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Title: The Manufacture of Chocolate and other Cacao Preparations

Author: Paul Zipperer

Editor: Herm. Schaeffer

Release date: September 19, 2017 [eBook #55584]
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE
MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE AND OTHER CACAO
PREPARATIONS ***

PLATE I
The Cacao Tree—Theobroma Cacao, Linné.
Zipperer, Manufacture of Chocolate etc. 3rd edition.
Verlag M. Krayn, Berlin W. 10.

THE
MANUFACTURE
OF

CHOCOLATE
AND OTHER CACAO PREPARATIONS

BY
Dr. PAUL ZIPPERER.

Third Edition
REARRANGED, THOROUGHLY REVISED, AND LARGELY REWRITTEN.

EDITOR
DR. PHIL. HERM. SCHAEFFER
FOOD CHEMIST AND MANAGING DIRECTOR.

WITH 132 ILLUSTRATIONS, 21 TABLES AND 3 PLATES.

BERLIN W.
VERLAG VON M. KRAYN.
LONDON NEW YORK
E. & F. N. SPON Ltd. 1915 SPON & CHAMBERLAIN
PUBLISHERS PUBLISHERS
57 HAYMARKET. 123-125 LIBERTY STREET.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

Rosenthal & Co., Berlin NW.21, Alt-Moabit 105

Preface to the third edition of “The Manufacture of Chocolate”
by Dr. Zipperer.
It is now a decade since the appearance of the last edition, and owing to
continual delays in the compiling of the present volume, the book has been
out of print for several years. These delays ensued because the editor
wished to take into account the most recent determinations and decrees of
the guilds and various legislative factors connected with the industry; but he
was at length forced to the conclusion that notwithstanding the excellent
organisation and lofty standing of the branch under consideration, it was
useless to wait for anything final and absolute in such a field. Suggestions
of possible improvements and indications of blemishes are therefore
earnestly invited, in order that they may be duly allowed for in the event of
a new edition.—The plan followed by Zipperer has been adopted in the
main; a tribute due to its previous success. Yet on the other hand, the
arrangement of the book has undergone some alteration, and is, at least in
the editor’s opinion, a perceptible improvement.—All scientific, industrial
and technical progress has been treated as fully as possible, the economic
part in particular having been diligently recast.
It would, of course, have been impossible for the editor to write all these
chapters without external aid, his knowledge of the respective branches
being by no means exhaustive enough. He may therefore be allowed to
express here his obligation and thanks to all his fellow-workers; and in
particular, to the A s s o c i a t i o n o f G e r m a n C h o c o l a t e
M a n u f a c t u r e r s, Dresden; its managing director, Herr Greiert; the
director of the C o c o a P u r c h a s e C o ., Hamburg, Herr Rittscher, who
contributed the whole of the chapter headed; C o m m e r c i a l
Va r i e t i e s o f C a c a o B e a n s; further to Prof. Dr. Härtel, Chief
Inspector of the Royal Research Institute, Leipsic; Dr. R. Böhme, Managing
Director of Messrs. Stollwerck Bros. Chemical Laboratory, Cologne; and to
Superintendent Engineer Schneider, of the firm J. M. Lehman, Dresden,
among many others. Mention must also be made of the manufacturers who
so kindly placed material at the editor’s disposal. Let us hope that the work
will meet with a success corresponding to the pains taken by the editor and

publishers, and prove a really serviceable H a n d b o o k to the
C h o c o l a t e I n d u s t r y.
Dr. Schaeffer.

Extracts from the prefaces to the first and second editions.
The object of this work is to furnish a source of information and advice
for those who are interested in the branch of industry to which it relates.
The author of this treatise has therefore endeavoured not only to describe
the manufacturing processes; but he has also devoted special attention to the
raw materials employed, and endeavoured to make them generally familiar
by reference to the literature on the subject, as well as by providing a
precise account of the chemical constituents of these substances and
discussing the consequently necessary procedure to be observed in the
course of manufacture. The art of chocolate making is no longer what it was
a few decades ago; it has for the most part passed from small operators into
the hands of large manufacturers. A short historical resumé will serve as a
sketch of this development and a cursory description of some forms of
apparatus which have now merely historical interest will serve to show how
improvement in the industry has been effected.
Chocolate is a favourite and most important article of food, and in that
sense it is subject to legal regulations for which allowances must be made,
as well as for the most suitable analytical methods by means of which a
manufacturer can ascertain the presence of unlawful mixtures in competing
products, so that knowing the regulations in force, he may avoid any
infringement of the same.

Within the ten years that have elapsed since the first edition of this work
appeared, the manufacture of chocolate has undergone considerable
expansion. Not only has the m o d u s o p e r a n d i been simplified and
improved by the introduction of a number of new mechanical appliances,
but the technique of the subject has been so extended, both from chemical
and mechanical points of view, as partly to furnish a new standard in
estimating and determining cacao constituents and preparations. The author
has endeavoured to take due account of all these advances, and made a

point of collecting the material scattered through the various professional
journals, sifting or supplementing where necessary, in order that all engaged
in the industry, t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r a s w e l l a s t h e f o o d
a n a l y s t a n d t h e e n g i n e e r, may be in a position to derive a vivid
impression of existing conditions in the chocolate manufacture, from the
present volume.
In consideration of the importance which several branches of the industry
have recently acquired, such as the preparation of cocoa powder, soluble
cocoa, cacao butter, pralinés and chocolate creams, space has been given to
descriptions of the respective details. On the other hand no attempt has been
made to introduce calculations as to the cost of manufacture, since
statements to that effect would possibly be rather detrimental than
otherwise.
Costs of production as regards cacao preparations is subject to great
variation, according to the scale on which they are carried out, so that
estimates made on the basis of large operations might eventually lead to the
conclusion that a small factory might be profitable, and with no better result
than that of creating undue competition in prices and occasioning eventual
failure. Moreover, the fluctuations in the market price of cacao and sugar
are so frequent, and there is such possibility of new sources of expense, that
calculations can only apply to the time when they are made; they soon
become out of date, and then afford no trustworthy indication of probable
profit and loss.
The section treating of legislative regulations relating to the trade in
cacao preparations has undergone complete revision to adapt it to existing
conditions.
To render the book more useful, an appendix has been added in which the
production and composition of a few cacao preparations are treated of,
providing valuable data for reference.
Dr. Paul Zipperer.

CONTENTS
First Part: The Cacao Tree Page
A. Tree and Beans 1
a)Description of the Cacao Tree and its Fruit 1
b)Geographical Distribution and History of the Cacao Tree 4
c)Cultivation of the Cacao Tree; Diseases and Parasites 7
d)Gathering and Fermentation 9
e)Description of the Beans 12
f)The Commercial Sorts of the Cacao Bean 16
1.American Cacao Varieties 19
2.African Cacao Varieties 28
3.Asiatic Cacao Sorts 32
4.Australian Cacao Sorts 33
g)The Trade in Cacao and the Consumption of Cacao Products; Statistics 33
B. Chemical Constitution of the Bean 43
a)The Cacao Bean Proper 43
1.Water or Moisture 49
2.Fat 49
3.Cacao red or Pigment 59
4.Theobromine 62
5.Albumin 67
6.Starch 70
7.Cellulose or crude fibre 72
8.Sugar and plant acids 73
9.The mineral or ash constituents 73
b)The Cacao Shells 76

Second Part: The Manufacture of Cacao Preparations
A. Manufacture of Chocolate 85
I.The Preparation of the Cacao Beans 87
1.Storing, cleansing and sorting 87
2.Roasting the Beans 89
3.Crushing, hulling and cleansing 100
4.Mixing different kinds 108
II.Production of the Cacao Mass and Mixing with Sugar 109
5.Fine grinding and trituration 109
6.Mixture with sugar and spices 117
7.Treatment of the Mixture 119
a)Trituration 119
b)Levigation 123
c)Proportions for mixing cacao mass, sugar and spices 136

III.Further Treatment of the Raw Chocolate 138
8.Manufacture of “Chocolats Fondants” 138
9.Heating Chambers and Closets 141
10.Removal of Air and Division 143
IV.Moulding of the Chocolate 149
11.Transference to the Moulds 149
12.The Shaking Table 156
13.Cooling the Chocolate 162
a)Cooling in Chambers.
b)Cooling in Closets.
V.Special Preparations 176
a)Chocolate Lozenges and Pastilles 176
b)“Pralinés” or coated goods 182
B. The Manufacture of Cocoa Powder and “Soluble” Cocoa 195
a)The various methods of disintegrating or opening up the tissues of cacao 195
b)Methods of disintegration 197
1.Preliminary Treatment of the Beans 197
2.Expression of the Fat 199
3.Pulverising and Sifting the defatted Cacao 209
c)Disintegration after Roasting 216
1.Disintegration p r i o r to Pressing 217
2.Disintegration a f t e r Pressing 224
3.Opinions to these methods 225
C. Packing and Storing of the Finished Cacao Preparations 228
a)General hints 228
b)Suitable storage 228
c)Machines for packing en masse 229

Third Part: Ingredients used in the Manufacture of Chocolate
A. Legal enactments. Condemned ingredients 230
B. Ingredients allowed 231
I.Sweet Stuffs 231
a)Sugar 231
b)Saccharin and other sweetening agents 234
II.Kinds of Starch, Flour 236
1.Potato starch or flour 236
2.Wheat starch 236
3.Dextrin 237
4.Rice starch 237
5.Arrowroot 237
6.Chestnut meal 238
7.Bean meal 238
8.Salep 238
III.Spices 238
a)General Introduction 238

b)Vanilla 241
c)Vanillin 243
d)Cinnamon 246
e)Cloves 247
f)Nutmeg and Mace 247
g)Cardamoms 248
IV.Other Ingredients 248
a)Ether oils 248
b)Peru balsam and Gum benzoin 249
V.Colouring Materials 250

Fourth Part: Examination and Analysis of Cacao Preparations
A. Chemical and microscopial examination of cacao and cacao preparations 253
a)Testing 253
b)Chemical analyses 254
1.Estimation of moisture 254
2.Estimation of ash 255
3.Estimation of silicic acid in the ash 256
4.Estimation of alkalis remaining in cocoa powders 256
5.Determination of the fatty contents 258
6.Determination of Theobromine and Caffeine 263
7.Determination of Starch 264
8.Determination of crude Fibre 266
9.Determination of Cacao husk 267
10.Determination of Sugar 269
11.Determination of Albuminates 271
12.Investigation of Milk and Cream Chocolate 272
c)Microscopical-botanical investigation 275
B. Definitions of Cacao Preparations 279
a)Regulations of the Association of German Chocolate Manufacturers relating to the
Trade in Cacao Preparations 279
b)Final Wording of the Principles of the Free Union of German Food Chemists for the
estimation of the Value of Cacao Preparations 282
c)Vienna Regulations 284
d)International Definitions 285
C. Adulteration of Cacao Wares and their Recognition 288
a)Introductory 288
b)The Principles 288
c)Laws and Enactments as to Trade in Cacao Preparations 291
1.Belgium 291
2.Roumania 293
3.Switzerland 294
4.Austria 298
5.Germany 301

Fifth Part: Appendix
A. Installation of a Chocolate and Cacao Powder Factory (with 2 plates) 304
1.Chocolate Factory (Table I) 305
2.Cacao Powder Factory (Table II) 306
3.Appendix containing an account of the methods of preparation and the composition
of some Commercial dietetic and other cacao preparations 306

INDEX
A. Index to literature 319
B. Tables 320
C. Figures 321
D. Authors 323
E. Alphabetical index to contents 326

Part I.
The Cacao Tree.

A. Tree and Beans.

a) Description of the Cacao Tree and its Fruit.

The cacao tree with its clusters of red blossom and golden yellow fruits is
conspicuous even in tropical vegetation. Of considerable diameter at the
base, it often attains a height of eight metres. Its wood is porous and light;
the bark is cinnamon coloured, the simply alternating leaves are from 30 to
40 cm. in length and from 10 to 12 cm. broad, growing on stalks about 3
cm. long. The upper surface of these leaves is bright green, and the other
one of a duller colour, and slightly hairy.
The flowers, which are often covered with hairs, occur either singly or
united in bunches not only on the thicker branches but also all along the
trunk from the root upwards. (Fig. 1 A.)
The formation of the fruit takes place only from the flowers of the stem
or thicker branches, and for a thousand flowers there is only one ripe fruit.
The flowers (fig. 1 B & C) are very small and of a reddish white colour.
Calyx and corolla are five partite, the ten filaments are united at their base
(fig. 1 G) and only half of them are developed to fruitful organs, such as
bear pollen (fig. 1 J) in their four separate anther compartments (fig. 1 H).
The pistil is formed of five united carpels and bears in each of its five
compartments eight ovules. (Fig. 1 E & F).
The fruit is at first green, and afterwards turns yellow, but with streaks
and tints of red occurring; many varieties also are entirely crimson.
Resembling our cucumber in size, shape and appearance (see fig. 2 A & B),
it has a length of about 25 cm. and a diameter of 10 cm., and the thickness
of its shell is from 15 to 20 mm. This shell is of rather softer consistency

than that of the gourd, and has five deep longitudinal channels, with five
others of less depth between them.

Fig. 1. (After Berg & Schmidt, Atlas.)
A Twig in bloom (1/2). B Flower (3/1). C Flower in vertical section (3/1). D Leaf of flower (6/1) E Bean-pod in vertical
section (6/1) F Bean-pod in cross section (9/1). H Anther. J Pollen.

The shell encloses a soft, sweetish pulp, within which from twenty-five
to forty almond shaped seeds are ranged in five longitudinal rows, close to
each other. The white colour of these seeds is frequently tinged with yellow,
crimson, or violet (Sec. Fig. 2 C. D. & G).

Fig. 2. (After Berg & Schmidt).
A Fruit with half of shell removed (1/2). B Fruit in cross section (½). C Side view of seed (1/3). D Front view of seed (1/1). E
Seedling (1/1). F Kotyledon or Seed-leaf (1/1). G Seed in cross section (1/1).

The fruits ripen throughout the whole year, though but slowly during the
dry season; and the time needed for its full development is about four
months. It may be gathered at all times of the year, although there are
regular gathering seasons, determined and modified by the respective
climatic conditions. So, for example, we find that in Brazil the principal

gathering takes place in February and July, whilst in Mexico it is in March
and April. In the primeval Amazonian forests the fruit of the cacao tree is
gathered and brought to market at all times of the year, wherever Indian
tribes obtain.

b) Geographical Distribution and History of the Cacao Tree.

The cacao tree flourishes in a warm, moist climate. It is therefore
indigenous to tropical America, from 23° north to 15° or 20° south latitude.
Consequently the area in which it grows comprises the Central American
republic of Mexico down to the Isthmus of Panama; Guatemala, the Greater
and Lesser Antilles, Martinique, Trinidad, St. Lucia, Granada, Cuba, Haiti,
Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Guadeloupe, and San Domingo; in South America,
the republics of Venezuela, Columbia, Guiana, Ecuador, Peru and the
northern parts of Brazil, especially the districts lying along the middle
Amazon.
In all other countries where the cacao tree now flourishes, it has been
naturalised, either by colonists, or with government aid, as in Asia, where
the Philippine Islands, Java, Celebes, Amboyna and Ceylon in particular are
deserving of mention; and in Cameroon (Bibundi, Victoria and Buea),
Bourbon, San Thomé and the Canary Islands in Africa, where the tree is
sometimes found growing at an elevation of about 980 ft. above sea level.
Ceylon offers an instructive illustration of the zeal with which the
cultivation is carried on in some districts. According to information
furnished by Mr. Ph. Freudenburg, late German Consul at Colombo, cacao
had been planted in a few instances during the time Ceylon was in
possession of the Dutch, but only since 1819 has seed been distributed out
of the botanical gardens at Kalatura, and it was still later before planters
could obtain it from those established at Peradenija. Systematic cultivation
for commercial purposes was commenced in 1872 or 1873. The principal
seats of cacao plantations are Dumbara, Kurunegalla, Kegalla and
Polgahawella, together with North, East and West Matala, Urah and
Panwila.1 According to statistical records, the relation between the growth
and export of cacao is shown by the following table, which also shows the
development of its cultivation:

Area under Exports
Year
cultivation (acres) (cwts)
1878 300 10
1879 500 42
1880 3000 121
1881 5460 283
1885 12800 7247
1892 14500 17327
1895 18278 27519
1898 22500 32688
1908 39788 62186

Like all other articles of human food, cacao has a history of some
interest, the most essential points of which are here summarised from the
excellent work of A. Mitscherlich.2
A knowledge of the cacao tree was first brought to Europe in 1519 by
Fernando Cortez and his troops. He found in Mexico a very extensive
cultivation of cacao, which had been carried on for several centuries. In the
first letter addressed by Cortez to Charles the Fifth, he described cacao
beans as being used in place of money. Cortez applied to the cacao tree the
name of “Cacap”, a word derived from the old Mexican designation
“Cacava-quahitl”. The Mexicans called the fruit “Cacavacentli”, the beans
“Cacahoatl” and the beverage prepared from them “Chocolatl”3, said to be
derived from the root “Cacava” and “Atl”, water. This term was adopted by
the Spaniards, and it gave rise in the course of time to the word
“Chocolate”, which is now universal.
The botanical definition of the typical form of the cacao tree, which
belongs to the family BUTTNERIACEAE, is referable to Linnaeus, who
gave it the name “Theobroma Cacao” (food of the gods, from “Theos”,
God, and “Broma”, food). Probably chocolate was a favourite beverage
with Linnaeus, who may have been acquainted with the work of the Paris
physician Buchat, published in 1684, in which chocolate is alluded to as an
invention more worthy of being called food of the gods than nectar or
ambrosia. Clusius first described the cacao tree in his “Plantae exoticae”.
The taste for chocolate soon spread throughout Spain after the return of

Cortez’ expedition from the New World, not, however, without
encountering some opposition, especially on the part of the clergy, who
raised the question whether it were lawful to partake of chocolate on fast
days, as it was known to possess nutritive properties. However, it found an
advocate in Cardinal Brancatio, who described it as an article belonging,
like wine, to the necessaries of life, and he therefore held that its use in
moderation could not be prohibited. In 1624 Franciscus Rauch published a
work at Vienna, in which he condemned the use of chocolate and suggested
that the monks should be prevented from partaking of it, as a means of
preventing excesses. About the commencement of the 17th century, the use
of chocolate spread from Spain to Italy, where it was brought to the notice
of the public by the Florentine Antonio Carletti (1606), who had lived for
some time in the Antilles. The method of converting cacao beans into
chocolate was also made known in Europe by Carletti, while the Spaniards
had kept it a secret. Under Theresa of Austria, wife of Louis XIV, the habit
of taking chocolate appears to have become very common in France after
the partial introduction of cacao by importation from Spain. The first cacao
imported from the French colony of Martinique arrived in Brest in 1679 in
“Le Triomphant”, the flagship of admiral d’Estrées. Opinion in France as to
chocolate was then divided: Madame Sévigné, once an admirer of
chocolate, afterwards wrote to her daughter: “il vous flatte pour un temps et
puis il vous allume tout d’un coup fièvre continue qui vous conduit à la
mort”, a theory which nowadays must necessarily be regarded as ridiculous.
Chocolate was in general use in England about the middle of the 17th
century. Chocolate houses, similar to the coffee houses of Germany, were
opened in London. Bontekoë, physician to the Elector Wilhelm of
Brandenburg, published in 1679 a work entitled “Tractat van Kruyd, Thee,
Coffe, Chocolate,” in which he spoke very strongly in favour of chocolate
and contributed very sensibly to the increase of its consumption in
Germany. The first chocolate factory in Germany is said to have been
erected by Prince Wilhelm von der Lippe about the year 1756 at Steinhude.
This prince brought over Portuguese specially versed in the art of chocolate
making.

c) Cultivation of the Cacao Tree; Diseases and Parasites.

The first information regarding the cultivation of the cacao tree in
Mexico is that obtained on the invasion of the country by the Spaniards.
Prior to that time there is a total absence of anything definite. The tree
flourishes best in situations where the mean temperature is between 24° and
28° C. The farther the place of cultivation from the equator the poorer is the
product. The other most essential conditions are long continued moisture of
the soil and a soft, loose texture with abundance of humus, and above all,
shelter from the direct rays of the sun. For these reasons, planters select for
their cacao areas ground the virgin soil of which has not been exhausted by
the cultivation of other plants. The plants are either raised in a nursery until
they reach the most suitable age for transplanting, or the seeds are sown on
the ground selected for the plantation. The transport of live seed for new
plantations is attended with some difficulty, since the seeds very quickly
lose their vitality. C. Chalot4 recommends that this vitality be preserved by
gathering the fruit before it is perfectly ripe, immersing it in melted paraffin
oil, and then wrapping it in paper; on which the fruit may be transported
without losing any of its nutritive qualities.
In the sheltered valleys of tropical countries, where the soft soil, rich in
humus, is kept constantly moist by large rivers, the cacao tree blossoms
throughout the whole year. When growing wild it is generally isolated under
the shadow of larger trees; when cultivated, the young plant is placed under
the shelter of banana trees, and at a later period of its growth shelter is
provided by the coral (called Erythrina corallodendron or Erythrina indica),
further known as “Coffie-mama” among the Surinam Dutch and madre del
cacao among the Spaniards. Yet this tree, like the Maniok, is said not to
enjoy so long a life as the cacao plant, which sometimes reaches an age of
forty years. On this account the Castilloa or also Caesalpina dashyracis
have recently been recommended as a more lasting protection. The fact that
it does not lose its leaves during the dry season (e. g. on Java, during the
East Monsoon) is an additional advantage.
A cacao plantation requires a considerable area, in the proportion of 50
hectares for 20,000 trees. The quantity of fruit to be obtained from that
number of trees, as an annual crop, would be worth from £ 1,200-1,300. In
planting the seeds, they are set in rows that are from 8 to 10 m. apart, four
or five seeds being planted within from 1 to 2 m, the shading trees being
planted between the rows. Of each five seeds planted the greater number

often fail to germinate, either in consequence of unfavourable weather or as
the result of attacks by insects etc.; but if more than one plant grows, the
weaker ones are pulled up. Until the plants are two or three years old, they
are protected by a shed open at one side, and they are transplanted after they
have attained a height of 3 ft. The chief enemies of tropical cultivation—
weeds, aerial roots, insects, bacterial infection—have to be provided against
continually, so as to prevent damage; accordingly if the ground be not moist
enough, it should be systematically watered, and so drained if marshy, for
the tree requires most careful nursing if it is to develop into a prolific fruit-
bearing specimen. The seed germinates about fourteen days after being
planted; but flowers are not produced till after 3 or 5 years. After the tree
has once born fruit, which may occur at the end of the fourth year it often
continues to do so for fifty years. The tree is most prolific when from
twelve to thirty years old.
As in the case of all cultivated plants and domestic animals, the existence
of which does not depend on the principal of natural selection, and among
which life is not a continuous development of endurance in the face of
adverse elements, the cacao tree has its peculiar diseases. Indeed, it would
seem as though it were beset by all vermin extant. The reader may obtain
some idea of the extent of the damage done to cacao plantations by such
noxious agents, if he turns up the clear and exhaustive account published by
the Imperial Biological Institute for Agriculture and Forestry (Germany).5
Unfortunately we have not space here to mention more than a few of the
most frequently occurring and important diseases, such as the GUM
DISEASE, which is especially destructive, gum formations in the wood
tissue and bark of the tree eventually killing it. Next to be dreaded are the
various fungus growths, cancers and cancer-like incrustations (“Krulloten”)
and broom formations. It often happens that specii of beetle attack the tree,
causing decay and rot to set in; such e. g. are the wood-borer, bark bug, and
woodbeetle. Other parasites, again, do not destroy the whole tree, but are
equally detrimental, as they also preclude all prospects of a harvest. Fruit
rot and its like, fruit cancer, and cacao moths, are notorious in this
connection. There are also several larger creatures which betray a
preference for the nutritious fruit of the cacao tree, various species of rat,
and the squirrel, which unite to make the planter’s life a burden.

d) Gathering and Fermentation.

The gathering of the fruit is effected by means of long rods, at the end of
which is a semi-circular knife for cutting through the stalk. The fruits are
then split in two, the beans separated from the surrounding pulp and spread
out on screens to dry, or exposed to the sun on bamboo floors. Beans so
prepared are described as unfermented.
In most lands where cacao is cultivated, another process is adopted,
calculated to heighten the flavour of the fruit and develop its nutritious
constituents. The newly gathered beans are first partially freed from the
fruity substances always adhering, then piled up into heaps and covered
with banana skins or cocoa-nut matting, in order that they may be shut off
as far as possible from all atmospheric influence, and so left for some time,
while the chemical processes of warming and fermentation are gradually
consummating. This procedure is alternated with repeated exposures to the
sun, according to the maturity and species of the cacao bean, and the
prevailing weather conditions; though details as to the length of time and
number of repetitions necessary to the production of a marketable article
still await determination.6 It may be taken as a general rule that
fermentation should proceed till the bean, or rather the cotyledon, has
acquired the light brown colour characteristic of chocolate. This principle is
nevertheless often violated, especially as loss of weight in the bean is often
intimately connected with complete fermentation. Unsufficiently fermented
varieties, but which were fully ripe when gathered, develop a violet colour
during this process; it is possible for them to pass through what is known as
“After fermentation” before reaching the factory. This is not so in the case
of beans developing from unripe fruit, for obviously the valuable
constituents of the cotyledon are here not prominent, and scarcely
calculated to ferment properly. Such can be recognised by their betraying a
bluish grey colour in the drying processes, and the soft and smooth structure
which they then acquire. A normal progress of fermentation is indicated
where the interior of the mass of beans registers, on the first morning after
gathering, a temperature not exceeding 30-33° C, 35-38° on the second day,
and on the third morning a temperature not exceeding 43° C. If the outer
shells are marked, the heating has been too severe. In countries where the
harvest season suffers from the periodical rains, drying over wooden fires7

is often resorted to. The value of many specimens is hereby greatly
diminished when the roasting is carelessly managed, for the smoke must on
no account be allowed to come into contact with the bean. Yet “Smoky” lots
among the St. Thomas, Accra, and Kameroon sorts were formerly much
more frequent in commerce than now, for the planter has learned to avoid
this evil. After they have been fermented, the beans are washed, or trodden
with the naked foot, in some countries, and so cleansed from the pulp
remains still adhering. They are then allowed to dry in the open air, and
packed into sacks; contact with metal or stone is strictly to be avoided,
which as good conductors of heat and rapid cooling agents are most
disadvantageous. Instead of piling the beans up in loose heaps, they may be
fermented in “Tanks” made of wood, and where possible, provided with
partitions. According to Kindt, cedar wood has been proved best for this
purpose, because of its enormous resisting capacity. It used to be thought
that in fermentation ensued a germination of the seed,8 as in the preparation
of malt; but this idea has been proved erroneous. The contrary is rather the
case, for the process almost kills the seed; and when the sensitiveness of the
latter is taken into consideration, and also the fact that it only develops
under the most favourable conditions, it must be allowed that the statement
contains an obvious truth. Yet chemical change does take place in the
fermentation of the seed; but as to its precise nature, owing to the lack of
scientific research on the scene of operations, we are still unable to
dogmatise. It would therefore be useless to discuss the manifold theories
and speculations bearing on this point, and waste of time to discuss the
various kinds of fermentation and the chemical processes therein involved.
Yet it may almost be taken for granted, that the fresh-plucked bean contains
a so-called glycoside9 which decomposes into grape sugar, into an equally
amyloids colour stuff (the so-called cacao-red), and the nitrogeneous
alkaloids Theobromine and Kaffein; a change probably incidental to the
fermentation.10 The sugar might further split up into Alcohol and Carbonic
Acid Gas, although this is by no means established.
Whilst we have lost our bearings as far as the chemical aspect of this
process is concerned, we are much more firm in respect to the biological,
thanks to researches which Dr. v. Preyers has conducted on the spot in
Ceylon. Preyer’s11 experiments leave absolutely no room for objection, and
it can safely be accepted that there are no bacteria present in fermentation,

but a fungus-like growth rich in life, a kind of yeast by him called
Saccharomyces Theobromae, and described in passing;12 facts which
constitute the gist of his findings. He further establishes that the presence of
bacteria often noticed is absolutely undesirable, and that better results are
obtained when all life is energetically combated, and especially these
bacteria. We should, then, be confronted with the same phenomenon in the
preparation of cacao as are already met with in beer brewing, and the
pressing of wine and which are still waited for in the preparing of tea and
tobacco.
The kernel of the fresh bean, “Nips”, is white and has a bitter taste and
alternates in colour between whitish yellow, rose and violet; the mere
influence of solar heat is sufficient to produce the brown cacao pigment, but
drying is not so effective as fermentation in removing the harsh bitter taste
and hence fermented beans are always to be preferred. These have often
acquired a darker colour in the process, their weight is considerably
diminished, and their flavour modified to an oily sweetness, without losing
an atom of the original aroma13.
Commercially and for manufacturing purposes only the seeds of the
cacao tree are of importance. The root bark is said by Herr Loyer of Manila
to be of medicinal value as a remedy for certain common female complaints
and is employed by the natives of the Philippine Islands as an abortifacient.
According to Peckoldt14 the fruit shell contains a considerable amount of
material that yields mucilage and might therefore be utilised as a substitute
for linseed.

e) Description of the Beans.

The varieties of the cacao tree which yield the beans at the present time
occurring in commerce are.
Theobroma cacao, Linné the t r u e c a c a o, spread over the widest area,
and almost e x c l u s i v e l y c u l t i v a t e d o n p l a n t a t i o n s, with
many varieties (Crillo, Forastero etc.) and Theobroma b i c o l o r, a party-
coloured cacao tree the seeds of which are mixed with Brazilian and
Caracas beans.

Theobroma speciosum Wildenow, which yields, like Theobroma cacao,
Brazilian beans (magnificent tree).
Theobroma quayanense, yielding Guiana beans.
Theobroma silvestre or forest cacao.
Theobroma subincanum, w h i t e - l e a v e d - c a c a o, and Theobroma
microcarpum, s m a l l - f r u i t e d c a c a o, a r e m e t w i t h a s
a d m i x t u r e s in Brazilian beans.
Theobroma glaucum, g r e y c a c a o, fruits of which variety are found
among Caracas beans.
Theobroma angustifolium the n a r r o w - l e a v e d and Theobroma
ovatifolium, o v a l l e a f, may be regarded as characteristic of Mexican
cacao.
Before describing the commercial kinds of cacao, a knowledge of which
is of first importance to manufacturers, it is desirable to consider the beans
in regard to external form and microscopial structure, in order that the use
of some indispensable scientific expressions in the subsequent description
of particular commercial kinds of cacao may be intelligible.

The bean, page 3 Fig. 2 C-G, consists, according to Hanousek15, of a
seed-shell, a seed-skin and the embryo or kernel with the radicle. The oval-
shaped seed is generally from 16 to 28 mm. long, 10 to 15 mm. broad and
from 4 to 7 mm. thick. At the lower end of the bean there is a depressed,
flattened and frequently circular hilum visible, from which a moderately
marked line extends up to the apex of the bean where it forms the centre of
radiating longitudinal ribs— vascular bundles-extending to the middle of
the bean through the outer seed-coating back to the hilum.
The outer seed shell (cf. Fig. 3) is of the thickness of paper, brittle, scaly
externally and reddish brown, lined with a colourless translucent membrane
peeling to the so-called silver membrane (previously but falsely known as
seed envelope) and penetrating into the convolutions of the kernel in
irregularly divided folds. The shells of some of the better sorts of beans,
such as Caracas, are frequently covered with a firmly adherent, dense,
reddish-brown powder, consisting of ferruginous loam originating from the

soil on which the beans have been dried and serving as a protection against
the attacks of insects. But opinions are divided as to, the utility of this
process.
The fermented kernel consists of two large cotyledons occupying the
whole bean; it is of fatty lustre, reddish grey or brown colour and often
present a superficial violet tinge; and under gentle pressure readily breaks
up into numerous angular fragments the surfaces of which are generally
bordered by the silver membrane. The fragments can be easily recognised
when laid in water. At the contact of the lobes there is an angular middle rib
and two lateral ribs are connected with the radicle at the broader end of the
bean. The ripe fresh-gathered cacao-kernel is undoubtedly white and the
reddish brown or violet pigment is formed during the fermenting of the
bean. But there is also a white cacao, though seldom met with. According to
information furnished by Dr. C. Rimper of Ecuador, it is of rare occurrence
and is not cultivated to any great extent. In Trinidad also a perfectly white
seeded cacao, producing large fruit and fine kernels, was introduced from
Central America by the curator of the Botanic Gardens in 1893.
The microscopic structure of the shell, Fig. III., presents no remarkable
peculiarity that requires to be noticed here.
The delicate inner membrane (fig. 3) coating the cotyledons and
penetrating into their folds consists of several layers. Connected with it are
club-shaped glandular structures, fig. 4, consisting of several dark coloured
cells that are known as the M i t s c h e r l i c h p a r t i c l e s. According to
A. F. W. Schimper16 they are hairs fallen from the epidermis (fig. 4) of the
cotyledon and do not originate, as was formerly supposed, in the inner
silver membrane.
These structures, named after their discoverer, were formerly supposed to
be algae, or cells of the embryo sac, unconnected with the tissues of the
seed cells. They are, however, as true epidermoid structures, similar to the
hairs of other plants.

Fig. 3. Cross Section of Shell of Cacao Bean (Tschirsch).

gfb vascular bundles fe endocarp, or inner coat of fruit st sklerogenous, or dry cells
co cotyledon se epicarp, or skin is silver membrane
pc ducts sch mucilagenous, or slime cells co cotyledon
f pulp lp parenchyma, or cellular tissue gfb vascular bundles

These Mitscherlich particles are not only c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e
s e e d m e m b r a n e, but also of the entire seed as well as the preparations
made from it. Wherever c a c a o i s m i x e d w i t h o t h e r
m a t e r i a l s, its presence may be ascertained by microscopical detection of
these structures, which are peculiar to cacao.
In the large elongated, hexagonal cells of the seed membrane there are
two other structures to be seen with the aid of high power (250 fold), one
appearing as large crystalline druses, while the other consists of extremely
fine needles united in bundles.

Fig. 4.
Cross section of the cotyledon, showing “Mitscherlich particles” (Moeller).

By addition of petroleum spirit the former, consisting of fat acid crystals,
are dissolved, the latter, remaining unaltered, are considered by
Mitscherlich to be theobromine crystals, since their crystalline form closely
resembles that of theobromine. A more scientific explanation has not been
forthcoming.
The cotyledons are seen under the microscope to consist of a tissue of
thin walled cells, without cavities, lying close together, and here and there
distributed through the tissue, cells with brownish yellow, reddish brown, or
violet coloured contents. These latter are the pigment cells which contain
the substance known as cacao-red and analogous to tannin; it, together with
theobromine, gives rise to the delicate taste and aroma of cacao. The other
cells of the tissue are filled with extremely small starch granules the size of
which rarely exceeds 0.005 mm.; with them are associated fat, in the form
of spear-shaped crystals, and albuminoid substances.
In order to discriminate between these substances they must be stained by
various reagents. According to Molisch17, theobromine may be recognised,
in sections of the seed, by adding a drop of hydrochloric acid and after
some time an equal drop of auric chloride solution (3 %) After some of the
liquid has evaporated, bunches of long yellow crystals of theobromine
aurochloride make their appearance. On addition of osmic acid the fat is
coloured greyish brown. On addition to the microscopic section a drop of

iodine solution, or better iodozine chloride, the starch becomes blue, while
albuminous substances are coloured yellow. Cacao starch granules are very
small and cannot well be mistaken for other kinds, except the starch of
some spices such as pimento or that of Guarana, prepared from the seeds of
Paulinna sorbilis. According to Möller the blue iodine colouration of cacao
starch takes place very slowly and it is probably retarded by the large
amount of fat present; but the point has been contested by Zipperer and later
investigators.
In order to make the starch granules of cacao and the cells containing
cacao-red distinctly visible under the microscope, it is advisable to immerse
the section in a drop of almond oil, because the addition of water renders
the object indistinct in consequence of the large amount of fat present.
Another excellent medium for the microscopic observation of cacao is the
solution of 8 parts of chloral hydrate in 5 parts of water, as recommended
by Schimper.18
By these means it may easily be seen that the pigment or cacao red in
different sorts of cacao varies more or less in colour.
To complete the account of the microscopic characters of the cacao
cotyledon, mention must be made of the small v a s c u l a r b u n d l e s,
generally spiral, that are distributed throughout the tissues of the cotyledons
and are readily made visible by adding a drop of oil or a drop of chloral
hydrate solution.

f) The Commercial Sorts of the Cacao Bean.

Mindful of Goethe’s dictum: F r i e n d , t h e p a t h s o f t h e o r y
a r e u n c e r t a i n , a n d h i d i n g l o o m, we propose to devote this
chapter to an exclusively practical discussion of the commercial value of
raw cacao, and from the merchant’s point of view.
Such differences of opinion prevail in manufacturing circles as to the
possible uses of each separate sort, that for this reason alone any other than
a purely geographical classification would scarcely be feasible. But apart
from this, varying as it does with the protective duties imposed, the
commercial value of cacao can by no means remain a universal constant;

and it must be noted that variations in the national taste serve to heighten its
instability.
This latter circumstance also causes a deviation from the nearly related
principal that the Motherland becomes chief consumer of the varieties
grown in her colonies. The cacao sorts of the English Gold-Coast running
under the collective name of A c c r a, have taken complete possession of
the German market; Trinidad cacao enjoys immense popularity in France,
and the Dutch pass on the larger part of their Java importations to other
consuming nations. As regards this latter sort, however, the fact they are
chiefly employed as colouring and covering stuffs for other cacaos must be
taken into consideration.
In most cases either the producing country or a principal shipping port
gives its name to the different sorts. Yet paradoxical exceptions will at once
occur to the reader. The inferior and mediocre Venezuelan varieties of the
Barlovento district shipped from La Guayra are generally denominated as
C a r a c a s, notwithstanding the fact that the capital of the republic
Venezuela, situated as it is 1000 metres above sea level (being about 3300
feet), and therefore quite outside the cacao zone, has practically no
connection with the cacao trade. The collective name, Samana still holds
good for the cacaos of the Dominican republic, at least in Germany,
although this outlet of a tiny mountainous peninsular has long ceased to
export any but very insignificant quantities. Consequently, and rightly, the
French merchant specifies these sorts as S a n c h e z, adopting the name of
the principal cacao exporting port of the republic. Arriba, the choicest
product of Ecuador (port, Guayaquil) takes its name from the Spanish word
arriba, above, the plantations being situated along the upper sources of the
Rio Guayas (to wit, the rivers Daule, Vinces, and Zapotal). Other Guayaquil
cacaos are named after the rivers (Balao, Naranjal) and districts (e. g.
Machala) where they are most cultivated.
As in the case of so many other cultivated plants, distinguishing
characteristics of the various sorts are not only determined by the different
species of tree, but are rather and principally dependant on the combined
effect of physical and climatic conditions. So whether the seedling Criollo,
the splendid Creole bean native to Venezuela, belongs also to the more
fruitful Forastero species (spanish forastero, foreign), a variety less

sensitive and consequently commoner, is a problem which can only claim
secondary consideration.
Apart from the geographical influences mentioned, method and nicety of
procedure are of prime importance in the preparation of the cacao sorts. Yet
technically perfect implements do not always prove the best means to an
attainment of this end; it being a fact recorded by experience that the
chemical constituents of the cacao bean reach their fullest developement in
such simple and primitive processes as, e. g. are still patronised in Ecuador
and Venezuela. It is scarcely necessary to observe that these simple and
primitive methods postulate nicety and carefulness, which failing, there will
be no lack of defects in the cacao prepared. On the Haiti/Domingo island,
e. g. a variety of cacao is harvested which is in itself very profitable, as
stray specimens finding their way to the market testify, but which as an
article of commerce proves most unreliable, being generally brought on the
market in such an unprepared state, that fermentation first takes place on the
sea voyage, and then of course only in insufficient measure. During this
period appear those disagreeable and accompanying symptoms technically
known as “Vice propre” and the beans, which were not completely ripe in
the first place, do not develop further, and greenish breakings in the skin
become pronounced, and remain a source of terror to the manufacturing
world. All attempts made in European interests to bring about an alteration
in this deplorable state of affairs have hitherto been lost on the indolence of
the native planters. Indeed, until the political and economical conditions
prevalent among the mixed Negro population of Haiti/Domingo are
thoroughly reformed, no perceptible improvement can be expected in the
qualities of the Samana and Haiti cacaos, for which reason, with rapidly
disappearing exceptions, there are scarcely any well organised plantations
in these parts.
Turning to the Old World, we find in the West African Gold Coast a
typical example of the possibilities of cultivation on a small scale, under
proper and competent guidance, and with primitive processes; for not only
as far as quantitative progress is concerned, but also in respect to quality,
the varieties produced by the natives of this English colony improve from
year to year. Kameroon, a district which like the Gold Coast has only taken
to the cultivation of cacao of late years, provides us with an exactly
opposite instance. Here the plantation system has been in force right from

the commencement of the industry, with all its technically perfected
implements, yet nevertheless the perfecting of the cacao proceeds very
slowly, and it will be a long time before the produce of this land can lay any
serious claim to specification as a variety for consumption. Its large
proportion of acid ingredient has been above all detrimental, almost
completely precluding its use as any other but a mixing sort, although some
plantations have been yielding comparatively mild cacaos now for several
years. We cannot stay to discuss the problem of causes in this instance, and
whether the fact that the Forastero species has been exclusively planted
prejudices the developement of the cacao, or the climatic conditions, must
remain an open question. Let it be noted in passing that the Forastero Bean
has taken universal possession of Africa, as well in Kameroon, as in the
Gold Coast, on the island of St. Thomas and also in the Congo Free State.
The Bahia cacao, again, owes its origin to the Forastero seedling.
We will refrain from any further elaboration of this introduction,
however, so as not to anticipate the following review of the various
commercial sorts of cacao.

f) I. American Cacao Varieties.

A. Central America.
We begin with
M e x i c o, the classical cacao land, scarcely of importance to the general
trade, as the greater part of its entire produce, comprising about three
thousand tons yearly, is consumed in its native country. Of the other Central
American states, next to
N i c a r a g u a, whose large Venezuelan-like beans find their way to the
Hamburg market from time to time,
C o s t a R i c a is above all worthy of mention. This state began to export
its home produce in 1912, averaging for that year about 60 tons; and in
1909, the export had already increased to 350 tons, mostly to England and
North America, through the shipping port called Port Limon.

B. South America.
C o l u m b i a . From this republic come two distinct sorts; the rare,
rounded, and native
C a u c a bean, which is nearly related to the Maracaibo variety, and
which cultivated along the Magdalena river is in the main shipped from
Baranquille, on the Caribbean sea, occasionally also from Bueneventura on
the Pacific coast; and then the
T u m a c o C a c a o, so named from the small shipping port on the
Ecuador border, which resembles the inferior sorts of the Ecuador coast.
Cauca-and Tumaco-cacaos are only seldom free from defective beans and
worm-eatings, probably less caused by the primitive processes of
preparation than the difficult means of communication in this country. Then
also considerable quantities are retained for home consumption.
E c u a d o r is the home of the cacao richest in aroma, the country which
first developed the plantation system on a large and well organised scale,
and which was still at the head of cacao-harvesting lands a few years ago,
with a yearly produce of about 32,000 tons. Yet although it had increased
this amount to 40,000 tons in the year 1911, Ecuador can only take second
rank among cultivating lands, the Gold Coast coming first. The following
and most valuable varieties are embraced under the name of the chief
shipping port.
GUAYAQUIL. They are:
1. A r r i b a, i. e. above, these cacaos coming from the upper tributaries of
the rio Guaya (the rivers Daule, Vinces, Publoviejo, and Zapatol). The
Arribas, like the Guayaquil cacaos generally, are chiefly used in the
preparation of cacao powders. They form e. g. the principal constituents of
the Dutch cacao powders, especially the so-called superior Summer-Arriba,
harvested from the month of April to July. All that is gathered in other
seasons falls into the general class “Arriba superior de la época
The cacaos of the months immediately following on Summer, the
r e b u s c o s, after crop, are as a rule the most inferior varieties of arriba,

whilst the Christmas harvest of the months of January and February
(cosecha de Navidad) often yields quite excellent sorts.
2. M a c h á l a, second in importance among the Guayaquil sorts, rather
more fatty than the ariba, and differing from this again in Aroma and the
colour of its kernel, which is of a rather darker brown. Chief cultivation
occurs in the low lying land bordering on Peru and lying opposite the island
of Jambeli, where the prevailing climatic conditions are quite different from
those in the arriba districts, although these are not far removed. August and
September are the harvest months for Machala. Ten years ago this sort was
shipped in large measure from the then newly created harbour Puerto
Bolivar. But since large ocean going steamers no longer call there, it now
takes the more roundabout route via Guayaquil.
3. B a l á o . This variety can be described as a mean between Machala
and Arriba. It has some of the characteristics of both, the bean being
somewhat rounder.
4. N a r a n j a l and T e n g u é l are likewise subdivisions of the foregoing,
except that the bean is here much larger and flatter. As the production of all
three sorts, and especially of Balao, is substantially greater than what finds
its way to the market, we may reasonably assume that a large proportion is
used for mixing purposes, and sails on commercial seas, as it were, under
false colours. Cultivating district: the Machala district situated along the
Jambeli canal, and the stretch of coast watered by the rivers Balao and
Naranjal.
5. Pegados (i. e. stuck together) or Pelatos (balls) is the description of the
cacaos comprised of series of 4-10 beans rolled together, generally
developing from overripe fruit. They experience a particular kind of
fermentation, apparently the result of the fruity substances still evident,
which gives the light coloured kernels a soft aromatic flavour. For several
years these sorts have rarely been seen on the European market, they being
generally reserved for home consumption.
6. O s c u r o s, i. e. dark coloured, a refuse sort rightly viewed with
suspicion in manufacturing circles—Pelotas soaked in water, or beans left
in the clefts and fissures of the drying chamber floors.—The black shell of
the bean encloses a brownish and dirty-looking kernel, the colour

sometimes approaching black: the whole bean giving a disagreeable
impression, as it is often disfigured with mould, and possessed of a
disagreeable odour. For several years this variety served the “crooks” of the
commercial world as mixing material for the so-called “flavouring” of
Machala, but it now again appears as a distinct sort.
The shipping port for all these cacao sorts is Guayaquil; though other
harbours also handle valuable varieties. Such, for example, are

a) B a h i a d e C a r a q u é z, and the small haven of Manta lying
south of this town, which deals in a sort resembling a blended
Machala-Balao, though occasionally light brown in appearance
and of aromatic flavour. This cacao is generally labelled as
C a r a q u é z for short, and is to be distinguished from C a r a q u e,
the French term for Caracas cacao.
The chief harvesting months are June and July; the April-May
arrivals, however, are usually better, as the setting-in of the rainy
season increases the difficulties of drying. The harvest in 1909 reached
3,000 tons, and is normally from 2000 to 5,000 tons yearly.
b) E s m e r a l d a s, similar to the foregoing, but of perceptibly inferior
output, possesses only a very insignificant yield (about 150 tons a
year), and this in spite of the cultivating capacities of the interior.

