydroxide and poured into the bottle. Different
amounts may be used, commonly 4½ or 6 grams, but 6 grams is to be preferred. This is
placed in the Babcock cream bottle since there will usually be more fat than can be read in
a milk bottle. After the material has been placed in the test bottle, about two-thirds of an
acid-measure of warm water is added to assist in dissolving the cheese.
Fig. 70.—Apparatus necessary to test cheese for fat.
The acid is added the same as with the milk. If all the cheese particles are not destroyed,
and therefore do not disappear, a little more acid will complete the solution. Centrifuging
is performed as with the milk.
315. Reading the test.—In a cream-test bottle the neck is so much wider that there is a
much larger meniscus. In order to obtain an accurate result, the meniscus should be
removed. This is done by carefully adding a substance called glymol, which is a mineral
oil colored red. Usually about one-quarter of an inch of glymol is added to the fat column.
This should not mix with the fat. The bottles should be placed in a hot water bath 135° to
140° F. for four minutes before reading. The temperature at reading should be 135° to
140° F. The reading is then taken from the bottom of the fat column to the line between
this and the glymol. The bottle is graduated for 18 grams of material, but as only a part of
18 grams of cheese was used for the test, the reading should be multiplied by the part of
Page 288
18 grams used. For example, suppose 6 grams of cheese were used and the test read 12 per
cent fat. Since 6 is one third of 18, the actual percentage of fat is 3 times 12, or 36 per
cent.
316. The Hart134 casein test was devised to determine the percentage of casein in milk. A
special test bottle and centrifuge are necessary. The method of making the test is as
follows: Place 2 c.c. of chloroform in the casein test tube, add 20 c.c. of a 0.25 of 1 per
cent solution of acetic acid at a temperature of 65° to 75° F. This solution of acetic acid is
made by diluting 10 c.c of glacial acetic acid with 100 c.c. of water, then dilute 25 c.c. of
this solution to 1000 c.c. with water; 5 c.c. of milk at a temperature of 65° to 75° F. is then
run into the bottle. The bottle is then covered with the thumb and inverted and the mixture
shaken vigorously for exactly twenty seconds. It is then centrifuged within twenty minutes
at a speed of 2000 revolutions a minute. The bottle should stand ten
minutes before reading the percentage of casein. There are other tests for
casein but they are very complicated.
317. Solids in the milk.—Because not only the fat but all the solids are
utilized in cheese-making, it is important to know the amount of the solids
in the milk. This is ascertained by determining the specific gravity of the
milk and knowing the fat-content; the solids not fat can then be calculated.
318. The lactometer.—The specific gravity of liquids is measured by an
instrument called a hydrometer. Its use is based on the fact that when a
solid body floats in a liquid, it displaces a volume of liquid equal in weight
to its own. Hydrometers are in many cases so made that the specific gravity
can be read at the point where the scale is even with the upper surface of
the liquid. A hydrometer that is especially adapted to milk is called a
lactometer. There are two lactometers in common use, the Quevenne and
the Board of Health.
The Quevenne lactometer.—This is a long slender hollow piece of glass
weighted at the bottom to make it float in the milk in an upright position
(Fig. 71). The upper end is slender and contains the scale. This scale is
graduated from 15 at the top to 40 at the bottom. Each reading on the scale
corresponds to the point marked specific gravity on a hydrometer, except
that the figures are not complete. For example, 15 on the Quevenne scale
means a specific gravity of 1.015; a reading of 30 on the Quevenne scale
means a specific gravity of 1.030, and so on. The Quevenne lactometer is
Fig. 71.—A
graduated to give correct results at a temperature of 60° F. The milk should Quevenne
be at this temperature. If the temperature is below or above this, a lactometer.
correction must be made to the reading. The temperature should not be
more than 10 degrees above or below 60° F. The correction for each degree in variation of
temperature can be made by adding 0.1 or subtracting 0.1 from the lactometer reading, as
the case may be. If the temperature is above 60° F., the correction is added to the
lactometer and if it is below 60° F., the correction is subtracted from the lactometer
cent fat. Since 6 is one third of 18, the actual percentage of fat is 3 times 12, or 36 per
cent.
316. The Hart134 casein test was devised to determine the percentage of casein in milk. A
special test bottle and centrifuge are necessary. The method of making the test is as
follows: Place 2 c.c. of chloroform in the casein test tube, add 20 c.c. of a 0.25 of 1 per
cent solution of acetic acid at a temperature of 65° to 75° F. This solution of acetic acid is
made by diluting 10 c.c of glacial acetic acid with 100 c.c. of water, then dilute 25 c.c. of
this solution to 1000 c.c. with water; 5 c.c. of milk at a temperature of 65° to 75° F. is then
run into the bottle. The bottle is then covered with the thumb and inverted and the mixture
shaken vigorously for exactly twenty seconds. It is then centrifuged within twenty minutes
at a speed of 2000 revolutions a minute. The bottle should stand ten
minutes before reading the percentage of casein. There are other tests for
casein but they are very complicated.
317. Solids in the milk.—Because not only the fat but all the solids are
utilized in cheese-making, it is important to know the amount of the solids
in the milk. This is ascertained by determining the specific gravity of the
milk and knowing the fat-content; the solids not fat can then be calculated.
318. The lactometer.—The specific gravity of liquids is measured by an
instrument called a hydrometer. Its use is based on the fact that when a
solid body floats in a liquid, it displaces a volume of liquid equal in weight
to its own. Hydrometers are in many cases so made that the specific gravity
can be read at the point where the scale is even with the upper surface of
the liquid. A hydrometer that is especially adapted to milk is called a
lactometer. There are two lactometers in common use, the Quevenne and
the Board of Health.
The Quevenne lactometer.—This is a long slender hollow piece of glass
weighted at the bottom to make it float in the milk in an upright position
(Fig. 71). The upper end is slender and contains the scale. This scale is
graduated from 15 at the top to 40 at the bottom. Each reading on the scale
corresponds to the point marked specific gravity on a hydrometer, except
that the figures are not complete. For example, 15 on the Quevenne scale
means a specific gravity of 1.015; a reading of 30 on the Quevenne scale
means a specific gravity of 1.030, and so on. The Quevenne lactometer is
Fig. 71.—A
graduated to give correct results at a temperature of 60° F. The milk should Quevenne
be at this temperature. If the temperature is below or above this, a lactometer.
correction must be made to the reading. The temperature should not be
more than 10 degrees above or below 60° F. The correction for each degree in variation of
temperature can be made by adding 0.1 or subtracting 0.1 from the lactometer reading, as
the case may be. If the temperature is above 60° F., the correction is added to the
lactometer and if it is below 60° F., the correction is subtracted from the lactometer
Page 289
reading. The reading should be taken when the lactometer is floating free
in the milk. The scale is read exactly at the surface of the milk. The
better lactometers have a thermometer with the scale just above or
opposite the lactometer scale.
The Board of Health lactometer.—This is very similar to the Quevenne
lactometer except that the scale is graduated from 0 to 120 (Fig. 72). The
point on the scale of the lactometer that floats at the surface in water is
represented by 0, and 100 represents the specific gravity of 1.029. On the
Board of Health lactometer, the 100 degrees or divisions from 0 to 100
equal 29 divisions on the Quevenne. Therefore, one division on the
Board of Health equals 0.29 of a division on the Quevenne. To convert
Board of Health reading to Quevenne, multiply by 0.29 and to convert
Quevenne to Board of Health, divide by 0.29. The correction for
temperatures above or below 60° F. is made the same as with the
Quevenne, except 0.3 is added or subtracted from the reading instead of
0.1 as with the Quevenne.
319. Calculating the solids not fat in the milk.—When the lactometer
reading and fat-content of the milk are known, there are several formulas
for calculating the solids not fat. In the following formulas, L equals
Quevenne lactometer reading at 60° F., and F equals the percentage of
fat in the milk:
L + 0.7 F
Fig. 72.—A
———— = S.N.F
Board of Health
5
lactometer.
L+F
———— = S.N.F
4
L
— + 0.2 F + 0.14 = S.N.F
4
320. Testing cheese for moisture.135—There are two methods of testing cheese for
moisture. The following is a simple test devised by H. C. Troy:
The ordinary butter moisture test, in which a metal cup is heated over a flame, cannot be
used for determining the percentage of water in cheese because the high temperature
developed in operating that test drives from the cheese other substances with the water.
Also, particles are lost by spattering when the cheese is heated with any degree of rapidity
in the shallow butter-moisture cups. To overcome these difficulties, the new method here
in the milk. The scale is read exactly at the surface of the milk. The
better lactometers have a thermometer with the scale just above or
opposite the lactometer scale.
The Board of Health lactometer.—This is very similar to the Quevenne
lactometer except that the scale is graduated from 0 to 120 (Fig. 72). The
point on the scale of the lactometer that floats at the surface in water is
represented by 0, and 100 represents the specific gravity of 1.029. On the
Board of Health lactometer, the 100 degrees or divisions from 0 to 100
equal 29 divisions on the Quevenne. Therefore, one division on the
Board of Health equals 0.29 of a division on the Quevenne. To convert
Board of Health reading to Quevenne, multiply by 0.29 and to convert
Quevenne to Board of Health, divide by 0.29. The correction for
temperatures above or below 60° F. is made the same as with the
Quevenne, except 0.3 is added or subtracted from the reading instead of
0.1 as with the Quevenne.
319. Calculating the solids not fat in the milk.—When the lactometer
reading and fat-content of the milk are known, there are several formulas
for calculating the solids not fat. In the following formulas, L equals
Quevenne lactometer reading at 60° F., and F equals the percentage of
fat in the milk:
L + 0.7 F
Fig. 72.—A
———— = S.N.F
Board of Health
5
lactometer.
L+F
———— = S.N.F
4
L
— + 0.2 F + 0.14 = S.N.F
4
320. Testing cheese for moisture.135—There are two methods of testing cheese for
moisture. The following is a simple test devised by H. C. Troy:
The ordinary butter moisture test, in which a metal cup is heated over a flame, cannot be
used for determining the percentage of water in cheese because the high temperature
developed in operating that test drives from the cheese other substances with the water.
Also, particles are lost by spattering when the cheese is heated with any degree of rapidity
in the shallow butter-moisture cups. To overcome these difficulties, the new method here
Page 290
described has been developed for the purpose of determining the percentage of moisture in
cheese. The apparatus consists of:
1 double-walled copper drying cup
1 centigrade thermometer registering to 200°
1 alcohol lamp
1 tripod
1 special flask
1 scales sensitive to 0.01 gram
1 set of weights, 0.01 to 100 grams
The body of the copper drying cup may be made in two parts. One of the parts is a jacket
that forms the outer wall of the apparatus. It has a flat bottom 4½ inches in diameter, and
the perpendicular wall is 4½ inches in height. The inner part of the cup must have a flat
bottom 2¾ inches in diameter and a side wall 3¾ inches high. A flange attached to the
upper rim of the inner part extends out at right angles to the cup wall and forms a cover
for the space between the walls when the two parts are put together. The flange is bent
down around its outer edge to make it fit snugly over the upper rim of the outer jacket. It
thus holds the inner cup securely in place, leaving a space about ¾ inch wide for oil
between the walls and bottoms, and permits the apparatus to be taken apart readily. A
circular opening about ½ inch in diameter is made through the flange to permit the
insertion of a thermometer for taking the temperature of the oil or the melted fat which is
used in the space between the walls. Lard or tallow serves best for use in this space; a
readily inflammable oil should not be employed. The thermometer may be permanently
held in place by passing it snugly through a hole bored in a cork, the cork being then fitted
into the hole through the flange. A flat metal cover is placed on the cup when making a
test. This cover has a hole through the center just large enough to permit the neck of the
drying flask to extend up through it. The cover assists in keeping the body of the flask at a
constant temperature by preventing the entrance of cold air currents. The thermometer
should register changes in temperature between zero and 200° C. The alcohol lamp should
yield a flame about ¼ inch in diameter and ¾ inch high. The tripod should be about 6
inches high and of proper diameter at the top to support the oil bath.
An ordinary flat-bottom glass Erlenmeyer flask, of such a diameter as to fit neatly into the
oil-bath cup, may be used to hold the cheese during the drying operation; but a special
glass flask serves better. It is made with a flat bottom 2½ inches in diameter, which will fit
into the cup of the drying apparatus. The side walls of this flask should be perpendicular
for about 1 inch, when they should begin to slope in toward the base of the neck, which
should be located about 2 inches above the bottom. The neck of the flask should be 1 inch
in diameter, with perpendicular walls, and its length should give the flask a total height of
4¾ inches. When the apparatus (Fig. 73) is put together for the first time, the melted fat or
oil may be placed in the outer jacket and the inner cup may then be fitted into position, or
the parts may be put together first and the oil then poured into the space between the cup
walls through the opening where the thermometer is to be placed. The oil should fill the
space to within an inch of the top. The cork through which the thermometer has been
cheese. The apparatus consists of:
1 double-walled copper drying cup
1 centigrade thermometer registering to 200°
1 alcohol lamp
1 tripod
1 special flask
1 scales sensitive to 0.01 gram
1 set of weights, 0.01 to 100 grams
The body of the copper drying cup may be made in two parts. One of the parts is a jacket
that forms the outer wall of the apparatus. It has a flat bottom 4½ inches in diameter, and
the perpendicular wall is 4½ inches in height. The inner part of the cup must have a flat
bottom 2¾ inches in diameter and a side wall 3¾ inches high. A flange attached to the
upper rim of the inner part extends out at right angles to the cup wall and forms a cover
for the space between the walls when the two parts are put together. The flange is bent
down around its outer edge to make it fit snugly over the upper rim of the outer jacket. It
thus holds the inner cup securely in place, leaving a space about ¾ inch wide for oil
between the walls and bottoms, and permits the apparatus to be taken apart readily. A
circular opening about ½ inch in diameter is made through the flange to permit the
insertion of a thermometer for taking the temperature of the oil or the melted fat which is
used in the space between the walls. Lard or tallow serves best for use in this space; a
readily inflammable oil should not be employed. The thermometer may be permanently
held in place by passing it snugly through a hole bored in a cork, the cork being then fitted
into the hole through the flange. A flat metal cover is placed on the cup when making a
test. This cover has a hole through the center just large enough to permit the neck of the
drying flask to extend up through it. The cover assists in keeping the body of the flask at a
constant temperature by preventing the entrance of cold air currents. The thermometer
should register changes in temperature between zero and 200° C. The alcohol lamp should
yield a flame about ¼ inch in diameter and ¾ inch high. The tripod should be about 6
inches high and of proper diameter at the top to support the oil bath.
An ordinary flat-bottom glass Erlenmeyer flask, of such a diameter as to fit neatly into the
oil-bath cup, may be used to hold the cheese during the drying operation; but a special
glass flask serves better. It is made with a flat bottom 2½ inches in diameter, which will fit
into the cup of the drying apparatus. The side walls of this flask should be perpendicular
for about 1 inch, when they should begin to slope in toward the base of the neck, which
should be located about 2 inches above the bottom. The neck of the flask should be 1 inch
in diameter, with perpendicular walls, and its length should give the flask a total height of
4¾ inches. When the apparatus (Fig. 73) is put together for the first time, the melted fat or
oil may be placed in the outer jacket and the inner cup may then be fitted into position, or
the parts may be put together first and the oil then poured into the space between the cup
walls through the opening where the thermometer is to be placed. The oil should fill the
space to within an inch of the top. The cork through which the thermometer has been
Page 291
passed is then fitted into the opening. The thermometer bulb should be placed in the oil
about half an inch above the bottom of the outer jacket. The apparatus is then placed on
the tripod over the alcohol lamp. A flame ½ inch in diameter and ¾ inch high will give
sufficient heat to hold the bath at the proper temperature. The temperature may be
regulated by raising or lowering the lamp or by changing the size of the flame by adjusting
the wick. Hundreds of tests may be run without taking the apparatus apart or changing the
oil. The copper drying cup can be made by any tinsmith. The other parts may be ordered
through any dairy or chemical supply company.
Fig. 73.—Apparatus necessary to test cheese for moisture.
In operating the test, the alcohol lamp is first lighted, so that the oil bath may be warming
while the test sample is under preparation. A representative sample of the cheese, which
may be taken with a cheese-trier and held in a glass-stoppered sample jar, is then cut into
particles about the size of kernels of wheat without removing it from the jar. This may be
accomplished with an ordinary table knife that has had the end squared and sharpened.
The clean dry flask is then accurately balanced on the scales and a 5-gram weight is
placed in the opposite scale pan. Particles of cheese from the prepared sample are put into
the flask until the scales comes to an exact balance. Great care should be taken to avoid
loss of moisture from the cheese in the preparation of the sample.
With the thermometer in the oil bath registering between 140° and 145° C. (or between
284° and 293° F.), the flask is placed in the cup of the oil bath and the flat disk-shaped
cover is adjusted over the apparatus. The flask should remain in the bath for fifty minutes,
the temperature being kept between 140° and 145° C. all the time. The flask is then
about half an inch above the bottom of the outer jacket. The apparatus is then placed on
the tripod over the alcohol lamp. A flame ½ inch in diameter and ¾ inch high will give
sufficient heat to hold the bath at the proper temperature. The temperature may be
regulated by raising or lowering the lamp or by changing the size of the flame by adjusting
the wick. Hundreds of tests may be run without taking the apparatus apart or changing the
oil. The copper drying cup can be made by any tinsmith. The other parts may be ordered
through any dairy or chemical supply company.
Fig. 73.—Apparatus necessary to test cheese for moisture.
In operating the test, the alcohol lamp is first lighted, so that the oil bath may be warming
while the test sample is under preparation. A representative sample of the cheese, which
may be taken with a cheese-trier and held in a glass-stoppered sample jar, is then cut into
particles about the size of kernels of wheat without removing it from the jar. This may be
accomplished with an ordinary table knife that has had the end squared and sharpened.
The clean dry flask is then accurately balanced on the scales and a 5-gram weight is
placed in the opposite scale pan. Particles of cheese from the prepared sample are put into
the flask until the scales comes to an exact balance. Great care should be taken to avoid
loss of moisture from the cheese in the preparation of the sample.
With the thermometer in the oil bath registering between 140° and 145° C. (or between
284° and 293° F.), the flask is placed in the cup of the oil bath and the flat disk-shaped
cover is adjusted over the apparatus. The flask should remain in the bath for fifty minutes,
the temperature being kept between 140° and 145° C. all the time. The flask is then
Page 292
removed, covered and allowed to cool to room temperature in a dry place. It is then
weighed, and the quotient obtained by dividing the loss in weight by the original weight,
multiplied by 100, gives the percentage of water in the cheese. The following shows the
method of computation:
Problem: Five grams of cheese was heated until the water contained in it was evaporated.
The remaining substance weighed 3.15 grams. What percentage of water did the cheese
contain?
Answer: 5.00 - 3.15 = 1.85
1.85 ÷ 5 = 0.37
0.37 ✕ 100 = 37 (percentage of water in cheese)
A butter-moisture scales with an extra 5-gram weight may be used for weighing out the 5
grams of cheese. If the scales indicates the amount of moisture in 10 grams of butter by
percentage graduations on its beam or by percentage weights, then it will be necessary to
multiply by 2 the percentage indicated by such scales or percentage weights when only 5
grams of cheese is used.
The moisture may be determined by weighing out a small sample of cheese and drying it
in an oven and calling the loss moisture. Many such ovens have been devised.
New York and Wisconsin have laws limiting the amount of water which may be
incorporated in Cheddar cheese. New York places the limit at 39 per cent and Wisconsin at
40 per cent. If the moisture-content is above this, the cheese must be branded adulterated.
weighed, and the quotient obtained by dividing the loss in weight by the original weight,
multiplied by 100, gives the percentage of water in the cheese. The following shows the
method of computation:
Problem: Five grams of cheese was heated until the water contained in it was evaporated.
The remaining substance weighed 3.15 grams. What percentage of water did the cheese
contain?
Answer: 5.00 - 3.15 = 1.85
1.85 ÷ 5 = 0.37
0.37 ✕ 100 = 37 (percentage of water in cheese)
A butter-moisture scales with an extra 5-gram weight may be used for weighing out the 5
grams of cheese. If the scales indicates the amount of moisture in 10 grams of butter by
percentage graduations on its beam or by percentage weights, then it will be necessary to
multiply by 2 the percentage indicated by such scales or percentage weights when only 5
grams of cheese is used.
The moisture may be determined by weighing out a small sample of cheese and drying it
in an oven and calling the loss moisture. Many such ovens have been devised.
New York and Wisconsin have laws limiting the amount of water which may be
incorporated in Cheddar cheese. New York places the limit at 39 per cent and Wisconsin at
40 per cent. If the moisture-content is above this, the cheese must be branded adulterated.
Page 293
CHAPTER XX
MARKETING
Marketing is related to cheese in two ways: First, the purchase of the raw material, the
milk; and secondly the sale of the finished product, the cheese.
321. Buying milk.—The method of paying for the milk differs in the various cheese
sections and factories. At some factories a stated price is paid for the milk or the fat. This
is usually in terms of 100 pounds of milk or for each pound of fat. This is the practice with
concerns possessing large capital. Other factories make the milk into cheese and after each
sale, the expenses necessary for operating the factory are deducted and the remainder of
the money divided among the patrons. This money is divided either on the basis of the
number of pounds of milk or of fat delivered. The question arises as to which is the better
method to buy milk for cheese-making, or the fairest way to divide the money received
from a sale of cheese.
322. Cheese yield basis of buying milk.—Let us suppose that at a cheese factory there
were five patrons: (A) delivered 100 pounds of milk testing 3 per cent fat; (B) 100 pounds
of milk testing 3.5 per cent fat; (C) 100 pounds of milk testing 4.0 per cent fat; (D) 100
pounds of milk testing 4.5 per cent fat; and (E) 100 pounds of milk testing 5.0 per cent fat.
Table XXVI shows the actual number of pounds of cheese containing 37 per cent moisture
which 100 pounds of milk containing different percentages of fat will produce. The cheese
sold net for 20 cents a pound.
TABLE XXVI
Showing Payments for Milk Based on the Actual Yield of Cheese
MARKETING
Marketing is related to cheese in two ways: First, the purchase of the raw material, the
milk; and secondly the sale of the finished product, the cheese.
321. Buying milk.—The method of paying for the milk differs in the various cheese
sections and factories. At some factories a stated price is paid for the milk or the fat. This
is usually in terms of 100 pounds of milk or for each pound of fat. This is the practice with
concerns possessing large capital. Other factories make the milk into cheese and after each
sale, the expenses necessary for operating the factory are deducted and the remainder of
the money divided among the patrons. This money is divided either on the basis of the
number of pounds of milk or of fat delivered. The question arises as to which is the better
method to buy milk for cheese-making, or the fairest way to divide the money received
from a sale of cheese.
322. Cheese yield basis of buying milk.—Let us suppose that at a cheese factory there
were five patrons: (A) delivered 100 pounds of milk testing 3 per cent fat; (B) 100 pounds
of milk testing 3.5 per cent fat; (C) 100 pounds of milk testing 4.0 per cent fat; (D) 100
pounds of milk testing 4.5 per cent fat; and (E) 100 pounds of milk testing 5.0 per cent fat.
Table XXVI shows the actual number of pounds of cheese containing 37 per cent moisture
which 100 pounds of milk containing different percentages of fat will produce. The cheese
sold net for 20 cents a pound.
TABLE XXVI
Showing Payments for Milk Based on the Actual Yield of Cheese
Page 294
Yield of Cheese
Pounds of Milk Per Cent of Fat Amount Due
Patron Containing 37% Price a Pound
Delivered in Milk Each Patron
Moisture
A 100 3.0 8.30 $.20 $1.66
B 100 3.5 9.45 .20 1.89
C 100 4.0 10.60 .20 2.12
D 100 4.5 11.74 .20 2.34
E 100 5.0 12.90 .20 2.58
Total 20.0 5.0 52.99 .20 10.59
This table shows the amount of money each patron should receive if the money were
divided on the basis of the actual yield of cheese.
323. Fat basis for payment of milk.—Let us suppose that the same five patrons delivered
the same quantity of milk testing the same percentages of fat and that the cheese sold for
the same price. A total of 20 pounds of fat was delivered and the cheese sold for $10.598;
by dividing this amount by the pounds of fat delivered, the price or value of one pound of
fat is found to be $.5299. Multiplying the pounds of fat each patron delivered by the price
a pound would give the amount of money due each patron.
TABLE XXVII
Showing Payments for Milk Based on Fat-content of Milk
Pounds of Milk Per Cent of Fat Amount Due
Patron Containing 37% Price a Pound
Delivered in Milk Each Patron
Moisture
A 100 3.0 8.30 $.20 $1.66
B 100 3.5 9.45 .20 1.89
C 100 4.0 10.60 .20 2.12
D 100 4.5 11.74 .20 2.34
E 100 5.0 12.90 .20 2.58
Total 20.0 5.0 52.99 .20 10.59
This table shows the amount of money each patron should receive if the money were
divided on the basis of the actual yield of cheese.
323. Fat basis for payment of milk.—Let us suppose that the same five patrons delivered
the same quantity of milk testing the same percentages of fat and that the cheese sold for
the same price. A total of 20 pounds of fat was delivered and the cheese sold for $10.598;
by dividing this amount by the pounds of fat delivered, the price or value of one pound of
fat is found to be $.5299. Multiplying the pounds of fat each patron delivered by the price
a pound would give the amount of money due each patron.
TABLE XXVII
Showing Payments for Milk Based on Fat-content of Milk
Page 295
Pounds of Milk Per Cent of Fat Pounds of Milk Value of Pound Amount Due
Patron
Delivered in Milk Delivered of Fat Each Patron
A 100 3.0 3.0 $.5299 $1.58
B 100 3.5 3.5 $.5299 $1.85
C 100 4.0 4.0 $.5299 $2.12
D 100 4.5 4.5 $.5299 $2.38
E 100 5.0 5.0 $.5299 $2.65
324. Weight basis or pooling method for payment of milk.—By this system, each
patron would receive an equal price for 100 pounds of milk. If the same supposition is
taken as before, there would be 500 pounds of milk delivered and the cheese sold for
$10.59; each 100 pounds of milk would be worth $2.12. As each patron delivered an equal
weight of milk, each would receive an equal amount of money, or $2.12.
325. Fat-plus-two method for payment of milk.—Some workers have thought that by
adding two to the fat test, the division of money would be more nearly the true cheese-
producing value of the milk. The amount due each patron is figured as in the fat basis,
except that two is added to the fat test and this is used as the basis of division. If the same
suppositions were used as before, each patron would receive the amount shown in Table
XXVIII.
326. Comparison of methods.—The best way to judge the different methods of paying
for milk is to compare them with the true value based on the actual cheese yield as shown
in Table XXIX.
TABLE XXVIII
Showing Payments for Milk by Fat-Plus-Two Methods
Patron
Delivered in Milk Delivered of Fat Each Patron
A 100 3.0 3.0 $.5299 $1.58
B 100 3.5 3.5 $.5299 $1.85
C 100 4.0 4.0 $.5299 $2.12
D 100 4.5 4.5 $.5299 $2.38
E 100 5.0 5.0 $.5299 $2.65
324. Weight basis or pooling method for payment of milk.—By this system, each
patron would receive an equal price for 100 pounds of milk. If the same supposition is
taken as before, there would be 500 pounds of milk delivered and the cheese sold for
$10.59; each 100 pounds of milk would be worth $2.12. As each patron delivered an equal
weight of milk, each would receive an equal amount of money, or $2.12.
325. Fat-plus-two method for payment of milk.—Some workers have thought that by
adding two to the fat test, the division of money would be more nearly the true cheese-
producing value of the milk. The amount due each patron is figured as in the fat basis,
except that two is added to the fat test and this is used as the basis of division. If the same
suppositions were used as before, each patron would receive the amount shown in Table
XXVIII.
326. Comparison of methods.—The best way to judge the different methods of paying
for milk is to compare them with the true value based on the actual cheese yield as shown
in Table XXIX.
