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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Automobile Storage
Battery: Its Care And Repair
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: The Automobile Storage Battery: Its Care And Repair
Author: Otto A. Witte
Release date: August 17, 2009 [eBook #29718]
Most recently updated: April 7, 2023
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/29718
Credits: Produced by George Davis, Mark Posey and Richard Allain
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE
AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY: ITS CARE AND REPAIR ***
THE AUTOMOBILE
STORAGE BATTERY
Battery: Its Care And Repair
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
will have to check the laws of the country where you are located
before using this eBook.
Title: The Automobile Storage Battery: Its Care And Repair
Author: Otto A. Witte
Release date: August 17, 2009 [eBook #29718]
Most recently updated: April 7, 2023
Language: English
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/29718
Credits: Produced by George Davis, Mark Posey and Richard Allain
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE
AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY: ITS CARE AND REPAIR ***
THE AUTOMOBILE
STORAGE BATTERY
Page 4
ITS CARE AND REPAIR
(Table of) Contents
RADIO BATTERIES, FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES
A practical book for the repairman. Gives in nontechnical language, the
theory, construction, operation, manufacture, maintenance, and repair of the
lead-acid battery used on the automobile. Describes at length all subjects
which help the repairman build up a successful battery repair business. Also
contains sections on radio and farm lighting batteries.
BY
O. A. WITTE
Chief Engineer, American Bureau of Engineering, Inc.
Third Edition
Completely Revised and Enlarged
Fourth Impression
Published 1922 by
THE AMERICAN BUREAU OF ENGINEERING, INC. CHICAGO,
ILLINOIS, U. S. A.
(Table of) Contents
RADIO BATTERIES, FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES
A practical book for the repairman. Gives in nontechnical language, the
theory, construction, operation, manufacture, maintenance, and repair of the
lead-acid battery used on the automobile. Describes at length all subjects
which help the repairman build up a successful battery repair business. Also
contains sections on radio and farm lighting batteries.
BY
O. A. WITTE
Chief Engineer, American Bureau of Engineering, Inc.
Third Edition
Completely Revised and Enlarged
Fourth Impression
Published 1922 by
THE AMERICAN BUREAU OF ENGINEERING, INC. CHICAGO,
ILLINOIS, U. S. A.
Page 5
Copyright, 1918, 1919, 1920, and 1922, by
American Bureau of Engineering, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Entered at Stationers' Hall,
London, England.
First Impression April, 1918.
Second Impression December, 1919.
Third Impression October, 1920.
Fourth Impression September, 1922.
(Table of) Contents
Preface
Many books have been written on Storage Batteries used in
stationary work, as in electric power stations. The storage battery, as
used on the modern gasoline car, however, is subjected to service
which is radically different from that of the battery in stationary
work. It is true that the chemical actions are the same in all lead-
acid storage batteries, but the design, construction, and operation of
the starting and lighting battery, the radio battery, and the farm
lighting battery are unique, and require a special description.
Many books have been written on Storage Batteries used in
stationary work, as in electric power stations. The storage battery, as
used on the modern gasoline car, however, is subjected to service
which is radically different from that of the battery in stationary
work. It is true that the chemical actions are the same in all lead-
American Bureau of Engineering, Inc.
All Rights Reserved.
Entered at Stationers' Hall,
London, England.
First Impression April, 1918.
Second Impression December, 1919.
Third Impression October, 1920.
Fourth Impression September, 1922.
(Table of) Contents
Preface
Many books have been written on Storage Batteries used in
stationary work, as in electric power stations. The storage battery, as
used on the modern gasoline car, however, is subjected to service
which is radically different from that of the battery in stationary
work. It is true that the chemical actions are the same in all lead-
acid storage batteries, but the design, construction, and operation of
the starting and lighting battery, the radio battery, and the farm
lighting battery are unique, and require a special description.
Many books have been written on Storage Batteries used in
stationary work, as in electric power stations. The storage battery, as
used on the modern gasoline car, however, is subjected to service
which is radically different from that of the battery in stationary
work. It is true that the chemical actions are the same in all lead-
Page 6
acid storage batteries, but the design, construction, and operation of
the starting and lighting battery, the radio battery, and the farm
lighting battery are unique, and require a special description.
This book therefore refers only to the lead-acid type of starting and
lighting battery used on the modern gasoline Automobile, the
batteries used with Radio sets, and the batteries used with Farm
Lighting Plants. It is divided into two sections. The first section
covers the theory, design, operating conditions, and care of the
battery.
The second section will be especially valuable to the battery
repairman. All the instructions given have been in actual use for
years, and represent the accumulated experiences of the most up-to-
date battery repair shops in the United States.
The first edition of this book met with a most pleasing reception
from both repairmen and battery manufacturers. It was written to fill
the need for a complete treatise on the Automobile Storage Battery
for the use of battery repairmen. The rapid sale of the book, and the
letters of appreciation from those who read it, proved that such a
need existed.
The automobile battery business is a growing one, and one in which
new designs and processes are continually developed, and in
preparing the second and third editions, this has been kept in mind.
Some of the chapters have been entirely rewritten, and new chapters
have been added to bring the text up-to-date. Old methods have
been discarded, and new ones described. A section on Farm lighting
Batteries has been added, as the automobile battery man should
familiarize himself with such batteries, and be able to repair them. A
section on Radio batteries has also been added.
Special thanks are due those who offered their cooperation in the
preparation and revision of the book. Mr. George M. Howard of the
Electric Storage Battery Co., and Mr. C. L. Merrill of the U. S.
Light & Heat Corporation very kindly gave many helpful
suggestions. They also prepared special articles which have been
the starting and lighting battery, the radio battery, and the farm
lighting battery are unique, and require a special description.
This book therefore refers only to the lead-acid type of starting and
lighting battery used on the modern gasoline Automobile, the
batteries used with Radio sets, and the batteries used with Farm
Lighting Plants. It is divided into two sections. The first section
covers the theory, design, operating conditions, and care of the
battery.
The second section will be especially valuable to the battery
repairman. All the instructions given have been in actual use for
years, and represent the accumulated experiences of the most up-to-
date battery repair shops in the United States.
The first edition of this book met with a most pleasing reception
from both repairmen and battery manufacturers. It was written to fill
the need for a complete treatise on the Automobile Storage Battery
for the use of battery repairmen. The rapid sale of the book, and the
letters of appreciation from those who read it, proved that such a
need existed.
The automobile battery business is a growing one, and one in which
new designs and processes are continually developed, and in
preparing the second and third editions, this has been kept in mind.
Some of the chapters have been entirely rewritten, and new chapters
have been added to bring the text up-to-date. Old methods have
been discarded, and new ones described. A section on Farm lighting
Batteries has been added, as the automobile battery man should
familiarize himself with such batteries, and be able to repair them. A
section on Radio batteries has also been added.
Special thanks are due those who offered their cooperation in the
preparation and revision of the book. Mr. George M. Howard of the
Electric Storage Battery Co., and Mr. C. L. Merrill of the U. S.
Light & Heat Corporation very kindly gave many helpful
suggestions. They also prepared special articles which have been
Page 7
incorporated in the book. Mr. Henry E. Peers consulted with the
author and gave much valuable assistance. Mr. Lawrence Pearson of
the Philadelphia Battery Co., Mr. F. S. Armstrong of the Vesta
Accumulator Co., Messrs. P. L. Rittenhouse, E. C. Hicks and W. C.
Brooks of the Prest-O-Lite Co., Mr. D. M. Simpson of the General
Lead Batteries Co., Mr. R. D. Mowray and Mr. C. R. Story of the
Universal Battery Co., Mr. H. A. Harvey of the U. S. Light and Heat
Corporation, Mr. E. B. Welsh of the Westinghouse Union Battery
Co., Mr. S. E. Baldwin of the Willard Storage Battery Co., Mr. H. H.
Ketcham of the United Y. M. C. A. Schools, and Messrs.
Guttenberger and Steger of the American Eveready Works also
rendered much valuable assistance.
The Chapter on Business Methods was prepared by Mr. G. W.
Hafner.
O. A. WITTE,
Chief Engineer, American Bureau of Engineering, Inc.
September, 1922
Contents
1. INTRODUCTORY
Gasoline and electricity have made possible the modern
automobile. Steps in development of electrical system of
automobile. Sources of electricity on the automobile.
2. BATTERIES IN GENERAL
The Simple Battery, or Voltaic Cell. Chemical Actions which
Cause a Cell to Produce Electricity. Difference between Primary
author and gave much valuable assistance. Mr. Lawrence Pearson of
the Philadelphia Battery Co., Mr. F. S. Armstrong of the Vesta
Accumulator Co., Messrs. P. L. Rittenhouse, E. C. Hicks and W. C.
Brooks of the Prest-O-Lite Co., Mr. D. M. Simpson of the General
Lead Batteries Co., Mr. R. D. Mowray and Mr. C. R. Story of the
Universal Battery Co., Mr. H. A. Harvey of the U. S. Light and Heat
Corporation, Mr. E. B. Welsh of the Westinghouse Union Battery
Co., Mr. S. E. Baldwin of the Willard Storage Battery Co., Mr. H. H.
Ketcham of the United Y. M. C. A. Schools, and Messrs.
Guttenberger and Steger of the American Eveready Works also
rendered much valuable assistance.
The Chapter on Business Methods was prepared by Mr. G. W.
Hafner.
O. A. WITTE,
Chief Engineer, American Bureau of Engineering, Inc.
September, 1922
Contents
1. INTRODUCTORY
Gasoline and electricity have made possible the modern
automobile. Steps in development of electrical system of
automobile. Sources of electricity on the automobile.
2. BATTERIES IN GENERAL
The Simple Battery, or Voltaic Cell. Chemical Actions which
Cause a Cell to Produce Electricity. Difference between Primary
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and Secondary, or Storage Cells. A Storage Battery Does Not
"Store" Electricity. Parts Required to Make a Storage Battery.
3. MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES
Principal Parts of a "Starting and Lighting" Battery. Types of
Plates Used. Molding the Plate Grids. Trimming the Grids.
Mixing Pastes. Applying Pastes to the Plate Grids. Hardening the
Paste. Forming the Plates. Types of Separators. Manufacture of
Separators. Manufacture of Electrolyte. Composition and
Manufacture of Jars. Types of Cell Covers. Single and Double
Covers. Covers Using Sealing Compound Around the Cell Posts.
Covers Using Lead Bushings Around the Cell Posts. The Prest-
O-Lite Peened Post Seal. Batteries Using Sealing Nuts Around
Cell Posts. Construction of Vent Tubes. Exide and U. S. L. Vent
Tube Design. Vent Plugs, or Caps. Manufacture of the Battery
Case. Assembling and Sealing the Battery. Terminal
Connections. Preparing the Completed Battery for "Wet"
Shipment. Preparing the Completed Battery for "Dry" Shipment.
"Home-Made" Batteries.
4. CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE BATTERY
Chemical Changes in the Battery. Plante's Work on the Storage
Battery. Faure, or Pasted Plates. How Battery Produces
Electricity. Chemical Actions of Charge and Discharge. Relations
Between Chemical Actions and Electricity.
5. WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING DISCHARGE
What a "Discharge" Consists of. Voltage Changes During
Discharge. Why the Discharge Is Stopped When the Cell Voltage
Has Dropped to 1.7 on Continuous Discharge. Why a Battery
May Safely be Discharged to a Lower Voltage Than 1.7 Volts per
Cell at High Rates of Discharge. Why Battery Voltage, Measured
on "Open Circuit" is of Little Value. Changes in the Density of
the Electrolyte. Why Specific Gravity Readings of the
"Store" Electricity. Parts Required to Make a Storage Battery.
3. MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES
Principal Parts of a "Starting and Lighting" Battery. Types of
Plates Used. Molding the Plate Grids. Trimming the Grids.
Mixing Pastes. Applying Pastes to the Plate Grids. Hardening the
Paste. Forming the Plates. Types of Separators. Manufacture of
Separators. Manufacture of Electrolyte. Composition and
Manufacture of Jars. Types of Cell Covers. Single and Double
Covers. Covers Using Sealing Compound Around the Cell Posts.
Covers Using Lead Bushings Around the Cell Posts. The Prest-
O-Lite Peened Post Seal. Batteries Using Sealing Nuts Around
Cell Posts. Construction of Vent Tubes. Exide and U. S. L. Vent
Tube Design. Vent Plugs, or Caps. Manufacture of the Battery
Case. Assembling and Sealing the Battery. Terminal
Connections. Preparing the Completed Battery for "Wet"
Shipment. Preparing the Completed Battery for "Dry" Shipment.
"Home-Made" Batteries.
4. CHEMICAL CHANGES IN THE BATTERY
Chemical Changes in the Battery. Plante's Work on the Storage
Battery. Faure, or Pasted Plates. How Battery Produces
Electricity. Chemical Actions of Charge and Discharge. Relations
Between Chemical Actions and Electricity.
5. WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING DISCHARGE
What a "Discharge" Consists of. Voltage Changes During
Discharge. Why the Discharge Is Stopped When the Cell Voltage
Has Dropped to 1.7 on Continuous Discharge. Why a Battery
May Safely be Discharged to a Lower Voltage Than 1.7 Volts per
Cell at High Rates of Discharge. Why Battery Voltage, Measured
on "Open Circuit" is of Little Value. Changes in the Density of
the Electrolyte. Why Specific Gravity Readings of the
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Electrolyte Show the State of Charge of a Cell. Conditions
Which Make Specific Gravity Readings Unreliable. Why the
Specific Gravity of the Electrolyte Falls During Discharge. Why
the Discharge of a Battery Is Stopped When the Specific Gravity
Has Dropped to 1.150. Chemical Changes at the Negative Plates
During Discharge. Chemical Changes at the Positive Plates
During Discharge.
6. WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING CHARGE
Voltage Changes During Charge. Voltage of a Fully Charged
Cell. Changes in the Density of the Electrolyte During Charge.
Changes at the Negative Plates During Charge. Changes at the
Positive Plates During Charge.
7. CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES
Definition of Capacity. Factors Upon Which the Capacity of a
Battery Depend. How the Area of the Plate Surfaces Affects the
Capacity. How the Quantity, Arrangement, and Porosity of the
Active Materials Affect the Capacity. How the Quantity and
Strength of the Electrolyte Affect the Capacity. Why Too Much
Electrolyte Injures a Battery. Why the Proportions of Acid and
Water in the Electrolyte Must Be Correct if Specific Gravity
Readings Are to Be Reliable.
8. INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Effect of Internal Resistance. Resistance of Grids. Resistance of
Electrolyte. Resistance of Active Materials.
9. CARE OF BATTERY ON THE CAR
Care of Battery Box. How to Clean the Battery. How to Prevent
Corrosion. Correct Battery Cable Length. Inspection of Battery
to Determine Level of Electrolyte. How to Add Water to Replace
Evaporation. When Water Should Be Added. How Electrolyte Is
Which Make Specific Gravity Readings Unreliable. Why the
Specific Gravity of the Electrolyte Falls During Discharge. Why
the Discharge of a Battery Is Stopped When the Specific Gravity
Has Dropped to 1.150. Chemical Changes at the Negative Plates
During Discharge. Chemical Changes at the Positive Plates
During Discharge.
6. WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING CHARGE
Voltage Changes During Charge. Voltage of a Fully Charged
Cell. Changes in the Density of the Electrolyte During Charge.
Changes at the Negative Plates During Charge. Changes at the
Positive Plates During Charge.
7. CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES
Definition of Capacity. Factors Upon Which the Capacity of a
Battery Depend. How the Area of the Plate Surfaces Affects the
Capacity. How the Quantity, Arrangement, and Porosity of the
Active Materials Affect the Capacity. How the Quantity and
Strength of the Electrolyte Affect the Capacity. Why Too Much
Electrolyte Injures a Battery. Why the Proportions of Acid and
Water in the Electrolyte Must Be Correct if Specific Gravity
Readings Are to Be Reliable.
8. INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Effect of Internal Resistance. Resistance of Grids. Resistance of
Electrolyte. Resistance of Active Materials.
9. CARE OF BATTERY ON THE CAR
Care of Battery Box. How to Clean the Battery. How to Prevent
Corrosion. Correct Battery Cable Length. Inspection of Battery
to Determine Level of Electrolyte. How to Add Water to Replace
Evaporation. When Water Should Be Added. How Electrolyte Is
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Lost. Danger from Adding Acid Instead of Water. Effect of
Adding Too Much Water. When Specific Gravity Readings
Should Be Taken. What the Various Specific Gravity Readings
Indicate. Construction of a Syringe Hydrometer. How to Take
Specific Gravity Readings. Why Specific Gravity Readings
Should Not Be Taken Soon After Adding Water to Replace
Evaporation. Troubles Indicated by Specific Gravity Readings.
How to Make Sure That Sections of a Multiple-Section Battery
Receive the Same Charging Current. How Temperature Affects
Specific Gravity Readings. How to Make Temperature
Corrections in Specific Gravity Readings. Battery Operating
Temperatures. Effect of Low and High Temperatures. Troubles
Indicated by High Temperatures. Damage Caused by Allowing
Electrolyte to Fall Below Tops of Plates. I-low to Prevent
Freezing. Care of Battery When Not in Use. "Dope" or "Patent"
Electrolyte, or Battery Solutions.
10. STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES
Normal and Injurious Sulphation.— How Injurious Sulphate
Forms. Why An Idle Battery Becomes Sulphated. Why Sulphated
Plates Must Be Charged at a Low Rate. How Over discharge
Causes Sulphation. How Starvation Causes Sulphation. How
Sulphate Results from Electrolyte Being Below Tops of Plates.
How Impurities Cause Sulphation. How Sulphation Results from
Adding Acid Instead of Water to Replace Evaporation. Why
Adding Acid Causes Specific Gravity Readings to Be Unreliable.
How Overheating Causes Sulphation.
Buckling.— How Overdischarge Causes Buckling. How
Continued Operation with Battery in a Discharged Condition
Causes Buckling. I-low Charging at High Rates Causes
Buckling, How Non-Uniform Distribution of Current Over the
Plates Causes Buckling. How Defective Grid Alloy Causes
Buckling.
Adding Too Much Water. When Specific Gravity Readings
Should Be Taken. What the Various Specific Gravity Readings
Indicate. Construction of a Syringe Hydrometer. How to Take
Specific Gravity Readings. Why Specific Gravity Readings
Should Not Be Taken Soon After Adding Water to Replace
Evaporation. Troubles Indicated by Specific Gravity Readings.
How to Make Sure That Sections of a Multiple-Section Battery
Receive the Same Charging Current. How Temperature Affects
Specific Gravity Readings. How to Make Temperature
Corrections in Specific Gravity Readings. Battery Operating
Temperatures. Effect of Low and High Temperatures. Troubles
Indicated by High Temperatures. Damage Caused by Allowing
Electrolyte to Fall Below Tops of Plates. I-low to Prevent
Freezing. Care of Battery When Not in Use. "Dope" or "Patent"
Electrolyte, or Battery Solutions.
10. STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES
Normal and Injurious Sulphation.— How Injurious Sulphate
Forms. Why An Idle Battery Becomes Sulphated. Why Sulphated
Plates Must Be Charged at a Low Rate. How Over discharge
Causes Sulphation. How Starvation Causes Sulphation. How
Sulphate Results from Electrolyte Being Below Tops of Plates.
How Impurities Cause Sulphation. How Sulphation Results from
Adding Acid Instead of Water to Replace Evaporation. Why
Adding Acid Causes Specific Gravity Readings to Be Unreliable.
How Overheating Causes Sulphation.
Buckling.— How Overdischarge Causes Buckling. How
Continued Operation with Battery in a Discharged Condition
Causes Buckling. I-low Charging at High Rates Causes
Buckling, How Non-Uniform Distribution of Current Over the
Plates Causes Buckling. How Defective Grid Alloy Causes
Buckling.
Page 11
Shedding, or Loss of Active Material.— Normal Shedding.
How Excessive Charging Rate, or Overcharging Causes
Shedding. How Charging Sulphated Plates at Too High a Rate
Causes Shedding. How Charging Only a Portion of the Plate
Causes Shedding. How Freezing Causes Shedding. How
Overdischarge Causes Loose Active Material. How Buckling
Causes Loose Active Material.
Impurities.— Impurities Which Cause Only Self-Discharge.
Impurities Which Attack the Plates. How to Remove Impurities.
Corroded Grids.-How Impurities Cause Corroded Grids. How
Sulphation Causes Corroded Grids. How High Temperatures
Cause Corroded Grids. How High Specific Gravity Causes
Corroded Grids. How Age Causes Corroded Grids.
Negatives.— How Age and Heat Cause Granulated Negatives.
Heating of Charged Negatives When Exposed to the Air.
Negatives with Very Hard Active Material. Bulged Negatives.
Negatives with Soft, Mushy, Active Material. Negatives with
Rough Surfaces. Blistered Negatives.
Positives.— Frozen Positives. Rotten, Disintegrated Positives.
Buckled Positives. Positives Which Have Lost Considerable
Active Material. Positives with Soft Active Material. Positives
with Hard, Shiny Active Material. Plates Which Have Been
Charged in the Wrong Direction.
Separator Troubles.— Separators Not Properly Expanded
Before Installation. Improperly Treated Separators. Rotten and
Carbonized Separators. Separators with Clogged Pores.
Separators with Edges Chiseled Off.
Jar Troubles.— Jars Damaged by Rough Handling. Jars
Damaged by Battery Being Loose. Jars Damaged by Weights
Placed on Top of Battery. Jars Damaged by Freezing of
Electrolyte. Jars Damaged by Improperly Trimmed Plate Groups.
Improperly Made Jars. Jars Damaged by Explosions in Cell.
How Excessive Charging Rate, or Overcharging Causes
Shedding. How Charging Sulphated Plates at Too High a Rate
Causes Shedding. How Charging Only a Portion of the Plate
Causes Shedding. How Freezing Causes Shedding. How
Overdischarge Causes Loose Active Material. How Buckling
Causes Loose Active Material.
Impurities.— Impurities Which Cause Only Self-Discharge.
Impurities Which Attack the Plates. How to Remove Impurities.
Corroded Grids.-How Impurities Cause Corroded Grids. How
Sulphation Causes Corroded Grids. How High Temperatures
Cause Corroded Grids. How High Specific Gravity Causes
Corroded Grids. How Age Causes Corroded Grids.
Negatives.— How Age and Heat Cause Granulated Negatives.
Heating of Charged Negatives When Exposed to the Air.
Negatives with Very Hard Active Material. Bulged Negatives.
Negatives with Soft, Mushy, Active Material. Negatives with
Rough Surfaces. Blistered Negatives.
Positives.— Frozen Positives. Rotten, Disintegrated Positives.
Buckled Positives. Positives Which Have Lost Considerable
Active Material. Positives with Soft Active Material. Positives
with Hard, Shiny Active Material. Plates Which Have Been
Charged in the Wrong Direction.
Separator Troubles.— Separators Not Properly Expanded
Before Installation. Improperly Treated Separators. Rotten and
Carbonized Separators. Separators with Clogged Pores.
Separators with Edges Chiseled Off.
Jar Troubles.— Jars Damaged by Rough Handling. Jars
Damaged by Battery Being Loose. Jars Damaged by Weights
Placed on Top of Battery. Jars Damaged by Freezing of
Electrolyte. Jars Damaged by Improperly Trimmed Plate Groups.
Improperly Made Jars. Jars Damaged by Explosions in Cell.
Page 12
Battery Case Troubles.— Ends of Case Bulged Out. Rotted
Case.
Troubles with Connectors and Terminals.—Corroded and
Loose Connectors and Terminals.
Electrolyte Troubles.— Low Gravity. High Gravity. Low Level.
High Level. Specific Gravity Does Not Rise During Charge.
"Milky" Electrolyte. Foaming of Electrolyte.
General Battery Troubles.— Open Circuits. Battery
Discharged. Dead Cells. Battery Will Not Charge. Loss of
Capacity. Loss of Charge in an Idle Battery.
11. SHOP EQUIPMENT
List of Tools and Equipment Required by Repair Shop.
Equipment Needed for Opening Batteries. Equipment for Lead
Burning. Equipment for General Work on Cell Connectors and
Terminals. Equipment for Work on Cases. Tools and Equipment
for General Work. Stock. Special Tools. Charging Equipment.
Wiring Diagrams for Charging Resistances and Charging
Circuits. Motor-Generator Sets. Suggestions on Care of Motor-
Generator Sets. Operating the Charging Circuits. Constant
Current Charging. Constant Potential Charging. The Tungar
Rectifier. Principle of Operation of Tungar Rectifier. The Two
Ampere Tungar. The One Battery Tungar. The Two. Battery
Tungar. The Four Battery Tungar. The Ten Battery Tangar. The
Twenty Battery Tungar. Table of Tungar Rectifiers. Installation
and Operation of Tungar Rectifier. The Mercury Are Rectifier.
Mechanical Rectifiers. The Stahl Rectifier. Other Charging
Equipment. The Charging Bench. Illustrations and Working
Drawings of Charging Benches. Illustrations and Working
Drawings of Work Benches. Illustrations and Working Drawings
of Sink and Wash Tanks. Lead Burning Outfits. Equipment for
Handling Sealing Compound. Shelving and Racks. Working
Drawings of Receiving Racks, Racks for Repaired Batteries,
Case.
Troubles with Connectors and Terminals.—Corroded and
Loose Connectors and Terminals.
Electrolyte Troubles.— Low Gravity. High Gravity. Low Level.
High Level. Specific Gravity Does Not Rise During Charge.
"Milky" Electrolyte. Foaming of Electrolyte.
General Battery Troubles.— Open Circuits. Battery
Discharged. Dead Cells. Battery Will Not Charge. Loss of
Capacity. Loss of Charge in an Idle Battery.
11. SHOP EQUIPMENT
List of Tools and Equipment Required by Repair Shop.
Equipment Needed for Opening Batteries. Equipment for Lead
Burning. Equipment for General Work on Cell Connectors and
Terminals. Equipment for Work on Cases. Tools and Equipment
for General Work. Stock. Special Tools. Charging Equipment.
Wiring Diagrams for Charging Resistances and Charging
Circuits. Motor-Generator Sets. Suggestions on Care of Motor-
Generator Sets. Operating the Charging Circuits. Constant
Current Charging. Constant Potential Charging. The Tungar
Rectifier. Principle of Operation of Tungar Rectifier. The Two
Ampere Tungar. The One Battery Tungar. The Two. Battery
Tungar. The Four Battery Tungar. The Ten Battery Tangar. The
Twenty Battery Tungar. Table of Tungar Rectifiers. Installation
and Operation of Tungar Rectifier. The Mercury Are Rectifier.
Mechanical Rectifiers. The Stahl Rectifier. Other Charging
Equipment. The Charging Bench. Illustrations and Working
Drawings of Charging Benches. Illustrations and Working
Drawings of Work Benches. Illustrations and Working Drawings
of Sink and Wash Tanks. Lead Burning Outfits. Equipment for
Handling Sealing Compound. Shelving and Racks. Working
Drawings of Receiving Racks, Racks for Repaired Batteries,
Page 13
Racks for New Batteries, Racks for Rental Batteries, Racks for
Batteries in Dry Storage, Racks for Batteries in "Wet" Storage.
Working Drawings of Stock Bins. Working Drawings for Battery
Steamer Bench. Description of Battery Steamer. Plate Burning
Rack. Battery Terminal Tongs. Lead Burning Collars. Post
Builders. Moulds for Casting Lead Parts. Link Combination
Mould. Cell Connector Mould. Production Type Strap Mould.
Screw Mould. Battery Turntable. Separator Cutter. Plate Press.
Battery Carrier. Battery Truck. Cadmium Test Set and How to
Make the Test. Paraffine Dip Pot. Wooden Boxes for Battery
Parts. Acid Car boys. Drawing Acid from Carboys. Shop
Layouts. Floor Grating. Seven Architects' Drawings of Shop
Layouts. The Shop Floor. Shop Light.
12. GENERAL SHOP INSTRUCTIONS
Complete instructions for giving a bench charge. Instructions
for Burning Cell Connectors and Terminals. Burning Plates to
Strap and Posts. Post Building. Extending Plate Lugs. Moulding
Lead Parts. Handling and Mixing Acid. Putting New Batteries
Into Service (Exide, Vesta, Philadelphia, Willard, Westinghouse,
Prest-O-Lite). Installing Battery on Car. Wet and Dry Storage of
Batteries. Age Codes (Exide, Philadelphia, Prest-O-Lite, Titan,
U.S.L., Vesta, Westinghouse, Willard). Rental Batteries.
Terminals for Rental Batteries. Marking Chapter Page Rental
Batteries. Keeping a Record of Rental Batteries. General Rental
Policy. Radio Batteries. Principles of Audion Bulb for Radio.
Vesta Radio Batteries. Westinghouse Radio Batteries. Willard
Radio Batteries. Universal Radio Batteries. Exide Radio
Batteries. Philadelphia Radio Batteries. U.S.L. Radio Batteries.
Prest-O-Lite Radio Batteries. "Dry" Storage Batteries. Discharge
Tests. 15 Seconds High Rate Discharge Test. 20 Minutes Starting
Ability Discharge Test. "Cycling" Discharge Tests. Discharge
Apparatus. Packing Batteries for Shipping. Safety Precautions
for the Repairman. Testing the Electrical System of a Car.
Complete Rules and Instructions for Quickly Testing, Starting
and Lighting System to Protect Battery. Adjusting Generator
Batteries in Dry Storage, Racks for Batteries in "Wet" Storage.
Working Drawings of Stock Bins. Working Drawings for Battery
Steamer Bench. Description of Battery Steamer. Plate Burning
Rack. Battery Terminal Tongs. Lead Burning Collars. Post
Builders. Moulds for Casting Lead Parts. Link Combination
Mould. Cell Connector Mould. Production Type Strap Mould.
Screw Mould. Battery Turntable. Separator Cutter. Plate Press.