P e r u, the most southerly producing land on the west coast can likewise
only boast of a very insignificant yield, chiefly destined for home
consumption.
B r a z i l, with its two great sorts for consumption, Bahia and Para cacao,
and a yearly production of round 33,000 tons, has from the years 1906-1909
far outrun all other harvesting lands. Yet although it was able to increase
this to 36,250 tons in 1911 it must nevertheless take second place among
cultivating lands, the Gold Coast and Ecuador preceding.
A most important factor on the market is included under the specification
B a h i a-cacao. Here again the shipping port has given its name to the cacao
sort. It is harvested in three southerly situated districts, Ilheos, Belmonte,

and Canavieiras, and is despatched to Bahia from harbours of the same
name, in sailing vessel which sometimes ship a thousand sacks.
Ilheos despatches the inferior of the two principal varieties “Fair
fermented” and “Superior fermented” that is, the first-named, and so
furnishes two-thirds of the Bahia crop. The cacao areas in the district of
Ilheos are situated on rather high and mountainous ground, where arresting
atmospheric conditions often predominate. Also the absence of any
waterway whatever renders it a necessity to despatch the cacao to Bahia on
beasts of burden, which during the rainy season can scarcely find a footing
on the beaten tracks. It is, then, the unfavourable atmospheric conditions,
combined with a certain carelessness on the part of the planter in the
preparing processes, which prejudices the otherwise excellent quality of the
Bahia bean, and more especially in the months of June, July and August.
At this period it is no rarity to find from 10 to 20 percent of waste beans,
and in general only the December-February months offer anything
approaching a guarantee as to quality. But here no hard and fast rule can be
adduced.
Belmonte and Canavieiras are the districts of the “Superior fermented”
cacaos. The lower lay of the land is responsible for other climatic
conditions, and in addition, both harbours here are situated at the mouths of
rivers which afford an easy and sure means of transport. So the cacao,
which is also better roasted,—a few planters even drying in ovens—reaches
the market in a much better condition, and fetches at least from 3-4 sh. a
cwt. more than the “Fair Fermented” variety.
In all three districts, the beans are prepared in wooden boxes, covered
with banana skin, in which the Ilheos variety is allowed to ferment from 2-3
days, and the superior from 2-5 days: this after they have been well shaken
up. In Belmonte considerable drying takes place on the sand there deposited
by the river in large quantities.
The harvesting is generally reckoned from April 1st. to March 31st. In
June and July is the intermediate harvest, whilst the months from October to
February supply the bulkiest crops.

The Bahia district yields yearly about 33,500 tons, a fourth part of which
is devoted to the consumption of the United States, the remainder chiefly
going to Germany, France and Switzerland. The return is still on the
increase, and large stretches of land await cultivation.
P a r a cacao is the denomination of all those sorts shipped from the tracts
of land lying along the banks of the Amazon and its mighty tributaries,
more especially from Manaos and Itacoatiara, through Para, a port situated
on the eastern arm of the delta. These varieties may be classed as
intermediary between Bahia and good Sumana. The yearly yield (harvest
months June-August) amounts to about 5,000 tons, a comparatively small
figure in view of the enormous expanses capable of planting, where the
cacao tree at present grows wild, or at least uncultivated. It is true that the
returns for 1891 reached 6,500; only to be diminished by half in 1908.
France is by far the chief country consuming Para cacao; the sort not
meeting with especial favour in other states.
G u i a n a . Of the three colonies belonging to France, Holland, and Great
Britain respectively, which go under this name, only the intermediate one,
Dutch Guiana, is of importance in the world’s cacao trade. It comes into
consideration under the name of
S u r i n a m cacao. The yield, which should in normal years amount to
about 3,000 tons (1899 providing the record with approximately 4,000
tons), has been considerably impaired by tree diseases and parasites. The
return for 1904 only amounted to 850 tons, for example. But meanwhile
Holland had hit upon excellent measures to battle against the enemies of the
tree, and the years 1909 and 1910 had in consequence already improved this
to 2,000 tons. The bean has some resemblance to the Trinidad bean, as far
as quality is concerned.
Ve n e z u e l a, one of the earliest cultivating lands, is the home of the
Criollo bean, and of the most splendid specimens of bean in general, sorts
which play a prominent part in the Chocolate Manufacture. The Venezuelan
bean is rather long and round, and its kernel of a beautiful light brown, with
a mild sweet flavour. Unfortunately the plantations have recently been
interspersed with Forastero or Trinidad-Criollo trees—called in Venezuela
“Trinitarios because brought over from Trinidad, a species which requires

less attention and bears more fruit, but which just on that account supplies
commoner and mediocre beans, slowly fermenting, and often developing a
violet hue. The preparation is here of the simplest; the beans e. g. are dried
on clay-covered floors, and in rainy weather earthy fragments often adhere
to them. Yet such “Patios” or “Then-dales”, (clay floors) are only in use on
the small “haciendas” (plantations). The colouring of the Venezuelan bean
with an ocre-like earth constitutes an especial peculiarity. It is adopted in
particular for the medium and finer sorts. The earth is mostly sent from the
neighbourhood of Choroni to the two large shipping ports Puerto Cabello
and La Guayra, where the colouring or “Earthification” of the cacaos to be
exported ensues. The earth, varying in colour from a dirty yellow to brick-
red, is mixed to a thin paste with sea-water, and afterwards placed in the sun
on large sieves, or spread over cement floors. Where the colouring takes
place immediately on the plantation, the yellowish brown earth everywhere
available is utilised; and where sea-water cannot be obtained, as on the Rio
Tuy, for example, there the beans are coloured with a mixture prepared
from crushed and almost liquid cacao fruits and this same yellowish brown
earth, as the use of fresh water is thought to afford but inferior protection
against mould growths. Such juice-coloured cacaos, and occasionally also
the Ocumare sorts, are often covered with a rather thick earthy crust.
Professional opinion concerning the utility of this colouring varies greatly.
In France, the principal country consuming Venezuelan cacao, it is still
maintained that the thin earthy crust not only enables the bean to resist the
penetration of mildew, but also admits of a kind of after-fermentation,
together with developement and preservation of the most valuable
constituents of the cacao bean. Colouring is then the rule for the finer
Caracas sorts, and all varieties shipped through Puerto Cabello; it is also in
use at Carupano, for export to Spain.
The Venezuelan cacaos are divided as follows, and with one exception
take their names from the chief shipping ports, to which they are brought in
small sailing vessels tapping the villages dotted along the coast.

1. M a r a c a i b o cacao, the noble, large, and always uncoloured bean
found on the shore of Sea of Maracaibo.
2. P u e r t o C a b e l l o, quite the finest of all cacao sorts, with the
following sub-classes, each named after tiny harbours in the

vicinity: Chuáo, Borburato, Chichiriviche, San Felipe (coloured
with its own peculiar light brown earth) Ocumare, Choroni.
3. C a r a c a s cacao, exceptionally so-called, although quite a small
proportion, namely that brought over the mountains from the Rio
Tuy district in donkey caravans, now touches the republican
capital. La Guayra, rather, is the shipping port for the so-called
Caracas sorts, to which belong all the cacaos from the fertile
Barlavento district east of La Guayra, a region watered by two
rivers, Rio Tuy and Rio Chico, and with the following outlets; Rio
Chico (which gives its name to the most ordinary of sorts),
Higuerote, and Capaya. The plantations hard on the mountainous
coastal slopes produce a very fine bean, of equal value with the
Puerto Cabello.
4. C a r u p a n o cacao, a sound Venezuelan medium sort, generally
coming into use uncoloured; the arrivals from the easterly harbour
Rio Caribe also belong to this sort, and also the cacaos of Irapa,
Guiria, and Cano Colorado, often shipped from the port of
Trinidad lying opposite.

From A n g o s t u r a (Ciudad Bolivar) on the Orinoco and San Fernando
on the Apure, only very insignificant quantities arrive.
They speak of a Christmas and a Summer (June 21st) harvest in
Venezuela; but the first four months of the year are generally the most
productive. The total produce of Venezuela amounts to about 16,000 tons,
of which as export there fall to

La Guayra about 8,000 tons.
Puerto Cabello about 3,000 tons.
Carupano about 4,500 tons.
Maracabio and via Trinidad about 500 tons.

C. The Antilles.
Trinidad produces a cacao which on many plantations, or estates, as they
are called, receives preparation at the hands of experts, and is very highly
esteemed in commerce, and especially in England and France. The best and

generally slightly coloured sorts are specified as “Plantation”, the medium
“Estates”, after the English name, and the inferior “Fair Trinidad shipping
cacao The bean “Trinidad criollo” is oval, yet not so rounded as the
Venezuelan; its kernel is for the most part dark-coloured, still brown in the
better varieties, but inky black among the inferior. It is customary in
Trinidad to trade the cacaos as prime specimens and to assign to them the
name of a species which not infrequently furnishes no true indication of
their origin. “Soconusco” and “San Antonio” are particularly high-
sounding; mention can further be made of “Montserrat”, “La Gloria”,
“Maraval”, “Belle Fleur”, “El Reposo” etc. Chief harvest, December to
February inclusive, by-harvest May to August.
The total export from Trinidad amounts to about 22,500 tons yearly. The
substantially smaller island of Grenada, also British, contributes about
6,000 tons a year to the world’s supply. Owing to the prevalence of like
climatic and geological conditions, the yield and quality are here the same
as on the neighbouring island of Trinidad. The chief consumer of the
Grenada cacaos is the Motherland, and the same holds good for the small
British islands of St. Vincent, St. Lucia and Dominique, all of little import
in the general trade of the world.
Martinique-and Guadeloupe-cacaos, hailing from the French islands so
named, with a yearly production varying from 5,000 to 7,500 tons, only
come into consideration for the consumption of the Motherland, which
affords them an abatement of 50 percent in connection with the tariffs. San
Domingo, the larger and eastern part of the Haiti island, already contributes
about 20,000 tons yearly to the universal harvest. Especially in the last ten
years has the cacao cultivation here received considerable expansion (yield
1894 2,000 tons, 1904 13,500 tons) and as vast suitable tracts of land are to
hand, this country would justify the highest expectations, if the general
political and economical relations of the double republic and a certain
indolence of the planters, all small farmers, had not to be allowed for.
A methodical preparation only seldom takes place. Processes are limited
to a very necessary drying, as a rule, so that the cacao, excellent in itself,
takes rank among the lowest as a commercial quality. The chief gatherings
occur in the months of May, June and July. The shipping ports are Puerta
Plata on the north-coast, Sanchez and Sumana on the Bight of Samana, and

La Romana, San Pedro de Macoris and Santo Domingo (the capital) on the
south coast. Tiny Samana, situated on a small tongue of land, and so outlet
for no extensive region, has given its name to Domingo cacao as a
commercial sort, as from here the first shipments were dispatched.
S a n c h e z cacao, so named because Sanchez, where the transports come
from the fruitful district of Cibao as far as La Vega, is the chief exporting
harbour of the republic. From the same district, starting at Santiago, there is
yet another line, this time running northwards to Puerto Plata on the coast.
The cacao of this northerly province of Cibao is generally held in higher
esteem than that coming from the southern harbours.
The United States, which have recently developed an interest in the land
for political reasons, have been promoted to first place among its customers
during the last few years; and then follow France and Germany. It can only
be hoped that this influence grows, in view of the thereby doubtlessly
accelerated improvements in the preparation processes. Up to the present,
varieties free from blame are conspicuously rare. Uniformity as regards the
weight of the sacks has not been possible, owing to the diversity of the
means of transport. Districts lying along the railways, or close to the
harbours, make use of 80-100 kg. sacks (about 176-220 lbs.) But where
transport must be made on beasts of burden, sacks of from 65-70 kilos
(143-154 lbs.) are the rule.
H a i t i cacao, coming from the Negro republic of the same name, is the
most inferior of all commercial sorts, chiefly on account of the incredibly
neglective preparation which it undergoes, for exceptions prove that the
bean is capable of being developed into a very serviceable cacao. Beans
covered with a thick gray coloured earthy crust, often even mixed with
small pebbles and having a gritty, and where healthy, black-brown beaking
kernel. The “Liberty and Equality” of the Negros and Mulattos in this
corrupted republic are mirrored in its plantation system, the land being
cultivated but little, and running almost wild. To effect a change in this state
of affairs, that island law must first of all be abolished, whereby every
stranger is prevented from acquiring landed estate in Haiti.
The yield, about 2,500 tons, is chiefly exported from Jérémic, then also
from the harbours Cap Haitien, Port de Paix, Petit Goave, and Port au

Prince. France and the United States are the principal customers. The
neighbouring island of
C u b a also delivers the greater part of its cacao produce to the United
States, amounting to between 1,000 and 3,000 tons, a fact explained by
geographical, political and freight considerations.
Thanks to its careful preparation, this bean, which resembles the
Domingo in many respects, is preferred, and fetches a correspondingly
higher price. The shipping port is Santiago de Cuba, situated in the south-
eastern portion of the island.
Jamaica, with its yearly harvest of about 2,500 tons, principally attends to
the wants of the Mother Country.

II. African Cacao Varieties.

Cacao cultivation in Africa is of comparatively recent date. The
plantations found on the three islands San Thomé and Principe
(Portuguese), and Fernando Po (Spanish), lying in the Gulf of Guinea, are
the oldest. To the first-named island may be traced much of the impulse
given to cacao plantation in other African districts, so rapid has been its
success here, under the energetic guidance of the skilful Portuguese planter,
and the yet more effective propitious climatic influences and favourable
industrial conditions.
Rare sorts are nowhere to be met with, for the Forastero bean has
conquered the whole of Africa. The sorts produced are accordingly rather
adapted for general consumption. St. Thomas and the Gold Coast provide a
third of the world’s present-day cacao supply, and in the English colony
especially, the geological and climatic conditions are of such a kind, that the
G o l d C o a s t might very well become to the raw cacao market of the
future what the Brazilian province, San Paulo, is now to the coffee trade.
In the middle of the “Eighties”, the Swiss Missionary Society planted in
the vicinity of their station, and so started the cultivation of the cacao tree
now flourishing throughout the land. The first fruits came to Europe in

1891, and in 1894 already totalled 20 tons. In 1901 it was 1,000 tons, 1906
approaching 10,000 tons, and the year 1911 provided the record with about
40,000 tons. It is true that complaints were long and rightly lodged
concerning the inferior quality, due to carelessness on the part of the natives
in conducting the processes of preparation. But since the year 1909, there
have appeared on the market side by side with the inferior and so-called
current qualities, which still retains more or less of the defects of the earlier
produce, another and properly fermented cacao, in no mean quantities; it is
very popular in all cacao-consuming lands, and fetches from 2 to 3 shillings
per cwt. more than the current qualities. All this has been achieved through
intelligent and sympathetic guidance and control of the small native planter
on the government’s part, without resource to any large organised plantation
system.
A c c r a cacao, then, as the sorts of the African Gold Coast are
collectively named, also promises to be the cacao of the future, if it can
maintain its quantitative and qualitative excellence. There is indeed no want
of soil and adequate labour strength in that province. Apart from Accra,
Addah, Axim, Cape Coast Castle, Prampram, Winebah, Saltpond, Secondi
must be mentioned above all. The chief harvest is from October to
February.
T o g o, the small German colony adjoining the British Gold Coast, has
till now had only a yearly yield of 250 tons in a variety resembling Accra.
The excellent beans prepared on the plantations fetch several shillings a
cwt. more than Accra, whilst the deliveries of the natives rank below the
current specimens of this sort. Its port is Lome.
L a g o s, the British Colony bordering on Dahomey and east of the Gold
Coast, is watered by the Niger and possesses cacao exporting ports in
Lagos, Bonni and Old Calabar, and exports about 4,000 tons of a sort
resembling Accra, but nevertheless not so well prepared and so of inferior
value.
The cacao plantations of the Lagos colony,—more properly known as
Southern Nigeria—lie on either side of the great Niger delta, in low lying
land where the climatic and geological conditions are quite different from
those in the neighbouring German possession of

K a m e r o o n, in which country steep slopes and the narrow coastal strip
at the foot of the Kameroon range, lofty mountains, perhaps 13,000 ft. high,
constitute the cacao cultivating region. Consequently the same variety of
seed, the Forastero, here produces a different kind of fruit. The Kameroon
bean has its own peculiar characteristics; although there is some
resemblance to that produced on the opposite islands of Fernando Po,
Principe, and St. Thomas; and the milder sorts from the “Victoria” and
“Moliwa” plantations often do duty as a substitute for the latter variety.
There is no other bean which contains so much acid as the Kameroon, and
although this statement must be modified in view of improvements in recent
years, the fact prevents the largest of German colonial sorts from serving as
any other than a mixing variety.
Cultivation is the rule throughout Kameroon, with the exception of
Doula, and the produce of the separate plantations, such as Victoria,
Bibundi, and Moliwe, Bimbia, Debundscha and so forth, all of which
belong to large Berlin and Hamburg companies, is influenced and
differentiated by variations in the technique of preparation. There are
smooth beans with blackish-brown shells, and others of a red-brown hue
and shrivelled, some with traces of fruit pulp, and others again quite light-
coloured, with occasional black specks resulting from a too thorough
drying.
The chief gathering begins in September and ends in January.
Exportation began in the year 1899 with 5 cwts. The produce in 1898
figured at 200 tons and it had in the year 1910 grown to 3,500 tons.
Germany is of course the principal consumer, although England has since
1909 bought very much Kameroon cacao as St. Thomas.
K o n g o is a bean resembling the finer St. Thomas, but smaller and often
smoky. It comes on the market via Antwerp. Up to the present French
Congo has only produced a few thousand hundredweights yearly, but the
Belgian Congo Free State has managed to achieve an annual output of 900
tons towards the close of the last decade; and when this country takes the
Gold Coast as model, perhaps Congo cacao will one day play an important
rôle in the world of commerce.

S t . T h o m a s, the small Portuguese island lying in the Gulf of Guinea,
and almost on the Equator, produces a sort which enjoys immense
popularity, and especially in Germany, which traces a fourth part of its
consumption back to this island. The export figures are

1889 2,000 tons.
1894 6,000 tons.
1899 11,500 tons.
190418,000 tons.
191038,000 tons.

These are estimates which make the Portuguese planter worthy of all
respect. It is true that “Black ivory” has been utilised on a large scale, the
exploiting of black labour having resulted in a boycotting of these St.
Thomas sorts on the part of some English manufacturers, but less on
account of harsh treatment on the plantations themselves as the manner of
recruiting in Angola.
Fine Thomas is the description of those sorts which have been used in an
unmixed condition owing to their indigestibility, but properly gathered and
fermented. The inferior and slightly damaged cacaos picked out from these
are called by the Portuguese planter “Escolas”, or assorted. Yet they do not
come into commerce under this designation, being mostly used for making
up sample collections which illustrate the difference between these and
F i n e T h o m a s. The latter is traded through Lisbon “On Approval of
Sample
All the St. Thomas cacao trade passes through Lisbon; for the tariff
regulations of the Portuguese government make direct connection between
the island and the consuming land practically impossible. France indeed
chooses the route via Madeira, unloading and reloading, to avoid the
additional duties. The cacao is at Lisbon stored in the two great Custom-
houses there, and prepared for despatch to the respective lands. Fine St.
Thomas is reshipped in the original sacks.
The samples are offered under various marks, either the initials of the
planter or the name of a plantation. We mention a few of the best known; U.
B., D. V., R. O., “M. Valle Flor”, “Boa Entrada”, “Monte Café”, “Santa

Catarina”, “Pinheira”, “Agua Izé”, “Colonia Acoriana”, “Queluz”, “Gue
Gue”, “Rosema”, “Pedroma”, “Monte Macaco
The beans vary, as far as shell and kernel are concerned, according to the
mode of preparation on the plantations and the structure of the soil from
which they spring. Many which were formerly universally esteemed are
now no longer preferred because the soil in the meantime has been worked
out; and many are now described under different marks. Yet particular
characteristics still continue; there are mild and strong sorts, smooth and
shrivelled varieties which look as though they have been washed, and
others black like the Cameroon bean. All are offered as Fine Thomas, and
enjoy an immense popularity.
Good m e d i u m T h o m a s is the commercial designation of those
cacaos hailing from small plantations which have undergone a scarcely
sufficient preparation owing to the lack of proper apparatus, and which are
always interspersed with black or sham beans. In so far as these are
delivered from large plantations, they generally owe their origin to overripe
fruit, probably overlooked in the gathering season; or fruits bitten by the
rats which infest this island may also contribute such beans. Almost all
these inferior cacaos are sorted in the Lisbon custom-houses, and thinned
down to the quality “Medium Thomas” free from objection or “Good
Medium Thomas The two months of the Summer harvest, July and August,
supply a somewhat better variety of cacao, known in commerce as “Pajol”,
i. e. literally, “Hailing from the country”, which generally fetches a rather
higher price. During the Winter harvest from November to February the
medium St. Thomas varieties come on the market, but not before the
beginning of the year, as previous to that point of time only the regular
harvest of F i n e S t . T h o m a s comes into consideration. All attempts on
the part of consumers to effect an improvement in the quality of the
medium varieties have unfortunately hitherto proved abortive, for they are
regarded as by-produce on the larger estates, and the small ones do not
possess the apparatus necessary for a thorough preparation. Then again it is
seen that these inferior sorts are taken off the market at very reasonable
prices.
Fernando Po, a mountainous island, situated immediately off Cameroon,
may be regarded as a source of supply for the Motherland, Spain, and only

as such, for its yearly output of 2500 tons need fear no competition, thanks
to the excessive tariffs laid on the produce of other lands here. The qualities
here are inferior to those from St. Thomas and Cameroon, chiefly because
most plantation are in the hands of blacks and consequently not well
managed.
G e r m a n E a s t A f r i c a, M a d a g a s c a r, M a y o t t a (Comoren)
and R é u n i o n with their dwarfish yield are only worthy of passing
mention.

III. Asiatic Cacao Sorts.

The only cacao plantations deserving the name on the continent of Asia
are those occurring on the two islands of Ceylon and Java, both producing a
sort differing entirely from the Africans, the predominant seedling here
planted being the Trinidad-Criollo. The Ceylon-Java bean is, like the
genuine Criollo, oval shaped, inclining to a sphere; its kernel is light brown
and among the finer sorts even whitish. So both varieties are principally
used for colouring and covering the cacao mass, for neither has a very
pronounced flavour. The shell is light brown or reddish brown after
washing, and appears free from all traces of pulp. It sits loosely on the
kernel, at least in the case of the Java bean, and is consequently often met
with broken.
C e y l o n, with the shipping port of Colombo, produces in a good year
from 3,500 to 4,000 tons, about two-thirds of which are traded through
London. Direct shipments to Germany have recently been more and more
frequent; Australia also claims consideration as a consuming land.
The different sorts, or rather, qualities, for a very careful preparation
ensures the excellence of the goods, go under the description fine, or
medium, or ordinary, and occasionally are utilised as typical examples. The
better sorts come exclusively from plantations, and the ordinary are the
result of native enterprise.
J a v a also produces a large quantity, the cacao here being chiefly planted
on the north side of this long, narrow island. More than a half is exported
from the port of Samarang, then follow Batavia, Soerabaja and a few minor

places, with a total output of about 2,500 tons. The larger proportion of this
cacao is sold in the markets of Amsterdam and Rotterdam to Dutch
merchants, who pass it on to other consuming countries. England, North
America, Australia, China and the Philippines are the chief customers.
Those sorts coming from the neighbouring islands of Celebes, Timor,
Bali, Amboina and Lombok may also be considered as sub-classes of the
Java; but they do not total more than 75 tons.

IV. Australian Cacao Sorts.

Cacao plantation in Australia is still in its early stages. Most progressive
is
S a m o a, which has increased its 1900 export of 30 cwt. to 200 tons at
the present time, among which right excellent qualities occur, culled from
Criollo trees. The deteriorated Forastero has also recently been planted,
which we must allow to be more fruitful and less dependent on careful
nursing. The Samoa Criollo bean resembles the large fine Ceylon variety,
except that it has a more pronounced flavour.
N e w G u i n e a a n d B i s m a r c k - A r c h i p e l a g o e s can only
claim casual mention as experimentally interested in cacao cultivation.

g) The Trade in Cacao and the Consumption of Cacao
Products; Statistics.

Although cacao and cacao products have always been held in the highest
esteem, ever since they first became known in Europe, yet price
considerations long prevented them from enjoying the same widespread
popularity among the lower classes as tea and coffee. Thanks, however, to
the improved means of transport established in the course of the last fifty
years, which has cheapened all exotic produce, the demand for these wares
has of late been more frequent and urgent, and is reflected in the constantly
increasing influx of cacao on the European markets and the systematic
opening out of new regions to the raw material, just as corresponding

extensions in the factory world contribute towards a reduction in the cost of
the products. Hence cacao may now be described as a luxury within the
reach of everyman. Its diffusion among all grades of the population may be
regarded as a great blessing, for in it has arisen a new [Transcriber’s Note: a
line is missing here] merely a stimulant, like tea or coffee, but a beverage in
the proper sense of the term, analytically so established.
It will accordingly prove of interest to glance through the returns in
connection with the trade in these goods, their importation and exportation,
commercial values of the same, and the relative consumption of cacao, tea
and coffee.
Such figures are always at hand. The surprisingly rapid growth of the
cacao cultivation, and the manufacture of cacao products, is e. g. at once
apparent in statistics furnished by the French government. In 1857 the
number of 5,304,207 kilos of beans were consumed there. The importations
of the year 1895, on the other hand, amounted to 32,814,724 kilos, having
in the space of 38 years increased more than sixfold. Of this quantity,
almost the half, comprising about 15,234,163 kilos, is disposed of retail.
Turning to the trade in Germany, the cacao industry here and its
consumption,19 we are again greeted with cheery prospects. According to
the official inquiry, German trade in Cacao products for the years 1907-
1910 is shown in the following table:
T a b l e 1.
Exports from Germany
No. on Imports to Germany Duty
offic. Description inclusive
Free
statistics
1907 1908 1909 1910 1910 1907 1908 1909 1910
63 Cacao Bean raw 345154 343519 407248 439413 — 1390 1186 1429 1620
64 Cacao Shell whole 55 1 6 6 — 12802 9901 11825 17006
Cacao Butter Cacao
168 243 106 208 263 22223 20804 18494 27291 22465
Oil
Cacao Mass, Ground
203a 165 1196 128 58 125 3430 3519 3694 5219
Cacao shells
203b Cacao Powder 6792 8148 6497 6446 2599 3050 1752 2803 3755
Chocolate &
204a 11636 10050 12197 15183 1513 5021 3671 4609 4712
Chocolate Equivalents

Products from Cacao
Mass, Cacao Powder,
Chocolate and
204b 1239 1281 1258 1140 2027 4260 4439 4555 4964
Chocolate
Equivalents, Acorn,
and Oat cacaos

The year 1910 brought a total import of 878,413 cwts. of raw cacao, thus
overtopping the figures of the previous year, which had created a record
with 814,496 cwts., by 64,330 cwts.
Coming to the geographical distribution, we find that they were imported
into Germany in the following proportions, namely:
Comparison
with
1910 1909
previous
years
British West Africa cwts. 206 180 189 686 + 6 494
Port. West Africa (St. Thomas etc.) " 239 756 181 230 +58 526
Brazil (Bahia) " 128 760 137 396 - 8 636
Ecuador (Guayaquil) " 97 454 101 038 - 3 584
Dominican Republic (Samana) " 64 932 66 210 - 1 278
The Rest of British America " 21 266 40 658 - 5 08
Venezuela " 40 068 36 002 -44 26
Cameroon " 20 426 22 026 - 1 420
Ceylon " 15 892 12 488 - 3 402
East Indies (Dutch) " 8 802 6 772 - 2 030
Cuba " 2 610 3 066 - 456
Haiti " 3 676 2 614 - 1 562
Samoa " 3 216 2 230 - 314
Togo " 564 250 - 314

These figures, which we quote from the Thirty First Year’s Report of the
Association of German Chocolate Makers, speak volumes for the recent
development of the cacao trade. It is interesting, in view of recent
occurrences, to note the quantities despatched from the various places. The
importations from St. Thomas, for instance, show a striking increase. They
stand at the head of the raw cacao products coming into Germany, with
239,756 cwts., and have pushed Accras down to second place, this variety
having failed to maintain its 1909 lead, for 1910 did not add more than
6,496 cwts. to its previous total of 199,686 cwts. Bahias came third, then as
now, with 128,760 cwts. This order has not always remained constant, but

has suffered considerable deviations in progressive years. We give below a
table showing the chief cacao producing lands and their imports into
Germany between 1900 and 1908.
T a b l e 2. Imports in Germany in tons.
1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908
Brit. West Africa Gold
Coast (Accra) —— —— 559·1 935·2 1580·9 2775·9 4045·9 6009·2 5752·5
Portuguese West
Africa (St. Thomas) 2501·6 3116·0 4069·2 3878·8 4526·6 4259·3 4969·6 5559·9 7303·8
Brazil (Bahia) 3776·8 3239·0 3125·5 2599·8 4130·4 4506·4 6106·1 6937·2 6233·7
Ecuador (Guaquil) 5397·9 4744·8 4728·6 5092·7 5689·8 5350·3 4693·6 4245·0 4123·6
Dominican Republic
(Samana) 586·1 1853·0 2448·8 3116·0 4562·4 4514·1 5663·8 4037·4 4574·3
Rest of British North
America 1436·9 1195·6 1544·7 1292·3 1851·5 2009·0 2503·6 2293·2 2083·7
Venezuela (Caracas) 1158·5 956·6 893·2 829·4 1280·3 1380·9 1685·9 2365·0 1435·6
Cameroon —— 190·9 361·5 470·7 647·5 839·4 1199·0 1240·3 1397·7
Ceylon —— 107·4 344·9 350·1 497·7 589·3 588·0 788·0 604·7
East Indies (Dutch) —— —— —— —— —— —— —— 333·4 347·2
Cuba —— 299·8 345·3 144·7 189·0 195·6 —— 331·4 120·6
Samoa —— —— —— 101·3 203·8 140·0 —— 52·9 124·2
Columbia —— 112·6 104·3 52·6 —— —— —— 75·2 66·7
Togo —— —— —— —— 3·7 6·0 —— 15·0 18·6
via The Netherlands 122·1 363·9 357·6 60·9 —— —— —— —— ——
via Portugal (probably
Thomas) 988·1 1311·4 1349·1 2447·7 1734·9 2853·4 2714·9 103·3 ——
Haiti 1796·0 340·4 In conse- —— —— —— —— —— ——
quence of
tariff struggle

The consumption of cacao in other civilised countries shows a
corresponding increase, although with occasional divergencies and
astounding relapses. We give the following table (3) to indicate its progress
between the years 1901 and 1908, and to facilitate comparison.
It must be borne in mind, when making use of this table (specially in
connection with Germany) that the falling off in the years 1907-8 is to be
attributed to the abnormally bad harvests and consequent increase in prices.
T a b l e 3. Import or Consumption in the Various Lands in tons.
1901 1902 1903 1904

The United States
of North America 2066595·8 2312072·8 2850808·2 3216415·6
Germany 1841000·0 2060170·0 2163440·0 2710140·0
France 1791650·0 1934300·0 2074150·0 2179450·0
England 1890800·0 2038600·0 1868119·2 2054250·4
Holland 1437300·0 1466627·4 1073047·4 1218440·0
Spain 593107·7 925997·6 602675·2 581635·9
Switzerland 436330·0 570700·0 585650·0 683910·0
Belgium 186548·7 227763·3 276779·1 279200·8
Austria-Hungary 168650·0 182010·0 203460·0 251010·0
Russia — — 190068·0 205570·0
1901 1902 1903 1904
The United States
of North America 3523164·5 3794857·5 3752650·5 4261529·3
Germany 2963310·0 3526050·0 3451540·0 3435190·0
France 2174760·0 2340380·0 2318030·0 2044450·0
England 2119071·2 2013204·0 2015947·2 2105152·0
Holland 1073740·0 1122400·0 1221924·9 1582100·0
Spain 610171·2 563682·1 562823·9 658011·3
Switzerland 521840·0 646690·0 712420·0 582050·0
Belgium 301899·7 386168·6 325396·7 455408·1
Austria-Hungary 266850·0 331280·0 347170·0 370730·0
Russia 222768·0 267094·0 247338·0 258806·0

The relative consumption of coffee, tea and cacao has also inclined in
favour of the latter as far as Germany is concerned. According to the 19th.
Report of the Association of German Chocolate Makers, No. 7, the imports
which passed through the custom-houses of that country, and intended for
consumption, figured at the following in tons; though in this connection it is
as well to remember that the German ton is about 50 lbs. less than the
English.
Coffee Cacao Tea
(raw in bean) (raw in bean)
1886 12 360·5 3 686·7 1618·5
1887 101 833·4 4 295·0 1760·0
1888 114 658·1 4 979·8 1778·4
1889 113 228·5 5 565·1 1875·0
1890 118 126·3 6 246·5 1995·0
1891 125 611·2 7 087·0 2221·0
1892 122 031·9 7 460·9 2479·0
1893 122 190·5 7 960·9 2676·0
1894 122 357·5 8 319·9 2840·0
1895 122 390·2 9 950·9 2544·0

1896 129 896·6 12 209·5 2471·0
1897 136 395·0 14 692·5 2852·0
1898 153 270·4 15 464·9 3661·9

From the above columns it will be seen that the importation of coffee has
only increased 24 percent, that of tea 125 percent, but that of cacao at the
surprising rate of 330 percent. A comparison of the totals for coffee, tea and
cacao in the years 1886, 1898 & 1906 will make the proportions still more
evident.

1886 1898 1906
Coffee 96·0% 89·0% 82·6%
Cacao 2·8% 8·9% 15·6%
Tea 1·2% 2·1% 1·8%
Total 100·0% 100·0% 100·0%

So that whilst in the year 1886 thirty-five times as much coffee as cacao
found its way into Germany, the imports for 1898 were ten, and in 1906
only five and a half times greater in the case of the first named article. It
follows that there has been a corresponding increase as regards cacao
consumption in Germany. A momentary survey of the graphs in Fig. 5,
which we owe to the kindness of Herr Greiert, Managing Director of the
Association of German Chocolate Manufacturers, will make this clear to the
reader; and the diagram there illustrates the relative growth of cacao
consumption in Germany, when compared with other countries. On
calculating the quantity of cacao consumed per head of the population, we
get a graph (fig. 6) which puts the rapid increases in this direction at a
glance.

Fig. 5. (the german text is here).

Fig. 6. Graphical representation per head of the population for the last 75 years.

The curve for the last ten years represents enormous advances, and
contrasts with the more even line developed in earlier years. According to
official reports, the average consumption of cacao per head between the
years 1861-5 amounted to 0·03 kg. (tea 0·02 kg. and coffee 1·87 kg.) but
had in 1910 risen to an average of 0·53 kg. per head.

B. Chemical Constitution of the Bean.

a) The Cacao Bean Proper.

Just as the beans of the cacao fruit are included under the botanical
concept “Seed”, so also their chemical constituents closely resemble those
common to every other seed. There are the usual reserve stuffs inherited
from the mother plant, which serve as sustenance for the yet undeveloped
organs, and compare with albumen in the feathered world. Apart from the
constituents incidental to all plant life at this stage, such as albumin, starch,
water, fat, sugar, cellulose and mineral stuffs such as ash, the cacao seed has
two other components peculiar to itself; T h e o b r o m i n e and C a c a o -
r e d. We adjoin a succession of chemical determinations respecting the
quantitative proportions of these substances in the seed, and think further
that we may be allowed to cite the results of fore-time investigators in this
sphere, especially as their work has formed the basis for all future
operations, and again, in view of the doubt which still prevails in scientific
circles as to the “Normal” composition of the cacao bean.
T a b l e 4.
Percentage Composition of the Hulled Bean.

Analyst Payen20 Lampadius20 Mitscherlich20
Constituents percent Undescribed West Indies Guayaquil Caracas
1. Water 10·0 3·40 5·60 —
2. Nitrogenous matter 20·0 16·70 14·39 —
3. Theobromine 2·2 — 1·20 —
4. Fat 52·0 53·10 45-49 46-49
5. Cacao-red — 2·07 3·50 —
6. Sugar — — 0·60 —
7. Gum and Starch 10·0 7·75 14·30 13·5
8. Woody fibre 2·0 0·90 5·80 —
9. Ash 4·0 3·43 3·50 —

T a b l e 5.
Laube Aldendorff
Constituents percent Caracas Guayaquil Trinidad Puerto Cabello Surinam

1. Water 4·04 3·63 2·81 2·96 3·76
2. Nitrogenous matter 14·68 14·68 15·06 15·03 11·00
3. Fat 46·18 49·04 48·32 50·57 54·40
4. Starch 12·74 11·56 14·91 12·94 —
5. Other non-nitrogenous matter 18·50 12·64 12·06 11·49 28·32
6. Woody fibre 4·20 4·13 3·62 3·07 —
7. Ash 3·86 3·72 3·22 3·94 2·35
C. Heisch
Constituents percent Granada Bahia Cuba Para
1. Water 3·90 4·40 3·72 3·96
2. Nitrogenous matter 12·45 7·31 8·56 12·50
3. Fat 45·60 50·30 45·30 54·30
4. Starch — — — —
5. Other non-nitrogenous matter 35·70 35·30 39·41 26·33
6. Woody fibre — — — —
7. Ash 2·40 2·60 5·90 3·06

The analyses carried out by Zipperer in the year 1886 yielded the
following results21:
T a b l e 6.
A) Analysis of the Raw Shelled Bean (Kernel).
Names of Sorts
Constituents percent Machala Puerto
Ariba Caracas
Guayaquil Cabello
1. Moisture 8·35 6·33 6·50 8·40
2. Fat 50·39 52·68 50·31 53·01
3. Cacaotannic acid, sugar, decomposition
products, phlobaphene 8·91 13·72 10·76 7·85
4. Theobromine 0·35 0·33 0·77 0·54
5. Starch 5·78 8·29 7·65 10·05
6. Cellulose and proteins 22·10 14·45 19·84 15·83
Proteins Proteins Proteins Proteins
to to to to
cellulose cellulose cellulose cellulose
7. In the ratio 7·3:1 5:1 6·6:1 5·3:1
8. Ash 5·12 4·17 4·17 4·32
Port au
Surinam Trinidad Average
Prince
1. Moisture 7·07 6·20 6·94 7·11
2. Fat 50·86 51·57 53·66 51·78
3. Cacaotannic acid, sugar, decomposition
products, phlobaphene 8·31 9·46 11·39 10·02

4. Theobromine 0·50 0·40 0·32 0·45
5. Starch 6·41 11·07 8·96 8·33
6. Cellulose and proteins 24·13 18·43 15·81 18·71
Proteins Proteins Proteins Proteins
to to to to
cellulose cellulose cellulose cellulose
7. In the ratio 8:1 6:1 5·25:1 6·2:1
8. Ash 2·72 2·87 2·92 3·60

In addition to these, there is an exhaustive succession of analyses
conducted by Ridenour,22 which we accordingly submit as Table 8.
Following Filsinger,23 we cannot regard these analyses as an absolutely
trustworthy representation of the “Normal” composition of the cacao bean,
the values in starch, albumin and ash considerably deviating from all that
have been established up to the present time. Among more recent
researches, we cite those carried out by Matthes and Fritz Müller.24
T a b l e 7.
B) Analysis of the Raw Shelled Bean (Kernel).
Names of Sorts
Constituents percent Machala Puerto
Ariba Caracas
Guayaquil Cabello
1. Moisture 8 ·52 6 ·25 7 ·48 6 ·58
2. Fat 50·07 52·09 49·24 48·40
3. Cacaotannic acid, sugar and
phlobaphene 8 ·61 7 ·84 6 ·85 8 ·25
4. Theobromine 0 ·30 0 ·31 0 ·05 0 ·52
5. Starch 9 ·10 11·59 9 ·85 10·96
6. Cellulose and protein bodies 19·43 18·17 22·16 21·21
Proteins Proteins Proteins Proteins
to to to to
cellulose cellulose cellulose cellulose
7. In the ratio 6·5:1 6:1 7·7:1 7:1
8. Ash 3 ·89 3 ·75 3 ·92 4 ·08
Port au
Surinam Trinidad Average
Prince
1. Moisture 4 ·04 7 ·85 6 ·27 6 ·71
2. Fat 49·88 48·14 46·90 49·24
3. Cacaotannic acid, sugar and
phlobaphene 8 ·08 7 ·69 7 ·19 7 ·78
4. Theobromine 0 ·54 0 ·42 0 ·36 0 ·43
5. Starch 10·19 8 ·72 12·64 10·43

6. Cellulose and protein bodies 24·39 23·06 21·82 21·43
Proteins Proteins Proteins Proteins
to to to to
cellulose cellulose cellulose cellulose
7. In the ratio 8:1 7·6:1 7·3:1 7·1:1
8. Ash 2 ·88 4 ·12 4 ·82 3 ·92

T a b l e 8. Ridenour.
Commercial Varieties
Roasted
Constituents percent Bahia Surinam Java Trinidad Ariba Caracas
Trinidad
1. Fat 42·10 41·03 45·50 43·66 41·89 43·31 36·81
2. Theobromine 1·08 0·93 1·16 0·85 0·93 0·86 1·13
3. Albumin 7·50 10·54 9·25 11·90 12·02 10·14 10·59
4. Glucose 1·07 1·27 1·23 1·38 1·48 0·42 2·76
5. Saccharose 0·51 0·35 0·51 0·32 0·28 1·58 1·56
6. Starch 7·53 3·61 5·17 4·98 5·70 6·37 3·81
7. Lignin 7·86 3·90 6·10 5·65 5·87 4·62 3·28
8. Cellulose 13·80 16·24 13·85 13·01 19·64 14·07 16·35
9. Extractive by difference 8·99 13·53 8·90 8·31 5·84 9·00 12·72
10. Moisture 5·96 5·55 5·12 6·34 2·63 5·90 6·63
11. Ash 3·60 3·05 3·31 3·60 3·70 8·73 4·36
Commercial Varieties
Roasted
Constituents percent Granada Tabasco Machala Maracaibo Average
Caracas
1. Fat 37·63 44·11 50·95 46·84 42·20 42·99
2. Theobromine 0·99 0·75 1·15 0·76 1·03 0·97
3. Albumin 12·36 9·76 7·85 12·69 11·56 10·51
4. Glucose 1·76 1·81 0·94 1·60 1·09 1·46
5. Saccharose 0·51 0·55 2·72 0·46 1·36 0·89
6. Starch 6·07 6·27 3·51 1·35 1·69 4·67
7. Lignin 9·05 5·55 6·44 5·95 7·16 5·95
8. Cellulose 11·69 13·49 12·57 11·32 17·32 14·44
9. Extractive by difference 9·22 9·72 9·26 9·02 6·79 9·30
10. Moisture 5·69 5·28 1·55 5·86 5·67 5·18
11. Ash 5·03 2·71 3·06 5·15 4·13 3·70

T a b l e 9.
Non-fatty Mineral In water
Moisture Ether
No. Description dry substances constituents insoluble ash soluble ash
% % % % % %
1 St. Thomas II 2·82 55·87 — 2·79 1·93 0·86
2 Java I 2·78 53·88 — 3·60 1·60 2·00

3 St. Thomas I 2·82 54·50 — 3·01 1·85 1·16
4 Caracas I 2·67 53·78 — 3·35 2·12 1·23
5 Puerto Cabello 3·34 53·29 — 3·58 1·73 1·85
6 Machala 2·93 53·98 — 3·34 2·10 1·24
7 Samana 2·94 55·28 — 3·10 1·85 1·25
8 Accra 2·94 53·94 — 3·19 1·84 1·35
B. Percentages for the non-fatty dry substances.
1 St. Thomas II — — 41·36 6·536 4·672 1·864
2 Java I — — 43·34 8·306 3·692 4·614
3 St. Thomas I — — 42·68 7·053 4·311 2·742
4 Caracas I — — 43·55 7·692 4·868 2·824
5 Puerto Cabello — — 43·37 8·254 3·989 4·265
6 Machala — — 43·09 7·767 4·900 2·867
7 Samana — — 42·78 7·246 4·325 2·921
8 Accra — — 43·12 7·398 4·267 3·131
C. Percentages for the total of ash.
1 St. Thomas II — — — — 71·49 28·51
2 Java I — — — — 44·45 55·55
3 St. Thomas I — — — — 61·12 38·88
4 Caracas I — — — — 63·38 36·62
5 Puerto Cabello — — — — 48·33 51·67
6 Machala — — — — 63·09 36·91
7 Samana — — — — 59·69 40·31
8 Accra — — — — 57·68 42·32
Alkali strength Potassium Carbonate Pure ash
reckoned from Alkali (mineral stuffs
No. Description of the soluble of the insoluble strength of soluble minus Pot.
ash ash ash Carb.)
cb. mm. Nitric acid. % %
1 St. Thomas II 3·6 4·8 0·25 2·54
2 Java I 10·4 6·8 0·72 2·88
3 St. Thomas I 2·6 5·0 0·18 1·83
4 Caracas I 4·6 4·8 0·32 3·03
5 Puerto
Cabello 10·4 3·8 0·72 2·86
6 Machala 2·6 5·6 0·18 3·16
7 Samana 4·6 6·2 0·32 2·78
8 Accra 3·6 4·8 0·25 2·94
B. Percentages for the non-fatty dry substances.
1 St. Thomas II 8·7 11·6 0·60 5·94
2 Java I 24·0 15·7 1·66 6·65
3 St. Thomas I 6·1 11·7 0·42 6·63
4 Caracas I 10·6 11·0 0·73 6·96
5 Puerto
Cabello 24·0 8·8 1·66 6·59