TABLE XXVIII
Showing Payments for Milk by Fat-Plus-Two Methods
Page 296
Pounds of
Per Cent of Fat Plus Pounds of Fat Value of Amount Due
Patron Milk
Fat in Milk Two Delivered Pound of Fat Each Patron
Delivered
A 100 3.0 5.0 5.0 $.353 $1.78
B 100 3.5 5.5 5.5 .353 1.94
C 100 4.0 6.0 6.0 .353 2.12
D 100 4.5 6.5 6.5 .353 2.29
E 100 5.0 7.0 7.0 .353 2.47
TABLE XXIX
Showing the Comparison of the Different Methods of Paying for
Milk at Cheese Factories
Per Cent of Fat Plus Pounds of Fat Value of Amount Due
Patron Milk
Fat in Milk Two Delivered Pound of Fat Each Patron
Delivered
A 100 3.0 5.0 5.0 $.353 $1.78
B 100 3.5 5.5 5.5 .353 1.94
C 100 4.0 6.0 6.0 .353 2.12
D 100 4.5 6.5 6.5 .353 2.29
E 100 5.0 7.0 7.0 .353 2.47
TABLE XXIX
Showing the Comparison of the Different Methods of Paying for
Milk at Cheese Factories
Page 297
Initial
Percentage of Fat
Patron
in Milk Fat-Plus-Two
Pooling System Fat Basis
Method
A 3.0 + $0.46 - $0.08 + $0.10
B 3.5 + 0.23 - 0.04 + 0.05
C 4.0 0.00 0.00 0.00
D 4.5 - 0.23 + 0.04 - 0.05
E 5.0 - 0.46 + 0.08 - 0.10
A careful study of the above table shows that the pooling system is in favor of the dairy-
man with the poor milk, and that the fat basis favors the dairy-man with the rich milk. This
is due, of course, to the fact that the casein does not increase in the milk quite in
proportion to the fat. With the pooling system or fat basis of payment, no account is taken
of the casein; but the fat-plus-two system is an attempt to recognize the casein, but
considers the percentage of casein in all milk to be the same. This method is in favor of
the dairy-man with milk low in fat, but not to the extent of the pooling system. The latter
system considers the cheese-producing power of all milk to be the same. It favors the
dairy-man with low-testing milk. The fat basis for payment recognizes only the fat and is
an advantage to the dairy-man with the high-testing milk but not to the extent that the
pooling system is in favor of the low-testing milk. The fat-plus-two method recognizes 2
per cent of casein in the milk. This favors the dairy-men with low-testing milk. Other
methods136 of paying for milk have been devised. Because the actual yield of cheese from
the milk of different herds cannot be easily determined at the cheese factory, this method
of payment cannot be employed. In localities in which all the dairy-men have the same
breed of cattle and there is not a wide variation in the fat percentage, the fat basis is
usually found to be the most satisfactory way to pay for the milk.
327. Laws governing the production and sale of milk.—Many states have laws
regulating the sanitary conditions under which the milk may be produced. These laws
relate principally to the condition of the stables, the health of the cow, the food given the
cow, and the care of the milk. The following law137 of Wisconsin is a good example:
"Adulterated milk, what constitutes. Section 4607a. In all prosecutions under the preceding section, or any other section
of these statutes, or laws amendatory thereof or supplementary thereto, relating to the sale of adulterated milk or
adulterated cream, the term adulterated milk shall mean: milk containing less than three per centum of milk fat, or milk
containing less than eight and one-half per centum of milk solids not fat, or milk drawn from cows within eight days
before or four days after parturition, or milk from which any part of the cream has been removed, or milk which has
been diluted with water or any other fluid, or milk to which has been added or into which has been introduced any
coloring matter or chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any foreign substance whatsoever, or
milk drawn from cows kept in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow
having ulcers or other running sores, or milk drawn from cows fed unwholesome food, or milk in any stage of
putrefaction, or milk contaminated by being kept in stables containing cattle or other animals. The term adulterated
cream shall mean cream containing less than eighteen per centum of milk fat, or cream taken from milk drawn from
cows within eight days before or four days after parturition, or cream from milk to which has been added or introduced
any coloring matter or chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any foreign substance whatsoever,
or cream from milk drawn from cows kept in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or cream from milk drawn from any sick or
diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other running sores, or cream from milk drawn from cows fed unwholesome food,
Percentage of Fat
Patron
in Milk Fat-Plus-Two
Pooling System Fat Basis
Method
A 3.0 + $0.46 - $0.08 + $0.10
B 3.5 + 0.23 - 0.04 + 0.05
C 4.0 0.00 0.00 0.00
D 4.5 - 0.23 + 0.04 - 0.05
E 5.0 - 0.46 + 0.08 - 0.10
A careful study of the above table shows that the pooling system is in favor of the dairy-
man with the poor milk, and that the fat basis favors the dairy-man with the rich milk. This
is due, of course, to the fact that the casein does not increase in the milk quite in
proportion to the fat. With the pooling system or fat basis of payment, no account is taken
of the casein; but the fat-plus-two system is an attempt to recognize the casein, but
considers the percentage of casein in all milk to be the same. This method is in favor of
the dairy-man with milk low in fat, but not to the extent of the pooling system. The latter
system considers the cheese-producing power of all milk to be the same. It favors the
dairy-man with low-testing milk. The fat basis for payment recognizes only the fat and is
an advantage to the dairy-man with the high-testing milk but not to the extent that the
pooling system is in favor of the low-testing milk. The fat-plus-two method recognizes 2
per cent of casein in the milk. This favors the dairy-men with low-testing milk. Other
methods136 of paying for milk have been devised. Because the actual yield of cheese from
the milk of different herds cannot be easily determined at the cheese factory, this method
of payment cannot be employed. In localities in which all the dairy-men have the same
breed of cattle and there is not a wide variation in the fat percentage, the fat basis is
usually found to be the most satisfactory way to pay for the milk.
327. Laws governing the production and sale of milk.—Many states have laws
regulating the sanitary conditions under which the milk may be produced. These laws
relate principally to the condition of the stables, the health of the cow, the food given the
cow, and the care of the milk. The following law137 of Wisconsin is a good example:
"Adulterated milk, what constitutes. Section 4607a. In all prosecutions under the preceding section, or any other section
of these statutes, or laws amendatory thereof or supplementary thereto, relating to the sale of adulterated milk or
adulterated cream, the term adulterated milk shall mean: milk containing less than three per centum of milk fat, or milk
containing less than eight and one-half per centum of milk solids not fat, or milk drawn from cows within eight days
before or four days after parturition, or milk from which any part of the cream has been removed, or milk which has
been diluted with water or any other fluid, or milk to which has been added or into which has been introduced any
coloring matter or chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any foreign substance whatsoever, or
milk drawn from cows kept in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow
having ulcers or other running sores, or milk drawn from cows fed unwholesome food, or milk in any stage of
putrefaction, or milk contaminated by being kept in stables containing cattle or other animals. The term adulterated
cream shall mean cream containing less than eighteen per centum of milk fat, or cream taken from milk drawn from
cows within eight days before or four days after parturition, or cream from milk to which has been added or introduced
any coloring matter or chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any foreign substance whatsoever,
or cream from milk drawn from cows kept in a filthy or unhealthy condition, or cream from milk drawn from any sick or
diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other running sores, or cream from milk drawn from cows fed unwholesome food,
Page 298
or cream contaminated by being kept in stables containing cattle or other animals, or cream to which has been added or
into which has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any
foreign substance whatsoever, or cream in any stage of putrefaction, provided, that nothing in this act shall be construed
to prohibit the sale of pasteurized milk or cream to which viscogen or sucrate of lime has been added solely for the
purpose of restoring the viscosity, if the same be distinctly labeled in such manner as to advise the purchaser of its true
character; and providing that nothing in this act shall be construed as prohibiting the sale of milk commonly known as
'skimmed milk,' when the same is sold as and for 'skimmed milk.' Milk drawn from cows within eight days before or
four days after parturition, or milk to which has been added or into which has been introduced any coloring matter or
chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance, or milk drawn from cows kept in a filthy or unclean
condition, or milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other running sores, or milk drawn from
cows fed unwholesome food, or milk contaminated by being kept in stables containing cattle or other animals and cream
from any such milk, or cream in any stage of putrefaction are hereby declared to be unclean and unsanitary milk or
unclean and unsanitary cream, as the case may be."
Most states have laws which determine the legal standard of milk. Any one selling milk
which does not meet this standard is liable to be fined. The laws of most states prohibit the
taking of anything from the milk or the adding of anything to it. This prohibits the
skimming and watering. Skimmed-milk must be sold as such.
328. Marketing of cheese.—There are many different methods138 of selling cheese. Each
is adapted to certain conditions and each has its advantages and disadvantages. In cheese
sections, the customary method of selling is on the board of trade, which is the meeting of
the cheese-buyers and factory salesmen. They meet at a given place at a certain day and
hour each week. Every board has its officers. There are different ways in which a board of
trade may be operated. In some cases there is a large blackboard divided into columns. In
the first column, the salesman writes the name of the factory and the number and kind of
cheese offered for sale. At the top of the other columns are the names of the different
cheese-buyers. The president usually opens the sale at a stated time and asks that all
cheese be placed on the blackboard. When this is done he states that they are ready to
receive bids on the cheese. The buyers then write the price a pound they wish to pay
opposite each lot of cheese and in the column headed by their names. After all the bids
have been received and placed on the board, the presiding officer states that a certain
length of time, usually fifteen minutes, will be given the salesman to withdraw his cheese
if he does not think a high enough price has been offered; this is indicated by the salesman
stepping to the blackboard and erasing the factory name and number of boxes. At the close
of the stated time, the presiding officer declares the cheese offered on the board sold to the
highest bidder. The purchaser then gives the salesman directions for shipping.
Sometimes a board of trade has a committee of one member elected by the factory
salesmen and one elected by the cheese-buyers. These two members elect a third and these
three constitute the price committee. This committee meets each week and determines
what the price shall be. This is known as the ruling. The factory salesmen and cheese-
buyers then try to make private sales. By this method no one, except the persons
concerned, knows exactly what price is paid for the cheese. Usually, a price above the
ruling is paid.
At Quebec, Canada, there is a cheese-selling organization with government assistance. On
paying a certain fee, any cheese factory may join. All the factories belonging to the
organization ship their cheese to a central cold storage where the cheeses are examined
into which has been introduced any coloring matter or chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance or any
foreign substance whatsoever, or cream in any stage of putrefaction, provided, that nothing in this act shall be construed
to prohibit the sale of pasteurized milk or cream to which viscogen or sucrate of lime has been added solely for the
purpose of restoring the viscosity, if the same be distinctly labeled in such manner as to advise the purchaser of its true
character; and providing that nothing in this act shall be construed as prohibiting the sale of milk commonly known as
'skimmed milk,' when the same is sold as and for 'skimmed milk.' Milk drawn from cows within eight days before or
four days after parturition, or milk to which has been added or into which has been introduced any coloring matter or
chemical or preservative or deleterious or filthy substance, or milk drawn from cows kept in a filthy or unclean
condition, or milk drawn from any sick or diseased cow or cow having ulcers or other running sores, or milk drawn from
cows fed unwholesome food, or milk contaminated by being kept in stables containing cattle or other animals and cream
from any such milk, or cream in any stage of putrefaction are hereby declared to be unclean and unsanitary milk or
unclean and unsanitary cream, as the case may be."
Most states have laws which determine the legal standard of milk. Any one selling milk
which does not meet this standard is liable to be fined. The laws of most states prohibit the
taking of anything from the milk or the adding of anything to it. This prohibits the
skimming and watering. Skimmed-milk must be sold as such.
328. Marketing of cheese.—There are many different methods138 of selling cheese. Each
is adapted to certain conditions and each has its advantages and disadvantages. In cheese
sections, the customary method of selling is on the board of trade, which is the meeting of
the cheese-buyers and factory salesmen. They meet at a given place at a certain day and
hour each week. Every board has its officers. There are different ways in which a board of
trade may be operated. In some cases there is a large blackboard divided into columns. In
the first column, the salesman writes the name of the factory and the number and kind of
cheese offered for sale. At the top of the other columns are the names of the different
cheese-buyers. The president usually opens the sale at a stated time and asks that all
cheese be placed on the blackboard. When this is done he states that they are ready to
receive bids on the cheese. The buyers then write the price a pound they wish to pay
opposite each lot of cheese and in the column headed by their names. After all the bids
have been received and placed on the board, the presiding officer states that a certain
length of time, usually fifteen minutes, will be given the salesman to withdraw his cheese
if he does not think a high enough price has been offered; this is indicated by the salesman
stepping to the blackboard and erasing the factory name and number of boxes. At the close
of the stated time, the presiding officer declares the cheese offered on the board sold to the
highest bidder. The purchaser then gives the salesman directions for shipping.
Sometimes a board of trade has a committee of one member elected by the factory
salesmen and one elected by the cheese-buyers. These two members elect a third and these
three constitute the price committee. This committee meets each week and determines
what the price shall be. This is known as the ruling. The factory salesmen and cheese-
buyers then try to make private sales. By this method no one, except the persons
concerned, knows exactly what price is paid for the cheese. Usually, a price above the
ruling is paid.
At Quebec, Canada, there is a cheese-selling organization with government assistance. On
paying a certain fee, any cheese factory may join. All the factories belonging to the
organization ship their cheese to a central cold storage where the cheeses are examined
Page 299
and graded by a government inspector. A cheese from each vat is tried. These cheeses are
separated into white and colored lots, then graded according to quality. When the total
number of cheeses in each lot is known, the lots are sold at auction. The purchaser must
accept the cheese as graded. The better grades of cheese bring about the same price as on
the market, but the advantage lies in the selling of the lower grades. Ordinarily, the
purchaser takes advantage of the salesman when the cheeses are undergrade. The success
of this plan depends on the accuracy of the person grading the cheese. This method seems
to be growing in popularity, because the cheese-buyer can purchase large amounts of
cheese at one time and be sure of the quality. A small fee, about one-twelfth of a cent a
pound, is charged for handling the cheese. Similar organizations are in operation in
Wisconsin. The boards of trade and selling organizations deal almost entirely in Cheddar
cheese.
329. Mercantile exchanges.—In the larger cities are exchanges where cheese is bought
and sold by jobbers. This cheese is mostly Cheddar. The prices paid these jobbers tend to
fix the daily price of cheese. These prices are published daily, for example, in New York
Price Current. Some factories ship their cheese directly to these jobbers. The following are
the cheese rules of the New York Mercantile Exchange adopted May 4, 1915:
CHEESE RULES OF THE NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE
Rule 1. At the first regular meeting of the Executive Committee in each year, the President shall appoint, subject to the
approval of the Executive Committee, a Cheese Committee to consist of seven members of the Exchange, who are
known as members of the cheese trade, to hold office until their successors are appointed. It shall be the duty of the
Cheese Committee to formulate such rules and regulations as may be necessary for the government of transactions
between members of the Exchange, and to revise the same as circumstances may require. Such rules and revisions shall
be subject to the approval of the Executive Committee.
Rule 2. All transactions in cheese between members of the Exchange shall be governed by the following rules, but
nothing therein shall be construed as interfering, in any way, with the rights of members to make such special contracts
or conditions as they may desire.
Rule 3. If a sale is made from dock, or platform, or to arrive, the buyer shall assume the same relations toward the
transportation line by which the cheese arrives, as the seller previously held as regards its removal from the place of
delivery within the time granted by such lines for that purpose. Transactions between members of this Exchange shall be
governed as follows: Any member negotiating for any lot of cheese belonging to another member, the price having been
agreed upon, shall examine such lot of cheese within twenty-four (24) hours after such negotiation takes place. Failure to
examine within said time releases the seller from any obligations to make delivery thereafter, if he so wishes.
Rule 4. In the absence of special agreement, all cheese purchased "in store" shall be understood as being ready and
designed for immediate delivery, but the buyer shall have twenty-four hours in which to have the cheese inspected, and
weight tested, and shall not be liable for the storage and insurance, if removed within two days.
Rule 5. When cheese are sold to arrive, or from depot or dock, the cheese must be accepted or rejected within six
business hours after notice of actual arrival to buyer. Business hours shall be understood to be from 10 A.M. to 4 P.M. If
buyer rejects the same, he shall state the reasons for rejection. Should the rejection be considered unfair, the seller shall
at once notify the buyer that he declines to accept such rejection; and he may call for a Committee, which shall be
composed of three members of the cheese trade; the seller choosing one, the buyer one, and the third selected from the
cheese trade by these two, or, they failing to agree, the third shall be appointed by the Chairman of the Committee on
Cheese. The Examining Committee shall at once inspect the lot of cheese in dispute, sampling not less than five (5) per
cent of each mark or factory, and they shall immediately give their decision in writing to both parties. Either party failing
to abide by the decision of the Committee may be summoned by the other party before the Complaint Committee under
Section 24 of the By-laws. The fees for each examination shall be six ($6) dollars, to be paid by the party adjudged to be
in fault.
separated into white and colored lots, then graded according to quality. When the total
number of cheeses in each lot is known, the lots are sold at auction. The purchaser must
accept the cheese as graded. The better grades of cheese bring about the same price as on
the market, but the advantage lies in the selling of the lower grades. Ordinarily, the
purchaser takes advantage of the salesman when the cheeses are undergrade. The success
of this plan depends on the accuracy of the person grading the cheese. This method seems
to be growing in popularity, because the cheese-buyer can purchase large amounts of
cheese at one time and be sure of the quality. A small fee, about one-twelfth of a cent a
pound, is charged for handling the cheese. Similar organizations are in operation in
Wisconsin. The boards of trade and selling organizations deal almost entirely in Cheddar
cheese.
329. Mercantile exchanges.—In the larger cities are exchanges where cheese is bought
and sold by jobbers. This cheese is mostly Cheddar. The prices paid these jobbers tend to
fix the daily price of cheese. These prices are published daily, for example, in New York
Price Current. Some factories ship their cheese directly to these jobbers. The following are
the cheese rules of the New York Mercantile Exchange adopted May 4, 1915:
CHEESE RULES OF THE NEW YORK MERCANTILE EXCHANGE
Rule 1. At the first regular meeting of the Executive Committee in each year, the President shall appoint, subject to the
approval of the Executive Committee, a Cheese Committee to consist of seven members of the Exchange, who are
known as members of the cheese trade, to hold office until their successors are appointed. It shall be the duty of the
Cheese Committee to formulate such rules and regulations as may be necessary for the government of transactions
between members of the Exchange, and to revise the same as circumstances may require. Such rules and revisions shall
be subject to the approval of the Executive Committee.
Rule 2. All transactions in cheese between members of the Exchange shall be governed by the following rules, but
nothing therein shall be construed as interfering, in any way, with the rights of members to make such special contracts
or conditions as they may desire.
Rule 3. If a sale is made from dock, or platform, or to arrive, the buyer shall assume the same relations toward the
transportation line by which the cheese arrives, as the seller previously held as regards its removal from the place of
delivery within the time granted by such lines for that purpose. Transactions between members of this Exchange shall be
governed as follows: Any member negotiating for any lot of cheese belonging to another member, the price having been
agreed upon, shall examine such lot of cheese within twenty-four (24) hours after such negotiation takes place. Failure to
examine within said time releases the seller from any obligations to make delivery thereafter, if he so wishes.
Rule 4. In the absence of special agreement, all cheese purchased "in store" shall be understood as being ready and
designed for immediate delivery, but the buyer shall have twenty-four hours in which to have the cheese inspected, and
weight tested, and shall not be liable for the storage and insurance, if removed within two days.
Rule 5. When cheese are sold to arrive, or from depot or dock, the cheese must be accepted or rejected within six
business hours after notice of actual arrival to buyer. Business hours shall be understood to be from 10 A.M. to 4 P.M. If
buyer rejects the same, he shall state the reasons for rejection. Should the rejection be considered unfair, the seller shall
at once notify the buyer that he declines to accept such rejection; and he may call for a Committee, which shall be
composed of three members of the cheese trade; the seller choosing one, the buyer one, and the third selected from the
cheese trade by these two, or, they failing to agree, the third shall be appointed by the Chairman of the Committee on
Cheese. The Examining Committee shall at once inspect the lot of cheese in dispute, sampling not less than five (5) per
cent of each mark or factory, and they shall immediately give their decision in writing to both parties. Either party failing
to abide by the decision of the Committee may be summoned by the other party before the Complaint Committee under
Section 24 of the By-laws. The fees for each examination shall be six ($6) dollars, to be paid by the party adjudged to be
in fault.
Page 300
Rule 6. The weight of all cheese shall be tested by a regularly appointed official weigher, and his certificates shall
accompany the document conveying the title of the property. Said official weigher to be appointed by the Committee on
Cheese, subject to the approval of the Executive Committee.
Rule 7. The weigher's fee shall be twenty-five (25) cents per factory except where the owner requires more than ten (10)
boxes be tested in which case the fee shall be fifty (50) cents, which shall be paid by the seller.
Rule 8. Unless otherwise agreed upon in testing the weight of cheese, not less than five (5) boxes or more than ten (10)
per cent of the whole lot shall be a test, and said test shall be considered good for three (3) business days, including day
test is made.
Rule 9. In testing weights, all over and short weights shall be taken into the average on each particular factory. Single
Daisies shall be tested on half pounds, Double Daisies and all other sizes on even pounds.
Rule 10. Where a lot of cheese is found to test irregular in weights, either the buyer or seller may require the entire lot to
be reweighed. The charge for same shall be three (3) cents per box.
Rule 11. Boxes of cheese which may be found largely at variance from original weights shall not enter into the average,
but their weight shall be separately ascertained and certified to by the weigher.
Rule 12. Where sales are made, and the buyer finds damaged or sour cheese in excess of fifteen (15) per cent it shall be
optional with him to refuse or receive the remainder of the lot purchased. But, in the event of his accepting the
remainder of the lot, the sour or damaged cheese shall revert to the seller.
Rule 13. The Committee on Cheese shall appoint subject to the approval of the Executive Committee, a Cheese
Inspector and also a Deputy Inspector, whose duties shall be, when called upon by members of the Exchange, to inspect
the quality and condition of such lots of cheese as may be required and to render a certificate of such inspection. Where
the cheese in the lots are reasonably uniform in quality, the examination of 10 per cent of the lot shall be considered
sufficient, but this shall not prevent the Inspector examining a larger percentage of the lot, when he deems it necessary.
The fee for inspection shall be fifty (50) cents for lots consisting of fifty (50) boxes or less. Lots exceeding fifty (50)
boxes shall be one cent per box, which shall be collected from the member ordering the inspection.
Rule 14. The Cheese Inspector's certificate shall be made to read as follows:
The certificate to have a blank margin of three inches at the bottom, for the purpose of inserting specifications of
Institutions, also for cheese sold under the Call, so that the Inspector may certify that cheese inspected fill the
requirements as specified and the Inspector shall brand one impression on both boxes and cheese.
accompany the document conveying the title of the property. Said official weigher to be appointed by the Committee on
Cheese, subject to the approval of the Executive Committee.
Rule 7. The weigher's fee shall be twenty-five (25) cents per factory except where the owner requires more than ten (10)
boxes be tested in which case the fee shall be fifty (50) cents, which shall be paid by the seller.
Rule 8. Unless otherwise agreed upon in testing the weight of cheese, not less than five (5) boxes or more than ten (10)
per cent of the whole lot shall be a test, and said test shall be considered good for three (3) business days, including day
test is made.
Rule 9. In testing weights, all over and short weights shall be taken into the average on each particular factory. Single
Daisies shall be tested on half pounds, Double Daisies and all other sizes on even pounds.
Rule 10. Where a lot of cheese is found to test irregular in weights, either the buyer or seller may require the entire lot to
be reweighed. The charge for same shall be three (3) cents per box.
Rule 11. Boxes of cheese which may be found largely at variance from original weights shall not enter into the average,
but their weight shall be separately ascertained and certified to by the weigher.
Rule 12. Where sales are made, and the buyer finds damaged or sour cheese in excess of fifteen (15) per cent it shall be
optional with him to refuse or receive the remainder of the lot purchased. But, in the event of his accepting the
remainder of the lot, the sour or damaged cheese shall revert to the seller.
Rule 13. The Committee on Cheese shall appoint subject to the approval of the Executive Committee, a Cheese
Inspector and also a Deputy Inspector, whose duties shall be, when called upon by members of the Exchange, to inspect
the quality and condition of such lots of cheese as may be required and to render a certificate of such inspection. Where
the cheese in the lots are reasonably uniform in quality, the examination of 10 per cent of the lot shall be considered
sufficient, but this shall not prevent the Inspector examining a larger percentage of the lot, when he deems it necessary.
The fee for inspection shall be fifty (50) cents for lots consisting of fifty (50) boxes or less. Lots exceeding fifty (50)
boxes shall be one cent per box, which shall be collected from the member ordering the inspection.
Rule 14. The Cheese Inspector's certificate shall be made to read as follows:
The certificate to have a blank margin of three inches at the bottom, for the purpose of inserting specifications of
Institutions, also for cheese sold under the Call, so that the Inspector may certify that cheese inspected fill the
requirements as specified and the Inspector shall brand one impression on both boxes and cheese.
Page 301
Rule 16. The Weigher's Certificate shall be made to read as follows:
and the Cheese Rules numbered 6 to 11 inclusive be printed on the back thereof.
Rule 17. Members offering cheese for sale under the Call shall describe each lot, as to number of boxes, color, texture
(open or close made), body, flavor, size, and how boxed, section where made, whether whole milks or skims and the
average weight of each lot. Cheese sold under the Call to be accepted, or rejected, as a good delivery, or otherwise,
based on the description given at the sale.
Rule 18. When cheese are sold under the Call, unless otherwise stated, they shall be ready for immediate shipment.
Rule 19. All cheese offered under the Call, with Inspector's Certificate attached, shall be accompanied by such
Certificate and be accepted by the buyer unconditionally, provided the cheese are branded according to Rule 13.
Rule 20. When cheese are offered under the Call, without Inspector's Certificate, should the buyer not consider the
cheese a good delivery, according to description by seller, he may notify the seller, and if the seller is unwilling to make
another delivery, the buyer may call upon the Inspector to decide whether or not the delivery shall stand. If the Inspector
decides it is a good delivery, the buyer shall accept the cheese. If the Inspector decides it is not a good delivery, then the
seller shall have twenty-four (24) hours in which to make a good delivery. But if the seller, after twenty-four (24) hours,
fails to make a good delivery, then the buyer shall notify the Superintendent of the Exchange, who shall collect a penalty
of three per cent of the amount of the transaction, the Exchange retaining twenty-five per cent of this sum, and seventy-
five per cent shall be paid to the buyer.
Rule 21. Spot sales under the Call shall be for spot cash unless otherwise agreed.
Rule 22. All failures in meeting contracts shall be reported to the Superintendent of the Exchange, and announced at next
regular session of the Exchange.
330. Marketing perishable varieties.—Soft cheeses, such as Cream, Neufchâtel,
Cottage, are usually sold to jobbers or directly to retail stores. They have a very short
commercial life, hence cannot be held long before delivery to the consumer. From the
jobber, cheese usually goes to the wholesale grocer and then to the retail dealer and finally
the consumer. Most jobbers have cold storages so that they can hold cheese without injury
to quality. (See Fig. 74.) The kind of cheese marketed in any locality depends on the tastes
of the residents. For example, the South usually desires a highly colored product, thinking
this color indicates more fat; in the Cheddar group New England demands a soft pasty
and the Cheese Rules numbered 6 to 11 inclusive be printed on the back thereof.
Rule 17. Members offering cheese for sale under the Call shall describe each lot, as to number of boxes, color, texture
(open or close made), body, flavor, size, and how boxed, section where made, whether whole milks or skims and the
average weight of each lot. Cheese sold under the Call to be accepted, or rejected, as a good delivery, or otherwise,
based on the description given at the sale.
Rule 18. When cheese are sold under the Call, unless otherwise stated, they shall be ready for immediate shipment.
Rule 19. All cheese offered under the Call, with Inspector's Certificate attached, shall be accompanied by such
Certificate and be accepted by the buyer unconditionally, provided the cheese are branded according to Rule 13.