Battery Carrier. Battery Truck. Cadmium Test Set and How to
Make the Test. Paraffine Dip Pot. Wooden Boxes for Battery
Parts. Acid Car boys. Drawing Acid from Carboys. Shop
Layouts. Floor Grating. Seven Architects' Drawings of Shop
Layouts. The Shop Floor. Shop Light.
12. GENERAL SHOP INSTRUCTIONS
Complete instructions for giving a bench charge. Instructions
for Burning Cell Connectors and Terminals. Burning Plates to
Strap and Posts. Post Building. Extending Plate Lugs. Moulding
Lead Parts. Handling and Mixing Acid. Putting New Batteries
Into Service (Exide, Vesta, Philadelphia, Willard, Westinghouse,
Prest-O-Lite). Installing Battery on Car. Wet and Dry Storage of
Batteries. Age Codes (Exide, Philadelphia, Prest-O-Lite, Titan,
U.S.L., Vesta, Westinghouse, Willard). Rental Batteries.
Terminals for Rental Batteries. Marking Chapter Page Rental
Batteries. Keeping a Record of Rental Batteries. General Rental
Policy. Radio Batteries. Principles of Audion Bulb for Radio.
Vesta Radio Batteries. Westinghouse Radio Batteries. Willard
Radio Batteries. Universal Radio Batteries. Exide Radio
Batteries. Philadelphia Radio Batteries. U.S.L. Radio Batteries.
Prest-O-Lite Radio Batteries. "Dry" Storage Batteries. Discharge
Tests. 15 Seconds High Rate Discharge Test. 20 Minutes Starting
Ability Discharge Test. "Cycling" Discharge Tests. Discharge
Apparatus. Packing Batteries for Shipping. Safety Precautions
for the Repairman. Testing the Electrical System of a Car.
Complete Rules and Instructions for Quickly Testing, Starting
and Lighting System to Protect Battery. Adjusting Generator
Page 14
Outputs. How and When to Adjust Charging Rate. Re-insulating
the Battery. Testing and Filling Service. Service Records.
Illustrations of Repair Service Record Card. Rental Battery Stock
Card.
13. BUSINESS METHODS
Purchasing Methods. Stock Records. The Use and Abuse of
Credit. Proper Bookkeeping Records. Daily Exhibit Record.
Statistical and Comparative Record.
14. WHAT'S WRONG WITH THE BATTERY?
"Service." Calling and Delivering Repaired Batteries. How to
Diagnose Batteries That Come In. Tests on Incoming Batteries.
General Inspection of Incoming Batteries. Operation Tests for
Incoming Batteries. Battery Trouble Charts. Causes of Low
Gravity or Low Voltage. Causes of Unequal Gravity Readings.
Causes of High Gravity. Causes of Low Electrolyte. How to
Determine When Battery May Be Left on Car. How to Determine
When Battery Must Be Removed from Car. How to Determine
When It Is Unnecessary to Open a Battery. How to Determine
When Battery Must Be Opened.
15. REBUILDING THE BATTERY
How to Open a Battery.— Cleaning Outside of Battery Before
Opening. Drilling and Removing Connectors and Terminals.
Removing the Sealing Compound by Steam, Hot Water, Hot
Putty Knife, Lead Burning Flame, and Gasoline Torch. Lifting
Plates Out of Jars. Draining Plates. Removing Covers. Scraping
Sealing Compound from the Covers. Scraping Sealing
Compound from Inside of Jars.
What Must Be Done with the Opened Battery?— Making a
Preliminary Examination of Plates. When to Put in New Plates.
When Old Plates May Be Used Again. What to Do with the
the Battery. Testing and Filling Service. Service Records.
Illustrations of Repair Service Record Card. Rental Battery Stock
Card.
13. BUSINESS METHODS
Purchasing Methods. Stock Records. The Use and Abuse of
Credit. Proper Bookkeeping Records. Daily Exhibit Record.
Statistical and Comparative Record.
14. WHAT'S WRONG WITH THE BATTERY?
"Service." Calling and Delivering Repaired Batteries. How to
Diagnose Batteries That Come In. Tests on Incoming Batteries.
General Inspection of Incoming Batteries. Operation Tests for
Incoming Batteries. Battery Trouble Charts. Causes of Low
Gravity or Low Voltage. Causes of Unequal Gravity Readings.
Causes of High Gravity. Causes of Low Electrolyte. How to
Determine When Battery May Be Left on Car. How to Determine
When Battery Must Be Removed from Car. How to Determine
When It Is Unnecessary to Open a Battery. How to Determine
When Battery Must Be Opened.
15. REBUILDING THE BATTERY
How to Open a Battery.— Cleaning Outside of Battery Before
Opening. Drilling and Removing Connectors and Terminals.
Removing the Sealing Compound by Steam, Hot Water, Hot
Putty Knife, Lead Burning Flame, and Gasoline Torch. Lifting
Plates Out of Jars. Draining Plates. Removing Covers. Scraping
Sealing Compound from the Covers. Scraping Sealing
Compound from Inside of Jars.
What Must Be Done with the Opened Battery?— Making a
Preliminary Examination of Plates. When to Put in New Plates.
When Old Plates May Be Used Again. What to Do with the
Page 15
Separators. Find the Cause of Every Trouble. Eliminating
"Shorts." Preliminary Charge After Eliminating Shorts. Washing
and Pressing Negatives. Washing Positives. Burning on New
Plates. Testing Jars for Cracks and Holes. Removing Defective
Jars. Repairing the Case.
Reassembling the Elements.— Putting in Now Separators.
Putting Elements Into Jars. Filling Jars with Electrolyte. Putting
Chapter Page on the Covers. Sealing the Covers. Burning on the
Connectors and Terminals. Marking the Repaired Battery.
Cleaning and Painting the Case. Charging the Rebuilt Battery.
Testing.
16. SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS
Exide Batteries.— Types. Type Numbers. Methods of Holding
Jars in Case. Opening Exide Batteries. Work on Plates,
Separators, Jars, and Case. Putting Plates in Jars. Filling Jars
with Electrolyte. Sealing Covers. Putting Cells in Case. Burning
on the Cell Connectors. Charging After Repairing. Tables of
Exide Batteries.
U.S.L. Batteries.— Old and New. U.S.L. Covers. Special Repair
Instructions. Tables of U.S.L. Batteries.
Prest-O-Lite Batteries.— Old and New Prest-O-Lite Cover
Constructions. The "Peened" Post Seal. Special Tools for Work
on Prest-O-Lite Batteries. The Peening Press. Removing Covers.
Rebuilding Posts. Locking, or "Peening" the Posts. Precautions
in Post Locking Operations. Tables of Prest-0-Lite Batteries.
Philadelphia Diamond Grid Batteries.— Old and New Types.
The Philadelphia "Rubber-Lockt" Cover Seal. Philadelphia
Rubber Case Batteries. The Philadelphia Separator. Special
Repair Instructions.
Eveready Batteries.— Why the Eveready Batteries Are Called
"Non-Sulphating" Batteries. Description of Parts of Eveready
"Shorts." Preliminary Charge After Eliminating Shorts. Washing
and Pressing Negatives. Washing Positives. Burning on New
Plates. Testing Jars for Cracks and Holes. Removing Defective
Jars. Repairing the Case.
Reassembling the Elements.— Putting in Now Separators.
Putting Elements Into Jars. Filling Jars with Electrolyte. Putting
Chapter Page on the Covers. Sealing the Covers. Burning on the
Connectors and Terminals. Marking the Repaired Battery.
Cleaning and Painting the Case. Charging the Rebuilt Battery.
Testing.
16. SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS
Exide Batteries.— Types. Type Numbers. Methods of Holding
Jars in Case. Opening Exide Batteries. Work on Plates,
Separators, Jars, and Case. Putting Plates in Jars. Filling Jars
with Electrolyte. Sealing Covers. Putting Cells in Case. Burning
on the Cell Connectors. Charging After Repairing. Tables of
Exide Batteries.
U.S.L. Batteries.— Old and New. U.S.L. Covers. Special Repair
Instructions. Tables of U.S.L. Batteries.
Prest-O-Lite Batteries.— Old and New Prest-O-Lite Cover
Constructions. The "Peened" Post Seal. Special Tools for Work
on Prest-O-Lite Batteries. The Peening Press. Removing Covers.
Rebuilding Posts. Locking, or "Peening" the Posts. Precautions
in Post Locking Operations. Tables of Prest-0-Lite Batteries.
Philadelphia Diamond Grid Batteries.— Old and New Types.
The Philadelphia "Rubber-Lockt" Cover Seal. Philadelphia
Rubber Case Batteries. The Philadelphia Separator. Special
Repair Instructions.
Eveready Batteries.— Why the Eveready Batteries Are Called
"Non-Sulphating" Batteries. Description of Parts of Eveready
Page 16
Battery. Special Repair Instructions.
Vesta Batteries.— Old and New Vesta Isolators. The Vesta Type
"D" Battery. The Vesta Type "DJ" Battery. Vesta Separators. The
Vesta Post Seal. Special Repair Instructions for Old and New
Isolators and Post Seal.
Westinghouse Batteries.— The Westinghouse Post Seal.
Westinghouse Plates. Types of Westinghouse Batteries. Type "A"
Batteries. Type "B" Batteries. Type "C" Batteries. Type "E"
Batteries. Type "H" Batteries. Type "J" Batteries. Type "0"
Batteries. Type "F" Batteries.
Willard Batteries.— Double and Single Cover Batteries.
Batteries with Sealing Compound Post Seal. Batteries with Lead
Inserts in Cover Post Holes. Batteries with Rubber Casket Post
Seal. Special Repair Instructions for Work on the Different Types
of Post Seal Constructions. Willard Threaded Rubber Separators.
Universal Batteries.— Types. Construction Features. Putting
New Universal Batteries Into Service.
Titan Batteries.— The Titan Grid. The Titan Post Seal.
17. FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES
Comparison of Operating Conditions of Farm Lighting Batteries
with Automobile Batteries. Jars for Farm Lighting Batteries.
Separators. Electrolyte. Charging Equipment. Relation of the
Automobile Battery Man to the Farm Lighting Plant. Rules
Governing the Selection of a Farm Lighting Plant. Location and
Wiring of Farm Lighting Plant. Installation. Care of Plant in
Service. Care of Battery. Charging Farm Lighting Batteries.
Rules Governing Discharging of Farm Lighting Batteries.
Troubles Found in Farm Lighting Batteries. Inspection and Tests
on Farm Lighting Batteries. Description of Prest-O-Lite Farm
Lighting Battery. Rebuilding Prest-O-Lite Farm Lighting
Batteries. Description of Exide Farm Lighting Batteries. The
Vesta Batteries.— Old and New Vesta Isolators. The Vesta Type
"D" Battery. The Vesta Type "DJ" Battery. Vesta Separators. The
Vesta Post Seal. Special Repair Instructions for Old and New
Isolators and Post Seal.
Westinghouse Batteries.— The Westinghouse Post Seal.
Westinghouse Plates. Types of Westinghouse Batteries. Type "A"
Batteries. Type "B" Batteries. Type "C" Batteries. Type "E"
Batteries. Type "H" Batteries. Type "J" Batteries. Type "0"
Batteries. Type "F" Batteries.
Willard Batteries.— Double and Single Cover Batteries.
Batteries with Sealing Compound Post Seal. Batteries with Lead
Inserts in Cover Post Holes. Batteries with Rubber Casket Post
Seal. Special Repair Instructions for Work on the Different Types
of Post Seal Constructions. Willard Threaded Rubber Separators.
Universal Batteries.— Types. Construction Features. Putting
New Universal Batteries Into Service.
Titan Batteries.— The Titan Grid. The Titan Post Seal.
17. FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES
Comparison of Operating Conditions of Farm Lighting Batteries
with Automobile Batteries. Jars for Farm Lighting Batteries.
Separators. Electrolyte. Charging Equipment. Relation of the
Automobile Battery Man to the Farm Lighting Plant. Rules
Governing the Selection of a Farm Lighting Plant. Location and
Wiring of Farm Lighting Plant. Installation. Care of Plant in
Service. Care of Battery. Charging Farm Lighting Batteries.
Rules Governing Discharging of Farm Lighting Batteries.
Troubles Found in Farm Lighting Batteries. Inspection and Tests
on Farm Lighting Batteries. Description of Prest-O-Lite Farm
Lighting Battery. Rebuilding Prest-O-Lite Farm Lighting
Batteries. Description of Exide Farm Lighting Batteries. The
Page 17
Delco-Light Battery. Rebuilding and Repairing Exide Farm
Lighting Batteries. Westinghouse Farm Lighting Batteries.
Willard Farm Lighting Batteries.
DEFINITIONS
Condensed Dictionary of Words and Terms Used in Battery
Work.
GENERAL INDEX
A VISIT TO THE FACTORY
Photographs showing factory processes.
BUYERS' INDEX. (Omitted.)
For the Convenience of Our Readers We Have Prepared a List of
Companies from Whom Battery Shop Equipment May Be
Obtained.
ADVERTISEMENTS (Omitted. Outdated; high bandwidth)
Lighting Batteries. Westinghouse Farm Lighting Batteries.
Willard Farm Lighting Batteries.
DEFINITIONS
Condensed Dictionary of Words and Terms Used in Battery
Work.
GENERAL INDEX
A VISIT TO THE FACTORY
Photographs showing factory processes.
BUYERS' INDEX. (Omitted.)
For the Convenience of Our Readers We Have Prepared a List of
Companies from Whom Battery Shop Equipment May Be
Obtained.
ADVERTISEMENTS (Omitted. Outdated; high bandwidth)
Page 18
Section I
Working Principles, Manufacture,
Maintenance, Diseases,
and Remedies
The Automobile Storage
Battery
Working Principles, Manufacture,
Maintenance, Diseases,
and Remedies
The Automobile Storage
Battery
Page 19
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTORY.
(Table of) Contents
INTRODUCTORY.
(Table of) Contents
Page 20
Gasoline and electricity have made possible the modern automobile.
Each has its work to do in the operation of the car, and if either fails to
perform its duties, the car cannot move. The action of the gasoline, and the
mechanisms that control it are comparatively simple, and easily understood,
because gasoline is something definite which we can see and feel, and
which can be weighed, or measured in gallons. Electricity, on the other
hand, is invisible, cannot be poured into cans or tanks, has no odor, and,
therefore, nobody knows just what it is. We can only study the effects of
electricity, and the wires, coils, and similar apparatus in which it is present.
It is for this reason that an air of mystery surrounds electrical things,
especially to the man who has not made a special study of the subject.
Without electricity, there would be no gasoline engine, because gasoline
itself cannot cause the engine to operate. It is only when the electrical spark
explodes or "ignites" the mixture of gasoline and air which has been drawn
into the engine cylinders that the engine develops power. Thus an electrical
ignition system has always been an essential part of every gasoline
automobile.
The first step in the use of electricity on the automobile, in addition to
the ignition system, consisted in the installation of an electric lighting
system to replace the inconvenient oil or gas lamps which were satisfactory
as far as the light they gave was concerned, but which had the disadvantage
of requiring the driver to leave his seat, and light each lamp separately, often
in a strong wind or rain which consumed many matches, time, and
frequently spoiled his temper for the remainder of the evening. Electric
lamps have none of these disadvantages. They can be controlled from the
driver's seat, can be turned on or off by merely turning or pushing a switch-
button, are not affected by wind or rain, do not smoke up the lenses, and do
not send a stream of unpleasant odors back to the passengers.
The apparatus used to supply the electricity for the lamps consisted of a
generator, or a "storage" battery, or both. The generator alone had the
disadvantage that the lamps could be used only while the engine was
running. The battery, on the other hand, furnished light at all times, but had
to be removed from the car frequently, and "charged." With both the
generator and battery, the lights could be turned on whether the engine was
Each has its work to do in the operation of the car, and if either fails to
perform its duties, the car cannot move. The action of the gasoline, and the
mechanisms that control it are comparatively simple, and easily understood,
because gasoline is something definite which we can see and feel, and
which can be weighed, or measured in gallons. Electricity, on the other
hand, is invisible, cannot be poured into cans or tanks, has no odor, and,
therefore, nobody knows just what it is. We can only study the effects of
electricity, and the wires, coils, and similar apparatus in which it is present.
It is for this reason that an air of mystery surrounds electrical things,
especially to the man who has not made a special study of the subject.
Without electricity, there would be no gasoline engine, because gasoline
itself cannot cause the engine to operate. It is only when the electrical spark
explodes or "ignites" the mixture of gasoline and air which has been drawn
into the engine cylinders that the engine develops power. Thus an electrical
ignition system has always been an essential part of every gasoline
automobile.
The first step in the use of electricity on the automobile, in addition to
the ignition system, consisted in the installation of an electric lighting
system to replace the inconvenient oil or gas lamps which were satisfactory
as far as the light they gave was concerned, but which had the disadvantage
of requiring the driver to leave his seat, and light each lamp separately, often
in a strong wind or rain which consumed many matches, time, and
frequently spoiled his temper for the remainder of the evening. Electric
lamps have none of these disadvantages. They can be controlled from the
driver's seat, can be turned on or off by merely turning or pushing a switch-
button, are not affected by wind or rain, do not smoke up the lenses, and do
not send a stream of unpleasant odors back to the passengers.
The apparatus used to supply the electricity for the lamps consisted of a
generator, or a "storage" battery, or both. The generator alone had the
disadvantage that the lamps could be used only while the engine was
running. The battery, on the other hand, furnished light at all times, but had
to be removed from the car frequently, and "charged." With both the
generator and battery, the lights could be turned on whether the engine was
Page 21
running or not, and, furthermore, it was no longer necessary to remove the
battery to "charge," or put new life into it. With a generator and storage
battery, moreover, a reliable source of electricity for ignition was provided,
and so we find dry batteries and magnetos being discarded in a great many
automobiles and "battery ignition" systems substituted.
The development of electric lighting systems increased the popularity of
the automobile, but the motor car still had a great drawback-cranking.
Owing to the peculiar features of a gasoline engine, it must first be put in
motion by some external power before it will begin to operate under its own
power. This made it necessary for the driver to "crank" the engine, or start it
moving, by means of a handle attached to the engine shaft. Cranking a large
engine is difficult, especially if it is cold, and often results in tired muscles,
and soiled clothes and tempers. It also made it impossible for the average
woman to drive a car because she did not have the strength necessary to
"crank" an engine.
The next step in the perfection of the automobile was naturally the
development of an automatic device to crank the engine, and thus make
the driving of a car a pleasure rather than a task. We find, therefore, that in
1912, "self-starters" began to be used. These were not all electrical, some
used tanks of compressed air, others acetylene, and various mechanical
devices, such as the spring starters. The electrical starters, however, proved
their superiority immediately, and filled such a long felt want that all the
various makes of automobiles now have electric starters. The present day
motor car, therefore, uses gasoline for the engine only, but uses electricity
for ignition, starting, lighting, for the horn, cigar lighters, hand warmers on
the steering wheel, gasoline vaporizers, and even for shifting speed
changing gears, and for the brakes.
On any car that uses an electric lighting and starting system, there are
two sources of electricity, the generator and the battery, These must furnish
the power for the starting, or "cranking" motor, the ignition, the lights, the
horn, and the other devices. The demands made upon the generator are
comparatively light and simple, and no severe work is done by it. The
battery, on the other hand is called upon to give a much more severe service,
that of furnishing the power to crank the engine. It must also perform all the
battery to "charge," or put new life into it. With a generator and storage
battery, moreover, a reliable source of electricity for ignition was provided,
and so we find dry batteries and magnetos being discarded in a great many
automobiles and "battery ignition" systems substituted.
The development of electric lighting systems increased the popularity of
the automobile, but the motor car still had a great drawback-cranking.
Owing to the peculiar features of a gasoline engine, it must first be put in
motion by some external power before it will begin to operate under its own
power. This made it necessary for the driver to "crank" the engine, or start it
moving, by means of a handle attached to the engine shaft. Cranking a large
engine is difficult, especially if it is cold, and often results in tired muscles,
and soiled clothes and tempers. It also made it impossible for the average
woman to drive a car because she did not have the strength necessary to
"crank" an engine.
The next step in the perfection of the automobile was naturally the
development of an automatic device to crank the engine, and thus make
the driving of a car a pleasure rather than a task. We find, therefore, that in
1912, "self-starters" began to be used. These were not all electrical, some
used tanks of compressed air, others acetylene, and various mechanical
devices, such as the spring starters. The electrical starters, however, proved
their superiority immediately, and filled such a long felt want that all the
various makes of automobiles now have electric starters. The present day
motor car, therefore, uses gasoline for the engine only, but uses electricity
for ignition, starting, lighting, for the horn, cigar lighters, hand warmers on
the steering wheel, gasoline vaporizers, and even for shifting speed
changing gears, and for the brakes.
On any car that uses an electric lighting and starting system, there are
two sources of electricity, the generator and the battery, These must furnish
the power for the starting, or "cranking" motor, the ignition, the lights, the
horn, and the other devices. The demands made upon the generator are
comparatively light and simple, and no severe work is done by it. The
battery, on the other hand is called upon to give a much more severe service,
that of furnishing the power to crank the engine. It must also perform all the
Page 22
duties of the generator when the engine is not running, since a generator
must be in motion in order to produce electricity.
A generator is made of iron, copper, carbon, and insulation. These are
all solid substances which can easily be built in any size or shape, and
which undergo very little change as parts of the generator. The battery is
made mainly of lead, lead compounds, water and sulphuric acid. Here we
have liquids as well as solids, which produce electricity by changes in their
composition, resulting in complicated chemical as well as electrical actions.
The battery is, because of its construction and performance, a much
abused, neglected piece of apparatus which is but partly understood, even
by many electrical experts, for to understand it thoroughly requires a study
of chemistry as well as of electricity. Knowledge of the construction and
action of a storage battery is not enough to make anyone an expert battery
must be in motion in order to produce electricity.
A generator is made of iron, copper, carbon, and insulation. These are
all solid substances which can easily be built in any size or shape, and
which undergo very little change as parts of the generator. The battery is
made mainly of lead, lead compounds, water and sulphuric acid. Here we
have liquids as well as solids, which produce electricity by changes in their
composition, resulting in complicated chemical as well as electrical actions.
The battery is, because of its construction and performance, a much
abused, neglected piece of apparatus which is but partly understood, even
by many electrical experts, for to understand it thoroughly requires a study
of chemistry as well as of electricity. Knowledge of the construction and
action of a storage battery is not enough to make anyone an expert battery
Page 23
man. He must also know how to regulate the operating conditions so as to
obtain the best service from the battery, and he must be able to make
complete repairs on any battery no matter what its condition may be.
obtain the best service from the battery, and he must be able to make
complete repairs on any battery no matter what its condition may be.
Page 24
CHAPTER 2.
BATTERIES IN GENERAL
(Table of) Contents
There are two ways of "generating" electricity on the car: 1.
Magnetically, 2. Chemically. The first method is that used in a generator,
in which wires are rotated in a "field" in which magnetic forces act. The
second method is that of the battery, and the one in which we are now
interested.
If two unlike metals or conducting substances are placed in a liquid which
causes a greater chemical change in one of the substances than in the other,
an electrical pressure, or "electromotive" force is caused to exist between
the two metals or conducting substances. The greater the difference in the
chemical action on the substances, the greater will be the electrical pressure,
and if the substances are connected together outside of the liquid by a wire
or other conductor of electricity, an electric current will flow through the
path or "circuit" consisting of the liquid, the two substances which are
immersed in the liquid, and the external wire or conductor.
As the current flows through the combination of the liquid, and the
substances immersed in it, which is called a voltaic "cell," one or both of
the substances undergo chemical changes which continue until one of the
substances is entirely changed. These chemical changes produce the
electrical pressure which causes the current to flow, and the flow will
continue until one or both of the substances are changed entirely. This
change due to the chemical action may result in the formation of gases, or of
solid compounds. If gases are formed they escape and are lost. If solids are
formed, no material is actually lost.
Assuming that one of the conducting substances, or "electrodes," which
are immersed in the liquid has been acted upon by the liquid, or
BATTERIES IN GENERAL
(Table of) Contents
There are two ways of "generating" electricity on the car: 1.
Magnetically, 2. Chemically. The first method is that used in a generator,
in which wires are rotated in a "field" in which magnetic forces act. The
second method is that of the battery, and the one in which we are now
interested.
If two unlike metals or conducting substances are placed in a liquid which
causes a greater chemical change in one of the substances than in the other,
an electrical pressure, or "electromotive" force is caused to exist between
the two metals or conducting substances. The greater the difference in the
chemical action on the substances, the greater will be the electrical pressure,
and if the substances are connected together outside of the liquid by a wire
or other conductor of electricity, an electric current will flow through the
path or "circuit" consisting of the liquid, the two substances which are
immersed in the liquid, and the external wire or conductor.
As the current flows through the combination of the liquid, and the
substances immersed in it, which is called a voltaic "cell," one or both of
the substances undergo chemical changes which continue until one of the
substances is entirely changed. These chemical changes produce the
electrical pressure which causes the current to flow, and the flow will
continue until one or both of the substances are changed entirely. This
change due to the chemical action may result in the formation of gases, or of
solid compounds. If gases are formed they escape and are lost. If solids are
formed, no material is actually lost.
Assuming that one of the conducting substances, or "electrodes," which
are immersed in the liquid has been acted upon by the liquid, or
Page 25
"electrolyte," until no further chemical action can take place, our voltaic
cell will no longer be capable of causing a flow of electricity. If none of the
substances resulting from the original chemical action have been lost as
gases, it may be possible to reverse the entire set of operations which have
taken place. That is, suppose we now send a current through the cell from
an outside source of electricity, in a direction opposite to that in which the
current produced by the chemical action between the electrodes and
electrolyte flowed. If this current now produces chemical actions between
electrodes and electrolyte which are the reverse of those which occurred
originally, so that finally we have the electrodes and electrolyte brought
back to their original composition and condition, we have the cell just as it
was before we used it for the production of an electrical pressure. The cell
can now again be used as a source of electricity as long as the electrolyte
acts upon the electrodes, or until it is "discharged" and incapable of any
further production of electrical pressure. Sending a current through a
discharged cell, so as to reverse the chemical actions which brought about
the discharged conditions, is called "charging" the cell.
cell will no longer be capable of causing a flow of electricity. If none of the
substances resulting from the original chemical action have been lost as
gases, it may be possible to reverse the entire set of operations which have
taken place. That is, suppose we now send a current through the cell from
an outside source of electricity, in a direction opposite to that in which the
current produced by the chemical action between the electrodes and
electrolyte flowed. If this current now produces chemical actions between
electrodes and electrolyte which are the reverse of those which occurred
originally, so that finally we have the electrodes and electrolyte brought
back to their original composition and condition, we have the cell just as it
was before we used it for the production of an electrical pressure. The cell
can now again be used as a source of electricity as long as the electrolyte
acts upon the electrodes, or until it is "discharged" and incapable of any
further production of electrical pressure. Sending a current through a
discharged cell, so as to reverse the chemical actions which brought about
the discharged conditions, is called "charging" the cell.
Page 26
Cells in which an electrical pressure is produced as soon as the electrodes
are immersed in the electrolyte are called it "primary" Cells. In these cells
it is often impossible, and always unsatisfactory to reverse the chemical
action as explained above. Cells whose chemical actions are reversible are
called "storage" or "secondary" cells. In the "storage" cells used today, a
current must first be sent through the cell in order to cause the chemical
changes which result in putting the electrodes and electrolyte, in such a
condition that they will be capable of producing an electrical pressure when
the chemical changes caused by the current are complete. The cell now
possesses all the characteristics of a primary cell, and may be used as a
source of electricity until "discharged." It may then be "charged" again, and
so on, the chemical action in one case causing a flow of current, and a
reversed flow of current causing reversed chemical actions.
We see from the above that the "storage" battery does not "store"
electricity at all, but changes chemical into electrical energy when
"discharging," and changes electrical into chemical energy when "charging,"
the two actions being entirely reversible. The idea of "storing" electricity
comes from the fact that if we send a current of electricity through the cell
for a certain length of time, we can at a later time draw a current from the
cell for almost the same length of time.
are immersed in the electrolyte are called it "primary" Cells. In these cells
it is often impossible, and always unsatisfactory to reverse the chemical
action as explained above. Cells whose chemical actions are reversible are
called "storage" or "secondary" cells. In the "storage" cells used today, a
current must first be sent through the cell in order to cause the chemical
changes which result in putting the electrodes and electrolyte, in such a
condition that they will be capable of producing an electrical pressure when
the chemical changes caused by the current are complete. The cell now
possesses all the characteristics of a primary cell, and may be used as a
source of electricity until "discharged." It may then be "charged" again, and
so on, the chemical action in one case causing a flow of current, and a
reversed flow of current causing reversed chemical actions.
We see from the above that the "storage" battery does not "store"
electricity at all, but changes chemical into electrical energy when
"discharging," and changes electrical into chemical energy when "charging,"
the two actions being entirely reversible. The idea of "storing" electricity
comes from the fact that if we send a current of electricity through the cell
for a certain length of time, we can at a later time draw a current from the
cell for almost the same length of time.
Page 27
Fig. 3. A complete element, consisting of a
positive and negative group of plates and
seperators ready for placing in the har
rubber jars.
Three things are therefore required in a storage cell, the liquid or
"electrolyte" and two unlike substances or electrodes, through which a
current of electricity can pass and which are acted upon by the
electrolyte with a chemical action that is greater for one substance than the
other. In the storage cell used on the automobile today for starting and
lighting, the electrodes are lead and peroxide of lead, and the electrolyte is a
mixture of sulphuric acid and water. The peroxide of lead electrode is the
one upon which the electrolyte has the greater chemical effect, and it is
called the positive or "+" electrode, because when the battery is sending a.
current through an external circuit, the current flows from this electrode
positive and negative group of plates and
seperators ready for placing in the har
rubber jars.