6 Machala 6·1 13·0 0·42 7·35
7 Samana 10·8 14·5 0·74 6·50
8 Accra 8·3 11·1 0·58 6·82
C. Percentages for the total of ash.
1 St. Thomas II 133·1 177·4 9·18 90·82
2 Java I 289·1 189·1 20·00 80·01
3 St. Thomas I 87·0 167·0 6·00 94·04
4 Caracas I 137·9 143·9 9·50 90·51
5 Puerto
Cabello 290·7 106·6 20·10 79·89
6 Machala 78·5 — 5·40 94·59
7 Samana 149·0 200·0 10·20 89·79
8 Accra 112·2 150·0 7·8 92·16
Phosphoric acid
Silicic acid Ferric acid
soluble in insoluble in (SiO2) (Fe2O3)
No. Description total
water water
% % % % %
1 St. Thomas II 1·0243 0·2474 0·7769 0·0154 0·0416
2 Java I 1·0753 0·4667 0·6086 0·0300 0·0224
3 St. Thomas I 1·1136 0·3621 0·7515 0·0122 0·0464
4 Caracas I 1·2708 0·3392 0·9316 0·0080 0·0184
5 Puerto
Cabello 1·1433 0·4692 0·6741 0·0260 0·0207
6 Machala 1·2836 0·3647 0·9189 0·0116 0·0200
7 Samana 1·0881 0·3213 0·7668 0·0090 0·0560
8 Accra 1·1221 0·3672 0·3549 0·0082 0·0284
B. Percentages for the non-fatty dry substances.
1 St. Thomas II 2·4795 0·5989 1·8806 0·0373 0·1007
2 Java I 2·4790 1·0769 1·4021 0·0692 0·0517
3 St. Thomas I 2·6092 0·8484 1·7608 0·0286 0·1087
4 Caracas I 2·9180 0·7789 2·1356 0·0184 0·0422
5 Puerto
Cabello 2·6361 1·0819 1·5542 0·0600 0·0477
6 Machala 2·9837 0·8481 2·1356 0·0269 0·0464
7 Samana 2·5435 0·7511 1·7934 0·0214 0·1309
8 Accra 2·6023 0·8516 1·7507 0·0191 0·0658
C. Percentages for the total of ash.
1 St. Thomas II 37·94 9·16 28·78 0·571 1·541
2 Java I 29·87 12·96 16·91 0·833 0·623
3 St. Thomas I 37·27 12·12 25·15 0·408 1·551
4 Caracas I 37·94 10·12 27·82 0·240 0·549
5 Puerto
Cabello 31·94 13·11 18·83 0·727 0·578
6 Machala 38·42 10·92 27·50 0·346 0·597
7 Samana 35·12 10·37 24·75 0·295 1·806

8 Accra 35·18 11·51 23·67 0·258 0·889

T a b l e 10. Commoner Varieties.
Key to Column Headings

C; Moisture
D; Ether extract
E; Mineral matter
F; Potassium Carbonate reckoned on alkali soluble in water
G; Pure ash (mineral matter minus K2CO3)
Ha; according to König, as modified by us
Hb; as yielded by the Wender process
I; Silicic acid (SiO2)
J; Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)
K; Soluble in alcohol P2O5

C D E F G
No. Description
% % % % %
1 Superior Ariba, Summer crop 6·95 26·17 7·45 2·07 5·38
2 Machala 81%,
Thomé I 19% 5·94 28·79 7·06 1·99 5·07
3 Machala 53%,
Thomé I 47% 6·47 25·73 7·15 2·14 5·01
4 Cameroon 6·36 26·41 7·05 2·33 4·72
5 Thomé I 73%,
Samana 27% 7·97 24·90 6·89 2·29 4·60
6 Thomé II 60%,
Samana 20%,
Accra 20% 7·37 22·85 7·39 2·24 5·15
7 Accra 60%,
Thomé II 40% 6·93 22·80 7·36 2·25 5·11
8 A}Same variety, 6·56 18·96 7·61 2·14 5·47
9 B}more defatted 6·06 24·75 7·16 2·01 5·15
10 C}less defatted 5·58 29·72 6·57 1·89 4·68
11 Monarch double Ariba(R. &
Cie.) 7·59 14·80 8·32 2·32 6·00
12 Helios(R. & Cie.) 7·37 17·25 7·91 2·12 5·79
a Ariba shells (R. & Cie.) very
fine ground 7·17 14·00 7·40 2·20 5·20
b germs, Ariba (R. & Cie.) very
fine ground 6·64 18·02 6·93 2·43 4·50
Raw Fiber
No. Description Ha Hb I J K
% % % % %
1 Superior Ariba, Summer crop 4·20 4·60 0·0170 0·0522 0·0605

2 Machala 81%,
Thomé I 19% 5·00 5·47 0·0172 0·0373 0·0625
3 Machala 53%,
Thomé I 47% 5·20 5·42 0·0186 0·0513 0·0612
4 Cameroon 4·63 4·64 0·0160 — 0·0669
5 Thomé I 73%, Samana 27% 4·20 4·38 0·0167 0·0753 0·0690
6 Thomé II 60%,
Samana 20%,
Accra 20% 4·23 5·00 0·0208 0·0678 0·0726
7 Accra 60%,
Thomé II 40% 4·06 4·40 0·0198 0·0545 0·0766
8 A}Same variety, 4·00 5·24 0·0390 — —
9 B} more defatted 3·58 4·61 — — —
10 C} less defatted 3·20 4·42 — — —
11 Monarch double Ariba(R. &
Cie.) 6·90 — 0·0420 — 0·0877
12 Helios(R. & Cie.) 6·40 — 0·0340 0·0400 0·0930
a Ariba shells (R. & Cie.) very
fine ground 7·49 — 0·2976 — 0·0383
b germs, Ariba (R. & Cie.) very
fine ground 7·42 — — — 0·0587

T a b l e 11. Analysis of Cacao.
Dry product, defatted and free from alkali.
Key to Column Headings

C; Defatted and alkali-free dry products
D; Pure ash (mineral substances less K2CO3)
E; Ash insoluble in water
F; Alkalinity of the insoluble ash Nitric acid
Ga; total
Gb; soluble in water
Gc; insoluble in water
H; Silicic acid (SiO2)
I; Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)
J; P3O5 soluble in alcohol
K; after König (modified)
L; as yielded by the Weender process

C D E F
No. Description
% % % ccm
1 Thomé II 41·06 6·186 4·725 11·7
2 Java I 42·62 6·757 3·754 15·9
3 Thomé I 42·50 6·659 4·353 11·8
4 Caracas I 43·23 7·010 4·904 11·1

5 Puerto-Cabello 42·65 6·706 4·056 8·9
6 Machala 42·91 7·365 4·894 13·1
7 Samana 42·46 6·548 4·357 14·6
8 Accra 42·87 6·858 4·292 11·2
9 Ariba 64·81 8·301 — —
10 Machala +
Thomé I 63·28 8·013 — —
11 Thomé +
Machala 66·66 7·517 — —
12 Cameroon 64·90 7·273 — —
13 Thomé I +
Samana 64·84 7·095 — —
14 Thomé II,
Samana +
Accra. 67·54 7·625 — —
15 Accra +
Thomé II 68·02 7·513 — —
16 A 72·34 7·561 — —
17 B 67·18 7·666 — —
18 C 62·80 7·452 — —
19 Monarch Ariba (R. & Cie.) 75·29 7·969 — —
20 Helios Ariba (R. & Cie.) 73·39 8·880 — —
a Shells 76·63 6·786 — —
b Germs 72·91 6·173 — —
No. Description Phosphoric Acid (P205)
Ga Gb Gc H I
% % % % %
1 Thomé II 2·4947 0·6025 1·8922 0·0375 0·1013
2 Java I 2·5229 1·0950 1·4279 0·0704 0·0525
3 Thomé I 2·6202 0·8520 1·7682 0·0287 0·1091
4 Caracas I 2·9391 0·7846 1·1545 0·0185 0·0425
5 Puerto-Cabello 2·6807 1·1001 1·5806 0·0610 0·0480
6 Machala 2·9914 0·8499 2·1414 0·0270 0·0466
7 Samana 2·5626 0·7802 1·7824 0·0212 0·1319
8 Accra 2·6175 0·8565 1·7610 0·0191 0·0662
Raw fibre
J K L
9 Ariba 0·0933 6·48 7·10 0·0262 0·0806
10 Machala +
Thomé I 0·0984 7·90 8·64 0·0272 0·0590
11 Thomé +
Machala 0·0919 7·80 8·13 0·0280 0·0770
12 Cameroon 0·1030 7·13 7·15 0·0246 —
13 Thomé I +
Samana 0·1064 6·48 6·75 0·0258 0·1162

14 Thomé II,
Samana +
Accra. 0·1075 6·27 7·40 0·0308 0·1004
15 Accra +
Thomé II 0·1126 5·97 6·47 0·0290 0·0801
16 A — 5·53 7·24 — —
17 B — 5·33 6·87 — —
18 C — 5·10 7·04 — —
19 Monarch Ariba (R. & Cie.) 0·1165 9·16 — 0·0558 —
20 Helios Ariba (R. & Cie.) 0·1266 8·72 — 0·0446 —
a Shells 0·0499 9·77 — 0·3884 0·0545
b Germs 0·0805 10·18 — — —

1) See Table 9 A and Table 10.

The foregoing tables provide us with a general idea of the chemical
constituents of the cacao bean, but their distinctive properties, both
chemical and physical, still remain to be defined, with which we
accordingly proceed, as such data will on the one hand enable us to grasp
how loss may be avoided in the manufacture of cacao and chocolate wares,
and at the same time render intelligible familiar processes connected
therewith.
As we have seen, the following substances occur in cacao in varying
amounts:

1. Water.
2. Fat.
3. Cacao-red.
4. Theobromine.
5. Albumen.
6. Starch.
7. Cellular tissue or cellulose.
8. Small percentages of grape and cane sugar.
9. Mineral or ash stuffs.

Like the majority of plants and plant products, the cacao bean consists of
vesicles or cells, closed on all sides and arranged in a series of layers. They
are constructed of cellular tissue or cellulose, and contain fat, albumen,
water, starch, theobromine, cacao pigment, besides sugar and salts in
inferior quantities.

1. W a t e r o r M o i s t u r e .

There is present in the bean from 6 to 8 percent of water, a factor which
bodes well for the proper germination of the seed, as when this latter is
deprived of moisture, e. g. in the course of a too thorough drying, it speedily
decays. Water is still evident in small quantities even in the largest and
almost withered beans, as will be seen on comparison of the foregoing
analyses.

2. F a t .

As a constituent at the expense of which respiration is effected, fat
remains one of the most important resources of plant. It has a twofold
excellence in this connection, and firstly as a highly calorifacient and
carboniferous substance, and again because such a reserve enables the
living organism to oxidise with particular ease, wherefore it is found
accumulated in somewhat significant measure in the majority of seeds.
When seen under the microscope it appears either as round coherent
masses, or as crystalline aggregates clearly distinguishable from the rest of
the cell contents on treatment with a solution of osmic acid. The fat in the
cacao bean usually amounts to from 50-56 percent, or one half of the total
weight of the shelled beans; the shell also contains from 4 to 5 percent of
fat.25 The unfermented bean has frequently, in addition to its bitter taste, a
most unpleasant flavour, attributable to the rancidity of its fatty contents.
The raw bean contains rather more fat than the roasted bean, for whilst
the one averages from 50 to 55 percent, there is seldom more than 48-52
percent in the other. The cause of this phenomenon may be connected with
the enrichment of the shells in fat, and in some instances, as when the beans
are over-roasted, is to be ascribed to the chemical change which the play of
burning heat on fatty bodies involves, when a destructive decomposition of
the whole ensues, with formations of acroleine. Chemically considered,
cacao butter consists of a mixture of so-called esters, or compounds
connected with ether, such as the glycerides of fatty acids, and contains, in
addition to stearine, palmatine, and laurine26, the glyceride of arachidic
acid. It was also formerly supposed that formic, acetic and butyric acids

were among the constituents of this ingredient, but the view has been
proved erroneous by Lewkowitsch27; similarly, the presence of theobromic
acid alleged by Kingzett28 has been called into question by Graf.29
Cacao butter is a fairly firm fat of pleasant taste and smell, which varies
in colour between yellowish white and yellow. When freshly expressed, it
has frequently a brownish shade, passing after a short time into a pale
yellow, and turning almost white on long keeping. The brown colour is due
to pigment in suspension, which becomes sediment in the course of melting,
when the butter asumes a normal colour, referrible to pigment dissolved in
the butter oils, and secondarily to a dissolution of the products of roasting in
these liquids, rather than to any matter in suspension. The pleasant smell
and taste of cacao butter is probably closely allied to the dissolved
substances mentioned.
The fat extracted from cacao by solvents differs essentially from that
obtained by hydraulic pressure, a fact overlooked in some of even the most
recent experiments, and which therefore cannot be too strongly emphasised.
Extracted fat is yellowish white, sometimes approximating to grey, and
after having been kept a long time, the whole becomes tinged with an actual
whiteness, which first attacks the outer surface, and then rapidly progresses
towards the centre in concentric paths, and which is a sign of rancidity. Its
fracture is partly granular, the smell is not so pronounced as that of
expressed fat, being even unpleasant at times, as in the case of faulty wares
(but compare page), and it has a keen taste. Cacao butter does not, as is
generally supposed, keep better than other vegetable fats, but is equally
liable to become rancid, as Lewkowitsch30 demonstrates. By rancidity is
denoted that state of offensive taste and smell acquired by fatty substances
on longer or shorter keeping and especially when they are not properly
stored. What chemical re-arrangements of the respective constituents this
state presupposes is very questionable; though it appears from the
experiments of Lewkowitsch30 and others31 that the formation of acids does
not play as prominent a part as the experimenter is inclined to think,
nothwithstanding the marked increase in quantity which may occur. The
primary cause of rancidity will rather be found in the oxidation products of
the glycerine contained in all fats.

The specific gravity of cacao butter varies considerably, according as it
has been expressed or extracted by means of solvents. White32 asserts that it
can only be determined when the liquefied oil has been solidified several
days. According to Rammsberger the specific gravity of expressed butter is
0·85; that of butter extracted by treatment with ether figures at 0·958. Hager
gives the normal specific gravity of fresh cacao butter at 15° C. as from
0·95 to 0·952; stale butter 0·945 to 0·946, and the same figures have been
confirmed by other investigations, though Dietricht gives 0·98 to 0·981 at
100° C. The melting point is generally regarded as 33° C.; there is in this
respect, however, a great difference between the two descriptions of fat.
Expressed fat which has been kept for some length of time melts between
34° C. and 35° C., and these figures remain constant, so that it is advisable
to read the melting point of fat which has been in store some time rather
than that of the fresh pressed product, and take this as a standard. All other
fat shows a lower melting point.
As the melting point of freshly melted cacao butter shows considerable
fluctuation, the liquid fat must be kept in darkness and cooled with ice for
about a week, and the reading should not be taken before the expiration of
this time, as only then is it possible to obtain any definite and final result.
Experiments on the melting point of cacao butter as carried out by
Zipperer under special conditions yielded the following values; cf. also
Table 12.

Melting Centigrade
Kind of bean
point raw roasted
Machala Guayaquil 34·5 34·0
Caracas 33·5 34·0
Ariba 33·75 31·5
Port au Prince 34·25 33·8
Puerto Cabello 33·50 33·0
Surinam 34·20 34·0
Trinidad 34·00 34·0

White and Oldham33 give the following melting points:

Guayaquil 33·6-33·9
Granada 33·0-33·3
Trinidad 31·5-32·5
Caracas 33·0-33·6
Ceylon 33·9-34·2

Filsinger and Henking found34:

Cauca 32·1-32·4
Bahia 32·7-33·4
Porto Plata 33·1-33·6

These results vary somewhat, but the differences are to be ascribed to the
methods employed and to the manner in which the observations of different
experimenters are carried out. Generally it may be taken that the melting
point should not be under 3° or over 35°C. The fat solidifies between 21·5°
and 23° C. (solidifying point). The fatty acids from the fat melt at
48°-52° C.; they begin to solidify at 45° C., the solidifying ending generally
at 51°-52° C. (see table 12).
Adulteration of cacao fat, as many experiments have shown, cannot be
detected simply by deflections in the melting point. Björklund’s ether test,35
which is very suitable for the detection of an admixture of extraneous
substances like tallow, wax and paraffin, is carried out as described in
paragraph....
Cacao fat, like all other fats, is saponified by alkalis, that is to say, forms
a soap or a chemical compound of the fatty acids with alkalis such as
potash, soda, ammonia etc. On the addition of a mineral acid to the soap a
salt of the mineral acid and alkali is formed, with the separation of the fatty
acid. The fatty acids are of two kinds:
1. The volatile acids or those which are volatile at 100°-110° C. or more
easily with steam than other vapours. These usually exist only in very small
quantity in cacao fat but may considerably increase in amount in the fat
obtained from imperfectly fermented beans.36

2. The solid fatty acids are such as are fixed, and do not act in the manner
above mentioned: cacao butter consists chiefly of the glycerides of these
acids.
Björklund’s tests will only detect, as has been stated, admixtures of wax,
paraffin, tallow and bodies of a relatively high melting point. Another
method must therefore be adopted to detect fat of low melting points, as
cocoa-nut fat, or liquid oils like cotton seed and sesame oils. The methods
in use in connection with cacao butter are the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the
i o d i n e, s a p o n i f i c a t i o n and a c i d v a l u e s, finding the m e l t i n g
p o i n t of the f a t t y a c i d s, the R e i c h e r t - M e i s s l n u m b e r, and
by means of Zeiss’ butyro-refractometer, its r e f r a c t i v e i n d e x.
The iodine value indicates the amount of iodine percent absorbed by the
fat, and is accordingly a measure of the unsaturated fatty acids. As these
latter differ in amount in vegetable and animal fats, though constant for
each separate kind, it is possible by means of this iodine value to recognise
a genuine cacao fat and to detect adulteration. The determination of the
iodine value is carried out by Hulbl’s37 method, and according to
Filsinger,38 it is advisable to let the iodine solution act on the fat for from
ten to twelve hours in diffused daylight. Before determining the iodine
value in cacao fat, says Welmans39 this substance should be dried at from
100-105°C. to expel the acroleine produced by too high roasting, at the
same time avoiding too high a temperature, as acroleine can then be very
easily reproduced. Filsinger has determined the iodine value of many
varieties of cacao butter with the following results:

Kind I o d i n e v a l u e:
Cauca 36·2-36·7
Bahia 36·8-37·1
Porto Plata 36·6-36·9
Ariba 35·1-36·8

Genuine cacao butter shows an average iodine value of from 33-37·5.40

The s a p o n i f i c a t i o n v a l u e or K ö t t s t o r f e r ’ s n u m b e r41
expresses the number of milligrammes of potassium hydrate required for

the complete saponification of 1 gramme of fat, or in other words, the
amount of potassium hydrate necessary to the saponification of the fat in
thents percent. Filsinger42 gives the amount as between 192 and 202 in
genuine cacao butter, although it usually fluctuates between 194 and 195.
Its determination is the means of detecting adulterations with cocoa-nut
butter and its preparations.
The determination of the a c i d value has lately become of importance,
especially since the introduction of the so-called Dutch Ha cacao or shell
butter, which is obtained from cacao refuse and is often rancid. This value
or number expresses the amount of potassium hydrate necessary to
neutralise the free fatty acids in 1 gramme of fat, and it is therefore a
measure of the amount of free fatty acid. As this constant has been
variously stated, according to the methods adopted (Burstyn, Merz), the fact
must be taken into account when comparing the literature on the subject. As
the constants have been determined by two different methods (Merz,
Burstyn), this must be taken into consideration when comparing the various
data on the acid value of fats. Whilst the “Vereinbarungen” (No. 1, 1897) in
a chapter on “Food Fats and Oils” still recognise two distinct methods in the
determination of free fatty acids, as well as two different ways of recording
the results (degree of acidity and free acid, calculated on the oily acids)
there occurs in the supplement to the recent margarine code for Germany
issued by the Chancellor on April 1st. 1898, entitled “Instructions for
chemical research in fats and cheeses” under c) a dictum that there is only
one absolute and precise procedure in the “Determination of free fatty acids
(degree of acidity) These calculations are based on the Burstyn method,
which we accordingly annex, more especially as it is now in universal use.
It should be observed that the method of preparation and the age of the
beans, as well as that of the fat all tend to increase the acid value.
The Reichert Meissl value expresses the percentage value of the volatile
fatty acids present in the fat; as already mentioned, they amount to 1·6 ccm,
in cacao fat extracted by solvents. Milk chocolate, says Welmans, yields a
fat having a Reichert-Meissl value of 2·5, but compare page....
The determination of the r e f r a c t i v e i n d e x in Zeiss
butyrorofractometer is of value for ascertaining the purity of cacao butter,
and it serves as a control on the iodine value, for according to Roques43 the

refractive index and the iodine value stand in equal relation, so that fat
having a high refractive index gives a high iodine value and vice versa. The
refractive index of cacao butter ranges between 1·4565-1·4578 at 40°C.
corresponding to 46-47·8 on the scala of the Zeiss butyro-refractometer.
The use of the latter is recommended by Filsinger as a preliminary test for
cacao butter, since with a normal refraction it is not necessary to proceed
further and determine the iodine, saponification and acid values, nor the
melting point. In conclusion we annex table 12, where the respective
constants for different varieties of cacao butter will be found tabulated.44
For further information on all these methods, the reader is referred to the
excellent work of R. Benedict, entitled “Analysis of Fats and Waxes”: VII.
Edition, Berlin.
T a b l e 12.
Physical and Chemical Analyses of the Various Kinds of Pressed Stollwerck
Cacao Butter.
Accra Ariba Bahia Guayaquil Cameroon
a) Fat
Point of refraction
at 40° C 64·3 46·1 46·9 46·5 46·0
Melting Point
(Polenske)(1) 33·1 33·2 31·95 32·5 33·65
Freezing Point
(Polenske) 20·0 21·55 19·35 19·8 20·95
Variations(2)
between Melting
Point and Freezing
Point (Polenske) 13·1 11·65 12·60 12·5 12·70
Reichert-Meissl
number 0·49 0·33 0·38 0·55 0·33
Polenske(2)
number 0·50 0·50 0·60 0·42 0·40
Köttstorfer number 192·4 191·7 191·4 190·8 193·2
Hübl’s iodine value 35·24 34·89 37·87 36·54 34·0
Bellier’s
reaction(4) violet as 1 as 1 as 1 as 1
R. Cohn’s
reaction(5)
a) Fresh fat(6) negative " " " "

b) Rancid fat strong positive weak positive positive weak positive positive
b) Fatty Acids(7)
Refractive index at
40° C 34·60 34·55 34·50 34·40 33·70
Melting Point(8) 52·90 52·95 51·80 52·90 52·00
v. Hübl’s iodine
value 35·88 36·27 38·78 37·78 36·02
Fluctuations of Analyses Values
Puerto Cabello Thomé Trinidad
from mean
a) Fat
Point of refraction
at 40° C 46·0 46·8 46·3 46·0-46·9 46·4
Melting Point
(Polenske)(1) 32·7 32·95 32·9 31·95-33·65 32·9
Freezing Point
(Polenske) 20·8 18·60 20·66 18·6-21·55 20·2
Variations(2)
between Melting
Point and Freezing
Point (Polenske) 11·9 14·35 12·30 11·65-14·35 12·7
Reichert-Meissl
number 0·41 0·55 0·55 0·33-0·55 0·45
Polenske(2)
number 0·40 0·55 0·55 0·4-0·6 0·49
Köttstorfer number 191·6 191·7 191·5 190·8-193·2 191·8
Hübl’s iodine value 32·72 37·24 33·72 32·72-37·87 35·28
Bellier’s
reaction(4) as 1 as 1 as 1 — —
R. Cohn’s
reaction(5)
a) Fresh fat(6) " " " — —
b) Rancid fat opal opal opal
escence+ escence+ escence+ — —
b) Fatty Acids(7)
Refractive index at
40° C 33·50 34·70 33·50 33·5-34·7 34·18
Melting Point(8) 51·45 52·05 52·50 51·45-52·95 52·32
v. Hübl’s iodine
value 33·85 39·60 36·02 33·85-39·78 36·90

Remarks 1) Exact point of liquefaction difficult to observe; therefore the average of several
readings must be taken.
2) Work from the Imperial Office of Health 1907, 26, 444-463.

3) Work out of the Imperial Office of Health 1904, 20, 545-558.
4) Central Journal for Germany 1908, 36, 100.
5) Journal for Popular Chemistry 1907, 16, 308.
6) Obtained at the expiration of a four weeks’ treatment as recommended by Erlenmeyer.
7) Non-volatile fatty acids, insoluble in water, from the determination of the Reichert-Meissl
number.
8) Obtained as under a). Freezing Point in various cases, 1 to 8 equals 47·8—Melting Point
minus Freezing Point: 52·3-47·8 4·5.

We have already stated that there is also cacao fat in the shells, and
though it only amounts to some four or five percent, it has long been the
care of experimenters to recover and realise that little as fully as possible. It
is commercially known as Dutch IIa or artificial cacao butter, and cannot be
obtained like the fat of the kernel by mechanical means, but is obtained by
some cheap solvent like benzene. The traces of benzene are very difficult to
hide, and consequently this shell butter has little commercial value and its
manufacture is unremunerative.

Filsinger45 gives the iodine value of shell butter as higher than that of
kernel butter, and fixes it between 39 and 40: its acid value, especially if the
fat is rancid, can reach 50-60° Burstyn, i. e. 50 to 60 ccm. normal alkali for
100 grammes of fat.46 If the free acid of shell butter be counteracted with
sodium or magnesium carbonate, the neutral fat then has the normal iodine
value of pure cacao butter, namely 36·5. In a sample giving an abnormally
high iodine value it is always necessary to determine the acid value, and if
the latter be too high, the fatty acids must be removed, when if the sample
be unadulterated, the normal iodine value will be obtained. It may be noted
in passing that the high acid values occurring in shell butter may be due in
part to the acidity of the benzene employed as a solvent.
Cacao butter has a considerable commercial value, and is consequently
liable to adulteration with many inferior fats of vegetable origin. Among
these are especially beef and mutton tallow, the purified fatty acids of palm-
nut oil, wax, paraffin, stearic acid, dicka fat (nucoa butter, possibly) and
cocoa-nut fat, as well as the numerous preparations of the last named,
variously known in commerce as Mannheim cocoa-nut butter, vegetaline,
lactine, finest plant butter, chocolate butter, laureol vegetable butter, palmin,

kunerol etc. Other but less commoner are the sesame cotton-seed, arachidic,
margarine and hazelnut oils.
For the detection of these and similar adulterates, the reactions and
analytical methods described are all-sufficient. Benedict47 discovers that the
presence of wax and paraffin considerably diminishes the saponification
value, cocoa, nut fat increases it and lowers the iodine value, whereas
stearic acid raises the acid value.
Melting Point
Melting point
of fatty acids Iodine value
°C.
°C.
Cacao butter 30-34·5 48-52 34-37·5
Oil of Almonds — 14 93-101·9
Sesame oil — 26-30 106·4-109
Earth-nut (Arachis) oil — 27-31 92-101
Hazelnut oil — 17-25 83·2-88
Cotton-seed oil — 38-40 106-111
Oleo-margarine 32·4-32·5 42 43·8-48·5
Beef tallow 43-49 43-46 35·4-36·5
Wax 62-64 — 8·0-11
Paraffin 38-82 — 3·9-4
Stearic acid 71-71·5 — —
Sebin 37·6-37·8 — 43·7-43·8
Cocoa-nut fat 20-28
chiefly
26·2-26·4 24-25 8-9
Refractive
Saponification
Acid value index in Zeiss’s
value
butyrometer
Cacao butter 192-202 9·24-17·9 46-47·8 at 40° C.
Oil of Almonds 189·5-195·4 — 64-64·8 at 25° C.
Sesame oil 187-192 — 67-69 at 25° C.
Earth-nut (Arachis) oil 190-197 — 65·8-67·5 at 25° C.
Hazelnut oil 191·4-197·1 — —
Cotton-seed oil 191-197 — 67·6-69·4 at 25° C.
Oleo-margarine 195-197·4 — 48·6 at 40° C.
Beef tallow 193·2-198 — 49 at 40° C.
Wax 97-107 19-21 —
Paraffin — — —
Stearic acid 195-200 195-200 —
Sebin 192·4-192·6 — —
Cocoa-nut fat 254·8-268·4 — 35·5 at 40° C.

The presence of cocoa-nut fat can also be shown by the etherification of
the fatty acids with alcohol and sulphuric acid, when the characteristic
odour of the ester of cocoa-nut acid occurs. Vegetable oils, such as almond,
cotton-seed, arachidic, sesame and hazelnut oils, lower the melting point of
the fatty acids and raise the iodine value. Sesame oil is easily detected by
Baudouin’s reaction, yielding a raspberry coloration whilst pure cacao
butter keeps a fine yellow or dark brown. It is possible to detect the
presence of so minute a quantity as 1% of sesame oil, by means of
Baudouin’s reaction.
The following table, containing the analytical determinations of all fatty
substances which can possibly be employed in the adulteration of cacao
butter, will serve to facilitate reference to this subject.
In addition to its use in the manufacture of certain cacao preparations and
for lubricating parts of machinery which come into contact with the cacao
etc. cacao fat is also used in perfumery and especially in pharmacy for
making suppositaries, ointments, etc., but it is of no importance in soap
making. As an edible fat, in the true sense of the word, like ordinary butter
or lard, cacao butter is not used. It has been maintained by Benedikt48 that
when in the form of chocolate it is as easily digestible in the human
organism as milk fat, which is generally regarded as offering most
favourable conditions for absorbtion in the intestinal canal. The digestibility
of both fats varies from 92·3 to 95·38 percent, and both, in this respect,
stand very near to cocoa-nut fat from which the solid glycerides have been
removed, and to ordinary butter, the former according to Bourot and Jean.49
being digestible to the extent of 98 and the latter 95·8 percent.
Cacao butter is obtained as a by-product in the preparation of cocoa
powder and in every country where cocoa powder is produced there is
always a large trade in the former article. That is, apart from Germany,
especially the case in Holland, where the monthly supply to the Amsterdam
market is so large that during 1899 one firm alone—Van Houten—had 855
tons for sale. The average price of late years has considerably increased,
and is now about 64-73 cents per kilogramme.

3. C a c a o - r e d o r P i g m e n t .

The majority of investigators interested in the cacao bean have assigned
its peculiar aroma and taste to the cacao-red which it develops. As
previously pointed out, the young fresh bean is colourless, the pigment
forming later, as can be observed in many vegetable colouring materials,
such as oakand cinchona-red, madder, indigo and kola-nut red (from
Sterculia acuminata). As the later investigations of Hilger50 have shown, the
fresh colourless cacao bean contains a diastasic ferment, as well as a
glucoside body, which C. Schweitzer51 has termed glocoside or cacaonin.
The term glucoside may be noted in passing as including those bodies, the
greater number of which occur in plants, and which by treatment with
alkalis, acids or ferments are split up into an indifferent body and a sugar,
generally glucose. These bodies may be chemically regarded as ethyl
derivatives of the respective sugars. When the ripe, white seeds are dried,
the cacao-glycoside is partly decomposed by the agency of the above-
mentioned diastasic ferment and formations of grape sugar, pure non-
nitrogenous cacao-red, together with theobromine and coffeine ensue.
These substances, and likewise a certain amount of undecomposed cacao
glycoside, can all be detected in the seed, which has by this time acquired a
brownish to violet colour.
The unfermented bean, according to Schweitzer, has as much as 0·6%
unaltered glucoside. Fermentation produces the same effect as drying, as
here again the glycerine is not completely split up, for the cacao-red,
isolated in the ordinary way, consists according to Hilger of a mixture of
pure non-nitrogenous cacao-red and some glycoside.
The complete decomposition of the cacao glycoside can only be effected
in a chemical manner, by boiling the finely divided and defatted seeds with
dilute acids, a method which has made it possible to effect an exact
determination of the diureides, as the treatment with acid sets free the
totality of their theobromine and coffeine.
Schweitzer regards the molecule of cacao glycoside as an ester
comprised of one molecule of non-nitrogenous cacao-red, six molecules of
starch-sugar and one molecule of theobromine with double-sided
attachment and having the hypothetrical formula C60H86O15N4.

Before the appearance of Hilger’s researches, all statements of a
chemical nature respecting cacao-red related to a mixture of a pure non-
nitrogenous pigment and the glycoside, which must in all cases be
preliminarily obtained, before the pure pigment can be prepared. That can
be done52 by treating the roasted beans with petroleum ether, which
removes the fat and part of the free theobromine then with water, to extract
the remaining theobromine, coffeine, sugar and salts, and finally with
alcohol, to extract the cacao-red. The alcoholic residue is then quickly dried
on porous plates. The material thus obtained is a reddish brown amorphous
bitter powder, which is scarcely soluble in water, easily so in alcohol or in
dilute alkali, and is reprecipitated by acid from its alkaline solution. It gives
a sublimate of theobromine when heated. When the substance is
distilled with 5 percent of sulphuric acid, the
added glycoside is completely decomposed into
s u g a r , t h e o b r o m i n e a n d t h e r e a l c a c a o - r e d, which latter
is represented by the formula C17H12(OH)10. It appears to stand in near
relation to tannin, which it resembles in yielding formic acid, acetic acid,
and pyrocatechin by the action of caustic alkalis. The pure non-nitrogenous
cacao-red, at present, is of exclusively scientific interest; for practical
purposes only the crude cacao-red, cacao-red glycoside, as naturally
existing in the bean, is of importance. The better and the more effectual the
manner in which the beans have been prepared by fermentation, the more
intense is the formation of the cacao red, especially its localisation in the
cells and cell tissues. This is the reason that the variations in colour of
different kinds of bean and the aqueous extracts which they yield are so
distinct.
Especially is this noticeable in carelessly dried beans, in which the
cotyledon tissue is of a dirty brown or yellow colour instead of being brown
or violet; the pigment here is not restricted to separate cells but has the
appearance of having penetrated into the contiguous albuminous cells. The
bean contains 2·6-5 percent of the crude cacao-red; it is soluble in alcohol
and in ether and partly so in hot water, and is completely extracted from the
bean by weak acetic acid.
The crude cacao-red can be determined quantitatively by precipitating its
solution with lead acetate, decomposing the lead precipitate with

sulphuretted hydrogen and evaporating the filtrate containing the cacao-red
to dryness.
The aqueous extract of the beans, which contains the cacao-red, is
coloured greenish brown by alkalis, red by acids; acetates give a grey to
yellowish colour; tincture of iodine, stannous chloride and mercurous
nitrate give a rose to brown precipitate. Iron and copper salts produce grey
precipitates which gradually become brown to black. Gelatine solution,
containing alum, and albumin give copious yellow precipitates.
Stains produced on linen by the colouring matter of cacao-red can be
removed by treatment with hot water and finally bleaching with a solution
of sulphurous acid.

4. T h e o b r o m i n e .

All those materials which are regarded as stimulants, like coffee, tea,
cacao, tobacco etc., owe their action to peculiar nerve stimulating bodies,
which are present only in small quantity in the seeds or leaves of the
respective plants and are termed by chemists alkaloids and diureides.
The physiologically active constituents of tea, coffee and cacao are
considered, even up to to-day, by many authors as alkaloids or organic
bases and especially ranked among the xanthine or purine bases. Recent
investigations, however, separate these substances from the alkaloids in the
strict sense and comprise them within a particular group of urea derivatives
under the designation of ureides; the ureides of tea, coffee and cacao
representing two molecules of urea, they are to be qualified as “diureides
A bitter substance in the cacao bean had already been observed by
Schrader, but Woscressensky53 in 1841 was the first to isolate the diureide,
theobromine.
Theobromine is found in the unfermented and fermented beans in two
forms; as free theobromine, which has been eliminated from the glucoside
by the ferment in the drying and fermenting processes, and in combination
with glucose and cacao-red as a glucoside, from which it can only be
separated by chemical means.

Theobromine stands in near relation to caffeine, the diureide of tea and
coffee, as will be seen from their chemical formulae—in which
theobromine is shown to contain one methyl group CH3, less, its place
being taken by an hydrogen atom;

Caffeine Theobromine
C5HN2O3(CH3)3, C5H2N2O3(CH3)2,

so that in all, theobromine falls short of caffeine by only one radical.
Strecker54 was the first to show the relation between the two substances,
when he succeeded in converting caffeine into theobromine by the action of
methyl oxide on silver theobromine for 24 hours at 100° C. Caffeine and
silver iodide are then formed and can be separated by treatment with
alcohol, which dissolves the caffeine, leaving the silver iodide undissolved.

E. Fischer55 was shown the relation of theobromine and caffeine to uric
acid by artificial synthesis of both substances from derivatives of both.
Fischer, starting with monomethyl pseudo-uric acid, converted it into 7-
methyl uric acid by distilling it with hydrochloric acid, and afterwards, by
treating the lead salt of the latter with methyl iodide and ether, produced 3-
7-methyl-uric acid. That acid was converted into dimethyldioxychlor-purine
by treatment with a mixture of phosphorus oxychloride and phosphoric
penta-chloride, with subsequent reduction into 3-7 dimethyl-6-amino-2-
oxy-purine, from which, by the action of nitrous acid with loss of the amine
group, theobromine was finally obtained. The synthesis of theobromine is a
brilliant exploit of Fischer’s, and it is quite possible that at no distant
period, when a simple and cheap method of production has been arrived at,
synthetical theobromine will appear commercially as a rival of the natural
product. At present there is no prospect of this being immediately realised,
and cacao shells from which theobromine is now prepared are as yet in no
danger of displacement by the new substitute, but still serve as a useful by-
product in the manufacture of cacao.
Theobromine and caffeine, like the alkaloids or plant bases, have a
distinct physiological and even toxic action if taken in too large quantities.
From the experiments of Mitscherlich it appears that theobromine has a
similar action to caffeine, but is somewhat less active owing to its being less

soluble in the gastric juice. Mitscherlich’s experiments with frogs, pigeons
and rabbits show that 0·05 grammes killed a frog in 40 hours, 0·05
grammes a pigeon in 24 hours, and 1 gramme a rabbit in less than 20 hours.
Death resulted in all cases from cramping of the spinal cord, producing
either convulsions or subsequent paralysis.
The results of these experiments do not detract from the nutritive value of
cacao, since the human organism requires ten times as much theobromine as
rabbits to exhibit the slightest toxic symptom; in cacao mass containing 1 %
not mentioned in discussion; just a head’s up to PP for S&R] theobromine,
that would involve the consumption of 5 lbs. averdupois of chocolate at
once, a practical impossibility. Similar conditions prevail in connection with
the use of tea, coffee, and especially tobacco, where symptoms of poisoning
have been occasionally noticed (the nicotine peril of excessive smokers) but
it would seem that cacao and chocolate are the most favourably placed of
these stimulants as regards such toxic action. It appears from the
experiments of Albanese56 Bondzynski, Gottlieb57 and Rost58 that 3 percent
of the theobromine administered passed out in the urine unaltered, whilst on
the other hand 20-30 percent of that decomposed in the organism is found
again as monomethyl-xanthine.
The larger proportion of the monomethyl xanthine is heteroxanthine (= 7
Methyl-X) and the inferior 3 Methyl-X. The excretion of theobromine
appears to be closely connected with the quantity of urine voided, which is
especially increased by the administration of theobromine. Since 1890, as a
result of W. v. Schröder’s59 observations in 1888, that property of
theobromine has had an extended application in practical therapeutics;
theobromine has been used as a diuretic in kidney diseases, and, unlike all
similar medicinal agents, it exercises no influence on the heart, a
circumstance which essentially increases its therapeutic value. It can be
employed for medicinal purposes, either uncombined or in the form of
salicylate, acetate and certain double compounds, as sodium or lithium and
theobromine salicylate or acetate.
The double compounds known as diuretin, agurin and uropherin are
freely soluble in water and are therefore more readily absorbed into the
system than pure theobromine, which is only with difficulty soluble in
water. Through the establishment of theobromine as a medicinal agent, for

which we are indebted to Chr. Gram60 and G. See,61 cacao husks, hitherto a
waste product in the manufacture of cacao, have become of value for the
preparation of theobromine, in which many of the largest German chemical
factories are now engaged.
Fluctuations as regards the percentage of theobromine in the beans are so
extraordinary that they can only be ascribed to the lack of prescribed and
definite modes of procedure in fermenting, which obviously necessitates
differences in the resulting products.
Eminger found from 0·88-2·34 percent of theobromine in the
examination of a rather considerable number of commercial kinds of cacao
beans and in the husks 0·76 percent of the diureide: C. C. Keller62 has also
found it in the leaves and in the pericarp. Cacao contains 0·05 to 0·36
percent of caffeine.
Theobromine is a permanent white powder, appears under the
magnifying glass as small, white, prismatic or granular crystals. At first it
has only a slightly bitter taste, which becomes more intense when it is kept
in the mouth for some length of time; and indeed, the bitter taste of the
cacao bean and its preparations is mostly due to theobromine. It sublimes at
220 ° C. without melting. This phenomenon explains why the over roasted
bean, that is, the kernel of beans which by accident have been heated to
more than 130-150 ° C. is poorer in theobromine than the husks. When
heated to 310 ° C. theobromine melts to a clear liquid which re-crystallizes
on cooling.
One part of absolutely pure theobromine dissolves according to Eminger
in 736·5 parts of water at 18 ° C., in 136 parts at 100 ° C. in 5399 parts
alcohol (90 %) at 18 ° C. in 440 parts at boiling (90 %) point and in 818
parts of boiling absolute alcohol. It dissolves in 21000 parts of ether at 17 °
C. in 4856 parts of methyl alcohol at 18 ° C. in 58·8 parts of chloroform at
18 ° C. and in 2710 parts of boiling chloroform63. Theobromine is partly
decomposed by strong alkalis but by cautious addition of alkalis it forms
compounds with them, which, are readily dissolved by solutions of sodium
salicylate, acetate or benzoate. These double compounds under the name of
diuretin, agurin and uropherin have lately become of therapeutic value.64

Sodium silicate and more particularly trisodiumphosphate according to
Brissemoret65 are great solvents of theobromine. One and a half molecules
of the latter salt can dissolve one molecule of theobromine so that in this
way it is possible to prepare a solution of nearly 2 percent. Phenol also
dissolves a large quantity of theobromine, according to Maupy,66 who has
utilised this property for the determination of theobromine. The defatted
cacao preparation is moistened with water and extracted with a mixture
consisting of 15 percent of phenol and 85 percent of chloroform.
Theobromine, like caffeine, gives the so called murexide reaction when
evaporated with chlorine water—forming amalic acid—and when a watch
glass previously moistened with a little fluid ammonia is held over the last
few drops at the end of the operation. The residue thus obtained has a violet
colour, which serves to distinguish theobromine readily from other plant
bases which do not belong to the xanthine group.
Although theobromine is the most valuable constituent of cacao beans,
the importance attached to a greater or lesser amount in the beans as a
commercial article was formerly much exaggerated.
The investigations of Dragendorff and others have shown that the value
of various stimulants like tobacco, coffee and tea, does not entirely depend
on the amount of alkaloid or diureide but partly also on the joint action of
all the constituents of those articles, and it is particularly the aromatic
bodies which determine their commercial value. Various kinds of coffee, for
example, of inferior commercial value contain considerably more caffeine
than the costly Mocca beans. The highly prized Havana tobacco ranges
lower than the Sumatra kinds in nicotine content, and the same conclusion
with regard to cacao would probably be correct. In support of this view,
attention may be directed to the following analyses performed by
Wolfram.67
Percentage of theobromine at 100° C.

Description % Theobromine %
Caracas In 1·63 In 1·11
Guayaquil (of considerably less the the
1·63 0·97
value than the first) bean shells

Domingo 1·66 0·56
Bahia 1·64 0·71
Puerto Cabello (fine kind) 1·46 0·81
Tabasco 1·34 0·42
Average = 1·56% = 0·76%

Excluding the theobromine in the shells which are not used in the
preparation of cacao, it will be seen from the above table that the Caracas
bean, which is the finest and dearest, has an amount of theobromine which
is only equal to, or even a little less, than that in the inferior beans from
Guayaquil and Domingo.

5. A l b u m i n .

On the presence of albuminous bodies in the cacao bean, varying
between 14-15 percent, depends to a great extent its nutritive value. The
albumin in plants, unfortunately, is not to hand in a form suitable for direct
absorption and assimilation in the animal organism, in fact, only a fraction
of it is so available. Before considering the nutritive value of the albumin of
the cacao bean it will be well to give attention to the general chemical and
physical properties of albumin so far as a knowledge of them will assist in
the elucidation of the subsequent matter.
Albuminous bodies or proteins occur either dissolved in the sap of plants
or in a solid in the protoplasm of plant cells; also in the form of granular
deposits (Aleuron granules68). In cacao they are apparently present in the
three different conditions.
The term vegetable albumen, in its more restricted sense, is meant to
designate a protein substance which is soluble in water and is coagulable by
heat. The greater part of the proteid which exists in the seeds and sap of
plants and is coagulable by heat, is not albumin but globulin, that is to say,
it is insoluble in water, though dissolved by solutions of neutral salts.
Whilst many protein substances in aqueous solution require a temperature
of 100 ° C. before coagulating, or becoming insoluble under certain
conditions, others coagulate at 65 ° C. Concentrated acetic acid dissolves all
albuminous bodies with the aid of heat, concentrated nitric acid gives a

yellow coloration (xantoprotein reaction). Albuminous substances are
decomposed when heated to 150 ° C. developing a dark colour, swelling up
and evolving an offensive smell, finally leaving behind a difficultly
combustible coaly residue.
Globulins combine with aqueous solutions of alkalis such as potash,
soda, ammonia etc. producing alkaline albuminates; with acids they form
acid albuminates or syntonins. Both have the property in common, that
whilst they are insoluble in pure water, they readily dissolve in slightly
acidulated or alkaline water, as well as in weak saline solutions, and are
then no longer coagulable by boiling.
Albuminous bodies are converted first into albumoses (proteoses), and
then into peptons by gastric and intestinal digestion or by hydrolytic
decomposition with acids or alkalis, also by the action of steam under
pressure of many atmospheres, as well as by putrefaction. Albumoses, with
the exception of hetero-albumose, are soluble in water. Peptons dissolve
entirely and in that condition are absorbed by the animal organism.
Albumins are precipitated from their solutions by strong alcohol, and in
that way Zipperer succeeded in precipitating 4·25 percent of albumin from
the aqueous extract of Trinidad cacao, which corresponds to about 25
percent of the total amount of albumen in the bean.
The results of his investigation have shown that generally more soluble
albumen is present in the unfermented than in the fermented bean.
Consequently, it would appear that in the finer kinds of cacao beans, in
which very careful fermentation has been carried out, the albumin, owing to
fermentative alteration, is rendered less soluble.
The constitution of albumin is still not sufficiently known, despite the
excellent experiments of E. Fischer on this subject; generally it is regarded
as having the formula:

C 52·31-54·33%
H 7·13- 7·73%
N 15·49-17·60%
S 0·76- 1·55%

O 20·55-22·98%

Accepting a mean formula corresponding to the above figures as
representation of the albumen (namely C72H112N18SO22), it becomes
possible to obtain a quantitative determination of this constituent in the
plants in which it is contained. There is, for instance, 16 % of nitrogen here.
Starting from such a standpoint, and determining the percentage of Nitrogen
contained in a plant, and multiplying by 6·25 (i. e. 16 %), the amount of
albumen is obtained. For further particulars see paragraph 4. The albumen
in cacao, as previously mentioned, is in the form of globulin, that is, in a
less soluble form. In cacao preparations which are required for invalids,
especially those with affections of the stomach, it is important to have the
albumen in a more readily soluble condition. Various attempts have been
made with cacao preparations to obtain that result, and later on, full
illustrations and explanations will be given on this subject. First of all,
however, it is desirable to consider the scientific methods employed to
ascertain the relative digestibility or indigestibility of albumen.