Rule 20. When cheese are offered under the Call, without Inspector's Certificate, should the buyer not consider the
cheese a good delivery, according to description by seller, he may notify the seller, and if the seller is unwilling to make
another delivery, the buyer may call upon the Inspector to decide whether or not the delivery shall stand. If the Inspector
decides it is a good delivery, the buyer shall accept the cheese. If the Inspector decides it is not a good delivery, then the
seller shall have twenty-four (24) hours in which to make a good delivery. But if the seller, after twenty-four (24) hours,
fails to make a good delivery, then the buyer shall notify the Superintendent of the Exchange, who shall collect a penalty
of three per cent of the amount of the transaction, the Exchange retaining twenty-five per cent of this sum, and seventy-
five per cent shall be paid to the buyer.
Rule 21. Spot sales under the Call shall be for spot cash unless otherwise agreed.
Rule 22. All failures in meeting contracts shall be reported to the Superintendent of the Exchange, and announced at next
regular session of the Exchange.
330. Marketing perishable varieties.—Soft cheeses, such as Cream, Neufchâtel,
Cottage, are usually sold to jobbers or directly to retail stores. They have a very short
commercial life, hence cannot be held long before delivery to the consumer. From the
jobber, cheese usually goes to the wholesale grocer and then to the retail dealer and finally
the consumer. Most jobbers have cold storages so that they can hold cheese without injury
to quality. (See Fig. 74.) The kind of cheese marketed in any locality depends on the tastes
of the residents. For example, the South usually desires a highly colored product, thinking
this color indicates more fat; in the Cheddar group New England demands a soft pasty
Page 302
quick-curing cheese, thinking that softness is a sign of more fat and richness; England
wants a rather dry, well-cured, highly flavored cheese. Canadian Cheddar cheese has been
standardized as far as possible to appeal to the English market. A long ripening period
keeps capital tied up through the further time required for delivery. This has led to the sale
of much of the cheese almost or entirely unripe. So much of the product has reached the
consumer without characteristic varietal flavor that large numbers have acquired the habit
of purchasing and even preferring cheese only partly ripe.
Fig. 74.—A cheese cold storage room.
The time during which cheese should be held at the factory depends on the variety. Some
are shipped as soon as made, including those cheeses with sour-milk flavor only. Others
have to be cured in the factory from six to eight weeks. Cheeses in paper or tin-foil should
be neatly wrapped and carefully put in the boxes. The box of cheese should be neat, clean
and attractive. Cheeses not wrapped should have a firm rind to hold them in shape. The
boxes should be clean and the weight of cheese neatly and plainly marked. In the case of
Cheddar cheese, it may be paraffined at the factory, but if not, this is usually done at the
cold storage of the jobber. The cheeses usually have some time to cure or ripen while
being handled by the various dealers.
331. Distribution of price.—The final selling price of cheese is a composite of all the
changes that have gone before; or conversely, the farmer, the maker, the carrier and the
distributors (wholesale, jobbing and retail dealers) must all be paid from the final price of
the product. A study of this problem in Wisconsin has been made by Hibbard, and
Hobson.139 The general facts as determined for Wisconsin have fairly wide application to
the manufacture and sale of cheese.
Economic success in handling cheese is dependent on proper provision for the sale of the
product. Where the output is small, a personal market can be created and maintained. This
eliminates all profits intervening between the maker and the retailer. If the business
reaches a volume beyond the possibilities of direct sale to the retailer, some selling
organization is necessary. Where the number of producers is great and the selling
wants a rather dry, well-cured, highly flavored cheese. Canadian Cheddar cheese has been
standardized as far as possible to appeal to the English market. A long ripening period
keeps capital tied up through the further time required for delivery. This has led to the sale
of much of the cheese almost or entirely unripe. So much of the product has reached the
consumer without characteristic varietal flavor that large numbers have acquired the habit
of purchasing and even preferring cheese only partly ripe.
Fig. 74.—A cheese cold storage room.
The time during which cheese should be held at the factory depends on the variety. Some
are shipped as soon as made, including those cheeses with sour-milk flavor only. Others
have to be cured in the factory from six to eight weeks. Cheeses in paper or tin-foil should
be neatly wrapped and carefully put in the boxes. The box of cheese should be neat, clean
and attractive. Cheeses not wrapped should have a firm rind to hold them in shape. The
boxes should be clean and the weight of cheese neatly and plainly marked. In the case of
Cheddar cheese, it may be paraffined at the factory, but if not, this is usually done at the
cold storage of the jobber. The cheeses usually have some time to cure or ripen while
being handled by the various dealers.
331. Distribution of price.—The final selling price of cheese is a composite of all the
changes that have gone before; or conversely, the farmer, the maker, the carrier and the
distributors (wholesale, jobbing and retail dealers) must all be paid from the final price of
the product. A study of this problem in Wisconsin has been made by Hibbard, and
Hobson.139 The general facts as determined for Wisconsin have fairly wide application to
the manufacture and sale of cheese.
Economic success in handling cheese is dependent on proper provision for the sale of the
product. Where the output is small, a personal market can be created and maintained. This
eliminates all profits intervening between the maker and the retailer. If the business
reaches a volume beyond the possibilities of direct sale to the retailer, some selling
organization is necessary. Where the number of producers is great and the selling
Page 303
machinery is well organized, the cheese factory becomes a producer of a commodity
which is turned over to existing selling agencies. This condition is well established for
Cheddar, Swiss, Brick and Limburger cheese. The soft cheeses other than Limburger have
thus far been handled principally by large companies, each of which has developed an
expensive selling organization. A study of the map (Fig. 65) shows how the cheese
industry is localized in particular sections of certain states. Individual factories have
maintained themselves in widely separated places. This localization is due to the
geographical conditions which make certain regions specially adapted to dairying,
modified by the proximity to markets for milk as milk. There are many regions, however,
well adapted to cheese production in which there is no development of the industry at
present. New developments are now taking place in the mountain areas of the South,
notably North Carolina and adjacent states, and in several centers of the western mountain
states. Many other areas should develop the making of cheese in some form.
The actual costs of making and selling cheese were found by the Wisconsin investigators
to vary approximately as follows: (1) cost of making, 1.2 to 1.75 cents; (2) storage, ⅟8 cent
a pound a month, or ⅜ to ½ cent for the season; (3) transportation to distant points, $.20 to
$2.50 for 100 pounds according to distance; (4) the local dealer, about 1 cent a pound; (5)
the wholesale dealer, 2 cents; (6) the jobber or broker who occasionally intervenes, about
⅛ to ¼ cent; and the retailer, 5.5 to 9 cents. The entire cost of selling at the time this
investigation was made represented about one-half of the retail price of the cheese. The
producer of milk received the other half of that price.
332. Standards.—Legal standards in the United States are thus far largely based on the
specifications of American Cheddar. In so far as they are applied to other products, they
operate merely to prevent or reduce the use of skimmed-milk. The analyses and limits
proposed in the discussion of varieties or groups in this book represent the range of
composition actually known to be associated with cheeses of typical quality. Efforts are
now being made to establish definitions and standards of composition which will limit the
use of cheese names to products conforming to the requirements for such varieties.
Practically the only federal requirement thus far enforced in the United States is that 50
per cent of the water-free substance of the cheese must be milk-fat. Various states have
local requirements but most of them include the federal rule as to fat. New York and
Wisconsin now restrict the amount of water in Cheddar cheese to 40 per cent. Most states
have laws regulating the manufacture and sale of skimmed-milk cheese.
333. Laws relating to cheese marketing.—A cheese of foreign origin if made in this
country must be branded to show that it is not imported. For example, Camembert made in
America is labeled Domestic Camembert. Some manufacturers call it Camembert type of
cheese. The same applies to other varieties of foreign cheese. If a variety is made under a
trade-marked name, this prevents any other manufacturer from using that name. For
example, a concern may make "Philadelphia" cream cheese; other concerns may make
cream cheese, but they must call it by some other name.
which is turned over to existing selling agencies. This condition is well established for
Cheddar, Swiss, Brick and Limburger cheese. The soft cheeses other than Limburger have
thus far been handled principally by large companies, each of which has developed an
expensive selling organization. A study of the map (Fig. 65) shows how the cheese
industry is localized in particular sections of certain states. Individual factories have
maintained themselves in widely separated places. This localization is due to the
geographical conditions which make certain regions specially adapted to dairying,
modified by the proximity to markets for milk as milk. There are many regions, however,
well adapted to cheese production in which there is no development of the industry at
present. New developments are now taking place in the mountain areas of the South,
notably North Carolina and adjacent states, and in several centers of the western mountain
states. Many other areas should develop the making of cheese in some form.
The actual costs of making and selling cheese were found by the Wisconsin investigators
to vary approximately as follows: (1) cost of making, 1.2 to 1.75 cents; (2) storage, ⅟8 cent
a pound a month, or ⅜ to ½ cent for the season; (3) transportation to distant points, $.20 to
$2.50 for 100 pounds according to distance; (4) the local dealer, about 1 cent a pound; (5)
the wholesale dealer, 2 cents; (6) the jobber or broker who occasionally intervenes, about
⅛ to ¼ cent; and the retailer, 5.5 to 9 cents. The entire cost of selling at the time this
investigation was made represented about one-half of the retail price of the cheese. The
producer of milk received the other half of that price.
332. Standards.—Legal standards in the United States are thus far largely based on the
specifications of American Cheddar. In so far as they are applied to other products, they
operate merely to prevent or reduce the use of skimmed-milk. The analyses and limits
proposed in the discussion of varieties or groups in this book represent the range of
composition actually known to be associated with cheeses of typical quality. Efforts are
now being made to establish definitions and standards of composition which will limit the
use of cheese names to products conforming to the requirements for such varieties.
Practically the only federal requirement thus far enforced in the United States is that 50
per cent of the water-free substance of the cheese must be milk-fat. Various states have
local requirements but most of them include the federal rule as to fat. New York and
Wisconsin now restrict the amount of water in Cheddar cheese to 40 per cent. Most states
have laws regulating the manufacture and sale of skimmed-milk cheese.
333. Laws relating to cheese marketing.—A cheese of foreign origin if made in this
country must be branded to show that it is not imported. For example, Camembert made in
America is labeled Domestic Camembert. Some manufacturers call it Camembert type of
cheese. The same applies to other varieties of foreign cheese. If a variety is made under a
trade-marked name, this prevents any other manufacturer from using that name. For
example, a concern may make "Philadelphia" cream cheese; other concerns may make
cream cheese, but they must call it by some other name.
Page 304
The committee on definitions and standards for the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists has now undertaken to define the proper use of type names. This is intended to
determine the proper limits of composition of cheeses in each variety and such essentials
of physical identification as will insure the proper use of these names.
Certain states have laws which relate to the branding of the cheese to denote quality. If the
cheese is made from whole milk, a brand may be applied to show this fact. This is usually
called the state brand. If made from skimmed-milk, the cheese must be branded to show
this. The following140 illustrate the laws relating to the state brand and skimmed-milk
cheese:
Sec. 48. Manufacturer's brand of cheese. "Every manufacturer of whole-milk cheese may put a brand or label upon such
cheese indicating 'whole-milk cheese' and the date of the month and year when made; and no person shall use such a
brand or label upon any cheese made from milk from which any of the cream has been taken. The Commissioner of
Agriculture shall procure and issue to the cheese manufacturers of the state, on proper application therefor, and under
such regulations as to the custody and use thereof as he may prescribe, a uniform stencil brand or labels bearing a
suitable device or motto, and the words 'New York state whole-milk cheese.' Every such brand or label shall be used
upon the outside of the cheese and shall bear a different number for each separate factory. The commissioner shall keep
a book, in which shall be registered the name, location and number of each manufactory using the brands or labels, and
the name or names of the persons at each manufactory authorized to use the same. No such brand or labels shall be used
upon any other than whole-milk cheese or packages containing the same. (As amended by chapter 207 of the Laws of
1910.)
Sec. 49. Use of false brand prohibited; branding of skim-milk cheese regulated. No person shall offer, sell or expose for
sale, in any package, butter or cheese which is falsely branded or labeled. No person shall sell, offer or expose for sale
cheese commonly known as Cheddar cheese made from skimmed or partially skimmed milk unless the same is branded
to show that it is skim-milk cheese. All such cheese so sold, offered or exposed for sale shall be branded with the words
'skim-milk cheese,' or if such cheese contains thirteen per centum of milk fat or over, it may be branded 'medium skim-
milk cheese,' or if it contains eighteen per centum of milk fat or over, it may be branded 'special skim-milk cheese.' Such
branding shall be upon the sides of both the cheese and the container. The branding herein provided shall be in block
letters at least one-half an inch square. (As amended by chapter 456 of the Laws of 1913.)"
Filled cheeses are those from which the milk-fat has been removed and other animal fats
substituted. The laws of some states prohibit the manufacture of this product. The federal
law relating to filled cheese permits its manufacture under license, taxes and government
inspection.
The various states have laws regulating the length of time that the cheese may be held in
cold storage.
Another important law in some states requires the cheese-maker to have a license. He
must pass an examination to show that the principles and practices of cheese-making are
understood.
Chemists has now undertaken to define the proper use of type names. This is intended to
determine the proper limits of composition of cheeses in each variety and such essentials
of physical identification as will insure the proper use of these names.
Certain states have laws which relate to the branding of the cheese to denote quality. If the
cheese is made from whole milk, a brand may be applied to show this fact. This is usually
called the state brand. If made from skimmed-milk, the cheese must be branded to show
this. The following140 illustrate the laws relating to the state brand and skimmed-milk
cheese:
Sec. 48. Manufacturer's brand of cheese. "Every manufacturer of whole-milk cheese may put a brand or label upon such
cheese indicating 'whole-milk cheese' and the date of the month and year when made; and no person shall use such a
brand or label upon any cheese made from milk from which any of the cream has been taken. The Commissioner of
Agriculture shall procure and issue to the cheese manufacturers of the state, on proper application therefor, and under
such regulations as to the custody and use thereof as he may prescribe, a uniform stencil brand or labels bearing a
suitable device or motto, and the words 'New York state whole-milk cheese.' Every such brand or label shall be used
upon the outside of the cheese and shall bear a different number for each separate factory. The commissioner shall keep
a book, in which shall be registered the name, location and number of each manufactory using the brands or labels, and
the name or names of the persons at each manufactory authorized to use the same. No such brand or labels shall be used
upon any other than whole-milk cheese or packages containing the same. (As amended by chapter 207 of the Laws of
1910.)
Sec. 49. Use of false brand prohibited; branding of skim-milk cheese regulated. No person shall offer, sell or expose for
sale, in any package, butter or cheese which is falsely branded or labeled. No person shall sell, offer or expose for sale
cheese commonly known as Cheddar cheese made from skimmed or partially skimmed milk unless the same is branded
to show that it is skim-milk cheese. All such cheese so sold, offered or exposed for sale shall be branded with the words
'skim-milk cheese,' or if such cheese contains thirteen per centum of milk fat or over, it may be branded 'medium skim-
milk cheese,' or if it contains eighteen per centum of milk fat or over, it may be branded 'special skim-milk cheese.' Such
branding shall be upon the sides of both the cheese and the container. The branding herein provided shall be in block
letters at least one-half an inch square. (As amended by chapter 456 of the Laws of 1913.)"
Filled cheeses are those from which the milk-fat has been removed and other animal fats
substituted. The laws of some states prohibit the manufacture of this product. The federal
law relating to filled cheese permits its manufacture under license, taxes and government
inspection.
The various states have laws regulating the length of time that the cheese may be held in
cold storage.
Another important law in some states requires the cheese-maker to have a license. He
must pass an examination to show that the principles and practices of cheese-making are
understood.
Page 305
CHAPTER XXI
CHEESE IN THE HOUSEHOLD
Although cheese in some form is familiar to every household, it has been widely regarded
in America as an accessory, almost a condimental substance rather than as a staple food
worthy of comparison with meat or eggs. Statistics of the annual production, importation
and exportation of cheese indicate that the total consumption in the United States is about
300,000,000 pounds—perhaps three pounds per capita. The household manufacture and
consumption of cottage cheese would add a small amount to these figures.
Cheese is used as a staple source of food values among many peoples of Europe. Such use
of cheese increases rather than decreases with the density of the population. France with a
small fraction of the land area and one-half the population of the United States produces
and consumes about the same amount of cheese. In America, cheese-making has been
developed with the advance of settlement into unoccupied territories only to be dropped as
increasing population produced greater demands for milk in other forms. If cheese had
been accepted as a regular part of the food supply in such communities, some form of
cheese-making would have survived the economic changes.
334. Food value of cheese.—A consideration of the nutritive components of cheese shows
it to be a rich source of fat, protein or both, according to the variety under examination. It
is low in carbohydrates, and aside from salt (sodium chloride) compares favorably with
other substances in mineral constituents. The following discussion with an amplified table
is taken from Langworthy and Hunt:141
"In order, however, that the question of the use of cheese in the diet may be adequately
discussed, knowledge of its composition in comparison with other foods is desirable, and
there is an abundance of data available on this subject, since the composition of cheese
and other foods has often been investigated at the Department of Agriculture, in
experiment station laboratories and in many other places where nutrition problems are
studied. An extended summary of analyses of cheese of different sorts is included in an
earlier publication of this department.142
"Data regarding the composition of cheese and a few other common foods are summarized
in the following table.
"It will be seen from the table (Table XXX) that cheese has nearly twice as much protein,
weight for weight, as beef of average composition as purchased and that its fuel value is
more than twice as great. It contains over 25 per cent more protein than the same weight
of porterhouse steak as purchased, and nearly twice as much fat.
TABLE XXX
CHEESE IN THE HOUSEHOLD
Although cheese in some form is familiar to every household, it has been widely regarded
in America as an accessory, almost a condimental substance rather than as a staple food
worthy of comparison with meat or eggs. Statistics of the annual production, importation
and exportation of cheese indicate that the total consumption in the United States is about
300,000,000 pounds—perhaps three pounds per capita. The household manufacture and
consumption of cottage cheese would add a small amount to these figures.
Cheese is used as a staple source of food values among many peoples of Europe. Such use
of cheese increases rather than decreases with the density of the population. France with a
small fraction of the land area and one-half the population of the United States produces
and consumes about the same amount of cheese. In America, cheese-making has been
developed with the advance of settlement into unoccupied territories only to be dropped as
increasing population produced greater demands for milk in other forms. If cheese had
been accepted as a regular part of the food supply in such communities, some form of
cheese-making would have survived the economic changes.
334. Food value of cheese.—A consideration of the nutritive components of cheese shows
it to be a rich source of fat, protein or both, according to the variety under examination. It
is low in carbohydrates, and aside from salt (sodium chloride) compares favorably with
other substances in mineral constituents. The following discussion with an amplified table
is taken from Langworthy and Hunt:141
"In order, however, that the question of the use of cheese in the diet may be adequately
discussed, knowledge of its composition in comparison with other foods is desirable, and
there is an abundance of data available on this subject, since the composition of cheese
and other foods has often been investigated at the Department of Agriculture, in
experiment station laboratories and in many other places where nutrition problems are
studied. An extended summary of analyses of cheese of different sorts is included in an
earlier publication of this department.142
"Data regarding the composition of cheese and a few other common foods are summarized
in the following table.
"It will be seen from the table (Table XXX) that cheese has nearly twice as much protein,
weight for weight, as beef of average composition as purchased and that its fuel value is
more than twice as great. It contains over 25 per cent more protein than the same weight
of porterhouse steak as purchased, and nearly twice as much fat.
TABLE XXX
Page 306
Average Composition of Cheese and Some Other Co
Purchased, and also on the Basis of Edible
Purchased, and also on the Basis of Edible
Page 307
Carbo
Food Materials Refuse Water Protein Fat Ash
hydrates
% % % % % % C
Cheese, American Cheddar144 —— 34.2 25.2 33.7 2.4 3.8
Beef of average composition as purchased 18.6 50.5 15.2 15.5 —— .7
Edible portion —— 62.2 18.8 18.8 —— .9
Porterhouse steak as purchased 12.7 52.4 19.1 17.9 —— .8
Edible portion —— 60.0 21.9 20.4 —— 1.0
Loin steak, broiled, edible portion —— 54.8 23.5 20.4 —— 1.2
Dried beef —— 53.7 26.4 6.9 —— 8.9
Eggs as purchased 11.2 65.5 13.1 9.3 —— .9
Edible portion —— 73.7 13.4 10.5 —— 1.0
Milk —— 87.0 3.3 4.0 5.0 .7
Bread —— 35.3 9.2 1.3 53.1 1.1
Potatoes as purchased 20.0 62.6 1.8 .1 14.7 .8
Edible portion —— 78.3 2.2 .1 18.4 1.0
Apples as purchased 25.0 63.6 .3 .3 10.8 .3
—— 84.6 .4 .5 14.2 .3
Edible portion
"As shown by the figures in the following table, cheese contains 3.8 per cent ash. Of this a
considerable part may be salt added in cheese-making. Like the milk from which it is
made, cheese ash is characterized chiefly by the presence of calcium (lime), magnesium,
phosphorus and iron, the average values as given in earlier bulletins of the department145
being 1.24 per cent calcium oxid, 0.049 per cent magnesium oxid, 1.49 per cent
phosphorus pentoxid, and 0.0015 per cent iron."
It is clear from the calculations shown in the last column, that Cheddar cheese takes first
rank among the foods compared as to fuel value. The estimate of food values in terms of
calories may not completely express the value of that food to a particular individual. It is
generally conceded that one great function of food is the production of energy and this
function is probably more closely determined by the number of calories produced than in
any other known way. Such calculation has become an essential factor in the preparation
of dietaries. The calculation here given necessarily applies only to Cheddar cheese. By
easy use of the last column, the caloric value of this cheese can be compared with that of
any competing food and the relative economy determined, whatever the price asked.
Another recent calculation with reference146 to the same cheese follows:
"One pound of American Cheddar cheese contains as much protein as—
1.57 pounds of sirloin steak.
1.35 pounds of round steak.
1.89 pounds of fowl.
1.79 pounds of smoked ham.
1.81 pounds of fresh ham.
Food Materials Refuse Water Protein Fat Ash
hydrates
% % % % % % C
Cheese, American Cheddar144 —— 34.2 25.2 33.7 2.4 3.8
Beef of average composition as purchased 18.6 50.5 15.2 15.5 —— .7
Edible portion —— 62.2 18.8 18.8 —— .9
Porterhouse steak as purchased 12.7 52.4 19.1 17.9 —— .8
Edible portion —— 60.0 21.9 20.4 —— 1.0
Loin steak, broiled, edible portion —— 54.8 23.5 20.4 —— 1.2
Dried beef —— 53.7 26.4 6.9 —— 8.9
Eggs as purchased 11.2 65.5 13.1 9.3 —— .9
Edible portion —— 73.7 13.4 10.5 —— 1.0
Milk —— 87.0 3.3 4.0 5.0 .7
Bread —— 35.3 9.2 1.3 53.1 1.1
Potatoes as purchased 20.0 62.6 1.8 .1 14.7 .8
Edible portion —— 78.3 2.2 .1 18.4 1.0
Apples as purchased 25.0 63.6 .3 .3 10.8 .3
—— 84.6 .4 .5 14.2 .3
Edible portion
"As shown by the figures in the following table, cheese contains 3.8 per cent ash. Of this a
considerable part may be salt added in cheese-making. Like the milk from which it is
made, cheese ash is characterized chiefly by the presence of calcium (lime), magnesium,
phosphorus and iron, the average values as given in earlier bulletins of the department145
being 1.24 per cent calcium oxid, 0.049 per cent magnesium oxid, 1.49 per cent
phosphorus pentoxid, and 0.0015 per cent iron."
It is clear from the calculations shown in the last column, that Cheddar cheese takes first
rank among the foods compared as to fuel value. The estimate of food values in terms of
calories may not completely express the value of that food to a particular individual. It is
generally conceded that one great function of food is the production of energy and this
function is probably more closely determined by the number of calories produced than in
any other known way. Such calculation has become an essential factor in the preparation
of dietaries. The calculation here given necessarily applies only to Cheddar cheese. By
easy use of the last column, the caloric value of this cheese can be compared with that of
any competing food and the relative economy determined, whatever the price asked.
Another recent calculation with reference146 to the same cheese follows:
"One pound of American Cheddar cheese contains as much protein as—
1.57 pounds of sirloin steak.
1.35 pounds of round steak.
1.89 pounds of fowl.
1.79 pounds of smoked ham.
1.81 pounds of fresh ham.
Page 308
"In order to judge the value of foods fairly not only the protein but the energy also must be
compared. To supply energy cheese is one of the best of food products. On the basis of
energy supplied, 1 pound of cheese equals—
1.98 pounds of sirloin steak.
2.61 pounds of round steak.
2.52 pounds of fowl.
1.17 pounds of smoked ham.
1.29 pounds of fresh ham."
All these discussions have applied to whole-milk Cheddar cheese. With minor reductions,
much the same figures will hold for Swiss, Limburger, Brick, Munster, Edam.
On the other hand, very little has been published until recently on the skimmed-milk
cheeses. The food value lost in skimmed-milk has at times been enormous. Many
households purchase milk by the bottle, use the top-milk as cream and lose a part of the
remainder. Similarly creameries have wasted tons of skimmed-milk. The recovery of the
protein of this milk for human food is both good economy and an important addition to the
dietary. The United States Department of Agriculture has recently published the following:
"Cottage cheese is richer in protein than most meats and is very much cheaper. Every
pound contains more than three ounces of protein, the source of nitrogen for body
building. It is a valuable source of energy also, though not so high as foods with more fat.
It follows that its value in this respect can be greatly increased by serving it with cream, as
is so commonly done."
It is an open question whether the decline of cheese-making in America is not due to our
failure to develop the use of skim and part-skim cheeses. The whole-milk cheeses are very
rich in fat. Use of such cheese in quantity in connection with ordinary foods quickly leads
to the ingestion of too much fat. The skimmed-milk cheeses are primarily protein food and
as such substitutes for lean meat.
"The following table shows that cottage cheese is much cheaper than most meats in
furnishing protein for the diet.
"For supplying protein, one pound of cottage cheese equals:
1.27 pounds sirloin steak.
1.09 pounds round steak.
1.37 pounds chuck rib beef.
1.52 pounds fowl.
1.46 pounds fresh ham.
1.44 pounds smoked ham.
1.58 pounds loin pork chop.
1.31 pounds hind leg of lamb.
1.37 pounds breast of veal.
compared. To supply energy cheese is one of the best of food products. On the basis of
energy supplied, 1 pound of cheese equals—
1.98 pounds of sirloin steak.
2.61 pounds of round steak.
2.52 pounds of fowl.
1.17 pounds of smoked ham.
1.29 pounds of fresh ham."
All these discussions have applied to whole-milk Cheddar cheese. With minor reductions,
much the same figures will hold for Swiss, Limburger, Brick, Munster, Edam.
On the other hand, very little has been published until recently on the skimmed-milk
cheeses. The food value lost in skimmed-milk has at times been enormous. Many
households purchase milk by the bottle, use the top-milk as cream and lose a part of the
remainder. Similarly creameries have wasted tons of skimmed-milk. The recovery of the
protein of this milk for human food is both good economy and an important addition to the
dietary. The United States Department of Agriculture has recently published the following:
"Cottage cheese is richer in protein than most meats and is very much cheaper. Every
pound contains more than three ounces of protein, the source of nitrogen for body
building. It is a valuable source of energy also, though not so high as foods with more fat.
It follows that its value in this respect can be greatly increased by serving it with cream, as
is so commonly done."
It is an open question whether the decline of cheese-making in America is not due to our
failure to develop the use of skim and part-skim cheeses. The whole-milk cheeses are very
rich in fat. Use of such cheese in quantity in connection with ordinary foods quickly leads
to the ingestion of too much fat. The skimmed-milk cheeses are primarily protein food and
as such substitutes for lean meat.
"The following table shows that cottage cheese is much cheaper than most meats in
furnishing protein for the diet.
"For supplying protein, one pound of cottage cheese equals:
1.27 pounds sirloin steak.