Three things are therefore required in a storage cell, the liquid or
"electrolyte" and two unlike substances or electrodes, through which a
current of electricity can pass and which are acted upon by the
electrolyte with a chemical action that is greater for one substance than the
other. In the storage cell used on the automobile today for starting and
lighting, the electrodes are lead and peroxide of lead, and the electrolyte is a
mixture of sulphuric acid and water. The peroxide of lead electrode is the
one upon which the electrolyte has the greater chemical effect, and it is
called the positive or "+" electrode, because when the battery is sending a.
current through an external circuit, the current flows from this electrode
Page 28
through the external circuit, and back to the lead electrode, which is called
the negative, or electrode.
When starting and lighting systems were adopted in 1912, storage batteries
had been used for many years in electric power stations. These were,
however, large and heavy, and many difficult problems of design had to be
solved in order to produce a battery capable of performing the work of
cranking the engine, and yet be portable, light, and small enough to occupy
only a very limited space on the automobile. As a result of these conditions
governing the design, the starting and lighting battery of today is in reality
"the giant that lives in a box." The Electric Storage Battery Company
estimates that one of its types of batteries, which measures only 12-5/8
inches long, 7-3/8 wide, and 9-1/8 high, and weighs only 63-1/2 pounds,
can deliver enough energy to raise itself to a height of 6 miles straight up in
the air. It must be able to do its work quickly at all times, and in all sorts of
weather, with temperatures ranging from below 0° to 100° Fahrenheit, or
even higher.
The starting and lighting battery has therefore been designed to
withstand severe operating conditions. Looking at such a battery on a car
we see a small wooden box in which are placed three or more "cells," see
Fig. 1. Each "cell" has a hard, black rubber top through which two posts of
lead project. Bars of lead connect the posts of one cell to those of the next.
To one of the posts of each end cell is connected a cable which leads into
the car, and through which the current leaves or enters the battery. At the
center of each cell is a removable rubber plug covering an opening through
which communication is established with the inside of the cell for the
purpose of pouring in water, removing some of the electrolyte to determine
the condition of the battery, or to allow gases formed within the cell to
escape. Looking down through this opening we can see the things needed to
form a storage battery: the electrolyte, and the electrodes or "plates" as they
are called. If we should remove the lead bars connecting one cell to another,
and take off the black cover, we should find that the posts which project out
of the cells are attached to the plates which are broad and flat, and separated
by thin pieces of wood or rubber., If we lift out the plates we find that they
are connected alternately to the two lead posts, and that the two outside ones
have a gray color. If we pull the plates out from each Other, we find that the
the negative, or electrode.
When starting and lighting systems were adopted in 1912, storage batteries
had been used for many years in electric power stations. These were,
however, large and heavy, and many difficult problems of design had to be
solved in order to produce a battery capable of performing the work of
cranking the engine, and yet be portable, light, and small enough to occupy
only a very limited space on the automobile. As a result of these conditions
governing the design, the starting and lighting battery of today is in reality
"the giant that lives in a box." The Electric Storage Battery Company
estimates that one of its types of batteries, which measures only 12-5/8
inches long, 7-3/8 wide, and 9-1/8 high, and weighs only 63-1/2 pounds,
can deliver enough energy to raise itself to a height of 6 miles straight up in
the air. It must be able to do its work quickly at all times, and in all sorts of
weather, with temperatures ranging from below 0° to 100° Fahrenheit, or
even higher.
The starting and lighting battery has therefore been designed to
withstand severe operating conditions. Looking at such a battery on a car
we see a small wooden box in which are placed three or more "cells," see
Fig. 1. Each "cell" has a hard, black rubber top through which two posts of
lead project. Bars of lead connect the posts of one cell to those of the next.
To one of the posts of each end cell is connected a cable which leads into
the car, and through which the current leaves or enters the battery. At the
center of each cell is a removable rubber plug covering an opening through
which communication is established with the inside of the cell for the
purpose of pouring in water, removing some of the electrolyte to determine
the condition of the battery, or to allow gases formed within the cell to
escape. Looking down through this opening we can see the things needed to
form a storage battery: the electrolyte, and the electrodes or "plates" as they
are called. If we should remove the lead bars connecting one cell to another,
and take off the black cover, we should find that the posts which project out
of the cells are attached to the plates which are broad and flat, and separated
by thin pieces of wood or rubber., If we lift out the plates we find that they
are connected alternately to the two lead posts, and that the two outside ones
have a gray color. If we pull the plates out from each Other, we find that the
Page 29
plates next to the two outside ones, and all other plates connected to the
same lead post as these have a chocolate-brown color. If we remove the jar
of the cell, we find that it is made of hard rubber. Pouring out the electrolyte
we find several ridges which hold the plates off the bottom of the jar. The
pockets formed by these ridges may contain some soft, muddy substance.
Thus we have exposed all the elements of a cell, —posts, plates,
"separators," and electrolyte. The gray colored plates are attached to the
"negative" battery post, while the chocolate-brown colored ones are
connected to the "positive" battery post. Examination will show that each of
the plates consists of a skeleton metallic framework which is filled with the
brown or gray substances. This construction is used to decrease the weight
of the battery. The gray filler material is pure lead in a condition called
"spongy lead." The chocolate-brown filler substance is peroxide of lead.
We have found nothing but two sets of plates — one of pure lead, the other
of peroxide of lead, and the electrolyte of sulphuric acid and water. These
produce the heavy current necessary to crank the engine. How this is done,
and what the chemical actions within the cell are, are described in Chapter
4.
(Table of) Contents
same lead post as these have a chocolate-brown color. If we remove the jar
of the cell, we find that it is made of hard rubber. Pouring out the electrolyte
we find several ridges which hold the plates off the bottom of the jar. The
pockets formed by these ridges may contain some soft, muddy substance.
Thus we have exposed all the elements of a cell, —posts, plates,
"separators," and electrolyte. The gray colored plates are attached to the
"negative" battery post, while the chocolate-brown colored ones are
connected to the "positive" battery post. Examination will show that each of
the plates consists of a skeleton metallic framework which is filled with the
brown or gray substances. This construction is used to decrease the weight
of the battery. The gray filler material is pure lead in a condition called
"spongy lead." The chocolate-brown filler substance is peroxide of lead.
We have found nothing but two sets of plates — one of pure lead, the other
of peroxide of lead, and the electrolyte of sulphuric acid and water. These
produce the heavy current necessary to crank the engine. How this is done,
and what the chemical actions within the cell are, are described in Chapter
4.
(Table of) Contents
Page 30
CHAPTER 3.
MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES.
To supply the great number of batteries needed for gasoline automobiles,
large companies have been formed. Each company has its special and secret
processes which it will not reveal to the public. Only a few companies,
however, supply batteries in any considerable quantities, the great majority
of cars being supplied with batteries made by not more than five or six
manufacturers. This greatly reduces the number of possible different designs
in general use today.
The design and dimensions of batteries vary considerably, but the general
constructions are similar. The special processes of the manufacturers are of
no special interest to the repairman, and only a general description will be
given here.
A starting and lighting battery consists of the following principal parts:
1. Plates 5. Covers
2. Separators 6. Cell Connectors and
3. Electrolyte Terminals
4. Jars 7. Case
Plates
Of the two general types of battery plates, Faure and Plante, the Faure, or
pasted type, is universally used on automobiles. In the manufacture of
pasted plates there are several steps which we shall describe in the order in
which they are carried out.
Casting the Grid. The grid is the skeleton of the plate. It performs the
double function of supporting the mechanically weak active material and of
MANUFACTURE OF STORAGE BATTERIES.
To supply the great number of batteries needed for gasoline automobiles,
large companies have been formed. Each company has its special and secret
processes which it will not reveal to the public. Only a few companies,
however, supply batteries in any considerable quantities, the great majority
of cars being supplied with batteries made by not more than five or six
manufacturers. This greatly reduces the number of possible different designs
in general use today.
The design and dimensions of batteries vary considerably, but the general
constructions are similar. The special processes of the manufacturers are of
no special interest to the repairman, and only a general description will be
given here.
A starting and lighting battery consists of the following principal parts:
1. Plates 5. Covers
2. Separators 6. Cell Connectors and
3. Electrolyte Terminals
4. Jars 7. Case
Plates
Of the two general types of battery plates, Faure and Plante, the Faure, or
pasted type, is universally used on automobiles. In the manufacture of
pasted plates there are several steps which we shall describe in the order in
which they are carried out.
Casting the Grid. The grid is the skeleton of the plate. It performs the
double function of supporting the mechanically weak active material and of
Page 31
conducting the current. It is made of a lead antimony alloy which is melted
and poured into a mould. Pure lead is too soft and too easily attacked by the
electrolyte, and antimony is added to give stiffness, and resistance to the
action of the electrolyte in the cell. The amount of antimony used varies in
different makes but probably averages 8 to 10%.
The casting process requires considerable skill, the proper composition of
the metal and the temperature of both metal and moulds being of great
importance in securing perfect grids, which are free from blowholes, and
which have a uniform structure and composition. Some manufacturers cast
two grids simultaneously in each mould, the two plates being joined to each
other along the bottom edge.
Trimming the Grids. When the castings have cooled, they are removed
from the moulds and passed to a press or trimming machine which trims off
the casting gate and the rough edges. The grids are given a rigid inspection,
those having shrunken or missing ribs or other defects being rejected. The
grids are now ready for pasting.
and poured into a mould. Pure lead is too soft and too easily attacked by the
electrolyte, and antimony is added to give stiffness, and resistance to the
action of the electrolyte in the cell. The amount of antimony used varies in
different makes but probably averages 8 to 10%.
The casting process requires considerable skill, the proper composition of
the metal and the temperature of both metal and moulds being of great
importance in securing perfect grids, which are free from blowholes, and
which have a uniform structure and composition. Some manufacturers cast
two grids simultaneously in each mould, the two plates being joined to each
other along the bottom edge.
Trimming the Grids. When the castings have cooled, they are removed
from the moulds and passed to a press or trimming machine which trims off
the casting gate and the rough edges. The grids are given a rigid inspection,
those having shrunken or missing ribs or other defects being rejected. The
grids are now ready for pasting.
Page 32
Fig. 4 shows a grid ready for pasting. The heavy lug at one upper corner is
the conducting lug, for carrying the current to the strap, Fig. 5, into which
the lugs are burned when the battery is assembled. The straps are provided
with posts, to which the intercell connectors and terminal connectors are
attached. The vertical ribs of the grids extend through the plate, providing
mechanical strength and conductivity, while the small horizontal ribs are at
the surface and in staggered relation on opposite faces. Both the outside
frames and the vertical ribs are reinforced near the lug, where the greatest
amount of current must be carried.
The rectangular arrangement of ribs, as shown in Fig. 4, is most generally
used, although, there are other arrangements such as the Philadelphia
"Diamond" grid in which the ribs form acute angles, giving diamond shaped
openings, as shown in Fig. 6.
Pastes. There are many formulas for the pastes, which are later converted
into active material, and each is considered a trade secret by the
the conducting lug, for carrying the current to the strap, Fig. 5, into which
the lugs are burned when the battery is assembled. The straps are provided
with posts, to which the intercell connectors and terminal connectors are
attached. The vertical ribs of the grids extend through the plate, providing
mechanical strength and conductivity, while the small horizontal ribs are at
the surface and in staggered relation on opposite faces. Both the outside
frames and the vertical ribs are reinforced near the lug, where the greatest
amount of current must be carried.
The rectangular arrangement of ribs, as shown in Fig. 4, is most generally
used, although, there are other arrangements such as the Philadelphia
"Diamond" grid in which the ribs form acute angles, giving diamond shaped
openings, as shown in Fig. 6.
Pastes. There are many formulas for the pastes, which are later converted
into active material, and each is considered a trade secret by the
Page 33
manufacturer using it. The basis of all, however, is oxide of lead, either Red
Lead (Pb30 4), Litharge (PbO), or a mixture of the two, made into a paste
with a liquid, such as dilute sulphuric acid. The object of mixing the oxides
with the liquid is to form a paste of the proper consistency for application to
the grids, and at the same time introduce the proper amount of binding, or
setting agent which will give porosity, and which will bind together the
active material, especially in the positive plate. Red lead usually
predominates in the positive paste, and litharge in the negative, as this
combination requires the least energy in forming the oxides to active
material.
The oxides of lead used in preparing the pastes which are applied to the
grids are powders, and in their dry condition could not be applied to the
grids, as they would fall out. Mixing them with a liquid to make a paste
gives them greater coherence and enables them to be applied to the grids.
Sulphuric acid puts the oxides in the desired pasty condition, but has the
disadvantage of causing a chemical action to take place which changes a
considerable portion of the oxides to lead sulphate, the presence of which
Lead (Pb30 4), Litharge (PbO), or a mixture of the two, made into a paste
with a liquid, such as dilute sulphuric acid. The object of mixing the oxides
with the liquid is to form a paste of the proper consistency for application to
the grids, and at the same time introduce the proper amount of binding, or
setting agent which will give porosity, and which will bind together the
active material, especially in the positive plate. Red lead usually
predominates in the positive paste, and litharge in the negative, as this
combination requires the least energy in forming the oxides to active
material.
The oxides of lead used in preparing the pastes which are applied to the
grids are powders, and in their dry condition could not be applied to the
grids, as they would fall out. Mixing them with a liquid to make a paste
gives them greater coherence and enables them to be applied to the grids.
Sulphuric acid puts the oxides in the desired pasty condition, but has the
disadvantage of causing a chemical action to take place which changes a
considerable portion of the oxides to lead sulphate, the presence of which
Page 34
makes the paste stiff and impossible to apply to the grids. When acid is
used, it is therefore necessary to work fast after the oxides are mixed with
sulphuric acid to form the paste.
In addition to the lead oxides, the pastes may contain some binding material
such as ammonium or magnesium sulphate, which tends to bind the
particles of the active material together. The paste used for the negatives
may contain lamp black to give porosity.
Applying the Paste. After the oxides are mixed to a paste they are applied
to the grids. This is done either by hand, or by machine In the hand pasting
process, the pastes are applied from each face of the grid by means of a
wooden paddle or trowel, and are smoothed off flush with the surface of the
ribs of the grid. This work is done quickly in order that the pastes may not
stiffen before they are applied.
U. S. L. plates are pasted in a machine which applies the paste to the grid,
subjecting it at the same time to a pressure which forces it thoroughly into
the grid, and packs it in a dense mass.
Drying the Paste. The freshly pasted plates are now allowed to dry in the
air, or are dried by blowing air over them. In any case, the pastes set to a
hard mass, in which condition the pastes adhere firmly to the grids. The
plates may then be handled without a loss of paste from the grids.
used, it is therefore necessary to work fast after the oxides are mixed with
sulphuric acid to form the paste.
In addition to the lead oxides, the pastes may contain some binding material
such as ammonium or magnesium sulphate, which tends to bind the
particles of the active material together. The paste used for the negatives
may contain lamp black to give porosity.
Applying the Paste. After the oxides are mixed to a paste they are applied
to the grids. This is done either by hand, or by machine In the hand pasting
process, the pastes are applied from each face of the grid by means of a
wooden paddle or trowel, and are smoothed off flush with the surface of the
ribs of the grid. This work is done quickly in order that the pastes may not
stiffen before they are applied.
U. S. L. plates are pasted in a machine which applies the paste to the grid,
subjecting it at the same time to a pressure which forces it thoroughly into
the grid, and packs it in a dense mass.
Drying the Paste. The freshly pasted plates are now allowed to dry in the
air, or are dried by blowing air over them. In any case, the pastes set to a
hard mass, in which condition the pastes adhere firmly to the grids. The
plates may then be handled without a loss of paste from the grids.
Page 35
Forming. The next step is to change the paste of oxides into the active
materials which make a cell operative. This is called "forming" and is really
nothing but a prolonged charge, requiring several days. In some factories
the plates are mounted in tanks, positive and negative plates alternating as in
a cell. The positives are all connected together in one group and the
negatives in another, and current passed through just as in charging a
battery. In other factories the positives and negatives are formed in separate
tanks against "dummy" electrodes.
The passing of the current slowly changes the mixtures of lead oxide and
lead sulphate, forming brown peroxide of lead (PbO2), on the positive plate
and gray spongy metallic lead on the negative. The formation by the current
of lead peroxide and spongy lead on the positive and negative plates
respectively would take place if the composition of the two pastes were
materials which make a cell operative. This is called "forming" and is really
nothing but a prolonged charge, requiring several days. In some factories
the plates are mounted in tanks, positive and negative plates alternating as in
a cell. The positives are all connected together in one group and the
negatives in another, and current passed through just as in charging a
battery. In other factories the positives and negatives are formed in separate
tanks against "dummy" electrodes.
The passing of the current slowly changes the mixtures of lead oxide and
lead sulphate, forming brown peroxide of lead (PbO2), on the positive plate
and gray spongy metallic lead on the negative. The formation by the current
of lead peroxide and spongy lead on the positive and negative plates
respectively would take place if the composition of the two pastes were
Page 36
identical. The difference in the composition of the paste for positive and
negative plates is for the purpose of securing the properties of porosity and
physical condition best suited to each.
When the forming process is complete, the plates are washed and dried, and
are then ready for use in the battery. If the grids of two plates have been cast
together, as is done by some manufacturers, these are now cut apart, and the
lugs cut to the proper height. The next step is to roll, or press the negatives
after they are removed from the forming bath so as to bring the negative
paste, which has become roughened by gassing that occurred during the
forming process, flush with the surface of the ribs of the grid. A sufficient
amount of sulphate is left in the plates to bind together the active material.
Without this sulphate the positive paste would simply be a powder and
negative plates is for the purpose of securing the properties of porosity and
physical condition best suited to each.
When the forming process is complete, the plates are washed and dried, and
are then ready for use in the battery. If the grids of two plates have been cast
together, as is done by some manufacturers, these are now cut apart, and the
lugs cut to the proper height. The next step is to roll, or press the negatives
after they are removed from the forming bath so as to bring the negative
paste, which has become roughened by gassing that occurred during the
forming process, flush with the surface of the ribs of the grid. A sufficient
amount of sulphate is left in the plates to bind together the active material.
Without this sulphate the positive paste would simply be a powder and
Page 37
when dry would fall out of the grids like dry dust. Fig. 7 shows a formed
plate ready to be burned to the strap.
Separators
In batteries used both for starting and for lighting, separators made of
specially treated wood are largely used. See Fig. 8. The Willard Company
has adopted an insulator made of a rubber fabric pierced by thousands of
cotton threads, each thread being as long as the separator is thick. The
electrolyte is carried through these threads from one side of the separator to
the other by capillary action, the great number of these threads insuring the
rapid diffusion of electrolyte which is necessary in batteries which are
subjected to the heavy discharge current required in starting.
In batteries used for lighting or ignition, sheets of rubber in which numerous
holes have been drilled are also used, these holes permitting diffusion to
take place rapidly enough to perform the required service satisfactorily,
since the currents involved are much smaller than in starting motor service.
Fig 8. A Pile of Prepared
Wooden Seperators Ready
plate ready to be burned to the strap.
Separators
In batteries used both for starting and for lighting, separators made of
specially treated wood are largely used. See Fig. 8. The Willard Company
has adopted an insulator made of a rubber fabric pierced by thousands of
cotton threads, each thread being as long as the separator is thick. The
electrolyte is carried through these threads from one side of the separator to
the other by capillary action, the great number of these threads insuring the
rapid diffusion of electrolyte which is necessary in batteries which are
subjected to the heavy discharge current required in starting.
In batteries used for lighting or ignition, sheets of rubber in which numerous
holes have been drilled are also used, these holes permitting diffusion to
take place rapidly enough to perform the required service satisfactorily,
since the currents involved are much smaller than in starting motor service.
Fig 8. A Pile of Prepared
Wooden Seperators Ready
Page 38
to be Put Between the
Positive and Negative Plates
to Form the Complete
Element.
For the wooden separators, porous wood, such as Port Orford cedar,
basswood, cypress, or cedar is used. Other woods such as redwood and
cherry are also used. The question is often asked "which wood makes the
best separators?" This is difficult to answer because the method of treating
the wood is just as important as is the kind of wood. The wood for the
separators is cut into strips of the correct thickness. These strips are passed
through a grooving machine which cuts the grooves in one side, leaving the
other side smooth. The strips are next sawed to the correct size, and are then
boiled in a warm alkaline solution for about 24 hours to neutralize any
organic acid, such as acetic acid, which the wood naturally contains. Such
acids would cause unsatisfactory battery action and damage to the battery.
The Vesta separator, or "impregnated mat," is treated in a bath of Barium
salts which form compounds with the wood and which are said to make the
separators strong and acid-resisting.
Positive and Negative Plates
to Form the Complete
Element.
For the wooden separators, porous wood, such as Port Orford cedar,
basswood, cypress, or cedar is used. Other woods such as redwood and
cherry are also used. The question is often asked "which wood makes the
best separators?" This is difficult to answer because the method of treating
the wood is just as important as is the kind of wood. The wood for the
separators is cut into strips of the correct thickness. These strips are passed
through a grooving machine which cuts the grooves in one side, leaving the
other side smooth. The strips are next sawed to the correct size, and are then
boiled in a warm alkaline solution for about 24 hours to neutralize any
organic acid, such as acetic acid, which the wood naturally contains. Such
acids would cause unsatisfactory battery action and damage to the battery.
The Vesta separator, or "impregnated mat," is treated in a bath of Barium
salts which form compounds with the wood and which are said to make the
separators strong and acid-resisting.
Page 39
Some batteries use a double separator, one of which is the wooden
separator, while the other consists of a thin sheet of hard rubber containing
many fine perforations. This rubber sheet is placed between the positive
plate and the wooden separator. A recent development in the use of an
auxiliary rubber separator is the Philco slotted retainer which is placed
between the separators and the positives in Philadelphia Diamond Grid
Batteries. Some Exide batteries also use slotted rubber separators. The
Philco slotted retainer consists of a thin sheet of slotted hard rubber as
shown in Fig. 9. The purpose of the retainer is to hold the positive active
material in place and prevent the shedding which usually occurs. The slots
in the retainer are so numerous that they allow the free passage of
electrolyte, but each slot is made very narrow so as to hold the active
material in the plates.
Electrolyte
Little need be said here about the electrolyte, since a full description is
given elsewhere. See page 222. Acid is received by the battery manufacturer
in concentrated form. Its specific gravity is then 1.835. The acid commonly
separator, while the other consists of a thin sheet of hard rubber containing
many fine perforations. This rubber sheet is placed between the positive
plate and the wooden separator. A recent development in the use of an
auxiliary rubber separator is the Philco slotted retainer which is placed
between the separators and the positives in Philadelphia Diamond Grid
Batteries. Some Exide batteries also use slotted rubber separators. The
Philco slotted retainer consists of a thin sheet of slotted hard rubber as
shown in Fig. 9. The purpose of the retainer is to hold the positive active
material in place and prevent the shedding which usually occurs. The slots
in the retainer are so numerous that they allow the free passage of
electrolyte, but each slot is made very narrow so as to hold the active
material in the plates.
Electrolyte
Little need be said here about the electrolyte, since a full description is
given elsewhere. See page 222. Acid is received by the battery manufacturer
in concentrated form. Its specific gravity is then 1.835. The acid commonly
Page 40
used is made by the "contact" process, in which sulphur dioxide is oxidized
to sulphur trioxide, and then, with the addition of water, changed to
sulphuric acid. The concentrated acid is diluted with distilled water to the
proper specific gravity.
Jars
The jars which contain the plates, separators, and electrolyte are made of a
tough, hard rubber compound. They are made either by the moulding
process, or by wrapping sheets of rubber compound around metal mandrels.
In either case the jar is subsequently vulcanized by careful heating at the
correct temperature.
The battery manufacturers do not, as a rule, make their own jars, but have
them made by the rubber companies who give the jars a high voltage test to
detect any flaws, holes, or cracks which would subsequently cause a leak.
The jars as received at the battery maker's factory are ready for use.
Across the bottom of the jar are several stiff ribs which extend up into the
jar so as to provide a substantial support for the plates, and at the same time
form several pockets below the plates in which the sediment resulting from
shedding of active material from the plates accumulates.
Covers
No part of a battery is of greater importance than the hard rubber cell
covers, from the viewpoint of the repairman as well as the manufacturer.
The repairman is concerned chiefly with the methods of sealing the battery,
and no part of his work requires greater skill than the work on the covers.
The manufacturers have developed special constructions, their aims being to
design the cover so as to facilitate the escape of gas which accumulates in
the upper part of a cell during charge, to provide space for expansion of the
electrolyte as it becomes heated, to simplify inspection and filling with pure
water, to make leak proof joints between the cover and the jar and between
the cover and the lead posts which project through it, and to simplify the
work of making repairs.
to sulphur trioxide, and then, with the addition of water, changed to
sulphuric acid. The concentrated acid is diluted with distilled water to the
proper specific gravity.
Jars
The jars which contain the plates, separators, and electrolyte are made of a
tough, hard rubber compound. They are made either by the moulding
process, or by wrapping sheets of rubber compound around metal mandrels.
In either case the jar is subsequently vulcanized by careful heating at the
correct temperature.
The battery manufacturers do not, as a rule, make their own jars, but have
them made by the rubber companies who give the jars a high voltage test to
detect any flaws, holes, or cracks which would subsequently cause a leak.
The jars as received at the battery maker's factory are ready for use.
Across the bottom of the jar are several stiff ribs which extend up into the
jar so as to provide a substantial support for the plates, and at the same time
form several pockets below the plates in which the sediment resulting from
shedding of active material from the plates accumulates.
Covers
No part of a battery is of greater importance than the hard rubber cell
covers, from the viewpoint of the repairman as well as the manufacturer.
The repairman is concerned chiefly with the methods of sealing the battery,
and no part of his work requires greater skill than the work on the covers.
The manufacturers have developed special constructions, their aims being to
design the cover so as to facilitate the escape of gas which accumulates in
the upper part of a cell during charge, to provide space for expansion of the
electrolyte as it becomes heated, to simplify inspection and filling with pure
water, to make leak proof joints between the cover and the jar and between
the cover and the lead posts which project through it, and to simplify the
work of making repairs.
Page 41
Single and Double Covers. Modern types of batteries have a single piece
cover, the edges of which are made so as to form a slot or channel with the
inside of the jar, into which is poured sealing compound to form a leak
proof joint. This construction is illustrated. in Exide, Fig. 1.5; Vesta, Fig.
264; Philadelphia Diamond Grid, Fig. 256; U. S. L., Figs. 11 and 244; and
Prest-0-Lite, Fig. 247, batteries. Exide batteries are also made with a double
flange cover, in which the top of the jar fits between the two flanges. In
single covers, a comparatively small amount of sealing compound is used,
and repair work is greatly simplified.
In the Eveready battery, Fig. 262, compound is poured over the entire cover
instead of around the edges. This method requires a considerable amount of
sealing compound.
The use of double covers is not as common as it was some years ago. This
construction makes use of two flat pieces of hard rubber. In such batteries a
considerable amount of sealing compound is used. This compound is poured
on top of the lower cover to seal the battery, the top cover serving to cover
up the compound and brace the posts. Fig. 10 illustrates this construction.
cover, the edges of which are made so as to form a slot or channel with the
inside of the jar, into which is poured sealing compound to form a leak
proof joint. This construction is illustrated. in Exide, Fig. 1.5; Vesta, Fig.
264; Philadelphia Diamond Grid, Fig. 256; U. S. L., Figs. 11 and 244; and
Prest-0-Lite, Fig. 247, batteries. Exide batteries are also made with a double
flange cover, in which the top of the jar fits between the two flanges. In
single covers, a comparatively small amount of sealing compound is used,
and repair work is greatly simplified.
In the Eveready battery, Fig. 262, compound is poured over the entire cover
instead of around the edges. This method requires a considerable amount of
sealing compound.
The use of double covers is not as common as it was some years ago. This
construction makes use of two flat pieces of hard rubber. In such batteries a
considerable amount of sealing compound is used. This compound is poured
on top of the lower cover to seal the battery, the top cover serving to cover
up the compound and brace the posts. Fig. 10 illustrates this construction.
Page 42
Sealing Around the Posts. Much variety is shown in the methods used to
secure a leak proof joint between the posts and the cover. Several methods
are used. One of these uses the sealing compound to make a tight joint.
Another has lead bushings which are screwed up into the cover or moulded
in the cover, the bushings being burned together with the post and cell
connector. Another method has a threaded post, and uses a lead alloy nut
with a rubber washer to make a tight joint. Still another method forces a
lead collar down over the post, and presses the cover down on a soft rubber
gasket.
secure a leak proof joint between the posts and the cover. Several methods
are used. One of these uses the sealing compound to make a tight joint.
Another has lead bushings which are screwed up into the cover or moulded
in the cover, the bushings being burned together with the post and cell
connector. Another method has a threaded post, and uses a lead alloy nut
with a rubber washer to make a tight joint. Still another method forces a
lead collar down over the post, and presses the cover down on a soft rubber
gasket.
Page 43
Using Sealing Compound. Some of the batteries which use sealing
compound to make a tight joint between the cover and the post have a hard
rubber bushing shrunk over the post. This construction is used in Gould
batteries, as shown in Fig. 10, and in the old Willard double cover batteries.
The rubber bushing is grooved horizontally to increase the length of the
sealing surface.
Other batteries that use sealing compound around the posts have grooves or
"petticoats" cut directly in the post and have a well around the post into
which the sealing compound is poured. This is the construction used in the
old Philadelphia Diamond Grid battery, as shown in Fig. 254.
Using Lead Bushings. U. S. L. batteries have a flanged lead bushing which
is moulded directly into the cover, as shown in Fig. 11. In assembling the
battery, the cover is placed over the post, and the cell connector is burned to
both post and bushing.
compound to make a tight joint between the cover and the post have a hard
rubber bushing shrunk over the post. This construction is used in Gould
batteries, as shown in Fig. 10, and in the old Willard double cover batteries.
The rubber bushing is grooved horizontally to increase the length of the
sealing surface.
Other batteries that use sealing compound around the posts have grooves or
"petticoats" cut directly in the post and have a well around the post into
which the sealing compound is poured. This is the construction used in the
old Philadelphia Diamond Grid battery, as shown in Fig. 254.