Professor Stutzer69 of Bonn has been engaged in determining the action
of digestive ferments of the animal organism on alimentary substances, and
has worked out a method by which it is possible to ascertain the proportion
of albuminous substances which can be regarded as digestible.
The method depends upon the fact that salivary, gastric and intestinal
digestion can be artificially imitated in the laboratory. But as the salivary
secretion only digests starch and is difficult to obtain, malt diastase, which
serves the same purpose, is used instead. On the other hand albuminous
material is only digested by juices of the stomach and intestines as fresh
obtained from the mucous membranes of the pig or ox. If we suppose an
average of 16 percent of total albumen in cocoa powder, the following
results would probably be given by Stutzer’s method:
Of 16 % of total albumen there are on an average:

corresponding to percentage
Albumen:
of the total mass:
7·6% soluble in the stomach 47·5%
2·8% soluble in the intestines 17·5% }65%

5·6% insoluble 35·0%
16·0% 100·0%

As shown by the experiments of Forster70 however, artificial digestion
does not correctly represent the actual consumption of nutriment in the
human body. F o r s t e r ’ s experiments, in which cacao powder was
administered to healthy men, gave a much higher value, in fact, 80 percent
of the nitrogenous substance was digested, against 65 percent by Stutzer’s
artificial method of digestion. The results obtained by artificial digestion
must therefore be increased in that proportion.

6. S t a r c h .

Starch is one of the most important constituents of cacao, as on the starch
taken in conjunction with the fat and albumen depends the nutritive value of
the cacao bean. As previously stated, cacao starch is one of the smallest
kinds which occur in the vegetable kingdom; consequently it can easily be
distinguished from the starch granules of other plants. Owing to their
minuteness the concentric rings showing the stratified structure of the starch
granules can only be distinguished with difficulty under the microscope.
Cacao starch consists usually of globular granules, generally separate, but
sometimes in aggregations of two or three. The appearance under the
microscope of the starch granules is clearly shown in fig 7, which
represents a section of Ariba cacao enlarged 750 times.71

Fig. 7.

a on the above represents the intercellular spaces, b the cell walls, c the
starch granules, d the fat crystals, those being the contents and structural
elements of the cacao cell that the microscope will at once distinguish.
Cacao starch has the usual properties of ordinary kinds of starch, namely:
1. I t i s g e l a t i n i s e d b y h o t w a t e r, that is to say, the water
penetrates between the layers of starch granules, separating them and
causing by its penetration a swelling up of the starch whereby a transparent
mass know as “starch paste” is produced. It has been supposed that cacao
starch is less easily gelatinised than the starch of other plants. According to
investigations of Soltsien’s72, which Zipperer unreservedly endorses, this is
not the case, for under certain essential conditions, cacao starch gelatinises
just as readily as other kinds of starch.
The blue coloration of starch with iodine.
This is said to take place more slowly with cacao than with other
starches, though we have always found that once the cacao starch is
gelatinised, a blue coloration appears immediately on adding a sufficiently
strong solution of iodine.
There are certainly other materials in the cacao bean, such as fat, which
by more or less enveloping the starch, prevent access of water to the starch
granules and thus hinder gelatinisation; or again, the albumen and cacao-red
may exert some retarding influence on the iodine reaction, e s p e c i a l l y
i f t h e i o d i n e s o l u t i o n u s e d i s v e r y d i l u t e. Yet it is
impossible to describe the reaction as slow.
According to Soltsien, if a mixture of two parts of cacao bean with one
part of calcinated magnesia and water is heated, a clear-filtering decoction
is obtained, which immediately assumes the blue colour on addition of
iodine solution. On neutralising the filtrate with acetic acid, and adding 3-4
parts of strong alcohol, its starch is precipitated.
By boiling with dilute acids as well as by the
a c t i o n o f f e r m e n t s l i k e t h e s a l i v a , d i a s t a s e etc.,
s t a r c h i s c o n v e r t e d i n t o s t a r c h s u g a r (g l u c o s e,
d e x t r o s e). The empirical formula for starch is C6H10O5, that for starch

sugar is C6H12O6, so that in the conversion one molecule of water is
introduced, wherefore its chemical nature is greatly changed, and especially
in its becoming freely soluble in water. That alteration allows of starch
being quantitatively determined, as the dextrose thus produced has the
property of reducing an alkaline solution of copper sulphate (known as
Fehling’s solution, after the discoverer); that is to say, the copper sulphate is
converted into insoluble red cuprous oxide. As dextrose always precipitates
a definite amount of cuprous oxide, the quantity of starch present can in that
way be determined.
The chemical determination of starch is only in a limited degree effectual
in the recognition of an admixture of foreign starch in cacao preparations. If
more than 10-15 percent of starch (calculated on the crude bean) has been
found, then it must be assumed that there has been an admixture of foreign
starch, but chemistry affords no means by which foreign starch can be
distinguished from the genuine starch of the cacao bean. For that purpose
the foreign starch must be minutely observed under the microscope, which
not only serves to detect its presence, but gives an approximate estimation
of the amount present, and its origin. Great caution should be exercised, or
the result may be easily exaggerated.

7. C e l l u l o s e o r c r u d e f i b r e .

We have already made the acquaintance of this material as the chief
constituent of the cell walls and vascular tissues. Recent chemical
investigations have shown that it consists of the anhydrides of hexose and
pentose (sugar compounds) incrustated with many impurities, such as
cacao-red, gum, mucilage etc. From a chemical point of view, cellulose has
the same formula as starch, viz. C6H10O5, or one of its multiples
represented in formula. One of its chemical properties is solubility in
ammonio-cupric sulphate, and affinity for alkalis such as potash, soda,
ammonia, causes it to swell when they act on the cell fibres.

Weender’s process73 as worked out by Henneberg is the one usually
adopted for the determination of crude fibre in plants, although recently H.
Suringar, B. Tollens74 and more particular König75 have pointed out that in

Weender’s process the so-called pentosan, that is to say, the sugar-like
constituent of the composition C5H10O5, which comprises a not
inconsiderable portion of the crude fibre, undergoes a disproportionate
alteration, so that the analytical results thus obtained can by no means give
an accurate representation of the amount of cellulose. The crude fibre must
therefore be treated in such manner as to eliminate the pentosan. For this
purpose the various methods of König, Matthes and Streitberger have been
proposed, to which we shall return in Book 4. Filsinger, the meritorious
experimenter on the subject of cacao, has by König’s method determined
the amount of crude fibre in a series of different varieties of cacao bean, and
obtained the following results as regards shelled and roasted beans.

percent
1. Puerto Cabello 5·37
2. Java 3·97
3. Ariba Guayaquil I 4·10
4. Ariba Guayaquil II 4·07
5. Machala Guayaquil I 4·43
6. Para 4·01
7. Surinam Guiana 3·01
8. Bahia 2·81
9. Grenada 3·10
10. Guatemala 3·50
11. Machala Guayaquil II 3·58
12. Caracas 3·65
13. Samana 4·58
14. St. Thomé A I 4·13
15. St. Thomé A II 2·95
16. St. Thomé B 3·15
17. Haiti 3·1276

These new values may be provisionally regarded as normal. From these
results not only can an idea of the functioning of the cacao shelling machine
be obtained, but also the presence of any occasional admixture of husk in
cacao preparations may be inferred, since the husk contains a great deal
more crude fibre than the kernel. Therefore the determination of the crude

fibre is an important item in the testing of cacao preparations, as there is no
doubt that the presence of vegetable substances rich in crude fibre can be
detected by the increase in the amount of cellulose.

8. S u g a r a n d p l a n t a c i d s .

The presence of glucose in raw cacao beans was first pointed out by
Schweitzer77. The sugar is formed by the action of the cacao ferment on the
glucoside cacaonin during the processes of drying and fermentation. In
addition to sugar, malic and tartaric acids have been observed. These
substances, however, are only of interest to the plant physiologist and not to
the manufacturer, so it is sufficient merely to notice them here in passing.

9. T h e m i n e r a l o r a s h c o n s t i t u e n t s .

When cacao beans are ignited, the constituents of an organic nature are
volatilised and only the non-volatile or inorganic constituents remain
behind. These consist of potash, soda, lime, iron magnesia, combined with
silicic acid, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid and chlorine.
The amount of ash in raw and shelled cacao beans varies from 3-4 %.
Tuchen78 found 2·9-3 %, Trojanowski79 2·08-3·93 %, Zipperer80 2·7-4 %,
L’Hote81 2·2-4 %, H. Beckurts82 2·20-3·75, J. Hockauf83 2·84-4·4 percent.
Of those kinds which are now most in use, Ceylon gave 3·30 percent, Java
3·20 and Kameroon 2·95 percent. (Beckurts).
Quantitative analyses of the ash of the cacao beans have been made by
several investigators, and the following table gives a series of the most
complete analyses, made by R. Bensemann84.
T a b l e 14. Analysis of the ash of Cacao Beans by R. Bensemann.
The ash of the kernel free from husk dried at 100°C. contained:
Key to Column Headings

B = Maracaibo
C = Caracas
D = Trinidad

E = Machala
F = Porto Cabello
G = Mean

Insoluble respectively in dilute hydrochloric or
B C D E F G
nitric acid
a) Volatile dessicated at 100° C. 0·142 0·076 0·144 0·074 0·198 0·127
b) Fixed at red heat 0·312 1·663 0·553 0·630 1·075 0·846
Soluble in dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid:
c) Potassium oxide K2O 35·889 33·844 30·845 30·686 29·989 32·251
d) Sodium oxide Na2O 0·515 0·766 1·964 4·173 3·427 2·169
e) Calcium oxide CaO 4·118 5·030 4·638 3·112 2·923 3·964
f) Magnesium oxide MgO 15·750 15·151 16·060 16·172 17·562 16·139
g) Ferric oxide Fe2O3 0·182 0·217 0·491 0·629 0·303 0·364
h) Aluminium oxide Al2O3 0·080 0·326 0·490 0·432 0·305 0·327
i) Silicic acid SiO2 0·214 0·211 0·169 0·134 0·240 0·194
k) Phosphoric anhydride P2O5 27·741 29·302 28·624 37·000 35·274 31·588
l) Sulphuric anhydride SO3 2·632 2·740 3·957 2·042 3·952 3·065
m) Chlorine Cl 0·295 0·341 0·427 0·279 0·085 0·285
n) Carbonic anhydride CO2 10·349 8·435 8·953 2·788 3·481 6·801
o) Water H2O 1·847 1·975 2·781 1·912 1·205 1·944
Oxygen O equivalent to chlorine 0·066 0·077 0·090 0·063 0·019 0·064

In previously describing the aleuron granules of the cacao bean it was
mentioned that they contain a comparatively large globoid. According to
Molisch85, when sections are cautiously heated on platinum foil, these
globules are found in the ash. From their number they give a characteristic
appearance to the ash of cacao beans, and thus may serve as a good means
of identifying cacao, since they can be detected in the smallest quantity of a
genuine cacao preparation.
A noteworthy fact may here be mentioned, namely the presence of a
rather small amount of copper in the ash of cacao beans as well as the
husks. Duclaux86 was the first to point out this fact, which several other
observers, such as Skalweit87 and Galippe88 have also confirmed. The
amount of copper in the husk varies from 0·02 to 0·025 percent and in the
beans from 0·0009-0·004 percent (Duclaux). Copper in similar amount is
found in all kinds of beans and husks, and its presence is due to the
absorption of copper by the plant from the soil, whence it gradually
accumulates in the fruit.

b) The Cacao Shells.
Most of the constituents which exist in the cacao kernels are also to be
found in the husks and the methods for isolating and determining them are
the same in both cases. The composition of the husk, according to Laube
and Aldendorff89, is as follows:
T a b l e 15.

Key to Columns

B. Amount of husk
C. Water
D. Nitrogenous substance
E. Fat
F. Non nitrogenous extractive
G. Woody fibre
H. Ash
I. Sand

B C D E F G H I
Per cent
Caracas 20·09 7·74 11·68 5·99 35·29 12·79 8·32 18·62
Guayaquil — 9·11 12·94 10·75 47·08 13·12 6·79 0·21
Trinidad 14·04 8·30 15·14 4·23 46·05 18·00 7·06 0·92
Puerto Cabello 14·92 6·40 13·75 4·38 47·12 14·83 6·06 7·46
Soconusco 18·58 6·48 19·12 6·48 39·39 15·67 8·15 4·71
Mean 16·33 7·83 14·29 6·38 45·79 14·69 7·12 5·90

Z i p p e r e r ’s a n a l y s i s 9 0 o f t h e u n r o a s t e d h u s k s g a v e
t h e f o l l o w i n g r e s u l t s:
T a b l e 16.
Key to Columns

B. Surinam
C. Caracas
D. Trinidad
E. Puerto Cabello
F. Machala
G. Port au Prince

B C D E F G H I
Per cent
Moisture 13·02 11·90 13·09 12·04 — — — 12·51
Fat 4·17 4·15 4·74 4·00 — — — 4·23
Cacao tannic acid soluble in 80% alcohol 5·10 3·80 4·87 9·15 — — — 4·58
Theobromine 0·33 0·30 0·40 0·32 — — — 0·33
Ash 7·31 16·73 7·78 8·99 — — — 10·20
Woody fibre 14·85 17·99 18·04 15·98 — — — 16·71
Nitrogen — 2·25 2·13 — — — — 2·19
Proportion of husk in the raw seeds 14·60 15·00 14·68 12·28 16·14 16·00 18·68 15·34

Roasted cacao husks contain according to G. Paris91 the following
constituents:
Moisture 12·57 percent, nitrogenous substance 14·69 percent, fat 3·3
percent, extractives 45·76 percent, crude fibre 16·33 percent and ash 7·35
percent.
50 grammes of the husks when boiled with 500 grammes of water give
25·08 percent extract, 20·68 % organic substance, 4·4 % ash, 0·21 % sugar
(reducing substance), 0·79 % theobromine, 0·12 % percent acid, calculated
as tartaric acid.

The following constituents have been found by R. Bensemann92 in the
ash of cacao husks:

T a b l e 1793.
Machala Porta
Maracaibo Caracas Trinidad
Guayaquil Plata
Per cent
Ash dried at 100° C.
I. insoluble in dilute hydrochloric or
nitric acid:
a) Volatile dessicated at 100° C. 0·113 0·421 0·979 0·306 1·247
b) Fixed at red heat 1·917 47·711 29·315 37·662 51·513
II. Soluble in dilute hydrochloric or
nitric acid:
c) Potassium oxide K2O 31·517 11·812 25·866 23·117 12·174
d) Sodium oxide Na2O 4·188 3·298 2·726 1·210 2·780
e) Calcium oxide CaO 10·134 4·458 5·097 3·503 4·401
f) Magnesium oxide MgO 9·546 4·703 5·206 4·837 4·090
g) Ferric oxide Fe2O3 0·647 0·931 0·339 0·958 0·462
h) Aluminium oxide Al2O3 0·281 1·554 0·710 1·854 1·046
i) Silicic acid SiO2 1·180 7·975 2·416 4·321 6·780
k) Phosphoric anhydride P2O5 9·068 7·630 4·703 7·288 7·242
l) Sulphuric anhydride SO3 3·041 1·478 3·398 1·741 2·012
m) Chlorine Cl 1·005 0·220 1·022 0·255 0·444
n) Carbonic anhydride CO2 25·454 5·399 16·290 11·834 4·247
o) Water H2O 2·135 2·499 2·263 1·171 1·662
p) Oxygen O equivalent to chlorine 0·226 0·049 0·290 0·057 0·100

As evidenced in the preceding examples, data as to the constituents of the
cacao husk deviate considerably with different authors. Laube and
Aldendorff, for instance, found 14-20 percent, while Zipperer obtained 12-
18 percent of husks.
These discrepancies are mainly due to adhering sand and ferruginous
earth collected during the drying and fermenting processes. If the beans are
carefully collected and kept free from earthy substances, the percentage of
husks as against that of the bean will appear much lower; it is, indeed, now
possible to obtain properly treated beans which contain on an average only
some 10 percent of husks, such as Ariba and Machala. The husks of these
two varieties are exceedingly woody, and their amount sometimes reaches
15 per cent. The latest machinery for cleaning the beans effects so complete
a separation of the husks from the kernel that very little of the former
remains in the finished cacao preparation (less than 1 percent in thin-shelled
beans and no more than 2 percent in thick-shelled beans such as Ariba). For
some years it was not possible to effect so thorough a removal of the husk,
so that there was always found an appreciably large amount of shells in the
finished preparations, which rendered it difficult to detect adulteration. As,
however, the quantity of ash present in the husk is double that in the kernel,
it was possible to form an opinion as to the intentional admixture of shells
from the increase of ash in cacao preparations. Hence the ash was always
required to be determined when adulteration was suspected. Under existing
conditions the addition of a quantity of shells sufficient to increase the
percentage of ash present in the powder or chocolate is scarcely practicable,
so that, for the purpose of detecting small additions, other methods must be
resorted to, such as the estimation of the crude fibre or silica in the ash94
with the aid of the microscope, in which it is possible to easily distinguish
the forms of the cotyledon (kernel) mass and those of the husk. The diagram
on page 14, Fig. 3, clearly shows the elementary forms of the cacao husk as
represented by Mitscherlich. It illustrates a longitudinal section of the husk
of Bahia beans, enlarged about 500 times, with six different cell elements in
alphabetical order. First the compressed cells of the epidermis are to be seen
on the exterior, in several parallel series and succeeded by moderately broad
and thin-walled cellular tissue of the parenchyma, which sometimes
presents large empty spaces (sch) the results of the loosening of the cell
walls through the formation of mucilage. This cellular tissue (lp) is also

permeated by bundles of spiral vessels (gfb), which, with the dry cells, are
characteristic of the husk, as they exist only in very small quantity in the
kernel. Then follow parallel rows of cells (lp) resembling epithelial cells;
next comes a layer of cells with thick walls, the dry cells (st) and finally
several rows of elongated ones (lp). The silver membrane (is) interposes
between the husk and the kernel, fragments of which remain adhering to the
shell after separation of the latter.
To conclude, we find that the husk of the cacao bean consists of the inner
coat of fruit, called endocarp and other parts of the fruit covering, as well as
the skin of the seed95. The following layers may be distinguished;

1. The pulp, (f in fig. 3) fragile large cells with frequent hiatus;
2. the e n d o c a r p (fe), a single layer of fragile, very narrow and
irregularly arranged cells, but w i t h o u t h i a t u s;
3. the e p i c a r p, or skin (se), polygonal and extended cells, with an
outer wall of some thickness.
4. the p a r e n c h y m a or cellular tissue (lp), consisting of large and
multiform cells, with vascular bundles (gfb), the large mucilagenous
or slime cells (sch) and
5. the s k l e r o g e n o u s o r d r y c e l l s (st), a single layer of
vessels shaped like a horseshoe, and thickening towards the interior,
and in conclusion
6. the s i l v e r m e m b r a n e (is), belonging to the earlier inner coat
of fruit, and consisting of two single rows of fat-bearing cells.

In examination of the husks of the plane surface enlarged 160 times (fig.
8), it will be noticed that the characteristic epidermis (ep) consists of large
and rather elongated but irregular polygonal cells. Frequently on the
epidermis may be remarked a delicate network of the cells constituting the
fruit pulp (p). Beneath the epidermis lies a very delicate transverse cellular
layer (qu) followed by the parenchyma, as already stated. The remaining
elementary forms are not readily observed on a plane surface but only in
section, though we adjoin a few diagrams, showing the layers as isolated

from the pericarp; namely, fig. 9 parenchyma, a layer of sklerogenous cells,
fig. 10, and the silver membrane (is) with two superjacent Mitscherlich
particles (tr) in fig. 11.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

For microscopical examination, the husk must first be defatted with
petroleum or ordinary ether and then treated with dilute chloral hydrate (8:
5) to assist the definition of the forms. An approximate estimation of the
amount of husk in a cacao preparation can be made by means of the
microscope, adopting Filsinger’s96 levigation method, which consists of
concentrating those elements of the cacao which are seldom seen even in
suspension in water, and which sink to the bottom when repeatedly stirred
in that liquid. To these belongs first of all the husk, and its presence and
determination in the levigation method is accordingly greatly facilitated.
The details of the method will be further described in treating of husk
admixtures in cacao preparations.

Fig. 11.

Cacao shells are the only by-product in the cacao industry, and have been
developed and exploited to such an extent, that a rational utilisation of the
ever increasing quantities has become a matter of urgent necessity. They are
not used in our industry, for an admixture of husk is not permissible, even
in the inferior kinds of chocolate or cocoa powder, but must be regarded as
an adulteration. It is true that they have been brought on the market as
cocoa tea, and again, have been coated with sugar, to make them tasty; and
to this day, candied husks constitute a favourite sweetmeat of the population
of East Germany. But in this way only comparatively inferior quantities of
the by-product were absorbed, and consequently projects of all kinds have
been suggested to use up larger percentage. As we have seen, the fatty
contents of the bean can be extracted with benzine, and there is a resultant 4
or 5 percentage of fat of inferior value, which is commercially known as
“Dutch IIa Cacao Butter”; the defatted shells can be further used for the
preparation of theobromine, as Zipperer has already noted in the first
edition of this book.

Kathreiner’s successors in Munich97 employ an extract of cacao shells
prepared with hot water, in order to improve coffee berries during the
roasting and to give a flavour to the coffee substitutes prepared from corn
and malt. Cacao extract is also prepared from the shells98 by first treating
them with water or steam, and afterwards extracting with water, and finally

evaporating as far as necessary. The thick extract thus prepared contains
theobromine, and is intended for use either alone or as an addition to cacao
powder and chocolate.

Strohschein in Berlin99 prepares from the shells a thick liquid extract
which he calls “Martol Its preparation was suggested by the fact that the
cacao husk gives evidence of containing a considerable amount of iron. In
“Martol”, the iron occurs as a tannate, and the preparation further contains
theobromine, carbohydrates, and phosphoric acid. The preparation is said to
be used as a medicinal remedy in chlorosis, yet has scarcely justified such a
statement.

Alfred Michel of Eilenberg100 utilises the shells in the preparation of a
brown colouring material. The husks, free from impurities, are first soaked
in soft water, with or without the addition of sulphuric acid, then washed
and finally treated with a strong 35 % solution of caustic soda. From the
alkaline solution, the colouring matter is precipitated with acid or acid
metallic salt, collected on a filter, and again washed. Thus obtained, it is a
dark reddish-brown paste, possessed of a vitreous fracture. The yield of
colouring matter is from 20-25 % of the weight of the original shells. By re-
treatment with alkali, the paste can be again obtained in solution and can be
used as required, either in liquid or paste form. The colouring matter can be
obtained in different tints, either by soaking the shells in more er less dilute
sulphuric acid, or by precipitation from the alkaline solution at various
temperatures, or yet again, by the addition of metallic oxides.

Boussignault101 says that in Paris briquettes have been made from cacao
shells, and twenty-two years ago, Zipperer102 proposed to use them as
fodder, especially for horses. Experimental work in that direction was
instituted, but for various reasons, had to be abandoned. The question as to
a rational working up of the husk of the cacao bean is once more receiving
special consideration, more particularly since the publication by the
“Association of German Chocolate Manufacturers” of a prize essay on the
subject. The fodder value of the husks as determined by Märcker is
apparent from the following figures:
T a b l e 18.

free from dust, whole fine meal whole and dusty
Shells
% % %
Moisture 9·08 6·50 9·95
Albumen 13·56 14·13 12·69
Albumen digestible 6·06 7·07 4·38
Fat 2·65 6·76 3·96
Raw fibre 29·14 25·80 21·55
Ash 6·32 6·44 7·26
Non-nitrogenous extractive 39·25 40·37 44·59

Feeding experiments which were carried out in certain agricultural
institutes showed that the cacao husk stands in nutritive value between good
meadow hay and wheaten bran, and is not only a fattening fodder for oxen,
but also a valuable feeding material for cows and deer103. These results
have been confirmed by Prof. Feruccio Faelli in Turin104.
The advantages of cacao shells as fodder, when a comparison with bran is
established, are at once apparent. Two hundredweight (that is to say, about
220 lbs. averdupois) cost only from six to seven shillings, whilst the price
of bran varies between nine and ten shillings. The husks also keep better,
for after having been stored eighteen months, Professor Faelli found that
they had undergone no alteration, whilst on the other hand bran had become
sour. A further advantage possessed by the husk is that it will absorb four
times its weight of water against three times absorbed by bran. Cattle not
only readily get accustomed to the fodder but subsequently take to it with
eagerness. The best results were obtained with Dutch, Swiss and Parmesan
milch cows. After 10 days feeding the butter and milk-sugar had increased,
as well as the daily average yield of milk from 44 to 49·5 kilogrammes. As
soon as the feeding with cacao husk was discontinued the yield of milk
decreased. Faelli concludes that cacao husk, which can be used as a fodder
up to 4 kilog. daily, exercises a very favourable influence on milch cows,
and he purposes to continue the investigation with horses.
In a report on the Experimental Farms of Canada 1898, page 151,
reference is made to the manurial value of the husks in enriching the soil
with nitrogen and potash, a fact which had already been pointed out by
Boussignault.

The future use of the husks appears therefore to be ensured, and it is to be
hoped that it will allow of a permanent consumption of this by-product.

Part II.
The Manufacture of Cacao Preparations.

A. Manufacture of Chocolate.

The Preparation of the Cacao Beans.

Up to the end of the eighteenth century the manufacture of chocolate was
carried on entirely by hand, a method at once laborious and inefficient. The
workman used to kneel down on the ground, and crush the beans in iron
mortars. It was not until 1732105 that Buisson introduced the use of a bench
and so rendered that inconvenient and unwholesome practice unnecessary.
Even to-day, the Chinese cooks on the Philippine islands carry their
chocolate “Factory” about with them, in which the trestle is essential. It
further comprises a small marble mortar and warmed pestle, and by means
of these utensils and implements the hulled beans are pounded, and the
triturated mass so obtained spread out. It is then flavoured with sugar and
spices. With that exception, hand labour in the chocolate manufacture has
since the year 1778 been entirely displaced by machinery, when Doret
exhibited the first specimen before the medical faculty of Paris. According
to Belfort de la Roque,106 a Genoese named Bozelly had already
constructed a mill by means of which he was able to prepare from six to
seven hundred pounds of chocolate daily, comparing favourably with the
thirty pound output yielded by hand labour. Pelletier107, in 1819, describes a
machine for the mechanical preparation of chocolate of his own
construction, capable of doing the work of seven men. The machines used
in the chocolate manufacture have since that time been repeatedly improved
and re-constructed, although always with this one end in view, namely to
obtain a fine even cacao mass, and afterwards mix it as thoroughly as
possible with the other ingredients employed.
The first machines of the modern type were constructed by the Parisian
mechanic George Hermann (1801-1883) in the year 1830, to which inventor
we are indebted for the principle of fine grinding with varying velocities, on

which manufacture of chocolate is based to-day. There is at the present time
a rather large circle of manufacturers engaged in the putting together of
special machines for the preparation of cacao and cacao products, chocolate
apart.
Whether chocolate manufacture be carried out on a large or small scale, it
always involves the subjecting of the cacao bean to a regularly succeeding
series of operations, before the resulting product known as “Chocolate” (in
the strict commercial sense of the term) can be obtained.
The respective operations succeed each other as follows:
I. P r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e B e a n s .

1. S t o r i n g, c l e a n s i n g and s o r t i n g of raw beans.
2. R o a s t i n g the cleansed beans.
3. C r u s h i n g, s h e l l i n g and c l e a n s i n g the roasted bean
(removing the radicles etc.)
4. M i x i n g different kinds of beans.

II. P r o d u c t i o n o f t h e C a c a o M a s s .

5. G r i n d i n g the beans till they yield a homogenous paste on
heating.
6. M i x t u r e of the liquefied cacao mass with sugar, spices, etc.
7. T r i t u r a t i o n by rollers.

III. P r e p a r a t i o n of the resulting C h o c o l a t e.

8. E x t r a c t i o n of a i r, d i v i s i o n and m o u l d i n g.
9. C o o l i n g .
10. P a c k i n g and s t o r i n g.

This represents the general course of manufacture, which we will now
proceed to describe in more detail, following the headings given above.

1. Preparation of the Beans.

1. S t o r i n g, c l e a n s i n g and s o r t i n g.

Right up to the moment when they are to be used in the manufacture, the
raw cacao beans must be kept as originally packed, and stored in an airy
sun-lit room; although if they have accumulated moisture during transport
or sustained any manner of damage in harvesting, they should then be
emptied out of the sacks, spread out over the floor of such a room as above
described, and dried as effectively as possible. It has also been
recommended that such beans be washed with a dilute solution of caustic
potash (1 in 5000), and afterwards dried rapidly.
Unfermented beans, those damaged in the harvest, and those which have
received no proper fermentation, develop a greyish white colour with
occasional tints of violet and an unpleasant, bitter herbal flavour, properties
which unfortunately penetrate to the resulting cacao products. Attempts
have been made to meet this evil with a so-called “Secondary Fermenting
Gordian108 proposes in this connection that the beans be filled in water-
butts, and steeped in warm water for at least 48 hours (so that obviously the
butts must be kept in a warm room), at the expiration of which time it can
be poured off, and the beans dried in a chamber heated to a temperature of
between forty and fifty degrees centigrade. There is said to ensue an
appreciable improvement as to flavour and colour, when this process is
carried out.
The magazines in which cacao beans are stored have sometimes an
unwelcome visitor, to wit, a grub which according to W. Hauswaldt109
happens to attack just the best kinds of Caracas and Trinidad. As eggs of the
grub have on several occasions been found on the interior of the still
unshelled bean, we may assume that they were deposited by a butterfly

(species unknown, but possibly Ephestia cahiriteller, cf. von Faber loc. cit.
page 335) either before or immediately after fermentation, and no later.
Sometimes these grubs appear on the surface of the sacks, which they
overspread in a few days. Removal of the infected packages, opening the
sacks, and exposure to the sun, as well as a thorough cleansing of the
storehouses, is attended with a qualified amount of success. The best plan is
to destroy the moths during their period of activity in the summer months
June, July, and August.

According to Hauswaldt, Stollwerck110 and G. Reinhardt111, this can be
effected by placing in the store rooms large, shallow basins of water, near
which burning petroleum lamps are introduced on the approach of dusk,
favourably placed on a pile of bricks and stone, so that they clearly
illuminate the reflecting water. The moths assemble round the light en
masse and either perish in the water or flame, a fate which sometimes
overtakes even the larvae, for they display the same fatal attraction for any
light, real or apparent. The water must be changed every day, as otherwise
the wing-dust collecting on its surface affords a means of escape to the
insects coming later. As the weather becomes cooler, the doors and
windows of the store-rooms should be left open, so that when frost sets in,
the rest of the maggots may be destroyed.
The cleansing and sorting of the raw cacao bean is the most important
factor in the manufacture of chocolate, and yield a manifold return, for
inferior and cheaper kinds of bean which have passed through these
processes can be advantageously mixed with finer varieties. The chief
object of cleansing and sorting is the removal of foreign bodies and such
chance admixtures as sand, pebbles, and fragments of sacking, which are
liable to damage the stones used in grinding at a later stage of the
preparation, or communicate an unnatural and disagreeable smell to the
subsequent roast products. These admixtures are so multiform and various
that they cannot be removed solely by the aid of machinery, but must be
finally picked out by hand. Mechanical appliances are limited to the
removal of pebbles, dust, and possible fragments of iron, after which
preliminary cleaning the beans are thrown on straps, where they can be
picked by hand. The collector of these foreign bodies would find himself
with a rather interesting stock at the end of a few years, as Wilhelm Schütte-
Felsche points out.

The cleansing of the raw beans was formerly carried out in so-called
roller casks, placed horizontally, and revolving round an axle fitted in the
floor, whence it passed upward, cutting them slantwise. In this apparatus the
beans were rolled and vigorously rubbed together, and afterwards the hand-
picking succeeded. More recently, the roller casks have been displaced by
rotary cylindrical sieves, driven by motor power.
Such a machine is illustrated in fig. 12. The beans are lifted to a rotatory
cylindrical sieve by means of an elevator, where they are freed from dust
and dirt; in other sections of the sieve fragments of blossom, sacking, or
cloth are isolated, whilst occasional splinters of iron are removed by a large
magnet. So prepared, the beans are cast on running belts, and here the hand-
picking above-mentioned is carried out.
Fig. 13 shows a cleansing machine for the same purpose, which has
recently become rather popular. Here the dust passing from the sieve is
sucked up into a dust chamber, by means of an exhauster, whilst pebbles,
blossom fragments, and small beans are separately isolated. The cleansed
beans pass likewise under magnetic influence, which removes traces of
iron, and finally succeed to the running belting.
Often the beans are introduced into an extensive brushing machine before
roasting, to cleanse them from dirt etc. These are generally found in such
factories as have circular and cylinder roasters with direct heating
apparatus. Fig. 13 a shows such a brushing machine for cacao beans.

2. R o a s t i n g t h e B e a n s .

The cleansed and sorted beans are now subjected to a high temperature,
that is to say, they are now roasted. This roasting answers many purposes;
1. The aroma and flavour of the bean is so developed.
2. The starch granules are gelatinised.
3. The herbal constituents are so transformed that the flavour of the beans
becomes milder; a distinct improvement.

4. In the consequent drying, the shells are rendered brittle, and more easily
removeable.
5. The beans themselves can afterwards be better ground.
The roasting of the cacao bean does not demand so high a temperature as
that of coffee, to effect the above chemical and physical changes.
Experience has shown that the best temperature lies between 130-140 ° C.,
though deviations from this standard have recently become frequent and
considerable, according to the uses for which the cacaos are intended, and
roasting has sometimes taken place at a temperature even as low as 100 ° C.

Fig. 12.

The process of roasting can be carried out in the roasting drum or
machine in a variety of ways, as:
1. Direct roasting over a coal fire,
2. Passing of a hot-air stream over the beans,

Fig. 13.

3. Roasting by means of gas, with compressed air, as far as s o u r c e s
o f h e a t are concerned; and as regards s h a p e o f t h e d r u m, it is to
be noted that the cylindrical are most in use. The separation of the shells
from the kernel was still effected at the beginning of the present century by
stirring the beans in water and so detaching the inner coating of the seeds,
the method adopted by Weisched (Mitscherlich page 112). Not till this stage
had been reached were they subjected to a strong heat, causing the shells to
spring off.
This method has at the present time only historical interest, for the so-
called roasting drums, as used in the preparation of coffee, are now

universal.

Fig. 13a.

Roasting must be attended with the greatest care, in order that it may
neither be too thorough nor insufficient. It is a great mistake to think that
the roasting machine can be handed over to the care of any apprentice. That
nicety of roasting which corresponds to the variety and its subsequent
utilisation constitutes the qualitative basis of the chocolate manufactured
later. It is impossible for even the best chocolate maker to retrieve what has
been spoilt in this important preliminary operation, wherefore a skilled
workman, endowed with a keen sense of taste and smell, is always to be
seen at the roasting machine.
It has already been attempted to provide a means of security against over-
burning by the construction of the so-called safety-roaster, about which will
be spoken later.
Overroasting is immediately indicated by a disagreeable empyreumatic
odour (resembling that of roasted coffee); the husks char and the kernels
crumble, also betraying a charring on the outside. There is a
correspondingly increasing keenness of flavour, and a transference of
theobromine from the kernel to the husks (cf. page 65). From the
destructive distillation of the cacao fat arises that volatile and pungent
acroleine which is the principal cause of the empyreuma of the over-roasted
bean.

Fig. 14.

The following general precautions in roasting cacao are worthy of note;
1. the beans should not remain too long in the roasting drum; 2. they should
be kept on the stir, for which reason the apparatus is made revolvable on its
axles; 3. the heat applied should be carefully regulated; and 4. to guard
against a loss of aroma, the roasted beans should be cooled as rapidly as
possible.
As the cacao must be more or less roasted according to its quality and
ultimate destination, which entails the acquisition of considerable empirical
knowledge on the part of the workman entrusted with this process, it would
be neither advisable nor practicable to annex definite instructions as to time
and temperature requirements.
In the following we describe a machine which is to be found in most
factories and which corresponds to all the demands of technique. From its
heating system, it belongs to the class of hot-air current roasters—direct
coal fire assisting—and in shape to the cylindrical roasters.

Fig. 14 a.

This machine is illustrated in fig. 14 and shown in section in figs. 14 a
and 14 b. To prevent loss of heat by radiation, to save fuel, and preclude
possibilities of danger from fire, the whole installation is walled in. Driving
shafts occur at the back of the machine, and the charging apparatus is
introduced in front. A furnace lies directly under the drum, whilst on either
side are chambers accessible to currents of fresh air, which are provided
with heating tubes and which admit of a regulation of the air supply. They
are shut off from connection with the gases from the fire, so that only the
fresh air heated here can penetrate to the roasting products in the charged
drum. There are winnowing shovels fitted in this, calculated to keep the
beans in motion and facilitate the access of air. When the hopper is closed,
the gases arising from the roast product can be led off by an annexed outlet
pipe, and thereupon condensed and the resulting liquid drained off at the
foot of the machine. For the attainment of the proper degree of roasting, as
well as for controlling the whole process, there is a sampler to every
machine. The drum is emptied whilst in motion, its door-like front being
turned aside and the roasted beans transferred by the winnowing shovels
before mentioned to trolleys wheeled underneath.

Fig. 14 b.

The loss of heat by radiation is very insignificant, as the machine is
completely walled in. Any kind of fuel may be used. Since the stoking as
well as the removal of soot takes place at the front, several of these roasters
can be set up side by side. It is a great advantage of this installation, that by
removal of the front of the drum its interior is laid quite open, admitting of
a thorough overhauling which is attended with every disadvantage for the
flavour of subsequent roasting lots.
The machine here described is constructed in varying sizes, with an
outside capacity of four hundred kilograms.
As already mentioned the so-called safety-roaster offers a certain security
against the burning of the beans as the roasting boiler is lifted out of the fire
by means of an automatically working safety regulator. Figs. 15 a and b
show a spherical roaster open and closed.

Fig. 15 a.

The principal of construction is founded on the fact that each roasting is
connected with a loss of weight and it is logical that the same quality of
beans always yields the same loss of weight at a certain degree of roasting.
On an average cacao yields a loss of 6-7 %. According to this, the loss of
weight which can at first be empirically ascertained, for example by a new
kind of bean, can be calculated and can be indicated on a regulator, on the
principle of the Roman scale. When the beans have lost the weight in
question the counterpoise of the regulator raises the axle of the roasting
sphere by means of which the working of the whole machine is set in
motion.
There is no exception to the rule that only beans of one and the same kind
should be roasted and broken up together, as thickness or thinness of the
shells determines to a large extent the time required for roasting, and also an
even size of bean is necessary to the smooth operation of the breaking
machine. The husks of the roasted cacao bean are hygroscopic, and
consequently the roasted unshelled beans contain more moisture after

having been kept for a time, than they do in the raw state; but the drier the
bean is, the easier it shells. The cacao is therefore to be worked up as
quickly as possible, or at least kept in well covered metal boxes till further
treatment can be proceeded with.

Fig. 15 b.

As sources of heat we find direct and indirect stoking with house coal
and coal gas, and besides these, for the installations of larger factories
Dowson gas is especially suitable, as it does not involve too high a
temperature, and the outlay is not so great as when coal-gas is used.

Fig. 16.

The roasting machine in fig. 16 for Dowson or coal gas belongs to the
class of roasters with direct firing. It corresponds to the one diagrammed in
Fig. 15 as regards charging and emptying. Here also the front wall of the
drum can be removed, and the interior consequently laid completely open.
The transmission of gas is effected at an air pressure of one atmosphere, for
the attainment of which an air pump is fitted up in the vicinity, capable of
feeding four machines at the same time. The drum holds about 150 kilos. It
goes without saying that the regulating of the requisite heat is in this
instance of the utmost ease and nicety. Another preponderating advantage of
this machine as compared with those heated with coke or ordinary coal is its
clean operation and the extraordinary speed with which it can be both
started and stopped. Form 3-4 cbm. of coal gas are needed for 100 kilos of
beans, whilst for Dowson gas, which has not such a high heating value,

much larger quantities are required, and consequently a stronger framework
becomes necessary, though here no air pumps need be put in operation.

Fig. 17.

Steam roasting apparatus have not proved particularly successful, as has
been evident in all experiments hitherto made with them, and steam agency
does not appear to be suitable for the cacao bean, it admitting of no
thorough and at the same time even roasting.
Yet on the other hand the hot air-current roasters described enjoy an ever
increasing popularity, partly because they are heated indirectly, and again
because they appreciably diminish the time taken up in the actual process,
which in other cases approaches to as much as thirty or forty minutes,
without exposing the beans to the danger of burning or getting charred.
As just stated, the beans should be passed on to the next process as
speedily as possible, yet on the other hand be completely cooled off, so as
to loosen their shells before they arrive in the breaking machine. There are
also special constructions for this cooling. If the roasting drums are fitted up
directly on the ground, it is effected by disposing the beans issuing from
these machines in wide baskets or sieves, and letting them cool there before
bringing them to the next process. Should they be situated at a sufficient
height, the beans can be slowly transferred down a shoot connected with the
rooms below, where crushing mills await them, and cooled on the journey
by a play of fresh air currents.

Very much to the purpose and well adapted as regards most of the
requisite conditions, are the cooling trucks with exhaust apparatus shown in
fig. 17.
These trucks are fitted with perforated false bottoms and with sliding
shutters at the side. After the contents of the roasting machine have been
discharged into the trucks, these are wheeled over to the exhaust apparatus
easily recognisable in the diagram, where the cacao is so far cooled that
subsequent “after-roasting” is impossible, whilst the gases given off are
conducted by the ventilator. This exhaust chamber can be made to work
from both sides.

3. C r u s h i n g , h u l l i n g a n d c l e a n s i n g .

Up to ten years ago, the crushing and shelling of cacao beans had not
been so far perfected as to effect the complete separation of husk and
radicle from all particles of kernel, or to prevent loss by isolating and
collecting the minute particles of kernel, which are drawn up through the
exhaust apparatus in conjunction with the lightest of the cacao shells. Yet
the requirements demanded of a satisfactory machine advanced to such an
extent that not only cacao nibs free from shell were postulated—an end
scarcely hard to attain—but shells free from cacao nibs were made a further
essential. A machine which performs both these objects not only works
excellently, but is also economical. For a solution of this problem the
Association of German Chocolate Manufacturers, which is specially
interested in all that concerns the chocolate industry, offered a prize years
ago; the firm of J. M. Lehmann were the first to construct a machine
answering every call made on it to perfection.
Fig. 18 illustrates a crushing and cleansing machine averaging an output
of 2500-3000 kilos, of the latest and most modern type.

Fig. 18.

The beans are first broken into smaller pieces in all machines now
employed as crushing, shelling or cleansing apparatus, and the one at
present under consideration provides no exception. An air-current is made
to play on these fragments, which finally isolates and transfers the loosened
shells to another part of the apparatus. The cacao next succeeds to a crusher
of regular capacity lodged in the upper part of the machine, being
despatched on an elevator. The fragments fall into a cylindrical sieve, dust
being detached in the first compartment, whilst the meshes of subsequent
compartments gradually increase in size and sort the products therein
transmitted in corresponding sizes. There is a groove traversed by air-
currents—proceeding from a ventilator—immediately under each
compartment. This current of air can be regulated, i. e. made weaker for
lighter and stronger for heavier fragments, and there is a ventilator for every
compartment to make this regulation of the easiest, and in this way shells of

equal size but specifically lighter than, the cacao fragments are most
efficaciously separated. Contrasting with the older type of machine, it
works almost noiselessly, all shakings of grooves and sieves being entirely
avoided; in addition to which there is a perfect exclusion of dust, when the
shells are transferred into the dust-removing chamber. A further advantage
is that there is no wearing out of the machine, except as regards the direct
crushing apparatus, which occasionally need renewing.
The dust particles before mentioned, which possibly comprise as much as
one half of the cacao fragments, require a special kind of working up, on
d i f f e r e n t m a c h i n e s, before the cacao still contained therein can be
obtained. It is a fact obvious and apparent, that the smaller the fragments of
shell mixed with this crushed cacao, the more difficult will be their
separation, a fact of equal importance to technical and analytical science,
and the more scrupulously this process is to be carried out, the greater the
lavishment on sieves and ventilating compartments entailed.
To effect this operation on the breaking machine is seriously to overtask
the latter, and defeats its own end, as experiments carried out in the
Chocolate factory of Schütte-Felsche have proved, inasmuch as it leads
very easily to mixing of the products which are to be kept separate.
Fig. 19 shows such a machine for the cleansing of this so-called cacao
“dust
The particles are raised to a large flat sieve by means of an elevator,
again sorted in different sizes, and submitted to air currents of
corresponding strength. The quantity obtained varies according to the
variety of cacao, though in some cases it may amount to 50 or 54 percent.
What remains after this process is absolutely worthless and can only be
considered as refuse, at least as far as the chocolate manufacturer is
concerned.