1.09 pounds round steak.
1.37 pounds chuck rib beef.
1.52 pounds fowl.
1.46 pounds fresh ham.
1.44 pounds smoked ham.
1.58 pounds loin pork chop.
1.31 pounds hind leg of lamb.
1.37 pounds breast of veal.
Page 309
"In addition to protein, energy for performing body work must be furnished by food. As a
source of energy also, cottage cheese is cheaper than most meats at present prices. The
following table shows the comparison when energy is considered.
"On the basis of energy supplied, one pound of cottage cheese equals:
8⅓ ounces sirloin steak.
11¼ ounces round steak.
11¼ ounces chuck rib beef.
10¾ ounces fowl.
5½ ounces fresh ham.
5 ounces smoked ham.
6 ounces loin pork chop.
7⅓ ounces hind leg of lamb.
12¾ ounces breast of veal."
335. Digestibility of cheese.—Although it has been a staple food with many races for
uncounted years, there is a widespread belief that cheese is suitable for use chiefly in
small quantities as an accessory to the diet, and that in large quantities it is likely to
produce physiological disturbances. The question of digestibility was made the subject of
a special investigation by the United States Department of Agriculture.147 Calorimeter
experiments148 were made to test the digestibility of several varieties of cheese and some
of these varieties at various stages of ripening. All forms of cheese were found to be
digested as completely as most of the usual forms of food. Approximately 90 per cent of
the nitrogenous portion (casein) was retained in the body. Unripe cheese in these
experiments was apparently digested as completely as the ripened forms. These
experiments make clear the possibility of making cheese a more prominent article in the
regular dietary than is usual in America. They especially point to the desirability of the use
of the skim and partially skim cheeses, which as cheap sources of protein when properly
combined with other foods, may be made to replace meats as a less costly source of
proteins. Cheese is then to be classed with meat and eggs, not with condiments. An ounce
of Cheddar149 cheese roughly is equivalent to one egg, to a glass of milk, or to two ounces
of meat. It is properly to be combined with bread, potatoes and other starchy foods,
lacking in the fat in which the cheese is rich. These experiments included Roquefort,
fresh-made and ripe Cheddar, Swiss, Camembert and Cottage cheese.
336. Cheese flavor.—"Cheese owes its flavor to the fatty acids and their compounds
which it contains and to ammonia-like bodies formed during ripening from the cleavage of
the casein, to salt added to the curd, and in some varieties, like Roquefort, to bodies
elaborated by molds which develop in the cheese. In the highly flavored sorts some of the
fatty acids of a very marked odor are present in abundance, as are also the ammonia-like
bodies. Indeed, in eating such cheese as Camembert a trace of ammonia flavor may often
be plainly detected.
"The cleavage of the nitrogenous material of the cheese and other changes are brought
about chiefly by the action of enzymes originally present in cheese or by micro-organisms
source of energy also, cottage cheese is cheaper than most meats at present prices. The
following table shows the comparison when energy is considered.
"On the basis of energy supplied, one pound of cottage cheese equals:
8⅓ ounces sirloin steak.
11¼ ounces round steak.
11¼ ounces chuck rib beef.
10¾ ounces fowl.
5½ ounces fresh ham.
5 ounces smoked ham.
6 ounces loin pork chop.
7⅓ ounces hind leg of lamb.
12¾ ounces breast of veal."
335. Digestibility of cheese.—Although it has been a staple food with many races for
uncounted years, there is a widespread belief that cheese is suitable for use chiefly in
small quantities as an accessory to the diet, and that in large quantities it is likely to
produce physiological disturbances. The question of digestibility was made the subject of
a special investigation by the United States Department of Agriculture.147 Calorimeter
experiments148 were made to test the digestibility of several varieties of cheese and some
of these varieties at various stages of ripening. All forms of cheese were found to be
digested as completely as most of the usual forms of food. Approximately 90 per cent of
the nitrogenous portion (casein) was retained in the body. Unripe cheese in these
experiments was apparently digested as completely as the ripened forms. These
experiments make clear the possibility of making cheese a more prominent article in the
regular dietary than is usual in America. They especially point to the desirability of the use
of the skim and partially skim cheeses, which as cheap sources of protein when properly
combined with other foods, may be made to replace meats as a less costly source of
proteins. Cheese is then to be classed with meat and eggs, not with condiments. An ounce
of Cheddar149 cheese roughly is equivalent to one egg, to a glass of milk, or to two ounces
of meat. It is properly to be combined with bread, potatoes and other starchy foods,
lacking in the fat in which the cheese is rich. These experiments included Roquefort,
fresh-made and ripe Cheddar, Swiss, Camembert and Cottage cheese.
336. Cheese flavor.—"Cheese owes its flavor to the fatty acids and their compounds
which it contains and to ammonia-like bodies formed during ripening from the cleavage of
the casein, to salt added to the curd, and in some varieties, like Roquefort, to bodies
elaborated by molds which develop in the cheese. In the highly flavored sorts some of the
fatty acids of a very marked odor are present in abundance, as are also the ammonia-like
bodies. Indeed, in eating such cheese as Camembert a trace of ammonia flavor may often
be plainly detected.
"The cleavage of the nitrogenous material of the cheese and other changes are brought
about chiefly by the action of enzymes originally present in cheese or by micro-organisms
Page 310
and are to be regarded as fermentative and not as putrefactive changes.
"The liking for highly flavored cheeses of strong odor is a matter of individual preference,
but from the chemist's standpoint there is no reason for the statement often made that such
cheeses have undergone putrefactive decomposition."
337. Relation to health.—In connection with the use of cheese as a food, its relation to
the health of the consumer must be considered. The presence of the bacillus of
tuberculosis in milk has led to careful study of its possible presence in cheese. When
American Cheddar cheese was specially inoculated for this purpose, the living organism
was recovered from it after about five months by Schroeder of the United States
Department of Agriculture. This danger is much greater from cheeses, such as Cream and
Neufchâtel, which are eaten when comparatively freshly made. The disease has been
produced in guinea pigs from such cheese often enough to emphasize the desirability of
developing methods of making every variety possible from thoroughly pasteurized milk.
This would remove the danger of tuberculosis and with it eliminate the possibility of
transmitting other diseases.
338. Cheese poisoning150 cases occasionally occur. These take two main forms: (1) an
enteritis (caused by Bacillus enteritidis) or some other member of that series which while
painful and accompanied by purging is rarely fatal; (2) acute toxæmias which, although
rare, usually result in death. From the latter type a variety of Bacillus botulinus, an
organism usually associated with meat poisoning, was isolated by the New York State
Department of Health. The occurrence of such cases is frequent enough to emphasize the
desirability of using every precaution to reduce the number of bacteria that are allowed to
enter milk when drawn and to prevent the development of those which actually gain
access to it. When possible, pasteurization should be introduced.
339. Proper place in the diet.—It has already been noted that cheese is used "in general
in two ways—in small quantities chiefly for its flavor and in large quantities for its
nutritive value as well as for its flavor. Some varieties of cheese are used chiefly for the
first purpose, others chiefly for the second. Those which are used chiefly for their flavor,
many of which are high priced, contribute little to the food value of the diet, because of
the small quantity used at a time. They have an important part to play, however, in making
the diet attractive and palatable. The intelligent housekeeper thinks of them not as
necessities, but as lying within what has been called 'the region of choice.' Having first
satisfied herself that her family is receiving sufficient nourishment, she then, according to
her means and ideas of an attractive diet, chooses among these foods and others which are
to be considered luxuries.
"Those cheeses, on the other hand, which are suitable to be eaten in large quantities and
which are comparatively low priced are important not only from the point of view of
flavor, but also from the point of view of their nutritive value." Among such cheeses are
American Cheddar, Swiss, Brick, Limburger and the lower priced forms of Neufchâtel.
"The liking for highly flavored cheeses of strong odor is a matter of individual preference,
but from the chemist's standpoint there is no reason for the statement often made that such
cheeses have undergone putrefactive decomposition."
337. Relation to health.—In connection with the use of cheese as a food, its relation to
the health of the consumer must be considered. The presence of the bacillus of
tuberculosis in milk has led to careful study of its possible presence in cheese. When
American Cheddar cheese was specially inoculated for this purpose, the living organism
was recovered from it after about five months by Schroeder of the United States
Department of Agriculture. This danger is much greater from cheeses, such as Cream and
Neufchâtel, which are eaten when comparatively freshly made. The disease has been
produced in guinea pigs from such cheese often enough to emphasize the desirability of
developing methods of making every variety possible from thoroughly pasteurized milk.
This would remove the danger of tuberculosis and with it eliminate the possibility of
transmitting other diseases.
338. Cheese poisoning150 cases occasionally occur. These take two main forms: (1) an
enteritis (caused by Bacillus enteritidis) or some other member of that series which while
painful and accompanied by purging is rarely fatal; (2) acute toxæmias which, although
rare, usually result in death. From the latter type a variety of Bacillus botulinus, an
organism usually associated with meat poisoning, was isolated by the New York State
Department of Health. The occurrence of such cases is frequent enough to emphasize the
desirability of using every precaution to reduce the number of bacteria that are allowed to
enter milk when drawn and to prevent the development of those which actually gain
access to it. When possible, pasteurization should be introduced.
339. Proper place in the diet.—It has already been noted that cheese is used "in general
in two ways—in small quantities chiefly for its flavor and in large quantities for its
nutritive value as well as for its flavor. Some varieties of cheese are used chiefly for the
first purpose, others chiefly for the second. Those which are used chiefly for their flavor,
many of which are high priced, contribute little to the food value of the diet, because of
the small quantity used at a time. They have an important part to play, however, in making
the diet attractive and palatable. The intelligent housekeeper thinks of them not as
necessities, but as lying within what has been called 'the region of choice.' Having first
satisfied herself that her family is receiving sufficient nourishment, she then, according to
her means and ideas of an attractive diet, chooses among these foods and others which are
to be considered luxuries.
"Those cheeses, on the other hand, which are suitable to be eaten in large quantities and
which are comparatively low priced are important not only from the point of view of
flavor, but also from the point of view of their nutritive value." Among such cheeses are
American Cheddar, Swiss, Brick, Limburger and the lower priced forms of Neufchâtel.
Page 311
It is clear that in buying cheese, the housekeeper should know definitely the dietary
purpose of the purchase, and then choose the variety of cheese best suited. To a very large
degree the personal tastes of the family determine the kinds of cheese which will be
tolerated when served uncooked. In some families, the strong flavors of Roquefort or
Limburger are not acceptable. However, there is a range of choice in which much
judgment can be used. Cheese to be served with mild-flavored foods should as a rule be
also mild-flavored. For most sandwiches, for example, Cheddar or Swiss is usually very
acceptable; Brick or partly ripe Limburger still hard enough to slice cuts into thin
rectangular slices and is very attractive to many consumers because it has somewhat more
flavor without being too strong. With proper handling it is good policy to buy the cheapest
of these forms for this purpose. The selection of dessert cheeses offers the widest range. If
served with mild-flavored crackers, very many persons prefer Cream, Neufchâtel or mild
Cheddar; a little stronger taste calls for club cheese, or Camembert. If tobacco smoke is
present, Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Limburger and related types will satisfy many consumers
better than mild cheeses. The intensity of flavor to be sought in the cheese should thus be
adjusted to the food served with it. A person with an aversion to strong-smelling or strong-
tasting cheese has been frequently known to approve over-ripe Camembert, or Limburger
when served without label but spread upon a ginger cracker.
For cooking purposes, some recipes prescribe cheese of special quality. In large markets,
old Cheddar ripened carefully for two or three years is commonly purchasable for Welsh
rabbit. (Ask for "rabbit" cheese.) An expert housekeeper familiar also with cheese ripening
has demonstrated that almost any cheese, whether ripened to its best, part ripe or over-
ripe, can be used in many cooking formulas without injuring the acceptability of the
product to most consumers. In canning Camembert, it has been shown151 that over-ripe
cheese so strong as to be objectionable, when sterilized loses the objectionable flavor of
the raw product. No cheese should be wasted; any not used when served the first time
should be served at a closely following meal or used in cooking. No matter what the
variety, it will add to the food value and palatability of some one of the common dishes
served within forty-eight hours.
340. Care of cheese.152—"One of the best ways of keeping cheese which has been cut is to
wrap it in a slightly damp cloth and then in paper, and to keep it in a cool place. To
dampen the cloth, sprinkle it and then wring it. It should seem hardly damp to the touch.
Paraffin paper may be used in place of the cloth. When cheese is put in a covered dish, the
air should never be wholly excluded, for if this is done, it molds more readily.
"In some markets it is possible to buy small whole cheeses. These may be satisfactorily
kept by cutting a slice from the top, to serve as a cover, and removing the cheese as
needed with a knife, a strong spoon, or a cheese scoop. It is possible to buy at the
hardware stores knobs which inserted in the layer cut from the top make it easy to handle.
The cheese with the cover on should be kept wrapped in a cloth."
341. Food value and price.—There is little relation between the price and food value of
standard varieties of cheese. The higher-priced varieties claim and hold their place
purpose of the purchase, and then choose the variety of cheese best suited. To a very large
degree the personal tastes of the family determine the kinds of cheese which will be
tolerated when served uncooked. In some families, the strong flavors of Roquefort or
Limburger are not acceptable. However, there is a range of choice in which much
judgment can be used. Cheese to be served with mild-flavored foods should as a rule be
also mild-flavored. For most sandwiches, for example, Cheddar or Swiss is usually very
acceptable; Brick or partly ripe Limburger still hard enough to slice cuts into thin
rectangular slices and is very attractive to many consumers because it has somewhat more
flavor without being too strong. With proper handling it is good policy to buy the cheapest
of these forms for this purpose. The selection of dessert cheeses offers the widest range. If
served with mild-flavored crackers, very many persons prefer Cream, Neufchâtel or mild
Cheddar; a little stronger taste calls for club cheese, or Camembert. If tobacco smoke is
present, Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Limburger and related types will satisfy many consumers
better than mild cheeses. The intensity of flavor to be sought in the cheese should thus be
adjusted to the food served with it. A person with an aversion to strong-smelling or strong-
tasting cheese has been frequently known to approve over-ripe Camembert, or Limburger
when served without label but spread upon a ginger cracker.
For cooking purposes, some recipes prescribe cheese of special quality. In large markets,
old Cheddar ripened carefully for two or three years is commonly purchasable for Welsh
rabbit. (Ask for "rabbit" cheese.) An expert housekeeper familiar also with cheese ripening
has demonstrated that almost any cheese, whether ripened to its best, part ripe or over-
ripe, can be used in many cooking formulas without injuring the acceptability of the
product to most consumers. In canning Camembert, it has been shown151 that over-ripe
cheese so strong as to be objectionable, when sterilized loses the objectionable flavor of
the raw product. No cheese should be wasted; any not used when served the first time
should be served at a closely following meal or used in cooking. No matter what the
variety, it will add to the food value and palatability of some one of the common dishes
served within forty-eight hours.
340. Care of cheese.152—"One of the best ways of keeping cheese which has been cut is to
wrap it in a slightly damp cloth and then in paper, and to keep it in a cool place. To
dampen the cloth, sprinkle it and then wring it. It should seem hardly damp to the touch.
Paraffin paper may be used in place of the cloth. When cheese is put in a covered dish, the
air should never be wholly excluded, for if this is done, it molds more readily.
"In some markets it is possible to buy small whole cheeses. These may be satisfactorily
kept by cutting a slice from the top, to serve as a cover, and removing the cheese as
needed with a knife, a strong spoon, or a cheese scoop. It is possible to buy at the
hardware stores knobs which inserted in the layer cut from the top make it easy to handle.
The cheese with the cover on should be kept wrapped in a cloth."
341. Food value and price.—There is little relation between the price and food value of
standard varieties of cheese. The higher-priced varieties claim and hold their place
Page 312
because they possess particular flavors. These may or may not accompany high
comparative food values. Even among low-priced varieties discrimination into grades is
largely based on flavor. Of the low-priced cheeses, those made from skimmed-milk
commonly command the lowest prices. As noted above, a choice may be based either on
purpose or on price. If the purpose is fixed, the price should not change the selection. If,
however, a particular quality of cheese is purchasable at a low price, some satisfactory
form of utilizing it is clearly available to the housekeeper. Some standard recipes are given
in the following paragraphs.
342. Methods and recipes for using cheese.—(1) As a meat substitute. Meat is
wholesome and relished by most persons, yet it is not essential to a well-balanced meal
and there are many housekeepers who for one reason or another are interested in lessening
the amount of meat or to substitute other foods. The problem with the average family is
undoubtedly more often the occasional substitution of other palatable dishes for the sake
of variety, for reasons of economy, or for some other reason than the general replacement
of meat dishes by other things.
Foods which are to be served in place of meat should be rich in protein and fat and should
also be savory. Cheese naturally suggests itself as a substitute for meat, since it is rich in
the same kinds of nutrients that meat supplies, is a staple food with which every one is
familiar and is one which can be used in a great variety of ways. In substituting cheese for
meat, especial pains should be taken to serve dishes which are relished by the members of
the family. A number of recipes153 for dishes which contain cheese are given below. They
are preceded by several recipes for cheese sauces which, as will appear, are called for in
the preparation of some of the more substantial dishes. In the first list of recipes, cheese
means Cheddar.
Cheese Sauce No. 1
1 cupful of milk. 1 ounce of cheese (¼ cupful of grated cheese).
2 tablespoonfuls of flour. Salt and pepper.
Thicken the milk with the flour and just before serving add the cheese, stirring until it is melted.
This sauce is suitable to use in preparing creamed eggs, or to pour over toast, making a dish corresponding to ordinary
milk toast, except for the presence of cheese. It may be seasoned with a little curry powder and poured over hard-boiled
eggs.
Cheese Sauce No. 2
Same as cheese sauce No. 1, except that the cheese is increased from 1 to 2 ounces.
This sauce is suitable for using with macaroni or rice, or for baking with crackers soaked in milk.
Cheese Sauce No. 3
Same as cheese sauce No. 1, except that two cupfuls of grated cheese or 8 ounces are used. This may be used upon toast
as a substitute for Welsh rabbit.
Cheese Sauce No. 4
comparative food values. Even among low-priced varieties discrimination into grades is
largely based on flavor. Of the low-priced cheeses, those made from skimmed-milk
commonly command the lowest prices. As noted above, a choice may be based either on
purpose or on price. If the purpose is fixed, the price should not change the selection. If,
however, a particular quality of cheese is purchasable at a low price, some satisfactory
form of utilizing it is clearly available to the housekeeper. Some standard recipes are given
in the following paragraphs.
342. Methods and recipes for using cheese.—(1) As a meat substitute. Meat is
wholesome and relished by most persons, yet it is not essential to a well-balanced meal
and there are many housekeepers who for one reason or another are interested in lessening
the amount of meat or to substitute other foods. The problem with the average family is
undoubtedly more often the occasional substitution of other palatable dishes for the sake
of variety, for reasons of economy, or for some other reason than the general replacement
of meat dishes by other things.
Foods which are to be served in place of meat should be rich in protein and fat and should
also be savory. Cheese naturally suggests itself as a substitute for meat, since it is rich in
the same kinds of nutrients that meat supplies, is a staple food with which every one is
familiar and is one which can be used in a great variety of ways. In substituting cheese for
meat, especial pains should be taken to serve dishes which are relished by the members of
the family. A number of recipes153 for dishes which contain cheese are given below. They
are preceded by several recipes for cheese sauces which, as will appear, are called for in
the preparation of some of the more substantial dishes. In the first list of recipes, cheese
means Cheddar.
Cheese Sauce No. 1
1 cupful of milk. 1 ounce of cheese (¼ cupful of grated cheese).
2 tablespoonfuls of flour. Salt and pepper.
Thicken the milk with the flour and just before serving add the cheese, stirring until it is melted.
This sauce is suitable to use in preparing creamed eggs, or to pour over toast, making a dish corresponding to ordinary
milk toast, except for the presence of cheese. It may be seasoned with a little curry powder and poured over hard-boiled
eggs.
Cheese Sauce No. 2
Same as cheese sauce No. 1, except that the cheese is increased from 1 to 2 ounces.
This sauce is suitable for using with macaroni or rice, or for baking with crackers soaked in milk.
Cheese Sauce No. 3
Same as cheese sauce No. 1, except that two cupfuls of grated cheese or 8 ounces are used. This may be used upon toast
as a substitute for Welsh rabbit.
Cheese Sauce No. 4
Page 313
Same as cheese sauce No. 2, save that 2 tablespoonfuls of melted butter are mixed with the flour before the latter is put
into the milk. This sauce is therefore very rich in fat and has only a mild flavor of cheese.
Among the recipes for dishes which may be used like meat, the following give products
which, eaten in usual quantities, will provide much the same kind and amount of nutritive
material as the ordinary servings of meat dishes used at dinner. In several cases there is a
resemblance in appearance and flavor to common meat dishes, which would doubtless be
a point in their favor with many families.
(2) For general cooking purposes:
Cheese Fondue No. 1
1⅓ cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs. 4 eggs.
6 ounces of cheese (1½ cupfuls of grated cheese or 1⅓ 1 cupful of hot water.
cupfuls of cheese grated fine or cut into small ½ teaspoonful of salt.
pieces).
Mix the water, bread crumbs, salt and cheese; add the yolks thoroughly beaten; into this mixture cut and fold the whites
of eggs beaten until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and cook 30 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve at once.
The food value of this dish, made with the above quantities, is almost exactly the same as that of a pound of beef of
average composition and a pound of potatoes combined. It contains about 80 grams of proteids and has a fuel value of
about 1300 calories.
Cheese Fondue No. 2
1⅓ cupfuls of hot milk. ⅓ of a pound of cheese (1⅓ cupfuls of grated cheese or 1
1⅓ cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs. cupful of cheese cut into small pieces).
1 tablespoonful of butter.
4 eggs. ½ teaspoonful of salt.
Prepare as in previous recipe.
The protein value of this dish is equal to that of 1⅓ pounds of potato and beef, the fuel value, however, being much in
excess of these.
In making either of these fondues, rice or other cereals may be substituted for bread crumbs. One-fourth cupful of rice
measured before cooking, or one cupful of cooked rice or other cereals, should be used.
Corn and Cheese Soufflé
1 tablespoonful of butter. 1 cupful of chopped corn.
1 tablespoonful of chopped green pepper. 1 cupful of grated cheese,
¼ cupful of flour. ½ teaspoonful of salt.
2 cupfuls of milk.
Melt the butter and cook the pepper thoroughly in it. Make a sauce out of the flour, milk and cheese; add the corn,
cheese, yolks and seasoning; cut and fold in the whites beaten stiffly; turn into a buttered baking dish and bake in a
moderate oven 30 minutes.
Made with skimmed-milk and without butter, this dish has a food value slightly in excess of a pound of beef and a pound
of potatoes.
Cheese Soufflé
into the milk. This sauce is therefore very rich in fat and has only a mild flavor of cheese.
Among the recipes for dishes which may be used like meat, the following give products
which, eaten in usual quantities, will provide much the same kind and amount of nutritive
material as the ordinary servings of meat dishes used at dinner. In several cases there is a
resemblance in appearance and flavor to common meat dishes, which would doubtless be
a point in their favor with many families.
(2) For general cooking purposes:
Cheese Fondue No. 1
1⅓ cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs. 4 eggs.
6 ounces of cheese (1½ cupfuls of grated cheese or 1⅓ 1 cupful of hot water.
cupfuls of cheese grated fine or cut into small ½ teaspoonful of salt.
pieces).
Mix the water, bread crumbs, salt and cheese; add the yolks thoroughly beaten; into this mixture cut and fold the whites
of eggs beaten until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and cook 30 minutes in a moderate oven. Serve at once.
The food value of this dish, made with the above quantities, is almost exactly the same as that of a pound of beef of
average composition and a pound of potatoes combined. It contains about 80 grams of proteids and has a fuel value of
about 1300 calories.
Cheese Fondue No. 2
1⅓ cupfuls of hot milk. ⅓ of a pound of cheese (1⅓ cupfuls of grated cheese or 1
1⅓ cupfuls of soft, stale bread crumbs. cupful of cheese cut into small pieces).
1 tablespoonful of butter.
4 eggs. ½ teaspoonful of salt.
Prepare as in previous recipe.
The protein value of this dish is equal to that of 1⅓ pounds of potato and beef, the fuel value, however, being much in
excess of these.
In making either of these fondues, rice or other cereals may be substituted for bread crumbs. One-fourth cupful of rice
measured before cooking, or one cupful of cooked rice or other cereals, should be used.
Corn and Cheese Soufflé
1 tablespoonful of butter. 1 cupful of chopped corn.
1 tablespoonful of chopped green pepper. 1 cupful of grated cheese,
¼ cupful of flour. ½ teaspoonful of salt.
2 cupfuls of milk.
Melt the butter and cook the pepper thoroughly in it. Make a sauce out of the flour, milk and cheese; add the corn,
cheese, yolks and seasoning; cut and fold in the whites beaten stiffly; turn into a buttered baking dish and bake in a
moderate oven 30 minutes.
Made with skimmed-milk and without butter, this dish has a food value slightly in excess of a pound of beef and a pound
of potatoes.
Cheese Soufflé
Page 314
2 tablespoonfuls of butter. A speck of cayenne.
3 tablespoonfuls of flour. ¼ cupful of grated cheese.
½ cupful of milk (scalded). 3 eggs.
½ teaspoonful of salt.
Melt the butter; add the flour and, when well mixed, add gradually the scalded milk. Then add salt, cayenne and cheese.
Remove from the fire and add the yolks of the eggs, beaten until lemon colored. Cool the mixture and fold into it the
whites of the eggs, beaten until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and cook 20 minutes in a slow oven. Serve at once.
The proteid of this recipe is equal to that of half a pound of beef; the fuel value is equal to that of three-fourths of a
pound.
Welsh Rabbit
1 tablespoonful of butter. ½ pound of cheese, cut into small pieces.
1 teaspoonful of corn-starch. ¼ teaspoonful each of salt and mustard.
½ cupful of milk. A speck of cayenne pepper.
Cook the corn-starch in the butter; then add the milk gradually and cook two minutes; add the cheese and stir until it is
melted. Season and serve on crackers or bread toasted on one side, the rabbit being poured over the untoasted side. Food
value is that of about three-fourths of a pound of beef.
Macaroni and Cheese No. 1
Macaroni and Cheese No. 1
1 cupful of macaroni, broken into small pieces. 2 tablespoonfuls of flour.
2 quarts of boiling salted water. ¼ to ½ pound of cheese.
1 cupful of milk. ½ teaspoonful of salt.
Speck of cayenne pepper.
Cook the macaroni in the boiling salted water, drain in a strainer, and pour cold water over it to prevent the pieces from
adhering to each other. Make a sauce out of the flour, milk, and cheese. Put the sauce and macaroni in alternate layers in
a buttered baking dish, cover with buttered crumbs, and heat in oven until crumbs are brown.
Macaroni and Cheese No. 2
A good way to prepare macaroni and cheese is to make a rich cheese sauce and heat the macaroni in it. The mixture is
usually covered with buttered crumbs and browned in the oven. The advantage of this way of preparing the dish,
however, is that it is unnecessary to have a hot oven, as the sauce and macaroni may be reheated on the top of the stove.
Baked Rice and Cheese No. 1
1 cupful of uncooked rice and 2 tablespoonfuls of flour.
4 cupfuls of milk; ½ pound of cheese.
or, ½ teaspoonful of salt.
3 cupfuls of cooked rice and
1 cupfuls of milk
If uncooked rice is used, it should be cooked in 3 cupfuls of milk. Make a sauce with one cupful of milk, add the flour,
cheese and salt. Into a buttered baking dish put alternate layers of the cooked rice and the sauce. Cover with buttered
crumbs and bake until the crumbs are brown. The proteids in this dish, made with rice cooked in milk, are equal to those
of nearly 1¾ pounds of average beef. If skimmed-milk is used, the fuel value is equal to nearly 3½ pounds of beef.
Whole milk raises the fuel value still higher.
Fried Bread with Cheese No. 1
3 tablespoonfuls of flour. ¼ cupful of grated cheese.