Using Lead Bushings. U. S. L. batteries have a flanged lead bushing which
is moulded directly into the cover, as shown in Fig. 11. In assembling the
battery, the cover is placed over the post, and the cell connector is burned to
both post and bushing.
Page 44
In older type U. S. L. batteries a bushing was screwed up through the cover,
and then burned to the post and cell connector.
An old type Prest-O-Lite battery used a lead bushing which screwed up
through the cover similarly to the U. S. L. batteries. Fig. 12 illustrates this
construction. The SJWN and SJRN Willard Batteries used a lead insert. See
page 424.
The modern Vesta batteries use a soft rubber gasket under the cover and
force a lead collar over the post, which pushes the cover down on the
gasket. The lead collar and post "freeze" together and make an acid proof
joint. See page 413. The Westinghouse battery uses a three part seal
consisting of a lead washer which is placed around the post, a U shaped,
soft gum washer which is placed between the post and cover, and a tapered
lead sleeve, which presses the washer against the post and the cover. See
page 417.
and then burned to the post and cell connector.
An old type Prest-O-Lite battery used a lead bushing which screwed up
through the cover similarly to the U. S. L. batteries. Fig. 12 illustrates this
construction. The SJWN and SJRN Willard Batteries used a lead insert. See
page 424.
The modern Vesta batteries use a soft rubber gasket under the cover and
force a lead collar over the post, which pushes the cover down on the
gasket. The lead collar and post "freeze" together and make an acid proof
joint. See page 413. The Westinghouse battery uses a three part seal
consisting of a lead washer which is placed around the post, a U shaped,
soft gum washer which is placed between the post and cover, and a tapered
lead sleeve, which presses the washer against the post and the cover. See
page 417.
Page 45
The Prest-O-Lite Peened Post Seal. All Prest-O-Lite batteries designated
as types WHN, RHN, BHN and JFN, have a single moulded cover which is
locked directly on to the posts. This is done by forcing a solid ring of lead
from a portion of the post down into a chamfer in the top of the cover. This
construction is illustrated in Fig. 247.
Batteries Using Sealing Nuts. The Exide batteries have threaded posts. A
rubber gasket is placed under the cover on a shoulder on the post. The nut is
then turned down on the post to force the cover on the gasket. This
construction is illustrated in Fig. 239. The Titan battery uses a somewhat
similar seal, as shown in Fig. 293.
as types WHN, RHN, BHN and JFN, have a single moulded cover which is
locked directly on to the posts. This is done by forcing a solid ring of lead
from a portion of the post down into a chamfer in the top of the cover. This
construction is illustrated in Fig. 247.
Batteries Using Sealing Nuts. The Exide batteries have threaded posts. A
rubber gasket is placed under the cover on a shoulder on the post. The nut is
then turned down on the post to force the cover on the gasket. This
construction is illustrated in Fig. 239. The Titan battery uses a somewhat
similar seal, as shown in Fig. 293.
Page 46
Some of the older Willard batteries have a chamfer or groove in the under,
side of the cover. The posts have a ring of lead in the base which fits up into
the groove in the cover to make a tight joint. This is illustrated in Fig. 13.
The later Willard constructions, using a rubber gasket seal and a lead cover
insert, are illustrated in Figs. 278 and 287.
Filling Tube or Vent Tube Construction. Quite a number of designs have
been developed in the construction of the filling or vent tube. In double
covers, the tube is sometimes a separate part which is screwed into the
lower cover. In other batteries using double covers, the tube is an integral
part of the cover, as shown in Fig. 10. In all single covers, the tube is
moulded integral with the cover.
Several devices have been developed to make it impossible to overfill
batteries. This has been done by the U. S. L. and Exide companies on older
types of batteries, their constructions being described as follows:
In old U. S. L. batteries, a small auxiliary vent tube is drilled, as shown in
Fig. 14. When filling to replace evaporation, this vent tube prevents
overfilling.
side of the cover. The posts have a ring of lead in the base which fits up into
the groove in the cover to make a tight joint. This is illustrated in Fig. 13.
The later Willard constructions, using a rubber gasket seal and a lead cover
insert, are illustrated in Figs. 278 and 287.
Filling Tube or Vent Tube Construction. Quite a number of designs have
been developed in the construction of the filling or vent tube. In double
covers, the tube is sometimes a separate part which is screwed into the
lower cover. In other batteries using double covers, the tube is an integral
part of the cover, as shown in Fig. 10. In all single covers, the tube is
moulded integral with the cover.
Several devices have been developed to make it impossible to overfill
batteries. This has been done by the U. S. L. and Exide companies on older
types of batteries, their constructions being described as follows:
In old U. S. L. batteries, a small auxiliary vent tube is drilled, as shown in
Fig. 14. When filling to replace evaporation, this vent tube prevents
overfilling.
Page 47
A finger is placed over the auxiliary vent tube shown in Fig. 14. The water
is then poured in through the filling or vent tube. When the water reaches
the bottom of the tube, the air imprisoned in the expansion chamber can no
longer escape. Consequently the water can rise no higher in this chamber,
but simply fills up the tube. Water is added till it reaches the top of the tube.
The finger is then removed from the vent tube. This allows the air to escape
from the expansion chamber. The water will therefore fall in the filling or
vent tube, and rise slightly in the expansion chamber. The construction
makes it impossible to overfill the battery, provided that the finger is held
on the vent hole as directed.
is then poured in through the filling or vent tube. When the water reaches
the bottom of the tube, the air imprisoned in the expansion chamber can no
longer escape. Consequently the water can rise no higher in this chamber,
but simply fills up the tube. Water is added till it reaches the top of the tube.
The finger is then removed from the vent tube. This allows the air to escape
from the expansion chamber. The water will therefore fall in the filling or
vent tube, and rise slightly in the expansion chamber. The construction
makes it impossible to overfill the battery, provided that the finger is held
on the vent hole as directed.
Page 48
Figure 15 shows the Non-Flooding Vent and Filling Plug used in the older
type Exide battery, and in the present type LXRV. The new Exide cover,
which does not use the non-flooding feature, is also shown. The old
construction is described as follows:
type Exide battery, and in the present type LXRV. The new Exide cover,
which does not use the non-flooding feature, is also shown. The old
construction is described as follows:
Page 49
From the illustrations of the vent and filling plug, it will be seen that they
provide both a vented stopper (vents F, G, H), and an automatic device for
the preventing of overfilling and flooding. The amount of water that can be
put into the cell is limited to the exact amount needed to replace that lost by
provide both a vented stopper (vents F, G, H), and an automatic device for
the preventing of overfilling and flooding. The amount of water that can be
put into the cell is limited to the exact amount needed to replace that lost by
Page 50
evaporation. This is accomplished by means of the hard rubber valve (A)
within the cell cover and with which the top of the vent plug (E) engages, as
shown in the illustrations. The action of removing the plug (E) turns this
valve (A), closing the air passage (BB), and forming an air tight chamber
(C) in the top of the cell. When water is poured in, it cannot rise in this air
space (C) so as to completely fill the cell. As soon as the proper level is
reached, the water rises in the filling tube (D) and gives a positive indication
that sufficient water has been added. Should, however, the filling be
continued, the excess will be pure water only, not acid. On replacing the
plug (E), valve (A) is automatically turned, opening the air passages (BB),
leaving the air chamber (C) available for the expansion of the solution,
which occurs when the battery is working.
Generally the filling or vent tube is so made that its lower end indicates the
correct level of electrolyte above the plates, In adding water, the level of the
electrolyte is brought up to the bottom of the filling tube. By looking down
into the tube, it can be seen when the electrolyte reaches the bottom of the
tube.
Vent Plugs, or Caps. Vent plugs, or caps, close up the filling or vent tubes
in the covers. They are made of hard rubber, and either screw into or over
the tubes, or are tightened by a full or partial turn, as is done in Exide
batteries. In the caps are small holes which are so arranged that gases
generated within the battery may escape, but acid spray cannot pass through
these holes. It is of the utmost importance that the holes in the vent caps be
kept open to allow the gases to escape.
Case
The wooden case in which the cells are placed is usually made of kiln dried
white oak or hard maple. The wood is inspected carefully, and all pieces are
rejected that are weather-checked, or contain worm-holes or knots. The
wood is sawed into various thicknesses, and then cut to the proper lengths
and widths. The wood is passed through other machines that cut in the
dovetails, put the tongue on the bottom for the joints, stamp on the part
number, drill the holes for the screws or bolts holding the handles, cut the
grooves for the sealing compound, etc. The several pieces are then
within the cell cover and with which the top of the vent plug (E) engages, as
shown in the illustrations. The action of removing the plug (E) turns this
valve (A), closing the air passage (BB), and forming an air tight chamber
(C) in the top of the cell. When water is poured in, it cannot rise in this air
space (C) so as to completely fill the cell. As soon as the proper level is
reached, the water rises in the filling tube (D) and gives a positive indication
that sufficient water has been added. Should, however, the filling be
continued, the excess will be pure water only, not acid. On replacing the
plug (E), valve (A) is automatically turned, opening the air passages (BB),
leaving the air chamber (C) available for the expansion of the solution,
which occurs when the battery is working.
Generally the filling or vent tube is so made that its lower end indicates the
correct level of electrolyte above the plates, In adding water, the level of the
electrolyte is brought up to the bottom of the filling tube. By looking down
into the tube, it can be seen when the electrolyte reaches the bottom of the
tube.
Vent Plugs, or Caps. Vent plugs, or caps, close up the filling or vent tubes
in the covers. They are made of hard rubber, and either screw into or over
the tubes, or are tightened by a full or partial turn, as is done in Exide
batteries. In the caps are small holes which are so arranged that gases
generated within the battery may escape, but acid spray cannot pass through
these holes. It is of the utmost importance that the holes in the vent caps be
kept open to allow the gases to escape.
Case
The wooden case in which the cells are placed is usually made of kiln dried
white oak or hard maple. The wood is inspected carefully, and all pieces are
rejected that are weather-checked, or contain worm-holes or knots. The
wood is sawed into various thicknesses, and then cut to the proper lengths
and widths. The wood is passed through other machines that cut in the
dovetails, put the tongue on the bottom for the joints, stamp on the part
number, drill the holes for the screws or bolts holding the handles, cut the
grooves for the sealing compound, etc. The several pieces are then
Page 51
assembled and glued together. The finishing touches are then put on, these
consisting of cutting the cases to the proper heights, sandpapering the boxes,
etc. The cases are then inspected and are ready to be painted.
A more recent development in case construction is a one-piece hard rubber
case, in which the jars and case are made in one piece, the cell
compartments being formed by rubber partitions which form an integral part
of the case. This construction is used in several makes of Radio "A"
batteries, and to some extent in starting batteries.
Asphaltum paint is generally used for wooden cases, the bottoms and tops
being given three, coats, and the sides, two. The number of coats of paint
varies, of course, in the different factories. The handles are then put on by
machinery, and the case, Fig. 16, is complete, and ready for assembling.
Assembling and Sealing
The first step in assembling a battery is to burn the positive and negative
plates to their respective straps, Fig. 5, forming the positive and negative
"groups," Fig. 2. This is done by arranging a set of plates and a strap in a
suitable rack which holds them securely in proper position, and then melting
consisting of cutting the cases to the proper heights, sandpapering the boxes,
etc. The cases are then inspected and are ready to be painted.
A more recent development in case construction is a one-piece hard rubber
case, in which the jars and case are made in one piece, the cell
compartments being formed by rubber partitions which form an integral part
of the case. This construction is used in several makes of Radio "A"
batteries, and to some extent in starting batteries.
Asphaltum paint is generally used for wooden cases, the bottoms and tops
being given three, coats, and the sides, two. The number of coats of paint
varies, of course, in the different factories. The handles are then put on by
machinery, and the case, Fig. 16, is complete, and ready for assembling.
Assembling and Sealing
The first step in assembling a battery is to burn the positive and negative
plates to their respective straps, Fig. 5, forming the positive and negative
"groups," Fig. 2. This is done by arranging a set of plates and a strap in a
suitable rack which holds them securely in proper position, and then melting
Page 52
together the top of the plate lugs and the portion of the strap into which they
fit with a hot flame.
A positive and a negative group are now slipped together and the separators
inserted. The grooved side of the wood separator is placed toward the
positive plate and when perforated rubber sheets are used these go between
the positive and the wood separator. The positive and negative "groups"
assembled with the separators constitute the "element," Fig. 3.
Before the elements are placed in the jars they are carefully inspected to
make sure that no separator has been left out. For this purpose the "Exide"
elements are subjected to an electrical test which rings a bell if a separator is
missing, this having been found more infallible than trusting to a man's
eyes.
In some batteries, such as the Exide, Vesta, and Prest-O-Lite batteries, the
cover is placed on the element and made fast before the elements are placed
in the jars. In other batteries, such as the U. S. L. and Philadelphia batteries,
the covers are put on after the elements are placed in the jars.
After the element is in the jar and the cover in position, sealing compound is
applied hot so as to make a leak proof joint between jar and cover.
The completed cells are now assembled in the case and the cell connectors,
Fig. 17, burned to the strap posts. After filling with electrolyte the battery is
ready to receive its "initial charge," which may require from one day to a
week. A low charging rate is used, since the plates are generally in a
sulphated condition when assembled. The specific gravity is brought up to
about 1.280 during this charge. Some makers now give the battery a short
high rate discharge test (see page 266), to disclose any defects, and just
before sending them out give a final charge. The batteries are often "cycled"
fit with a hot flame.
A positive and a negative group are now slipped together and the separators
inserted. The grooved side of the wood separator is placed toward the
positive plate and when perforated rubber sheets are used these go between
the positive and the wood separator. The positive and negative "groups"
assembled with the separators constitute the "element," Fig. 3.
Before the elements are placed in the jars they are carefully inspected to
make sure that no separator has been left out. For this purpose the "Exide"
elements are subjected to an electrical test which rings a bell if a separator is
missing, this having been found more infallible than trusting to a man's
eyes.
In some batteries, such as the Exide, Vesta, and Prest-O-Lite batteries, the
cover is placed on the element and made fast before the elements are placed
in the jars. In other batteries, such as the U. S. L. and Philadelphia batteries,
the covers are put on after the elements are placed in the jars.
After the element is in the jar and the cover in position, sealing compound is
applied hot so as to make a leak proof joint between jar and cover.
The completed cells are now assembled in the case and the cell connectors,
Fig. 17, burned to the strap posts. After filling with electrolyte the battery is
ready to receive its "initial charge," which may require from one day to a
week. A low charging rate is used, since the plates are generally in a
sulphated condition when assembled. The specific gravity is brought up to
about 1.280 during this charge. Some makers now give the battery a short
high rate discharge test (see page 266), to disclose any defects, and just
before sending them out give a final charge. The batteries are often "cycled"
Page 53
after being assembled, this consisting in discharging and recharging the
batteries several times to put the active material in the best working
condition. If the batteries are to be shipped "wet," they are ready for
shipping after the final charge and inspection. Batteries which are shipped
"dry" need to have more work done upon them.
Preparing Batteries for Dry Shipment
There are three general methods of "dry" shipment. The first method
consists of sending cases, plates, covers, separators, etc., separately, and
assembling them in the service stations. Sometimes these parts are all
placed together, as in a finished battery, but without the separators, the
covers not being sealed, or the connectors and terminals welded to the posts.
This is a sort of "knock-down" condition. The plates used are first fully
charged and dried.
The second method consists of assembling a battery complete with plates,
separators, and electrolyte, charging the battery, pouring out the electrolyte,
rinsing with distilled water, pouring out the water and screwing the vent
plugs down tight. The vent holes in these plugs are sealed to exclude air.
The moisture left in the battery when the rinsing water was poured out
cannot evaporate, and the separators are thus kept in a moistened condition.
The third method is the Willard "Bone Dry" method, and consists of
assembling the battery complete with dry threaded rubber separators and
dry plates, but without electrolyte. The holes in the vent plugs are not
sealed, since there is no moisture in the battery. Batteries using wooden
separators cannot be shipped "bone-dry," since wooden separators must be
kept moist.
Terminal Connections
When the battery is on the car it is necessary to have some form of
detachable connection to the car circuit and this is accomplished by
means of "terminal connectors," Fig. 18, of which there are many types.
batteries several times to put the active material in the best working
condition. If the batteries are to be shipped "wet," they are ready for
shipping after the final charge and inspection. Batteries which are shipped
"dry" need to have more work done upon them.
Preparing Batteries for Dry Shipment
There are three general methods of "dry" shipment. The first method
consists of sending cases, plates, covers, separators, etc., separately, and
assembling them in the service stations. Sometimes these parts are all
placed together, as in a finished battery, but without the separators, the
covers not being sealed, or the connectors and terminals welded to the posts.
This is a sort of "knock-down" condition. The plates used are first fully
charged and dried.
The second method consists of assembling a battery complete with plates,
separators, and electrolyte, charging the battery, pouring out the electrolyte,
rinsing with distilled water, pouring out the water and screwing the vent
plugs down tight. The vent holes in these plugs are sealed to exclude air.
The moisture left in the battery when the rinsing water was poured out
cannot evaporate, and the separators are thus kept in a moistened condition.
The third method is the Willard "Bone Dry" method, and consists of
assembling the battery complete with dry threaded rubber separators and
dry plates, but without electrolyte. The holes in the vent plugs are not
sealed, since there is no moisture in the battery. Batteries using wooden
separators cannot be shipped "bone-dry," since wooden separators must be
kept moist.
Terminal Connections
When the battery is on the car it is necessary to have some form of
detachable connection to the car circuit and this is accomplished by
means of "terminal connectors," Fig. 18, of which there are many types.
Page 54
Many types of
terminals are in two
parts, one being
permanently attached
to the car circuit and
the other mounted
permanently on the
battery by welding it
to the terminal post,
the two parts being
detachably joined by means of a bolted connection.
In another type of terminal, the cable is soldered directly to the terminal
which is lead burned to the cell post. In this construction there is very
much less chance of corrosion taking place, and it is therefore a good
design.
HOMEMADE BATTERIES
The wisest thing for the battery shop owner to do is to get a contract as
official service station for one of the well known makes of batteries. The
manufacturers of this battery will stand behind the service station, giving it
the benefits of its engineering, production, and advertising departments, and
boost the service station's business, helping to make it a success.
Within the past year or so, however, some battery repairmen have conceived
the idea that they do not need the backing of a well organized factory, and
have decided to build up their own batteries. Some of them merely assemble
batteries from parts bought from one or more manufacturers. If all the parts
are made by the same company, they will fit together, and may make a
serviceable battery. Often, however, parts made by several manufacturers
are assembled in the same battery. Here is where trouble is apt to develop,
because it is more than likely that jars may not fit well in the case; plates
may not completely fill the jars, allowing too much acid space, with the
results that specific gravity readings will not be reliable, and the plates may
terminals are in two
parts, one being
permanently attached
to the car circuit and
the other mounted
permanently on the
battery by welding it
to the terminal post,
the two parts being
detachably joined by means of a bolted connection.
In another type of terminal, the cable is soldered directly to the terminal
which is lead burned to the cell post. In this construction there is very
much less chance of corrosion taking place, and it is therefore a good
design.
HOMEMADE BATTERIES
The wisest thing for the battery shop owner to do is to get a contract as
official service station for one of the well known makes of batteries. The
manufacturers of this battery will stand behind the service station, giving it
the benefits of its engineering, production, and advertising departments, and
boost the service station's business, helping to make it a success.
Within the past year or so, however, some battery repairmen have conceived
the idea that they do not need the backing of a well organized factory, and
have decided to build up their own batteries. Some of them merely assemble
batteries from parts bought from one or more manufacturers. If all the parts
are made by the same company, they will fit together, and may make a
serviceable battery. Often, however, parts made by several manufacturers
are assembled in the same battery. Here is where trouble is apt to develop,
because it is more than likely that jars may not fit well in the case; plates
may not completely fill the jars, allowing too much acid space, with the
results that specific gravity readings will not be reliable, and the plates may
Page 55
be overworked; plate posts may not fit the cover holes, and so on. If such a
"fabricated" battery goes dead because of defective material, there is no
factory back of the repairman to stand the loss.
If the repairman wishes to assemble batteries, he should be very careful to
buy the parts from a reliable manufacturer, and he should be especially
careful in buying separators, as improperly treated separators often develop
acetic acid, which dissolves the lead of the plates very quickly and ruins the
battery. Batteries made in this way are good for rental batteries, or
"loaners." These batteries are assembled and charged just as are batteries
which have been in dry storage, see page 241.
If the repairman who "fabricates" batteries takes chances, the man who
attempts to actually make his own battery plates is certainly risking his
business and reputation. There are several companies which sell moulds for
making plate grids. One even sells cans of lead oxides to enable the
repairman to make his own plate paste. Even more foolhardy than the man
who wishes to mould plate grids is the man who wishes to mix the lead
oxides himself. Many letters asking for paste formulas have been received
by the author. Such formulas can never be given, for the author does not
have them. Paste making is a far more difficult process than many men
realize. The lead oxides which are used must be tested and analyzed
carefully in a chemical laboratory and the paste formulas varied according
to the results of these tests. The oxides must be carefully weighed, carefully
handled, and carefully analyzed. The battery service station does not have
the equipment necessary to do these things, and no repairman should ever
attempt to make plate paste, as trouble is bound to follow such attempts. A
car owner may buy a worthless battery once, but the next time he will go to
some other service station and buy a good battery.
No doubt many repairmen are as skillful and competent as the workers in
battery factories, but the equipment required to make grids and paste is
much too elaborate and expensive for the service station, and without such
equipment it is impossible to make a good battery.
The only battery parts which may safely be made in the service station are
plate straps and posts, intercell connectors, and cell terminals. Moulds for
making such parts are on the market, and it is really worth while to invest in
"fabricated" battery goes dead because of defective material, there is no
factory back of the repairman to stand the loss.
If the repairman wishes to assemble batteries, he should be very careful to
buy the parts from a reliable manufacturer, and he should be especially
careful in buying separators, as improperly treated separators often develop
acetic acid, which dissolves the lead of the plates very quickly and ruins the
battery. Batteries made in this way are good for rental batteries, or
"loaners." These batteries are assembled and charged just as are batteries
which have been in dry storage, see page 241.
If the repairman who "fabricates" batteries takes chances, the man who
attempts to actually make his own battery plates is certainly risking his
business and reputation. There are several companies which sell moulds for
making plate grids. One even sells cans of lead oxides to enable the
repairman to make his own plate paste. Even more foolhardy than the man
who wishes to mould plate grids is the man who wishes to mix the lead
oxides himself. Many letters asking for paste formulas have been received
by the author. Such formulas can never be given, for the author does not
have them. Paste making is a far more difficult process than many men
realize. The lead oxides which are used must be tested and analyzed
carefully in a chemical laboratory and the paste formulas varied according
to the results of these tests. The oxides must be carefully weighed, carefully
handled, and carefully analyzed. The battery service station does not have
the equipment necessary to do these things, and no repairman should ever
attempt to make plate paste, as trouble is bound to follow such attempts. A
car owner may buy a worthless battery once, but the next time he will go to
some other service station and buy a good battery.
No doubt many repairmen are as skillful and competent as the workers in
battery factories, but the equipment required to make grids and paste is
much too elaborate and expensive for the service station, and without such
equipment it is impossible to make a good battery.
The only battery parts which may safely be made in the service station are
plate straps and posts, intercell connectors, and cell terminals. Moulds for
making such parts are on the market, and it is really worth while to invest in
Page 56
a set. The posts made in such moulds are of the plain tapered type, and posts
which have special sealing and locking devices, such as the Exide,
Philadelphia, and Titan cannot be made in them.
(Table of) Contents
which have special sealing and locking devices, such as the Exide,
Philadelphia, and Titan cannot be made in them.
(Table of) Contents
Page 57
CHAPTER 4.
CHEMICAL CHANGES.
Before explaining what happens within one storage cell, let us look into the
early history of the storage battery, and see what a modest beginning the
modern heavy duty battery had. Between 1850 and 1860 a man named
Plante began his work on the storage battery. His original cell consisted of
two plates of metallic lead immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. The acid
formed a thin layer of lead sulphate on each plate which soon stopped
further action on the lead. If a current was passed through the cell, the lead
sulphate on the "anode" or lead plate at which the current entered the cell
was changed into peroxide of lead, while the sulphate on the other lead plate
or "cathode" was changed into pure lead in a spongy form. This cell was
allowed to stand for several days and was then "discharged," lead sulphate
being again formed on each plate. Each time this cell was charged, more
"spongy" lead and peroxide of lead were formed. These are called the
"active" materials, because it is by the chemical action between them and
the sulphuric acid that the electricity is produced. Evidently, the more active
materials the plates contained, the longer the chemical action between the
acid and active materials could take place, and hence the greater the
"capacity," or amount of electricity furnished by the cell. The process of
charging and discharging the battery so as to increase the amount of active
material, is called "forming" the plates.
Plante's method of forming plates was very slow, tedious, and expensive.
If the spongy lead, and peroxide of lead could be made quickly from
materials which could be spread over the plates, much time and expense
could be saved. It was Faure who first suggested such a plan, and gave us
the "pasted" plate of today, which consists of a skeleton framework of lead,
with the sponge lead and peroxide of lead filling the spaces between the
"ribs" of the framework. Such plates are known as "pasted" plates, and are
much lighter and more satisfactory, for automobile work than the heavy
CHEMICAL CHANGES.
Before explaining what happens within one storage cell, let us look into the
early history of the storage battery, and see what a modest beginning the
modern heavy duty battery had. Between 1850 and 1860 a man named
Plante began his work on the storage battery. His original cell consisted of
two plates of metallic lead immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. The acid
formed a thin layer of lead sulphate on each plate which soon stopped
further action on the lead. If a current was passed through the cell, the lead
sulphate on the "anode" or lead plate at which the current entered the cell
was changed into peroxide of lead, while the sulphate on the other lead plate
or "cathode" was changed into pure lead in a spongy form. This cell was
allowed to stand for several days and was then "discharged," lead sulphate
being again formed on each plate. Each time this cell was charged, more
"spongy" lead and peroxide of lead were formed. These are called the
"active" materials, because it is by the chemical action between them and
the sulphuric acid that the electricity is produced. Evidently, the more active
materials the plates contained, the longer the chemical action between the
acid and active materials could take place, and hence the greater the
"capacity," or amount of electricity furnished by the cell. The process of
charging and discharging the battery so as to increase the amount of active
material, is called "forming" the plates.
Plante's method of forming plates was very slow, tedious, and expensive.
If the spongy lead, and peroxide of lead could be made quickly from
materials which could be spread over the plates, much time and expense
could be saved. It was Faure who first suggested such a plan, and gave us
the "pasted" plate of today, which consists of a skeleton framework of lead,
with the sponge lead and peroxide of lead filling the spaces between the
"ribs" of the framework. Such plates are known as "pasted" plates, and are
much lighter and more satisfactory, for automobile work than the heavy
Page 58
solid lead plates of Plante's. Chapter 3 describes more fully the processes of
manufacturing and pasting the plates.
We know now what constitutes a
storage battery, and what the
parts are that "generate" the
electricity. How is the electricity
produced? Theoretically, if we
take a battery which has been
entirely discharged, so that it is
no longer able to cause a flow of
current, and examine and test the
electrolyte and the materials on
the plates, we shall find that the
electrolyte is pure water, and both
sets of plates composed of white
lead sulphate. On the other hand,
if we make a similar test and
examination of the plates and
electrolyte of a battery through
which a current has been sent
from some outside source, such
as a generator, until the current
can no longer cause chemical
reactions between the plates and
electrolyte, we will find that the
electrolyte is now composed of
water and Sulphuric acid, the
acid comprising about 30%, and the water 70% of the electrolyte. The
negative set of plates will be composed of pure lead in a spongy form, while
the positive will consist of peroxide of lead.
The foregoing description gives the final products of the chemical changes
that take place in the storage battery. To understand the changes themselves
requires a more detailed investigation. The substances to be considered in
the chemical actions are sulphuric acid, water, pure lead, lead sulphate, and
lead peroxide. With the exception of pure lead, each of these substances is a
manufacturing and pasting the plates.
We know now what constitutes a
storage battery, and what the
parts are that "generate" the
electricity. How is the electricity
produced? Theoretically, if we
take a battery which has been
entirely discharged, so that it is
no longer able to cause a flow of
current, and examine and test the
electrolyte and the materials on
the plates, we shall find that the
electrolyte is pure water, and both
sets of plates composed of white
lead sulphate. On the other hand,
if we make a similar test and
examination of the plates and
electrolyte of a battery through
which a current has been sent
from some outside source, such
as a generator, until the current
can no longer cause chemical
reactions between the plates and
electrolyte, we will find that the
electrolyte is now composed of
water and Sulphuric acid, the
acid comprising about 30%, and the water 70% of the electrolyte. The
negative set of plates will be composed of pure lead in a spongy form, while
the positive will consist of peroxide of lead.
The foregoing description gives the final products of the chemical changes
that take place in the storage battery. To understand the changes themselves
requires a more detailed investigation. The substances to be considered in
the chemical actions are sulphuric acid, water, pure lead, lead sulphate, and
lead peroxide. With the exception of pure lead, each of these substances is a
Page 59
chemical compound, or composed of several elements. Thus sulphuric acid
is made up of two parts of hydrogen, which is a gas; one part of sulphur, a
solid, and four parts of oxygen, which is also a gas; these combine to form
the acid, which is liquid, and which is for convenience written as H2SO 4,
H2 representing two parts of hydrogen, S one part of sulphur, and 04, four
parts oxygen. Similarly, water a liquid, is made up of two parts of hydrogen
and one part of oxygen, represented by the symbol H2O. Lead is not a
compound, but an element whose chemical symbol is Pb, taken from the
Latin name for lead. Lead sulphate is a solid, and consists of one part of
lead, a solid substance, one part of sulphur, another solid substance, and
four parts of oxygen, a gas. It is represented chemically by Pb SO4. Lead
peroxide is also a solid, and is made up of one part of lead, and two parts of
oxygen. In the chemical changes that take place, the compounds just
described are to a certain extent split up into the substances of which they
are composed. We thus have lead (Pb), hydrogen (H), oxygen (0), and
sulphur (S), four elementary substances, two of which are solids, and two
gases. The sulphur does not separate itself entirely from the substances with
which it forms the compounds H2SO4 and Pb SO4. These compounds are
split into H2 and SO4 and Pb and SO4 respectively. That is, the sulphur
always remains combined with four parts of oxygen.