Fig. 19.

It has become necessary in modern manufacture that iron fragments
occurring in the machine not only be separated by distinct magnetic fields
in the respective machines, but that this also be effected in a machine
specially constructed for the purpose. Fig. 20 illustrates such an
electromagnetic apparatus. The advantages of this system are that it avoids
magnets limited in strength, and by the functioning of strong electro-
magnets perfect cleansing even in the case of the largest output, as well as
machines of the most simple construction, can be guaranteed.
We submit the following description of the machine and its method of
working.

Fig. 20.

The machine contains a hopper with sloping groove to obtain an even
introduction of the beans to be cleansed. At the end of this there is an
electro-magnet roller, consisting of a non-magnetised mantle and a
magnetic compartment round which it turns.
After traversing the sloping groove, the beans succeed to the roller,
meeting it at a tangent. As soon as they reach the field of magnetism, all
iron fragments are appropriated by the revolving mantle, whilst the beans
themselves do not come into contact with this, but pass directly underneath.
The iron fragments are disposed of separately, and outside the magnetising
area.
It is of prime importance in the preparation of chocolate and more
particularly of cocoa powder (easily soluble cacao), that the crushed
material proceeding from the crushing machine should undergo a further
purification, with a view to separating, and removing the hard radicles.
These constitute the gritty sediment of insufficiently prepared cacao

powder, when dissolved. J. M. Lehmann effects the complete removal of
the radicle by means of his machine D. R. G. M. No. 24,989 (Fig. 21).

Fig. 21.

Here the finer siftings from the crusher are transferred to the controlling
feeder, under which a small ventilator occurs, which provides for the
removal of any still remaining portions of husk. Cacao and radicle descend
to a shaking sieve, the finer particles passing through its meshes, whilst the
larger grains fall into a pocket attached to the end, as cleansed product. The
former fragments now succeed to a cylinder, having its inner surface
punched with small cavities (fig. 22) and while the cacao particles remain in
those cavities during the rotation of the cylinder, the radicles of more
elongated form are caught up by a special separator (1) and so prevented
from being carried round with the rest. The cacao particles are then made to
fall into a trough (3) by a brush (2) working against the cylinder, and
subsequently urged forward by a conveyor (4). That process is enacted all
along the cylinder, so that finally cacao and radicle issue from the machine
completely separated.

Fig. 22.

The advantages, economical and otherwise, attending the use of the
above breaking and cleansing machines become apparent when the
following figures, registering results obtained in several experiments, are
considered. Formerly the loss experienced in sorting, roasting, crushing and
hulling averaged about 30 % of the total beans, but now the employment of
the above machines shows the following satisfactory improvements.
The loss of 823 kg Machala beans, unroasted, amounted to a total:

a) in picking 3·6 kg
b) " roasting 63·5 "
c) " shelling 61 "
d) " dust 34 "
162·1 kg or 20%,

without taking into account the application of the waste; 2267 kg of St.
Thomé raw cacao lost:

a) in picking 5 kg
b) " roasting 170 "
c) " shelling 152 "
d) " dust 79 "
406 kg or 20%.

According to these data the use of these machines admits of a saving of
about 10 percent more material than in former work.
In connection with these particulars it is also of interest to consider the
qualitative and quantitative composition of the various waste products of
the manufacture. Filsinger112 has at the instance of the Association of
German Chocolate manufacturers, examined a mixture of 50 pounds of
large Machala beans with an equal quantity of small beans, after passing it
through a shelling machine of the most modern construction, and he thus
obtained:

70 pounds of large kernels,
9·2 " " medium kernels,
0·8 " " radicles,
10 " " husk (outer woody shell),
4 " " cacao waste,
6 " " other loss,

The 4 pounds of cacao waste yielded by further sifting:

a) kernel I. sort 250 grammes,
II. " 50 "
III. " 220 "
IV. " 25 "
b) husk I. " 185 "
II. " 55 "
III. " 370 "
IV. " 80 "
c) cacao dust 725 "
d) waste 30 "

e) loss 10 "
2000 grammes.

Chemical analysis of these portions gave the following results:
Percentages
Ash Sand Fat Fibre113
1. Husk 10% of the raw cacao 11·15 1·90 4·50 21·36
2. Cacao waste 4% of the raw cacao 4·80 0·35 15·40 16·31
3. Seed shells I. sort ;0·37% of the raw cacao 6·70 — 21·64 10·29
4. Seed shells II. sort 0·11% of the raw cacao 7·10 — 18·39 8·75
5. Seed shells III. sort 0·74% of the raw cacao 7·20 — 15·76 12·16
6. Seed shells IV. sort 0·16% of the raw cacao 7·80 — 16·40 12·74
7. Cacao dust 1·45% of the raw cacao 11·75 — 22·06 8·40
8. Waste 0·06% of the raw cacao 7·05 — 20·44 9·81

From these data it is evident that there is a great difference between the
chemical composition of the so called cacao waste and that of the exterior
ligneous shells. From the large amount of fat present in the former material
it might be regarded, in the full sense of the term, as a cacao constituent
and, for that reason, its presence in cacao preparations should not be
objected to, while the husk containing as much as 20 percent of woody fibre
cannot be considered a cacao constituent in the same sense.

4. M i x i n g d i f f e r e n t k i n d s .

Stress has already been laid on the variations in taste incidental to
different species of bean. It has further to be noted that they develop a
milder and more aromatic flavour according as they have been more
properly fermented, and in contrary instances possess an astringent and
even acid taste. It therefore becomes an aim of the manufacturer so to
improve the flavour of inferior varieties by mixing with the finer as to
produce a resultant cacao giving perfect satisfaction to every taste.
Nevertheless the general rule still holds good that for the preparation of the
finest qualities of chocolate only the better sorts of bean (as Caracas, Ariba,
Puerto Cabello etc.) should be employed. For inferior and less expensive
ware other varieties of bean suffice, the mixture being obviously regulated
by the prevailing market prices.

In many instances the proportions of such mixtures are kept secret by the
manufacturer as matters of importance, and every individual manufacturer
has his own method and specialities as regards such blends.
We compare here a few verified blends:
1. 2.
Caracas Caracas = 1 part
Guayaquil } of each 1 part Bahia = 5 parts
3. 4.
Maracaibo Trinidad
Maragnon } each 1 part }
Maragnon equal parts
5. 6.
Caracas = 1 part 1 part Ariba
Maragnon = 2 parts 1 part Surinam
1 part Trinidad
7. 8.
1 part Ariba 3 parts Ariba
1 part Trinidad 1 part Trinidad
1 part Surinam 1 part Surinam
1 part Caracas 1 part Caracas
9.
1 part Machala
1 part St. Thomas

Ceylon cacaos are not used so much as mixing varieties, but almost
exclusively as covering agents, to make other cacaos lighter coloured
(sometimes almost approaching yellow).
The beans are weighed off in these proportions on a sensitive scale, and
then passed on to be ground and triturated into cacao paste.

II. Production of the Cacao Mass.

5. F i n e g r i n d i n g a n d t r i t u r a t i o n .

Formerly the roasted, crushed, and decorticated beans were frequently
ground before being transferred to the “Melangeur”,—a machine that will
be described later—, in which they were then reduced to a finer state of
sub-division and lastly mixed with sugar. For this grinding, mills of various

construction were employed (as Weldon, Pintus etc.). But as time rolled on
the Melangeur took the place of these preliminary grinding mills, and in this
it was endeavoured to effect that fine division of the cacao mass which is
essential to the production of a homogeneous cacao and sugar intermixture,
but without complete success. Cylinder rolling machines (French method)
were the first to attain this result.
At the present time, the roasted and cleansed kernels are ground so fine
as to become a semi-liquid when subjected to heat, and that is done
whatever the ultimate destiny of the cacao, whether it be intended for
chocolate or cocoa powder. This object is obtained by means of special
mills, constructed with “Over-runners

Fig. 23.

Fig. 24 a.

These cacao mills, which were formerly but seldom met with in
chocolate factories, have now become indispensable necessaries, since they
have the advantage:
1. of rendering the cacao mass in this semi-glucose form more easily
miscible with sugar, a factor of the highest importance for the commoner
and cheaper qualities of chocolate;

2. of grinding the cacao as fine as possible in one operation and the
simplest manner.

Fig. 24 b.

Fig. 24 b.

Fig. 24 c.

But side by side with the appreciation which these mills met with, there
arose a corresponding increase in the demands made on them, such as the
utmost nicety, greatest possible output, and least possible necessity of after-
heating, and these have been successively answered by twin, triple and at
the present time even quadruple mills. fig. 23 shows a simple grinding mill
which can only come into consideration in connection with the smallest of
branches, whilst Fig. 24 a and b illustrates another with three successive
stones arranged one above the other, such as will be found in all the larger
factories of to-day. Also a triple mill but with grindstones of increasing size
pictured in fig. 24 c. A mill possessing four pairs of grinding stones is given
in fig. 25, and is calculated to meet each and every conceivable demand.
Whilst simple, double and triple mills are brought on the market in
different sizes, corresponding to the outputs required, these quadruple mills

are only constructed in the largest sizes. They grind perfectly, and without
detriment to the flavour, deliver quantities of cacao figuring at from 1000 to
1200 kilos daily. There is naturally a larger output if the fatty contents of the
cacao are considerable, a thorough roasting being always presupposed.
The axles occurring on these quadruple grinding mills are connected with
one another by means of spur-wheels, and the axles themselves run in ball-
bearings, which not only permits a perfectly noiseless operation of the
machine, but also makes the action very easy, that is to say, dependent on
only very little motor power. The cacao is raised to the hopper by means of
an elevator, where the quantity introduced into the machine is regulated,
and then passes between crushers occurring in the middle of the first pair of
grinding stones, which it subsequently leaves as a pasty mass. It is then
conducted along a groove into the second mill, and here undergoes further
grinding, and so to the third and fourth, where the process can be described
as trituration, for the cacao leaves the machine in liquid form. Only in this
manner is it possible to obtain the finest ground product, without any
disastrous accompaniment of excessive heating.
Cacao mills with one stone suffice for the production of chocolate mass
on a small scale, but for the manufacture of cocoa powder, twin or triple
grinders must be employed.
All these are of the “Over-runner” type, act by their own weight, and
consequently do not involve the disastrous consequences which were
entailed by the “Under-runners” tried formerly.
About the middle of the nineties of the last century, experiments were
made with a view to superseding these types with mills having stones of
varying sizes, and first larger upper stones of a grinding pair were tried,
then larger under stones, but neither have been able to maintain themselves
in the workshop, and the grinders of equal size still hold good as the fittest
and most popular.

Fig. 25.

Attempts have recently been made to introduce a machine combining
mill and roller. Its value lies in the fact that with a relative increase in the
grinding rapidity, it does not involve a greater than requisite heat, and on
emerging from the machine the cacao shows no deficiencies as to flavour,
and is withal much finer than that produced in other processes.

Fig. 26.

Fig. 26 shows such a machine. The mill on this serves merely to reduce
the hard kernel to a pulp, and this admits of the grinding stones being
placed farther apart, and so occasions no heat. Trituration is then effected by
a roller apparatus, for which operation machines with four rollers have been
proved most satisfactory. As such roller machines are furnished with water-
cooling systems, it is possible for the cacao to be kept cool even on these.

6. M i x t u r e w i t h s u g a r a n d s p i c e s .

Fig. 27.

A thorough mixing with sugar can only be effected when the cacao paste
is heated to a temperature rather above the melting point of cacao butter,
that is to say, as high as from 35° to 40° C., and consequently the
incorporating machine in which that operation is carried on is provided with
a steam jacket. For this process it is advisable to have the chocolate in a
semi-liquid condition, wherefore the ground cacao issuing from the mills is
transferred to steam-heated vessels (fig. 27) fitted with taps suitable for
drawing off the mass as it is required. Formerly the cacao mass was fed into
the melangeur in lumps and there liquefied. But as this necessitated the
application of heat to the melangeur, attended with the risk of cracking its
under-plating, and also a postponement of the mixing processes, whereby
considerable time was lost, this method no longer obtains to-day. It is at
present usual not only to warm the cacao mass beforehand, but the sugar
also, by storing it in warm chambers, so that the whole paste possesses a
uniform temperature, lowering of temperature in the melangeur is avoided,
and there is consequently no waste of the heating steam.
In some large factories the actual incorporation of cacao and sugar is
preceded by a preliminary mixing of large quantities, which considerably

relieves the strain on the melangeur, whilst it keeps the machine rooms as
far as possible free from superfluous dust.

Fig. 28.

The mixing machine shown in fig. 28 can here be used with advantage.
As will be seen on comparing the illustration, it is provided with a shifting
trough. Such a machine, when closed down, is capable of mixing from 100-
500 kilos of chocolate. The mixing is effected by means of two suitably
shaped blades, and the heating by a steam jacket. After the operation is
completed, the mixed material is turned out into portable troughs, and after
having been kept in a warm chamber for some length of time, transferred to
the melangeur for further treatment.
It has been found advantageous to keep the chocolate mass so obtained in
suitable receptacles for several days114, at a temperature of not less than
20° C. and between that figure and 40° C. So the sugar is enabled to
penetrate the entire mass, which now proceeds to the rolling processes
carried out in the melangeur and rolling machines. Shortly before its
discharge from the latter, it is mixed with spices, vanillin, eatherial oils and
so forth.

Fig. 29.

7. T r e a t m e n t o f t h e M i x t u r e .

a) Trituration.

In describing the mixing machines, we do not intend to enter into details
regarding the machines formerly in use, but merely to give a brief outline of
the principles illustrated in their construction.
Trituration was formerly produced;
1. by rollers running backwards and forwards on a grinder;
2. by several cones rotating in a circle on a disc-shaped bed;
3. by means of rotating stones running in a trough;
4. by means of several cylindrical rollers;
5. by means of grooved cone moving in a grooved casing.115

At the present time only the type mentioned under 1. and 4. are in general
use. 3. is met with less frequently, and will be described at greater length in
a subsequent paragraph.
The machines 1. and 3. are put into operation prior to the cylinder rolling
mills, which finish off the incorporation of chocolate and sugar and the
levigation process only begun in the first-named.
The machines constructed in the manner described under 3., to which we
now turn, were introduced by G. Hermann of Paris, but are at present
almost obsolete. Since they have some historical interest and are typical of
the development of the melangeur, we annex a rough sketch showing their
general construction in fig. 29.
The ellipsoid runners a made of granite work in the trough i which is also
of granite and is fitted with the casing h. The runners rotate on their axles b
so as to move in a circle. The two arms of the axis b have at the centre an
elliptical ring with a quadrangular opening, into which fits the similar
shaped part of the vertical shaft c fitted with the toothed wheels, d and d′,
which are set in motion by power transmitted to the shaft and its
connections. The arm b has some play downwards, so that it can adjust
itself vertically according to the greater or less quantity of material in the
mill. The two steel blades, e and e′, are shaped to fit the cavity of the
trough; being connected with the shaft c they revolve with it and sweep
down the cacao mass adhering to the sides of the mill. Between the
foundation k and the trough i there is a space l into which steam can be
introduced through f, the condensed water passing away by g.
All machines of this kind have now been displaced by the melangeur
which is capable of turning out a much larger quantity of material with a
relatively smaller expenditure of power. The operation of mixing chocolate
is not a mere mixing, for the p r e s s u r e exerted by the r u n n e r s is also
an indispensable factor. On that account the ordinary mixing machines have
not proved serviceable, especially in the case of chocolates containing a
small amount of fat, such as the cheaper kinds, while the addition of cacao
butter to facilitate the working of the machine would considerably increase
the cost of production. Melangeurs are generally constructed on the same
principle as the edge runner grinding mills which are so much used; but

they differ from them in so far as the bed-stone revolves, while the runners
merely rotate on their axles without revolving.

Fig. 30.

The melangeur with travelling bed-stone, as constructed by Lehmann, is
shown at fig. 30; it is fitted with an arrangement for lifting out the runners.

Fig. 31.

The bed-stone as well as the runners are made of granite. Each runner has
an axis working in plummer blocks, so that it can be lifted out
independently of the other one. By that construction the runners are
prevented from taking an oblique position as was the case with the mills
formerly made, since one runner would be forced downwards or tilted on its
outer edge whenever the other one was raised up somewhat. The bed-stone
of this machine revolves and it is easily heated by steam pipes from below.
One important advantage of this machine is that being low it can be very
easily charged and emptied. The contrivance for lifting out the runners
prevents them thumping upon the bed-stone that might otherwise readily
happen when starting the machine, and it also lessens the wear of the
driving bands; moreover, large lumps of sugar or cacao are very readily
crushed down and, so, the working is much facilitated. The emptying of the
melangeur is readily and safely effected, while the bed stone is revolving,
by holding a shovel so that the cacao is thrown up against the shovel. A
melangeur of this construction is represented by fig. 31; it has three runners
and underneath the bed-stone is fitted a steam engine which supplies
driving power, the exhaust steam being used for heating the machine.

Although this emptying by hand is not attended with any serious
drawbacks, yet it involves loss of time and is rather inconvenient, so that
the demand for mechanical automatism in this operation was very
considerable. It is now some years since Messrs. J. M. Lehmann patented
an apparatus for the mechanical discharging of the chocolate mass from
these machines, but their invention still holds good. A melangeur provided
with such apparatus is shown on fig. 31. Here a vertically moving shovel is
sunk behind the outlet, gradually damming the material, and causing it to
rise above the edge of the tank and fall through the opening. A second but
horizontally working arrangement, which in this case as in the last is
controllable by means of a crank, conducts the remainder of the material to
the same shovel. So the material is discharged within a few minutes.—
These melangeurs are built for varying outputs. Fig. 32 illustrates one of the
largest yet constructed. Its base has a diameter of 2 metres, and the machine
itself has a capacity of 5 cwts. To avoid the mixing of dust with the sugar as
far as possible, the whole melangeur is provided with a dust-proof protector.

b) Levigation.

An extreme fineness and homogeneity of the chocolate mass is obtained
in the employment of cylindrical rolling machines, for the construction of
which we are indebted to G. Hermann of Paris. Every kind of chocolate
must be passed through the rolling machine at least once or twice even
when finely powdered sugar is used, though in this case it is less a question
of sub-division than of incorporation and intermixture. The best qualities
are passed through the machine from six to eight times, or even more. The
mass is finally fed into the machine in cold blocks and so ground off.
Granite is the material chiefly employed in making the rollers, although it is
not every variety which can be adapted to this purpose. Apart from the fact
that granite, or indeed any other mineral stone, seldom occurs in compact
masses and free from flaws, neither porphyry nor the stone generally
described as granite is suitable for employment in the construction of mill
rollers. A kind is generally preferred which intermediates between granite
and porphyry as to hardness and possesses excellent grinding capacities,
and which goes by the name of diorite. No other stone can compare with

this diorite in respect to the above qualities, and the chief firms engaged in
the construction of roller machines possess their own quarries. But we shall
return to this later, for recently experiments with case-hardened casting
rollers (Krupp steel) and hard porcelain have yielded very flattering results.

Fig. 32.

Fig. 33 a.

Fig. 33 b.

We shall now enter into more detail respecting the principle illustrated by
these rolling machines. The plasticity of the chocolate mass necessitates a
rotation of the cylinder surfaces in opposite directions with dissimilar
velocities. Accordingly two or more rollers are caused to work against each
other, and in compliance with this principle of sub-division with differential
velocities, their axles are fitted with wheels, of which each has a different
number of cogs.

So those rollers furnished with the greater number of teeth revolve more
slowly, whilst in opposite instances there is a corresponding acceleration.

Fig. 34.

The construction of the machines now in use differs more or less from
that of the type first invented by Hermann, plan and elevation of which
appear in figs. 33 a and 33 b respectively.116

The granite rollers at a1, a2, a3 are fitted with an octagonal iron axle that
is somewhat thicker at the interior part and they are mounted upon a frame
as shown in the drawing. The sockets of the central rollers a2 are fixed and
each one is held in position by three sets screws; those of the two other
rollers can be shifted along grooves in the frame and when the cylinders a1
and a3 have been brought into proper position relatively to the cylinder a2
they are held fast by the set screws p.

Fig. 35.

Fig. 36.

For the purpose of this adjustment, there is at each end of the machine a
horizontal wrought iron shaft f that can be turned by the winch e, and these
shafts are fitted with two endless screws d working in the corresponding
wheels c. These occur on the spindles a, which screw in and out of the
bearing blocks of the rollers a1 and a2, but turn only in the fixed collars b
without being shifted from their place. The result is that on turning the
cranks e the corresponding cylinder a1 or a3 is moved nearer to, or further
from, the central cylinder a2, while the position of all of them always

remains parallel. The shaft Q is set in motion by the driving wheel L fitted
with the loose wheel L1. It acts first upon the cog wheel K which works in
the larger wheel J on the axle of the central roller a2. That works in the cog
wheel O and the wheel P fitted to the roller a1 driving them as well as the
wheel M and the pinion N of the roller a3 The result is that the axle a2
makes 1¾ revolutions and a3 6-1/8 revolutions while a1 in the same time
makes only one revolution.

Fig. 37.

The cacao or chocolate is supplied to this machine by the hopper R which
is placed between the rollers a1 and a2. The pasty mass adhering to the
rollers is carried forward by the quicker moving roller a2 and it is ground

finer between the rollers a2 and a3, after which the material is removed
from a3 at the outer side by an adjustable blade gg and then falls down into
a receptacle below.

Figs. 38 and 39.

On the design fig. 3434 we see a machine of more modern construction
ready mounted. The receptacle parts of the same are arranged and
connected in full agreement with the above mentioned except that the
motion is effected by the driving power fitted to the machine on the ground
on the left side.

Fig. 40.

The principle of this roller machine has long been applied in the building
of other types, and we find that these, variously altered, renovated and
improved, are to-day an indispensable equipment in every chocolate
factory. In the following pages we give a description of some of the best-
known constructions of refiner.
The so called battery rolling mills constitute a remarkable innovation. It
is apparent that the more rollers a cylinder machine contains, and the
greater their length and diameter, all the more efficacious will the working
of the machine be. Batteries have accordingly been constructed, whereby
two, three or more roller systems are combined, one to every three rollers,

and rising one above the other, so that they slant upwards much as shown in
Fig. 40.
As the battery rolling mills possessed the disadvantages that they took up
too much room and could not be well fed and regulated, they are generally
replaced by rolling machines of from 6 to 9 rollers, first constructed by J.
M. Lehmann. These rolling machines of 6 to 9 rollers which we see before
us in Figs. 3535 and 3636 are really systems of 3 rollers fitted one over the
other. They therefore take up the room of a 3-roller machine and are quite
as easy to work.

Fig. 41 a.

As will be seen from the design of a nine-roller apparatus, fig. 37, the
chocolate mass descends from one roller system to the other, and is fine
rolled in a third of the time otherwise required, and at one operation, with
corresponding saving of labour. The nine roller apparatus are provided with
landing stage and steps, and fed either by means of elevators, or from
above.

Fig. 38 shows a recent construction, three roller apparatus (case castings,
cf. below) standing vertically, which accordingly takes up little room. The
hopper is low-lying, whilst the discharging is effected from the upper roller,
and accordingly admits of the occasional use of a somewhat larger size of
transport trolley. This type also occurs with 6-9-12 rollers, as apparent from
fig. 39.

Fig. 41 b.

Whilst these systems were exclusively supplied with rollers made of
granite or hard porcelain up to a few years ago, it has been found that good
results are obtained by the use of cast rollers, and they have been for some
time employed on machines of three, four and five rollers. (Figs. 38, 40, 41
a-c.) In consequence of the non-porous surface of these steel rollers, it is
possible to grind to a finest powder, merely in one operation, without

passing the chocolate through the machine several times; and the so-called
“Burning” of masses which have not been properly mixed cannot arise in
this case, though it is true that the apparatus must be provided with water
cooling arrangements to avoid a too excessive heat. They are specially
adapted to the preparation of the more ordinary qualities, and are even
occasionally employed for finer chocolates, for obviously these must be
again submitted to a rolling process, when granite or porcelain rollers are
preferred.

Fig. 41 c.

For this reason the 6, 9 or even 12 roller mills have been more discarded
since the last grinding process has been performed by granite rollers (cold
process).
In order to avoid the disadvantages of the pulley drive, it is in certain
cases advisable to drive each machine direct from an electric motor. Fig. 42
illustrates a refining machine driven in this manner.

Fig. 42.

c) P r o p o r t i o n s f o r m i x i n g c a c a o m a s s , s u g a r a n d
spices.

The relative proportions of cacao, sugar, and spices, as well as of starch
as in the manufacture of the cheaper sorts, vary considerably. Generally
speaking 50 or 60 parts of sugar are added for 50 or 40 parts of cacao mass;
the following are a few formulae applicable for the production of those
kinds of pure chocolate that are most used.
A. Hygienic chocolate.
Cacao mass
Powdered sugar } equal parts of each.
B. Spiced chocolate.
a) b)
Cacao mass 4 kg Cacao mass 4 kg
Sugar 6 kg Sugar 6 kg
Cinnamon 72 g Cinnamon 130 g
Cloves 38 g Coriander 8g
Cardamoms 16 g Cloves 88 g
Oil of lemons 2 g

Cardamoms 16 g
c) d)
Cacao mass 5 kg Cacao mass 5 kg
Sugar 5 kg Sugar 5 kg
Cloves 80 g Cinnamon 100 g
Cinnamon 220 g Vanilla 100 g
Mace 8 g or Vanillin 2·5 g
Mace 2g
Cardamoms 4·2 g
e) S p a n i s h s p i c e d c h o c o l a t e .
Cacao mass 5 kg Cardamoms 82 g
Sugar 5 kg Mace 44 g
Cinnamon 116 g Vanilla 40 g
Cloves 50 g or Vanillin 1g
Oil of lemons 1 g
C. Vanilla chocolates.
a)
Cacao mass 5 kg
Sugar 5 kg
Cinnamon 160 g
Vanilla 50 g
(or Vanillin 1·2 g)
b) c)
Cacao mass 4½ kg Cacao mass 4 kg
Sugar 5½ kg Sugar 6 kg
Cinnamon 150 g Cinnamon 120 g
Vanillin 1·5 g Cloves 20 g
Vanillin 1·6 g

The powdered spices as given above may be replaced by corresponding
essential oils, but see page 237 for remarks on this point.
If the chocolates made from beans rich in oil contain too much fat to
mould properly, a small percentage of their constituent cacao mass can be
replaced by cocoa powder made from the same kind of bean, but defatted,
in the case of the finer qualities; and when inferior varieties are under
consideration, the same result may be attained by a sufficient increase in the
proportion of their other constituent, sugar, as e. g. 55-60 parts of to 45 or
40 parts of cacao mass, so disturbing the usual equality of the two
ingredients mixed together. Very cheap chocolates in particular are prepared
from a smaller percentage of cacao mass and show a corresponding increase
in their sugar content. But if the sugar exceeds 65 percent, it is no longer

possible to mould these chocolates, and the addition of fresh cacao butter
becomes a necessary preliminary to this operation, cf. also the first part in
section IV. Such varieties would have a composition somewhat like the
following:

Cacao mass 25parts
Sugar 67 "
Cacao butter 7 "
Spices and vanillin as above 1 "

In the experimental preparation of samples of chocolate mass it is not
advisable to employ large quantities of ingredients, when a waste of
material is bound to ensue, but to begin with mixing small quantities of one
or two kilos. The small Universal Kneading and Mixing Machines, Patent
Werner & Pfleiderer, Type 1, Class BS, can here be used with advantage.
They are specially intended for small outputs and experimental work; but
we shall return to their description later, after stating that they are furnished
with heating apparatus, stuffing boxes and air-tight lid, and can easily be
taken to pieces, greatly facilitating the removing of the mass.

III. Further Treatment of the Raw Chocolate.

8. M a n u f a c t u r e o f “ C h o c o l a t s F o n d a n t s

Fig. 43.

Recently the creams sometimes described as in the heading have enjoyed
a vast popularity, and are sold as eatable chocolates in ever-increasing
quantities. As far as can be ascertained, they were first manufactured in
Switzerland, melt readily, and have a correspondingly large amount of fat,
resulting from the addition of cacao butter, which distinguishes them from
ordinary chocolates. When readily melting chocolates were first introduced,
it was a prevailing opinion that the required property could only be obtained
by increasing the amount of fatty content. Now the excessive evidence of
fat in chocolates is very objectionable, both as regards taste and
digestibility. To avoid this, therefore, the chocolates are treated
mechanically, to attain the required character of readily melting. The
machines used for that purpose are termed “Conches”, because the trough,
in which the chocolate is rubbed into a long cylinder, has somewhat the
shape of a long shell. For the working up of chocolates in conches, the
necessary conditions are;

1. that the chocolate should have been ground perfectly fine,
2. it must contain such an amount of fat as to become glucose on
warming, not indeed so thin as that used as coating material, but
nevertheless softer than the ordinary cake-chocolate of good
quality.

Fig. 43 a.

Fig. 44.

The machine can be heated by means of steam, hot water pipes, gas or
charcoal stoking, according as they are available in the place of installation,
and the temperature should rise above 70-80° C. for fondants, and 50° C. for
milk chocolates. In factories with water power or electricity, continuous
fondant machines can be worked day and night, but when only worked
during the day, must be kept warm overnight. Constant tending of the
machine is unnecessary, as it works automatically. After a treatment of from
40-48 hours, the chocolate attains the requisite character (i.e. it melts
readily), and a rounding off of taste, which are the properties of all good
brands. Milk chocolates can also be advantageously prepared in the conche,
as also covering or coating cacaos of all kinds, which harden considerably
in consequence of this treatment.
Figs. 43 and 43 a show quadruple conches of the modern type with hot
water, wherein four troughs are arranged in pairs, and one opposite the
other. Conches with only 1 and 2 troughs are also constructed, and in
various sizes, the troughs sometimes having a capacity of 125 and 200
kilos, so that the quadruple conche is capable of holding five or eight

hundred kilograms in all. The curved bottom of the troughs, as well as the
rollers fitted in them, are made of granite, and the front wall strongly bent
in at the corner, so that the mass is forced over the border of the front wall,
where there are openings for its discharge as well. To prevent radiation as
far as possible, it is best that the troughs be walled in, the troughs are either
walled. Fig. 44 shows the room of a modern chocolate factory, with 15
conches.
“Chocolats fondants” are from a gastronomic point of view, the finest
chocolate product on the market, and it is not remarkable that this branch of
the chocolate manufacture has witnessed a considerable extension, and is
likely to extend still more.

9. H e a t i n g c h a m b e r s a n d c l o s e t s .

The manufacture of chocolate has been very considerably facilitated by
the introduction of heating chambers and closets, which have now become
an indispensable feature of every factory in the industry. In these chambers
the chocolate which has still to be rolled, as well as that already submitted
to this operation, is stored and kept at a temperature of 60° C. until it can be
further treated (moulded). This manner of heating involves an appreciable
cheapening of the production, for masses which are dry and apparently
require an addition of fat recover in such a manner during a twenty four
hours’ storing in the heating chambers that such addition becomes
unnecessary. But especially when chill casting rollers are employed, which
the mass leaves in a very dry state, the use of these heating chambers is
indispensable. They should be available in every factory to such an extent
as to find room for the total output of one day, though even twice or three
times this amount might very well be provided for. Closets heated by steam
are best adapted for small factories, such as are illustrated in Fig. 45. They
possess double doors, are walled in, and are capable of holding from 300-
400 kilos of chocolate mass for each metre of length. Larger factories
should furnish themselves with chambers, which are more open to access
and on the walls of which iron shelves can be introduced, heated by steam
pipes arranged underneath. A typical chamber, measuring 2·8 metres in
breadth (including passage) and 5 metres in length would hold about 2,500
kg of chocolate.

Fig. 45.

10. R e m o v a l o f A i r a n d D i v i s i o n .

Fig. 46.

After emerging from the final rolling process, the chocolate is stored up
in heating chambers until it is ready to succeed to the moulding, prior to
which, however, it must be freed from air and cut up into small portions.
Until recently, it usually came next in a melangeur provided with a dish-
shaped bed-stone made of granite, as illustrated in fig. 46, where it was
kneaded and reduced to a uniform plasticity and heated to the temperature
required for moulding. The melangeurs devoted to this purpose are now
superseded by special tempering machines.
A machine of this recent construction, used for working solid and semi-
liquid material, is shown in fig. 47. The tank intended as a receptacle for the
chocolate mass is in this case made of iron and, to facilitate cleaning,
smooth in the interior. It runs in a water-bath, the supply in which can be
controlled by steam or cold water. The granite runner is provided with a
lifting device, admitting of the working up of material containing foreign
ingredients like nuts, whole and fine-split.

Fig. 47.

The mass is taken out of the machine in lumps, and in order that it may
be reduced to a temperature suitable for the removal of air (about 26-32 ° C.
on the outside) it is laid to cool on wooden, marble or iron tables. When this
temperature is arrived at, large lumps of chocolate are introduced either into
the air-extracting or the dividing machines.

Fig. 48.

After the importance of the tempering processes had at length been
recognised, inasmuch as the maintenance of the temperature prescribed is of
immense influence on the chocolate subsequently produced, and it had on
the other hand been ascertained that such machines as described above
could not be absolutely relied upon, for the shaking tables involve an
occasional excess of tempering, the idea of a machine which should
completely and automatically perform this task was finally conceived. This
new machine, given in fig. 48, and already differing from all other

tempering machines in external appearance, ushers in an entirely fresh
process respecting the modus operandi prevailing in the present
manufacture of chocolate, which does not fail to satisfy the highest
expectations. It may be said to work continuously, for no matter what the
temperature of chocolate passing into it may be, the material leaves the
machine at the temperature desired within a lapse of one minute. According
as more or less chocolate has to be turned over in the moulding department,
the machine can be stopped or set in motion without detriment to its
efficacy. Besides this, it cleans almost automatically, so that a quick change
of quality is always possible. The special virtue of this machine is that it
turns out the material with such a degree of homogeneity as has never
before been known, making moulding at much higher temperatures a
possibility. There is yet another side issue, namely a doubling of the life of
the moulds, and finally, owing to the fact that the often considerable amount
of waste material is done away with in this process, the moulding shop is
spared to some extent. The series of rollers through which the chocolate
passes is maintained at a proper temperature by means of automatic water
apparatus. The daily output of the machine figures at 3000-4000 kilograms.
The material is passed on out of this machine to the dividing and moulding
processes.
The necessary extraction of air follows immediately on the tempering
process, for the blades of the scraper then release the chocolate mass from
the rollers in thin layers, between which air penetrates. The removal of air is
effected by machines, an old type of which is shown in fig. 49 (in front
elevation).
It can be warmed by means of a charcoal fire placed in the space i, or by
any other suitable means. The chocolate mass is fed into the cylindrical
hopper a, at the base of which occurs an archimedian screw b, which is
propelled by the shaft and cog-wheel system c d e in the direction indicated
by the arrow. Thus the chocolate mass is forced into the box f, leaving
which in cylindrical form, it succeeds to the travelling band h. It is now
almost entirely freed from air. As the material is pushed forward on the
band, it is cut off either by a knife g fixed to the box f, or divided as far as
possible into equal parts by a double knife with adjustable blades
corresponding to the weight required for a chocolate square. This
manipulation presupposes a fair amount of skill on the part of the machinist,

but this once attained, the division ensues as precisely and simply as can be
desired.
Air-extracting machines of recent construction, although still partially
built on the above principle, are at the same time generally developed as
automatic dividing machines.

Fig. 49.

Fig. 50.

Fig. 50 shows such a machine for solid and semi-liquid chocolates. By
means of this, the material is next conducted along a vertical screw path in
even mass to the horizontal screw, and so a second filling with the hand is
rendered unnecessary. After it has been freed from air in this, it enters a
revolverlike cutter, which discharges the divided portions on a travelling
belt. On the latter it is conducted to a table standing near, where it is laid
into moulds. The machine is of very strong make, and puts out from 15-250
gr, divided into approximately 10-25000 squares, within a space of ten
hours.

Fig. 51 a.

Figs. 51 a and b give finally two of the best known types which have a
very extensive application, protected by patent imperial (Germany), and
built by J. M. Lehmann, Herm. Baumeister, J. S. Petzholdt in Döhlen, G,
near Dresden and others. With this patent dividing machine of J. M.
Lehmann, solid and semi-liquid chocolate material, as also nut and almond
chocolates are divided exactly, in any weight from 18 to 250 grammes, and
then conducted in strips of equal size to the mould previously mentioned.
As far as cleanliness, purity, and easy management are concerned, it fulfills
all the demands which can be expected of the most modern machine.

Fig. 51 b.

IV. Moulding of the Chocolate.

11. T r a n s f e r e n c e t o t h e M o u l d s .

Fig. 52.

The pieces of chocolate, on emerging from the dividing processes, are
placed separately in iron moulds, that is to say, as far as this has not already
been done in the dividing machine. It is important that these should have
the same temperature as the chocolate mass, in order to prevent the
formation of spots on the surface of the cakes, and to obtain a good and
non-greyish fracture. The temperature for moulding smaller objects can be
fixed at between 27° and 32° C. and for the larger may be considerably
lower. In summer also, moulding may be proceeded with at a lower
temperature than in winter. According to a note in the Gordian (1895, No.
4) the moulding may be carried out in summer, when the atmospheric
temperature is;

from 25-31° C, at 26-27·5° C
" 18·5-25° C, at 28·5-30° C
" 12·5-18·5° C, at 31-32·5° C

In cold weather, the cakes may be moulded at a temperature of from
32·5-35° C., according to their thickness. When not manufactured in the
automatic machine shown in fig. 48, the mass should be otherwise
controlled as regards temperature, which should be registered by a

thermometer introduced therein. The moulds are for the most part filled
with plastic and liquid chocolates, and their depths determined and
modified by the weight of material which they are destined to receive.
Fig. 52 shows a machine which conducts the semi-fluid mass to the
moulds in the following manner. The moulds are automatically introduced
under the apparatus, and filled from the small stirrer above. They then
succeed to the shaking table and are finally transported to the cooling room.
On this machine moulds of from 75-350 mm long and 75-225 mm broad
can safely be employed.

There are two different forms in which chocolate is sold, namely, that
intended for domestic purposes, and that which is to be consumed as an
article of luxury. The kinds known as cake, rock and roll chocolate belong
to the first class, the several pieces weighing 50, 100, 200, 250, 500 up to
5000 grammes. Tin-plate is the only material of which moulds are made;
and these generally have a capacity rather greater than is necessary for
holding the particular quantities to be moulded. The chocolate is therefore,
as described above, divided into given weights, and generally deposited
direct in the moulds by the dividing machine. The divided portions of
chocolate are pressed down in the moulds by hand, equally distributed in
the latter, and then transferred in the moulds to the shaking table or
combination of shaking tables to be described later. On the shaking table the
soft chocolate soon penetrates completely into all the corners and
impressions of the stamped tin moulds. The removal of the cooled cakes
from the moulds is easily effected by pressing.
These moulds are generally provided with from four to ten ridges or
indentations, so that the chocolate can be conveniently divided, and as
required for use. Others again have a similar number of compartments.
The compartments may be impressed with any kind of inscription, so that
such information as the name of a firm can always be reproduced on the
cakes.

Broken chocolate is generally of inferior quality, brought on the market
without any protective covering.
In those kinds of chocolate which are known as articles of luxury a
distinction is to be made between;
1. Those moulds which are in one piece and completely filled with
chocolate, so that the superfluous mass can be removed by a knife. In such
cases the weight of the cakes is exactly regulated by the capacity of the
moulds.
2. Those intended for moulding various figures of fruit etc. in which two
or three parts make a closed space which is of the form desired.
Among the moulds of the first type must be numbered those used in the
preparation of small tablets and sticks, and the sweetmeats known as
Napolitains and Croquettes.
The second class comprises moulds for making chocolate cigars and
chocolate eggs, and also the double moulds.
The moulds for the smaller tablets, cream sticks, napolitains and
croquettes are also made exclusively from tin-plate, and the separate parts
are enclosed in a stout iron frame, the top of which is ground down smooth,
so that any superfluous portion of the filling can easily be scraped away. In
that way from six to thirty pieces can be cast in one mould at the same time:
the cooled chocolate can be released from the moulds by gently tapping one
corner against a table. In napolitain moulds protecting hooks are attached,
to avoid their sustaining any injury in this operation.
Examples of the more frequent moulds.
1. C h o c o l a t e C i g a r s .
These are made either by introducing the chocolate mass between the two
halves of a double mould, of which each corresponds to a half of the cigar
shape to be moulded and which each fit exactly one on the other; or else by
pouring it into hollow moulds stamped out of one complete piece.
Moulding presses117 are utilised in the manufacture of material e n
m a s s e. In these the cigars are filled into iron moulds, afterwards held

together by means of iron combs, and so introduced in to the press. For
each size and shape special moulds and plates are essential. Neither barium
sulphate nor zinc white may be employed to produce an imitation of the ash
on ordinary cigars, as both are objected to by health inspectors; nor are they
necessary, for in phosphate of lime (tricalcium carbonate) we possess a
perfectly harmless and at the same time efficient substitute, when it is
mixed up with starch syrup.
Other figures, such as fish etc., may also be produced in chocolate, by
means of the moulding press, when it is furnished with stamped moulds,
corresponding to the forms required.
2. C h o c o l a t e e g g s .
These are generally made hollow, unless they are very small, by pressing
chocolate in two halves of an egg-shaped mould and then uniting the two
parts. Another method patented by Th. Berger of Hamburg118 seems less
practical. A mould is made of soft sheet caoutchouc blown out; this is
dipped into liquid chocolate and, after the adhering coating has hardened,
the air is let out of the mould. The use of caoutchouc moulds would render
this method too costly, since the alternation of temperature soon makes the
caoutchouc unserviceable.
3. Va r i o u s f i g u r e s , f r u i t s , a n i m a l s , a n d o t h e r
small objects.
Double moulds are used for making these objects in chocolate, consisting
sometimes of three or four parts; they are made either of sheet iron, tinned,
or, for more complicated forms, the moulds are cast in tin, but these latter
are not so durable as those of tinned sheet iron with strong iron frames.
The several parts of the moulds, after having soft chocolate mass pressed
into them, are put together and excess of material is removed by requisite
pressure by the use of a press of the kind made by A. Reiche in Dresden,
which will admit of a large number of moulds being placed in it at a time.
By the use of such a press the moulds are protected from injury, and the
objects moulded have a better appearance, as a result of the uniform as well
as strong pressure exerted.

After cooling, the moulded objects are readily detached from the moulds
and they only require to be scraped clean, or further ornamented as may be
desired. That is done in various ways, for example by painting with
coloured cacao butter.
4. C r u m b C h o c o l a t e .
This term is applied to the small pieces of chocolate of truncated conical
shape, with from 4 to 5 smooth surfaces. They are made by a machine
specially constructed for the purpose by A. Reiche (No. 1550); it consists of
a four-cornered box with a removable bottom. Inside the box there is a false
bottom, from 1 to 2 cm above the other bottom, which is fitted with a
removable sheet iron plate, in which pentagonal holes are stamped. A knife
can be introduced at one corner of the bottom of the box. After sufficient
chocolate has been made to penetrate through the pentagonal holes by
agitating the box on the table, the knife is rapidly drawn across the bottom
and the box raised up. The sheet iron plate is then taken out, and by gently
tapping one corner the small pieces of chocolate are shaken out.
5. S m a l l t a b l e t s , s t i c k s , f r u i t s o r f i g u r e s f i l l e d
with cream.
These are prepared by pouring the cream contents in either wooden or
iron moulds, previously dusted with a little flour, and then moulding round
them chocolate in whatever form is required, always taking care that this is
kept as soft and plastic as possible, a suitable addition of cacao butter
proving invaluable for the purpose.
In former times chocolate moulds were manufactured exclusively in
France, where the firm Létang of Paris enjoyed what was to all intents and
purposes a world monopoly. But since the year 1870 the oft-mentioned firm
of Reiche in Dresden-Plauen has taken up the manufacture, and has
succeeded in conquering the market in a remarkably short time. The moulds
of this firm satisfy each and every possible requirement, although it would
be no disadvantage if the old type of pattern mould were cleared away at
one and the same time with the old routine, to make room for a little artistic
skill and embellishment.

Recently Reiche has brought out a special machine intended as an easy
and practical cleanser of his many moulds, which include bonbon cutters
and cutting rollers, numbering stamps, chocolate slicers, roller machine
boxes etc. He has lately brought on to the market a special machine for
quickly and efficiently cleaning the moulds, which is illustrated in fig. 53.
In one end, a circular brush is introduced, and against this the moulds to
be cleaned are firmly pressed. In consequence of the large number of
revolutions which this brush passes through, the moulds are cleansed of still
adhering masses of chocolate in a half or third of the time occupied when
hand labour is employed. At the other end of the shaft occurs a duster,
sprinkled with Vienna white (a lime), which polishes off the moulds
previously and thoroughly cleaned by the circular brush. The great
advantage of this machine is that the daily expenditure on polishing is
considerably reduced One girl can do the work of two hand workers, when
this machine is employed. In addition, it makes possible a continual
touching up of the material used in the making of the moulds, a ventilating
apparatus removing all traces of dust.

Fig. 53.

12. T h e S h a k i n g T a b l e .

The pasty chocolate mass fills itself into the chocolate moulds
spontaneously, in consequence of its soft consistency. Yet to share it evenly
throughout the mould, so that it adapts itself to every bend and hollow there
occurring, and further to bring to the surface any possible bubbles of air

evident in the mass, the chocolate is whilst still in the moulds subjected to
brisk shaking.
This is effected by placing the chocolate on trays and transferring these to
the shaking table, of which types and construction are at the present time
manifold and various, the best and oldest being given in front elevation
below (Fig. 54).

Fig. 54.

The movable slab a, fitted with an upright rim at its edges, has
underneath two projecting pieces d, working against deeply toothed wheels
e, which fastened on the shaft b, are driven round by the pulleys c. The
teeth of the wheels catch on the projecting pieces at every revolution of the
shaft and push them rather gently on one side, and when the tooth-points
slide from under the slab, it drops down as much as it has been previously
raised. Each tooth of the wheel coming into contact with the projections, the
same motion is repeated several times, causing the slab to oscillate up and
down.
This oscillation of the slab is controlled by means of a hand lever f,
occurring on the shaft g, and fixed crosswise thereon, so that we can only
show it in cross section on the diagram. The lever f attaches itself to the
under part of the slab, raises it, and so throws the wheels out of contact with
the projecting pieces, but without stopping the rotation of the shaft b.
Shaking tables have also witnessed considerable improvements with the
lapse of time, and we shall now proceed to treat these in more detail,
especially as several recent constructions offer and illustrate many
interesting mechanical points.