½ cupful of milk (scalded). 3 eggs.
½ teaspoonful of salt.
Melt the butter; add the flour and, when well mixed, add gradually the scalded milk. Then add salt, cayenne and cheese.
Remove from the fire and add the yolks of the eggs, beaten until lemon colored. Cool the mixture and fold into it the
whites of the eggs, beaten until stiff. Pour into a buttered baking dish and cook 20 minutes in a slow oven. Serve at once.
The proteid of this recipe is equal to that of half a pound of beef; the fuel value is equal to that of three-fourths of a
pound.
Welsh Rabbit
1 tablespoonful of butter. ½ pound of cheese, cut into small pieces.
1 teaspoonful of corn-starch. ¼ teaspoonful each of salt and mustard.
½ cupful of milk. A speck of cayenne pepper.
Cook the corn-starch in the butter; then add the milk gradually and cook two minutes; add the cheese and stir until it is
melted. Season and serve on crackers or bread toasted on one side, the rabbit being poured over the untoasted side. Food
value is that of about three-fourths of a pound of beef.
Macaroni and Cheese No. 1
Macaroni and Cheese No. 1
1 cupful of macaroni, broken into small pieces. 2 tablespoonfuls of flour.
2 quarts of boiling salted water. ¼ to ½ pound of cheese.
1 cupful of milk. ½ teaspoonful of salt.
Speck of cayenne pepper.
Cook the macaroni in the boiling salted water, drain in a strainer, and pour cold water over it to prevent the pieces from
adhering to each other. Make a sauce out of the flour, milk, and cheese. Put the sauce and macaroni in alternate layers in
a buttered baking dish, cover with buttered crumbs, and heat in oven until crumbs are brown.
Macaroni and Cheese No. 2
A good way to prepare macaroni and cheese is to make a rich cheese sauce and heat the macaroni in it. The mixture is
usually covered with buttered crumbs and browned in the oven. The advantage of this way of preparing the dish,
however, is that it is unnecessary to have a hot oven, as the sauce and macaroni may be reheated on the top of the stove.
Baked Rice and Cheese No. 1
1 cupful of uncooked rice and 2 tablespoonfuls of flour.
4 cupfuls of milk; ½ pound of cheese.
or, ½ teaspoonful of salt.
3 cupfuls of cooked rice and
1 cupfuls of milk
If uncooked rice is used, it should be cooked in 3 cupfuls of milk. Make a sauce with one cupful of milk, add the flour,
cheese and salt. Into a buttered baking dish put alternate layers of the cooked rice and the sauce. Cover with buttered
crumbs and bake until the crumbs are brown. The proteids in this dish, made with rice cooked in milk, are equal to those
of nearly 1¾ pounds of average beef. If skimmed-milk is used, the fuel value is equal to nearly 3½ pounds of beef.
Whole milk raises the fuel value still higher.
Fried Bread with Cheese No. 1
Page 315
6 slices of bread. ½ teaspoonful of salt.
1 cupful of milk. ½ teaspoonful of potassium bicarbonate.
2 ounces of cheese, or ½ cupful of grated cheese. Butter or other fat for frying.
Scald the milk with the potassium bicarbonate; add the grated cheese, and stir until it dissolves. Dip the bread in this
mixture and fry it in the butter. The potassium bicarbonate helps to keep the cheese in solution. It is desirable, however,
to keep the milk hot while the bread is being dipped.
Plain Cheese Salad
Cut Edam or ordinary American cheese into thin pieces, scatter them over lettuce leaves and serve with French dressing.
Olive and Pimiento Sandwich or Salad Cheese
Mash any of the soft cream cheeses and add chopped olives and pimientos in equal parts. This mixture requires much
salt to make it palatable to most palates, the amount depending chiefly on the quantity of pimiento used. The mixture
may be spread between thin slices of bread or it may be made into a roll or molded, cut into slices and served on lettuce
leaves with French dressing.
Cheese and Tomato Salad
Stuff cold tomatoes with cream cheese and serve on lettuce leaves with French dressing.
Cheese and Pimiento Salad
Stuff canned pimientos with cream cheese, cut into slices and serve one or two slices to each person on lettuce leaves
with French dressing.
(3) Ways to use cottage cheese. Cottage cheese alone is an appetizing and nutritious dish. It may also be served with
sweet or sour cream, and some persons add a little sugar, or chives, chopped onion or caraway seed.
The following recipes154 illustrate a number of ways in which cottage cheese may be served:
Cottage Cheese with Preserves and Jellies
Pour over cottage cheese any fruit preserves, such as strawberries, figs or cherries. Serve with bread or crackers. If
preferred, cottage cheese balls may be served separately and eaten with the preserves. A very attractive dish may be
made by dropping a bit of jelly into a nest of the cottage cheese.
Cottage Cheese Salad
Mix thoroughly one pound of cheese, one and one-half tablespoonfuls of cream, one tablespoonful of chopped parsley
and salt to taste. First, fill a rectangular tin mold with cold water to chill and wet the surface; line the bottom with waxed
paper, then pack in three layers of the cheese, putting two or three parallel strips of pimiento, fresh or canned, between
the layers. Cover with waxed paper and set in a cool place until ready to serve; then run a knife around the sides and
invert the mold. Cut in slices and serve on lettuce leaves with French dressing and wafers or thin bread-and-butter
sandwiches. Minced olives may be used instead of the parsley, and chopped nuts also may be added.
Cottage Cheese Rolls
(To be used like meat rolls.)
A large variety of rolls, suitable for serving as the main dish at dinner, may be made by combining legumes (beans of
various kinds, cowpeas, lentils or peas) with cottage cheese, and adding bread crumbs to make the mixture thick enough
to form into a roll. Beans are usually mashed, but peas or small Lima beans may be combined whole with bread crumbs
and cottage cheese, and enough of the liquor in which the vegetables have been cooked should be added to get the right
consistency; or, instead of beans or peas, chopped spinach, beet tops or head lettuce may be added.
1 cupful of milk. ½ teaspoonful of potassium bicarbonate.
2 ounces of cheese, or ½ cupful of grated cheese. Butter or other fat for frying.
Scald the milk with the potassium bicarbonate; add the grated cheese, and stir until it dissolves. Dip the bread in this
mixture and fry it in the butter. The potassium bicarbonate helps to keep the cheese in solution. It is desirable, however,
to keep the milk hot while the bread is being dipped.
Plain Cheese Salad
Cut Edam or ordinary American cheese into thin pieces, scatter them over lettuce leaves and serve with French dressing.
Olive and Pimiento Sandwich or Salad Cheese
Mash any of the soft cream cheeses and add chopped olives and pimientos in equal parts. This mixture requires much
salt to make it palatable to most palates, the amount depending chiefly on the quantity of pimiento used. The mixture
may be spread between thin slices of bread or it may be made into a roll or molded, cut into slices and served on lettuce
leaves with French dressing.
Cheese and Tomato Salad
Stuff cold tomatoes with cream cheese and serve on lettuce leaves with French dressing.
Cheese and Pimiento Salad
Stuff canned pimientos with cream cheese, cut into slices and serve one or two slices to each person on lettuce leaves
with French dressing.
(3) Ways to use cottage cheese. Cottage cheese alone is an appetizing and nutritious dish. It may also be served with
sweet or sour cream, and some persons add a little sugar, or chives, chopped onion or caraway seed.
The following recipes154 illustrate a number of ways in which cottage cheese may be served:
Cottage Cheese with Preserves and Jellies
Pour over cottage cheese any fruit preserves, such as strawberries, figs or cherries. Serve with bread or crackers. If
preferred, cottage cheese balls may be served separately and eaten with the preserves. A very attractive dish may be
made by dropping a bit of jelly into a nest of the cottage cheese.
Cottage Cheese Salad
Mix thoroughly one pound of cheese, one and one-half tablespoonfuls of cream, one tablespoonful of chopped parsley
and salt to taste. First, fill a rectangular tin mold with cold water to chill and wet the surface; line the bottom with waxed
paper, then pack in three layers of the cheese, putting two or three parallel strips of pimiento, fresh or canned, between
the layers. Cover with waxed paper and set in a cool place until ready to serve; then run a knife around the sides and
invert the mold. Cut in slices and serve on lettuce leaves with French dressing and wafers or thin bread-and-butter
sandwiches. Minced olives may be used instead of the parsley, and chopped nuts also may be added.
Cottage Cheese Rolls
(To be used like meat rolls.)
A large variety of rolls, suitable for serving as the main dish at dinner, may be made by combining legumes (beans of
various kinds, cowpeas, lentils or peas) with cottage cheese, and adding bread crumbs to make the mixture thick enough
to form into a roll. Beans are usually mashed, but peas or small Lima beans may be combined whole with bread crumbs
and cottage cheese, and enough of the liquor in which the vegetables have been cooked should be added to get the right
consistency; or, instead of beans or peas, chopped spinach, beet tops or head lettuce may be added.
Page 316
1 Ont. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 237-241.
Maine Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, part II, pages 52-57.
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1886, pages 119-130.
Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 97-100.
Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 61-74.
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1892, pages 299-392.
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1893, pages 39-162.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 115-119.
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1907, pages 152-156.
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 139-142.
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1894, pages 31-86, 118-121.
N. J. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 136-137.
Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw. The influence of breed and individuality on the
composition and properties of milk, Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 156, 1913.
Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, Variations in the composition and properties of
milk from the individual cow, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 157, 1913.
2 Morrow, G. A., and A. G. Manns, Analyses of milk from different cows, Ill.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 9, 1890.
3 Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, The influence of the stage of lactation on the
composition and properties of milk, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 155,
1913. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1892, pages 138-140.
4 N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 143-162, 316-318.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 238-247.
Van Slyke, L. L., Conditions affecting the proportions of fat and protein in
cow's milk, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 30 (1908), no. 7, pages 1166-1186.
5 Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Composition and properties of some
casein and paracasein compounds and their relations to cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta.
Tech. Bul. 26, 1912.
Forbes, E. B., and M. H. Keith, A review of the literature of phosphorus
compounds in animal metabolism, Ohio Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, pages 32-36,
42-45.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Condition of casein and salts in milk,
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 39.
6 Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1901, pages 162-166.
Maine Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, part II, pages 52-57.
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1886, pages 119-130.
Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 97-100.
Vt. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 61-74.
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1892, pages 299-392.
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1893, pages 39-162.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 115-119.
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1907, pages 152-156.
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 139-142.
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1894, pages 31-86, 118-121.
N. J. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 136-137.
Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw. The influence of breed and individuality on the
composition and properties of milk, Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 156, 1913.
Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, Variations in the composition and properties of
milk from the individual cow, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 157, 1913.
2 Morrow, G. A., and A. G. Manns, Analyses of milk from different cows, Ill.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 9, 1890.
3 Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, The influence of the stage of lactation on the
composition and properties of milk, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 155,
1913. N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1892, pages 138-140.
4 N. Y. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1891, pages 143-162, 316-318.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, pages 238-247.
Van Slyke, L. L., Conditions affecting the proportions of fat and protein in
cow's milk, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., 30 (1908), no. 7, pages 1166-1186.
5 Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Composition and properties of some
casein and paracasein compounds and their relations to cheese, N. Y. Exp. Sta.
Tech. Bul. 26, 1912.
Forbes, E. B., and M. H. Keith, A review of the literature of phosphorus
compounds in animal metabolism, Ohio Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, pages 32-36,
42-45.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Condition of casein and salts in milk,
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 39.
6 Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1901, pages 162-166.
Page 317
7 Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese from pasteurized
milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 27, 1912.
8 Baer, U. S., and W. L. Carlyle, Quality of cheese as affected by food, Wis.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 115, 1904.
9 King, F. H., and E. H. Farrington, Milk odor as affected by silage, Wis. Exp.
Sta. Bul. 59, 1897.
10 N. Y. Agricultural Law, 1913, section 30.
Mich. Agricultural Law, 1915, section 77.
Wis. Agricultural Law, 1913, section 4601.
11 Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1899, pages 13-68.
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1903, pages 33-98.
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1904, pages 27-88.
Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, Sources of bacteria in milk, Conn. (Storrs)
Exp. Sta. Bul. 51, 1908.
Rogers, L. A., and B. J. Davis, Methods of classifying the lactic acid bacteria,
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 154, 1912.
Bergey, D. H., The colon-aerogenes group of bacteria, Jour. Med. Research,
Boston, Vol. XIX, pages 175-200, 1908.
Conn, H. W., Classification of dairy bacteria, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept.
1906.
Rogers, L. A., Bacteria in milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. 490, 1912.
12 Hastings, E. G., Distribution of lactose-fermenting yeasts in dairy products,
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 23, pages 107-115.
13 Thom, C., and S. H. Ayers, Effect of pasteurization upon mold spores, Jour.
Agr. Research 6 (1916), no. 4, pages 153-156.
14 Hunziker, O. F., Germicidal action of milk, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Bul.
197.
Stocking, W. A., Germicidal action of milk, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 37,
1905.
U. S. Treasury Dept., Hygienic Laboratory, Bul. 41, Milk and its relation to the
public health, 1908, also revised as Bul. 56, 1909.
15 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. 602, Dairy Division, Production of clean
milk, 1914.
Lauder, A., and A. Cunningham, Some factors affecting the bacteriological
content of milk, Edinburgh and East of Scotland Coll. of Agr. Rept. XXVIII,
1913.
Prucha, M. J., and H. M. Weeter, Germ content of milk, Ill. Exp. Sta. Bul. 199,
1917.
Harding, H. A., et al., The effect of certain dairy operations upon the germ
content of milk, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 365, 1913.
Fraser, W. J., Sources of bacteria in milk, Ill. Exp. Sta. Bul. 91, 1903.
milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 27, 1912.
8 Baer, U. S., and W. L. Carlyle, Quality of cheese as affected by food, Wis.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 115, 1904.
9 King, F. H., and E. H. Farrington, Milk odor as affected by silage, Wis. Exp.
Sta. Bul. 59, 1897.
10 N. Y. Agricultural Law, 1913, section 30.
Mich. Agricultural Law, 1915, section 77.
Wis. Agricultural Law, 1913, section 4601.
11 Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1899, pages 13-68.
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1903, pages 33-98.
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept. 1904, pages 27-88.
Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, Sources of bacteria in milk, Conn. (Storrs)
Exp. Sta. Bul. 51, 1908.
Rogers, L. A., and B. J. Davis, Methods of classifying the lactic acid bacteria,
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 154, 1912.
Bergey, D. H., The colon-aerogenes group of bacteria, Jour. Med. Research,
Boston, Vol. XIX, pages 175-200, 1908.
Conn, H. W., Classification of dairy bacteria, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept.
1906.
Rogers, L. A., Bacteria in milk, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. 490, 1912.
12 Hastings, E. G., Distribution of lactose-fermenting yeasts in dairy products,
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 23, pages 107-115.
13 Thom, C., and S. H. Ayers, Effect of pasteurization upon mold spores, Jour.
Agr. Research 6 (1916), no. 4, pages 153-156.
14 Hunziker, O. F., Germicidal action of milk, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Bul.
197.
Stocking, W. A., Germicidal action of milk, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 37,
1905.
U. S. Treasury Dept., Hygienic Laboratory, Bul. 41, Milk and its relation to the
public health, 1908, also revised as Bul. 56, 1909.
15 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. 602, Dairy Division, Production of clean
milk, 1914.
Lauder, A., and A. Cunningham, Some factors affecting the bacteriological
content of milk, Edinburgh and East of Scotland Coll. of Agr. Rept. XXVIII,
1913.
Prucha, M. J., and H. M. Weeter, Germ content of milk, Ill. Exp. Sta. Bul. 199,
1917.
Harding, H. A., et al., The effect of certain dairy operations upon the germ
content of milk, N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 365, 1913.
Fraser, W. J., Sources of bacteria in milk, Ill. Exp. Sta. Bul. 91, 1903.
Page 318
Frandsen, J. H., Care of milk and cream on the farm, Neb. Exp. Sta. Bul. 133,
1912.
Conn, H. W., The care and handling of milk, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 26,
1903.
Stocking, W. A., Jr., Quality of milk as affected by certain dairy operations,
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 42, 1906.
16 Harding, H. A., J. K. Wilson and G. A. Smith, Tests of covered milk pails,
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 326, 1910.
Stocking, W. A., Tests of covered milk pails, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 48,
1907.
17 Wing, L. W., Milking machines; their sterilization and their efficiency in
producing clean milk, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Circ. 18, 1913.
18 Ruddick, J. A., and G. H. Barr, The cooling of milk for cheese making,
Ottawa Dept. of Agr. Bul. 22, 1910.
19 Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 14-150, Fermentation test for gas-
producing bacteria in milk. This is commonly called the Wisconsin curd test.
20 Stevenson, C., Pepsin in cheesemaking, Jour. Agr. (New Zeal.) 14 (1917),
pages 32-34.
Todd, A., and E. C. V. Cornish, Experiments in the preparation of homemade
rennet, Jour. Bd. Agr. (London) 23 (1916), no. 6, pages 549-555.
Besana, C., Lack of coagulating ferment in cheesemaking, Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital.
49 (1916), pages 10-12.
Van Dam, W., Rennet economy and substitutes, Verslag. Ver. Exploit.
Proefzuivelboerderij. Hoorn, 1914, pages 45-46.
21 The paragraphs on the chemistry of casein and on rennet action have been
selected from a complete discussion of the subject by E. B. Forbes and M. H.
Keith in Ohio Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5 entitled, "A review of the literature of
phosphorus compounds in animal metabolism." The original references cited
in this discussion are given at the end of the chapter in the order of their
citation in the text.
See also, Van Slyke, L. L., and D. D. Van Slyke, I, The action of dilute acids
upon casein when no soluble compounds are formed; II, The hydrolyses of the
sodium salts of casein, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 3, pages 75-162,
1906.
Sammis, J. L., S. K. Suzuki and F. W. Laabs, Factors controlling the moisture
content of cheese curds, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 122, pages 1-61,
1910.
22 Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of Cheddar cheese from
pasteurized milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 27, 1912.
23 Esten, W. M., Bacteria in the dairy, Conn. (Storrs) Rept. 1896, pages 44-52.
1912.
Conn, H. W., The care and handling of milk, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 26,
1903.
Stocking, W. A., Jr., Quality of milk as affected by certain dairy operations,
Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 42, 1906.
16 Harding, H. A., J. K. Wilson and G. A. Smith, Tests of covered milk pails,
N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 326, 1910.
Stocking, W. A., Tests of covered milk pails, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 48,
1907.
17 Wing, L. W., Milking machines; their sterilization and their efficiency in
producing clean milk, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Circ. 18, 1913.
18 Ruddick, J. A., and G. H. Barr, The cooling of milk for cheese making,
Ottawa Dept. of Agr. Bul. 22, 1910.
19 Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895, pages 14-150, Fermentation test for gas-
producing bacteria in milk. This is commonly called the Wisconsin curd test.
20 Stevenson, C., Pepsin in cheesemaking, Jour. Agr. (New Zeal.) 14 (1917),
pages 32-34.
Todd, A., and E. C. V. Cornish, Experiments in the preparation of homemade
rennet, Jour. Bd. Agr. (London) 23 (1916), no. 6, pages 549-555.
Besana, C., Lack of coagulating ferment in cheesemaking, Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital.
49 (1916), pages 10-12.
Van Dam, W., Rennet economy and substitutes, Verslag. Ver. Exploit.
Proefzuivelboerderij. Hoorn, 1914, pages 45-46.
21 The paragraphs on the chemistry of casein and on rennet action have been
selected from a complete discussion of the subject by E. B. Forbes and M. H.
Keith in Ohio Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5 entitled, "A review of the literature of
phosphorus compounds in animal metabolism." The original references cited
in this discussion are given at the end of the chapter in the order of their
citation in the text.
See also, Van Slyke, L. L., and D. D. Van Slyke, I, The action of dilute acids
upon casein when no soluble compounds are formed; II, The hydrolyses of the
sodium salts of casein, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 3, pages 75-162,
1906.
Sammis, J. L., S. K. Suzuki and F. W. Laabs, Factors controlling the moisture
content of cheese curds, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 122, pages 1-61,
1910.
22 Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of Cheddar cheese from
pasteurized milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 27, 1912.
23 Esten, W. M., Bacteria in the dairy, Conn. (Storrs) Rept. 1896, pages 44-52.
Page 319
24 Bushnell, L. D., and W. R. Wright, Preparation and use of butter starter,
Mich. Exp. Sta. Bul. 246, 1907.
Hastings, E. G., Preparation and use of starter, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 181, 1909.
Larsen, C., and W. White, Preparation and use of starter, S. D. Exp. Sta. Bul.
123, 1910.
Guthrie, E. S., and W. W. Fisk, Propagation of starter for butter-making and
cheese-making, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Circ. 13, 1912.
25 Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese of the Cheddar
type from pasteurized milk, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 165, pages 1-
95, 1913.
26 Publow, C. A., An apparatus for measuring acidity in cheesemaking and
buttermaking, Cornell Exp. Sta. Circ. 7, pages 17-20, 1909.
Hastings, E. G., and A. C. Evans, A comparison of the acid test and the rennet
test for determining the condition of milk for the Cheddar type of cheese, U. S.
Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 210, pages 1-6, 1913.
27 Doane, C. F., The influence of lactic acid on the quality of cheese of the
Cheddar type, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 123, pages 1-20, 1910.
28 Fisk, W. W., A study of some factors influencing the yield and moisture
content of Cheddar cheese, Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 334, 1913.
29 Olson, G. A., Rusty cans and their effect upon milk for cheese-making, Wis.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 162, pages 1-12, 1908.
30 The term "broken" is included here because the use of some curd-breaking
tool has always formed a step in certain commercially successful processes. In
every case in which careful experimental work has been done the curd knife
has been successfully substituted for the breaking tool and has reduced the
losses of fat and casein and in addition aided in obtaining more uniform
cheese.
31 Frandsen, J. H., and T. Thorsen, Farm cheese-making, Univ. Neb. Ext. Serv.
Bul. 47, pages 1-16, 1917.
Michels, J., Improved methods for making cottage and Neufchâtel cheese, N.
C. Exp. Sta. Bul. 210, pages 29-38.
Fisk, W. W., Methods of making some of the soft cheeses, Cornell Exp. Sta.
Circ. 30, pages 41-62, 1915.
32 Tolstrup, R. M., Cheese that farmers should make, Iowa Agr. 15 (1914), 2,
pages 89-90.
33 Van Slyke, L. L., and Hart, E. B., Chemical changes in the souring of milk
and their relations to cottage cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 245, pages
1-36, 1904.
34 Sammis, J. L., Three creamery methods for making buttermilk cheese, Wis.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 239, 1914.
Mich. Exp. Sta. Bul. 246, 1907.
Hastings, E. G., Preparation and use of starter, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 181, 1909.
Larsen, C., and W. White, Preparation and use of starter, S. D. Exp. Sta. Bul.
123, 1910.
Guthrie, E. S., and W. W. Fisk, Propagation of starter for butter-making and
cheese-making, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Circ. 13, 1912.
25 Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese of the Cheddar
type from pasteurized milk, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 165, pages 1-
95, 1913.
26 Publow, C. A., An apparatus for measuring acidity in cheesemaking and
buttermaking, Cornell Exp. Sta. Circ. 7, pages 17-20, 1909.
Hastings, E. G., and A. C. Evans, A comparison of the acid test and the rennet
test for determining the condition of milk for the Cheddar type of cheese, U. S.
Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 210, pages 1-6, 1913.
27 Doane, C. F., The influence of lactic acid on the quality of cheese of the
Cheddar type, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 123, pages 1-20, 1910.
28 Fisk, W. W., A study of some factors influencing the yield and moisture
content of Cheddar cheese, Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 334, 1913.
29 Olson, G. A., Rusty cans and their effect upon milk for cheese-making, Wis.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 162, pages 1-12, 1908.
30 The term "broken" is included here because the use of some curd-breaking
tool has always formed a step in certain commercially successful processes. In
every case in which careful experimental work has been done the curd knife
has been successfully substituted for the breaking tool and has reduced the
losses of fat and casein and in addition aided in obtaining more uniform
cheese.
31 Frandsen, J. H., and T. Thorsen, Farm cheese-making, Univ. Neb. Ext. Serv.
Bul. 47, pages 1-16, 1917.
Michels, J., Improved methods for making cottage and Neufchâtel cheese, N.
C. Exp. Sta. Bul. 210, pages 29-38.
Fisk, W. W., Methods of making some of the soft cheeses, Cornell Exp. Sta.
Circ. 30, pages 41-62, 1915.
32 Tolstrup, R. M., Cheese that farmers should make, Iowa Agr. 15 (1914), 2,
pages 89-90.
33 Van Slyke, L. L., and Hart, E. B., Chemical changes in the souring of milk
and their relations to cottage cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 245, pages
1-36, 1904.
34 Sammis, J. L., Three creamery methods for making buttermilk cheese, Wis.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 239, 1914.
Page 320
35 Matheson, K. J., C. Thom and J. N. Currie, Cheeses of the Neufchâtel
group, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, pages 313-329, 1914.
36 Dahlberg, A. O., The manufacture of cottage cheese in creameries and milk
plants, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 576, pages 1-16, 1917.
37 Since the number of factories has continued small, the manufacture of this
type of machine has remained a monopoly in which each machine is made to
order by the Van Eyck Machine Co. of Holland, Mich.
38 Presented by Dr. E. C. Schroeder of the U. S. Dept. Agr. to the International
Association of Dairy and Milk Inspectors, at Washington, Oct. 17, 1917,
published Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc'n 52, N. S. 5, no. 6, pages 674-685, 1918.
39 Matheson, K. J., and F. R. Cammack, How to make cottage cheese on the
farm, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. 850, pages 1-15, 1917.
40 Taken from Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, page 328.
41 Taken from Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, page 328.
42 Eckles, C. H., and O. Rahn, Die Reifung des Harzkäses, Centralb. f. Bakt.
etc. 2 abt. 14 (1905), pages 676-680.
43 Monrad, J. H., Hand cheese, N. Y. Produce Rev. etc. 25 (1908), 16, page
644.
44 The authors are under obligations to Mrs. E. E. Kiernan for her description
of this process (in the Somerset County Leader, Jan. 10, 1908) and her letters
concerning it. The statement of the process given here combines the published
statement with the results of our own experiments.
45 Monrad, J. H., Appetitost, N. Y. Produce Rev. etc. 25 (1908), 16, page 644.
46 Pouriau, A. F., La Laiterie, sixième ed. par Marcel Monteran, page 453,
Paris, 1908.
47 Among the varietal names for Neufchâtel cheese from whole milk or with
added cream are Petits Bondons, Malakoffs, Carrés affinés. Among low fat or
skim forms, Petit Suisse, Gournay.
48 Thom, C., J. N. Currie and K. J. Matheson, Studies relating to the Roquefort
and Camembert types of cheese, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, page 392.
49 Full discussion of this product is found in U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind.
Bul. 115. Camembert cheese problems in the U. S. also published as Storrs
Exp. Sta. Bul. 58 with the same title. Also a supplementary paper in Bul. 79 of
Storrs Exp. Sta.
50 Thom, C., U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 145 (1909), page 339.
51 Lot record cards for the making and ripening of Camembert are given on
pages 124 and 125.
52 Bosworth, A. W., Chemical studies of Camembert cheese, N. Y. (Geneva)
Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, pages 23-39, 1907.
group, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, pages 313-329, 1914.
36 Dahlberg, A. O., The manufacture of cottage cheese in creameries and milk
plants, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 576, pages 1-16, 1917.
37 Since the number of factories has continued small, the manufacture of this
type of machine has remained a monopoly in which each machine is made to
order by the Van Eyck Machine Co. of Holland, Mich.
38 Presented by Dr. E. C. Schroeder of the U. S. Dept. Agr. to the International
Association of Dairy and Milk Inspectors, at Washington, Oct. 17, 1917,
published Jour. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc'n 52, N. S. 5, no. 6, pages 674-685, 1918.
39 Matheson, K. J., and F. R. Cammack, How to make cottage cheese on the
farm, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bul. 850, pages 1-15, 1917.