Let us now consider a single storage cell made up of electrolyte, one
positive plate, and one negative plate. When this cell is fully charged, or in a
condition to produce a current of electricity, the positive plate is made up of
peroxide of lead (PbO2), the negative plate of pure lead (Pb), and the
electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid (H 2SO4). This is shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 19. The chemical changes that take place when
the cell is discharging and the final result of the changes are as follows:
(a). At the Positive Plate: Lead peroxide and sulphuric acid produce lead
sulphate, water, and oxygen, or:
is made up of two parts of hydrogen, which is a gas; one part of sulphur, a
solid, and four parts of oxygen, which is also a gas; these combine to form
the acid, which is liquid, and which is for convenience written as H2SO 4,
H2 representing two parts of hydrogen, S one part of sulphur, and 04, four
parts oxygen. Similarly, water a liquid, is made up of two parts of hydrogen
and one part of oxygen, represented by the symbol H2O. Lead is not a
compound, but an element whose chemical symbol is Pb, taken from the
Latin name for lead. Lead sulphate is a solid, and consists of one part of
lead, a solid substance, one part of sulphur, another solid substance, and
four parts of oxygen, a gas. It is represented chemically by Pb SO4. Lead
peroxide is also a solid, and is made up of one part of lead, and two parts of
oxygen. In the chemical changes that take place, the compounds just
described are to a certain extent split up into the substances of which they
are composed. We thus have lead (Pb), hydrogen (H), oxygen (0), and
sulphur (S), four elementary substances, two of which are solids, and two
gases. The sulphur does not separate itself entirely from the substances with
which it forms the compounds H2SO4 and Pb SO4. These compounds are
split into H2 and SO4 and Pb and SO4 respectively. That is, the sulphur
always remains combined with four parts of oxygen.
Let us now consider a single storage cell made up of electrolyte, one
positive plate, and one negative plate. When this cell is fully charged, or in a
condition to produce a current of electricity, the positive plate is made up of
peroxide of lead (PbO2), the negative plate of pure lead (Pb), and the
electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid (H 2SO4). This is shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 19. The chemical changes that take place when
the cell is discharging and the final result of the changes are as follows:
(a). At the Positive Plate: Lead peroxide and sulphuric acid produce lead
sulphate, water, and oxygen, or:
Page 60
(b). At the Negative Plate: Lead and sulphuric acid produce lead sulphate
and Hydrogen, or:
The oxygen of equation (a) and
the hydrogen of equation (b)
combine to form water, as may
be shown by adding these two
equations, giving one equation
for the entire discharge action:
In this equation we start with the active materials and electrolyte in their
original condition, and finish with the lead sulphate and water, which are the
final products of a discharge. Examining this equation, we see that the
sulphuric acid of the electrolyte is used up in forming lead sulphate on both
positive and negative plates, and is therefore removed from the electrolyte.
This gives us the easily remembered rule for remembering discharge
and Hydrogen, or:
The oxygen of equation (a) and
the hydrogen of equation (b)
combine to form water, as may
be shown by adding these two
equations, giving one equation
for the entire discharge action:
In this equation we start with the active materials and electrolyte in their
original condition, and finish with the lead sulphate and water, which are the
final products of a discharge. Examining this equation, we see that the
sulphuric acid of the electrolyte is used up in forming lead sulphate on both
positive and negative plates, and is therefore removed from the electrolyte.
This gives us the easily remembered rule for remembering discharge
Page 61
actions, which, though open to question from a strictly scientific viewpoint,
is nevertheless convenient:
During discharge the acid goes into the plates.
The chemical changes described in (a), (b), and (c) are not instantaneous.
That is, the lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid of the fully charged cell
are not changed into lead sulphate and water as soon as a current begins to
pass through the cell. This action is a gradual one, small portions of these
substances being changed at a time. The greater the current that flows
through the cell, the faster will the changes occur. Theoretically, the changes
will continue to take place as long as any lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric
acid remain. The faster these are changed into lead sulphate and water, the
shorter will be the time that the storage cell can furnish a current, or the
sooner it will be discharged.
Taking the cell in its discharged condition, let us now connect the cell to
a generator and send current through the cell from the positive to the
negative plates. This is called "charging" the cell. The lead sulphate and
water will now gradually be changed back into lead, lead peroxide, and
sulphuric acid. The lead sulphate which is on the negative plate is changed
to pure lead; the lead sulphate on the positive plate is changed to lead
peroxide, and sulphuric acid will be added to the water. The changes at the
positive plate may be represented as follows:
Lead sulphate and water produce sulphuric acid, hydrogen and lead
peroxide, or:
The changes at the negative plate may be expressed as follows: Lead
sulphate and water produced sulphuric acid, oxygen, and lead, or:
The hydrogen (H2) produced at the positive plate, and the oxygen (0)
produced at the negative plate unite to form water, as may be shown by the
is nevertheless convenient:
During discharge the acid goes into the plates.
The chemical changes described in (a), (b), and (c) are not instantaneous.
That is, the lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid of the fully charged cell
are not changed into lead sulphate and water as soon as a current begins to
pass through the cell. This action is a gradual one, small portions of these
substances being changed at a time. The greater the current that flows
through the cell, the faster will the changes occur. Theoretically, the changes
will continue to take place as long as any lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric
acid remain. The faster these are changed into lead sulphate and water, the
shorter will be the time that the storage cell can furnish a current, or the
sooner it will be discharged.
Taking the cell in its discharged condition, let us now connect the cell to
a generator and send current through the cell from the positive to the
negative plates. This is called "charging" the cell. The lead sulphate and
water will now gradually be changed back into lead, lead peroxide, and
sulphuric acid. The lead sulphate which is on the negative plate is changed
to pure lead; the lead sulphate on the positive plate is changed to lead
peroxide, and sulphuric acid will be added to the water. The changes at the
positive plate may be represented as follows:
Lead sulphate and water produce sulphuric acid, hydrogen and lead
peroxide, or:
The changes at the negative plate may be expressed as follows: Lead
sulphate and water produced sulphuric acid, oxygen, and lead, or:
The hydrogen (H2) produced at the positive plate, and the oxygen (0)
produced at the negative plate unite to form water, as may be shown by the
Page 62
equation:
Equation (f) starts with lead sulphate and water, which, as shown in
equation (c), are produced when a battery is discharged. It will be observed
that we start with lead sulphate and water. Discharged plates may therefore
be charged in water. In fact, badly discharged negatives may be charged
better in water than in electrolyte. The electrolyte is poured out of the
battery and distilled water poured in. The acid remaining on the separators
and plates is sufficient to make the water conduct the charging current.
In equation (f), the sulphate on the plates combines with water to form
sulphuric acid. This gives us the rule:
During charge, acid is driven out of the plates.
This rule is a convenient one, but, of course, is not a strictly correct
statement.
The changes produced by sending a current through the cell are also
gradual, and will take place faster as the current is made greater. When all
the lead sulphate has been used up by the chemical changes caused by the
current, no further charging can take place. If we continue to send a current
through the cell after it is fully charged, the water will continue to be split
up into hydrogen and oxygen. Since, however, there is no more lead
sulphate left with which the hydrogen and oxygen can combine to form
lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid, the hydrogen and oxygen rise to the
surface of the electrolyte and escape from the cell. This is known as
"gassing," and is an indication that the cell is fully charged.
Relations Between Chemical Actions and Electricity.
We know now that chemical actions in the battery produce electricity and
that, on the other hand, an electric current, sent through the battery from an
outside source, such as a generator, produces chemical changes in the
battery. How are chemical changes and electricity related? The various
Equation (f) starts with lead sulphate and water, which, as shown in
equation (c), are produced when a battery is discharged. It will be observed
that we start with lead sulphate and water. Discharged plates may therefore
be charged in water. In fact, badly discharged negatives may be charged
better in water than in electrolyte. The electrolyte is poured out of the
battery and distilled water poured in. The acid remaining on the separators
and plates is sufficient to make the water conduct the charging current.
In equation (f), the sulphate on the plates combines with water to form
sulphuric acid. This gives us the rule:
During charge, acid is driven out of the plates.
This rule is a convenient one, but, of course, is not a strictly correct
statement.
The changes produced by sending a current through the cell are also
gradual, and will take place faster as the current is made greater. When all
the lead sulphate has been used up by the chemical changes caused by the
current, no further charging can take place. If we continue to send a current
through the cell after it is fully charged, the water will continue to be split
up into hydrogen and oxygen. Since, however, there is no more lead
sulphate left with which the hydrogen and oxygen can combine to form
lead, lead peroxide, and sulphuric acid, the hydrogen and oxygen rise to the
surface of the electrolyte and escape from the cell. This is known as
"gassing," and is an indication that the cell is fully charged.
Relations Between Chemical Actions and Electricity.
We know now that chemical actions in the battery produce electricity and
that, on the other hand, an electric current, sent through the battery from an
outside source, such as a generator, produces chemical changes in the
battery. How are chemical changes and electricity related? The various
Page 63
chemical elements which we have in a battery are supposed to carry small
charges of electricity, which, however, ordinarily neutralize one another.
When a cell is discharging, however, the electrolyte, water, and active
materials are separated into parts carrying negative and positive charges,
and these "charges" cause what we call an electric current to flow in the
apparatus attached to the battery.
Similarly, when a battery is charged, the charging current produces
electrical "charges" which cause the substances in the battery to unite, due
to the attraction of position and negative charges for one another. This is a
brief, rough statement of the relations between chemical reactions and
electricity in a battery. A more thorough study of the subject would be out of
place in this book. It is sufficient for the repairman to remember that the
substances in a battery carry charges of electricity which become available
as an electric current when a battery discharges, and that a charging current
causes electric charges to form, thereby "charging" the battery.
(Table of) Contents
charges of electricity, which, however, ordinarily neutralize one another.
When a cell is discharging, however, the electrolyte, water, and active
materials are separated into parts carrying negative and positive charges,
and these "charges" cause what we call an electric current to flow in the
apparatus attached to the battery.
Similarly, when a battery is charged, the charging current produces
electrical "charges" which cause the substances in the battery to unite, due
to the attraction of position and negative charges for one another. This is a
brief, rough statement of the relations between chemical reactions and
electricity in a battery. A more thorough study of the subject would be out of
place in this book. It is sufficient for the repairman to remember that the
substances in a battery carry charges of electricity which become available
as an electric current when a battery discharges, and that a charging current
causes electric charges to form, thereby "charging" the battery.
(Table of) Contents
Page 64
CHAPTER 5.
WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING DISCHARGE.
Considered chemically, the discharge of a storage battery consists of the
changing of the spongy lead and lead peroxide into lead sulphate, and the
abstraction of the acid from the electrolyte. Considered electrically, the
changes are more complex, and require further investigation. The voltage,
internal resistance, rate of discharge, capacity, and other features must be
considered, and the effects of changes in one upon the others must be
studied. This proceeding is simplified considerably if we consider each
point separately. The abstraction of the acid from the electrolyte gives us a
method of determining the condition of charge or discharge in the battery,
and must also be studied.
WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING DISCHARGE.
Considered chemically, the discharge of a storage battery consists of the
changing of the spongy lead and lead peroxide into lead sulphate, and the
abstraction of the acid from the electrolyte. Considered electrically, the
changes are more complex, and require further investigation. The voltage,
internal resistance, rate of discharge, capacity, and other features must be
considered, and the effects of changes in one upon the others must be
studied. This proceeding is simplified considerably if we consider each
point separately. The abstraction of the acid from the electrolyte gives us a
method of determining the condition of charge or discharge in the battery,
and must also be studied.
Page 65
Voltage Changes During Discharge. At the end of a charge, and before
opening the charging circuit, the voltage of each cell is about 2.5 to 2.7
volts. As soon as the charging circuit is opened, the cell voltage drops
rapidly to about 2.1 volts, within three or four minutes. This is due to the
formation of a thin layer of lead sulphate on the surface of the negative plate
and between the lead peroxide and the metal of the positive plate. Fig. 21
shows how the voltage changes during the last eight minutes of charge, and
how it drops rapidly as soon as the charging circuit is opened. The final
value of the voltage after the charging circuit is opened is about 2.15-2.18
volts. This is more fully explained in Chapter 6. If a current is drawn from
the battery at the instant the charge is stopped, this drop is more rapid. At
the beginning of the discharge the voltage has already had a rapid drop from
the final voltage on charge, due to the formation of sulphate as explained
above. When a current is being drawn from the battery, the sudden drop is
due to the internal resistance of the cell, the formation of more sulphate, and
the abstracting of the acid from the electrolyte which fills the pores of the
opening the charging circuit, the voltage of each cell is about 2.5 to 2.7
volts. As soon as the charging circuit is opened, the cell voltage drops
rapidly to about 2.1 volts, within three or four minutes. This is due to the
formation of a thin layer of lead sulphate on the surface of the negative plate
and between the lead peroxide and the metal of the positive plate. Fig. 21
shows how the voltage changes during the last eight minutes of charge, and
how it drops rapidly as soon as the charging circuit is opened. The final
value of the voltage after the charging circuit is opened is about 2.15-2.18
volts. This is more fully explained in Chapter 6. If a current is drawn from
the battery at the instant the charge is stopped, this drop is more rapid. At
the beginning of the discharge the voltage has already had a rapid drop from
the final voltage on charge, due to the formation of sulphate as explained
above. When a current is being drawn from the battery, the sudden drop is
due to the internal resistance of the cell, the formation of more sulphate, and
the abstracting of the acid from the electrolyte which fills the pores of the
Page 66
plate. The density of this acid is high just before the discharge is begun. It is
diluted rapidly at first, but a balanced condition is reached between the
density of the acid in the plates and in the main body of the electrolyte, the
acid supply in the plates being maintained at a lowered density by fresh acid
flowing into them from the main body of electrolyte. After the initial drop,
the voltage decreases more slowly, the rate of decrease depending on the
amount of current drawn from the battery. The entire process is shown in
Fig. 22.
Lead sulphate is being formed on the surfaces, and in the body of the plates.
This sulphate has a higher resistance than the lead or lead peroxide, and the
internal resistance of the cell rises, and contributes to the drop in voltage. As
this sulphate forms in the body of the plates, the acid is used up. At first this
acid is easily replaced from the main body of the electrolyte by diffusion.
The acid in the main body of the electrolyte is at first comparatively strong,
or concentrated, causing a fresh supply of acid to flow into the plates as fast
as it is used up in the plates. This results in the acid in the electrolyte
growing weaker, and this, in turn, leads to a constant decrease in the rate at
which the fresh acid flows, or diffuses into the plates. Furthermore, the
sulphate, which is more bulky than the lead or lead peroxide fills the pores
in the plate, making it more and more difficult for acid to reach the interior
of the plate. This increases the rate at which the voltage drops.
The sulphate has another effect. It forms a cover over the active material
which has not been acted upon, and makes it practically useless, since the
diluted rapidly at first, but a balanced condition is reached between the
density of the acid in the plates and in the main body of the electrolyte, the
acid supply in the plates being maintained at a lowered density by fresh acid
flowing into them from the main body of electrolyte. After the initial drop,
the voltage decreases more slowly, the rate of decrease depending on the
amount of current drawn from the battery. The entire process is shown in
Fig. 22.
Lead sulphate is being formed on the surfaces, and in the body of the plates.
This sulphate has a higher resistance than the lead or lead peroxide, and the
internal resistance of the cell rises, and contributes to the drop in voltage. As
this sulphate forms in the body of the plates, the acid is used up. At first this
acid is easily replaced from the main body of the electrolyte by diffusion.
The acid in the main body of the electrolyte is at first comparatively strong,
or concentrated, causing a fresh supply of acid to flow into the plates as fast
as it is used up in the plates. This results in the acid in the electrolyte
growing weaker, and this, in turn, leads to a constant decrease in the rate at
which the fresh acid flows, or diffuses into the plates. Furthermore, the
sulphate, which is more bulky than the lead or lead peroxide fills the pores
in the plate, making it more and more difficult for acid to reach the interior
of the plate. This increases the rate at which the voltage drops.
The sulphate has another effect. It forms a cover over the active material
which has not been acted upon, and makes it practically useless, since the
Page 67
acid is almost unable to penetrate the coating of sulphate. We thus have
quantities of active material which are entirely enclosed in sulphate, thereby
cutting down the amount of energy which can be taken from the battery.
Thus the formation of sulphate throughout each plate and the abstraction of
acid from the electrolyte cause the voltage to drop at a constantly increasing
rate.
Theoretically, the discharge may be continued until the voltage drops to
zero, but practically, the discharge should be stopped when the voltage of
each cell has dropped to 1.7 (on low discharge rates). If the discharge is
carried on beyond this point much of the spongy lead and lead peroxide
have either been changed into lead sulphate, or have been covered up by the
sulphate so effectively that they are almost useless. Plates in this condition
require a very long charge in order to remove all the sulphate.
The limiting value of 1.7 volts per cell applies to a continuous discharge at a
moderate rate. At a very high current flowing for only a very short time, it is
not only safe, but advisable to allow a battery to discharge to a lower
voltage, the increased drop being due to the rapid dilution of the acid in the
plates.
The cell voltage will rise somewhat every time the discharge is stopped.
This is due to the diffusion of the acid from the main body of electrolyte
into the plates, resulting in an increased concentration in the plates. If the
discharge has been continuous, especially if at a high rate, this rise in
voltage will bring the cell up to its normal voltage very quickly on account
of the more rapid diffusion of acid which will then take place.
The voltage does not depend upon the area of the plate surface but upon the
nature of the active materials and the electrolyte. Hence, although the plates
of a cell are gradually being covered with sulphate, the voltage, measured
when no current is flowing, will fall slowly and not in proportion to the
amount of energy taken out of the cell. It is not until the plates are pretty
thoroughly covered with sulphate, thus making it difficult for the acid to
reach the active material, that the voltage begins to drop rapidly. This is
shown clearly in Fig. 22, which shows that the cell voltage has dropped only
a very small amount when the cell is 50% discharged. With current flowing
through the cell, however, the increased internal resistance causes a marked
quantities of active material which are entirely enclosed in sulphate, thereby
cutting down the amount of energy which can be taken from the battery.
Thus the formation of sulphate throughout each plate and the abstraction of
acid from the electrolyte cause the voltage to drop at a constantly increasing
rate.
Theoretically, the discharge may be continued until the voltage drops to
zero, but practically, the discharge should be stopped when the voltage of
each cell has dropped to 1.7 (on low discharge rates). If the discharge is
carried on beyond this point much of the spongy lead and lead peroxide
have either been changed into lead sulphate, or have been covered up by the
sulphate so effectively that they are almost useless. Plates in this condition
require a very long charge in order to remove all the sulphate.
The limiting value of 1.7 volts per cell applies to a continuous discharge at a
moderate rate. At a very high current flowing for only a very short time, it is
not only safe, but advisable to allow a battery to discharge to a lower
voltage, the increased drop being due to the rapid dilution of the acid in the
plates.
The cell voltage will rise somewhat every time the discharge is stopped.
This is due to the diffusion of the acid from the main body of electrolyte
into the plates, resulting in an increased concentration in the plates. If the
discharge has been continuous, especially if at a high rate, this rise in
voltage will bring the cell up to its normal voltage very quickly on account
of the more rapid diffusion of acid which will then take place.
The voltage does not depend upon the area of the plate surface but upon the
nature of the active materials and the electrolyte. Hence, although the plates
of a cell are gradually being covered with sulphate, the voltage, measured
when no current is flowing, will fall slowly and not in proportion to the
amount of energy taken out of the cell. It is not until the plates are pretty
thoroughly covered with sulphate, thus making it difficult for the acid to
reach the active material, that the voltage begins to drop rapidly. This is
shown clearly in Fig. 22, which shows that the cell voltage has dropped only
a very small amount when the cell is 50% discharged. With current flowing
through the cell, however, the increased internal resistance causes a marked
Page 68
drop in the voltage. Open circuit voltage is not useful, therefore to
determine how much energy has been taken from the battery.
Acid Density. The electrolyte of a lead storage battery is a mixture of
chemically pure sulphuric acid, and chemically pure water, the acid forming
about 30 per cent of the volume of electrolyte when the battery is fully
charged. The pure acid has a "specific gravity" of 1.835, that is, it is 1.835
times as heavy as an equal volume of water. The mixture of acid and water
has a specific gravity of about 1.300. As the cell discharges, acid is
abstracted from the electrolyte, and the weight of the latter must therefore
grow less, since there will be less acid in it. The change in the weight, or
specific gravity of the electrolyte is the best means of determining the state
of discharge of a cell, provided that the cell has been used properly. In order
that the value of the specific gravity may be used as an indication of the
amount of energy in a battery, the history of the battery must be known.
Suppose, for instance, that in refilling the battery to replace the water lost by
the natural evaporation which occurs in the use of a battery, acid, or a
mixture of acid and water has been used. This will result in the specific
gravity being too high, and the amount of energy in the battery will be less
than that indicated by the specific gravity. Again, if pure water is used to
replace electrolyte which has been spilled, the specific gravity will be lower
than it should be. In a battery which has been discharged to such an extent
that much of the active material has been covered by a layer of tough
sulphate, or if a considerable amount of sulphate and active material has
been loosened from the plates and has dropped to the bottom of the cells, it
will be impossible to bring the specific gravity of the electrolyte up to
1.300, even though a long charge is given. There must, therefore, be a
reasonable degree of certainty that a battery has been properly handled if the
specific gravity readings are to be taken as a true indication of the condition
of a battery. Where a battery does not give satisfactory service even though
the specific gravity readings are satisfactory, the latter are not reliable as
indicating the amount of charge in the battery.
As long as a discharge current is flowing from the battery, the acid within
the plates is used up and becomes very much diluted. Diffusion between the
surrounding electrolyte and the acid in the plates keeps up the supply
needed in the plates in order to, carry on the chemical changes. When the
determine how much energy has been taken from the battery.
Acid Density. The electrolyte of a lead storage battery is a mixture of
chemically pure sulphuric acid, and chemically pure water, the acid forming
about 30 per cent of the volume of electrolyte when the battery is fully
charged. The pure acid has a "specific gravity" of 1.835, that is, it is 1.835
times as heavy as an equal volume of water. The mixture of acid and water
has a specific gravity of about 1.300. As the cell discharges, acid is
abstracted from the electrolyte, and the weight of the latter must therefore
grow less, since there will be less acid in it. The change in the weight, or
specific gravity of the electrolyte is the best means of determining the state
of discharge of a cell, provided that the cell has been used properly. In order
that the value of the specific gravity may be used as an indication of the
amount of energy in a battery, the history of the battery must be known.
Suppose, for instance, that in refilling the battery to replace the water lost by
the natural evaporation which occurs in the use of a battery, acid, or a
mixture of acid and water has been used. This will result in the specific
gravity being too high, and the amount of energy in the battery will be less
than that indicated by the specific gravity. Again, if pure water is used to
replace electrolyte which has been spilled, the specific gravity will be lower
than it should be. In a battery which has been discharged to such an extent
that much of the active material has been covered by a layer of tough
sulphate, or if a considerable amount of sulphate and active material has
been loosened from the plates and has dropped to the bottom of the cells, it
will be impossible to bring the specific gravity of the electrolyte up to
1.300, even though a long charge is given. There must, therefore, be a
reasonable degree of certainty that a battery has been properly handled if the
specific gravity readings are to be taken as a true indication of the condition
of a battery. Where a battery does not give satisfactory service even though
the specific gravity readings are satisfactory, the latter are not reliable as
indicating the amount of charge in the battery.
As long as a discharge current is flowing from the battery, the acid within
the plates is used up and becomes very much diluted. Diffusion between the
surrounding electrolyte and the acid in the plates keeps up the supply
needed in the plates in order to, carry on the chemical changes. When the
Page 69
discharge is first begun, the diffusion of acid into the plates takes place
rapidly because there is little sulphate clogging the pores in the active
material, and because there is a greater difference between the concentration
of acid in the electrolyte and in the plates than will exist as the discharge
progresses. As the sulphate begins to form and fill up the pores of the plates,
and as more and more acid is abstracted from the electrolyte, diffusion takes
place more slowly.
If a battery is allowed to stand idle for a short time after a partial discharge,
the specific gravity of the electrolyte will decrease because some, of the
acid in the electrolyte will gradually flow into the pores of the plates to
replace the acid used up while the battery was discharging. Theoretically the
discharge can be continued until all the acid has been used up, and the
electrolyte is composed of pure water. Experience has shown, however, that
the discharge of the battery should not be continued after the specific
gravity of the electrolyte has fallen to 1.150. As far as the electrolyte is
concerned, the discharge may be carried farther with safety. The plates
determine the point at which the discharge should be stopped. When the
specific gravity has dropped from 1.300 to 1.150, so much sulphate has
been formed that it fills the pores in the active material on the plates. Fig. 23
shows the change in the density of the acid during discharge.
rapidly because there is little sulphate clogging the pores in the active
material, and because there is a greater difference between the concentration
of acid in the electrolyte and in the plates than will exist as the discharge
progresses. As the sulphate begins to form and fill up the pores of the plates,
and as more and more acid is abstracted from the electrolyte, diffusion takes
place more slowly.
If a battery is allowed to stand idle for a short time after a partial discharge,
the specific gravity of the electrolyte will decrease because some, of the
acid in the electrolyte will gradually flow into the pores of the plates to
replace the acid used up while the battery was discharging. Theoretically the
discharge can be continued until all the acid has been used up, and the
electrolyte is composed of pure water. Experience has shown, however, that
the discharge of the battery should not be continued after the specific
gravity of the electrolyte has fallen to 1.150. As far as the electrolyte is
concerned, the discharge may be carried farther with safety. The plates
determine the point at which the discharge should be stopped. When the
specific gravity has dropped from 1.300 to 1.150, so much sulphate has
been formed that it fills the pores in the active material on the plates. Fig. 23
shows the change in the density of the acid during discharge.
Page 70
Changes at the Negative Plate. Chemically, the action at the negative plate
consists only of the formation of lead sulphate from the spongy lead. The
lead sulphate is only slightly soluble in the electrolyte and is precipitated as
soon as it is formed, leaving hydrogen ions, which then go to the lead
peroxide plate to form water with oxygen ions released at the peroxide
plate. The sulphate forms more quickly on the surface of the plate than in
the inner portions because there is a constant supply of acid available at the
surface, whereas the formation of sulphate in the interior of the plate
requires that acid diffuse into the pores of the active materials to replace that
already used up in the formation of sulphate. In the negative plate, however,
the sulphate tends to form more uniformly throughout the mass of the lead,
because the spongy lead is more porous than the lead peroxide, and because
the acid is not diluted by the formation of water as in the positive plate.
Changes at the Positive Plate. In a fully charged positive plate we have
lead peroxide as the active material. This is composed of lead and oxygen.
consists only of the formation of lead sulphate from the spongy lead. The
lead sulphate is only slightly soluble in the electrolyte and is precipitated as
soon as it is formed, leaving hydrogen ions, which then go to the lead
peroxide plate to form water with oxygen ions released at the peroxide
plate. The sulphate forms more quickly on the surface of the plate than in
the inner portions because there is a constant supply of acid available at the
surface, whereas the formation of sulphate in the interior of the plate
requires that acid diffuse into the pores of the active materials to replace that
already used up in the formation of sulphate. In the negative plate, however,
the sulphate tends to form more uniformly throughout the mass of the lead,
because the spongy lead is more porous than the lead peroxide, and because
the acid is not diluted by the formation of water as in the positive plate.
Changes at the Positive Plate. In a fully charged positive plate we have
lead peroxide as the active material. This is composed of lead and oxygen.
Page 71
From this fact it is plainly evident that during discharge there is a greater
chemical activity at this plate than at the negative plate, since we must find
something to combine with the oxygen in order that the lead may form lead
sulphate with the acid. In an ideal cell, therefore, the material which
undergoes the greater change should be more porous than the material
which does not involve as great a chemical reaction. In reality, however, the
peroxide is not as porous as the spongy lead, and does not hold together as
well.
The final products of the discharge of a positive plate are lead sulphate and
water. The lead peroxide must first be reduced to lead, which then combines
with the sulphate from the acid to form lead sulphate, while the oxygen
from the peroxide combines with the hydrogen of the acid to form water.
There is, therefore, a greater activity at this plate than at the lead plate, and
the formation of the water dilutes the acid in and around the plate so that the
tendency is for the chemical actions to be retarded.
The sulphate which forms on discharge causes the active material to bulge
out because it occupies more space than the peroxide. This causes the lead
peroxide at the surface to begin falling, to the bottom of the jar in fine dust-
like particles, since the peroxide here holds together very poorly.
(Table of) Contents
chemical activity at this plate than at the negative plate, since we must find
something to combine with the oxygen in order that the lead may form lead
sulphate with the acid. In an ideal cell, therefore, the material which
undergoes the greater change should be more porous than the material
which does not involve as great a chemical reaction. In reality, however, the
peroxide is not as porous as the spongy lead, and does not hold together as
well.
The final products of the discharge of a positive plate are lead sulphate and
water. The lead peroxide must first be reduced to lead, which then combines
with the sulphate from the acid to form lead sulphate, while the oxygen
from the peroxide combines with the hydrogen of the acid to form water.
There is, therefore, a greater activity at this plate than at the lead plate, and
the formation of the water dilutes the acid in and around the plate so that the
tendency is for the chemical actions to be retarded.
The sulphate which forms on discharge causes the active material to bulge
out because it occupies more space than the peroxide. This causes the lead
peroxide at the surface to begin falling, to the bottom of the jar in fine dust-
like particles, since the peroxide here holds together very poorly.