Fig. 55.

Fig. 56.

An old type of machine, that is nevertheless still much employed, is
illustrated in fig. 55. Here the slab is caused to osculate by shaking wheels
introduced underneath, each possessing six, eight, or more teeth. The slab is
raised and lowered by contact with wedge-shaped parts, the effect produced
being greater or less according as the moulds are large or small, heavy or
light, and in proportion to the consistency of the chocolate mass which they
contain, e. g. whether it is solid or semi-liquid.
Quite an improved construction is shown in fig. 56. Here the table is
attached to a vertical axle, which is moved up and down by means of a

toothed wheel fixed on its bottom end. There is also a cylinder arrangement
under the whole machine to assist in controlling the vertical motion of the
shaft, and as it is provided with automatic lubrication, there is no danger of
any wearing out of the apparatus and consequent irregularity of functioning.
The shaking and jerking of the slabs is in itself attended by a
considerable amount of noise, and when to this is added that caused by the
tables, it will be seen that a chocolate factory may become to its neighbours
a very serious source of objection. For years attempts have therefore been
made to construct shaking tables, so that they would not cause any greater
noise than is absolutely inevitable. Pneumatic contrivances and caoutchouc
have met with right royal success in this connection.

Fig. 57.

The most recent and probably the most perfectly constructed shaking
table is given in figs. 57 and 57 a. It embodies all the latest improvements
and is self lubricating, a fact of the highest importance as releasing the
strain on the attendance, which would need to be very perfect to ensure
absence of noise in the case of a machine making 800 strokes a minute.
When it is considered that the moulding room is generally managed by girls
who neither possess knowledge of, nor interest in, the machines, the
advantages of such automatic lubrication become even more apparent.

Fig. 57 a.

Figs. 58 and 58 a.

Apart from the automatic lubrication, in itself a sufficient guarantee for
the efficiency of the machine, screws and nuts are entirely avoided on this
machine. The motive mechanism is also interesting. By a special
arrangement, the number of revolutions in relation to the number of the
elevations of the slab is reduced to one fourth, viz., from 760 to 190. Since
the elevation of the slab can be regulated to zero, a loose pulley for shifting
the driving belt is unnecessary; in addition, the driving shaft makes only a
small number of revolutions, and works in oil. The round shaped upright
serves to carry the vertically moving frame i, which supports the slab
moving in an oiled groove at s, and which is supported underneath by the
pivot m. Both at m and s there is automatic lubrication. The bearings of the
spindle n, attached to the upright, work into left and right screw threads at
oo, to which points the ends of a broad leather belt p are attached, passing

over the roller g, by which the frame i is suspended. The driving pulley k,
running in oil, carries in its centre the four rollers l, which turn round and
round the pulley k, so as to come into contact with the belt p and press it
outwards on both sides. At the same time it shortens the belt in the vertical
axle, so raising up the table slab i. This is repeated four times by one
revolution of the driving pulley, so that working with 190 revolutions a
minute, the slab is raised 760 times. According as the screws oo are moved
to or from the centre, the vertical movement of the slab can be increased or
decreased to a point when the slab is completely out of action, i. e. when the
rollers l no longer touch the belt p. Under favourable local conditions, a
number of such tables can be driven by one shaft, so that only one pulley
and a single driving belt would be needed, though each table would work
quite independently of the others. Such an arrangement is shown in figures
58 and 58 a.

Fig. 58 b.

This shaking table, though only recently introduced, has quickly made
itself popular, and is especially suitable for the preparation of readily
liquefiable chocolate. The gentle vibratory motion produced by this shaking
table and its exact adjustability admit of the thinnest cakes being made in a
perfectly uniform thickness, without any objectionable projections round
their edges. Besides the shaking tables of this construction there are others
made in such a way that whether the moulds are light or heavy, small or
large, the slab is always raised to the same height, the working of the slab
being adjusted by altering the number of revolutions. The manipulation of
these tables is much more difficult than that of tables constructed as above

described, and that is probably the reason why these have for decades been
scarce on the market.
The moulded chocolate spread out on trays is transferred as rapidly as
possible to the cooling chamber, with which we shall conclude section IV.
Instead of several shaking tables alternately receiving the moulds, which
involve frequent changes, so-called shaking systems (fig. 58b) have been
generally adopted of late. They consist of a number of shaking tables,
having their frames attached to each other, possessing a common motor
control, and having their slabs arranged one after the other in such a way
that the filled moulds slowly proceeding from the dividing machine can be
automatically conducted over them. The shaken moulds are then passed on
to further processes, or they enter the cooling chambers at once. The
advantage of the shaking table system lies in a reduction of the number of
hands, who only need to be in attendance at each end of the system, and
further in the regularity, both as regards time and strength, which prevails in
connection with the shaking of each mould.

13. C o o l i n g t h e c h o c o l a t e .

Experience has shown that the more rapidly the moulded chocolate is
cooled the finer is its texture and the more uniform the appearance of the
fractured surface. That is due to the formation of smaller crystals of the fat
when the cooling is rapid, while in slow cooling larger crystals are formed
and the fracture consequently becomes dull and greyish.
Formerly it was possible to distinguish chocolate made in summer from
that made in winter by the more uniform appearance of the fracture, that
was, in the latter case, the result of more rapid cooling.
At present, however, manufacturers are no longer dependent upon
favorable atmospheric conditions in that respect, for by suitable
arrangements it is now possible to produce the reduced temperature
requisite by artificial means.
The most suitable cooling chamber is an underground space which
should, however, be so situated as to be in convenient communication with

the moulding room. The cheapest and simplest place for a cooling chamber
is a cellar, if it be properly constructed and dry, as well as large enough to
contain the quantity of chocolate made in one day’s working. The best
temperature to be kept up ranges from 8° to 10° C. Within those limits there
is no danger of the chocolate being coated with moisture, or that it will
acquire a coarse grained texture by lying too long. The following rules will
serve for guidance in regard to this point:
Generally, chocolate presents the finest fracture when it has been fully
levigated and when it contains a considerable amount of fat, provided that
the fat present is only cacao butter. Those kinds which are not so well
levigated, or have had some addition of foreign fat of higher melting point,
show an inferior fracture. It is possible to obtain an equally vitreous fracture
in a less cold cellar (16° C. and upwards) when the chocolate is moulded at
a temperature corresponding to that of the cellar; to effect that, the
chocolate should be moulded at a proportionally lower temperature the
warmer the cellar is. The difference can be seen by the appearance of pale
red spots on the surface. When it is desired to dispense with artificial
cooling, the cellar should be as much as possible below the surface of the
ground; it should also be of sufficient height, not less than 3 m. If the
situation and height of the cellar be properly adjusted, the requisite area for
disposing of a daily production amounting to 5000 kilos would be 400 sq.
m. The cellar must be well ventilated and furnished with double windows,
so placed as to open towards the north and east. Discharges of warm waste
water, as well as steam pipes or furnaces should be kept as far distant from
the cellar as possible. The internal arrangement of the cellar should be of
such a nature that the whole of the chocolate to be cooled can be deposited
upon the floor, since that is the place where cooling takes place most
rapidly. With that object in view it is desirable to construct brickwork pillars
about 25 cm high, covered with white tiles. Passages are arranged between
these pillars. The cellar should be entered by as few persons as possible
and, therefore, the cooled cakes of chocolate should be taken at once, in the
moulds, to an adjoining room to be turned out and passed on to the packing
room and store.
Most of the existing factories, that have been established for any time
(large and small) have had to adopt artificial means of cooling, because in
most instances the quantity of chocolate to be cooled daily has, in course of

time, increased tenfold. The machine rooms have been enlarged, the number
of machines has also been increased, while the cooling cellar has remained
in its formerly modest proportions. But those circumstances are not the only
reasons for having recourse to artificial refrigeration, which is often
necessary in consequence of the inconvenient situation of the cellar and the
high underground water level.
In the application of artificial refrigeration in a chocolate factory it is not
advisable to hasten the cooling of large quantities by producing too low a
temperature in small chambers. The cakes of chocolate mass by that means
come out of the moulds as hard as glass, but it is questionable whether the
consumer using the chocolate many months afterwards, will make the same
observation. Great care would have to be taken with such rapidly cooled
chocolate, to pass it gradually through chambers of a medium temperature
and thus prepare it for exposure in the packing rooms and warehouses. Even
when employing artificial means for cooling, the reduction of the cellar
temperature and cooling upon pillars is to be preferred to the more direct
cooling upon a system of pipes, which after all is nothing else than a
cooling upon ice, as may be in some instances the only alternative.
Consequently, a well constructed cellar for cooling, furnished with a system
of cooling pipes on the roof is perhaps the most advantageous arrangement,
especially for large factories.
In carrying out artificial refrigeration various kinds of machines are used
for reducing temperature, in which the desired effect is produced either
directly by the condensation and evaporation of suitable materials, such as
liquid carbonic acid, ammonia, sulphurous acid, or indirectly by making
saline solutions (calcium chloride), cooled below the freezing point,
circulate through a system of pipes fitted on the roof or walls of the space to
be cooled. As the cold liquid is pumped through the pipes, it takes up heat
from the air in contact with them, correspondingly reducing the temperature
of the cooling chamber. The cooling installations of the firm of C. G.
Haubold, junior, Chemnitz, are among the best and have long been
extensively used in the chocolate industry. Their cooling apparatus is a
compressing machine, in which coolness is obtained by the evaporation and
recondensation of such liquid gases as carbonic acid or ammonia. Like all
compressing machines, it is comprised of three main parts.

I. The evaporator or refrigerator, consisting of a wrought iron system
of pipes. The latter are placed in the spaces of the plant to be cooled,
with a so-called direct evaporation arrangement, and are either
arranged on the walls and ceiling, or built in a special chamber as
dry or moist air coolers, according to the quality of the chocolate to
be cooled, or the use for which it is destined. Whilst in the former
case cooling is effected directly in the rooms, in the latter the air of
the cooling room is conducted to the air coolers by means of
ventilator, in order to be cooled and dried there, and then again
introduced in the chamber.
II. The compressor, a gas suction and pressure pump, working both
simply and complex, which draws the refrigerating medium out of
the evaporator, compresses it, and forces it along to the condenser.
III. This condenser consists of a coil of wrought iron or copper pipes,
which are enclosed in a barrel and are often described as the
immersion condenser. There is another type, in which the pipes are
united to one or more pipe-walls, introduced in a vessel which
collects and drains off the condensations. In both cases the coil of
pipes is played upon by a continual stream of water, in order that the
gases which they contain may be condensed. The immersion
condenser is generally employed when there is a plentiful supply of
cheap water at hand, and the other in contrary cases. This latter
condenser is provided with a separate liquid “after-cooler”,
constructed on analogy with the before mentioned immersion
condenser. The counter current principle holds good in both types,
and admits of a better using up of the cooling water. The liquid gas
then passes on to the evaporator, where it is responsible for further
refrigeration.

Fig. 59a.

The refrigerator also occurs in the form of a brine cooler. In this
construction the evaporating pipes are likewise enclosed in a barrel,
containing a high percentage of salt brine. In consequence of the
refrigerating apparatus occurring on the interior of the pipes, the brine
contained therein is cooled down to a very low temperature, pumped along
to the cooling chambers, and after delivering its alloted refrigeration unit re-
conducted to the cooling apparatus, where it is once more subjected to the
same series of processes.
A well-known arrangement for such artificial refrigeration is that
constructed by Wegelin & Hübner at Halle o. S., in which carbonic acid is
employed, and it has been found well adapted for use in chocolate factories.
The accompanying illustrations figures 59 a and 59 b represent an
arrangement of that kind in which the cooling is effected on cooling trays
judiciously arranged.

The refrigerating machine is constructed on the carbonic acid gas
compression system; it consists of 1. the compressing pump a, 2. the
condenser b, and 3. the system of pipes c and d, that constitute the
refrigerator. The coil of pipes in the refrigerator is connected at one
extremity with the compressing pump and at the other extremity with the
condenser. Liquid carbonic acid passes from the condenser into the coil of
pipes and is there evaporated. The heat necessary for that change is
withdrawn, either directly or indirectly, from the cooling chamber and from
the chocolate placed in it, until the desired reduction of temperature is
brought about.

Fig. 60.

The compressing pump a is a peculiarly constructed suction and pressure
pump, it draws out of the refrigerating pipes the vaporised carbonic acid by
which they have been cooled and then subjects it to a pressure which helps
to effect its reconversion into the liquid state.
The condenser b consists of a coil of pipes over which a current of cold
water is kept flowing and the compressed carbonic acid vapour, passing
from the compressor into these pipes, is there cooled and condensed by the
surrounding water, so as to be transferred back to the refrigerator through a
valve fitted to it for that purpose. The outer vessel of the condenser is
constructed of cast-iron, in one piece with the compressor frame. These
cooling arrangements are constructed either with or without mechanical
ventilators. In figures 63 a and 63 b the compressing pump and condenser
are represented as placed on the ground floor, while the refrigerator is
situated in the cellar space lying beside them and at a lower level, in such a
manner that both the systems of cooling pipes are not situated upon the roof
of the cellar, but run along it at regular distances parallel to the side walls of
the cellar. The compressor and condenser form one apparatus and the
former is driven by a steam engine.
In the cooling cellar, the refrigerator is generally fixed to the walls in
such a way that the warm chocolate, taken into the cellar, can be at once

placed upon the stages formed by the system of cooling pipes, and so there
is some advantage in having the system of cooling pipes fitted along the
roof of the cellar.
The machine which is diagrammed in fig. 60 possesses an hourly output
of some 70000 calories, measured in salt water at -5 ° C. The compressor is
driven directly by an electric motor, and a stirring apparatus is put in motion
by the crankshaft of the compressor, the two being connected by an
intermediate gearing.
Wegelin and Hübner put out cooling plants with salt water cooling,
smaller and medium sized plants are on the contrary provided with so-
called direct evaporation.
The diagram in fig. 61 shows an air-cooler as built of late by Esher, Wyss
& Co. for chocolate cooling plants.
These air coolers are especially used for direct evaporation of carbonic
acid gas. They consist of three groups of ribbed wrought-iron pipes, the
whole constituting a system supported in a frame work of U-shaped and
angular iron. The separate tubes are welded and bent together. The ribbed
bodies are in themselves square shaped, and apart from the tube opening
have a nozzle introduced in their centre, which pressed firmly against the
press pipe effects a favourable transmission of heat in the case of large
surface areas of the support, the more so as the tubes are square shaped.
Among the numerous advantages of this machine can be numbered the
abolition of the refrigerator and brine pump, prompt and instantaneous
refrigeration when the machine is started, and ease of control, as a flange
connection occurs immediately in front of the machine.

Fig. 61.

A wrought iron trough is fitted up underneath the air-cooler to catch the
water drops. Above, and to the left, the three systems of the air-cooler are
connected by means of a catch.
In the foreground of the illustration is given a miniature of the ribbed
tube system, which very clearly illustrates the arrangement of the separate
ribs.
A ventilator not apparent on the diagram conducts air to the tubes in the
cooling chamber, and these present a considerable cooling area, in addition
to which, the air-stream taking a parallel direction, resistance to its passage
is reduced to a minimum.

Another method of cooling119, that is carried out in France consists in
placing the moulds, containing cakes of chocolate, upon a travelling belt
running horizontally through the whole length of the cooling chamber. The
requisite reduction of temperature is effected by apparatus similar to that
described above in Wegelin & Hübner’s arrangement. The liquefied
carbonic acid flows through a system of pipes fitted to the roof of the
cooling chamber, producing by its vaporisation the necessary cooling and
then it passes back to the refrigerating machine. Circulation of the air in the
cooling chamber is provided for by a suitable ventilator under the pipes of
the cooling system, gutters being fixed to carry away any water condensing
upon their surface and prevent it from falling upon the chocolate. The
travelling belt passes along so slowly that the moulds, containing chocolate,
placed upon it at one end, take from ten to fifteen minutes in passing to the
other end where they are taken off and carried to the packing rooms.

Fig. 62.

Another cooling arrangement that works very well is constructed by T. &
W. Cole of the Park Road Iron Works, London E.; figure 62, represents a
plan of this arrangement, which has the great advantage of providing for the
exclusion of moisture from the cooling chamber. Refrigeration is effected,
by means of Cole’s Arctic-Patent Dry Cold Air machines, by compressing
atmospheric air and then allowing it to expand, after being cooled by water
and having moisture removed by suitable arrangements. The machine is of
very solid construction; it works at a pressure of from 70 to 80 atmospheres
and drives the dry cooled air through a system fitted in the cooling chamber
where the chocolate is spread out, either on portable trucks or on a
travelling belt, so that it remains in the chamber long enough to become
perfectly cold. The system of cooling can be changed in various ways. The
sudden removal of the cold chocolate into another chamber where the air is
moist, would be attended with a deposition of water upon the goods. For
that reason the goods are first transferred, for a short time, to a warm
chamber (ante-room) where they acquire a temperature at which no
deposition of moisture can take place. The chief advantage of this
arrangement is that it furnishes dry cold air economically, both in summer
and also in a moist climate. Cole guarantees that this machine will effect a
refrigeration of 5 ° C.; according to the statement of Messrs. Negretti and
Zambra the cooled air contains only 40 % of moisture. The cold air from
one of these machines can be led, by a well insulated run of pipes, to any
part of the factory and thus be made available for cooling purposes in
different places.
The cooling plants hitherto described may be classified as “Space
Coolers”, because in each case a special compartment of the cooling

chamber must be utilised. The increased prices of estate constitute no mean
objection to such a system.
A critical valuation of these plants brings out a few undisguisable
deficiencies. A large proportion of the cold is lost in the chamber itself,
before it has been of any avail; and then again the rooms are generally
insufficiently, sometimes even not at all, insulated from adjacent and
warmer chambers, which once more involves raising of the low temperature
essential in the process.120 Detrimental also is the presence of the personnel,
the illuminations, and many minor influences. It is evident that the larger
the output required the larger must the cooling chamber be, involving
corresponding economical waste.
With the recognition of these evils arose the problem of their abolition.
The aim was to employ small chambers and avoid loss of cold air. It is now
solved by a system already used in many and various industries, namely,
cooling in closets. Larger or smaller closets may be employed, as required,
and in consequence of their thorough insulation may even be introduced
into the warmest rooms. Their principle is maximum efficiency with
minimum occupation of space, and avoidance of loss of cold as far as
possible. In consequence of this latter aim, the refrigerators in this case can
be constructed on a smaller scale than those destined for an equal output of
material, which are fixed up in cooling chambers; or they may be larger,
which is yet more important, for the efficiency of the machine under
consideration can be considerably increased by connecting it with one of
the closets.
There are two sorts of cooling chambers, those which transport the
moulds automatically, and those which contain layers where the moulds are
placed one over another. Both types are cooled by the circulation of air, so
effected, that cooled air currents are sucked up by a fan out of a tubular
system fitted underneath a horizontal partition, and then forced along to the
chambers above, where they are evenly distributed over the rows of sheet-
iron, laden with moulds, or where they play upon the travelling belt which
transports the moulds out of the cooling chambers. The air passes once
more into the tube chamber on the opposite side, where it delivers up the
warmth it has in the meantime acquired, to enter finally the same system of
circulation as before. The general temperature of the closets is a mean

between 8 ° C. and 10 ° C., and the cooling lasts from 20-40 minutes,
according to the strength and size of the tablets. As the temperature never
goes lower than 8 ° C., it is impossible for the tablets to become moist when
exposed to the warmer outer atmosphere. Fig. 63a shows a Cooling
Chamber built by J. M. Lehmann, which is adapted for a daily output of
some 1000 kilos, and divided into compartments one above the other. The
sections of this chamber, which in the illustration plainly shows the small
amount of space required for its erection, are divided by vertical cross-
partitions into four compartments, each of which is provided with a shelf or
stand to take a charge of 10 cooling trays, and accessible by three spring-
doors, thus giving as small apertures as possible and reducing the loss of
cold when charging to a minimum. In addition to this, each compartment is
fitted with a contrivance for regulating and, if necessary, completely cutting
of the draught. The position of the system of pipes is shown by the two
pipe-ends to which it is connected. On the opposite side, or front of the
chamber, is the fan-drive, either a small electric motor, or shafting. The
perforated cooling trays are visible through the open doors. The sides of the
chamber consist of two layers of wood with thick slabs of cork between
them. All chambers of this system, including those with automatic
conveyance of the moulds, can be taken to pieces for transport, the single
pieces afterwards only requiring to be fastened together again when
erecting the chamber.—The chamber illustrated serves for cooling moulded
chocolate. For pralinés and the like similar chambers are supplied, which
are, however, smaller and lighter in construction.
Fig. 63b represents a cooling chamber with forced air circulation and
automatic conveyance of the moulds, built by the same firm. This chamber,
which, owing to the travelling belt conveying the moulds, is of considerable
length, is nowhere connected with the outside air; the whole manipulation
of the moulds is carried on through small adjustable openings at the points
where the travelling band enters and leaves the chamber. The band consists
of chains in links on to which wooden laths are screwed and its speed can
be regulated to suit the size of the tables to be dealt with. The width of the
belt and chamber can at any time be varied to suit the place of erection and
correspond with the length.

Fig. 63 a.

Fig. 63 b.

Fig. 63 c.

As is to be seen from the illustration, this cooling chamber requires the
minimum of attendance and thus complies with the principles lately
adopted in all large factories, in which the tendency is to substitute as much
as possible mechanical appliances for manual work. It will be seen from the
preceding chapters that this tendency is especially marked in the moulding
department, where automatic tempering, moulding and mould-filling plants
and shaking tables have already been introduced. In order to utilise fully
such automatic plants the last link in the chain only was wanting, namely, a
suitable means of transferring the moulds from the shaking tables to the
cooling chamber and through the latter to the demoulding and packing
room. The purpose of the cooling chamber above described is to fill up this
gap, and its proper place is thus ranged in among the automatic machinery
described.
Thus it is that many modern factories have united the above machines to
form a single working plant, as shown by Groundplan Fig. 63c.

V. Special Preparations.

a) C h o c o l a t e L o z e n g e s a n d P a s t i l l e s .

These chiefly consist of cacao mass, sugar and spices. Formerly they
were made by placing the semi-liquid chocolate material on a stone slab,
furnished with a rim of uniform height which served to regulate the
thickness of the goods manufactured, and then rolling out the mass as
required. The lozenges were punched from the rolled-out layer by means of
a cutter. After allowing the mass to cool, these lozenges were detached from

the remaining portions, which were then rolled again and the same process
repeated.
Pastilles, on the surface of which impressions of varying import, such as
figures, names, firms etc. are required, may also be manufactured by
placing the soft chocolate mass upon tin-plates in which depressions occur
corresponding to the device desired. A roller is employed to make the
material fit into the depressions, and superfluous chocolate is removed with
a knife.
These impressions come out especially fine, when the pastille moulds are
subjected to a shaking on the tables with which we are already acquainted.

Fig. 64.

Fig. 65.

Yet these processes are becoming obsolete, and the chocolate slabs or
plates are at the present time superseded by the two forms of apparatus
constructed by A. Reiche, which we accordingly describe below.

Fig. 66.

In the first of these simply constructed machines, fig. 64, the material
oozes through perforations in a square sieve-like arrangement, at length
issuing on the sheet-iron plate fitted underneath. The process is aided by

repeated shaking, and when sufficient chocolate has penetrated to the plate,
the box is raised on its hinge and chocolate mass left ready for further
treatment. By gentle additional shaking, the still irregular heaps are rounded
off to perfection; they are now cooled down and finally detached. The
coating of the lozenges with coloured sugar grains is effected by passing
them, together with the plate to which they still adhere, through a box
containing sugar dust.
This machine is scarcely used now; in its place come the two
constructions of A. Reiche, as already stated, the one being intended for
solid material, and the other for semi-liquid chocolate mass.

Fig. 67.

By means of his pastille machine Nr. 14091, which we give in Figs. 65
and 66, chocolate lozenges of the most diverse size can be prepared very
rapidly and to advantage. The chocolate material, which in this case is solid,
is pressed through perforations in a metal plate and otherwise treated as in
previous cases.
In working with this machine, it must be previously and sufficiently
warmed, then partially filled with chocolate material of a proper
consistency (not more than 75 % of the total capacity may be utilised). It is
highly important in the preparation of lozenges that the material should
neither be too hard nor too plastic, but strike a just medium.

Fig. 68.

Before pressing down the plunger, worked by a screw, a metal plate is
laid upon the chocolate to prevent contact with the plunger. By slight
pressure, the chocolate mass is forced through the perforations, according to

the required size of the lozenges, but the plunger must not be screwed down
further. This will admit of the plate on which the lozenges rest being drawn
out and another inserted.

Fig. 69.

To this machine belong the usual perforated plates f, Fig. 66 of which
there are three of different sizes for each machine, as shown by figures a b
c, also the plates d used for making the perforated confections which find
their way to the Christmas Tree. These plates are impressed with larger or
smaller designs, and so make two different sizes of goods possible. A third

plate is supplied for the manufacture of whole pieces (various varieties of
chocolate croquette).
The machine works smoothly and noiselessly and delivers excellent
products. If instead of the usual plain lozenges, such with the name of a
firm or other device are desired, the corresponding impressions must be
stamped out on the plate in which the chocolate is received after being
forced through the perforations. See fig. 66, g, h, i.
Fig. 67 illustrates the pastille machine Nr. 14 178 for thin chocolate mass,
constructed by A. Reiche (German Patent 227 200). It resembles the
foregoing apparatus in principle and appearance, being only distinguished
by a different aim, namely the treatment of thin material. Used in
conjunction with the peculiar moulds also manufactured by the same firm
(marked “Durabula”), even the deepest impressions can be effected with an
enormous saving of time and material and in a most practical manner, as
will be seen on comparing figs. 69 a to d.
In order to get the full value out of this machine, some little practice is
necessary on the part of the workman in charge. But possessed of an
average amount of skill, he can soon turn out with this apparatus ten times
as much as can be made with the ordinary type of lozenge machine.
For a favourable accommodation of the different pastille plates, the
hurdle diagrammed in fig. 68 (by A. Reiche) is quite excellent. It is
manufactured out of one complete sheet of steel, is free from any suspicion
of soldering, and entirely galvanised. It thus offers a strong guarantee as
regards wear and tear. It may also be advantageously employed as a
transporting device.

b) C o a t e d c h o c o l a t e s , p r a l i n é s e t c .

These delicacies are now held in high esteem, and of late the
consumption of pralinés and cheaper forms with imitative contents has
increased very considerably.
The designation praliné (properly pronounced prahlin) has been applied
to sugar-coated almonds and is derived from the name of a cook in the

employ of Marshal du Plessis, which was Pralins. This “chef” belonged to
the age of Louis XIV. and was the first to make these sweetmeats. But now
the term is applied to sweetmeats of various forms, soft fruit-sugar,
marmalade, cream, nut-paste etc. respectively enveloped in chocolate. The
special formulae employed in the preparation of different kinds of pralinés
are comprised in the confectioner’s art, and do not need to be dealt with
here.
The substances themselves are called fondants. Formerly the sugar was
boiled, placed upon a slab, and there manipulated with a spatula, an
operation difficult to manage, indeed almost impossible in the last stages. In
consequence of the increased demand for such preparations, machines were
introduced several years ago whereby the operation is mechanically
performed. Such a machine is shown in fig. 70.

Fig. 70.

The bed-plate as well as all the working parts of the machine are
constructed of stout copper. The working parts admit of being raised or
lowered by means of the hand-wheel above, and they remain fixed whilst
the bed-plate turns and its underside is played upon by water. The machine
is capable of working up pure fondant without any syrup addition, as well
as that made up with syrup. The boiled sugar is poured on the bed-plate of
the fondant machine, cooled down from 10-20 minutes according to the
syrup content, and to such an extent that the machine can be set in motion,
whilst the working parts are gradually lowered to the previously mentioned
bed-plate. The sugar poured out is then cooled by means of the action of a
ventilator fitted on a crossbeam, occurring in the middle of the wooden
cooler, and working in conjunction with the ventilator, in consequence
whereof a cooling current of air is brought to strike the hot sugar centrally.
—When pure sugar is used, the fondant is finished within six minutes, but
in the case of a syrup addition the time required is lengthened.

Fig. 71.

A quite recent type of fondant machine is given in fig. 71. It achieves its
end by employing an air-current and a cylinder with screw, which is
provided with water cooling apparatus. The modus operandi presents many
and obvious advantages, chief among which is the possibility of conducting
new material to the machine uninterruptedly, and further the preservation of
the flavour of the chocolate worked up. The result is a production of first-
class quality in respect to taste and flavour, which is quite ready to be
passed on to the next processes.

Fig. 72.

The fondant is then diluted with colouring matter in boiling pans, and so
prepared for subsequent treatment. The figures which have to be poured in
are then transferred to gypsum moulds, lined with starch powder, and the
fondant sugar is in its turn poured over these either by means of pans held
in the hand or such as are machine-driven. Hand-pouring postulates a
considerable amount of skill on the part of the man in charge, especially
when even weights of the separate pieces are required. We annex an
illustration of a motor-driven depositing machine (fig. 72).

The sugar is here introduced into receivers heated by means of a water-
bath. The receiving boxes are moved under the outflow one after another,
after having been dusted with powder and filled with chocolate, whilst the
adjustment of the weight of each separate piece is effected by the operation
of a very ingenious mechanism, even from 0-8 grammes.

Fig. 73.

After a stay of several hours in the drying room, the molten figures are so
hard that they can be raised out of the powder with the aid of a shovel. Fig.
73 shows such a machine, whilst Fig. 74 illustrates a machine where the
work goes on unbrokenly, and from which the chocolate figures are
removed with a shovel.
The sweetmeats are next dipped into liquified chocolate (covering stuff)
to coat them with a layer of that material. The mass employed for this
purpose must contain up to 15 % more butter than that used for ordinary
chocolate, so that it may be kept soft long enough for continuous
working.121 This is performed in the machine fig. 75. On a bed-plate
coming into contact with steam or cold water, as required, occur rake-like

stirrers, and a small ventilator introduced above assists in cooling off the
material. For the purpose of discharging, there is an outlet on the rim of the
pan. For storage of the tempered coverings and also for occasional
alleviations with cacao butter, a machine illustrated in fig. 76 is utilised.

Fig. 74.

Fig. 75.

Fig. 76.

The dipping of pralinés for the purpose of coating them was formerly
carried out by means of a fork, the nucleus masses being dropped into the
coating material, taken out with a fork, and placed upon metal plates.
Various kinds of ornamentation were designed by the same instrument. In
the preparation of the higher priced coated fondants, a similar method of
procedure is still in vogue, although such manipulation presupposes a high
degree of skill on the part of the mechanics are at the machine. For articles
of more general consumption, whether ornamented or not, machines have
been introduced for the purpose by divers manufacturers, some of which
function excellently. Two of that kind which in every way respond to the
calls made on them are here described, but we shall not waste time and
labour over the more complicated and expensive machines.

Fig. 77.

Fig. 78.

The first method of coating fondants, patented by A. Reiche of Dresden-
Plauen, is not based on mechanical principles, but rather relies on a series of
small appliances, represented in fig. 77. The jacketed casing a, fig. 77
contains water, and into it the pan containing coating material can be
placed: that is kept in a liquid condition by heating the water in the jacket
by spirit lamps or gas jets underneath. The adjoining vessel b is closed on
all sides, filled with water, and also kept warm in the same manner; it serves
for the preparatory warming of the objects to be coated, which are spread
upon a wire network, and for that purpose two of these wire frames can be
hung upon the hooks inside the box. The mass dropping from the wire
frame is conveyed into the covering box a, by means of a sheet of metal

placed above it; c serves as an apparatus for turning, and we give it on a
larger scale in fig. 78.

Fig. 79.

The tracings h and i in fig. 79 show the cross section and top view of the
wire gratings, on which cylindrical and ball-shaped sugar goods are
deposited. The other two kinds of grating are illustrated at L and M (fig.
80).
The size of the meshes of the sieve gratings depends on that of the
centres to be coated.
The method of covering is as follows:
The centres for the pralinés etc. are placed in the cavities of the gratings,
and, as soon as one of the gratings is full, the latter is covered up by the
fine-meshed grating the half of the cross-section of which is shown in Fig.
79 and the full view in Fig. 80 (see K and N respectively), K representing
the cover-grating.
Both gratings are held simultaneously by the operator at their handles and
then dipped together in the liquid covering contained in the vessel a, Fig.

77, after which the superfluous covering mass is removed by knocking. The
gratings are now deposited on the mechanism C, Figs. 77 or 78, as the case
may be, the top sieve removed and a sheet of paper or a metal plate put in
its place. It is then turned by hand to the opposite side, the grating with the
impressions is removed and the cover centres are found lying in regular
order, and at regular distances apart, on the metal plate. The object of the
intervals between the covered centres is to prevent the running together of
the latter.

Fig. 80.

Beans and rings are only dipped up to the middle, and the process
repeated with the other half of the centre after the first half has cooled. This
ensures a pleasing, round appearance, and has further the advantage that the
cover grating need not be put on during the operation. When dipping
cylindrical or ball-shaped centres, the grating K which has first been
removed on dipping, is at once transferred to the heater, to prevent it
cooling and withdrawing too much warmth from the covering material at
the next immersion.
The dipping of pralinés etc. is exceedingly easy if the new type of
dipping machine is used, a full view of which is given in Fig. 81 and which
has the highly appreciable advantage of simultaneously cooling the dipped

centres. All the parts are, in the main, worked by hand, only the shaking and
stirring contrivances and the cooling fan requiring to be driven by motor
power. The middle piece carries the actual dipping apparatus, underneath
which the tank holding the covering chocolate is fixed, while the lefthand
sidepiece serves for feeding; as many as four operators can be engaged
simultaneously at the latter, the work consisting of laying the centres in the
gratings corresponding to the mouldings desired. The construction of these
gratings is, in the main, similar to the stamped trays of Anton Reiche, but
they are not provided with handles and are despatched along the guide-rails
by hand. The filled grating is then placed in a frame, which is dipped by
means of a winch into the liquid chocolate. The top grating on the dipping
frame is adjustable, and the object of this grating is to keep the centres
down, as without this arrangement some of the centres might rise to the
surface of the covering. The top grating is, before commencing to dip,
pushed over the filled grating with the centres and is thus immersed with
them. The frame having been removed, the shaker is put in action to remove
the superfluous material from both the gratings and the centres. The grating
is drawn out after use from below the top grating and transferred to a book-
shaped ejector, on one side of which is a metal sheet covered with paper.
The whole of the centres are then discharged on to the sheet, by reversing
the two flap-sections.
The sheet containing the covered centres is then transferred to the cooling
apparatus at the right, in which it is gradually lowered on a “paternoster”
apparatus by turning round a handle. It is then conducted to the left by an
endless band, and finally discharged in a cooled state by the machine. The
ventilator should be supplied with air from the cellars and is arranged to
blow it out in the opposite direction to the goods in the cooling apparatus.

Fig. 81.

The shape of the design-gratings is reproduced in high relief on the
goods, and it will therefore be readily understood that further designs or
fancy shapes can be made on the gratings. For the production of semi-
dipped goods or such as are dipped round and remain uncovered at the
bottom, a device is attached to the striking gear which renders it possible to
regulate the depth of each immersion at will. The tank containing the
covering material is surrounded by a water-jacket, which is heated by
steam. The heat of the water is indicated by a thermometer. The receptacle
containing the covering can easily be drawn out towards the front. In
addition to this, the whole of the outside of the machine, which also
constitutes a complete water-jacket, is heated by steam, and finally the
ejector. The gratings containing the impressions are taken out of the ejector
after use and transferred to the feeding side to be used again, so that, at the
very most, four gratings are required for each design.
The daily output of the machine is 300-600 kilos, and the size of the
gratings 280 by 400 millimetres, the output naturally depending on whether
the machine is operated by two, three or more persons.

B. The Manufacture of Cocoa Powder and “Soluble” Cocoa.

a. The various methods of disintegrating or opening up the
tissues of cacao.

The comparatively high fat content of pure cacao, which would deter
certain persons, especially those suffering from stomach disorders, from
taking it, has given rise to the now extensive demand for a cacao
preparation containing a less amount of fat and the constituents of which
are capable of being easily assimilated in the human organism. At the same
time the desire to obtain a cacao preparation easily capable of complete and
uniform suspension in milk or water may have played its part, as this
quality, in consequence of which the preparation can rapidly and without
difficulty be rendered ready for consumption, is obviously a great
advantage. The best way to obtain this appeared to be the pulverisation of
the cacao, which, when reduced to a powder, more readily satisfies the
above conditions. As, however, it was not possible to pulverise cacao which
still contained its full amount of natural fat, it became necessary to devote
attention to the operation of extracting the cacao butter. It is many years
since the first appearance of certain preparations in Germany which went
under the name of “Cacogna”, and which had been deprived of their fat to
the extent of 20-25 %. This problem, however, was recognised and attempts
and all manner of experiments made to solve it at a much earlier period in
Holland. The founder of the well-known Dutch firm of J. C. van Houten &
Sons in Weesp, Mr. C. J. van Houten, was the first to attempt the expression
of the fat from cacao (1828) and to treat it with chemical agents with a view
to opening up or bringing about the disintegration of the tissues, in order to
render the cacao a fit and welcome article of food, not only for healthy
persons, but also for invalids and convalescent persons.
It was not until the Dutch cocoa thus manufactured had been introduced
into England and Germany, where, as well as in Holland, it became very
popular, that manufacturers in Germany and Switzerland began to devote
their attention to the treatment with chemical agents. The consumption of

so-called “soluble” cocoa has increased to such an extent of late years that it
is now almost as large as that of chocolate goods.
The term “soluble”, as now generally applied to cocoa powders, is
undoubtedly a misnomer, inasmuch as such preparations are practically not
soluble at all. We have therefore termed cocoa for drinking purposes in this
book “disintegrated” cacao, as the processes described in the following
pages only render the elements of cacao, as, for instance, the cellulose,
capable of suspension in liquids. It would be quite impossible to render
cacao, by any special treatment, soluble in the real sense of the term, as is
the case with salt or sugar. It will thus be readily understood that the
expression “disintegrated” is correcter and more logical than the term
“soluble The degree to which disintegration has been carried, i. e. the
efficiency of the opening-up processes adopted, is marked by the absence of
any sediment worth speaking of in the beverage prepared with boiling
water, even after it has been left standing some time. The greater the power
of suspension of the preparation, the less particles of cacao will settle to the
bottom, and the higher the beverage will be esteemed.
The disintegrating agents are, in practice, applied either to the raw or
roasted, but otherwise untreated beans, or to the more or less defatted cacao,
as follows:

a) by treating the cacao with hot water, without or under pressure;
b) by treatment with alkalis, such as carbonate of kali or sodium,
carbonate of magnesia (Dutch method), spirits of ammonia (sal-
ammoniac) and carbonate of ammonia (German method).

The chemical and physical effects brought about by these agents consist
chiefly in the swelling or steeping of the cellulose by the action of the
alkalis, as a consequence of which they sink less rapidly in liquids than
would be the case with untreated cacao. A further effect is the partial
neutralisation of the acids present, besides which the cacao-red or pigment
is also attacked, a result which may be regarded as less desirable, as the
cacao-red is the secreter of the aroma, which naturally suffers with it. If the
cacao is treated with steam or hot water, the starch is apt to gelatinise, and
the acids to begin to ferment.

As the treatment with steam, for the reasons given above, is nowadays
rarely practised, we will at once proceed to consider the method of
disintegrating cacao most in use. Modifications of the methods of
manufacture bearing on this point will be dealt with in their place under the
corresponding heading later in this book.

b. Methods of Disintegration.

1. P r e l i m i n a r y T r e a t m e n t o f t h e B e a n s .

The method of manufacture of disintegrated cocoa comprises the
following operations:

a) The cleaning and sorting of the raw bean;
b) Roasting;
c) Shelling, breaking and grinding;
d) Treatment with alkalis or water;
e) Expression of the fat or cacao butter;
f) Pulverising.

The order of the above processes is subject under certain conditions to
various modifications arising from the fact that the alkalis are applied at
various stages in the course of manufacture, i. e.:

I. before roasting;
II. during roasting;
III. after roasting,

and further

a) before pressing;
b) after pressing (treatment of the defatted beans).

The cleaning and sorting of the raw beans, or, in short, the complete
treatment to which the raw cacao is subjected (a to c) is in all methods

effected by the same machines, a description of which has been given on
pages [Transcriber’s Note: Rest of line missing]
Some manufacturers proceed at once to treat the cacao with alkali on
completion of the above operations.

C. Stähle122 effects the disintegration of cacao by subjecting the beans to
the chemical action of a mixture of ammonia and steam, at a temperature
not exceeding 100 Deg. C. The next process (roasting) is then supposed to
draw out the ammonia introduced into the material, which, being volatile,
easily escapes, and enables the flavour to develop.

Pieper123 moistens the raw beans with water, to which alkali has been
added, and this has the effect of neutralising the acids present in the bean;
afterwards the beans are fermented, dried and roasted. The fermentation is
described as rendering the particles of albumin or protein bodies easily
digestible and further imparts to the beans a fine, reddish brown colour.
This process is therefore nothing but an after-fermentation of the cacao
under the influence of alkalis. From a scientific point of view, the process
does not possess the advantages which Pieper claims for it, with the
exception of the really evident improvement in colour. This effect can,
however, be obtained equally well by suitable treatment with water alone.

G. Wendt124 has patented a method of improving the colour and
facilitating the disintegration of cacao, in which the beans are treated,
before roasting, with lime water and milk of lime (lime solutions) and
further washed with the solution during roasting.
We now turn to the methods of disintegration by means of fixed alkalis
(carbonate of magnesia, potash and sodium) first employed by the Dutch,
concerning which the following description will be useful.
The cleaned beans are first very superficially roasted, to facilitate
winnowing, and the cacao thus treated (half roasted cacao) broken as small
as possible, which is an equally important factor in the shelling and
winnowing processes. It should be observed here that the less the cacao has
been roasted, the finer it should be broken. The material is then impregnated
by one of the above-mentioned alkaline solutions, which is sprayed on to
the beans. The chief agent employed is potash (carbonate of potassium) in

the proportion of 1½-2 (3 at the outside) parts of potash to 20-30 parts of
water, for every hundred parts of the defatted material to be treated. Some
manufacturers use sodium or a mixture of sodium and carbonate of
magnesia in place of the potash. As soon as the cacao has been uniformly
impregnated by the alkaline solution, the roasting process should be
completed. Still more care should be devoted to the roasting of cacao for
pulverising than is required in the case of eating chocolates, as taste and
smell play a more important part and the point of complete roasting is not
so easily recognised. The cacao being roughly broken and the shells
removed, the second roasting process must of course be conducted over a
low fire. The most suitable machines for this purpose are the large roasting
machines illustrated on page 93, Fig. 14, as in these machines there is little
possibility of over-roasting, even when dealing with large quantities and the
machine is intensely heated; another advantage is the easy accessibility of
the roasting drum, which can be immediately exposed by removing the
front cover, for cleaning; cleaning is very necessary in roasting machines.
Broken and moistened cacao chars much more readily than raw beans
which have not been deprived of their shells. If it is not possible to
thoroughly clean the interior of the roasting drum, as is often the case with
spherical roasters, the particles of cacao remaining in the drum continually
undergo re-roasting, finally falling in a completely charred state into the
cacao, thereby greatly prejudicing its taste.
If necessary, the cacao can now be passed through the breaking machine
again, from which it is transferred to the triple cacao mill, which provides
for fine grinding. The material is then deposited in heated pans (see page
117, Fig. 27) where it remains until ready for the next process, the
expression of the fat. The object of the fine grinding in the mill is to render
the cacao on being ground again after the defatting process, easily capable
of being sifted, and to obtain a preparation which, on being mixed with hot
water, leaves as little sediment as possible.

2. E x p r e s s i o n o f t h e F a t .

Hydraulic presses are nowadays exclusively used for this most important
operation in the manufacture of “soluble” cocoa. The methods of pressing
have, in common with the other operations in the course of manufacture,
undergone considerable modification and improvement.

According to Macquer (see Mitscherlich, S. 58) the butter was
extracted during the last century by pulverising the seeds, boiling them
in water and cleansing the fat, which, on cooling, congealed on the
surface of the water, by re-melting. According to Desprez (see
Mitscherlich, S. 58), burned, shelled and finely pulverised beans were
spread to a height of 12-15 inches on coarse linen or canvas, which
was spanned across a vessel containing boiling water, to expose the
fine powder thoroughly to the action of the hot vapour. The powder
was then pressed, in linen bags, between two tin plates, whereby some
50% of pure cacao butter was obtained. At a later period the heatable
hydraulic pot-presses came into use. The mass had, however, to be
introduced into these pots tied up in a cloth or sack, to facilitate which
it was previously treated with water, forming a thickish syrup very
convenient for pressing. All these methods, however, were attended
with the great disadvantage that the cocoa, after being stored some
time, acquired a grey colour, or became mouldy. To avoid these
undesirable results presses were constructed which rendered it possible
to liquefy the mass without any further treatment in the receptacle in
which the pressing was conducted. Such a press, likewise acting
hydraulically, is shown in Fig. 82 on the opposite page.