40 Taken from Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, page 328.
41 Taken from Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, page 328.
42 Eckles, C. H., and O. Rahn, Die Reifung des Harzkäses, Centralb. f. Bakt.
etc. 2 abt. 14 (1905), pages 676-680.
43 Monrad, J. H., Hand cheese, N. Y. Produce Rev. etc. 25 (1908), 16, page
644.
44 The authors are under obligations to Mrs. E. E. Kiernan for her description
of this process (in the Somerset County Leader, Jan. 10, 1908) and her letters
concerning it. The statement of the process given here combines the published
statement with the results of our own experiments.
45 Monrad, J. H., Appetitost, N. Y. Produce Rev. etc. 25 (1908), 16, page 644.
46 Pouriau, A. F., La Laiterie, sixième ed. par Marcel Monteran, page 453,
Paris, 1908.
47 Among the varietal names for Neufchâtel cheese from whole milk or with
added cream are Petits Bondons, Malakoffs, Carrés affinés. Among low fat or
skim forms, Petit Suisse, Gournay.
48 Thom, C., J. N. Currie and K. J. Matheson, Studies relating to the Roquefort
and Camembert types of cheese, Conn. (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, page 392.
49 Full discussion of this product is found in U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind.
Bul. 115. Camembert cheese problems in the U. S. also published as Storrs
Exp. Sta. Bul. 58 with the same title. Also a supplementary paper in Bul. 79 of
Storrs Exp. Sta.
50 Thom, C., U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 145 (1909), page 339.
51 Lot record cards for the making and ripening of Camembert are given on
pages 124 and 125.
52 Bosworth, A. W., Chemical studies of Camembert cheese, N. Y. (Geneva)
Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 5, pages 23-39, 1907.
Page 321
Dox, A. W., Proteolytic changes in the ripening of Camembert cheese, U. S.
Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 109, pages 1-24, 1908.
53 Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, Bact. Stud. of Camembert cheese, Storrs
Exp. Sta. Bul. 83 (1915), pages 103-111.
54 See page 134 for domestic or American use of the name Brie.
55 McNaughton, J., Coulommier cheese, Dept. Agr. Ottawa, Canada, Dairy
and Cold Storage Ser. Bul. 25, 1910.
56 Kosher forms are prepared in compliance with the Mosaic law as demanded
by the Jewish trade.
57 Unpublished analysis of the Storrs Exp. Sta.
58 Chapais, J. C., Monographie, Le Fromage Raffiné de L'Isle d'Orléans.
Quebec, 1911. Published by Ministry of Agriculture, pages 1-31.
59 The authors acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Louis Getman in preparing
this description.
60 Zumkehr, P., Limburger cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers Association,
15th Annual Meeting, 1907, page 62.
61 Currie, J. N., Flavor of Roquefort cheese, Jour. Agr. Research 2 (1914), no.
1, pages 1-14.
62 Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc., 12th Annual Meeting and Report, 1906, page
xxviii.
63 Currie, J. N., The relation of composition to quality in cheese, American
Food Jour. 11 (1916), no. 9, page 458. See also Dox on the True Composition
of Roquefort Cheese, Ztsch. Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl. 22 (1911), pages
239-242.
64 Thom, C., and Matheson, K. J., Biology of Roquefort cheese, Storrs Exp.
Sta. Bul. 79, pages 335-347, 1914.
65 Currie, J. N., Flavor of Roquefort cheese, Jour. Agr. Research, 2 (1914), 1,
pages 1-14, Washington.
66 Dox, A. W., Die Zusammensetzung des echten Roquefort-Käses, in Ztschr.
Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl. Bd. 22, Heft. 4, pages 239-242, 1911.
67 Marre, E., Le Roquefort, Rodez, 1906. This is the authoritative monograph
on Roquefort cheese problems.
68 Reported on the word of Prof. Fleischmann.
69 Thom, C., J. N. Currie and K. J. Matheson, Studies relating to the Roquefort
and Camembert types of cheese, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, pages 335-394,
1914.
70 Thom, C., U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 82, 1905.
Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 109, pages 1-24, 1908.
53 Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, Bact. Stud. of Camembert cheese, Storrs
Exp. Sta. Bul. 83 (1915), pages 103-111.
54 See page 134 for domestic or American use of the name Brie.
55 McNaughton, J., Coulommier cheese, Dept. Agr. Ottawa, Canada, Dairy
and Cold Storage Ser. Bul. 25, 1910.
56 Kosher forms are prepared in compliance with the Mosaic law as demanded
by the Jewish trade.
57 Unpublished analysis of the Storrs Exp. Sta.
58 Chapais, J. C., Monographie, Le Fromage Raffiné de L'Isle d'Orléans.
Quebec, 1911. Published by Ministry of Agriculture, pages 1-31.
59 The authors acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Louis Getman in preparing
this description.
60 Zumkehr, P., Limburger cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers Association,
15th Annual Meeting, 1907, page 62.
61 Currie, J. N., Flavor of Roquefort cheese, Jour. Agr. Research 2 (1914), no.
1, pages 1-14.
62 Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc., 12th Annual Meeting and Report, 1906, page
xxviii.
63 Currie, J. N., The relation of composition to quality in cheese, American
Food Jour. 11 (1916), no. 9, page 458. See also Dox on the True Composition
of Roquefort Cheese, Ztsch. Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl. 22 (1911), pages
239-242.
64 Thom, C., and Matheson, K. J., Biology of Roquefort cheese, Storrs Exp.
Sta. Bul. 79, pages 335-347, 1914.
65 Currie, J. N., Flavor of Roquefort cheese, Jour. Agr. Research, 2 (1914), 1,
pages 1-14, Washington.
66 Dox, A. W., Die Zusammensetzung des echten Roquefort-Käses, in Ztschr.
Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl. Bd. 22, Heft. 4, pages 239-242, 1911.
67 Marre, E., Le Roquefort, Rodez, 1906. This is the authoritative monograph
on Roquefort cheese problems.
68 Reported on the word of Prof. Fleischmann.
69 Thom, C., J. N. Currie and K. J. Matheson, Studies relating to the Roquefort
and Camembert types of cheese, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul. 79, pages 335-394,
1914.
70 Thom, C., U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 82, 1905.
Page 322
71 Thom, C., The salt factor in the mold ripened cheeses, Storrs Exp. Sta. Bul.
79, pages 387-394, 1914.
72 Thom, C., and Currie, J. N., The dominance of Roquefort mold in cheese,
Jour. Biol. Chem. 15 (1913), no. 2, pages 247-258.
73 Currie, J. N., The composition of Roquefort cheese fat, Jour. Agr. Research,
2 (1914), 6, pages 429-434.
74 Thom, C., Soft cheese studies in Europe, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind.
Rept. 22, pages 79-109, 1905.
75 Frestadius, A., Nord. Mejeri Tid. 17 (1912), 14, page 159, Abs. N. Y.
Produce Rev. 34 (1912), 2, page 54, and Cutting, W. B., The use of baritine in
cheese rinds, Mo. Commerce and Trade Repts. 1908, 337, page 144, also in
Practical Dairyman, 2 (1908), 7, page 76.
76 Stilton Cheese—J. P. Sheldon—from abs. by New York Produce Rev. 28
(June 16, 1909), no. 8, pages 362-363. Stilton is said to have originated with
Mrs. Paulet, Wymondham, Co. of Leicester, and to have been sold by her
brother—Host of the "Bill" at Stilton from which village it derived its name.
77 Percival, J., and G. Heather Mason, The microflora of Stilton cheese, Jour.
Agr. Sci. 5 (1913), part 2, pages 222-229. See also Thom, C., Soft cheese
studies in Europe, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Rept. 22 (1905), pages 79-
109.
78 Benson, Miles, in personal letter from analyses of cheeses selected for the
purpose.
79 Dean, H. H., The Creamery Journal, Nov. 1904.
80 N. Y. Produce Rev. etc., Vol. 32, no. 14, page 536.
81 N. Y. Produce Rev. etc., Vol. 30, no. 5, page 188; Vol. 30, no. 14, page 534;
Vol. 31, no. 5, page 182.
Marty, G., Brick cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc., 15th Annual
Meeting, 1907, page 66.
Wuethrich, F., The manufacture of Brick cheese, Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc.,
14th Annual Meeting, 1906, page 50.
Schenk, C., Brick cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc., 13th Annual
Meeting, 1905, page 38.
82 Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, Varieties of cheese, descriptions and
analysis, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. of An. Ind. Bul. 146, 1911.
83 Ligeon, X., Herstellung des Port Salut Käses, Milchztg. 38 (1909), no. 39,
pages 459-460.
84 These paragraphs were taken from N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 56, Experiments in
the manufacture of cheese; Part I. The manufacture of Edam cheese, 1893. See
also, Haecker, T. L., Experiments in the manufacture of cheese, Minn. Exp.
Sta. Bul. 35, 1894.
79, pages 387-394, 1914.
72 Thom, C., and Currie, J. N., The dominance of Roquefort mold in cheese,
Jour. Biol. Chem. 15 (1913), no. 2, pages 247-258.
73 Currie, J. N., The composition of Roquefort cheese fat, Jour. Agr. Research,
2 (1914), 6, pages 429-434.
74 Thom, C., Soft cheese studies in Europe, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind.
Rept. 22, pages 79-109, 1905.
75 Frestadius, A., Nord. Mejeri Tid. 17 (1912), 14, page 159, Abs. N. Y.
Produce Rev. 34 (1912), 2, page 54, and Cutting, W. B., The use of baritine in
cheese rinds, Mo. Commerce and Trade Repts. 1908, 337, page 144, also in
Practical Dairyman, 2 (1908), 7, page 76.
76 Stilton Cheese—J. P. Sheldon—from abs. by New York Produce Rev. 28
(June 16, 1909), no. 8, pages 362-363. Stilton is said to have originated with
Mrs. Paulet, Wymondham, Co. of Leicester, and to have been sold by her
brother—Host of the "Bill" at Stilton from which village it derived its name.
77 Percival, J., and G. Heather Mason, The microflora of Stilton cheese, Jour.
Agr. Sci. 5 (1913), part 2, pages 222-229. See also Thom, C., Soft cheese
studies in Europe, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Rept. 22 (1905), pages 79-
109.
78 Benson, Miles, in personal letter from analyses of cheeses selected for the
purpose.
79 Dean, H. H., The Creamery Journal, Nov. 1904.
80 N. Y. Produce Rev. etc., Vol. 32, no. 14, page 536.
81 N. Y. Produce Rev. etc., Vol. 30, no. 5, page 188; Vol. 30, no. 14, page 534;
Vol. 31, no. 5, page 182.
Marty, G., Brick cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc., 15th Annual
Meeting, 1907, page 66.
Wuethrich, F., The manufacture of Brick cheese, Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc.,
14th Annual Meeting, 1906, page 50.
Schenk, C., Brick cheesemaking, Wis. Cheese-makers Assoc., 13th Annual
Meeting, 1905, page 38.
82 Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, Varieties of cheese, descriptions and
analysis, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. of An. Ind. Bul. 146, 1911.
83 Ligeon, X., Herstellung des Port Salut Käses, Milchztg. 38 (1909), no. 39,
pages 459-460.
84 These paragraphs were taken from N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 56, Experiments in
the manufacture of cheese; Part I. The manufacture of Edam cheese, 1893. See
also, Haecker, T. L., Experiments in the manufacture of cheese, Minn. Exp.
Sta. Bul. 35, 1894.
Page 323
85 Boekhout, F. W. J., and J. J. O. de Vries, Cracking of Edam, Verslag.
Landbouwk. Onderzoek. Rykslandboupoefstat. (Netherlands), 20 (1917),
pages 71-78, fig. 1.
Boekhout, F. W. F., and J. J. O. de Vries, Sur le défaut "Knijpers" dans le
fromage d'Edam, Rev. Gen. Lait, 9 (1913), no. 18, pages 420-427.
86 Paragraphs taken from N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 56, Experiments in the
manufacture of cheese; Part II. The manufacture of Gouda cheese, 1893. See
also, Hayward, H., Method of making Gouda cheese, Pa. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890,
pages 79-81, and Haecker, T. L., Experiments in the manufacture of cheese,
Minn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 35, 1894, and Monrad, J. H., in N. Y. Produce Rev. 25
(1907), no. 8, page 336, where a home process of making this cheese is given.
87 The authors acknowledge here the helpful suggestions and criticisms of G.
C. Dutton, New York State Cheese Instructor.
88 Russell, H. L., Cheese as affected by gas-producing bacteria, Wis. Exp. Sta.
Rept. 1895, pages 139-146.
Marshall, C. E., Gassy curd and cheese, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bul. 183, 1900.
89 S. M. Babcock, Hot iron test of cheese curd, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895,
pages 133-134.
90 Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, A study of some of the salts formed by
casein and paracasein with acids, their relation to American Cheddar cheese,
N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902.
91 Decker, J. W., Cheesemaking from sour milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1898,
pages 42-44.
92 Russell, H. L., Cheese as affected by gas producing bacteria, Wis. Exp. Sta.
Rept. 1895, pages 139-146.
Marshall, C. E., Gassy curd and cheese, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bul. 183, 1900.
Moore, V. A., and A. R. Ward, Causes of tainted cheese curds, N. Y. (Cornell)
Exp. Sta. Bul. 158, 1899.
93 Van Slyke, L. L., Investigations relating to the manufacture of cheese, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 68, 1894.
94 Van Slyke, L. L., Investigations relating to the manufacture of cheese, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 62, 1893.
95 Van Slyke, L. L., Methods of paying for milk at cheese factories, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 308, 1908.
96 Farm Bur. Exchange, St. Lawrence Co., N. Y., Vol. 1, no. 9, 1915. Cooling
milk before delivery at the cheese factory.
97 Sammis, J. L., et al., Factors controlling the moisture content of cheese
curds, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 7, 1910.
Landbouwk. Onderzoek. Rykslandboupoefstat. (Netherlands), 20 (1917),
pages 71-78, fig. 1.
Boekhout, F. W. F., and J. J. O. de Vries, Sur le défaut "Knijpers" dans le
fromage d'Edam, Rev. Gen. Lait, 9 (1913), no. 18, pages 420-427.
86 Paragraphs taken from N. Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 56, Experiments in the
manufacture of cheese; Part II. The manufacture of Gouda cheese, 1893. See
also, Hayward, H., Method of making Gouda cheese, Pa. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890,
pages 79-81, and Haecker, T. L., Experiments in the manufacture of cheese,
Minn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 35, 1894, and Monrad, J. H., in N. Y. Produce Rev. 25
(1907), no. 8, page 336, where a home process of making this cheese is given.
87 The authors acknowledge here the helpful suggestions and criticisms of G.
C. Dutton, New York State Cheese Instructor.
88 Russell, H. L., Cheese as affected by gas-producing bacteria, Wis. Exp. Sta.
Rept. 1895, pages 139-146.
Marshall, C. E., Gassy curd and cheese, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bul. 183, 1900.
89 S. M. Babcock, Hot iron test of cheese curd, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1895,
pages 133-134.
90 Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, A study of some of the salts formed by
casein and paracasein with acids, their relation to American Cheddar cheese,
N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902.
91 Decker, J. W., Cheesemaking from sour milk, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1898,
pages 42-44.
92 Russell, H. L., Cheese as affected by gas producing bacteria, Wis. Exp. Sta.
Rept. 1895, pages 139-146.
Marshall, C. E., Gassy curd and cheese, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bul. 183, 1900.
Moore, V. A., and A. R. Ward, Causes of tainted cheese curds, N. Y. (Cornell)
Exp. Sta. Bul. 158, 1899.
93 Van Slyke, L. L., Investigations relating to the manufacture of cheese, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 68, 1894.
94 Van Slyke, L. L., Investigations relating to the manufacture of cheese, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 62, 1893.
95 Van Slyke, L. L., Methods of paying for milk at cheese factories, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 308, 1908.
96 Farm Bur. Exchange, St. Lawrence Co., N. Y., Vol. 1, no. 9, 1915. Cooling
milk before delivery at the cheese factory.
97 Sammis, J. L., et al., Factors controlling the moisture content of cheese
curds, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 7, 1910.
Page 324
Ont. Agr. College and Exp. Farm Rept. 1909, pages 111-124, Cheese making
experiments.
Ont. Agr. College and Exp. Farm Rept. 1910, pages 111-128, Cheese making
experiments.
Fisk, W. W., A study of some factors influencing the yield and the moisture
content of Cheddar cheese, Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 334, pages 515-537, 1913.
98 Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese of the Cheddar
type from pasteurized milk, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 165, pages 1-
95, 1913.
99 New York Prod. Review, Vol. 34, no. 2, page 66.
100 Babcock, S. M., et al., Cheese ripening as influenced by sugar, Wis. Exp.
Sta. Rept. 1901, pages 162-167.
E. G. Hastings, et al., Studies on the factors concerned in the ripening of
Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 25.
101 Fisk, W. W., Skim-milk Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Ex. Bul.
18, 1917.
102 Curd was spilled but practically all recovered.
103 Suzuki, S. K., et al., Production of fatty acids and esters in Cheddar
cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 11.
104 Babcock, S. M., et al., Cheese ripening as influenced by sugar, Wis. Exp.
Sta. Rept. 1901, pages 162-167.
105 Bosworth, A. W., and M. J. Prucha, Fermentation of citric acid in milk, N.
Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 14, 1910.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Condition of casein and salts in milk,
N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 39, 1914.
Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, A study of some of the salts formed by casein
and paracasein with acids; their relation to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902.
Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Some of the relations of casein and
paracasein to bases and acids and their application to Cheddar cheese, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 261, 1905.
Van Slyke, L. L., and O. B. Winter, Cheese ripening investigations, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 33, 1914.
106 Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, The relation of carbon dioxide to
proteolysis in the ripening of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul.
231, 1903.
107 Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Some of the compounds present in
American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 219, 1902.
experiments.
Ont. Agr. College and Exp. Farm Rept. 1910, pages 111-128, Cheese making
experiments.
Fisk, W. W., A study of some factors influencing the yield and the moisture
content of Cheddar cheese, Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 334, pages 515-537, 1913.
98 Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, The manufacture of cheese of the Cheddar
type from pasteurized milk, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 165, pages 1-
95, 1913.
99 New York Prod. Review, Vol. 34, no. 2, page 66.
100 Babcock, S. M., et al., Cheese ripening as influenced by sugar, Wis. Exp.
Sta. Rept. 1901, pages 162-167.
E. G. Hastings, et al., Studies on the factors concerned in the ripening of
Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 25.
101 Fisk, W. W., Skim-milk Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Ex. Bul.
18, 1917.
102 Curd was spilled but practically all recovered.
103 Suzuki, S. K., et al., Production of fatty acids and esters in Cheddar
cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 11.
104 Babcock, S. M., et al., Cheese ripening as influenced by sugar, Wis. Exp.
Sta. Rept. 1901, pages 162-167.
105 Bosworth, A. W., and M. J. Prucha, Fermentation of citric acid in milk, N.
Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 14, 1910.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, Condition of casein and salts in milk,
N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 39, 1914.
Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, A study of some of the salts formed by casein
and paracasein with acids; their relation to American Cheddar cheese, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, 1902.
Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Some of the relations of casein and
paracasein to bases and acids and their application to Cheddar cheese, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 261, 1905.
Van Slyke, L. L., and O. B. Winter, Cheese ripening investigations, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 33, 1914.
106 Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, The relation of carbon dioxide to
proteolysis in the ripening of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul.
231, 1903.
107 Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Some of the compounds present in
American Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 219, 1902.
Page 325
108 Van Slyke, L. L., et al., Action of rennin or casein, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp.
Sta. Tech. Bul. 31, 1913.
Van Slyke, L. L., et al., Cheese ripening investigations; rennet enzyme as a
factor in cheese ripening, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 233, 1903.
109 Bosworth, A. W., Studies relating to the chemistry of milk and casein, N.
Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 37, 1914.
110 Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1898, Distribution of galactase in milk from different
sources, pages 87-97.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1903, pages 195-197, 201-205, 222-223, Action of
proteolytic ferments on milk.
111 Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1900, pages 102-122.
112 Harding, H. A., and M. J. Prucha, The bacterial flora of Cheddar cheese,
N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 8.
113 Bacterium, Bacillus and Lactobacillus are preferred by different authors as
generic placing of the Bulgarian sour milk species.
114 Hastings, E. G., Alice C. Evans and E. B. Hart, The bacteriology of
Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 150, pages 1-52, 1912.
115 Harding, H. A., The rôle of the lactic acid bacteria in the manufacture and
in the early stages of ripening of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta.
Bul. 237, 1903.
116 Heinemann, P. G., The kinds of lactic acid produced by lactic acid
bacteria, Jour. Biol. Chem., Vol. 2, pages 603-608.
117 Hastings, E. G., et al., The bacteriology of Cheddar cheese, U. S. Dept.
Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 150, 1912.
118 Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Conditions affecting chemical changes in
cheese ripening, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 236, 1903.
119 Van Slyke, L. L., et al., Cheese ripening at low temperatures, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 234, 1903.
120 Van Slyke, L. L., et al., Cheese ripening at low temperatures, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 234, 1903.
121 Doane, C. F., Methods and results of paraffining cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr.
Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 181, pages 1-16, 1911.
122 Doane, C. F., and E. E. Eldredge, The use of Bacillus Bulgaricus in starters
for making Swiss or Emmenthal cheese, Dept. of Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 148,
1915.
123 N. Y. Produce Rev. and Am. Creamery, Vol. 37, no. 25, page 1112, Starter
for Swiss cheese.
Sta. Tech. Bul. 31, 1913.
Van Slyke, L. L., et al., Cheese ripening investigations; rennet enzyme as a
factor in cheese ripening, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 233, 1903.
109 Bosworth, A. W., Studies relating to the chemistry of milk and casein, N.
Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 37, 1914.
110 Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1898, Distribution of galactase in milk from different
sources, pages 87-97.
Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1903, pages 195-197, 201-205, 222-223, Action of
proteolytic ferments on milk.
111 Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1900, pages 102-122.
112 Harding, H. A., and M. J. Prucha, The bacterial flora of Cheddar cheese,
N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 8.
113 Bacterium, Bacillus and Lactobacillus are preferred by different authors as
generic placing of the Bulgarian sour milk species.
114 Hastings, E. G., Alice C. Evans and E. B. Hart, The bacteriology of
Cheddar cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 150, pages 1-52, 1912.
115 Harding, H. A., The rôle of the lactic acid bacteria in the manufacture and
in the early stages of ripening of Cheddar cheese, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta.
Bul. 237, 1903.
116 Heinemann, P. G., The kinds of lactic acid produced by lactic acid
bacteria, Jour. Biol. Chem., Vol. 2, pages 603-608.
117 Hastings, E. G., et al., The bacteriology of Cheddar cheese, U. S. Dept.
Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 150, 1912.
118 Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, Conditions affecting chemical changes in
cheese ripening, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 236, 1903.
119 Van Slyke, L. L., et al., Cheese ripening at low temperatures, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 234, 1903.
120 Van Slyke, L. L., et al., Cheese ripening at low temperatures, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 234, 1903.
121 Doane, C. F., Methods and results of paraffining cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr.
Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 181, pages 1-16, 1911.
122 Doane, C. F., and E. E. Eldredge, The use of Bacillus Bulgaricus in starters
for making Swiss or Emmenthal cheese, Dept. of Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 148,
1915.
123 N. Y. Produce Rev. and Am. Creamery, Vol. 37, no. 25, page 1112, Starter
for Swiss cheese.
Page 326
124 Clark, W. M., On the formation of "eyes" in Emmenthal cheese, Jour.
Dairy Sci. 1 (1917), no. 2, pages 91-113.
Among important studies of Swiss cheese ripening are the following:
Freudenreich, E. v., and Orla Jensen, Ueber die in Emmentalerkäse
stattfindende Proprionsäuregärung, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 Abt. 17, page 529.
Jensen, Orla, Biologische Studien über den Käsereifungsprozess unter
spezieller Berucksichtigung der flüchtigen Fettsäuren, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2
Abt. 13 (1904), page 161.
Eldredge, E. E., and L. A. Rogers, The bacteriology of cheese of the
Emmenthal type, Centralb. f. Bakt. 2 Abt. 40 (1914), no. ⅛, pages 5-21.
125 Gorini, C., Studi sulla fabricatione razionale del fromaggi Grana, Boll. uff.
del Ministero Agr. Ind. e Comm. Anno X, serie C, Fasc. 10, pages 1-7, Roma,
1911.
Gorini, C., On the distribution of bacteria in Grana cheese, Centralb. f. Bakt.
etc. 2 Abt. 12 (1904), pages 78-81.
Fascetti, G., The technological chemistry of the manufacture of Grana cheese
in Reggio, Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital. 47 (1914), no. 8, pages 541-568.
126 Cornalba, G., Caciocavallo in Lombardy, L'Industria del Latte 3, page 105,
Abs. in Jahresb. f. Tierchemie 36 (1906), page 250.
127 Babcock, S. M., Albumin cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 12 (1895), page
134.
128 Doane, C. F., Whey butter, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 161, pages
1-7, 1910.
Sammis, J. L., Making whey butter at Cheddar cheese factories, Wis. Exp. Sta.
Bul. 246, 1915.
Ellenberrger, H. B., and M. R. Tolstrup, Skimming whey at Vermont cheese
factories, Vt. Dept. Agr. Bul. 26, 1916.
129 Farrington, E. H., and G. J. Davis, The disposal of creamery sewage, Wis.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 245, 1915.
130 Dotterrer, W. D., and R. S. Breed, Why and how pasteurize dairy by-
products, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 412, 1915.
131 Harding, H. A., and G. A. Smith, Control of rust spots in cheese, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 225, 1902.
132 Elliott, W. J., Creameries and cheese factories, Mont. Exp. Sta. Bul. 53,
1904.
Farrington, E. H., and E. H. Benkendorf, Origination and construction of
cheese factories and creameries, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 244, 1915.
133 From N. Y. price current.
Dairy Sci. 1 (1917), no. 2, pages 91-113.
Among important studies of Swiss cheese ripening are the following:
Freudenreich, E. v., and Orla Jensen, Ueber die in Emmentalerkäse
stattfindende Proprionsäuregärung, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2 Abt. 17, page 529.
Jensen, Orla, Biologische Studien über den Käsereifungsprozess unter
spezieller Berucksichtigung der flüchtigen Fettsäuren, Centralb. f. Bakt. etc. 2
Abt. 13 (1904), page 161.
Eldredge, E. E., and L. A. Rogers, The bacteriology of cheese of the
Emmenthal type, Centralb. f. Bakt. 2 Abt. 40 (1914), no. ⅛, pages 5-21.
125 Gorini, C., Studi sulla fabricatione razionale del fromaggi Grana, Boll. uff.
del Ministero Agr. Ind. e Comm. Anno X, serie C, Fasc. 10, pages 1-7, Roma,
1911.
Gorini, C., On the distribution of bacteria in Grana cheese, Centralb. f. Bakt.
etc. 2 Abt. 12 (1904), pages 78-81.
Fascetti, G., The technological chemistry of the manufacture of Grana cheese
in Reggio, Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital. 47 (1914), no. 8, pages 541-568.
126 Cornalba, G., Caciocavallo in Lombardy, L'Industria del Latte 3, page 105,
Abs. in Jahresb. f. Tierchemie 36 (1906), page 250.
127 Babcock, S. M., Albumin cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Rept. 12 (1895), page
134.
128 Doane, C. F., Whey butter, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Circ. 161, pages
1-7, 1910.
Sammis, J. L., Making whey butter at Cheddar cheese factories, Wis. Exp. Sta.
Bul. 246, 1915.
Ellenberrger, H. B., and M. R. Tolstrup, Skimming whey at Vermont cheese
factories, Vt. Dept. Agr. Bul. 26, 1916.
129 Farrington, E. H., and G. J. Davis, The disposal of creamery sewage, Wis.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 245, 1915.
130 Dotterrer, W. D., and R. S. Breed, Why and how pasteurize dairy by-
products, N. Y. (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 412, 1915.
131 Harding, H. A., and G. A. Smith, Control of rust spots in cheese, N. Y.
(Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bul. 225, 1902.