(Table of) Contents
Page 72
CHAPTER 6.
WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING CHARGE.
Voltage. Starting with a battery which has been discharged until its voltage
has decreased to 1.7 per cell, we pass a current through it and cause the
voltage to rise steadily. Fig. 24 shows the changes in voltage during charge.
Ordinarily the voltage begins to rise immediately and uniformly. If,
however, the battery has been left in a discharged condition for some time,
or has been "over discharged," the voltage rises very rapidly for a fraction of
the first minute of charge and then drops rapidly to the normal value and
thereafter begins to rise steadily to the end of the charge. This rise at the
beginning of the charge is due to the fact that the density of the acid in the
pores of the plates rises rapidly at first, the acid thus formed being
prevented from diffusing into the surrounding electrolyte by the coating of
sulphate. As soon as this sulphate is broken through, diffusion takes place
and the voltage drops.
As shown in Fig. 24, the voltage remains almost constant between the
points M and N. At N the voltage begins to rise because the charging
chemical reactions are taking place farther and farther in the inside parts of
the plate, and the concentrated acid formed by the chemical actions in the
WHAT TAKES PLACE DURING CHARGE.
Voltage. Starting with a battery which has been discharged until its voltage
has decreased to 1.7 per cell, we pass a current through it and cause the
voltage to rise steadily. Fig. 24 shows the changes in voltage during charge.
Ordinarily the voltage begins to rise immediately and uniformly. If,
however, the battery has been left in a discharged condition for some time,
or has been "over discharged," the voltage rises very rapidly for a fraction of
the first minute of charge and then drops rapidly to the normal value and
thereafter begins to rise steadily to the end of the charge. This rise at the
beginning of the charge is due to the fact that the density of the acid in the
pores of the plates rises rapidly at first, the acid thus formed being
prevented from diffusing into the surrounding electrolyte by the coating of
sulphate. As soon as this sulphate is broken through, diffusion takes place
and the voltage drops.
As shown in Fig. 24, the voltage remains almost constant between the
points M and N. At N the voltage begins to rise because the charging
chemical reactions are taking place farther and farther in the inside parts of
the plate, and the concentrated acid formed by the chemical actions in the
Page 73
plates is diffusing into the main electrolyte. This increases the battery
voltage and requires a higher charging voltage.
At the point marked 0, the voltage begins to rise very rapidly. This is due to
the fact that the amount of lead sulphate in the plates is decreasing very
rapidly, allowing the battery voltage to rise and thus increasing the charging
voltage. Bubbles of gas are now rising through the electrolyte.
At P, the last portions of lead sulphate are removed, acid is no longer being
formed, and hydrogen and oxygen gas are formed rapidly. The gas forces
the last of the concentrated acid out of the plates and in fact, equalizes the
acid concentration throughout the whole cell. Thus no further changes can
take place, and the voltage becomes constant at R at a voltage of 2.5 to 2.7.
Density of Electrolyte. Discharge should be stopped when the density of
the electrolyte, as measured with a hydrometer, is 1.150. When we pass a
charging current through the battery, acid is produced by the chemical
actions which take place in the plates. This gradually diffuses with the main
electrolyte and causes the hydrometer to show a higher density than before.
This increase in density continues steadily until the battery begins to "gas"
freely.
The progress of the charge is generally determined by the density of the
electrolyte. For this purpose in automobile batteries, a hydrometer is placed
in a glass syringe having a short length of rubber tubing at one end, and a
large rubber bulb at the other. The rubber tube is inserted in the cell and
enough electrolyte drawn up into the syringe to float the hydrometer so as to
be able to obtain a reading. This subject will be treated more fully in a later
chapter.
Changes at Negative Plate. The charging current changes lead sulphate
into spongy lead, and acid is formed. The acid is mixed with the diluted
electrolyte outside of the plates. As the charging proceeds the active
material shrinks or contracts, and the weight of the plate actually decreases
on account of the difference between the weight and volume of the lead
sulphate and spongy lead. If the cell has had only a normal discharge and
the charge is begun soon after the discharge ended, the charge will proceed
quickly and without an excessive rise in temperature. If, however, the cell
voltage and requires a higher charging voltage.
At the point marked 0, the voltage begins to rise very rapidly. This is due to
the fact that the amount of lead sulphate in the plates is decreasing very
rapidly, allowing the battery voltage to rise and thus increasing the charging
voltage. Bubbles of gas are now rising through the electrolyte.
At P, the last portions of lead sulphate are removed, acid is no longer being
formed, and hydrogen and oxygen gas are formed rapidly. The gas forces
the last of the concentrated acid out of the plates and in fact, equalizes the
acid concentration throughout the whole cell. Thus no further changes can
take place, and the voltage becomes constant at R at a voltage of 2.5 to 2.7.
Density of Electrolyte. Discharge should be stopped when the density of
the electrolyte, as measured with a hydrometer, is 1.150. When we pass a
charging current through the battery, acid is produced by the chemical
actions which take place in the plates. This gradually diffuses with the main
electrolyte and causes the hydrometer to show a higher density than before.
This increase in density continues steadily until the battery begins to "gas"
freely.
The progress of the charge is generally determined by the density of the
electrolyte. For this purpose in automobile batteries, a hydrometer is placed
in a glass syringe having a short length of rubber tubing at one end, and a
large rubber bulb at the other. The rubber tube is inserted in the cell and
enough electrolyte drawn up into the syringe to float the hydrometer so as to
be able to obtain a reading. This subject will be treated more fully in a later
chapter.
Changes at Negative Plate. The charging current changes lead sulphate
into spongy lead, and acid is formed. The acid is mixed with the diluted
electrolyte outside of the plates. As the charging proceeds the active
material shrinks or contracts, and the weight of the plate actually decreases
on account of the difference between the weight and volume of the lead
sulphate and spongy lead. If the cell has had only a normal discharge and
the charge is begun soon after the discharge ended, the charge will proceed
quickly and without an excessive rise in temperature. If, however, the cell
Page 74
has been discharged too far, or has been in a discharged condition for some
time, the lead sulphate will not be in a finely divided state as it should be,
but will be hard and tough and will have formed an insulating coating over
the active material, causing the charging voltage to be high, and the charge
will proceed slowly. When most of the lead sulphate has been reduced to
spongy lead, the charging current will be greater than is needed to carry on
the chemical actions, and will simply decompose the water into hydrogen
and oxygen, and the cell "gasses." Spongy lead is rather tough and coherent,
it, and the bubbles of gas which form in the pores of the negative plate near
the end of the charge force their way to the surface without dislodging any
of the active material.
Changes at the Positive Plate. When a cell has been discharged, a portion
of the lead peroxide has been changed to lead sulphate, which has lodged in
the pores of the active material and on its surface. During charge, the lead
combines with oxygen from the water to form lead peroxide, and acid is
formed. This acid diffuses into the electrolyte as fast as the amount of
sulphate will permit. If the discharge has been carried so far that a
considerable amount of sulphate has formed in the pores and on the surface
of the plate, the action proceeds very slowly, and unless a moderate
charging current is used, gassing begins before the charge is complete,
simply because the sulphate cannot absorb the current. The gas bubbles
which originate in the interior of the plate force their way to the surface, and
in so doing cause numerous fine particles of active material to break off and
fall to the bottom of the jar. This happens because the lead peroxide is a
granular, non-coherent substance, with the particles held together very
loosely, and the gas breaks off a considerable amount of active material.
(Table of) Contents
time, the lead sulphate will not be in a finely divided state as it should be,
but will be hard and tough and will have formed an insulating coating over
the active material, causing the charging voltage to be high, and the charge
will proceed slowly. When most of the lead sulphate has been reduced to
spongy lead, the charging current will be greater than is needed to carry on
the chemical actions, and will simply decompose the water into hydrogen
and oxygen, and the cell "gasses." Spongy lead is rather tough and coherent,
it, and the bubbles of gas which form in the pores of the negative plate near
the end of the charge force their way to the surface without dislodging any
of the active material.
Changes at the Positive Plate. When a cell has been discharged, a portion
of the lead peroxide has been changed to lead sulphate, which has lodged in
the pores of the active material and on its surface. During charge, the lead
combines with oxygen from the water to form lead peroxide, and acid is
formed. This acid diffuses into the electrolyte as fast as the amount of
sulphate will permit. If the discharge has been carried so far that a
considerable amount of sulphate has formed in the pores and on the surface
of the plate, the action proceeds very slowly, and unless a moderate
charging current is used, gassing begins before the charge is complete,
simply because the sulphate cannot absorb the current. The gas bubbles
which originate in the interior of the plate force their way to the surface, and
in so doing cause numerous fine particles of active material to break off and
fall to the bottom of the jar. This happens because the lead peroxide is a
granular, non-coherent substance, with the particles held together very
loosely, and the gas breaks off a considerable amount of active material.
(Table of) Contents
Page 75
CHAPTER 7.
CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES.
The capacity of a storage battery is the product of the current drawn from a
battery, multiplied by the number of hours this current flows. The unit in
which capacity is measured is the ampere-hour. Theoretically, a battery has
a capacity of 40 ampere hours if it furnishes ten amperes for four hours, and
if it is unable, at the end of that time, to furnish any more current. If we
drew only five amperes from this battery, it should be able to furnish this
current for eight hours. Thus, theoretically, the capacity of a battery should
be the same, no matter what current is taken from it. That is, the current in
amperes, multiplied by the number of hours the battery, furnished this
current should be constant.
In practice, however, we do not discharge a battery to a lower voltage than
1.7 per cell, except when the rate of discharge is high, such as is the case
when using the starting motor, on account of the increasing amount of
sulphate and the difficulty with which this is subsequently removed and
changed into lead and lead peroxide. The capacity of a storage battery is
therefore measured by the number of ampere hours it can furnish before its
voltage drops below 1.7 per cell. This definition assumes that the discharge
is a continuous one, that we start with a fully charged battery and discharge
it continuously until its voltage drops to 1.7 per cell.
The factors upon which the capacity of storage batteries depend may be
grouped in two main classifications:
1. Design and Construction of Battery
2. Conditions of Operation
Design and Construction.
CAPACITY OF STORAGE BATTERIES.
The capacity of a storage battery is the product of the current drawn from a
battery, multiplied by the number of hours this current flows. The unit in
which capacity is measured is the ampere-hour. Theoretically, a battery has
a capacity of 40 ampere hours if it furnishes ten amperes for four hours, and
if it is unable, at the end of that time, to furnish any more current. If we
drew only five amperes from this battery, it should be able to furnish this
current for eight hours. Thus, theoretically, the capacity of a battery should
be the same, no matter what current is taken from it. That is, the current in
amperes, multiplied by the number of hours the battery, furnished this
current should be constant.
In practice, however, we do not discharge a battery to a lower voltage than
1.7 per cell, except when the rate of discharge is high, such as is the case
when using the starting motor, on account of the increasing amount of
sulphate and the difficulty with which this is subsequently removed and
changed into lead and lead peroxide. The capacity of a storage battery is
therefore measured by the number of ampere hours it can furnish before its
voltage drops below 1.7 per cell. This definition assumes that the discharge
is a continuous one, that we start with a fully charged battery and discharge
it continuously until its voltage drops to 1.7 per cell.
The factors upon which the capacity of storage batteries depend may be
grouped in two main classifications:
1. Design and Construction of Battery
2. Conditions of Operation
Design and Construction.
Page 76
Each classification may be subdivided. Under the Design and Construction
we have:
(a) Area of plate surface.
(b) Quantity, arrangement, and porosity of active materials.
(c) Quantity and strength of electrolyte.
(d) Circulation of electrolyte.
These sub-classifications require further explanation. Taking them in order:
(a) Area of Plate Surface. It is evident that the chemical and electrical
activity of a battery are greatest at the surface of the plates since the acid
and active material are in intimate contact here, and a supply of fresh acid is
more readily available to replace that which is depleted as the battery is
discharged. This is especially true with high rates of discharge, such as are
caused in starting automobile engines. Therefore, the capacity of a battery
will be greater if the surface area of its plates is increased. With large plate
areas a greater amount of acid and active materials is available, and an
increase in capacity results.
(b) Quantity, Arrangement, and Porosity of Active Materials. Since the
lead and lead peroxide are changed to lead sulphate on discharge, it is
evident that the greater the amount of these materials, the longer can the
discharge continue, and hence the greater the capacity.
The arrangement of the active materials is also important, since the acid and
active materials must be in contact in order to produce electricity.
Consequently the capacity will be greater in a battery, all of whose active
materials are in contact with the acid, than in one in which the acid reaches
only a portion of the active materials. It is also important that all parts of the
plates carry the same amount of current, in order that the active materials
may be used evenly. As a result of these considerations, we find that the
active materials are supported on grids of lead, that the plates are made thin,
and that they have large surface areas. For heavy discharge currents, such as
starting motor currents, it is essential that there be large surface areas. Thick
plates with smaller surface areas are more suitable for low discharge rates.
we have:
(a) Area of plate surface.
(b) Quantity, arrangement, and porosity of active materials.
(c) Quantity and strength of electrolyte.
(d) Circulation of electrolyte.
These sub-classifications require further explanation. Taking them in order:
(a) Area of Plate Surface. It is evident that the chemical and electrical
activity of a battery are greatest at the surface of the plates since the acid
and active material are in intimate contact here, and a supply of fresh acid is
more readily available to replace that which is depleted as the battery is
discharged. This is especially true with high rates of discharge, such as are
caused in starting automobile engines. Therefore, the capacity of a battery
will be greater if the surface area of its plates is increased. With large plate
areas a greater amount of acid and active materials is available, and an
increase in capacity results.
(b) Quantity, Arrangement, and Porosity of Active Materials. Since the
lead and lead peroxide are changed to lead sulphate on discharge, it is
evident that the greater the amount of these materials, the longer can the
discharge continue, and hence the greater the capacity.
The arrangement of the active materials is also important, since the acid and
active materials must be in contact in order to produce electricity.
Consequently the capacity will be greater in a battery, all of whose active
materials are in contact with the acid, than in one in which the acid reaches
only a portion of the active materials. It is also important that all parts of the
plates carry the same amount of current, in order that the active materials
may be used evenly. As a result of these considerations, we find that the
active materials are supported on grids of lead, that the plates are made thin,
and that they have large surface areas. For heavy discharge currents, such as
starting motor currents, it is essential that there be large surface areas. Thick
plates with smaller surface areas are more suitable for low discharge rates.
Page 77
Since the inner portions of the active materials must have a plentiful and an
easily renewable supply of acid, the active materials must be porous in order
that diffusion may be easy and rapid.
(c) Quantity and Strength of Electrolyte. It is important that there be
enough electrolyte in order that the acid may not become exhausted while
there is still considerable active material left. An insufficient supply of
electrolyte makes it impossible to obtain the full capacity from a battery. On
the other hand, too much electrolyte, due either to filling the battery too full,
or to having the plates in a jar that holds too much electrolyte, results in an
increase in capacity up to the limit of the plate capacity. There is a danger
present, however, because with an excess of electrolyte the plates will be
discharged before the specific gravity of the electrolyte falls to 1.150. This
results in over discharge of the battery with its attendant troubles as will be
described more fully in a later chapter.
It is a universal custom to consider a battery discharged when the
specific gravity of the electrolyte has dropped to 1.150, and that it is fully
charged when the specific gravity of the electrolyte has risen to 1.280-
1.300. This is true in temperate climates. In tropical countries, which may
for this purpose be defined as those countries in which the temperature
never falls below the freezing point, the gravity of a fully charged cell is
1.200 to 1.230. The condition of the plates is, however, the true indicator of
charged or discharged condition. With the correct amount of electrolyte, its
specific gravity is 1.150 when the plates have been discharged as far as it is
considered safe, and is 1.280-1.300 when the plates are fully charged. When
electrolyte is therefore poured into a battery, it is essential that it contains
the proper proportion of acid and water in order that its specific gravity
readings be a true indicator of the condition of the plates as to charge or
discharge, and hence show accurately how much energy remains in the cell
at any time.
A question which may be considered at this point is why in automobile,
work a specific gravity of 1.280-1.300 is adopted for the electrolyte of a
fully charged cell. There are several reasons. The voltage of a battery
increases as the specific gravity goes up. Hence, with a higher density, a
higher voltage can be obtained. If the density were increased beyond this
point, the acid would attack the lead grids and the separators, and
easily renewable supply of acid, the active materials must be porous in order
that diffusion may be easy and rapid.
(c) Quantity and Strength of Electrolyte. It is important that there be
enough electrolyte in order that the acid may not become exhausted while
there is still considerable active material left. An insufficient supply of
electrolyte makes it impossible to obtain the full capacity from a battery. On
the other hand, too much electrolyte, due either to filling the battery too full,
or to having the plates in a jar that holds too much electrolyte, results in an
increase in capacity up to the limit of the plate capacity. There is a danger
present, however, because with an excess of electrolyte the plates will be
discharged before the specific gravity of the electrolyte falls to 1.150. This
results in over discharge of the battery with its attendant troubles as will be
described more fully in a later chapter.
It is a universal custom to consider a battery discharged when the
specific gravity of the electrolyte has dropped to 1.150, and that it is fully
charged when the specific gravity of the electrolyte has risen to 1.280-
1.300. This is true in temperate climates. In tropical countries, which may
for this purpose be defined as those countries in which the temperature
never falls below the freezing point, the gravity of a fully charged cell is
1.200 to 1.230. The condition of the plates is, however, the true indicator of
charged or discharged condition. With the correct amount of electrolyte, its
specific gravity is 1.150 when the plates have been discharged as far as it is
considered safe, and is 1.280-1.300 when the plates are fully charged. When
electrolyte is therefore poured into a battery, it is essential that it contains
the proper proportion of acid and water in order that its specific gravity
readings be a true indicator of the condition of the plates as to charge or
discharge, and hence show accurately how much energy remains in the cell
at any time.
A question which may be considered at this point is why in automobile,
work a specific gravity of 1.280-1.300 is adopted for the electrolyte of a
fully charged cell. There are several reasons. The voltage of a battery
increases as the specific gravity goes up. Hence, with a higher density, a
higher voltage can be obtained. If the density were increased beyond this
point, the acid would attack the lead grids and the separators, and
Page 78
considerable corrosion would result. Another danger of high density is that
of sulphation, as explained in a later chapter. Another factor which enters is
the resistance of the electrolyte. It is desirable that this be as low as
possible. If we should make resistance measurements on various mixtures of
acid and water, we should find that with a small percentage of acid, the
resistance is high. As the amount of acid is increased, the resistance will
grow less up to a certain point. Beyond this point, the resistance will
increase again as more acid is added to the mixture. The resistance is lowest
when the acid forms 30% of the electrolyte. Thus, if the electrolyte is made
too strong, the plates and also the separators will be attacked by the acid,
and the resistance of the electrolyte will also increase. The voltage increases
as the proportion of acid is increased, but the other factors limit the
concentration. If the electrolyte is diluted, its resistance rises, and the
amount of acid is insufficient to give much capacity. The density of 1.280-
1.300 is therefore a compromise between the various factors mentioned
above.
(d) Circulation of Electrolyte. This refers to the passing of electrolyte from
one plate to another, and depends upon the ease with which the acid can
pass through the pores of the separators. A porous separator allows more
energy to be drawn from the battery than a nonporous one.
Operating Conditions.
Considering now the operating conditions, we find several items to be taken
into account. The most important are:
(e) Rate of discharge.
(f) Temperature.
(e) Rate of Discharge. As mentioned above, the ampere hour rating of a
battery is based upon a continuous discharge, starting with a specific gravity
of 1.280-1.300, and finishing with 1.150. The end of the discharge is also
considered to be reached when the voltage per cell has dropped to 1.7. With
moderate rates of discharge the acid is abstracted slowly enough to permit
the acid from outside the plates to diffuse into the pores of the plates and
of sulphation, as explained in a later chapter. Another factor which enters is
the resistance of the electrolyte. It is desirable that this be as low as
possible. If we should make resistance measurements on various mixtures of
acid and water, we should find that with a small percentage of acid, the
resistance is high. As the amount of acid is increased, the resistance will
grow less up to a certain point. Beyond this point, the resistance will
increase again as more acid is added to the mixture. The resistance is lowest
when the acid forms 30% of the electrolyte. Thus, if the electrolyte is made
too strong, the plates and also the separators will be attacked by the acid,
and the resistance of the electrolyte will also increase. The voltage increases
as the proportion of acid is increased, but the other factors limit the
concentration. If the electrolyte is diluted, its resistance rises, and the
amount of acid is insufficient to give much capacity. The density of 1.280-
1.300 is therefore a compromise between the various factors mentioned
above.
(d) Circulation of Electrolyte. This refers to the passing of electrolyte from
one plate to another, and depends upon the ease with which the acid can
pass through the pores of the separators. A porous separator allows more
energy to be drawn from the battery than a nonporous one.
Operating Conditions.
Considering now the operating conditions, we find several items to be taken
into account. The most important are:
(e) Rate of discharge.
(f) Temperature.
(e) Rate of Discharge. As mentioned above, the ampere hour rating of a
battery is based upon a continuous discharge, starting with a specific gravity
of 1.280-1.300, and finishing with 1.150. The end of the discharge is also
considered to be reached when the voltage per cell has dropped to 1.7. With
moderate rates of discharge the acid is abstracted slowly enough to permit
the acid from outside the plates to diffuse into the pores of the plates and
Page 79
keep up the supply needed for the chemical actions. With increased rates of
discharge the supply of acid is used up so rapidly that the diffusion is not
fast enough to hold up the voltage. This fact is shown clearly by tests made
to determine the time required to discharge a 100 Amp. Hr., 6 volt battery to
4.5 volts. With a discharge rate of 25 amperes, it required 160 minutes. With
a discharge rate of 75 amperes, it required 34 minutes. From this we see that
making the discharge rate three times as great caused the battery to be
discharged in one fifth the time. These discharges were continuous,
however, and if the battery were allowed to rest, the voltage would soon rise
sufficiently, to burn the lamps for a number of hours.
The conditions of operation in automobile work are usually considered
severe. In starting the engine, a heavy current is drawn from the battery for
a few seconds. The generator starts charging the battery immediately
afterward, and the starting energy is soon replaced. As long as the engine
runs, there is no load on the battery, as the generator will furnish the current
for the lamps, and also send a charge into the battery. If the lamps are not
used, the entire generator output is utilized to charge the battery, unless
some current is furnished to the ignition system. Overcharge is quite
possible.
When the engine is not running, the lamps are the only load on the battery,
and there is no charging current. Various drivers have various driving
conditions. Some use their starters frequently, and make only short runs.
Their batteries run down. Other men use the starter very seldom, and take
long tours. Their batteries will be overcharged. The best thing that can be
done is to set the generator for an output that will keep the battery charged
under average conditions.
From the results of actual tests, it may be said that modem lead-acid
batteries are not injured in any way by the high discharge rate used
when a starting motor cranks the engine. It is the rapidity with which
fresh acid takes the place of that used in the pores of the active materials
that affects the capacity of a battery at high rates, and not only limitation in
the plates themselves. Low rates of discharge should, in fact, be avoided
more than the high rates. Battery capacity is affected by discharge rates,
only when the discharge is continuous, and the reduction in capacity caused
by the high rates of continuous discharge does not occur if the discharge is
discharge the supply of acid is used up so rapidly that the diffusion is not
fast enough to hold up the voltage. This fact is shown clearly by tests made
to determine the time required to discharge a 100 Amp. Hr., 6 volt battery to
4.5 volts. With a discharge rate of 25 amperes, it required 160 minutes. With
a discharge rate of 75 amperes, it required 34 minutes. From this we see that
making the discharge rate three times as great caused the battery to be
discharged in one fifth the time. These discharges were continuous,
however, and if the battery were allowed to rest, the voltage would soon rise
sufficiently, to burn the lamps for a number of hours.
The conditions of operation in automobile work are usually considered
severe. In starting the engine, a heavy current is drawn from the battery for
a few seconds. The generator starts charging the battery immediately
afterward, and the starting energy is soon replaced. As long as the engine
runs, there is no load on the battery, as the generator will furnish the current
for the lamps, and also send a charge into the battery. If the lamps are not
used, the entire generator output is utilized to charge the battery, unless
some current is furnished to the ignition system. Overcharge is quite
possible.
When the engine is not running, the lamps are the only load on the battery,
and there is no charging current. Various drivers have various driving
conditions. Some use their starters frequently, and make only short runs.
Their batteries run down. Other men use the starter very seldom, and take
long tours. Their batteries will be overcharged. The best thing that can be
done is to set the generator for an output that will keep the battery charged
under average conditions.
From the results of actual tests, it may be said that modem lead-acid
batteries are not injured in any way by the high discharge rate used
when a starting motor cranks the engine. It is the rapidity with which
fresh acid takes the place of that used in the pores of the active materials
that affects the capacity of a battery at high rates, and not only limitation in
the plates themselves. Low rates of discharge should, in fact, be avoided
more than the high rates. Battery capacity is affected by discharge rates,
only when the discharge is continuous, and the reduction in capacity caused
by the high rates of continuous discharge does not occur if the discharge is
Page 80
an intermittent one, such as is actually the case in automobile work. The
tendency now is to design batteries to give their rated capacity in very short
discharge periods. If conditions should demand it, these batteries would be
sold to give their rated capacity while operating intermittently at a rate
which would completely discharge them in three or four minutes. The only
change necessary for such high rates of discharge is to provide extra heavy
terminals to carry the heavy current.
The present standard method of rating starting and lighting batteries, as
recommended by the Society of Automotive Engineers, is as follows:
"Batteries for combined lighting and starting service shall have two ratings.
The first shall indicate the lighting ability, and shall be the capacity in
ampere hours of the battery when discharged continuously at the 5 hour rate
to a final voltage of not less than 1.7 per cell, the temperature of the battery
beginning such discharge being 80°F. The second rating shall indicate the
starting ability and shall be the capacity in ampere-hours when the battery is
discharged continuously at the 20-minute rate to a final voltage of not less
than 1.5 per cell, the temperature of the battery beginning such discharge
being 80°F."
The discharge rate required under the average starting conditions is higher
than that specified above, and would cause the required drop in voltage in
about fifteen minutes. In winter, when an engine is cold and stiff, the work
required from the battery is even more severe, the discharge rate being
equivalent in amperes to probably four or five times the ampere-rating of
the battery. On account of the rapid recovery of a battery after a discharge at
a very high rate, it seems advisable to allow a battery to discharge to a
voltage of 1.0 per cell when cranking an engine which is extremely cold and
stiff.
(f) Temperature. Chemical reactions take place much more readily at high
temperatures than at low. Furthermore, the active materials are more porous,
the electrolyte lighter, and the internal resistance less at higher temperatures.
Opposed to this is the fact that at high temperatures, the acid attacks the
grids and active materials, and lead sulphate is formed, even though no
current is taken from the battery. Other injurious effects are the destructive
actions of hot acid on the wooden separators used in most starting and
tendency now is to design batteries to give their rated capacity in very short
discharge periods. If conditions should demand it, these batteries would be
sold to give their rated capacity while operating intermittently at a rate
which would completely discharge them in three or four minutes. The only
change necessary for such high rates of discharge is to provide extra heavy
terminals to carry the heavy current.
The present standard method of rating starting and lighting batteries, as
recommended by the Society of Automotive Engineers, is as follows:
"Batteries for combined lighting and starting service shall have two ratings.
The first shall indicate the lighting ability, and shall be the capacity in
ampere hours of the battery when discharged continuously at the 5 hour rate
to a final voltage of not less than 1.7 per cell, the temperature of the battery
beginning such discharge being 80°F. The second rating shall indicate the
starting ability and shall be the capacity in ampere-hours when the battery is
discharged continuously at the 20-minute rate to a final voltage of not less
than 1.5 per cell, the temperature of the battery beginning such discharge
being 80°F."
The discharge rate required under the average starting conditions is higher
than that specified above, and would cause the required drop in voltage in
about fifteen minutes. In winter, when an engine is cold and stiff, the work
required from the battery is even more severe, the discharge rate being
equivalent in amperes to probably four or five times the ampere-rating of
the battery. On account of the rapid recovery of a battery after a discharge at
a very high rate, it seems advisable to allow a battery to discharge to a
voltage of 1.0 per cell when cranking an engine which is extremely cold and
stiff.
(f) Temperature. Chemical reactions take place much more readily at high
temperatures than at low. Furthermore, the active materials are more porous,
the electrolyte lighter, and the internal resistance less at higher temperatures.
Opposed to this is the fact that at high temperatures, the acid attacks the
grids and active materials, and lead sulphate is formed, even though no
current is taken from the battery. Other injurious effects are the destructive
actions of hot acid on the wooden separators used in most starting and
Page 81
lighting batteries. Greater expansion of active material will also occur, and
this expansion is not, in general, uniform over the surface of the plates. This
results in unequal strains and the plates are bent out of shape, or "buckled."
The expansion of the active material will also cause much of it to fall from
the plates, and we then have "shedding."
When sulphuric acid is poured into water, a marked temperature rise takes
place. When a battery is charged, acid is formed, and when this mixes with
the diluted electrolyte, a temperature rise occurs. In discharging, acid is
taken from the electrolyte, and the temperature has a tendency to drop. On
charging, therefore, there is danger of overheating, while on discharge,
excessive temperatures are not likely. Fig. 25 shows the theoretical
temperature changes on charge and discharge. The decrease in temperature
given-in the curve is not actually obtained in practice, because the tendency
this expansion is not, in general, uniform over the surface of the plates. This
results in unequal strains and the plates are bent out of shape, or "buckled."
The expansion of the active material will also cause much of it to fall from
the plates, and we then have "shedding."