This machine exerts a total pressure of 320000 kilogrammes and works
with 400 atmospheres. The construction of the machine is similar to that of
the well-known types of presses used by oil manufacturers for the
preparation of vegetable oils. When pressing, however, the pots containing
the cacao must be rendered water-tight both at the top and bottom, to
prevent the liquid cacao from escaping, while such provision is not
necessary in the case of the oil presses. The stopping up of the press-pots is
effected by means of a side-handle, and arrangements are provided for
heating the pots both from above and below. The machine illustrated has 4
pots, arranged one above the other, which can be drawn out on guide-rails
towards the front of the machine. During pressing, they close telescopically

with the piston arranged underneath each pot. The pump which supplies the
water for the hydraulic pressure, works perfectly automatically, increases
the pressure according to the quantity of fat which has run off and keeps the
pressure at its maximum or at any degree required. With these presses it is
possible to extract, without difficulty, 85 % and even more of the total fat of
the cacao bean. If pressing is carried on at too high a temperature, a pale,
whitish grey butter is the result. If, however, a little attention is paid by the
operator at the press, the butter obtained is usually perfectly clear, as it is
first conducted through a horse-hair pad covered with linen, or a camel-hair
cushion 15 millimetres in thickness. Sufficient attention is not always paid
to the operation of pressing, so that it often happens that some of the cacao
escapes with the butter, which is especially the case if the pressure has been
increased too rapidly at the beginning. If the butter is extracted for use in
the factory itself, the escape of the cacao with it is of no serious
consequence; if, however, the butter is intended for sale for commercial
purposes, its appearance is a most important factor, wherefore it is advisable
to filter the impure fat immediately after pressing. It is true that, in most
factories, the butter is in such cases merely remelted to allow the impurities
to settle to the bottom, this part being then submitted again to the same
treatment, while the rest of the butter is disposed of on the market. If
filtering is necessary, the butter filter should be used, which, first
constructed in Holland, has been in use for a long time there. The principle
of these filters is to pass the butter through hanging tubes made of a
filtering material similar to flannel.

Fig. 82.

The firm of Volkmar Hänig & Co. constructs special cocoa butter filters
which can be obtained through the firm of J. M. Lehmann. Figs. 83 and 83a
show this type of filter (cross and vertical section), the manner of working
with it being the following:

As soon as the butter has passed through the hair sieve in the upper
part of the apparatus, which removes larger objects such as pieces of
wood etc., it enters the hanging filter tubes, which, to facilitate
cleaning, are interchangeable. The filter butter accumulates in the large
space provided for the purpose and is withdrawn through a tap. An
observing glass is attached to the apparatus for the purpose of
watching the height of the butter, and the whole filter is water-
jacketed, the water being heated by a steam coil fixed in the bottom of
the apparatus. A thermometer is fixed to the side of the filter, for
regulating the temperature.

Figs. 83 and 83 a.

The degree to which cocoa powders should be defatted is an important
question which, some years ago, formed the subject of much controversy.
The relation between the percentage of fat contained in the original cacao
kernel, the expressed butter and the defatted cacao mass is shown in tables
19 and 20.

The taste of defatted cacao is, as is well known, all the better for being
defatted to a low degree, and it is this which constitutes the great advantage
of cocoa prepared according to the Dutch method, the remaining cacao
content of which is some 24-33 percent, so that, taking 50 percent as the
average quantity of fat contained in the cacao, only about 34-52 percent of
the whole is removed from the mass.
Ta b l e 1 9 .
Percentage of butter to be extracted.
Percentage of fat to remain in the Fat content of kernel
finished cocoa powder 50% 51% 52% 53% 54% 55% 56%
Weight of butter to be expressed (in proportion to the
whole mass)
33% 25·4 26·9 28·4 29·8 31·3 32·8 34·4
32% 26·5 27·8 29 30·9 32·4 33·3 35·3
31% 27·5 29 30·4 31·9 33·3 34·8 36·2
30% 28·6 30 31·4 32·9 34·3 35·7 37·1
Fatty Cacao 29% 29·6 31 32·4 33·8 35·2 36·6 38
28% 30·6 31·9 33·3 34·7 36·2 37·5 38·9
27% 31·5 32·9 34·2 35·6 37 38·4 39·7
26% 32·4 33·8 35·1 36·5 37·8 39·2 40·5
25% 33·3 34·7 36 37·3 38·7 40 41·3
24% 34·2 35·5 36·9 38·2 39·5 40·8 42·1
23% 35·1 36·4 37·7 39 40·3 41·6 42·9
22% 35·9 37·2 38·5 39·8 41 42·3 43·6
21% 36·7 38 39·2 40·5 41·8 43 44·3
Non-Fatty Cacao
20% 37·5 38·8 40 41·3 42·5 43·8 45
19% 38·3 39 40·7 42 43·2 44·5 45·7
18% 39 40·2 41·5 42·7 43·9 45·1 46·3
17% 39·7 41 42·2 43·4 44·6 45·8 47
(16%) (40·4) (41·7) (42·9) (44) (45·2) (46·4) (47·6)
Diminution in value K.
(15%) (41·1) (42·4) (43·5) (44·7) (45·9) (47·1) (48·2)

Ta b l e 2 0 .
Percentage of butter remaining in the finished cocoa powder.
Weight of butter to be expressed, in proportion to Fat content of kernel
the whole mass 50% 51% 52% 53% 54% 55% 56%
Fatty Cacao 30% 28·6 30 31·4 32·9 34·3 35·7 37·1
31% 27·5 29 30·4 31·9 33·3 34·8 36·2
32% 26·5 27·9 29·4 30·9 32·3 33·8 35·3

33% 25·4 26·9 28·4 29·9 31·3 32·8 34·3
34% 24·2 25·8 27·3 28·8 30·3 31·8 33·3
35% 23·1 24·6 26·2 27·7 29·2 30·8 32·3
36% 21·9 23·4 25 26·6 28·1 29·7 31·3
37% 20·6 22·2 23·8 25·4 27 28·6 30·2
Non-fatty Cacao
38% 19·4 21 22·6 24·2 25·8 27·4 29
39% 18 19·7 21·3 23 24·6 26·2 27·9
40% 16·7 18·3 20 21·7 23·3 25 26·7
41% (15·3) 16·9 18·6 20·3 22 23·7 25·4
42% (13·8) (15·5) 17·2 19 20·7 22·4 24·1
43% (12·3) (14 ) (15·8) 17·5 19·3 21·1 22·8
44% (10·7) (12·5) (14·3) (16 ) 17·9 19·6 21·4
Diminution in value K.
45% — (10·9) (12·7) (14·5) 16·4 18·2 20
46% — — (11·1) (13 ) (14·8) 16·7 18·5
47% — — — (11·3) (13·2) (15·1) 17
48% — — — — (11·5) (13·5) (15·4)

Fig. 84.

Fig. 84a.

If the expression of the butter is carried to a further degree, the cacao will
certainly become more easily capable of suspension in liquids125, but such
treatment is detrimental to its flavour126, which is apt to become woody or
bitter. The statement, made by certain manufacturers and would-be
connoisseurs, that the bitter taste peculiar to the acid produced in cacao
during fermentation is the real aroma of the cacao, is undoubtedly
erroneous. It could, in the same way, be said of tea and its acids, the bitterer,
the better; which would of course end in the destruction of the true flavour.
Equally erroneous is the theory that bitter cacao is more consistent. Such
cacao must, previous to consumption, either be more sweetened than usual
or, if the same quantity of sugar is put in, less of the beverage can be taken.
When, for instance, very thin coffee is made, the beans, on colouring an
abnormally large quantity of water, are said to be stronger, i. e. to yield
more. The consistency of all such beverages is, however, only a matter of
taste, and it would therefore be useless to discuss the subject in detail; some
persons prefer strong tea, which has been brewed a quarter of an hour,

others simply pour boiling water over the tea leaves and then drink the
beverage immediately. It may, however, safely be taken that the highest
amount of butter which can be expressed from cacao without prejudicing
the flavour of the finished powder is 66 percent of the total fat content.
Manufacturers nowadays try as a rule to express as much butter as possible,
as the butter has a high price on the market, and this tendency naturally has
the effect of lowering the quality of the cocoa. We thus come across cocoa
powders containing only 20, 17, 15 percent of fat and even less. Of course
nothing can be said against the production of such cocoas, provided they are
sold at a lower price than cocoas more rich in fat and the public are aware
that they are purchasing a non-fatty preparation, besides which the
expression of so high a percentage of the fat alone rendered cocoa a fit
regular beverage for certain classes of invalids and persons suffering from
disorders of the stomach. The only serious drawback in this case is the great
variability of the fat content, which fluctuates between 13 and 35 percent.
Such fluctuations are absolutely impossible in the case of any other article
of food which is manufactured and sold wholesale, or, at any rate, buyers
know in all such cases exactly what they are purchasing; this is a point to
which serious attention must be called. It is very much to be regretted that
the Association of German Chocolate Makers127 has declined to follow up
this matter, while the Union of German Food Chemists, after considerable
controversy, advocated a distinct legal classification of non-fatty cocoa
powders containing up to 20 per cent. of fat.128 We would prefer the Dutch
preparations, which have remained the same up to the present day, so-called
fatty cocoas containing more than 25 percent of fat, to be classified
specially and those preparations which contain less than this percentage of
fat to be termed “highly defatted” or “dry” cocoas, the names applied to
both kinds being of little importance as long as the public has the means of
clearly recognising the distinction (see tables 19 and 20). Some 17 percent
must be taken as the minimum permissible butter value, which would mean
the expression of about 80 percent of the total fat content, or two-thirds of
the cacao mass itself; cocoa powders with only 15 per cent. or less of butter
are to be regarded as inferior in quality and should not be produced.
Unfortunately, however, these suggested limits are, at any rate for the
present, not likely to be realised.

Fig. 84b.

Fig. 85a.

The pressure obtained by means of the pressing devices above described
is naturally not sufficient for the production of such highly defatted cocoas.
Stronger presses are therefore necessary, one of which, a very powerful
apparatus, is shown in Fig. 84.

This machine, at the present time the most powerful cocoa butter
press in the world, brings a pressure of over one million kilos to bear
on the cacao mass, working with 400 atmospheres, and thus renders it
possible to express as much as 90 percent of the total fat content of the
bean. The construction of this press is exactly the same as that shown
in Fig. 82, the pump Fig. 84a having, however, three pistons or
plungers instead of one; it works, like the other machine,
automatically, i. e., after the large quantity of water required at the
commencement has been fed into the press, the large plunger is put out
of gear at a pressure of 5 atmospheres; the two smaller pistons are then

put into action together, and produce the enormous pressure of 400
atmospheres.

Fig. 85b.

After defatting, the expressed cacao cakes are allowed to cool down, for
which purpose they are transferred to flat trays or other suitable receptacles,
and pulverising and sifting the powder thus obtained commenced.

3. P u l v e r i s i n g a n d S i f t i n g t h e D e f a t t e d C a c a o .

There are several methods of proceeding with these operations, such as
treating the expressed cacao in the melangeur already described in an earlier
part of this book (cf. 30-32 figs.) or passing it through the centrifugal sifting
machine (cf. 84b and 88 figs.) with which we are now acquainted. At a time
when the melangeur was to a certain extent the universal machine of the
manufacturer, it was almost exclusively utilised for pulverisation, that up-
to-date division of labour whereby this machine is limited to mixing (and

very properly so limited, as its name implies) and the preparation of cacao
powders on the contrary assigned to more efficient constructions having
then not as yet been adopted. We annex a description of one or two
specially constructed arrangements for the pulverisation and sifting of
cacao, as manufactured by J. M. Lehmann and already repeatedly tested.

Fig. 86.

First there is the cacao cake crusher (figs. 85a and 85b), which reduces
the pressed cake into rather large pieces about the size of a walnut, previous
to its being pulverised either in the melangeur, centrifugal sifting machine
or some similar apparatus. It has been furnished with one (fig. 85a) and in
some cases even with two (fig. 85b) pair of toothed or cogged rollers, and
the cacao in this latter type of construction is crushed as small as a pea,
which reduction, although it is by no means essential, considerably relieves
the strain on the pulverising machine and is also in some sort a protection
against unnecessary waste of material.

Fig. 87.

Then again, there is the so-called pulveriser shown in fig. 86. This is in
principle an edge-mill with revolving bed-stone and runners, both made of
granite. The coarsely broken press cakes are fed into the mill through a
hopper provided with a slide, and are reduced to a loose powder of firmly
fixed colour, escape of dust being prevented by the hood fitted to the mill.
By turning a crank, a lateral sliding door is opened, and an arrangement
inside is set in motion, by which the ground cacao is turned out of the mill.
The pressure of the runners can be diminished and even completely
nullified.
For cacao that has been thoroughly defatted (“dry” cocoa), the hardness
of which demands a more efficient treatment than is possible in these
machines, they being only calculated to press or at the most exert a rubbing
effect, there are the crushers proper, called mills built in pulverising plants
for dry cocoas as illustrated on fig. 87.

The pressed cacao, already broken up to some extent in a preliminary
crusher (cf. figs. 85a and b), is systematically conducted through the mill by
an elevator provided with hopper and feeding apparatus. On the interior of
the machine, which is completely plated with steel-plates, there is a cross-
arm as on a windmill, which passes through a large number of revolutions
per minute. Chiefly owing to its thrashing effect, the cacao in the mill is
fine ground, without any rubbing or exertion of pressure as in the
melangeur and other machines. The outer part of the frame consists of a
grating with various widths of hole, which can be readily changed. The
whole of the powder which has attained a certain degree of fineness falls
through these meshes and is so despatched from the machine at once, an
additional advantage when comparing this mill with the melangeur, in
which all the powder, even that sufficiently ground, must remain till the
final discharging, much to the detriment of its flavour and aroma.

Fig. 88.

The powdered cacao next succeeds to the sifting operations, after it has
first cooled a little, and for these the centrifugal sifting machines are used in
the main. Special care must be taken that such apparatus as is used is not
too diminutive to deal with the quantities of cacao introduced, as this is
extremely injurious to the machine. It is further to be noted that no type of
sifter whatever can yield good results if it has not been especially
constructed for dry cacaos.
We have before us in fig. 88 centrifugal sifting machine constructed on
one of the largest scales. In this cacao is introduced in the floor of the sieve
through a feeder, and by means of an elevator. The sifting cylinder is
spanned with silk or bronze gauze, and conceals in its interior a rough sort
of preliminary sieve, the purpose of which is to prevent the larger
unpowdered pieces penetrating to the silk gauze. There is a ventilator inside
this rough sieve, which produces and transmits an air current, so that the
meshes are kept open. Under proper guidance it is practically impossible for
the machine to break down, although the sieve must be cleansed twice
daily, an operation scarcely requiring more than two or three minutes, as it
is not necessary first to remove the part under consideration. Because of this
easy manner of cleaning, the centrifugal sifter far excels all others, as the
plan sifter, the latter generally having to be dismounted before this
operation can be proceeded with.
The powder issues from the first outlet of the sieve. There is a second,
where both preliminary and cylinder sieve transmit their overflow, and this
is then again conducted to the pulveriser in order to be worked up once
more. Pulverisers and sifting apparatus can be so combined by means of
conveyors and elevators that they work automatically, which is always of
immense advantage where a large daily output is in question. But pressed
cakes which are to be conducted through the machine in broken pieces must
first be treated in a preliminary crusher (cf. figs. 85a and b).
Fig. 88a shows one of the plansieves of the firm Baumeister, and
protected by patent, which also finds employment for the sieving of cacao
powder.
This machine possesses four round sieves lying one upon another, on
which the material to be sieved is moved by a crank driving power just as

on a hand sieve, so that the surface of the sieve is fully employed. The
sieves possess neither projection nor hauling gear, the sieving is effected
without pressure or friction, and the powder is therefore loose and woolly.
A brushing arrangement revolves without any mechanism, driven solely by
the peculiar movement of the plansieve, under the wholly flat sieves, and
this brushing arrangement any cacao powder which may adhere to the sieve
and so prevents a displacement of the tension, as far as possible.

Fig. 89.

In the following illustration we give as an example the arrangement of a
pulverising plant with pulverisers (cf. fig. 86) for a second time.

The preliminary crusher receives the cakes, and then a conveyor brings
the broken pieces along to the elevator, which in its turn feeds the filling
box of the pulveriser, the connection between the two being established by a
sliding platform. The discharged material succeeds on a landing where it is
cooled down a little. A second conveyor brings it to the elevator of the
sifting machine. Whilst the fine powder is taken up in barrels collectively
introduced under the apparatus, the remainder of the cacao passes along to
the conveyor first mentioned, is mixed with other broken pieces of cacao
cake, and so returns to the pulveriser.
In reference to the Dutch method of disintegration, mention must be
made of the process adopted by Moser & Co. in Stuttgart129, where the
cleansed, shelled and moistened beans are enclosed in a rotating drum, so
that they can be subjected to the influence of ammonia and water vapour,
produced from a solution of ammonium carbonate, which is passed through
the hollow interior of the drum. The beans are then roasted and so freed of
superfluous ammonia, after which follow in regular order the processes of
grinding, defatting and pulverising.
After this description of the Dutch and other well-known methods of
disintegration obtaining in the manufacture of cocoa powder, we shall now
proceed to describe such of the remaining processes as seem to deserve
mention.

c. Disintegration after Roasting.

The chief difference between the following methods of procedure and the
Dutch and other processes previously referred to is that in the former the
beans are neither impregnated with alkalis before nor during the roasting,
but after it has been carried out, and the impregnation occurs sometimes
prior, and at other times subsequent, to the expression of the fat. The several
stages of treatment which proceed this process succeed each other in the
same order as in the preparation of chocolate, cleansing, sorting, roasting,
crushing, shelling and trituration following one after the other. But if the
treatment with alkali is to take place before the fat is expressed, the cacao
passes from the grinding mill direct to the apparatus in which it is subjected
to the action of a solution of potash or some other alkali.

1. D i s i n t e g r a t i o n p r i o r t o P r e s s i n g .

The system of impregnating the ground but as yet undefatted beans with
alkali was first introduced into Germany by Otto Rüger, Lockwitzgrund.
The principle features of the Rüger process are similar to those of other
methods at present frequently met with, so that a detailed description would
seem to be rather superfluous. Melangeurs may be conveniently employed
in the treatment of cacao mass in a liquid state with alkalis, such as we have
previously described, and illustrated in fig. 86 on page 210.

Fig. 90 a.

As preparing machines for disintegration, the kneading and mixing
apparatus shown in working position in fig. 28, page 118, and in fig. 90 a
with tilted trough for emptying are specially constructed and patented and
quite deserve the popularity they have acquired.

Fig. 90 b.

Fig. 90 c.

Fig. 91 a.

Their construction and method of working are described on page 118.
Other well-known machines for the purpose are the “Universal” mixing and
kneading machines patented by Werner & Pfleiderer, which are shown in
figs. 90 b and 90 c. As regards the general outlines of their construction, it
will suffice to refer to the excellent descriptions of the machines which
occur in the catalogues issued by this firm. Mention cannot fail to be made,
however, of the circumstance that in these machines the evaporation of the

alkaline solvent is also effected. The working of the kneading arms
facilitates the escape of vapour from the mass and prevents overheating
from contact with the walls of the apparatus. Underneath, the trough is
provided with a double jacket, that is heated by steam.
To maintain connection of the steam and water pipes whilst the trough is
reversed there are two flexible metal tubes. Both are screwed to the fixed
pipes. For carrying away the vapour given off there is a tin plate cover to
the trough, provided with a charging aperture and a channel inside to catch
the moisture collecting on the cover and discharge it. When the machine is
to be emptied, the cover is raised and a receiver adapted to the size and
form of the machine is so placed that the charge can be diverted into it. The
tilting of the machine is effected mechanically, and depends on the working
of a lever. So as to prevent spurting of the liquid material when discharging,
the stirring arms can be stopped for a time.
From this “Universal” Kneader and Mixer the special type “Vacuum
Kneader”, system Werner-Pfleiderer, is distinguished, as its name implies,
by a vacuum arrangement. As seen on illustrations 91 a and b, this
comprises a pyramid-like cover made of cast iron, and shutting down air-
tight, which is provided with indiarubber caulking, and binding screws, and
is fitted up for steam heating. It moves on the frame of the machine and is
counterpoised with weights, so as to facilitate its raising and lowering. On
the front part of the lid there is a small aperture paned in with glass, and
opposite on the interior in a specially protected compartment occurs an
electric light arrangement, which admits of the continual observation of the
material during the working up processes. In addition, small quantities of
cacao mass can be introduced on removal of the glass pane without lifting
up the lid; so that the advantages of the aperture are twofold. The upper part
of the cover tapers off into a suction pipe, which itself terminates in a
flanged support intended as a finish to the conduit from the airpump.

Fig. 91 b.

The kneading trough of the machine is made of cast iron, provided with a
false bottom, and fitted up for heating with hot water or steam to a pressure
of 7 atmospheres, or for cooling down with cold water. By way of rapid
discharging, the trough is counterpoised with weights, and can easily be
tilted over by means of a hand winch. Its interior, as also the kneading
shovels, are clean scoured, and the bearings of the shovels stopped with
easily adjustable stuffing boxes. These stuffing boxes (German Patent) are
so fitted in that no greasing substances whatever can penetrate to the cacao
mass, which is of the highest importance, as in the case of the ordinary

stuffing boxes grease is sucked up into the kneading trough by the action of
the air pumps and the material contained in this so rendered impure. The
steam and water conduit to and fro is effected by means of supple metallic
hose, which follow the movement of the trough as it is tilted.
The vacuum kneading machines have acquired great importance in the
manufacture of milk chocolates, where it is chiefly a question of reducing
mixtures of cacao, sugar, and condensed milk to a requisite thickness.
Lately the value of the machine has been regarded as consisting in the main
of the possibility of preparing cacao under vacuum which it affords.
It is easy to understand that the treatment of the cacao under vacuum
demands a much lower temperature and takes place in about half the time
requisite for open machines, where it must be carried out against the
constant and contrary influence of the atmosphere, apart from the fact that
the vacuum kneader preserves the aroma far better.
The alkali solution used in disintegration may be prepared in vats fitted
with draw-off cocks, or, in small factories, in glass carboys such as are used
for the conveyance of acids. Of the fixed alkalis, potash is preferable, since
it is a natural constituent of terrestrial plants and therefore of the cacao
bean, and so its employment introduces no foreign ingredient. Magnesium
carbonate seems to find favour in many quarters, but we consider it less
suitable as being insoluble in water, and therefore can only be incorporated
with the cacao mass in a state of suspension. It is sufficient to have a potash
solution some 90 or 95 % strong, answering to the requirements of modern
medical treatises.130 The salt is soluble in an equal quantity of water.
In preparing the solution, the best plan is to dissolve a known quantity in
from 3 to 4 times as much water at the temperature of the room and then by
diluting with water reduce this composition to the required strength. As for
each 100 kilos of cacao still undefatted from 2 to at the most 3 kilos of
potash and from 15 to 20 kilos of water are required, this 2 or 3 kilos of the
salt should be dissolved in about 10 litres of water and the solution after
diluted with the remainder of the water.
In using volatile alkalis, which are nevertheless falling into disuse more
and apparently no longer maintain their reputation, ordinary ammonium
carbonate which may be easily obtained in powder form at any chemist’s, or

a solution of ammonia, such as spirits of sal-ammoniac, may be used. The
former is easily soluble in about five parts of water. From ½ to 3 kilograms
of ammonium carbonate are generally reckoned for every 100 kilos of
undefatted cacao material, and this amount is dissolved in water, the whole
of the salt being at once introduced into from 15 to 30 litres, as when
smaller quantities are used there ensues a decomposition of the salt and one
of the products of decomposition, the carbonate of ammonium, remains
undissolved.
The spirits of sal-ammoniac operate much more effectively than the
ammonium carbonate on account of their high percentage of ammonia, and
so only a third as much of this substance may be employed, and generally
even smaller quantities prove quite sufficient. Consequently 100 kilos of
defatted cacao should be mixed with 0·5-1 kilo of ammonia solution
(specific gravity 0·96), previously diluted with 20 or at the most 29 litres of
water. The mixture should be prepared in glass carboys immediately before
use, because of the volatility of ammonia.
In the treatment of the cacao, salt solution and cacao are together
introduced into a melangeur, or better into the kneading and mixing
machine, and the apparatus being set in working order, steam enters, and
removes the quantities of water which have been added, as well as the
volatile alkalis. Whether all the water has been driven off or no can only be
judged from the consistency of the mass after treatment, and it is just this
that renders the process of little value. The cacao material issuing from the
machine must be just as liquid as when it comes out of the triturating mills,
and so long as it appears as a glucose substance, which very often happens
where unsuitable mixing machines are employed, so surely will it contain
water, and this may lead to the growth of mould or to the cacao developing
a grey colour when packed in boxes. If the cacao cannot be sufficiently
dried in these machines, it must be transferred to some sort of drying plant
(where the temperature is about 48 ° C.), and there deprived of its still
remaining moisture.
When volatile alkali is used, kneading and mixing machines cannot very
well be dispensed with, as they work up the cacao material much more
thoroughly and admit of a better distribution of the ammonia than the
melangeur or incorporator. In this case it is advisable that the entire process

be carried out in some apartment separated from the other rooms of the
factory, in order that the pungent smell of ammonia may not be
communicated to other products, a further evil connected with this method
of disintegration. At the same time provision must be made for the escape
of the discharged gas through flues leading out into the open air.131
The treated cacao, when perfectly free from water and volatile alkali,
then passes on to the press, pulveriser and sifting machine successively, the
several operations being proceeded with exactly as described. In the
original process of Rüger’s, the defatted and disintegrated cacao is dried
after it has been reduced to smaller pieces, and then mixed with fat in such
proportions as seem requisite and desirable, so that it is possible in this
method to re-imbue a disintegrated cacao with its original percentage of
fatty contents.

2. D i s i n t e g r a t i o n a f t e r P r e s s i n g .

In this process, which may no longer be adopted as far as we can
ascertain the mechanically prepared beans are roasted, crushed and
decorticated, then ground in mills, defatted, and finally the cakes are broken
up into a rough powder and treated with alkali in the manner above
described. Care must here be taken to use as little water as possible in
dissolving the alkali. It is best to employ potash exclusively, for it has been
found that the last traces of volatile alkali are extremely difficult to remove
from defatted cacaos as decomposed by the solution, and there is no means
of neutralising the ammonia without at the same time causing material
damage to the flavour and aroma of the product treated.
The concentrated solution of alkali may be conveniently sprayed on the
powder while the latter is subjected to a constant stirring, an operation best
effected in the melangeur. The final drying is carried out in hot closets,
provided with an effective ventilator suitable to the purpose. After it has
been thoroughly dried, the cacao next succeeds to the pulverising and
sifting processes.

Some methods of rendering cacao soluble remain to be mentioned,
wherein no alkali whatever is used, and in which the disintegration is
effected by means of either water or steam. The first process of the kind
was invented by Lobeck & Co of Dresden132 in the year 1883. The cacao
beans, either raw, roasted, decorticated, ground or otherwise mechanically
treated are exposed to heat and the action of steam under high pressure in a
closed vessel, then subsequently powdered and dried. The process has little
to recommend it and has not been able to establish itself accordingly, for
hereby the starch in the cacao is gelatinised, and acid fermentation is
introduced, such as does not fail to damage the final product. Then again,
there is a danger of the cacao becoming mouldy in the store rooms, after
being treated by this process.
A second method, patented by Gädke, German Patent No. 93 394, 17 th.
Jan. 1895, consists in disintegrating by means of water in a less practical
manner. The roasted, decorticated but as yet unground beans are moistened
with water, and subsequently dried at a temperature of 100 ° C. after which
succeed the processes of grinding, defatting, pulverising and so forth. This
process has also failed to establish itself to any effect.

In our opinion any one of these methods skilfully and properly carried
out will yield a marketable, hygienic and wholesome product, though some
of them can boast of their own particular advantages. This holds good for
the so-called “Dutch” method in particular, though it is open to the
objection that the cacao so prepared is combined with an extraneous
product and that the combination remains right up to the moment of
consumption. Considered from this point of view, disintegration with fixed
alkalis is generally less advisable than the optional treatment with water or
volatile alkali, but it may be taken for granted that each manufacturer had
better decide the several details best adapted to his own particular outfit.
A well made soluble cocoa powder should have a pure brown colour,
without any suspicion of grey, should be perfectly dry, and feel light and
soft when finely divided, so betraying that property which the French
designate under the term “impalpable The peculiar aroma of the cacao must

be retained, and especially should the preparation be preserved from the
slightest taint of any ammonia combination, its taste being kept pure and
cacao-like, any hint of alkalinity indicating defect in the manner of
disintegration. Over and above delicacy of aroma and taste, that
characteristic described as “solubility” constitutes a main criterion of
quality in the eyes of the consuming public. To ascertain that only an
empirical test can be employed.133 About 7·5 grammes of cocoa powder are
introduced into some 150 grammes of hot milk or hot water contained in a
graduated beaker, and then the quantity of sediment which sinks to the
bottom of the vessel in a given time is noted. The more slowly a sediment is
formed and the smaller it is, the greater the “solubility” of the cocoa.
If it becomes necessary to give the cacao an additional flavouring, the
spices or ether-oils generally employed in the manufacture of chocolate
may be used in the course of pulverisation, and shortly before sifting.

C. Packing and Storing of the finished Cacao Preparations.

Chocolate will keep in its original condition for years, when protected
from atmospheric influence. It is therefore generally, and especially where
the finer qualities are concerned, packed up immediately after it leaves the
last process, and ornamented chocolates are previously varnished with an
alcoholic solution of benzoin and shellac (see page 250).
The inferior qualities are usually packed in paper and wooden boxes, but
the superior first in tin-foil and subsequently in paper. C o c o a p o w d e r
arrives packed in parchment boxes as a rule, and also in cardboard or tin
boxes.
Although packing in parchment or waxed paper is hygienically and
economically more advantageous than tin-foil packing, the latter is
nevertheless to be preferred, not only because it is a better preservative of
the aroma evident in the spices added, but also because it prevents an evil
which also in the end leaves its mark on cacao, when stored a very long
time, to wit, the development of rancidity. This is explained by the fact that
the tin-foil sticks to the chocolate, and so hinders the penetration of air.
According to an act dating from June 25th. 1897, and in force in
Germany (Reichsgesetzblatt No. 22), metal-foil containing more than one
percent of lead may not be used in the packing of snuff, chewing tobacco
and cheese. What holds good for other articles of consumption must also
apply to cacao preparations, when they are so packed that they come first of
all into contact with metal-foil, and not with paper. Tin-plating also,
containing in its coating more than 1 % of lead and in the soldering more
than 10 % is also inadmissible in the chocolate industry. Although it is said
that the whole of the tin-plate fittings made in Germany are constructed
according to an imperial standard, yet it may occasionally so happen that
cheap packing material does not correspond and answer to the legal
requirements.
The manufacturer can only protect himself against possible prosecution
for contravening or neglecting the articles of this act by obtaining a written
guarantee as to the quality of the tin-plate supplied.

The rooms where chocolate wares are stored should not be too warm, and
it is indispensable that they be kept dry, for heat accelerates the
volatilisation of their aroma and also the rancidity to which cacao is liable,
whilst moisture spoils the general appearance of the chocolate and promotes
the growth of mould. This development of mould, which is first noticeable
after long storage in damp, dark warehouses, is principally due to the
growth of a fungus which Royer has named “Cacao-oïdium134
As the numerous wrappings (in tin-foil, paper, etc.) are at present only
effected by hand labour, they mean an appreciable increase in the price of
the goods. This is of less moment for the chocolate tablets as the small
napolitains and the like. Therefore attempts have often been made to effect
this wrapping by means of machines135, and I have seen among others two
models for napolitains, one on a large and the other on a small scale, the
property of a Hamburg chocolate factory, and constructed by the firm of A.
Savy & Co., Paris, which same machines were said to effect the wrapping
in tin-foil, folding and additional packing in paper, as also the final closing,
automatically and well; but just as I requested to be shown the machines, I
was told that they were for the time being not in working order. Since then I
have heard no more of the matter, and regret that the firm of Savy & Co.,
who have a branch in Dresden, have not been able to answer several letters
which I sent them inquiring for further particulars. It must be that the
machines have failed to answer their purpose, for otherwise they would
have been assured of a hearty reception, no matter how dear they might
have been. So for the nonce our chocolate packing must depend on hand
labour.
Quite a different arrangement obtains in respect to cocoa powder, which
was also originally packed up in paper bags by hand. This operation is to-
day despatched in machines, as also in the case of other powder substances,
like tooth-powder, dyes, patent foods, soap powder, etc., and this even in
the smallest of factories. It is true that the machine built a decade ago by L.
Wagner in Heilbronn and at that time described by Zipperer in our second
edition, which was to wrap up a dozen packets simultaneously, seems to
have failed, for it is no longer constructed; yet its place has been taken by a
succession of other machines which have stood the tests of many years. The
principle has been altered, many packets at one time not being filled, but
always one only, and the advantage lies in the fact that the machine fills

more exactly and with a higher degree of uniformity as regards the weights
of the several packets.

Figs. 92 and 93.

Apart from the “Machines for packing en masse” Co., Ltd. Berlin, who
put out several automatic fillers, special mention may here be made of the
firm of Fritz Kilian, whose automatic filler and packer “Ideal” (fig. 92) for
quantities of from 25-2500 grammes, and “Triumph” (fig. 93), for
quantities of from 1-100 grammes, have both long established their right to
a place in every factory, their excellence being predominant.

Part III.
Ingredients used in the manufacture of chocolate.

A. Legal enactments. Condemned ingredients.

Chocolate is a mixture of cacao mass with sugar, to which usually spices
and even cacao butter are also added. The sugar generally amounts to rather
more than one half (60 percent) of the total mixture. Spices such as
cinnamon, vanilla, cloves, nutmeg, mace, cardamoms, as well as cacao
butter, or perfumes like peruvian balsam, are only added in small quantity
so as to improve or alter the flavour as required. Recently, the ethereal oils
of the spices have been used for this purpose as well as artificially prepared
aromatic substances, such as vanillin, for example. Flour and starch136,
although the latter is seldom used, are permissible ingredients in cheaper
kinds of chocolate but only when the fact of the addition is plainly stated.
The kinds of flour usually employed are wheat and potato flours, rice-starch
and arrowroot, dextrin and, less frequently, oat, barley, acorn, chestnut, or
rye flour. In certain forms of dietetic chocolate, sugar being injurious to
invalids, it is replaced by saccharin; another material, such as a leguminous
flour from beans, peas or lentils, must be employed in its place.137 In some
kinds of fancy chocolate, harmless colours, tincture of benzoin etc. are
used.

B. Ingredients allowed

I. Sweet Stuffs.

a) Sugar.

Both cane and beetroot sugar are employed in the manufacture of
chocolate. As this naturally possesses a brownish colour, brownish white as
well as white sugar is used for mixing with the cacao mass. The kinds of
sugar used are:

1. Sugar dust, a white crystallisable and very fine powder.
2. Crystal or granulated sugar, consisting of loose, plain crystals, and
suitable for almost all purposes in the manufacture.
3. Sugar flour I, II, and III which is a difficultly crystallisable sugar
containing an amount of molasses increasing with the number, and
it is of a more or less brown colour.

Fig. 94.

The chocolate manufacturer nevertheless requires the sugar to answer to
certain characters. It must dissolve in half its weight of warm water forming
a sweet syrup. The syrup must have no action on either red or brown litmus
paper i. e. have neither acid nor alkaline reaction, and on no account
coagulate boiling milk.
The sugar is usually added to the cacao mass in the form of a very fine
powder and sometimes in a coarser condition, though that is not to be
recommended. By using finely powdered sugar, the rolling of the cacao

mass is considerably facilitated and the manufacture is accelerated. The
sugar must be perfectly dry, as damp sugar yields a dull chocolate which
readily crumbles.

Fig. 95.

For grinding the sugar, the so called edge-runner mill as shown in figure
94 was formerly employed.
It is like the melangeur constructed of a firmly fixed bed-stone and two
cylindrical runners.
The pulverised material issuing from such an apparatus must then be
passed through one of the various kinds of sifting machines, where the finer
parts fall through the meshes of a silken sieve, whilst the rougher are
discharged at the end of the arrangement: for small factories such machines
as the drum sifters illustrated in fig. 95, and for the larger those centrifugal
sifters which have already been fully described.
The constructions for grinding have of late been considerably perfected.
The most practical arrangements for pulverising all kinds of granulated
sugar and so-called lump sugar, are those combined grinding and sifting
installations such as are executed by the firm of J. M. Lehmann in Dresden.
The grinding is here effected by disintegrators (revolving arms, etc.) similar
to those used in the pulverising of cocoa powder as described on page 212.
The output of these disintegrators138 is extraordinarily large, and the harder
and drier the ground sugar is, the finer the pulverised material resulting. We
annex a diagram of the machine in fig. 96.

Fig. 96.

The granulated or lump sugar is filled into the hopper and thence lead
along a conveyor to be ground in another part of the machine, and can be
controlled as regards quantity. The blades, which pass through about 3000
revolutions a minute, seize the sugar and swing it against the ribbed walls
of the mantle, after which it falls in smaller fragments on a grater fitted in
the under part of the apparatus. The sugar which passes through the grating
is now conducted by conveyor and elevator to the sifting arrangement,
whilst the rougher material is again whirled round by the blades. This
sifting arrangement consists of a cylindrical sieve, on the interior of which
there occur revolving arms which provide for the despatch of material
through the various sieves. The rougher stuff which remains is removed by
hand or some other mechanical means and transported to the hopper once
more. A chamber placed above the machine and connected with the
grinding apparatus by means of pipes provides for the protection of the
machine against dust.

Such installations are constructed in various sizes and fashions, and
possess immense outputs (up to even 5000 kilogrammes daily). That they
must be built in special shops is clear from the fact that so large a quantity
of dusty sugar sacks need transporting after the processes are completed. It
is further to be noted that the fineness of the sugar corresponds to the mesh-
work of the sieves, which as we have previously stated, can be chosen with
any size of hole desired, yet this naturally influences the machine, and
recently a very high standard of fineness has been generally dropped, and
rougher siftings are now made, as when the sugar is too fine.—e. g. in the
case of the cheaper qualities—it absorbs too much of the fatty contents, and
so necessitates the addition of cacao butter, whilst on the other hand, when
the chocolate is of a finer quality, the sugar is sufficiently reduced in the
trituration to which the mixed material is subjected.

b) Saccharin and other sweetening agents.

Apart from the sugar, which is such an important factor in the chocolate
manufacture, mention must also be made of another sweetening material,
formerly frequently used as a substitute for sugar, but now only to be
obtained at the apothecary’s on exhibition of a medical order, in
consequence of certain legal restrictions which have recently come in force.
It is called Fahlberg saccharin, and again zuckerin, sykorin, crystallose,
“Süßstoss Höchst” and sykose.
Saccharin is not like sugar a carbohydrate naturally produced by plants,
but a derivative of the aromatic compounds which the chemist has
artificially constructed from the products of the distillation of coal.
Saccharin is benzoyl-sulphonimide, and it has the chemical formula

CO
C6H4 ≺ ≻NH
SO2

It is a white, crystalline powder, so exceedingly sweet that its taste can be
perceived in a dilution of 1 in 70000. It is only slightly soluble in cold water
(1: 400) but more easily so in hot water (1: 28). The material known as

easily soluble saccharin is its sodium salt. It contains 90 percent of
saccharin and is the most easily digested compound of saccharin.
For technical, domestic and medicinal purposes the soluble saccharin
which is only from 300-450 times as sweet as sugar is employed. Besides
being unfermentable saccharin has very slight antiseptic properties;
according to L. Nencki139 the digestibility of albumin is less affected by it,
in the proportion usually added to articles of food, than by Rhine wine, or
by a sugar solution of equal sweetness. Saccharin is entirely unaltered in the
human organism, hence it forms a welcome sweetening material for
invalids suffering from diabetes, corpulence or diseases of the stomach to
whom ordinary sugar is injurious. The substances known as dulcin and
glucin are analogous to saccharin in sweetening property, the first being
phenetol-carbamid and the latter a monosulphonate of amido-triazine.
The latest substance of this class is termed “sucramin” and consists of the
ammonium salt of saccharin. It is readily soluble in water, less so in alcohol
and is 700 times sweeter than sugar. It can be obtained either in the pure
form or mixed (20 percent) with sugar.
In chocolate making, saccharin is at present of little importance, owing to
the relatively small volume required as compared with sugar. Recently it
has again been recommended to the extent of 0·76 percent as a sweetening
material for cocoa powder. It would certainly be of value in cocoa powders
to be consumed by invalids and persons not able to take sugar, although it
will never come into general use. The detection of saccharin has acquired
increased importance in Germany since the passing of the acts of October
1st 1898 and July 7th 1902, regulating the trade in artificial sweetening
materials. According to Zipperer’s experiments, it may be detected in the
following manner: A mixture of 5 grammes of the finely powdered
substance with 100 ccm of water is allowed to stand for 2 hours,
occasionally stirred and afterwards filtered. The filtrate is acidulated with
three drops of hydrochloric acid and evaporated to 20 ccm, then shaken140
with 50 ccm of ether in a separator and left standing for a day to separate
into two layers. The ether solution is separated and evaporated to dryness in
a beaker, the residue being mixed with 0·1 gramme of resorcin and 4-5
drops of concentrated sulphuric acid141 (Börnsteins test). The mixture is
then heated over a small Bunsen flame and the melted material saturated

with normal sodium hydrate. The appearance of a strong fluorescence
indicates the presence of saccharin. Saccharin can also be easily recognised
by the sweet taste of the ether residue.

II. Kinds of Starch, Flour.

The chief kinds of starch used in chocolate making are rice starch,
arrowroot, potato starch and wheat starch, occasionally also small quantities
of dextrine.

1. P o t a t o s t a r c h o r f l o u r .

Potato starch is a white or faintly yellowish powder in which single,
glistening granules can be seen by the naked eye. Under the microscope the
granules appear mostly single with evident striae, usually with pointed ends
containing the nucleus; they are also eccentric in structure. This starch
rarely contains fragments of tissue. It is prepared by first treating finely
divided pared potatoes with 1 percent dilute sulphuric acid, then washing,
drying and grinding the starch.

2. W h e a t s t a r c h .

Wheat starch can be obtained either from crushed wheat or from wheaten
flour by treatment with water after the nitrogenous constituent, gluten, has
been separated by kneading. It amounts to about 60-70 percent of the grain.
Under the microscope the granules appear to differ considerably in size.
They are distinguished from potato starch by the nearly central hilum,
surrounded by faintly marked concentric striae, and again by the granules
being more frequently adherent. Wheat flour rather than the starch is
generally used in chocolate making.

3. D e x t r i n .

When starch is heated to between 200° and 210° C. it is converted chiefly
into dextrin or starch gum with a little sugar. Dextrin is a white to yellowish
and tasteless powder with a peculiar smell; it differs from starch in being
readily soluble in water. It gives a reddish colour with an aqueous solution
of iodine. Fehling’s solution is unaffected by dextrin in the cold, but on long
continued heating it is reduced to red cuprous oxide.

4. R i c e s t a r c h .

Rice starch is obtained from inferior kinds of rice and from rice waste by
treatment with water. It appears under the microscope as small granules or
oval bodies of various sizes. According to their position the granules always
seem to be polygons,142 formed by coalescence. It is thus easily
distinguished from the previously mentioned starches.

5. A r r o w r o o t .

Several kinds of starch, obtained from the tubers of various species of
plants are commercially known under this name.
1. West Indian arrowroot, from Maranta arundinacea, is a fine and almost
white powder. Under the microscope it always appears to consist of pear or
spindle-shaped granules with eccentric hilum.
2. East Indian arrowroot is obtained from various species of ginger
plants. It is a fine white powder and is seen under the microscope as single
granules with well marked eccentric hilum and closely stratified at the
spindle-shaped ends. It much resembles Guiana arrowroot, which is
obtained from varieties of Yam.
3. Queensland arrowroots from species of Cycas and Canna, appear as
flat, coarse and mostly single granules. They can be easily distinguished
from other kinds of starch by the large size of the granules.
4. Brazil arrowroot, from the Manihot plants which belong to the order of
Euphorbiaceae. Under the microscope the granules appear compound, the
parts being of a drum or sugar loaf shape with many concentric striae.

6. C h e s t n u t m e a l .

Chestnut or maron meal also comes under consideration in the chocolate
industry. The appearance of the starch granules is most characteristic. They
are partly single and partly composed of two individual granules. The single
granules, according to J. F. Hanausek143, appear in such a variety of forms
as to defy a summarised description. Frequently they occur oval, spindle,
club, or flat kidney shaped, resembling those of the leguminous family; but
especially to be noticed is the triangular contour of some granules, as well
as some with projecting points. The central nucleus and its cavity are
generally distinct, but the stratification is very slight or quite
unrecognisable.

7. B e a n m e a l .

Of the leguminous meals that of beans is chiefly used as an adjunct in
cocoa powders and chocolate, sweetened with saccharin, on account of its
relatively large proportion of albuminous substance and small amount of
starch. The meal is generally obtained from the seed of the common white
bean. (Phaseolus vulgaris.) The starch granules under the microscope
appear oval or long kidney shaped, with distinct nucleus cavities and
furrows, as well as a distinctly marked stratification. Their length averages
from 0·033 to 0·05 mm. The meal has a disagreeable leguminous taste
when cooked, but that disappears when the meal is slightly roasted.

8. S a l e p .

Salep which is now very seldom used as an admixture to chocolate
(Rakahout of the Arabs)144 is an amylaceous powder prepared from the
tubers of various kinds of orchids. Under the microscope salep appears as
fairly large translucent masses which consist of an agglomeration of very
delicate walled cells giving the starch reaction with iodine.

III. Spices.

a) General Introduction.

We cannot too strongly recommend the manufacturer to pulverise the
spices, e. g. cinnamon, cloves and the like, himself, for such as are bought
ready pulverised have frequently been adulterated with admixtures of wood,
flour or bark. This is the more essential as sometimes pulverised cinnamon
is distilled with steam to obtain an extract of its ethyl oil, and then the
residue, which is of considerably inferior value as regards aroma, sold as
genuine cinnamon powder. Such adulteration can neither be demonstrated
under the microscope nor chemically, so that it is impossible to protect
oneself against them.

Fig. 97.

The edge runner mill and sieving apparatus described in connection with
the pulverising of sugar also adapt themselves to reducing spices, although
generally other machines are used for this purpose, either the well-known
ball mills145 consisting of a hollow spherical ball revolving round its axle,
inside which the spices are shaken, crushed and completely pulverised by

the action of a number of heavy metal balls, or in other cases pulverising
mills and stamping arrangements proper.

Fig. 98.

The following stamp arrangement, shown in fig. 97, is very practical in
the pulverisation of all manner of spices, and is driven by a force of 1·5
H.P. The strong frame, which is walled in with iron, is dust-proof. Whilst
the stamper is being raised, the pots are revolved round their axles, and so
the substances to be pulverised are mixed together. Other machines much
used in pulverising are seen in fig. 94. Another smaller pulverising mill is
pictured in fig. 98. This machine is adapted for a middle sized production.
The grinding arrangement in which the pulverising takes place is conically
built and is made completely of granite; the regulation is effected by means
of a working beam, the batting arm of which is fitted on to the upper part of
the apparatus. A sieving of the material to be pulverised does not generally
take place in this machine. For small production for example for
confectioners who manufacture chocolate also incidentally, one can also use

the machines pictured in the figs. 95 & 99, the method of working of which
may be at once understood. The different degrees of fineness of the material
to be pulverised are reached by passing the powder through drum sieves of
different widths of mesh and all the sieves are set in motion at the same
time by the machines.