132 Elliott, W. J., Creameries and cheese factories, Mont. Exp. Sta. Bul. 53,
1904.
Farrington, E. H., and E. H. Benkendorf, Origination and construction of
cheese factories and creameries, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 244, 1915.
133 From N. Y. price current.
Page 327
134 Hart, E. B., A simple test for casein in milk and its relation to the dairy
industry, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 156, pages 1-22, 1907.
135 Sammis, J. L., The moisture test in the cheese factory, Wis. Exp. Sta. Circ.
81, 1917.
Troy, H. C., A cheese moisture test, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Ext. Bul. 17,
1917.
136 Sammis, J. L., Correct payment for cheese factory milk by the Babcock
test, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 276, 1917.
137 Dairy Laws of Wisconsin, 1916, section 4607a.
138 Sammis, J. L., The improved system of selling cheese, Hoard's Dairyman
52 (1916), 15, pages 5, 11-12.
Hibbard, B. H., and A. Hobson, Markets and prices of Wisconsin cheese, Wis.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 251, pages 1-56, 1915.
139 Hibbard, B. H., and Asher Hobson, Markets and prices of Wisconsin
cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 251, 1915.
140 N. Y. Agricultural Laws, Sect. 3, paragraphs 48 and 49.
141 Langworthy, C. F., and C. L. Hunt, Cheese and its economical uses in the
diet, U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. 487, 1912.
142 See also, Reich, R., Cheese as a food and its judgment from standpoint of
the food chemist, Arch. f. Hyg. 80 (1913), no. ⅟6, pages 169-195.
143 This calculation was added by the authors.
144 Varietal name added by authors.
145 Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, Varieties of cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur.
An. Ind. Bul. 146.
146 U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind., Dairy Div. A. I. 21, 1917.
147 Doane, C. F., et al., The digestibility of cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An.
Ind. Circ. 166, pages 1-21, 1911.
148 Langworthy and Hunt, loc. cit.
149 U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. 487, page 38.
150 Levin, W., Cheese poisoning—a toxicogenic bacillus isolated from cheese,
Jour. Lab. Clin. Med. 2 (1917), page 761.
151 Thom, C., Camembert cheese problems in the United States, U. S. Dept.
Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 115.
152 Langworthy and Hunt, loc. cit.
153 Langworthy and Hunt, loc. cit.
154 U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bur. An. Ind. A. I. 18.
industry, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 156, pages 1-22, 1907.
135 Sammis, J. L., The moisture test in the cheese factory, Wis. Exp. Sta. Circ.
81, 1917.
Troy, H. C., A cheese moisture test, N. Y. (Cornell) Exp. Sta. Ext. Bul. 17,
1917.
136 Sammis, J. L., Correct payment for cheese factory milk by the Babcock
test, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 276, 1917.
137 Dairy Laws of Wisconsin, 1916, section 4607a.
138 Sammis, J. L., The improved system of selling cheese, Hoard's Dairyman
52 (1916), 15, pages 5, 11-12.
Hibbard, B. H., and A. Hobson, Markets and prices of Wisconsin cheese, Wis.
Exp. Sta. Bul. 251, pages 1-56, 1915.
139 Hibbard, B. H., and Asher Hobson, Markets and prices of Wisconsin
cheese, Wis. Exp. Sta. Bul. 251, 1915.
140 N. Y. Agricultural Laws, Sect. 3, paragraphs 48 and 49.
141 Langworthy, C. F., and C. L. Hunt, Cheese and its economical uses in the
diet, U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. 487, 1912.
142 See also, Reich, R., Cheese as a food and its judgment from standpoint of
the food chemist, Arch. f. Hyg. 80 (1913), no. ⅟6, pages 169-195.
143 This calculation was added by the authors.
144 Varietal name added by authors.
145 Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, Varieties of cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur.
An. Ind. Bul. 146.
146 U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An. Ind., Dairy Div. A. I. 21, 1917.
147 Doane, C. F., et al., The digestibility of cheese, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. An.
Ind. Circ. 166, pages 1-21, 1911.
148 Langworthy and Hunt, loc. cit.
149 U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. 487, page 38.
150 Levin, W., Cheese poisoning—a toxicogenic bacillus isolated from cheese,
Jour. Lab. Clin. Med. 2 (1917), page 761.
151 Thom, C., Camembert cheese problems in the United States, U. S. Dept.
Agr. Bur. An. Ind. Bul. 115.
152 Langworthy and Hunt, loc. cit.
153 Langworthy and Hunt, loc. cit.
154 U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bur. An. Ind. A. I. 18.
Page 328
Page 329
INDEX.
Acetic acid in cheese, 247.
Acid cocci, 19.
Acid fermentation, 17.
Acid organisms, 41.
Acid peptonizing organisms, 41.
Acidity,
in cheese and curd, 57, 58, 59.
and color, 67.
and rennet action, 66.
and ripening, 255.
and separation of whey, 66.
and texture, 67.
control of, 64.
in milk, 60.
testing, 60, 61.
Acidy cheese, 66.
Acme curd rake, 196.
Albumin, 10.
Albumin cheese, 295.
Alcohols in cheese, 248.
Alkaline bacteria, 20.
Appetitost, 114.
Ash of milk, 11.
Ayers, S. H. (Thom and), 21.
Babcock, S. M., 201, 237, 248, 295.
Babcock test, 327-332.
Bacillus botulinus, 370.
bulgaricus = Bacterium bulgaricum, 18, 279.
enteritidis, 370.
subtilis, 20.
Bäckstein cheese, 164.
Bacteria, 14.
alkali-producing, 20.
control of, 25.
from the air, 23.
from the cow, 23.
Acetic acid in cheese, 247.
Acid cocci, 19.
Acid fermentation, 17.
Acid organisms, 41.
Acid peptonizing organisms, 41.
Acidity,
in cheese and curd, 57, 58, 59.
and color, 67.
and rennet action, 66.
and ripening, 255.
and separation of whey, 66.
and texture, 67.
control of, 64.
in milk, 60.
testing, 60, 61.
Acidy cheese, 66.
Acme curd rake, 196.
Albumin, 10.
Albumin cheese, 295.
Alcohols in cheese, 248.
Alkaline bacteria, 20.
Appetitost, 114.
Ash of milk, 11.
Ayers, S. H. (Thom and), 21.
Babcock, S. M., 201, 237, 248, 295.
Babcock test, 327-332.
Bacillus botulinus, 370.
bulgaricus = Bacterium bulgaricum, 18, 279.
enteritidis, 370.
subtilis, 20.
Bäckstein cheese, 164.
Bacteria, 14.
alkali-producing, 20.
control of, 25.
from the air, 23.
from the cow, 23.
Page 330
from the milker, 24.
from the utensils, 24.
groups of, in milk, 15.
in Cheddar ripening, 252-254.
inert type, 20.
influence on yield of Cheddar, 227.
peptonizing, 20.
sources in milk, 22.
Bacterium bulgaricum, 18, 19.
aerogenes, 18.
casei, 253.
coli-communis, 18, 252.
guntheri, 41.
lactis acidi, 18, 41, 252, 254.
lactis aerogenes, 252.
liquefaciens, 20.
prodigiosus, 20.
Baer, U. S., and W. L. Carlyle, 12.
Baker's cheese, 105.
Bang, Ivar, 39.
Bang's theory of casein, 37.
Barite, baryta, 159.
Barnard curd mill, 208.
Benson, Miles, 163.
Bergey, D. H., 16.
Besana, C., 29.
Block Swiss, 285.
Blue label, 109.
Blue-veined cheeses, 150.
Board of Health lactometer, 336.
Boards of Trade (Cheese), 349, 350.
Boekhout, J. W. J., and J. J. Ott de Vries, 174.
Bondon cheese, 94.
Bosworth, Alfred W., 37-38, 40, 126, 251.
Bosworth, A. W., and M. J. Prucha, 249.
Bosworth, A. W., and L. L. Van Slyke, 40.
Bosworth's theory of casein, 37.
Branding cheese, 360.
Breeds of cows, milk from, 6.
Brick cheese, 86, 136, 164 to 169, 358.
from the utensils, 24.
groups of, in milk, 15.
in Cheddar ripening, 252-254.
inert type, 20.
influence on yield of Cheddar, 227.
peptonizing, 20.
sources in milk, 22.
Bacterium bulgaricum, 18, 19.
aerogenes, 18.
casei, 253.
coli-communis, 18, 252.
guntheri, 41.
lactis acidi, 18, 41, 252, 254.
lactis aerogenes, 252.
liquefaciens, 20.
prodigiosus, 20.
Baer, U. S., and W. L. Carlyle, 12.
Baker's cheese, 105.
Bang, Ivar, 39.
Bang's theory of casein, 37.
Barite, baryta, 159.
Barnard curd mill, 208.
Benson, Miles, 163.
Bergey, D. H., 16.
Besana, C., 29.
Block Swiss, 285.
Blue label, 109.
Blue-veined cheeses, 150.
Board of Health lactometer, 336.
Boards of Trade (Cheese), 349, 350.
Boekhout, J. W. J., and J. J. Ott de Vries, 174.
Bondon cheese, 94.
Bosworth, Alfred W., 37-38, 40, 126, 251.
Bosworth, A. W., and M. J. Prucha, 249.
Bosworth, A. W., and L. L. Van Slyke, 40.
Bosworth's theory of casein, 37.
Branding cheese, 360.
Breeds of cows, milk from, 6.
Brick cheese, 86, 136, 164 to 169, 358.
Page 331
making, 165.
qualities, 167.
ripening, 167.
score-card, 169.
yield, 169.
Brie,
American, 134-136.
French, 117, 131, 132.
Brindse, Brinse cheese, 110.
Bushnell, L. D., and W. R. Wright, 44.
Buttermilk cheese, 93.
Butyric acid in Cheddar cheese, 248.
Butyric organisms, 21.
Buying milk, 343.
Caciocavallo cheese, 293.
California Jack cheese, 233.
Calorimeter values, 364.
Camembert cheese, 86, 111, 117 to 131, 137.
acidity in, 122.
bacteria in, 127.
composition, 128.
described, 117.
domestic, 360.
factory, 129.
group, 117.
lot-card, 124, 125.
making, 118-122.
ripening, 123.
Caproic acid in cheese, 136.
Carrés affinés, 114.
Casein, defined chemically, 33.
acted on by acid, 33.
in cheese ripening, 249.
in milk and cheese, 9.
Robertson's theory, 34.
test (Hart), 334.
Caseinogen, 35.
Catalase, 11.
Chapais, J. C., 137.
qualities, 167.
ripening, 167.
score-card, 169.
yield, 169.
Brie,
American, 134-136.
French, 117, 131, 132.
Brindse, Brinse cheese, 110.
Bushnell, L. D., and W. R. Wright, 44.
Buttermilk cheese, 93.
Butyric acid in Cheddar cheese, 248.
Butyric organisms, 21.
Buying milk, 343.
Caciocavallo cheese, 293.
California Jack cheese, 233.
Calorimeter values, 364.
Camembert cheese, 86, 111, 117 to 131, 137.
acidity in, 122.
bacteria in, 127.
composition, 128.
described, 117.
domestic, 360.
factory, 129.
group, 117.
lot-card, 124, 125.
making, 118-122.
ripening, 123.
Caproic acid in cheese, 136.
Carrés affinés, 114.
Casein, defined chemically, 33.
acted on by acid, 33.
in cheese ripening, 249.
in milk and cheese, 9.
Robertson's theory, 34.
test (Hart), 334.
Caseinogen, 35.
Catalase, 11.
Chapais, J. C., 137.
Page 332
Cheddar cheese, 79, 86, 173, 184 to 275, 358, 368.
acidity test for, 190.
acidy, 266, 270.
American, 230.
body in, 271, 273.
boxes for, 264.
calorimeter studies of, 368.
cheddaring curd for, 204-207.
color in, 270.
composition of, 223.
cooking curd for, 195-200.
corky, 199.
cutting curd for, 193.
defects in, 265.
drawing whey, 200.
dressing, 216.
dry body in, 267.
English, 173.
feedy flavors in, 265.
finish in, 271.
firming curd for, 201-204.
flavor of, 221.
food value of, 362-365.
fruity flavors in, 266.
gas in curd for, 219.
gas in milk for, 217, 219, 269.
gassy, 268.
hooping curd for, 212.
hot-iron test for, 201, 208.
judging, 271.
losses in, 262, 263.
lot-card for, 184, 187.
matting, 204.
milk for, 186.
milling, 207.
moisture content of, 228, 258.
mottled, 221, 270.
packing curd for, 202.
paraffining, 263.
pin-holes in, 189.
acidity test for, 190.
acidy, 266, 270.
American, 230.
body in, 271, 273.
boxes for, 264.
calorimeter studies of, 368.
cheddaring curd for, 204-207.
color in, 270.
composition of, 223.
cooking curd for, 195-200.
corky, 199.
cutting curd for, 193.
defects in, 265.
drawing whey, 200.
dressing, 216.
dry body in, 267.
English, 173.
feedy flavors in, 265.
finish in, 271.
firming curd for, 201-204.
flavor of, 221.
food value of, 362-365.
fruity flavors in, 266.
gas in curd for, 219.
gas in milk for, 217, 219, 269.
gassy, 268.
hooping curd for, 212.
hot-iron test for, 201, 208.
judging, 271.
losses in, 262, 263.
lot-card for, 184, 187.
matting, 204.
milk for, 186.
milling, 207.
moisture content of, 228, 258.
mottled, 221, 270.
packing curd for, 202.
paraffining, 263.
pin-holes in, 189.
Page 333
pressing, 213.
quality in, 221, 272-273.
ripening milk for, 189 to 192.
ripening of, 247 to 263.
salting curd for, 211.
score-card for, 271, 273, 275.
seamy color in, 214, 221.
setting, 192.
shipping, 264.
starter for, 190, 191.
sweet flavor in, 266.
texture of, 267.
variations of process, 229.
yield, 224, 225.
Cheese, and health, 369.
and meals, 367.
and price of, 373.
boxes, 357.
canned, 372.
care in home, 372.
choice of, 370-371.
classification of, 81-85.
color, 56.
composition-table, 86, 364.
definition of, 1.
digestibility of, 368.
fondue, 375.
food value of, 362-367.
fuel value of, 365.
history of, 4.
in dietaries, 370-374.
in the household, 361-381,
knife, 205.
names, 81.
poisoning, 370.
price, 323, 357.
problems, 3.
processed, 84.
ripening (see varietal descriptions).
roast, 380.
quality in, 221, 272-273.
ripening milk for, 189 to 192.
ripening of, 247 to 263.
salting curd for, 211.
score-card for, 271, 273, 275.
seamy color in, 214, 221.
setting, 192.
shipping, 264.
starter for, 190, 191.
sweet flavor in, 266.
texture of, 267.
variations of process, 229.
yield, 224, 225.
Cheese, and health, 369.
and meals, 367.
and price of, 373.
boxes, 357.
canned, 372.
care in home, 372.
choice of, 370-371.
classification of, 81-85.
color, 56.
composition-table, 86, 364.
definition of, 1.
digestibility of, 368.
fondue, 375.
food value of, 362-367.
fuel value of, 365.
history of, 4.
in dietaries, 370-374.
in the household, 361-381,
knife, 205.
names, 81.
poisoning, 370.
price, 323, 357.
problems, 3.
processed, 84.
ripening (see varietal descriptions).
roast, 380.
Page 334
salad, 378, 379.
sandwich, 371, 378.
sauce, 374, 381.
soufflé, 376.
total consumption of, 362.
trier, 272.
varieties, 3.
with sour-milk flavor, 89.
yield basis for buying milk, 343.
Cheese-making,
an art, 2.
a science, 3.
Chemistry of rennet action, 33-40.
Cheshire, 184.
Clabber cheese, 90.
Clark, W. M., 284.
Classification of cheese, 81 to 85.
Club cheese, 85, 231.
Cold-storage, 356, 361.
Colon-aërogenes group, 18.
Color, 56.
Colostrum, 18.
Commercial starter, 43.
Composition of Brick, 169.
Camembert, 128.
Cheddar, 223.
Cottage, 92.
Cream, 108.
Limburger, 147.
Neufchâtel, 105, 107.
Roquefort, 151.
Swiss, 287.
Conn, H. W., 16, 23, 152.
Connecticut (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept., 7, 16.
Constituents of milk, 7.
Cooking curd, 77.
for Cheddar, 195.
for Swiss, 281.
Coöperative organizations, 309.
Cornalba, G., 293.
sandwich, 371, 378.
sauce, 374, 381.
soufflé, 376.
total consumption of, 362.
trier, 272.
varieties, 3.
with sour-milk flavor, 89.
yield basis for buying milk, 343.
Cheese-making,
an art, 2.
a science, 3.
Chemistry of rennet action, 33-40.
Cheshire, 184.
Clabber cheese, 90.
Clark, W. M., 284.
Classification of cheese, 81 to 85.
Club cheese, 85, 231.
Cold-storage, 356, 361.
Colon-aërogenes group, 18.
Color, 56.
Colostrum, 18.
Commercial starter, 43.
Composition of Brick, 169.
Camembert, 128.
Cheddar, 223.
Cottage, 92.
Cream, 108.
Limburger, 147.
Neufchâtel, 105, 107.
Roquefort, 151.
Swiss, 287.
Conn, H. W., 16, 23, 152.
Connecticut (Storrs) Exp. Sta. Rept., 7, 16.
Constituents of milk, 7.
Cooking curd, 77.
for Cheddar, 195.
for Swiss, 281.
Coöperative organizations, 309.
Cornalba, G., 293.
Page 335
Cottage cheese, 2, 86, 368, 379-381.
discussed, 90-93.
Coulommiers cheese, 111, 117, 131, 132.
Cow-brand cheese, 109.
Cream cheese, 108.
Curd, 9.
breaking, 75. chemistry of, 33 to 40.
cooking of, 77.
cutting, 75.
draining, 79.
fork, 210.
knives, 77 (Fig. 11), 194, 195.
Curdling period, 74.
Curd-making, 55.
factors in, 55.
Curd mills, 207 to 209.
Curd pail, 213.
Curd rakes, 196.
Curd scoop, 213.
Curd sink, 204.
Curd test, 26.
Currie, James N., 149, 150, 155, 156.
Cutting, W. B., 159.
Cutting curd, 75-77.
for Brick, 165.
for Cheddar, 193-195.
for Edam, 175.
for Isigny, 135.
for Limburger, 141.
for Roquefort, 154.
for Swiss, 280-281.
Dahlberg, Arnold O., 98.
Daisies (cheese), 230.
Danish cheese, 173.
Davis, B. J. (and L. A. Rogers), 16.
Dean, H. H., 163.
Decker, John W., 217.
Derbyshire, 184.
Diastase, 11.
discussed, 90-93.
Coulommiers cheese, 111, 117, 131, 132.
Cow-brand cheese, 109.
Cream cheese, 108.
Curd, 9.
breaking, 75. chemistry of, 33 to 40.
cooking of, 77.
cutting, 75.
draining, 79.
fork, 210.
knives, 77 (Fig. 11), 194, 195.
Curdling period, 74.
Curd-making, 55.
factors in, 55.
Curd mills, 207 to 209.
Curd pail, 213.
Curd rakes, 196.
Curd scoop, 213.
Curd sink, 204.
Curd test, 26.
Currie, James N., 149, 150, 155, 156.
Cutting, W. B., 159.
Cutting curd, 75-77.
for Brick, 165.
for Cheddar, 193-195.
for Edam, 175.
for Isigny, 135.
for Limburger, 141.
for Roquefort, 154.
for Swiss, 280-281.
Dahlberg, Arnold O., 98.
Daisies (cheese), 230.
Danish cheese, 173.
Davis, B. J. (and L. A. Rogers), 16.
Dean, H. H., 163.
Decker, John W., 217.
Derbyshire, 184.
Diastase, 11.
Page 336
Digestibility of cheese, 367.
Diseased cows, effect on milk, 13.
Doane, C. F., 64, 263, 296.
Doane, C. F., and E. E. Eldredge, 279.
Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, 169, 365.
Dotterrer, W. D., and R. S. Breed, 301.
Dox, Arthur W., 126, 150.
Draining, 79.
Camembert, 121-122.
Cheddar, 195-206.
Cottage, 91.
Limburger, 142.
Neufchâtel, 97.
Roquefort, 154.
Swiss, 280-282.
Draining cloths,
for Jack cheese, 235.
for Neufchâtel, 97.
for Swiss, 282.
Draining rack for Neufchâtel, 97.
Dressing Cheddar, 216.
Dry body, 267.
Duclaux, E., 39, 33-40.
Duclaux's theory of casein, 36.
Dutch cheeses, 173.
Dutton, G. C., 184.
Eagle brand, 109.
Eckles, C. H., and Otto Rahn, 112.
Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, 7.
Edam cheese, 173, 174 to 180, 366.
Eldredge, E. E., and L. A. Rogers, 284.
Ellenberger, H. B., and M. R. Tolstrup, 296.
Elliott, W. J., 310.
Emmenthal or Emmenthaler, 276
English dairy cheese, 238.
Enzymes,
in cheese-ripening, 250.
in milk, 11.
Equipment list for Cheddar factory, 307.
Diseased cows, effect on milk, 13.
Doane, C. F., 64, 263, 296.
Doane, C. F., and E. E. Eldredge, 279.
Doane, C. F., and H. W. Lawson, 169, 365.
Dotterrer, W. D., and R. S. Breed, 301.
Dox, Arthur W., 126, 150.
Draining, 79.
Camembert, 121-122.
Cheddar, 195-206.
Cottage, 91.
Limburger, 142.
Neufchâtel, 97.
Roquefort, 154.
Swiss, 280-282.
Draining cloths,
for Jack cheese, 235.
for Neufchâtel, 97.
for Swiss, 282.
Draining rack for Neufchâtel, 97.
Dressing Cheddar, 216.
Dry body, 267.
Duclaux, E., 39, 33-40.
Duclaux's theory of casein, 36.
Dutch cheeses, 173.
Dutton, G. C., 184.
Eagle brand, 109.
Eckles, C. H., and Otto Rahn, 112.
Eckles, C. H., and R. H. Shaw, 7.
Edam cheese, 173, 174 to 180, 366.
Eldredge, E. E., and L. A. Rogers, 284.
Ellenberger, H. B., and M. R. Tolstrup, 296.
Elliott, W. J., 310.
Emmenthal or Emmenthaler, 276
English dairy cheese, 238.
Enzymes,
in cheese-ripening, 250.
in milk, 11.
Equipment list for Cheddar factory, 307.
Page 337
Esten, W. M., 41.
Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, 16, 129.
Esters in Cheddar cheese, 248, 254.
Export Cheddar, 230.
Exportation of cheese, 321.
Factory, 297-309.
boiler-room in, 301.
building, 299.
cleanliness in, 307.
coöperative, 308.
curing-rooms, 300.
drainage, 298.
equipment list, 307.
heating, 300.
location of, 298, 299.
organization, 308-309.
proprietary, 308.
supplies, list for, 307.
system, 313, 320.
ventilation of, 300.
water in, 298.
Farm cheese, 133.
Farrington, E. H., and G. H. Benkendorf, 310.
Farrington, E. H., and G. J. Davis, 298.
Farrington, Harvey, 314.
Farrington's test, 62.
Fascetti, G., 288.
Fat-basis for buying milk, 344.
Fat and casein ratio, 224, 226.
Fat and cheese yield, 225, 226.
Fat and water content, 86.
Fat in cheese-ripening, 86.
Fat in milk, 8.
Fat loss, 226-227.
plus two method, 345.
Fat test, 327-334.
Feeds, 11.
Fermentation, 15.
Fermentation test, 26.
Esten, W. M., and C. J. Mason, 16, 129.
Esters in Cheddar cheese, 248, 254.
Export Cheddar, 230.
Exportation of cheese, 321.
Factory, 297-309.
boiler-room in, 301.
building, 299.
cleanliness in, 307.
coöperative, 308.
curing-rooms, 300.
drainage, 298.
equipment list, 307.
heating, 300.
location of, 298, 299.
organization, 308-309.
proprietary, 308.
supplies, list for, 307.
system, 313, 320.
ventilation of, 300.
water in, 298.
Farm cheese, 133.
Farrington, E. H., and G. H. Benkendorf, 310.
Farrington, E. H., and G. J. Davis, 298.
Farrington, Harvey, 314.
Farrington's test, 62.
Fascetti, G., 288.
Fat-basis for buying milk, 344.
Fat and casein ratio, 224, 226.
Fat and cheese yield, 225, 226.
Fat and water content, 86.
Fat in cheese-ripening, 86.
Fat in milk, 8.
Fat loss, 226-227.
plus two method, 345.
Fat test, 327-334.
Feeds, 11.
Fermentation, 15.
Fermentation test, 26.
Page 338
Ferments, 15, 29.
Filled cheese, 315, 361.
Fisk, Walter W., 68, 89, 228.
"Flats," 230.
Flavor of cheese, 368, 371.
Flavor of feeds, 11.
Fleischmann, W., 152.
Food value of cheese, 362-367.
Forbes, E. B., and M. H. Keith, 9, 33 to 40.
Formic acid in Cheddar, 248.
Frandsen, J. H., 23, 89.
Frandsen, J. H., and T. Thorsen, 89.
Fraser, W. J., 23.
Fraser hoop, 212.
Frestadius, A., 159.
Freudenreich, E. von, and Orla Jensen, 284.
Full skim Cheddar, 242.
Galactase, 11.
Gang press, 214.
Gases in cheese-ripening, 249.
Gassy curd, 146, 220.
Gassy milk, 219.
Geographical distribution of cheese factories, 315.
Germicidal effect of milk, 22.
Gervais cheese, 109.
Getman, Louis, 139.
Gex cheese, 164.
Glaesler (Swiss), 286.
Glymol, 334.
Goat cheese, 109.
Gorgonzola cheese, 158 to 161.
Gorini, Constantine, 288.
Gosselin curd mill, 208.
Gouda cheese, 173, 180 to 183.
Gournay cheese, 114.
Grana cheese, 288.
Granular curd cheese, 232.
"Green" cheese, 247.
Gruyère, 276.
Filled cheese, 315, 361.
Fisk, Walter W., 68, 89, 228.
"Flats," 230.
Flavor of cheese, 368, 371.
Flavor of feeds, 11.
Fleischmann, W., 152.
Food value of cheese, 362-367.
Forbes, E. B., and M. H. Keith, 9, 33 to 40.
Formic acid in Cheddar, 248.
Frandsen, J. H., 23, 89.
Frandsen, J. H., and T. Thorsen, 89.
Fraser, W. J., 23.
Fraser hoop, 212.
Frestadius, A., 159.
Freudenreich, E. von, and Orla Jensen, 284.
Full skim Cheddar, 242.
Galactase, 11.
Gang press, 214.
Gases in cheese-ripening, 249.
Gassy curd, 146, 220.
Gassy milk, 219.
Geographical distribution of cheese factories, 315.
Germicidal effect of milk, 22.
Gervais cheese, 109.
Getman, Louis, 139.
Gex cheese, 164.
Glaesler (Swiss), 286.
Glymol, 334.
Goat cheese, 109.
Gorgonzola cheese, 158 to 161.
Gorini, Constantine, 288.
Gosselin curd mill, 208.
Gouda cheese, 173, 180 to 183.
Gournay cheese, 114.
Grana cheese, 288.
Granular curd cheese, 232.
"Green" cheese, 247.
Gruyère, 276.
Page 339
Guthrie, E. S., and W. W. Fisk, 44.
Haecker, T. L., 180.
Half-skim Cheddar, 243.
Hall, W. W., 187.
Halliburton, 35.
Hammarsten, Olof, 39, 33-40.
Hammarsten's theory of rennet action, 35.
Hand cheese, 112.
Hard cheese, 172.
Harding, H. A., 23, 254.
Harding, H. A., and M. J. Prucha, 252.
Harding, H. A., J. K. Wilson, and G. A. Smith, 25.
Harding, H. A., and G. A. Smith, 306.
Harris curd mill, 209.
Hart, E. B., 38, 40, 91, 201, 249, 253, 255, 256, 334.