When sulphuric acid is poured into water, a marked temperature rise takes
place. When a battery is charged, acid is formed, and when this mixes with
the diluted electrolyte, a temperature rise occurs. In discharging, acid is
taken from the electrolyte, and the temperature has a tendency to drop. On
charging, therefore, there is danger of overheating, while on discharge,
excessive temperatures are not likely. Fig. 25 shows the theoretical
temperature changes on charge and discharge. The decrease in temperature
given-in the curve is not actually obtained in practice, because the tendency
Page 82
of the temperature to decrease is balanced by the heat caused by the current
passing through the battery.
Age of Battery.
Another factor which should be considered in connection with capacity is
the age of the battery. New batteries often do not give their rated capacity
when received from the manufacturer. This is due to the methods of making
the plates. The "paste" plates, such as are used in automobiles, are made by
applying oxides of lead, mixed with a liquid, which generally is dilute
sulphuric acid, to the grids. These oxides must be subjected to a charging
current in order to produce the spongy lead and lead peroxide. After the
charge, they must be discharged, and then again charged. This is necessary
because not all of the oxides are changed to active material on one charge,
and repeated charges and discharges are required to produce the maximum
amount of active materials. Some manufacturers do not charge and
discharge a battery a sufficient number of times before sending it out, and
after a battery is put into use, its capacity will increase for some time,
because more active material is produced during each charge.
Another factor which increases the capacity of a battery after it is put into
use is the tendency of the positive active material to become more porous
after the battery is put through the cycles of charge and discharge. This
results in an increase in capacity for a considerable time after the battery is
put into use.
When, a battery has been in use for some time, a considerable portion of the
active material will have fallen from the positive plates, and, a decrease in
capacity will result. Such a battery will charge faster than a new one
because the amount of sulphate which has formed when the battery is
discharged is less than in a newer battery. Hence, the time required to
reduce this sulphate will be less, and the battery will "come up" faster on
charge, although the specific gravity of the electrolyte may not rise to 1.280.
(Table of) Contents
passing through the battery.
Age of Battery.
Another factor which should be considered in connection with capacity is
the age of the battery. New batteries often do not give their rated capacity
when received from the manufacturer. This is due to the methods of making
the plates. The "paste" plates, such as are used in automobiles, are made by
applying oxides of lead, mixed with a liquid, which generally is dilute
sulphuric acid, to the grids. These oxides must be subjected to a charging
current in order to produce the spongy lead and lead peroxide. After the
charge, they must be discharged, and then again charged. This is necessary
because not all of the oxides are changed to active material on one charge,
and repeated charges and discharges are required to produce the maximum
amount of active materials. Some manufacturers do not charge and
discharge a battery a sufficient number of times before sending it out, and
after a battery is put into use, its capacity will increase for some time,
because more active material is produced during each charge.
Another factor which increases the capacity of a battery after it is put into
use is the tendency of the positive active material to become more porous
after the battery is put through the cycles of charge and discharge. This
results in an increase in capacity for a considerable time after the battery is
put into use.
When, a battery has been in use for some time, a considerable portion of the
active material will have fallen from the positive plates, and, a decrease in
capacity will result. Such a battery will charge faster than a new one
because the amount of sulphate which has formed when the battery is
discharged is less than in a newer battery. Hence, the time required to
reduce this sulphate will be less, and the battery will "come up" faster on
charge, although the specific gravity of the electrolyte may not rise to 1.280.
(Table of) Contents
Page 83
Page 84
CHAPTER 8.
INTERNAL RESISTANCE.
The resistance offered by a storage battery to the flow of a current through it
results in a loss of voltage, and in heating. Its value should be as low as
possible, and, in fact, it is almost negligible even I in small batteries, seldom
rising above 0.05 ohm. On charge, it causes the charging voltage to be
higher and on discharge causes a loss of voltage. Fig. 26 shows the variation
in resistance.
The resistance as measured between the terminals of a cell is made up of
several factors as follows:
1. Grids. This includes the resistance of the terminals, connecting links, and
the framework upon which the active materials are pasted. This is but a
INTERNAL RESISTANCE.
The resistance offered by a storage battery to the flow of a current through it
results in a loss of voltage, and in heating. Its value should be as low as
possible, and, in fact, it is almost negligible even I in small batteries, seldom
rising above 0.05 ohm. On charge, it causes the charging voltage to be
higher and on discharge causes a loss of voltage. Fig. 26 shows the variation
in resistance.
The resistance as measured between the terminals of a cell is made up of
several factors as follows:
1. Grids. This includes the resistance of the terminals, connecting links, and
the framework upon which the active materials are pasted. This is but a
Page 85
small part of the total resistance, and does not undergo any considerable
change during charge and discharge. It increases slightly as the temperature
of the grids rises.
2. Electrolyte. This refers to the electrolyte between the plates, and varies
with the amount of acid and with temperature. As mentioned in the
preceding chapter, a mixture of acid and water in which the acid composes
thirty per cent of the electrolyte has the minimum resistance. Diluting or
increasing the concentration of the electrolyte will both cause an increase in
resistance from the minimum I value. The explanation probably lies in the
degree to which the acid is split up into "ions" of hydrogen (H), and
sulphate (SO4). These "ions" carry the current through t he electrolyte.
Starting with a certain amount of acid, let us see how the ionization
progresses. With very concentrated acid, ionization does not take place, and
hence, there are no ions to carry current. As we mix the acid with water,
ionization occurs. The more water used, the more ions, and hence, the less
the resistance, because the number of ions available to carry the current
increases. The ionization in creases to a certain maximum degree, beyond
which no more ions are formed. It is probable that an electrolyte containing
thirty per cent of acid is at its maximum degree of ionization and hence its
lowest resistance. If more water is now added, no more ions are formed.
Furthermore, the number of ions per unit volume of electrolyte will now
decrease on account of the increased amount of water. There Will therefore
be fewer ions per unit volume to carry the current, and the resistance of the
electrolyte increases.
With an electrolyte of a given concentration, an increase of temperature will
cause a decrease in resistance. A decrease in temperature will, of course,
cause an increase in resistance. It is true, in general, that the resistance of
the electrolyte is about half of the total resistance of the cell. The losses due
to this resistance generally form only one per cent of the total losses, and
area practically negligible factor.
3. Active Material. This includes the resistance of the active materials and
the electrolyte in the pores of the active materials. This varies considerably
during charge and discharge. It has been found that the resistance of the
peroxide plate changes much more than that of the lead plate. The change in
change during charge and discharge. It increases slightly as the temperature
of the grids rises.
2. Electrolyte. This refers to the electrolyte between the plates, and varies
with the amount of acid and with temperature. As mentioned in the
preceding chapter, a mixture of acid and water in which the acid composes
thirty per cent of the electrolyte has the minimum resistance. Diluting or
increasing the concentration of the electrolyte will both cause an increase in
resistance from the minimum I value. The explanation probably lies in the
degree to which the acid is split up into "ions" of hydrogen (H), and
sulphate (SO4). These "ions" carry the current through t he electrolyte.
Starting with a certain amount of acid, let us see how the ionization
progresses. With very concentrated acid, ionization does not take place, and
hence, there are no ions to carry current. As we mix the acid with water,
ionization occurs. The more water used, the more ions, and hence, the less
the resistance, because the number of ions available to carry the current
increases. The ionization in creases to a certain maximum degree, beyond
which no more ions are formed. It is probable that an electrolyte containing
thirty per cent of acid is at its maximum degree of ionization and hence its
lowest resistance. If more water is now added, no more ions are formed.
Furthermore, the number of ions per unit volume of electrolyte will now
decrease on account of the increased amount of water. There Will therefore
be fewer ions per unit volume to carry the current, and the resistance of the
electrolyte increases.
With an electrolyte of a given concentration, an increase of temperature will
cause a decrease in resistance. A decrease in temperature will, of course,
cause an increase in resistance. It is true, in general, that the resistance of
the electrolyte is about half of the total resistance of the cell. The losses due
to this resistance generally form only one per cent of the total losses, and
area practically negligible factor.
3. Active Material. This includes the resistance of the active materials and
the electrolyte in the pores of the active materials. This varies considerably
during charge and discharge. It has been found that the resistance of the
peroxide plate changes much more than that of the lead plate. The change in
Page 86
resistance of the positive plate is especially marked near the end of a
discharge. The composition of the active material, and the contact between
it and the grid affect the resistance considerably.
During charge, the current is sent into the cell from an external source. The
girds therefore carry most of the current. The active material which first
reacts with the acid is that near the surface of the plate, and the acid formed
by the charging current mixes readily with the main body of electrolyte.
Gradually, the charging action takes place in the inner portions of the plate,
and concentrated acid is formed in the pores of the plate. As the sulphate is
removed, however, the acid has little difficulty in mixing with the main
body of electrolyte. The change in resistance on the charge is therefore not
considerable.
During discharge, the chemical action also begins at the surface of the plates
and gradually moves inward. In this case, however, sulphate is formed on
the surface first, and it becomes increasingly difficult for the fresh acid from
the electrolyte to diffuse into the plates so as to replace the acid which has
been greatly diluted there by the discharge actions. There is therefore an
increase in resistance because of the dilution of the acid at the point of
activity. Unless a cell is discharged too far, however, the increase in
resistance is small.
If a battery is allowed to stand idle for a long time it gradually discharges
itself, as explained in Chapter 10. This is due to the formation of a tough
coating of crystallized lead sulphate, which is practically an insulator. These
crystals gradually cover and enclose the active material. The percentage
change is not high, and generally amounts to a few per cent only. The chief
damage caused by the excessive sulphation is therefore not an increase in
resistance, but consists chiefly of making a poor contact between active
material and grid, and of removing much of the active material from action
by covering it.
(Table of) Contents
discharge. The composition of the active material, and the contact between
it and the grid affect the resistance considerably.
During charge, the current is sent into the cell from an external source. The
girds therefore carry most of the current. The active material which first
reacts with the acid is that near the surface of the plate, and the acid formed
by the charging current mixes readily with the main body of electrolyte.
Gradually, the charging action takes place in the inner portions of the plate,
and concentrated acid is formed in the pores of the plate. As the sulphate is
removed, however, the acid has little difficulty in mixing with the main
body of electrolyte. The change in resistance on the charge is therefore not
considerable.
During discharge, the chemical action also begins at the surface of the plates
and gradually moves inward. In this case, however, sulphate is formed on
the surface first, and it becomes increasingly difficult for the fresh acid from
the electrolyte to diffuse into the plates so as to replace the acid which has
been greatly diluted there by the discharge actions. There is therefore an
increase in resistance because of the dilution of the acid at the point of
activity. Unless a cell is discharged too far, however, the increase in
resistance is small.
If a battery is allowed to stand idle for a long time it gradually discharges
itself, as explained in Chapter 10. This is due to the formation of a tough
coating of crystallized lead sulphate, which is practically an insulator. These
crystals gradually cover and enclose the active material. The percentage
change is not high, and generally amounts to a few per cent only. The chief
damage caused by the excessive sulphation is therefore not an increase in
resistance, but consists chiefly of making a poor contact between active
material and grid, and of removing much of the active material from action
by covering it.
(Table of) Contents
Page 87
CHAPTER 9.
CARE OF THE BATTERY ON THE CAR
The manufacturers of Starting and Lighting Equipment have designed their
generators, cutouts, and current controlling devices so as to relieve the car
owner of as much work as possible in taking care of batteries. The
generators on most cars are automatically connected to the battery at the
proper time, and also disconnected from it as the engine slows down. The
amount of current which the generator delivers to the battery is
automatically prevented from exceeding a certain maximum value. Under
the average conditions of driving, a battery is kept in a good condition. It is
impossible, however, to eliminate entirely the need of attention on the part
of the car owner, and battery repairman.
The storage battery requires but little attention, and this is the very reason
why many batteries are neglected. Motorists often have the impression that
because their work in caring for a battery is quite simple, no harm will result
if they give the battery no attention whatever. If the battery fails to turn over
the engine when the starting switch is closed, then instruction books are
studied. Thereafter more attention is paid to the battery. The rules to be
observed in taking care of the battery which is in service on the car are not
difficult to observe. It is while on the car that a battery is damaged, and the
damage may be prevented by intelligent consideration of the battery's
housing and living conditions, just as these conditions are made as good as
possible for human beings.
1. Keep the Interior of the Battery Box Clean and Dry. On many cars the
battery is contained in an iron box, or under the seat or floorboards. This
box must be kept dry, and frequent inspection is necessary to accomplish
this. Moisture condenses easily in a metal box, and if not removed will
cause the box to become rusty. Pieces of rust may fall on top of the battery
and cause corrosion and leakage of current between terminals.
CARE OF THE BATTERY ON THE CAR
The manufacturers of Starting and Lighting Equipment have designed their
generators, cutouts, and current controlling devices so as to relieve the car
owner of as much work as possible in taking care of batteries. The
generators on most cars are automatically connected to the battery at the
proper time, and also disconnected from it as the engine slows down. The
amount of current which the generator delivers to the battery is
automatically prevented from exceeding a certain maximum value. Under
the average conditions of driving, a battery is kept in a good condition. It is
impossible, however, to eliminate entirely the need of attention on the part
of the car owner, and battery repairman.
The storage battery requires but little attention, and this is the very reason
why many batteries are neglected. Motorists often have the impression that
because their work in caring for a battery is quite simple, no harm will result
if they give the battery no attention whatever. If the battery fails to turn over
the engine when the starting switch is closed, then instruction books are
studied. Thereafter more attention is paid to the battery. The rules to be
observed in taking care of the battery which is in service on the car are not
difficult to observe. It is while on the car that a battery is damaged, and the
damage may be prevented by intelligent consideration of the battery's
housing and living conditions, just as these conditions are made as good as
possible for human beings.
1. Keep the Interior of the Battery Box Clean and Dry. On many cars the
battery is contained in an iron box, or under the seat or floorboards. This
box must be kept dry, and frequent inspection is necessary to accomplish
this. Moisture condenses easily in a metal box, and if not removed will
cause the box to become rusty. Pieces of rust may fall on top of the battery
and cause corrosion and leakage of current between terminals.
Page 88
Occasionally, wash the inside of the box with a rag dipped in ammonia, or a
solution of baking soda, and then wipe it dry. A good plan is to paint the
inside of the box with asphaltum paint. This will prevent rusting, and at the
same time will prevent the iron from being attacked by electrolyte which
may be spilled, or may leak from the battery.
Some batteries are suspended from the car frame under the floor boards or
seat. The iron parts near such batteries should be kept dry and free from
rust. If the battery has a roof of sheet iron placed above it, this roof should
also be kept clean, dry and coated with asphaltum paint.
2. Put Nothing But the Battery in the Battery Box. If the battery is
contained in an iron box, do not put rags, tools, or anything else of a similar
nature in the battery box. Do not lay pliers across the top of the battery, as
shown in Fig. 27. Such things belong elsewhere. The battery should have a
free air space all around it, Fig. 28. Objects made of metal will short-circuit
the battery and lead to a repair bill.
solution of baking soda, and then wipe it dry. A good plan is to paint the
inside of the box with asphaltum paint. This will prevent rusting, and at the
same time will prevent the iron from being attacked by electrolyte which
may be spilled, or may leak from the battery.
Some batteries are suspended from the car frame under the floor boards or
seat. The iron parts near such batteries should be kept dry and free from
rust. If the battery has a roof of sheet iron placed above it, this roof should
also be kept clean, dry and coated with asphaltum paint.
2. Put Nothing But the Battery in the Battery Box. If the battery is
contained in an iron box, do not put rags, tools, or anything else of a similar
nature in the battery box. Do not lay pliers across the top of the battery, as
shown in Fig. 27. Such things belong elsewhere. The battery should have a
free air space all around it, Fig. 28. Objects made of metal will short-circuit
the battery and lead to a repair bill.
Page 89
3. Keep the battery clean and dry. The top of the battery should be kept
free of dirt, dust, and moisture. Dirt may find its way into the cells and
damage the battery. A dirty looking battery is an unsightly object, and
cleanliness should be maintained for the sake of the appearance of the
battery if for no other reason.
Moisture on top of the battery causes a leakage of current between the
terminals of the cells and tends to discharge the battery. Wipe off all
moisture and occasionally go over the tops of the cell connectors, and
terminals with a rag wet with ammonia or a solution of baking soda. This
will neutralize any acid which may be present in the moisture.
The terminals should be dried and covered with vaseline. This protects
them from being attacked by acid which may be spilled on top of the
battery. If a deposit of a grayish or greenish substance is found on the
battery terminals, handles or cell connectors, the excess should be scraped
off and the parts should then be washed with a hot solution of baking soda
(bicarbonate of soda) until all traces of the substance have been removed. In
scraping off the deposit, care should be taken not to scrape off any lead
from terminals or connectors. After washing the parts, dry them and cover
them with vaseline. The grayish or greenish substance found on the
terminals, connectors, or handles is the result of "corrosion," or, in other
words, the result of the action of the, sulphuric acid in the electrolyte upon
some metallic substance.
free of dirt, dust, and moisture. Dirt may find its way into the cells and
damage the battery. A dirty looking battery is an unsightly object, and
cleanliness should be maintained for the sake of the appearance of the
battery if for no other reason.
Moisture on top of the battery causes a leakage of current between the
terminals of the cells and tends to discharge the battery. Wipe off all
moisture and occasionally go over the tops of the cell connectors, and
terminals with a rag wet with ammonia or a solution of baking soda. This
will neutralize any acid which may be present in the moisture.
The terminals should be dried and covered with vaseline. This protects
them from being attacked by acid which may be spilled on top of the
battery. If a deposit of a grayish or greenish substance is found on the
battery terminals, handles or cell connectors, the excess should be scraped
off and the parts should then be washed with a hot solution of baking soda
(bicarbonate of soda) until all traces of the substance have been removed. In
scraping off the deposit, care should be taken not to scrape off any lead
from terminals or connectors. After washing the parts, dry them and cover
them with vaseline. The grayish or greenish substance found on the
terminals, connectors, or handles is the result of "corrosion," or, in other
words, the result of the action of the, sulphuric acid in the electrolyte upon
some metallic substance.
Page 90
The acid which causes the corrosion may be spilled on the battery when
hydrometer readings are taken. It may also be the result of filling the cells
too full, with subsequent expansion and overflowing as the temperature of
the electrolyte increases during charge. Loose vent caps may allow
electrolyte to be thrown out of the cell by the motion of the car on the road.
A poorly sealed battery allows electrolyte to be thrown out through the
cracks left between the sealing compound and the jars or posts. The leaks
may be caused by the battery cables not having sufficient slack, and pulling
on the terminals.
The cap which fits over the vent tube at the center of the top of each cell
is pierced by one or more holes through which gases formed within the cell
may escape. These holes must be kept open; otherwise the pressure of the
gases may blow off the top of the cell. If these holes are found to be clogged
with dirt they should be cleaned out thoroughly.
hydrometer readings are taken. It may also be the result of filling the cells
too full, with subsequent expansion and overflowing as the temperature of
the electrolyte increases during charge. Loose vent caps may allow
electrolyte to be thrown out of the cell by the motion of the car on the road.
A poorly sealed battery allows electrolyte to be thrown out through the
cracks left between the sealing compound and the jars or posts. The leaks
may be caused by the battery cables not having sufficient slack, and pulling
on the terminals.
The cap which fits over the vent tube at the center of the top of each cell
is pierced by one or more holes through which gases formed within the cell
may escape. These holes must be kept open; otherwise the pressure of the
gases may blow off the top of the cell. If these holes are found to be clogged
with dirt they should be cleaned out thoroughly.
Page 91
The wooden battery case should also be kept clean and dry. If the
battery is suspended from the frame of the car, dirt and mud from the road
will gradually cover the case, and this mud should be scraped off frequently.
Occasionally wash the case with a rag wet with ammonia, or hot baking
soda solution. Keep the case, especially along the top edges, coated with
asphaltum or some other acid proof paint.
4. The battery must be held down firmly. If the battery is contained in an
iron box mounted on the running-board, or in a compartment in the body of
the car having a door at the side of the running-board, it is usually fastened
in place by long bolts which hook on the handles or the battery case. These
bolts, which are known as "hold-downs," generally pass through the running
board or compartment, Fig. 29, and are generally fastened in place by nuts.
These nuts should be turned up so that the battery is held down tight.
battery is suspended from the frame of the car, dirt and mud from the road
will gradually cover the case, and this mud should be scraped off frequently.
Occasionally wash the case with a rag wet with ammonia, or hot baking
soda solution. Keep the case, especially along the top edges, coated with
asphaltum or some other acid proof paint.
4. The battery must be held down firmly. If the battery is contained in an
iron box mounted on the running-board, or in a compartment in the body of
the car having a door at the side of the running-board, it is usually fastened
in place by long bolts which hook on the handles or the battery case. These
bolts, which are known as "hold-downs," generally pass through the running
board or compartment, Fig. 29, and are generally fastened in place by nuts.
These nuts should be turned up so that the battery is held down tight.
Page 92
Other methods are also used to hold the battery in place, but whatever the
method, it is vital to the battery that it be held down firmly so that the
jolting of the car cannot cause it to move. The battery has rubber jars which
are brittle, and which are easily broken. Even if a battery is held down
firmly, it is jolted about to a considerable extent, and with a loosely fastened
battery, the jars are bound to be cracked and broken.
5. The cables connected to the battery must have sufficient slack so that
they will not pull on the battery terminals, as this will result in leaks, and
possibly a broken cover.
The terminals on a battery should be in such a position that the cables may
be connected to them easily, and without bending and twisting them. These
cables are heavy and stiff, and once they are bent or twisted they are put
under a strain, and exert a great force to straighten themselves. This action
causes the cables to pull on the terminals, which become loosened, and
cause a leak, or break the cover.
6. Inspect the Battery twice every
month in Winter, and once a week
in Summer, to make sure that the
Electrolyte covers the plates. To do
this, remove the vent caps and look
down through the vent tube. If a light
is necessary to determine the level of
the electrolyte, use an electric lamp.
Never bring an open flame, such as a
match or candle near the vent tubes
of a battery. Explosive gases are
formed when a battery "gasses," and
the flame may ignite them, with
painful injury to the face and eyes of the observer as a result. Such an
explosion may also ruin the battery.
During the normal course of operation of the battery, water from the
electrolyte will evaporate. The acid never evaporates. The surface of the
electrolyte should be not less than one-half inch above the tops of the
plate. A convenient method of measuring the height of the electrolyte is
method, it is vital to the battery that it be held down firmly so that the
jolting of the car cannot cause it to move. The battery has rubber jars which
are brittle, and which are easily broken. Even if a battery is held down
firmly, it is jolted about to a considerable extent, and with a loosely fastened
battery, the jars are bound to be cracked and broken.
5. The cables connected to the battery must have sufficient slack so that
they will not pull on the battery terminals, as this will result in leaks, and
possibly a broken cover.
The terminals on a battery should be in such a position that the cables may
be connected to them easily, and without bending and twisting them. These
cables are heavy and stiff, and once they are bent or twisted they are put
under a strain, and exert a great force to straighten themselves. This action
causes the cables to pull on the terminals, which become loosened, and
cause a leak, or break the cover.
6. Inspect the Battery twice every
month in Winter, and once a week
in Summer, to make sure that the
Electrolyte covers the plates. To do
this, remove the vent caps and look
down through the vent tube. If a light
is necessary to determine the level of
the electrolyte, use an electric lamp.
Never bring an open flame, such as a
match or candle near the vent tubes
of a battery. Explosive gases are
formed when a battery "gasses," and
the flame may ignite them, with
painful injury to the face and eyes of the observer as a result. Such an
explosion may also ruin the battery.
During the normal course of operation of the battery, water from the
electrolyte will evaporate. The acid never evaporates. The surface of the
electrolyte should be not less than one-half inch above the tops of the
plate. A convenient method of measuring the height of the electrolyte is
Page 93
shown in Fig. 30. Insert one end of a short piece of a glass tube, having an
opening not less than one-eighth inch diameter, through the filling hole, and
allow it to rest on the upper edge of the plates. Then place your finger over
the upper end, and withdraw the tube. A column of liquid will remain in the
lower end of the tube, as shown in the figure, and the height of this column
is the same as the height of the electrolyte above the top of the plates in the
cell. If this is less than one-half inch, add enough distilled water to bring the
electrolyte up to the proper level. Fig. 31 shows the correct height of
electrolyte in an Exide cell.
Never add well water, spring water, water from a stream, or ordinary
faucet water. These contain impurities which will damage the battery, if
used. It is essential that distilled water be used for this purpose, and it must
be handled carefully so as to keep impurities of any kind out of the water.
Never use a metal can for handling water or electrolyte for a battery, but
always use a glass or porcelain vessel. The water should be stored in glass
bottles, and poured into a porcelain or glass pitcher when it is to be used.
opening not less than one-eighth inch diameter, through the filling hole, and
allow it to rest on the upper edge of the plates. Then place your finger over
the upper end, and withdraw the tube. A column of liquid will remain in the
lower end of the tube, as shown in the figure, and the height of this column
is the same as the height of the electrolyte above the top of the plates in the
cell. If this is less than one-half inch, add enough distilled water to bring the
electrolyte up to the proper level. Fig. 31 shows the correct height of
electrolyte in an Exide cell.
Never add well water, spring water, water from a stream, or ordinary
faucet water. These contain impurities which will damage the battery, if
used. It is essential that distilled water be used for this purpose, and it must
be handled carefully so as to keep impurities of any kind out of the water.
Never use a metal can for handling water or electrolyte for a battery, but
always use a glass or porcelain vessel. The water should be stored in glass
bottles, and poured into a porcelain or glass pitcher when it is to be used.
Page 94
A convenient method of adding the water to the battery is to draw some
up in a hydrometer syringe and add the necessary amount to the cell by
inserting the rubber tube which is at the lower end into the vent hole and
then squeezing the bulb until the required amount has been put into the cell.
In the summer time it makes no difference when water is added. In the
winter time, if the air temperature is below freezing (32° F), start the
engine before adding water, and keep it running for about one hour after the
battery begins to "gas." A good time to add the water is just before starting
on a trip, as the engine will then usually be run long enough to charge the
battery, and cause the water to mix thoroughly with the electrolyte.
Otherwise, the water, being lighter than the electrolyte, will remain at the
top and freeze. Be sure to wipe off water from the battery top after filling. If
battery has been wet for sometime, wipe it with a rag dampened with
ammonia or baking soda solution to neutralize the acid.
Never add acid to a battery while the battery is on the car. By "acid" is
meant a mixture of sulphuric acid and water. The concentrated acid, is of
course, never used. The level of the electrolyte falls because of the
evaporation of the water which is mixed with the acid in the electrolyte. The
acid does not evaporate. It is therefore evident that acid should not be added
to a cell to replace the water which has evaporated. Some men believe that a
battery may be charged by adding acid. This is not true, however, because a
battery can be charged only by passing a current through the battery from an
outside source. On the car the generator charges the battery.
It is true that acid is lost, but this is not due to evaporation, but to the
loss of some of the electrolyte from the cell, the lost electrolyte, of course,
carrying some acid with it. Electrolyte is lost when a cell gasses; electrolyte
may be spilled; a cracked jar will allow electrolyte to leak out; if too much
water is added, the expansion of the electrolyte when the battery is charging
may cause it to run over and be lost, or the jolting of the car may cause
some of it to be spilled; if a battery is allowed to become badly sulphated,
some of the sulphate is never reduced, or drops to the bottom of the cell, and
the acid lost in the formation of the sulphate is not regained.
If acid or electrolyte is added instead of water, when no acid is needed,
the electrolyte will become too strong, and sulphated plates will be the
up in a hydrometer syringe and add the necessary amount to the cell by
inserting the rubber tube which is at the lower end into the vent hole and
then squeezing the bulb until the required amount has been put into the cell.
In the summer time it makes no difference when water is added. In the
winter time, if the air temperature is below freezing (32° F), start the
engine before adding water, and keep it running for about one hour after the
battery begins to "gas." A good time to add the water is just before starting
on a trip, as the engine will then usually be run long enough to charge the
battery, and cause the water to mix thoroughly with the electrolyte.
Otherwise, the water, being lighter than the electrolyte, will remain at the
top and freeze. Be sure to wipe off water from the battery top after filling. If
battery has been wet for sometime, wipe it with a rag dampened with
ammonia or baking soda solution to neutralize the acid.
Never add acid to a battery while the battery is on the car. By "acid" is
meant a mixture of sulphuric acid and water. The concentrated acid, is of
course, never used. The level of the electrolyte falls because of the
evaporation of the water which is mixed with the acid in the electrolyte. The
acid does not evaporate. It is therefore evident that acid should not be added
to a cell to replace the water which has evaporated. Some men believe that a
battery may be charged by adding acid. This is not true, however, because a
battery can be charged only by passing a current through the battery from an
outside source. On the car the generator charges the battery.
It is true that acid is lost, but this is not due to evaporation, but to the
loss of some of the electrolyte from the cell, the lost electrolyte, of course,
carrying some acid with it. Electrolyte is lost when a cell gasses; electrolyte
may be spilled; a cracked jar will allow electrolyte to leak out; if too much
water is added, the expansion of the electrolyte when the battery is charging
may cause it to run over and be lost, or the jolting of the car may cause
some of it to be spilled; if a battery is allowed to become badly sulphated,
some of the sulphate is never reduced, or drops to the bottom of the cell, and
the acid lost in the formation of the sulphate is not regained.
If acid or electrolyte is added instead of water, when no acid is needed,
the electrolyte will become too strong, and sulphated plates will be the
Page 95
result. If a battery under average driving conditions never becomes fully
charged, it should be removed from the car and charged from an outside
source as explained later. If, after the specific gravity of the electrolyte stops
rising, it is not of the correct value, some of the electrolyte should be drawn
off and stronger electrolyte added in its place. This should be done only in
the repair shop or charging station.
Care must be taken not to add too much water to a cell, Fig. 32. This
will subsequently cause the electrolyte to overflow and run over the top of
the battery, due to the expansion of the electrolyte as the charging current
raises its temperature. The electrolyte which overflows is, of course, lost,
taking with it acid which will later be replaced by water as evaporation
takes place. The electrolyte will then be too weak. The electrolyte which
overflows will rot the wooden battery case, and also tend to cause corrosion
at the terminals.