Vanilla.

Only the most important features of the spice so valuable in chocolate
making will be noticed, since the characteristic aroma of the true vanilla has
been to a large extent supplanted in practice by artificially prepared vanillin.
Vanilla is the fruit capsule of an orchid, Va n i l l a p l a n i f o l i a, which
is generally cultivated with the cacao tree, as the same climate and soil suit
them equally. According to Möller, the shoots of the vanilla are fastened to
the cacao tree, on the bark of which they soon strike root. The aerial roots
and tendrils then put forth fleshy leaves, in the axils of which arise large
odourless and dull coloured flowers which yield after a lapse of two years
long thin capsules. The capsules are filled with a transparent balsam, in
which the black seeds are imbedded. It is in the balsam that the vanillin,
which gives vanilla its unequalled aroma, is produced. The fresh gathered
vanilla fruit (see the investigations of W. Busse146 contains no free vanillin
or merely an infinitesimal quantity.

Fig. 99.

It is rather developed by subsequent treatment in which heat appears to
be necessary. Vanillin, like cocoa-red and theobromine, is formed by the
splitting up of a glucoside by fermentative action. In some kinds of vanilla,
piperonal, an aromatic body, which occurs in larger quantities in
H e l i o t r o p i u m e u r o p a e u m and p e r u v i a n u m, has also been
observed.
The commercial kinds of vanilla come from Mexico, Tahiti, Réunion,
Mauritius, Mayotte, Seychelles, Ceylon and Java, which in 1891 produced
respectively:

Réunion (Bourbon) 50-65,000 kilos
Mexico 55,000 "
Mauritius 13-15,000 "
Mayotte (Comoro Islands) 8-10,000 "
Seychelles 4- 6,000 "

The best commercial kinds of vanilla come from Mexico, Bourbon, and
Mauritius, and command a higher price than the other kinds. The quantity is
gauged by the length (10-24 cm), and plumpness of the pods. Fine quality is
fatty and dark coloured, inferior quality is dry and reddish. The outside of
the pods in the Bourbon vanilla, contains highly esteemed vanillin crystals,

which are wanting in the Mexican variety. Vanilla flowers in October and
November, is gathered in the following months of May, June, and July, and
is prepared in October and November. At the beginning of November the
first instalment of the new harvest arrives in Marseilles, which is the chief
commercial place for vanilla. The most important operation, in preparing
vanilla is to attain the proper degree of dryness. This is arrived at nowadays
by the use of calcium chloride. The pods are first placed in a metallic box
lined with wool which is placed in warm water so as to superficially dry
them; they are then transferred to a suitable constructed drying closet
containing calcium chloride and allowed to remain there for 20-30 days.
100 pounds of vanilla are reckoned to require 40 pounds of calcium
chloride. The great advantage of this process is that the fruit, so dried, better
retains its aroma.147 Insufficiently dried vanilla does not keep, but soon
becomes mouldy, whilst overheated vanilla keeps well, but is brittle, breaks
easily and consequently has little commercial value. Vanilla covered with
mould (A s p e r g i l l u s r e p e n s and M u c o r c i r c i n e l l o i d e s) is
sought to be improved in various ways and is sold as of inferior quality.148
It is worth observing that those persons who in the course of business
handle vanilla show characteristic symptoms of poisoning. It affects the
eyes and nervous system and produces eruptions on the skin. The
complaint, however, is not of a dangerous nature, for the workmen quickly
become accustomed to vanilla so that, after recovering from the first attack,
they can resume work without risk to health.149
On account of its high price, vanilla is much subjected to adulteration;
either by an admixture of the more cumarin-smelling vanillin (Pompona or
La Guayra Vanilla [Vanilla Pompona Schieder]) or other less valuable
vanilla fruit; sometimes pods that have been deprived of vanillin by
extraction with alcohol are used for that purpose; their colour and
appearance being restored by immersion in tincture of benzoin and coating
with crystals of benzoic acid, powdered glass etc. In doubtful cases of
adulteration the vanillin must be quantitatively determined.

That can be done by W. Busse’s method150, in which the vanilla is
extracted with ether in a Soxhlet’s apparatus. The extract is shaken with a
solution of sodium bisulphite, the vanillin then set free with sulphuric acid
and the disengaged sulphurous acid removed by a stream of carbon dioxide.

The vanillin is then shaken out with ether and on evaporating off the ether,
vanillin is left in a pure condition. Busse found by this method in East
African vanilla 2·10 percent of vanillin, in the Ceylon 1·48 percent, and in
the Tahiti variety from 1·55 to 2·02 percent. In America the so-called
vanilla extract, instead of vanilla, is used and it lends itself to adulteration
much more easily than natural vanilla. William Hesse has given methods
and results obtained in the investigation of the extract.151
5. Va n i l l i n .
Vanilla in the chocolate industry has recently been almost entirely
superseded by the use of artificially prepared vanillin, which serves as a
complete substitute for the essential and valuable constituent of vanilla. In
comparing vanillin with vanilla, regard must be had to the amount of
vanillin in the latter, which may vary to the extent of 50 percent according
to whether the vanilla was damp, dry, fresh or stored. The finest kinds of
vanilla seldom contain more than 2 percent of vanillin and in many kinds it
varies between 0·5 and 2·5 percent. It may also happen that vanilla with 0·5
to 1·0 percent may be equally as fine in appearance as one of high
percentage, hence the aroma value must be taken into consideration. In
addition to possessing a uniform and permanent perfume vanillin is cheaper
in price.
Vanillin occurs naturally not only in vanilla but also in very small amount
in certain kinds of raw sugar, in potato skins and in Siam benzoin; it can be
produced artificially from coniferin which is obtained from pine wood, or
by the oxidation of eugenol, a substance contained in oil of cloves, from
both of which Tiemann and W. Haarmann152 first prepared it in 1872. In the
course of the last ten years a number of processes have been discovered
whereby vanillin can be artificially produced. The reader who is interested
in this subject will find it fully discussed in a paper by J. Altschul in No. 51
of the Pharmazeutische Centralhalle 1895.
The competition which arose through the processes of Haarmann and
Reimer of Holzminden and G. de Laire of Paris, whose products owing to
patent rights had controlled the market from the commencement, produced
a steady decrease in the price of vanillin.

The following table drawn up by J. Rouché153 shows the revolution in
price which has occurred in this article and how, in the course of time, a
small business with large profits has been transformed into a large business
with small profits.
T h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e p r i c e o f v a n i l l i n:
Marks per Kilo.
1876 1877 1878 1879 1881 1882 1884 1885
7000 4000 2400 1600 1600 1600 900 900
1886 1888 1890 1892 1893 1895 1897
700 700 700 700 700 560 108

The chemical formula of vanillin is C6H3(OCH3) (OH)CHO; it melts
between 82-83 ° C. and sublimes at 120 ° C. The colourless four-sided
crystals have a strong vanilla odour and taste, are difficultly soluble in cold
water, easily in hot water and very readily soluble in alcohol.
Vanillin is much adulterated. Cumarin, the aromatic principle of the
melitot (m e l i o t u s o f f i c i n a l i s) and of tonquin beans etc., can be
prepared cheaply and it is fraudulently used in large or small quantity to
imitate the vanillin aroma. A sample of vanillin bought in Switzerland was
found by Hefelmann154 to contain 26 percent of antifebrin. The American
“vanilla crystals” consist of a mixture of vanillin and antifebrin, or vanillin,
cumarin and benzoic acid; latterly that article is stated to consist only of
cumarin, antifebrin and sugar.
The melting point of genuine vanillin is a characteristic indication.
Admixtures of vanillic acid and antifebrin cause depression of the melting
point (4-8 ° C. according to the amount and character of the two substances
[Welmans])155. For the quantitative determination of vanillin in mixtures,
Welmans takes advantage of its behaviour towards caustic alkalis, with
which, like phenol, it forms compounds that are easily soluble in water, but
sparingly so in alcohol. The process is as follows: 1 gramme of the
substance is placed in a cylinder of 200 ccm capacity with 25 ccm of
alcohol, 25 ccm of approximately semi-normal alcoholic potash and 2 or 3
drops of phenolphthalein solution and agitated until completely dissolved.
The excess of alkali is then titrated with semi-normal hydrochloric acid,

and, at the same time, the strength of the alcoholic potash after adding 25
ccm of alcohol is ascertained. The number of cubic centimetres consumed is
multiplied by 0·076, the semifactor for vanillin. In the case of vanilla sugar,
10 grammes are treated with 50 ccm of water to dissolve the sugar, then the
alcoholic potash is added and the operation carried out as before described.
1 gramme of vanillin requires 6: 58 ccm of normal potash (= 0·36842 g
KOH).

∕ OCH3
C6H3(OH) : KOH
∖CHO
152 : 56 = 1 : x

If cumarin is suspected to have been added to the vanillin it can be
detected and separated, according to Zipperer’s experiments, by the method
of W. H. Hess and A. B. Prescott.156
The substance is dissolved in ether and the solution shaken up with a
weak solution of ammonia. The vanillin will be found in the aqueous layer
in the form of an ammonium compound, whilst the cumarin will be
dissolved by the ether. The vanillin can be identified by the sandal-wood oil
reaction as described by Bonnema,157 and the cumarin can be determined
by direct weighing.
The financial advantage in using vanillin in place of vanilla is apparent.
The average price of vanilla is now 45 to 50 shillings per kilo. But as 25
grammes of vanillin are equal in perfume to 1 kilo of vanilla and, at the rate
of 35 shillings per kilo, that quantity costs only 10½ vanilla is nearly sixty
times dearer than vanillin. The consumption of vanillin has increased to an
enormous extent, and in the United States Henning has estimated the
consumption during 1897-1898 at over 100000 ounces. The same author
points out the remarkable fact that this enormous consumption of vanillin
has scarcely any effect on the demand for vanilla pods, the market value of
which is not only maintained but has a tendency to increase.
In order to have it in a finely divided condition, as required for the
factory, it is recommended to rub the vanillin down with sugar, in the
proportion of 100 grammes of vanillin to 2 kilos of sugar, in the following

manner; 100 grammes of vanillin are dissolved in 500 grammes of hot
alcohol and this solution added to 2 kilos of finely powdered sugar; then the
whole is placed in a rotatory comfit boiler and dried by a blast of warm air
at 40 ° C. Whilst vanilla must be very carefully packed that it may not
become mildewed and deteriorate, vanillin on the other hand keeps very
well in such mixtures so long as they are kept from damp, which might
cause the sugar to ferment and thus gradually decompose the vanillin.

d) Cinnamon.

There are three commercial kinds of cinnamon in Europe.
1. Ceylon cinnamon, which represents the finest kind, is the bark of
C i n n a m o m u m c e y l a n i c u m, a native of the island of Ceylon. The
bark is very light and brittle, seldom more than 0·5 mm thick, externally
yellowish brown with long stripes, whilst it is somewhat darker on the
inside. Its fracture is short and fibrous, and a traverse section shows
externally a sharply defined light colour with a darker inside zone.
2. Cassia or Chinese cinnamon is from C i n n a m o m u m C a s s i a, a
tree which grows wild in the forests of Southern China. The bark is thicker
than that previously described, often 2 mm thick. It is in single tubes, harder
and thicker than the Ceylon kind, with frequently adherent fragmentary
tissues of the corky layer. The colour is a greyish brown, the fracture even,
with a light zone in the section.
3. Malabar or wood cinnamon consists of the less valuable kinds and is
derived from different varieties of cinnamon trees which have been planted
in the Sunda and Phillipine islands. In appearance it resembles the Chinese
more than the Ceylon cinnamon.
The aromatic taste of cinnamon is due to the ethereal cinnamon oil
which, in Ceylon cinnamon, amounts to 1 percent; the ash should not
exceed 4·5 percent. An ethereal oil is also present (about 1·8 percent) in the
leaves of the Ceylon cinnamon tree, but it is quite different from the bark
oil, resembling in its properties more the oils of cloves and pimento. On
account of its penetrating odour and pungent taste its employment in
chocolate making is little to be recommended.

It cannot be too much insisted on that with spices like cinnamon, cloves,
etc. the manufacturer should grind them himself and not purchase them in
fine powder, as the latter is frequently adulterated with admixtures of wood,
meal bark, etc. This is more to be recommended as ground cinnamon has
frequently been deprived of the ethereal oil by distillation with steam and
the bark then flavoured with a small amount of cinnamon oil and sold as
powdered cinnamon. Such an adulteration can be detected neither
chemically nor microscopically.

e) Cloves.

Cloves are the incompletely developed flowers of the clove tree,
C a r y o p h y l l u s a r o m a t i c u s of the Myrtaceae. The most important
commercial kinds are the Zanzibar, Amboyna, and Penang cloves. The
aromatic principle of cloves is an ethereal oil which they contain to the
extent of 18 percent. The adulteration of cloves is much the same as in the
case of cinnamon. Genuine cloves should not give more than 6 percent of
ash.

f) Nutmeg and Mace.

Nutmeg is the seed kernel of the fruit of M y r i s t i c a m o s c h a t a
known as the nutmeg tree, which is indigenous to Malacca. In the thick
pericarp of the fruit, resembling the apricot, is found the brown seed
surrounded by a deep red reticular mantle. This last is the seed mantle or
arillus and when separated from the kernel is known commercially as mace.
The furrows on the surface of the nutty seeds are filled with a white mass
which consists of lime, in which the nuts have been laid after drying in
order to protect them from the attack of insects. The aromatic constituent of
nutmeg and of mace is also an ethereal oil. The seeds contain 8-15 percent
of ethereal oil with 25 percent of a fatty oil; mace contains 4-15 percent of
ethereal oil and 18 percent of fatty oil. As both spices occur in commerce in
whole pieces, adulteration is not to be feared.

g) Cardamoms.

Of these there are two kinds on the market:
1. The small or Malabar cardamoms.
2. The long or Ceylon cardamoms.
Both are the fruit, although very different in form, of a species of the
ginger plants which is indigenous to Ceylon and Malabar.
The Malabar cardamom is three cornered oblong and about 1 cm in size.
In the fine brown pericarps are enclosed, adhering together, 6-8 angular
seeds, 3 mm in size, having a pungent aromatic taste.
The Ceylon cardamom is four times larger than the Malabar kind. The
grey brown pericarp encloses about 20 dark greyish brown seeds about 6
mm large. The aroma of the Ceylon cardamom is due to an ethereal oil
which it contains in quantities sometimes reaching 6 percent. Madras and
Malabar cardamoms contain 4-8 percent of ethereal oil. As the Ceylon
cardamoms are cheaper than the Malabar kind a confusion of the two seeds
might possibly be to the disadvantage of the buyer, but the above
description of their relative size would suffice to distinguish them.
Exact accounts of the characteristic properties, the chemical and
microscopical investigation as well as of the impurities and adulterations of
the materials previously mentioned as being used in cacao preparations are
to be found in volume II of the “Vereinbarungen zur einheitlichen
Untersuchung und Beurteilung von Nahrungs-und Genußmittel sowie
Gebrauchsgegenständen für das Deutsche Reich”158 to which those who
desire further to investigate this subject are referred.

IV. Other Ingredients.

a) Ether oils.

As previously remarked in the case of vanillin, it is becoming more and
more the custom to substitute perfume substances for powdered spices. This

practice is quite justified since the entire perfume of a spice is made use of
and the worthless woody and indigestible fibre is thus excluded from the
finished preparation.
The following are the ether oils used in practice:

1. Cinnamon oil,
2. Clove oil,
3. Cardamom oil,
4. Coriander oil,
5. Nutmeg oil (ethereal),
6. Mace oil (ethereal).

The amount of ether oil that should be used in place of the corresponding
spice is a matter of taste. The maximum percentage of the oil in the
respective spice might serve as a standard, as for example in the case of
cinnamon oil, which is contained in the bark to the extent of 1 percent,
about the hundredth part of the oil would be required to correspond with the
prescribed weight of the bark. But as the yield of oil from one and the same
kind of spice varies to a considerable extent according to season and
locality, the percentage value can only be used as a general guide, and the
final decision must be always regulated by the taste.
The ethereal oils can be incorporated in the cacao preparations (mass,
powder etc.) either in a spirit solution or ground down with sugar. The latter
method is naturally only used when sugar is to be added to cacao
preparations. To prepare the alcoholic solution 10 parts of the ethereal oil
are dissolved in 90 parts of strong alcohol. The mixture of oil with sugar
can be made by triturating 2·5 parts of the ethereal oil with 100 parts of
sugar in a porcelain mortar and grinding down with the pestle until the
sugar and oil are intimately mixed. Of the alcoholic solution it is necessary
to take 10 parts, and of the oil-sugar 40 parts to one part of ethereal oil.

II. P e r u b a l s a m a n d G u m b e n z o i n .

Peru balsam is at present very much used as a perfume in chocolate
making. It is obtained from the P a p i l i o n a c e o u s M y r o x y l o n

P e r e i r a which is indigenous to the western part of Central America. It is
a thick, brownish black, liquid balsam which in thin layers appears
transparent and has a peculiar smell and burning taste; it is almost
completely soluble in alcohol, chloroform, and acetic ether. The aromatic
substance of this balsam is cinnameïn, which consists essentially of the
esters of benzoic and cinnamic acids and benzyl alcohol together with an
alcoholic body “Peruviol”, which has the smell of honey. In addition to
cinnameïn (71-77 per cent) the balsam also contains a resin ester (13-17
percent). According to K. Dieterich, Peru balsam is the better for containing
more cinnameïn and less resin ester. Peru balsam is adulterated with fatty
oils, copaiva, gurjun-balsam, storax, colophony, turpentine, and tolu
balsam. In regard to the chemical investigation of this balsam the work of
K. Dieterich159 may be consulted.
The Sumatra benzoin is the most important of the commercial kinds for
chocolate making. It is obtained from one of the Styracae, Styrax benzoin,
and is a reddish grey mass in which separate tiers of resin are embedded.
Benzoic acid and vanillin are the most important constituents. It is
adulterated with Palembang benzoin, colophony, dammer, storax, and
turpentine. Respecting the chemical investigation of commercial benzoin
the above-mentioned work of K. Dieterich may also be referred to.
Benzoin is almost exclusively used for the preparation of chocolate
varnish and sweets laquer, which are prepared by dissolving from 25 to 45
grammes of the laquer body in 100 grammes of strong spirit. The laquer
body may contain varying quantities of benzoin and bleached shellac. The
decorations of chocolate are painted with this laquer in order to give them a
glistening appearance and greater durability.

V. Colouring materials.

The following colouring materials are permitted by the German law of
the 14th May 1879 to be used for sugar goods and consequently also for
chocolate and cacao preparations.

W h i t e: finest flour starch.
Ye l l o w: saffron, safflower, turmeric.

B l u e: litmus, indigo solution.
G r e e n: spinach juice as well as mixtures of the permitted blue and
yellow colours.>
R e d: carmine, cochineal, madder red.
V i o l e t: mixtures of the harmless blue and red colours.
B r o w n: burnt sugar, licorice juice.
B l a c k: chinese ink.

In the meantime a number of comparatively harmless aniline colours
have been permitted in Austria for colouring sugar goods and liqueurs, and
eventually also for cacao preparations.160 As in the author’s opinion there is
no ground for objecting to their use in other countries, a list of them is
given under their commercial and scientific designations.

Red:F u c h s i n = Rosaniline hydrochloride, soluble in water and
alcohol.
A c i d F u c h s i n or F u c h s i n S or Rubin = Sodium or
calcium acid salt of rosaniline disulphonic acid, soluble in water.
R o c e l l i n or R o s c e l l i n (Fast Red) = Sulpho
oxyazonaphtalin, soluble in water.
B o r d e a u x and P o n c e a u r e d = product of the combination
of β naphtol-disulphonic acid with diazo-compounds of Xylol
and higher homologues of benzol, soluble in water.
E o s i n = Tetrabrom-fluoresceïn, soluble in water and alcohol.
P h l o x i n = Tetrabromo-dichlor-fluoresceïn, soluble in water.
E r y t h r o s i n = Tetra iodio-fluoresceïn, soluble in water.
Blue:A l i z a r i n b l u e = Dioxyanthraquinone-quinoline, slightly
soluble in alcohol.
A n i l i n e b l u e = Triplienylrosaniline, soluble in alcohol.
W a t e r b l u e = Triphenylrosaniline, sulphonic acid soluble in
water.
I n d u l i n e = Azodiphenyl blue sulphonic acid and its derivatives,
soluble in alcohol.
Yellow:A c i d y e l l o w R or f a s t y e l l o w R = Sodium
amidoazobenzol-sulphonate, soluble in water.

T r o p a e d l i n 000 or O r a n g e I = Sulphoazobenzoll α-naphthol,
soluble in water.
N a p h t h o l y e l l o w = Sodium salt of dinitro-α-naphthol
sulphonic acid, soluble in water.
Violet:M e t h y l v i o l e t = Hexa-and penta-methylpara-rosaniline
hydrochloride, soluble in water and alcohol.
Green:M a l a c h i t e g r e e n = Tetramethyl-diamidotriphenyl-carbinol
hydrochloride, soluble in water and alcohol.

The above, as well as the following colours: (blue) amaranth, brilliant
blue and indigosulfone, (red) erythrosin, also acid yellow S, orange L and
light green S F, have in the meantime been accepted by the American Foods
Act as perfectly harmless for colouring any and all articles of food.161
For some time past E. Merck of Darmstadt has supplied a perfectly
harmless green colouring material under the name of chlorophyll, in
alcoholic and in water solutions, as well as technical chlorophyll, for
colouring oils and fats, which is the unaltered leaf green and is the best
green colouring agent for articles of food and therefore for cacao
preparations.
The chlorophyll which is soluble in fat has also been recommended like
some of the aniline colours which are soluble in fat, as for example: Indulin
6 B (blue), Sudan yellow G, Sudan III (red), and Gallocyanin (violet) for
colouring cacao butter; but in regard at least to the aniline colours
mentioned, no authoritative sanction for their use has yet been given.

Part IV.
Examination and Analysis of Cacao Preparations.

A. Chemical and microscopical examination of cacao and cacao
preparations.

The following observations will serve as an introduction to the chemical
and microscopical examination of cacao preparations calculated to be of
special value to the food chemist, corresponding as they do to the state of
scientific progress at the present day and special attention being paid to the
critical treatment of the methods of analysis etc. adopted.

a) Testing.

This is a point of great importance, inasmuch as it directly influences the
result of the analysis of cacao goods. This is especially the case when
dealing with c o c o a p o w d e r s, as the test is liable to vary considerably
according to the amount of moisture contained in the preparation and the
degree of fineness of the powder. In the case of cocoa powders, the sample
should be taken repeatedly from a large supply, and from all parts of the
material to ensure getting an average sample. The samples taken should be
of uniform volume and should, before proceeding to apply the test, be
closely mixed together, being, if possible, first passed through a fine sieve.
The material ready for the following experiments should then be placed in
tin, or better still, glass receptacles with well-fitting corks or stoppers. Paper
wrappings or cardboard-boxes are not to be recommended, as the powder is
apt to become drier or moister according to the state of the atmosphere to
which the packets are exposed.
The most suitable quantity for experimental purposes is, in the case of
both chocolate and cocoa powder, as well as butter and covering material,
100 kilogrammes. When determining the amount of foreign fat in cacao
preparations, however, as well as estimating the ash content of powder, up
to 250 kilogrammes of sample material can be used. In Germany the

regulations of the Commercial Agencies of the government public food
chemists obtain when sampling and analysing cacao preparations.162

b) Chemical Analyses.

The analyses of all cacao preparations from a chemical point of view are
conducted, almost without exception, with the object of determining the
values for m o i s t u r e—m i n e r a l m a t t e r (estimation of the amount of
the carbonic acid alkalis and the silicic acid)—f a t (estimation of foreign
fat)—t h e o b r o m i n e and c o f f e i n e—s u g a r—s t a r c h (foreign
starches)—a l b u m i n o u s m a t t e r and r a w f i b r e. The last regulation
may also be extended to the estimation of the quantity of shell present.

1. E s t i m a t i o n o f m o i s t u r e . 5 grammes of material (i. e. fine-
crushed chocolate mass) are left to dry (if possible in a double-walled
glycerine drying chamber) for about 6 hours at a temperature of 105 Deg.
C., the loss of weight of the material being estimated as moisture. The
drying should not be continued longer than 6 hours, as fatty material is
liable after the expiration of this time to recover some of its weight, owing
to the oxygen of the air entering into chemical combination with the fat
which rises to the surface or detaches itself from the material. When
analysing chocolate, great care should be taken to prevent the mass from
melting down and running together at one point. If this occurs, the
following treatment must be adopted: A shallow watch-glass is filled with
about 10 grammes of sand, well washed and dried, a very fine sand such as
so-called sea-sand being preferable to others, the glass then transferred to
the drying closet, cooled, and finally 5 grammes of the fine-crushed
chocolate added. The mixture is then deposited for a period of 6 hours in
the drying chamber, at a temperature of 105 Deg. as indicated above and the

weight of the sand deducted when finally calculating the value of the
moisture.
If as low a quantity as 5 percent of gelatine has been added to the
chocolate, as much as 10 percent of water can be added without in any way
affecting the appearance of the material, although such a proceeding is
exceedingly detrimental to the taste and durability of the preparation. Such
chocolates usually have a dull surface and, if stored in a warm place, are apt
to break up and become paler in colour; this result can, however, be
prevented by an extra addition of fat. Too high a163 fat content points in any
case of additions of gelatine. P. Onfroy164 determines the addition of
gelatine by boiling 5 grammes of chocolate chips in 50 cubic centimetres of
water, adding 5 cubic centimetres of a solution containing 10 percent of
lead acetate, and then filtering the whole. If gelatine is present in the
chocolate, the liquid, on a few drops of saturated picric acid being added,
leaves a yellow, amorphous sediment. If the addition of gelatine is very
trifling, the gelatine is held in check or neutralised by the tannic acid. The
defatting is then effected by ether and the chocolate stirred up with 100
cubic centimetres of hot water. 5-10 cubic centimetres of a solution of lye
containing 10 percent of alkali and about 10 cubic centimetres of the above-
mentioned lead acetate solution are added. The compound of gelatine and
tannic acid is soluble in the hydrate of the alkali, and is afterwards re-
deposited by the action of the lead acetate, so that it can easily be detected
by means of picric acid in the neutralised filtrate. As picric acid is incapable
of effecting the deposition of the theobromine, the deposition observed can
only be caused by the presence of gelatine.
Like gelatine and glue, the addition of a quantity of adraganth has the
power of binding the moisture and saving the fat. A method of estimating
the quality of this vegetable gum, of which at the most 2 percent should be
present, has recently been described by Welmans; this method is explained
on page ... in the microscopic section.

2. E s t i m a t i o n o f a s h165: 5 grammes of material are heated in a
platinum vessel, pan or flat tray, the latter or other similar shallow
receptacle being the most suitable, holding from 25 to 30 cubic centimetres.
Care should be taken when heating that the extremity of the Bunsen flame
only touches the bottom of the vessel. The resulting gases are then ignited,
and the c o m p l e t e l y charred mass pressed or stirred to a powder by
means of a platinum wire or rod hammered flat at the end; the pan should
be frequently made to revolve and its contents continually stirred during
heating, care being taken, too, to hold it slanting the whole time. The pan
should be held in this way over a moderate flame until the ash assumes
almost a white colour. As soon as this occurs, the pan should be cooled
down and the ash uniformly saturated with a concentrated watery solution
of carbonate of ammonia, whereon the vessel is placed in the drying
chamber and dried at a temperature of 100 Deg. C. The contents of the pan
are then heated again very cautiously over the Bunsen flame, care being
taken that the bottom of the vessel is only allowed to become red-hot very
gradually and to remain so for a very short time; the pan is then covered up
and transferred to the dessicator to be cooled, and, on the completion of this
process, its weight determined.
After repeating the saturating process with the solution of carbonate of
ammonia, drying and heating for a short time as previously described, the
accuracy of the weight first obtained is again tested.

3. E s t i m a t i o n o f s i l i c i c a c i d i n t h e a s h: When
examining cocoa powders and chocolate mass, the determination of the
silicic acid content of the ash is sometimes a necessity, as this facilitates the
detection of any shells which may have been added.166 The ash o f t h e
c a c a o b e a n c o n t a i n s only between 0·25 and 1·0 percent of silicic
acid, while that of the shell shows on analysis as much as 9 percent; it must,

however, be taken into consideration that an unusually high value for silicic
acid in the finished powder might be caused by impurities in the chemical
or other agents used to effect the disintegration of the cacao. The signs of
the presence of an extraordinary quantity of silicic acid are, according to C.
R. Fresenius (Introduction to quantitative analysis)167 a higher percentage
of the ash itself than usual, and the quantity of ash used for the test should
not be too small; it should further be remembered that certain cacao
preparations, such as, for instance, the Dutch cocoa powders, contain large
quantities of carbonic mineral matter, and the special treatment explained
by Fresenius when dealing with such preparations separately should be
applied.

4. E s t i m a t i o n o f a l k a l i s r e m a i n i n g i n c o c o a
p o w d e r s . The ash obtained from 5 grammes of cocoa powder is washed
out of the platinum pan into an ordinary water glass or tumbler, distilled
water only being used for this purpose, afterwards finely crushed with a
glass rod and heated to boiling point. The liquid is then allowed to settle,
filtered and re-washed. At this stage 5 cubic centimetres of n/1 sulphurous
acid are added, the liquid again heated to boiling point and titrated with 2/n
or n/4 alkaline lye. In this way the quantity of added carbonic mineral
matter is determined, in addition to the amount of carbonate present in
ordinary cocoa powders, which is formed from the organic acid minerals
when the ash is produced. Welmans has determined these values in the
commonest varieties of beans and placed the results obtained at our disposal
for the second edition of this book. These results are as follows:
a) Unshelled roasted beans
Ariba Ariba Caracas Caracas
Per cent.
I II I II
Ash 4·198 4·02 7·52 4·376

Soluble in water 1·698 1·66 1·34 1·676
Insoluble in water 2·5 2·36 6·18 2·70
Alkali (considered as potash) 0·6417 0·6417 0·596 0·9936
St.
Per cent. Guayaquil Trinidad
Thomé
Ash 5·12 3·6 3·92
Soluble in water 2·11 1·565 1·604
Insoluble in water 3·01 2·035 2·32
Alkali (considered as potash) 0·84 1·125 0·67

b) Shelled, roasted beans:
Puerto Ariba Aribav Caracas
Per cent.
Cabello I II I
Ash 3·62 3·701 3·49 3·845
Soluble in water 1·72 1·423 1·315 1·76
Insoluble in water 1·90 2·273 2·175 2·08
Alkali (potash) 0·603 0·323 0·388 0·8725
Alkali in powdered cacao with 33⅓ percent of fat
calculated 0·808 0·436 0·52 1·169
Ash, calculated as above 4·822 4·959 4·676 5·152
Caracas St.
Per cent. Guayaquil Trinidad
II Thomé
Ash 3·62 3·926 3·277 3·27
Soluble in water 1·62 1·476 1·727 1·34
Insoluble in water 2·00 2·45 1·55 1·93
Alkali (potash) 0·4478 0·402 0·4209 0·4048
Alkali in powdered cacao with 33⅓ percent of fat
calculated 0·600 0·54 0·594 0·542
Ash, calculated as above 4·85 5·26 4·39 4·38

These tables show that:
1. The ash of cocoa powder (containing 33-1/3 percent of fat) is never
more than 5·5 percent.
2. The maximum amount of alkali (calculated as potash) is 1·2 percent.
3. The ash soluble in water is always less than that insoluble in water. A
reverse proportion shows a larger amount of alkali, that is, alkali has been
added.
In addition to the importance of determining the amount of alkali in
cocoa powder, it is very desirable that analytical chemists should agree as to

the methods to be adopted, since the determinations of alkali seldom agree
and may differ as much as 0·3 percent.168 The method of calculating the
results should also be defined, that is to say, an agreement should be arrived
at as to whether the alkali should be expressed as K2O, K2CO3 or
Na2CO3.169

Cacao which has been rendered miscible by means of ammonia,
sometimes contains a small amount of ammonia, probably in combination
with an organic acid. To detect it, the Cocoa powder should be distilled with
water, which gives an alkaline distillate, as the ammonia salt would be
decomposed at the temperature of boiling water. The ammonia can be
volumetrically determined in the distillate with sulphuric acid.170

5. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e F a t t y C o n t e n t s . In this operation
5 grammes of the finest powdered bean i. e. the finest cocoa powder (in the
case of chocolate, which must be finely flaked, 10 grammes) should be
mixed with an equal quantity of evenly grained quartz sand in a warmed
mortar, and then transferred per filter to a Soxhlet’s apparatus, wherein it
can be extracted with ether for from 10 to 12 hours at a stretch. The
previously weighed carboy, which now contains the fatty contents in
solution, is placed on a water bath, and the ether extracted as far as possible,
after which the fatty residue remaining is dried by first introducing the
vessel in a water oven and afterwards allowing it to stand for 2 hours in a
dessicator. The increase of weight in the flask is due to ether extract,
consisting almost exclusively of fat. It is true that small proportions of
theobromine will have been simultaneously dissolved (perhaps about 0·1
g.) but no special significance need be attached to them. If it should seem

advisable to avoid even this slight drawback, petroleum ether with a boiling
point of 50° C. should be employed instead of the ordinary variety.

Welmans171 has further described a quick and practical method for
determining fat in cacao and its preparations, which is not only of value as a
check on the extraction method, but also serves as a determination of the
constituents soluble in water. It is carried out as follows:
5 grammes of Cocoa powder or cacao mass, which need not be very fine,
or 10 grammes of chocolate are stirred for some minutes in a separator or
cylinder with 100 ccm of ether (saturated with water) until coherent
particles are no more visible, that is to say, until the factory degree of
fineness has been attained. In two minutes all will have gone to powder
even if the chocolate has not been rubbed down but is in pieces; 100 ccm of
water (saturated with ether) are then added, and the mixture agitated until a
complete emulsion takes place. With powdered cacao, especially those
kinds rich in fat, that occurs in ½ to 1 minute, and with chocolate in 2
minutes. It is then allowed to rest until the emulsion separates, which at the
ordinary temperature of 15-20° C. usually occurs in 6-12 hours in the case
of chocolate, and 12-24 hours with cacao. The greater part of the water
separates first and, usually, amounts to 90-98 ccm with chocolate and 70-86
ccm with cocoa. The powdery portion of the cocoa or chocolate floats on
the surface of the aqueous layer at the bottom of the ether layer. Only husk,
sand, particles of cacao beans, added starch, etc. accumulate at the bottom
of the separator and are to be removed with the aqueous layer, which in the
case of chocolate contains the sugar, but usually no trace of fat. The ether
layer, which freely separates from the emulsion in the time mentioned, is
quite clear and from 25 to 50 ccm can generally be pipetted off and an
aliquot part poured into a measuring cylinder or graduated tube, or into a 25
or 50 ccm flask. If the ether solution of fat is not sufficient in quantity, the
separation can be effected after removing the aqueous liquid by twirling
round the separator. The turbidity soon disappears and the non-fatty
particles quickly sink to the bottom. The ether solution of fat can also be
examined aräometrically, as with milk fat, by Soxhlet’s aräometric method,
after forcing it by means of an india rubber ball, into a pipette or burette,
but the constants to be used in that case have not been ascertained. After the
ether has been distilled off, in the normal manner, the weight obtained must
be calculated for 100 ccm and a small correction made. For example, if 50

ccm of the ether solution of fat give a residue of 0·8 gramme, then 100 ccm
represents 1·6 gramme. But this 1·6 gramme has not been obtained from
100 ccm of the original (water saturated) ether, but from 100-x ccm, x
representing the number of cubic centimetres corresponding to 1·6 gramme
of cacao butter and, as the specific gravity of cacao butter is nearly = 1; the
equation becomes (100-1·6): 100 = 1·6: x; x = 160/98·4 = 1·627 gramme;
so that the 5 grammes of substance would contain 1·627 gramme of fat or
32·54 percent.
The remaining aqueous solution contains the whole of the constituents of
cacao or chocolate which are soluble in water. It is measured into a
graduated cylinder and its volume ascertained. Then, after the entire amount
has been evaporated to dryness, the residue is calculated on a percentage
basis. The following procedure, however, is preferable. 10 ccm of the liquid
are evaporated and the residue well dried in a vacuum before it is weighed.
Multiplying the ascertained weight by 10, we obtain the amount of cacao or
chocolate soluble in water and present in 5 and 10 grammes of either
substance respectively. The amount of s u g a r in the aqueous extract can be
determined in the following manner. 50 ccm of the extract are heated in a
water bath and thus separated from ether; afterwards 2 ccm of lead acetate
are added and the whole immediately transferred to a special kind of filter
paper. The solution is now polarised in the usual way and the number of
grammes of sugar thus ascertained converted into ccm by division (1·55
being the unit) and then the result subtracted from 100, which gives the
volume of water present in 100 ccm of sugar solution, and so by further
division until the percentage of sugar in chocolate is finally obtained. If the
polarisation yields more sugar than the weight of the total residue, it is an
indication that dextrine is present as an adulteration. The quantitative
determination of dextrine, which is sometimes added to cocoa powder as
well as to chocolate, for like gelatine and tragacanth it holds water together
and so ensures a saving of fat, is best carried out in P. Welman’s polarising
method.172
As the amount of fat obtained from 5 grammes of a cacao preparation
does not suffice for tests of purity, a larger quantity must be extracted in
order to carry out the following investigations. This has reference to

1. The determination of the melting point;

2. The determination of the iodine value (Welman)173;
3. The determination of the saponification value;
4. The determination of the acid value;
5. The determination of the Reichert-Meissl value;
6. Polen’s value174;
7. Cohn’s investigation175;
8. Melting point of the fatty acids;
9. Refraction of the fatty acids;
10. Iodine value of the fatty acids;
11. Determination of the refractive index at 40° C. in Zeiss’ butter
refractometer.

The following process is usually adopted in the determination of the
melting point of cacao fat:
The melted fat is sucked up a glass capillary tube, the internal diameter
of which does not exceed 2 mm (fluctuating between 1·8 mm and that
measurement) to somewhat above the part of the tube which is graduated
into tenths, and then so much of the capillary tube cut off as suffices to
make the fat column there half the height of the bulb of the mercury
thermometer used in the experiment.
As fresh molten fat has a very variable melting point, it is absolutely
essential that the fat in this experiment be allowed to cool about a week in
some dark chamber, and, because only after the expiration of this period can
the melting point be designated as a constant, not to proceed with the
further determination until this necessary stage has been reached.
To carry out this determination the capillary tube is attached to the bulb
of the mercury thermometer by means of a rubber ring in such a manner
that the column of fat occurs directly in the middle.
The whole apparatus is now hung in a test tube of 2½ cm internal
diameter, which is just so far filled with water that this can only penetrate to
the fat in the capillary tube which is open at both ends from the under side.
To regulate the flow of heat, this test tube is further introduced into a beaker
also filled with water, which is heated first. As soon as the fat is melted, the
water penetrates to the capillary tube and pushes along the fat column.

The reading is now taken at once the degree registered, the thermometer
showing the melting point of the fat.
We need not here launch on an exact description of the above mentioned
determination, but will only stay to point out the oft-mentioned book of R.
Benedikt’s, entitled “Analyses of Kinds of Fat and Wax”, as enlarged and
issued by F. Ulzer after the death of the author (Berlin edition, J. Springer).
Should a doubt arise in comparing the results given by these six tests,
which may happen with some kinds of ordinary cacao butter, the
employment of Björklund’s empirical ether test176 or Filsinger’s alcohol-
ether test is to be recommended, which latter is carried out as follows.177
3 grammes of cacao butter are dissolved in 6 grammes of ether at 10° C.
Should the resulting solution be clear, this is an indication that no wax is
present. The solution is then introduced in its test tube into water at 0° C.
and the length of the time which transpires before it begins to become
cloudy or to deposit flocculent matter, observed, also the temperature when
the solution again becomes clear.
If the solution becomes turbid before ten minutes have elapsed the cacao
butter is not quite pure. Pure cacao butter becomes turbid in from 10 to 15
minutes at 0° C. and clear again at from 19-20° C.; an admixture of 5
percent of tallow renders the solution turbid at 19-20° C. in 8 minutes and it
becomes clear again at 22° C.; 15 per cent of tallow give a turbid solution in
from 4-5 minutes at 0° C. that becomes clear again at 22·5-28·5 ° C.
Filsinger178 has suggested a modification of Björklund’s test. In his method
2 grammes of the fat are dissolved in a graduated tube in a mixture of 4
parts of ether (S. G. 0·725)) and 1 part of alcohol (S. G. 0·810). Pure cacao
butter should remain clear after some lapse of time, whereas foreign fats
and more especially tallow preparations cause a separation. But
Lewkowitsch179 maintains that this test is not be relied on, as genuine kinds
of cacao butter will crystallise out from the ether alcohol solution at 9° C.
and some at 12° C.
Yet we are nevertheless of the opinion that liquid fats are of no great
moment at the present time, for they always involve a considerable
lowering of the melting point and so greatly impair the fracture of the

chocolate. Fats such as tallow, or the like, must be used, and these are
detected both by their flavour and by Björklund’s test. Adulteration is
therefore very rarely met with in the German chocolate industry, thanks to
these facts and the rigid self-control practised by the Association of German
Chocolate Manufactures and the sharp supervision exercised by the
inspectors of articles of consumption in that country. The only regularly
occurring adulterations are connected with the preparation of Cocoa powder
and consist in substitutions of finely ground cacao husk; the detection of
which still remains most difficult and uncertain; and even here it is rather
the Dutch firms which are culpable; and generally speaking it is a trick of
smaller manufacturers, who consider such an admixture as quite the normal
procedure.

6. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f T h e o b r o m i n e a n d C a f f e i n e .
Methods for the ascertainment of the quantity of theobromine are so
numerous that it would be impossible here to enter into the detail of their
advantages and disadvantages. Of the different processes adopted in the
determination of the cacao diureide perhaps only Eminger’s is worthy of
consideration at present, and this is described fully in the following
paragraphs, as best corresponding to our present knowledge of the subject
and its requirements, and most deserving recommendation to chemists and
food analysts on account of its reliability.
For the practical testing of cacao preparations the splitting up of the
diureide has no special advantage and so we can at once proceed to treat of
the compound particle, though rather inclined to maintain that the diureide
has very little importance on the whole, for it establishes no basis from
which we can judge of the quality of the various products.

The procedure in Eminger’s process is as follows:
10 grammes of powdered bean of cacao preparation are placed in a
weighed glass flask, then stirred up with 100 grammes of petroleum ether
and allowed to settle. The petroleum ether is next carefully poured off,
without disturbing the sediment, and the treatment repeated several times.
After the last decantation, the residue is well drained, then dried in the flask
and weighed. The difference in weight of the residue and the former figure
represents the amount of fat. An aliquot portion of the residue (about 5
grammes) is then boiled with 100 grammes of a 3-4 percent strong
sulphuric acid in a flask connected with a reflux condenser, until cacao red
is given as a resultant, a task which occupies three quarters of an hour. The
contents of the flask are then poured into a beaker, and neutralised, whilst
hot, with barium hydroxide. The whole is then mixed with sand in a basin
and evaporated to dryness; afterwards the dry residue is introduced into a
Soxhlet apparatus on a paper cone, and there extracted for 5 hours with 150
grammes of chloroform. The latter is carefully distilled off and the residue
dried for a period of one hour at 100° C. As previously stated, the separation
of the two diureides is not necessary and in commercial analyses it is
sufficient to state the amount of each separate substance after the removal
of fat by means of some suitable solvent. But should the splitting up be
desired, then Eminger’s method should be adopted, which depends on the
solubility of caffeine in carbon tetrachloride.180 With that object, the
mixture of fat, theobromine and caffeine is treated in the flask with 100
grammes of carbon tetrachloride and repeatedly agitated for one hour. After
filtration, the carbon tetrachloride, which now contains fat and caffeine, is
distilled off. The theobromine left undissolved in the flask and the filter
used to filter the carbon tetrachloride solution are then extracted with
boiling water, the solution is filtered and evaporated to dryness, the residue
representing theobromine. The separation of caffeine and theobromine can
also be effected by cautious treatment with caustic soda, so dissolving the
theobromine and leaving the caffeine untouched in its entirety.181 (Cf.
Riederer.)

7. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f S t a r c h . This can only be of importance in
rarer instances, as the starch naturally present in raw cacao generally varies
between 9 and 10 percent, and there is no chemical method of separating
foreign matter from cacao starch. But should the necessity arise, a
determination can be carried out as follows.
In order to render the starch more easily gelatinisable, the fat is first
removed by treating 5 grammes of cocoa powder or 10 grammes of a cacao
preparation with ether and then with an 80% solution of alcohol to separate
any sugar, theobromine and cacao red. The residue is then mixed with water
and subjected to a steam pressure of from three to four atmospheres, which
converts the starch into a soluble body known as amylo-dextrine. This
operation is generally carried out in an autoclave or strong copper vessel182
provided with an air-tight and removable cover, the open flask, containing
the sample to be gelatinised (1 part of cacao and 20 parts of water) being
placed in the vessel half immersed in water.
After screwing on the lid, the temperature of the interior of the vessel is
raised to 133-144° C. corresponding to a pressure of 4 atmospheres, and
maintained at that pressure for three or four hours in order to allow the
action to proceed on the mass for gelatinisation of the starch. The flask is
then removed from the apparatus and the contents allowed to settle for a
few minutes; the liquid is filtered hot, the filtrate amounting to about 250 or
300 ccm after the filter has been washed a few times with hot water. Only
the cell fibre remains on the filter, whilst the starch is dissolved in the
filtrate. This is now heated with 20 ccm of hydrochloric acid in a flask
connected with a reflux condenser, whereby the starch is converted into
dextrose. The sugar solution is neutralised with sodium carbonate, clarified
with basic lead acetate, any excess of the latter being removed with sodium
sulphate, finally filtered, and the whole made up to 500 ccm. The sugar is
determined in this solution by titration with alkaline copper sulphate
solution and from the number of cubic centimetres required for the
precipitation of the red cuprous oxide, the quantity of sugar can be