Hart casein test, 334.
Harz cheese, 112.
Hastings, E. G., 21, 44, 237.
Hastings, E. G., and Alice C. Evans, 60.
Hastings, E. G., Alice C. Evans, and E. B. Hart, 253, 255.
Hayward, H., 180.
Heat in cheese-making, 77-78, 87, 91, 195, 281.
Heinemann, P. G., 254.
Hibbard, B. H., and A. Hobson, 349, 358-359.
History of cheese-making, 4, 311.
Hoops, for Camembert, 121.
for Cheddar, 212.
for Roquefort, 154.
for Swiss, 278.
Hosl, J., 39.
Hot-iron test, 201.
Household, cheese in, 362-381.
Hunziker, O. F., 22.
Hydrogen in Cheddar, 254.
Importation of cheese, 321.
Inert bacteria, 20.
Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull., 310.
d'Isigny cheese, 132, 134-137.
Haecker, T. L., 180.
Half-skim Cheddar, 243.
Hall, W. W., 187.
Halliburton, 35.
Hammarsten, Olof, 39, 33-40.
Hammarsten's theory of rennet action, 35.
Hand cheese, 112.
Hard cheese, 172.
Harding, H. A., 23, 254.
Harding, H. A., and M. J. Prucha, 252.
Harding, H. A., J. K. Wilson, and G. A. Smith, 25.
Harding, H. A., and G. A. Smith, 306.
Harris curd mill, 209.
Hart, E. B., 38, 40, 91, 201, 249, 253, 255, 256, 334.
Hart casein test, 334.
Harz cheese, 112.
Hastings, E. G., 21, 44, 237.
Hastings, E. G., and Alice C. Evans, 60.
Hastings, E. G., Alice C. Evans, and E. B. Hart, 253, 255.
Hayward, H., 180.
Heat in cheese-making, 77-78, 87, 91, 195, 281.
Heinemann, P. G., 254.
Hibbard, B. H., and A. Hobson, 349, 358-359.
History of cheese-making, 4, 311.
Hoops, for Camembert, 121.
for Cheddar, 212.
for Roquefort, 154.
for Swiss, 278.
Hosl, J., 39.
Hot-iron test, 201.
Household, cheese in, 362-381.
Hunziker, O. F., 22.
Hydrogen in Cheddar, 254.
Importation of cheese, 321.
Inert bacteria, 20.
Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull., 310.
d'Isigny cheese, 132, 134-137.
Page 340
Italian cheeses, 288-291.
Jack cheese, 184, 233-236.
Jensen, Orla, 284.
Junker curd mill, 209.
Kascoval cheese, 164.
Kiernan, Mrs. E. E., 113.
Kikkoji, 36, 39.
King, F. H., and E. H. Farrington, 12.
Kosher cheese, 136.
Lactic starter, 41-54.
Lactometer, 335.
Board of Health type, 336.
Quevenne type, 335.
Lactose (see Milk-sugar), 10.
Langworthy, C. F., and C. L. Hunt, 363, 372.
Larsen, C., and W. White, 44.
Lauder, A., and A. Cunningham, 22.
Laws about cheese, 359-361.
Laws about milk, 347.
Leicestershire, 184.
Levin, W., 370.
Leyden cheese, 238.
License for cheese-maker, 361.
Liederkrauz cheese, 134, 138.
Ligeon, X., 170.
Limburger, 86, 136, 139 to 147, 358, 371.
factory, 139-140.
making process, 140-143.
qualities, 145.
ripening, 143-145.
wrapping, 145.
yield of, 147.
Lindet, L., 38, 39.
Lipase, 11.
Livarot cheese, 135.
Loevenhart, A. S., 36, 39.
Long-horn (Cheddar) cheese, 230.
Jack cheese, 184, 233-236.
Jensen, Orla, 284.
Junker curd mill, 209.
Kascoval cheese, 164.
Kiernan, Mrs. E. E., 113.
Kikkoji, 36, 39.
King, F. H., and E. H. Farrington, 12.
Kosher cheese, 136.
Lactic starter, 41-54.
Lactometer, 335.
Board of Health type, 336.
Quevenne type, 335.
Lactose (see Milk-sugar), 10.
Langworthy, C. F., and C. L. Hunt, 363, 372.
Larsen, C., and W. White, 44.
Lauder, A., and A. Cunningham, 22.
Laws about cheese, 359-361.
Laws about milk, 347.
Leicestershire, 184.
Levin, W., 370.
Leyden cheese, 238.
License for cheese-maker, 361.
Liederkrauz cheese, 134, 138.
Ligeon, X., 170.
Limburger, 86, 136, 139 to 147, 358, 371.
factory, 139-140.
making process, 140-143.
qualities, 145.
ripening, 143-145.
wrapping, 145.
yield of, 147.
Lindet, L., 38, 39.
Lipase, 11.
Livarot cheese, 135.
Loevenhart, A. S., 36, 39.
Long-horn (Cheddar) cheese, 230.
Page 341
Lot-card, for Camembert, 124-125.
for Cheddar, 184, 187.
for starter, 53.
Macaroni and cheese, 377.
Maine Exp. Sta. Rept., 7.
Malakoff cheese, 94, 114.
Manns, A. G., 7.
Manns test, 231.
Manufacturer's brand, 360-361.
Marketing, 343-361.
laws concerning, 360.
Marre, E., 151.
Marschall test, 62.
Marshall, C. E., 189, 217.
Marty, G., 165.
Matheson, K. J., F. R. Cammack, 100.
Matheson, K. J., C. Thom, and J. N. Currie, 94.
Matting, 204.
Mayo, N. F., and C. G. Elling, 289.
Mazé, P., 116.
McAdam, Robert, 314.
McNaughton, Janet, 132.
McPherson curd agitator, 196.
Mercantile exchanges, 351.
Michels, John, 89.
Michigan Agr. Law, 13.
Milk, acid fermentation of, 17.
acidity in, 60.
albumin, 10.
ash, 11.
bacteria in, 21.
bacterial contamination of, 21.
buying, 343.
casein in, 9, 224.
clean, 22.
colostrum in, 13.
composition of, 5, 6, 56, 222.
constituents, 7.
defined, 5.
for Cheddar, 184, 187.
for starter, 53.
Macaroni and cheese, 377.
Maine Exp. Sta. Rept., 7.
Malakoff cheese, 94, 114.
Manns, A. G., 7.
Manns test, 231.
Manufacturer's brand, 360-361.
Marketing, 343-361.
laws concerning, 360.
Marre, E., 151.
Marschall test, 62.
Marshall, C. E., 189, 217.
Marty, G., 165.
Matheson, K. J., F. R. Cammack, 100.
Matheson, K. J., C. Thom, and J. N. Currie, 94.
Matting, 204.
Mayo, N. F., and C. G. Elling, 289.
Mazé, P., 116.
McAdam, Robert, 314.
McNaughton, Janet, 132.
McPherson curd agitator, 196.
Mercantile exchanges, 351.
Michels, John, 89.
Michigan Agr. Law, 13.
Milk, acid fermentation of, 17.
acidity in, 60.
albumin, 10.
ash, 11.
bacteria in, 21.
bacterial contamination of, 21.
buying, 343.
casein in, 9, 224.
clean, 22.
colostrum in, 13.
composition of, 5, 6, 56, 222.
constituents, 7.
defined, 5.
Page 342
enzymes in, 11.
fat in, 8, 224.
flavors in, 11.
from diseased cows, 13.
germicidal property, 22.
lactose in, 10.
moisture in, 8.
odors in, 12.
paying for, 343.
quality in, 5.
sugar (lactose), 10.
variation in composition, 6.
Milking machines, 25.
Milk-sugar, 10.
Moisture and acidity, 70.
Moisture control, 68, 69.
Moisture limits in cheese, 358.
Moisture test (Troy's), 337-342.
Molding machines for Neufchâtel, 98.
Molding Neufchâtel, 104.
Molds,
in Cheddar, 271.
in milk, 21.
Monrad, J. H., 112, 114, 180.
Moore, V. A., and A. R. Ward, 217.
Morrow, G. A., and A. G. Manns, 7.
Mottled Cheddar, 221, 270.
Mucors, 93.
Münster, 147, 148, 366.
Mysost, 293, 295.
Natural starter, 43.
Neufchâtel, 80, 85, 86, 89, 371.
American, 95.
domestic, 95, 106.
factory, 95.
group discussed, 94 to 109.
packages, 98.
ripened form, 114-116, 117.
yield, 107.
fat in, 8, 224.
flavors in, 11.
from diseased cows, 13.
germicidal property, 22.
lactose in, 10.
moisture in, 8.
odors in, 12.
paying for, 343.
quality in, 5.
sugar (lactose), 10.
variation in composition, 6.
Milking machines, 25.
Milk-sugar, 10.
Moisture and acidity, 70.
Moisture control, 68, 69.
Moisture limits in cheese, 358.
Moisture test (Troy's), 337-342.
Molding machines for Neufchâtel, 98.
Molding Neufchâtel, 104.
Molds,
in Cheddar, 271.
in milk, 21.
Monrad, J. H., 112, 114, 180.
Moore, V. A., and A. R. Ward, 217.
Morrow, G. A., and A. G. Manns, 7.
Mottled Cheddar, 221, 270.
Mucors, 93.
Münster, 147, 148, 366.
Mysost, 293, 295.
Natural starter, 43.
Neufchâtel, 80, 85, 86, 89, 371.
American, 95.
domestic, 95, 106.
factory, 95.
group discussed, 94 to 109.
packages, 98.
ripened form, 114-116, 117.
yield, 107.
Page 343
New Jersey Exp. Sta. Rept., 7.
New York (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Rept., 7, 8, 174.
New York Mercantile Exchange, 351-356.
New York Price Current, 315, 351.
New York Produce Review, 165, 233, 280.
New York State Department of Agriculture, 13.
Niszler (Swiss) cheese, 286.
Nut cheese, 109.
Odors absorbed by milk, 12.
Oidium (Oospora) lactis, 113, 116, 131, 136, 163.
Oka cheese, 169.
Olimento cheese, 109.
Olive cheese, 109.
Olson, G. A., 74.
Ontario Agricultural College Bulletins, 7, 228.
Over-ripe milk, 218.
Pails, 24, 25.
Paracasein, 35, 250.
Paraffining Cheddar, 263.
Parmesan cheese, 2, 80, 86, 173, 288-291.
Pasteurization, 11, 26, 45, 229, 301.
Pasteurized Cheddar, 229.
Pasty body, 270.
Paying for milk, 343-346.
Penicillium brevicaule, 129.
camemberti, 116, 126, 127, 131.
camemberti var. rogeri, 116.
candidum, 116.
roqueforti, 155, 156, 159, 163.
Pennsylvania pot cheese, 113.
Pepsin, 30, 33.
Peptonizing bacteria, 20.
Percival, J., and G. Heather Mason, 163.
Perishable varieties, 356.
Peroxidase, 11.
Petit Carré, 94, 114.
Petite Suisse, 94, 114.
Petits Bondons, 114.
New York (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Rept., 7, 8, 174.
New York Mercantile Exchange, 351-356.
New York Price Current, 315, 351.
New York Produce Review, 165, 233, 280.
New York State Department of Agriculture, 13.
Niszler (Swiss) cheese, 286.
Nut cheese, 109.
Odors absorbed by milk, 12.
Oidium (Oospora) lactis, 113, 116, 131, 136, 163.
Oka cheese, 169.
Olimento cheese, 109.
Olive cheese, 109.
Olson, G. A., 74.
Ontario Agricultural College Bulletins, 7, 228.
Over-ripe milk, 218.
Pails, 24, 25.
Paracasein, 35, 250.
Paraffining Cheddar, 263.
Parmesan cheese, 2, 80, 86, 173, 288-291.
Pasteurization, 11, 26, 45, 229, 301.
Pasteurized Cheddar, 229.
Pasty body, 270.
Paying for milk, 343-346.
Penicillium brevicaule, 129.
camemberti, 116, 126, 127, 131.
camemberti var. rogeri, 116.
candidum, 116.
roqueforti, 155, 156, 159, 163.
Pennsylvania pot cheese, 113.
Pepsin, 30, 33.
Peptonizing bacteria, 20.
Percival, J., and G. Heather Mason, 163.
Perishable varieties, 356.
Peroxidase, 11.
Petit Carré, 94, 114.
Petite Suisse, 94, 114.
Petits Bondons, 114.
Page 344
Petry, E., 36, 39.
Philadelphia cream, 109, 360.
Picnic cheese, 230.
Pimiento cheese, 85, 101.
Pimientos in Cheddar, 238.
Pim-olive cheese, 109.
Pineapple cheese, 184, 238.
Pohl curd mill, 208.
Poisoning by cheese, 370.
Pont l'Eveque cheese, 135.
Pooling method, 345.
Port du Salut cheese, 136, 169 to 171.
Pot cheese, 113.
Pouriau, A. F., 82, 114.
Press cloths, 212.
Presses, 214, 215.
Prices,
distribution of, 357-359.
yearly average of, 323.
Primost, 295.
Processed cheese, 84.
Propionic acid in cheese, 247, 248.
Provolono, 294.
Prucha, M. J., and H. M. Weeter, 23.
Ptyalin, 30.
Publow, C. A., 60.
Publow's test, 62.
Pure culture starter, 43.
Quality,
in Cheddar, 272-273.
in Edam, 180.
in Limburger, 145.
in milk, 6.
in Swiss, 286.
Quevenne lactometer, 335.
Rabbit cheese, 372.
Raffiné cheese, 137, 138.
Recipes for cooking cheese, 375-381.
Philadelphia cream, 109, 360.
Picnic cheese, 230.
Pimiento cheese, 85, 101.
Pimientos in Cheddar, 238.
Pim-olive cheese, 109.
Pineapple cheese, 184, 238.
Pohl curd mill, 208.
Poisoning by cheese, 370.
Pont l'Eveque cheese, 135.
Pooling method, 345.
Port du Salut cheese, 136, 169 to 171.
Pot cheese, 113.
Pouriau, A. F., 82, 114.
Press cloths, 212.
Presses, 214, 215.
Prices,
distribution of, 357-359.
yearly average of, 323.
Primost, 295.
Processed cheese, 84.
Propionic acid in cheese, 247, 248.
Provolono, 294.
Prucha, M. J., and H. M. Weeter, 23.
Ptyalin, 30.
Publow, C. A., 60.
Publow's test, 62.
Pure culture starter, 43.
Quality,
in Cheddar, 272-273.
in Edam, 180.
in Limburger, 145.
in milk, 6.
in Swiss, 286.
Quevenne lactometer, 335.
Rabbit cheese, 372.
Raffiné cheese, 137, 138.
Recipes for cooking cheese, 375-381.
Page 345
Reductase, 11.
Regianito cheese, 292.
Reich, R., 363.
Rennet, 9, 30, 312.
action, 33 to 40.
action, chemistry of 33.
action delayed by, 73.
adding, 72.
amount to use, 72.
extract, 31, 279.
for Camembert, 121.
for Cheddar, 192.
for Limburger, 141.
for Neufchâtel, 100.
for Roquefort, 153.
for Swiss, 279.
in ripening Cheddar, 250.
strength of, 72.
temperature of using, 71.
test, 62.
Rennin, 30.
Rice and cheese, 377.
Ricotte, 11, 295.
Robbiola, 117.
Robertson, T. Brailsford, 38.
Robertson's theory of casein, 34.
Roger, Georges, 116.
Rogers, L. A., 16.
Rogers, L. A., and B. J. Davis, 16.
Roquefort cheese, 2, 86, 150, 158, 368, 369, 371.
acidity for, 153.
caves for, 151.
composition of, 151.
curdling for, 153.
cutting curd for, 154.
draining, 154.
from cow's milk, 152.
milk for, 153.
mold for, 154.
ripening of, 156-157.
Regianito cheese, 292.
Reich, R., 363.
Rennet, 9, 30, 312.
action, 33 to 40.
action, chemistry of 33.
action delayed by, 73.
adding, 72.
amount to use, 72.
extract, 31, 279.
for Camembert, 121.
for Cheddar, 192.
for Limburger, 141.
for Neufchâtel, 100.
for Roquefort, 153.
for Swiss, 279.
in ripening Cheddar, 250.
strength of, 72.
temperature of using, 71.
test, 62.
Rennin, 30.
Rice and cheese, 377.
Ricotte, 11, 295.
Robbiola, 117.
Robertson, T. Brailsford, 38.
Robertson's theory of casein, 34.
Roger, Georges, 116.
Rogers, L. A., 16.
Rogers, L. A., and B. J. Davis, 16.
Roquefort cheese, 2, 86, 150, 158, 368, 369, 371.
acidity for, 153.
caves for, 151.
composition of, 151.
curdling for, 153.
cutting curd for, 154.
draining, 154.
from cow's milk, 152.
milk for, 153.
mold for, 154.
ripening of, 156-157.
Page 346
salting, 155.
setting, 153.
temperature, 153.
Ruddick, J. A., and G. H. Baur, 26.
Russell, H. L., 189, 217.
Rusty spots, 74, 306.
Sage cheese, 239-241.
Salt in Cheddar ripening, 259.
Salting,
Camembert, 122.
Cheddar, 211.
Limburger, 142.
Neufchâtel, 102.
Roquefort, 155.
Swiss, 283.
Sammis, J. L., 95, 228, 296, 337, 347, 349.
Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, 11, 41, 57, 229.
Sammis, J. L., S. K. Suzuki and F. W. Laabs, 33.
Sammis' method, 229.
Sap sago, 294.
Schenk, C., 165.
Schmidt-Nielson, S., 36, 39.
Schmierkäse, 90.
Schroeder, E. C., 99.
Schweitzer cheese, 276.
Score-card,
for Brick, 169.
for Cheddar, 271.
for Limburger, 146.
for starter, 51.
for Swiss, 287.
Sediment test, 27, 28.
Semi-hard cheeses, 149-171.
Setting, 71.
Shaw, R. H. (and C. H. Eckles), 7.
Sheep's milk, 151, 152.
Sheep's milk cheese, 150.
Sheldon, J. P., 161.
Shot-gun cans, 97.
setting, 153.
temperature, 153.
Ruddick, J. A., and G. H. Baur, 26.
Russell, H. L., 189, 217.
Rusty spots, 74, 306.
Sage cheese, 239-241.
Salt in Cheddar ripening, 259.
Salting,
Camembert, 122.
Cheddar, 211.
Limburger, 142.
Neufchâtel, 102.
Roquefort, 155.
Swiss, 283.
Sammis, J. L., 95, 228, 296, 337, 347, 349.
Sammis, J. L., and A. T. Bruhn, 11, 41, 57, 229.
Sammis, J. L., S. K. Suzuki and F. W. Laabs, 33.
Sammis' method, 229.
Sap sago, 294.
Schenk, C., 165.
Schmidt-Nielson, S., 36, 39.
Schmierkäse, 90.
Schroeder, E. C., 99.
Schweitzer cheese, 276.
Score-card,
for Brick, 169.
for Cheddar, 271.
for Limburger, 146.
for starter, 51.
for Swiss, 287.
Sediment test, 27, 28.
Semi-hard cheeses, 149-171.
Setting, 71.
Shaw, R. H. (and C. H. Eckles), 7.
Sheep's milk, 151, 152.
Sheep's milk cheese, 150.
Sheldon, J. P., 161.
Shot-gun cans, 97.
Page 347
Size factor in ripening, 263.
Skim cheese, 89, 361, 366.
bacteria, 134-147.
Cheddar, 241-246.
Neufchâtel, 105, 107.
ripened by molds, 111.
Soft cheeses, 82-83, 86.
Solids not fat, 335-337.
Speed knife, 217.
Spiro, K., 36, 39.
Square cream, 109.
Standards, 359.
Starter, 42.
amount to use, 52.
care of milk for, 47.
commercial, 43.
containers for, 45.
for Brick, 165.
for Camembert, 121.
for Cheddar, 189.
for Neufchâtel, 99.
for Roquefort, 153.
for Swiss, 279.
handling, 42-50.
lot-card for, 53.
"mother," 47
natural, 42.
pasteurization of, 45.
propagation of, 46-48.
qualities of, 50.
score-card for, 51.
Startoline, 47.
State brands, 360.
Stevenson, C., 29.
Stilton cheese, 161-163.
Stirred curd cheese, 232.
Stocking, W. A., Jr., 22, 23, 25.
Storage of cheese, 103.
Streptococcus lacticus, 41.
Streptothrix-actinomyces group, 21.
Skim cheese, 89, 361, 366.
bacteria, 134-147.
Cheddar, 241-246.
Neufchâtel, 105, 107.
ripened by molds, 111.
Soft cheeses, 82-83, 86.
Solids not fat, 335-337.
Speed knife, 217.
Spiro, K., 36, 39.
Square cream, 109.
Standards, 359.
Starter, 42.
amount to use, 52.
care of milk for, 47.
commercial, 43.
containers for, 45.
for Brick, 165.
for Camembert, 121.
for Cheddar, 189.
for Neufchâtel, 99.
for Roquefort, 153.
for Swiss, 279.
handling, 42-50.
lot-card for, 53.
"mother," 47
natural, 42.
pasteurization of, 45.
propagation of, 46-48.
qualities of, 50.
score-card for, 51.
Startoline, 47.
State brands, 360.
Stevenson, C., 29.
Stilton cheese, 161-163.
Stirred curd cheese, 232.
Stocking, W. A., Jr., 22, 23, 25.
Storage of cheese, 103.
Streptococcus lacticus, 41.
Streptothrix-actinomyces group, 21.
Page 348
Succinic acid, 254.
Suzuki, S. K., 247.
Sweet curd cheese, 236.
Swiss cheese, 80, 86, 173, 276-288, 358, 366, 368, 371.
block, 278.
breaking, 281.
composition, 287.
curing, 283.
cutting, 280.
drum, 278.
eyes in, 283-285.
factories, 276-278.
making process, 280-283.
pressing, 282.
quality in, 286.
rennet for, 279.
salting, 283.
score-card for, 287.
starter for, 279.
testing, Chapter XIX, 327.
Swiss harp, 278.
Tests,
acid, 60, 61.
Babcock, 327-334.
casein, 334.
curd, 26.
fat, 327.
fermentation, 26.
Hart, 334.
hot-iron, 201.
lactometer, 335-337.
moisture in cheese, 337-342.
rennet, 62.
sediment, 27, 28.
solids not fat, 335-337.
Troy's moisture, 337-342.
Thom, C., 117, 154, 155, 158, 372.
Thom, C., and S. H. Ayers, 21.
Thom, C., and J. N. Currie, 156.
Suzuki, S. K., 247.
Sweet curd cheese, 236.
Swiss cheese, 80, 86, 173, 276-288, 358, 366, 368, 371.
block, 278.
breaking, 281.
composition, 287.
curing, 283.
cutting, 280.
drum, 278.
eyes in, 283-285.
factories, 276-278.
making process, 280-283.
pressing, 282.
quality in, 286.
rennet for, 279.
salting, 283.
score-card for, 287.
starter for, 279.
testing, Chapter XIX, 327.
Swiss harp, 278.
Tests,
acid, 60, 61.
Babcock, 327-334.
casein, 334.
curd, 26.
fat, 327.
fermentation, 26.
Hart, 334.
hot-iron, 201.
lactometer, 335-337.
moisture in cheese, 337-342.
rennet, 62.
sediment, 27, 28.
solids not fat, 335-337.
Troy's moisture, 337-342.
Thom, C., 117, 154, 155, 158, 372.
Thom, C., and S. H. Ayers, 21.
Thom, C., and J. N. Currie, 156.
Page 349
Thom, C., J. N. Currie, and K. J. Matheson, 116, 152.
Thom, C., and K. J. Matheson, 149.
Tinfoil wrapping, 145.
Todd, A., and E. C. V. Cornish, 29.
Tolstrup, R. M., 91.
Trappist, 169.
Trier, 272.
Troy, H. C., 337.
Trypsin, 30.
Twins, 230.
Tyrein, 35.
U. S. Census Report, quoted, 317, 318 to 322.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbooks, quoted, 326.
U. S. Treasury Dept. Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin, 22.
Utensils, 24.
Valerianic acid in cheese, 136.
Van Dam, W., 29, 36, 39.
Van Eyck Machine Co., 98.
Van Herwerden, M., 36, 39.
Van Slyke, L. L., 8, 223, 224, 225, 251, 257, 262.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, 9, 36, 39, 40, 249.
Van Slyke, L. L., and D. D. Van Slyke, 33.
Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, 38, 40, 91, 201, 249, 256.
Van Slyke, L. L., and C. A. Publow, 310.
Van Slyke, L. L., and O. B. Winter, 249.
Vat, 190.
Vermont Exp. Sta. Rept., 7.
Victor curd mill, 208.
Ward, A. R., 217.
Washed curd process, 236.
Water in milk, 8.
Welsh rabbit, 377.
Wensleydale, 184.
Whey, 222.
Whey butter, 295.
Whey cheese, 85, 295.
Whey siphon, 202.
Thom, C., and K. J. Matheson, 149.
Tinfoil wrapping, 145.
Todd, A., and E. C. V. Cornish, 29.
Tolstrup, R. M., 91.
Trappist, 169.
Trier, 272.
Troy, H. C., 337.
Trypsin, 30.
Twins, 230.
Tyrein, 35.
U. S. Census Report, quoted, 317, 318 to 322.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbooks, quoted, 326.
U. S. Treasury Dept. Hygienic Laboratory Bulletin, 22.
Utensils, 24.
Valerianic acid in cheese, 136.
Van Dam, W., 29, 36, 39.
Van Eyck Machine Co., 98.
Van Herwerden, M., 36, 39.
Van Slyke, L. L., 8, 223, 224, 225, 251, 257, 262.
Van Slyke, L. L., and A. W. Bosworth, 9, 36, 39, 40, 249.
Van Slyke, L. L., and D. D. Van Slyke, 33.
Van Slyke, L. L., and E. B. Hart, 38, 40, 91, 201, 249, 256.
Van Slyke, L. L., and C. A. Publow, 310.
Van Slyke, L. L., and O. B. Winter, 249.
Vat, 190.
Vermont Exp. Sta. Rept., 7.
Victor curd mill, 208.
Ward, A. R., 217.
Washed curd process, 236.
Water in milk, 8.
Welsh rabbit, 377.
Wensleydale, 184.
Whey, 222.
Whey butter, 295.
Whey cheese, 85, 295.
Whey siphon, 202.
Page 350
Whey strainer, 202, 203.
Whey tank, 301, 303.
White cheese, 109.
Williams, Jesse, 313.
Wilson hoop, 212.
Wing, Lois W., 25.
Wisconsin Agr. Law, 13, 347.
Wisconsin curd test, 26.
Wisconsin pasteurized Cheddar, 229.
Wisconsin Sta. Bul., quoted, 7, 8, 10, 26, 251, 253.
Working of curd, 102, 135.
Wuethrich, F., 165.
Yeasts, 21.
Yield of, Brick, 169.
Camembert, 130.
Cheddar, 226.
Limburger, 146.
Neufchâtel (whole milk), 107.
Swiss, 287.
Young America, 230.
Zumkehr, P. 139.
Whey tank, 301, 303.
White cheese, 109.
Williams, Jesse, 313.
Wilson hoop, 212.
Wing, Lois W., 25.
Wisconsin Agr. Law, 13, 347.
Wisconsin curd test, 26.
Wisconsin pasteurized Cheddar, 229.
Wisconsin Sta. Bul., quoted, 7, 8, 10, 26, 251, 253.
Working of curd, 102, 135.
Wuethrich, F., 165.
Yeasts, 21.
Yield of, Brick, 169.
Camembert, 130.
Cheddar, 226.
Limburger, 146.
Neufchâtel (whole milk), 107.
Swiss, 287.
Young America, 230.
Zumkehr, P. 139.
Page 351
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The author's purpose has been to discuss coöperative purchasing, to show
why it is desirable, to indicate the evils which it reforms, to present the
operation of a coöperative store and to consider the difficulties which must
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The titles of the four parts into which this work is divided are as follows:
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The Marketing of Farm Products
By L. D. H. WELD
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