If it is necessary to add water very frequently, the battery is operating at
too high a temperature, or else there is a cracked jar. The high temperature
may be due to the battery being charged at too high a rate, or to the battery
being placed near some hot part of the engine or exhaust pipe. The car
manufacturer generally is careful not to place the battery too near any such
hot part. The charging rate may be measured by connecting an ammeter in
series with the battery and increasing the engine speed until the maximum
current is obtained. For a six volt battery this should rarely exceed 14
amperes. If the charging, current does not reach a maximum value and then
remain constant, or decrease, but continues to rise as the speed of the
engine, is increased, the regulating device is out of order. An excessive
charging rate will cause continuous gassing if it is much above normal, and
the temperature of the electrolyte will be above 100° F. In this way an
excessive charging current may be detected.
charged, it should be removed from the car and charged from an outside
source as explained later. If, after the specific gravity of the electrolyte stops
rising, it is not of the correct value, some of the electrolyte should be drawn
off and stronger electrolyte added in its place. This should be done only in
the repair shop or charging station.
Care must be taken not to add too much water to a cell, Fig. 32. This
will subsequently cause the electrolyte to overflow and run over the top of
the battery, due to the expansion of the electrolyte as the charging current
raises its temperature. The electrolyte which overflows is, of course, lost,
taking with it acid which will later be replaced by water as evaporation
takes place. The electrolyte will then be too weak. The electrolyte which
overflows will rot the wooden battery case, and also tend to cause corrosion
at the terminals.
If it is necessary to add water very frequently, the battery is operating at
too high a temperature, or else there is a cracked jar. The high temperature
may be due to the battery being charged at too high a rate, or to the battery
being placed near some hot part of the engine or exhaust pipe. The car
manufacturer generally is careful not to place the battery too near any such
hot part. The charging rate may be measured by connecting an ammeter in
series with the battery and increasing the engine speed until the maximum
current is obtained. For a six volt battery this should rarely exceed 14
amperes. If the charging, current does not reach a maximum value and then
remain constant, or decrease, but continues to rise as the speed of the
engine, is increased, the regulating device is out of order. An excessive
charging rate will cause continuous gassing if it is much above normal, and
the temperature of the electrolyte will be above 100° F. In this way an
excessive charging current may be detected.
Page 96
In hot countries or states, the atmosphere may have such a high temperature
that evaporation will be more rapid than in temperate climates, and this may
necessitate more frequent addition of water.
If one cell requires a more frequent addition of water than the others, it
is probable that the jar of that cell is cracked. Such a cell will also show a
low specific gravity, since electrolyte leaks out and is replaced by water. A
battery which has a leaky jar will also have a case which is rotted at the
bottom and sides. A battery with a leaky jar must, of course, be removed
from the car for repairs.
"Dope" Electrolytes
From time to time within the past two years, various solutions which are
supposed to give a rundown battery a complete charge within five or ten
minutes have been offered to the public. The men selling such "dope"
that evaporation will be more rapid than in temperate climates, and this may
necessitate more frequent addition of water.
If one cell requires a more frequent addition of water than the others, it
is probable that the jar of that cell is cracked. Such a cell will also show a
low specific gravity, since electrolyte leaks out and is replaced by water. A
battery which has a leaky jar will also have a case which is rotted at the
bottom and sides. A battery with a leaky jar must, of course, be removed
from the car for repairs.
"Dope" Electrolytes
From time to time within the past two years, various solutions which are
supposed to give a rundown battery a complete charge within five or ten
minutes have been offered to the public. The men selling such "dope"
Page 97
sometimes give a demonstration which at first sight seems to prove their
claims. This demonstration consists of holding the starting switch down
(with the ignition off) until the battery can no longer turn over the engine.
They then pour the electrolyte out of the battery, fill it with their "dope,"
crank the engine by hand, run it for five minutes, and then get gravity
readings of 1.280 or over. The battery will also crank the engine. Such a
charge is merely a drug-store charge, and the "dope" is generally composed
mainly of high gravity acid, which seemingly puts life into a battery, but in
reality causes great damage, and shortens the life of a battery. The starting
motor test means nothing. The same demonstration could be given with any
battery. The high current drawn by the motor does not discharge the battery,
but merely dilutes the electrolyte which is in the plates to such an extent that
the voltage drops to a point at which the battery can no longer turn over the
starting motor. If any battery were given a five minutes' charge after such a
test, the diluted electrolyte in the plates would be replaced by fresh acid
from the electrolyte and the battery would then easily crank the engine
again. The five minutes of running the engine does not put much charge into
the battery but gives time for the electrolyte to diffuse into the plates.
Chemical analysis of a number of dope electrolytes has shown that they
consist mainly of high gravity acid, and that this acid is not even chemically
pure, but contains impurities which would ruin a battery even if the gravity
were not too high. The results of some of the analyses are as follows:
No. 1. 1.260 specific gravity sulphuric acid, 25 parts iron, 13.5 parts
chlorine, 12.5, per cent sodium sulphate, 1 per cent nitric acid.
No. 2. 1.335 specific gravity sulphuric acid, large amounts of organic
matter, part of which consisted of acids which attack lead.
No. 3. 1.340 specific gravity sulphuric acid, 15.5 per cent sodium
sulphate.
No. 4. 1.290 specific gravity sulphuric acid, 1.5 per cent sodium
sulphate.
No. 5. 1.300 specific gravity sulphuric acid.
claims. This demonstration consists of holding the starting switch down
(with the ignition off) until the battery can no longer turn over the engine.
They then pour the electrolyte out of the battery, fill it with their "dope,"
crank the engine by hand, run it for five minutes, and then get gravity
readings of 1.280 or over. The battery will also crank the engine. Such a
charge is merely a drug-store charge, and the "dope" is generally composed
mainly of high gravity acid, which seemingly puts life into a battery, but in
reality causes great damage, and shortens the life of a battery. The starting
motor test means nothing. The same demonstration could be given with any
battery. The high current drawn by the motor does not discharge the battery,
but merely dilutes the electrolyte which is in the plates to such an extent that
the voltage drops to a point at which the battery can no longer turn over the
starting motor. If any battery were given a five minutes' charge after such a
test, the diluted electrolyte in the plates would be replaced by fresh acid
from the electrolyte and the battery would then easily crank the engine
again. The five minutes of running the engine does not put much charge into
the battery but gives time for the electrolyte to diffuse into the plates.
Chemical analysis of a number of dope electrolytes has shown that they
consist mainly of high gravity acid, and that this acid is not even chemically
pure, but contains impurities which would ruin a battery even if the gravity
were not too high. The results of some of the analyses are as follows:
No. 1. 1.260 specific gravity sulphuric acid, 25 parts iron, 13.5 parts
chlorine, 12.5, per cent sodium sulphate, 1 per cent nitric acid.
No. 2. 1.335 specific gravity sulphuric acid, large amounts of organic
matter, part of which consisted of acids which attack lead.
No. 3. 1.340 specific gravity sulphuric acid, 15.5 per cent sodium
sulphate.
No. 4. 1.290 specific gravity sulphuric acid, 1.5 per cent sodium
sulphate.
No. 5. 1.300 specific gravity sulphuric acid.
Page 98
If such "dope" electrolytes are added to a discharged battery, the subsequent
charging of the battery will add more acid to the electrolyte, the specific
gravity of which will then rise much higher than it should, and the plates
and separators are soon ruined.
Do not put faith in any "magic" solution which is supposed to work
wonders. There is only one way to charge a battery, and that is to send a
current through it, and there is only one electrolyte to use, and that is the
standard mixture of distilled water and chemically pure sulphuric acid.
7. The specific gravity of the electrolyte should be measured every two
weeks and a permanent record of the readings made for future reference.
The specific gravity of the electrolyte is the ratio of its weight to the weight
of an equal volume of water. Acid is heavier than water, and hence the
heavier the electrolyte, the more acid it, contains, and the more nearly it is
fully charged. In automobile batteries, a specific gravity of 1.300-1.280
indicates a fully charged battery. Generally, a gravity of 1.280 is taken to
indicate a fully, charged cell, and in this book this will be done. Complete
readings are as follows:
1.300-1.280--Fully charged.
1.280-1.200--More than half charged.
1.200-1.150--Less than half charged.
1.150 and less--Completely discharged.
For determining the specific gravity, a hydrometer is used. This consists
of a small sealed glass tube with an air bulb and a quantity of shot at one
end, and a graduated scale on the upper end. This scale is marked from
1.100 to 1.300, with various intermediate markings as shown in Fig. 33. If
this hydrometer is placed in a liquid, it will sink to a certain depth. In so
doing, it will displace a certain volume of the electrolyte, and when it comes
to rest, the volume displaced will just be equal to the weight of the
hydrometer. It will therefore sink farther in a light liquid than in a heavy
one, since it will require a greater volume of the light liquid to equal the
charging of the battery will add more acid to the electrolyte, the specific
gravity of which will then rise much higher than it should, and the plates
and separators are soon ruined.
Do not put faith in any "magic" solution which is supposed to work
wonders. There is only one way to charge a battery, and that is to send a
current through it, and there is only one electrolyte to use, and that is the
standard mixture of distilled water and chemically pure sulphuric acid.
7. The specific gravity of the electrolyte should be measured every two
weeks and a permanent record of the readings made for future reference.
The specific gravity of the electrolyte is the ratio of its weight to the weight
of an equal volume of water. Acid is heavier than water, and hence the
heavier the electrolyte, the more acid it, contains, and the more nearly it is
fully charged. In automobile batteries, a specific gravity of 1.300-1.280
indicates a fully charged battery. Generally, a gravity of 1.280 is taken to
indicate a fully, charged cell, and in this book this will be done. Complete
readings are as follows:
1.300-1.280--Fully charged.
1.280-1.200--More than half charged.
1.200-1.150--Less than half charged.
1.150 and less--Completely discharged.
For determining the specific gravity, a hydrometer is used. This consists
of a small sealed glass tube with an air bulb and a quantity of shot at one
end, and a graduated scale on the upper end. This scale is marked from
1.100 to 1.300, with various intermediate markings as shown in Fig. 33. If
this hydrometer is placed in a liquid, it will sink to a certain depth. In so
doing, it will displace a certain volume of the electrolyte, and when it comes
to rest, the volume displaced will just be equal to the weight of the
hydrometer. It will therefore sink farther in a light liquid than in a heavy
one, since it will require a greater volume of the light liquid to equal the
Page 99
weight of the hydrometer. The top mark on the
hydrometer scale is therefore 1.100 and the
bottom one 1.300. Some hydrometers are not
marked with figures that indicate the specific
gravity, but are marked with the words
"Charged," "Half Charged," "Discharged," or
"Full," "Half Full," "Empty," in place of the
figures.
The tube must be held in a vertical position, Fig.
35, and the stem of the hydrometer must be
vertical. The reading will be the number on the
stem at the surface of the electrolyte in the tube,
Fig. 36. Thus if the hydrometer sinks in the
electrolyte until the electrolyte comes up to the
1.150 mark on the stem, the specific gravity is
1.150.
For convenience in automobile work, the hydrometer is enclosed in a large
tube of glass or other transparent, acid proof material, having a short length
of rubber tubing at its lower end, and a large rubber bulb at the upper end.
The combination is called a hydrometer-syringe, or simply hydrometer. See
Figure 34. In measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte, the vent cap
is removed, the bulb is squeezed (so as to expel the air from it), and the
rubber tubing inserted in the hole from which the cap was removed. The
pressure on the bulb is now released, and electrolyte is drawn up into the
glass tube. The rubber tubing on the hydrometer should not be withdrawn
from the cell. When a sufficient amount of electrolyte has entered the tube,
the hydrometer will float. In taking a reading, there should be no pressure
on the bulb, and the hydrometer should be floating freely and not touching
the walls of the tube. The tube must not be so full of electrolyte that the
upper end of the hydrometer strikes any part of the bulb.
hydrometer scale is therefore 1.100 and the
bottom one 1.300. Some hydrometers are not
marked with figures that indicate the specific
gravity, but are marked with the words
"Charged," "Half Charged," "Discharged," or
"Full," "Half Full," "Empty," in place of the
figures.
The tube must be held in a vertical position, Fig.
35, and the stem of the hydrometer must be
vertical. The reading will be the number on the
stem at the surface of the electrolyte in the tube,
Fig. 36. Thus if the hydrometer sinks in the
electrolyte until the electrolyte comes up to the
1.150 mark on the stem, the specific gravity is
1.150.
For convenience in automobile work, the hydrometer is enclosed in a large
tube of glass or other transparent, acid proof material, having a short length
of rubber tubing at its lower end, and a large rubber bulb at the upper end.
The combination is called a hydrometer-syringe, or simply hydrometer. See
Figure 34. In measuring the specific gravity of the electrolyte, the vent cap
is removed, the bulb is squeezed (so as to expel the air from it), and the
rubber tubing inserted in the hole from which the cap was removed. The
pressure on the bulb is now released, and electrolyte is drawn up into the
glass tube. The rubber tubing on the hydrometer should not be withdrawn
from the cell. When a sufficient amount of electrolyte has entered the tube,
the hydrometer will float. In taking a reading, there should be no pressure
on the bulb, and the hydrometer should be floating freely and not touching
the walls of the tube. The tube must not be so full of electrolyte that the
upper end of the hydrometer strikes any part of the bulb.
Page 100
The tube must be held in a
vertical position, Fig. 35, and
the stem of the hydrometer
must be vertical. The reading
will be the number on the
stem at the surface of the
electrolyte in the tube, Fig.
36. Thus if the hydrometer
sinks in the electrolyte until
the electrolyte comes up to
the 1.150 mark on the stem,
the specific gravity is 1.150.
If the battery is located in
such a position that it is
impossible to hold the
hydrometer straight up, the
rubber tube may be Pinched
shut with the fingers, after a
sufficient quantity of
electrolyte has been drawn
from the cell and the
hydrometer then removed
and held in a vertical
position.
Specific gravity readings should never be taken soon after distilled
water has been added to the battery. The water and electrolyte do not mix
immediately, and such readings will give misleading results. The battery
should be charged several hours before the readings are taken. It is a good
plan to take a specific gravity reading before adding any water, since
accurate results can also be obtained in this way.
vertical position, Fig. 35, and
the stem of the hydrometer
must be vertical. The reading
will be the number on the
stem at the surface of the
electrolyte in the tube, Fig.
36. Thus if the hydrometer
sinks in the electrolyte until
the electrolyte comes up to
the 1.150 mark on the stem,
the specific gravity is 1.150.
If the battery is located in
such a position that it is
impossible to hold the
hydrometer straight up, the
rubber tube may be Pinched
shut with the fingers, after a
sufficient quantity of
electrolyte has been drawn
from the cell and the
hydrometer then removed
and held in a vertical
position.
Specific gravity readings should never be taken soon after distilled
water has been added to the battery. The water and electrolyte do not mix
immediately, and such readings will give misleading results. The battery
should be charged several hours before the readings are taken. It is a good
plan to take a specific gravity reading before adding any water, since
accurate results can also be obtained in this way.
Page 101
Having taken a reading, the bulb is squeezed so as to return the electrolyte
to the cell.
Care should be taken not to spill the electrolyte from the hydrometer
syringe when testing the gravity. Such moisture on top of the cells tends to
cause a short circuit between the terminals and to discharge the battery.
to the cell.
Care should be taken not to spill the electrolyte from the hydrometer
syringe when testing the gravity. Such moisture on top of the cells tends to
cause a short circuit between the terminals and to discharge the battery.
Page 102
In making tests with the hydrometer, the electrolyte should always be
returned to the same cell from which it was drawn.
Failure to do this will finally result in an increased proportion of acid in one
cell and a deficiency of acid in others.
The specific gravity of all cells of a battery should rise and fall together,
as the cells are usually connected in series so that the same current passes
through each cell both on charge and discharge.
If one cell of a battery shows a specific gravity which is decidedly lower
than that of the other cells in series with it, and if this difference
gradually increases, the cell showing the lower gravity has internal trouble.
This probably consists of a short circuit, and the battery should be opened
for inspection. If the electrolyte in this cell falls faster than that of the other
cells, a leaky jar is indicated. The various cells should have specific
gravities within fifteen points of each other, such as 1.260 and 1.275.
If the entire battery shows a specific gravity below 1.200, it is not
receiving enough charge to replace the energy used in starting the engine
and supplying current to the lights, or else there is trouble in the battery. Use
starter and lights sparingly until the specific gravity comes up to 1.280-
1.300. If the specific gravity is less than 1.150 remove the battery from the
car and charge it on the charging bench, as explained later. The troubles
which cause low gravity are given on pages 321 and 322.
It is often difficult to determine what charging current should be
delivered by the generator. Some generators operate at a constant voltage
slightly higher than that of the fully charged battery, and the charging
current will change, being higher for a discharged battery than for one that
is almost or fully charged. Other generators deliver a constant current which
is the same regardless of the battery's condition.
In the constant voltage type of generator, the charging current automatically
adjusts itself to the condition of the battery. In the constant current type, the
generator current remains constant, and the voltage changes somewhat to
keep the current constant. Individual cases often require that another current
value be used. In this case, the output of the generator must be changed.
returned to the same cell from which it was drawn.
Failure to do this will finally result in an increased proportion of acid in one
cell and a deficiency of acid in others.
The specific gravity of all cells of a battery should rise and fall together,
as the cells are usually connected in series so that the same current passes
through each cell both on charge and discharge.
If one cell of a battery shows a specific gravity which is decidedly lower
than that of the other cells in series with it, and if this difference
gradually increases, the cell showing the lower gravity has internal trouble.
This probably consists of a short circuit, and the battery should be opened
for inspection. If the electrolyte in this cell falls faster than that of the other
cells, a leaky jar is indicated. The various cells should have specific
gravities within fifteen points of each other, such as 1.260 and 1.275.
If the entire battery shows a specific gravity below 1.200, it is not
receiving enough charge to replace the energy used in starting the engine
and supplying current to the lights, or else there is trouble in the battery. Use
starter and lights sparingly until the specific gravity comes up to 1.280-
1.300. If the specific gravity is less than 1.150 remove the battery from the
car and charge it on the charging bench, as explained later. The troubles
which cause low gravity are given on pages 321 and 322.
It is often difficult to determine what charging current should be
delivered by the generator. Some generators operate at a constant voltage
slightly higher than that of the fully charged battery, and the charging
current will change, being higher for a discharged battery than for one that
is almost or fully charged. Other generators deliver a constant current which
is the same regardless of the battery's condition.
In the constant voltage type of generator, the charging current automatically
adjusts itself to the condition of the battery. In the constant current type, the
generator current remains constant, and the voltage changes somewhat to
keep the current constant. Individual cases often require that another current
value be used. In this case, the output of the generator must be changed.
Page 103
With most generators, a current regulating device is used which may be
adjusted so as to give a fairly wide range of current, the exact value chosen
being the result of a study of driving conditions and of several trials. The
charging current should never be made so high that the temperature of the
electrolyte in the battery remains above 90° F. A special thermometer is very
useful in determining the temperature. See Fig. 37. The thermometer bulb is
immersed in the electrolyte above the plates through the filler hole in the
tops of the cells.
Batteries used on some of the older cars are divided into two or more
sections which are connected in parallel while the engine is running, and
in such cases the cables leading to the different sections should all be of
exactly the same length, and the contacts in the switch which connect these
sections in parallel should all be clean and tight. If cables of unequal length
are used, or if some of the switch contacts are loose and dirty, the sections
will not receive equal charging currents, because the resistances of the
charging circuits will not be equal. The section having the greatest
resistance in its circuit will receive the least amount of charge, and will
show lower specific gravity readings than for other sections. In a multiple
section battery, there is therefore a tendency for the various sections to
receive unequal charges, and for one or more sections to run down
continually. An ammeter should be attached with the engine running and the
battery charging, first to one section and then to each of the others in turn.
The ammeter should be inserted and removed from the circuit while the
engine remains running and all conditions must be exactly the same;
otherwise the comparative results will not give reliable indications. It would
be better still to use two ammeters at the same time, one on each section of
the battery. In case the amperage of charge should differ by more than 10%
between any two sections, the section receiving the low charge rate should
be examined for proper height of electrolyte, for the condition of its
terminals and its connections at the starting switch, as described. Should a
section have suffered considerably from such lack of charge, its voltage will
probably have been lowered. With all connections made tight and clean and
with the liquid at the proper height in each cell, this section may
automatically receive a higher charge until it is brought back to normal.
This high charge results from the comparatively low voltage of the section
affected.
adjusted so as to give a fairly wide range of current, the exact value chosen
being the result of a study of driving conditions and of several trials. The
charging current should never be made so high that the temperature of the
electrolyte in the battery remains above 90° F. A special thermometer is very
useful in determining the temperature. See Fig. 37. The thermometer bulb is
immersed in the electrolyte above the plates through the filler hole in the
tops of the cells.
Batteries used on some of the older cars are divided into two or more
sections which are connected in parallel while the engine is running, and
in such cases the cables leading to the different sections should all be of
exactly the same length, and the contacts in the switch which connect these
sections in parallel should all be clean and tight. If cables of unequal length
are used, or if some of the switch contacts are loose and dirty, the sections
will not receive equal charging currents, because the resistances of the
charging circuits will not be equal. The section having the greatest
resistance in its circuit will receive the least amount of charge, and will
show lower specific gravity readings than for other sections. In a multiple
section battery, there is therefore a tendency for the various sections to
receive unequal charges, and for one or more sections to run down
continually. An ammeter should be attached with the engine running and the
battery charging, first to one section and then to each of the others in turn.
The ammeter should be inserted and removed from the circuit while the
engine remains running and all conditions must be exactly the same;
otherwise the comparative results will not give reliable indications. It would
be better still to use two ammeters at the same time, one on each section of
the battery. In case the amperage of charge should differ by more than 10%
between any two sections, the section receiving the low charge rate should
be examined for proper height of electrolyte, for the condition of its
terminals and its connections at the starting switch, as described. Should a
section have suffered considerably from such lack of charge, its voltage will
probably have been lowered. With all connections made tight and clean and
with the liquid at the proper height in each cell, this section may
automatically receive a higher charge until it is brought back to normal.
This high charge results from the comparatively low voltage of the section
affected.
Page 104
In case the car is equipped with such a battery, each section must carry its
proper fraction of the load and with lamps turned on or other electrical
devices in operation the flow from the several sections must be the same for
each one. An examination should be made to see that no additional lamps,
such as trouble lamps or body lamps, have been attached on one side of the
battery, also that the horn and other accessories are so connected that they
draw from all sections at once.
Some starting systems have in the past not been designed carefully in this
respect, one section of the battery having longer cables attached to it than
the others. In such systems it is impossible for these sections to receive as
much charging current as others, even though all connections and switches
are in good condition. In other systems, all the cells of the battery are in
series, and therefore must receive the same charging current, but have
lighting wires attached to it at intermediate points, thus dividing the battery
into sections for the lighting circuits. If the currents taken by these circuits
are not equal, the battery section supplying the heavier current will run
down faster than others. Fortunately, multiple section batteries are not being
used to any great extent at present, and troubles due to this cause are
disappearing.
proper fraction of the load and with lamps turned on or other electrical
devices in operation the flow from the several sections must be the same for
each one. An examination should be made to see that no additional lamps,
such as trouble lamps or body lamps, have been attached on one side of the
battery, also that the horn and other accessories are so connected that they
draw from all sections at once.
Some starting systems have in the past not been designed carefully in this
respect, one section of the battery having longer cables attached to it than
the others. In such systems it is impossible for these sections to receive as
much charging current as others, even though all connections and switches
are in good condition. In other systems, all the cells of the battery are in
series, and therefore must receive the same charging current, but have
lighting wires attached to it at intermediate points, thus dividing the battery
into sections for the lighting circuits. If the currents taken by these circuits
are not equal, the battery section supplying the heavier current will run
down faster than others. Fortunately, multiple section batteries are not being
used to any great extent at present, and troubles due to this cause are
disappearing.
Page 105
The temperature of the electrolyte affects the specific gravity, since
heat causes the electrolyte to expand. If we take any battery or cell and
heat it, the electrolyte will expand and its specific gravity will
decrease, although the actual amount of acid is the same. The change
in specific gravity amounts to one point, approximately, for every three
degrees Fahrenheit. If the electrolyte has a gravity of 1.250 at 70°F,
and the temperature is raised to 73°F, the specific gravity of the battery
will be 1.249. If the temperature is decreased to 67°F, the specific
gravity will be 1.251. Since the change of temperature does not change
the actual amount of acid in the electrolyte, the gravity readings as
obtained with the hydrometer syringe should be corrected one point for
every three degrees change in temperature. Thus 70°F is considered
the normal temperature, and one point is added to the electrolyte
reading for every three degrees above 70°F. Similarly, one point is
subtracted for every three degrees below 70°F. For convenience of the
hydrometer user, a special thermometer has been developed by battery
makers. This is shown in Fig. 37. It has a special scale mounted beside
the regular scale. This scale shows the corrections which must be made
when the temperature is not 70°F. Opposite the 70° point on the
thermometer is a "0" point on the special scale. This indicates that no
correction is to be made. Opposite the 67° point on the regular scale is
a -1, indicating that 1 must be subtracted from the hydrometer reading
to find what the specific gravity would be if the temperature were
70°F. Opposite the 73° point on the regular scale is a +1, indicating
that 1 point must be added to reading on the hydrometer, in order to
reduce the reading of specific gravity to a temperature of 70°F.
8. Storage batteries are strongly affected by changes in
temperature. Both extremely high and very low temperatures are to
be avoided. At low temperatures the electrolyte grows denser, the
porosity of plates and separators decreases, circulation and diffusion of
electrolyte are made difficult, chemical actions between plates and acid
take place very slowly, and the whole battery becomes sluggish, and
acts as if it were numbed with cold. The voltage and capacity of the
battery are lowered.
As the battery temperature increases, the density of the electrolyte decreases, the
plates and separators become more porous, the internal resistance decreases,
circulation and diffusion of electrolyte take place much more quickly, the chemical
actions between plates and electrolyte proceed more rapidly, and the battery voltage
and capacity increase. A battery therefore works better at high temperatures.
heat causes the electrolyte to expand. If we take any battery or cell and
heat it, the electrolyte will expand and its specific gravity will
decrease, although the actual amount of acid is the same. The change
in specific gravity amounts to one point, approximately, for every three
degrees Fahrenheit. If the electrolyte has a gravity of 1.250 at 70°F,
and the temperature is raised to 73°F, the specific gravity of the battery
will be 1.249. If the temperature is decreased to 67°F, the specific
gravity will be 1.251. Since the change of temperature does not change
the actual amount of acid in the electrolyte, the gravity readings as
obtained with the hydrometer syringe should be corrected one point for
every three degrees change in temperature. Thus 70°F is considered
the normal temperature, and one point is added to the electrolyte
reading for every three degrees above 70°F. Similarly, one point is
subtracted for every three degrees below 70°F. For convenience of the
hydrometer user, a special thermometer has been developed by battery
makers. This is shown in Fig. 37. It has a special scale mounted beside
the regular scale. This scale shows the corrections which must be made
when the temperature is not 70°F. Opposite the 70° point on the
thermometer is a "0" point on the special scale. This indicates that no
correction is to be made. Opposite the 67° point on the regular scale is
a -1, indicating that 1 must be subtracted from the hydrometer reading
to find what the specific gravity would be if the temperature were
70°F. Opposite the 73° point on the regular scale is a +1, indicating
that 1 point must be added to reading on the hydrometer, in order to
reduce the reading of specific gravity to a temperature of 70°F.
8. Storage batteries are strongly affected by changes in
temperature. Both extremely high and very low temperatures are to
be avoided. At low temperatures the electrolyte grows denser, the
porosity of plates and separators decreases, circulation and diffusion of
electrolyte are made difficult, chemical actions between plates and acid
take place very slowly, and the whole battery becomes sluggish, and
acts as if it were numbed with cold. The voltage and capacity of the
battery are lowered.
As the battery temperature increases, the density of the electrolyte decreases, the
plates and separators become more porous, the internal resistance decreases,
circulation and diffusion of electrolyte take place much more quickly, the chemical
actions between plates and electrolyte proceed more rapidly, and the battery voltage
and capacity increase. A battery therefore works better at high temperatures.
Page 106
Excessive temperatures, say over 110° F, are, however, more harmful than low
temperatures. Evaporation of the water takes place very rapidly, the separators are
attacked by the hot acid and are ruined, the active materials and plates expand to such
an extent that the active materials break away from the grids and the grids warp and
buckle. The active materials themselves are burned and made practically useless. The
hot acid also attacks the grids and the sponge lead and forms dense layers of sulphate.
Such temperatures are therefore extremely dangerous.
A battery that persistently runs hot, requiring frequent addition of water, is either
receiving too much charging current, or has internal trouble. The remedy for excessive
charge is to decrease the output of the generator, or to burn the lamps during the day
time. Motorists who make long touring trips in which considerable day driving is
done, with little use of the starter, experience the most trouble from high temperature.
The remedy is either to decrease the charging rate or burn the lamps, even in the day
time.
Internal short-circuits cause excessive temperature rise, both on charge and
discharge. Such short circuits usually result from buckled plates which break through
the separators, or from an excessive amount of sediment. This sediment consists of
active material or lead sulphate which has dropped from the positive plate and fallen
to the bottom of the battery jar. All battery jars are provided with ridges which keep
the plates raised an inch or more from the bottom of the jar, and which form pockets
into which the materials drop. See Fig. 10. If these pockets become filled, and the
sediment reaches the bottom of the plates, internal short circuits result which cause the
battery to run down and cause excessive temperatures.
If the electrolyte is allowed to fall below the tops of the plates, the parts of the
plates above the acid become dry, and when the battery is charged grow hot. The parts
still covered by the acid also become hot because all the charging current is carried by
these parts, and the plate surface is less than before. The water will also become hot
and boil away. A battery which is thus "charged while dry" deteriorates rapidly, its life
being very short.
If a battery is placed in a hot place on the car, this heat in addition to that caused by
charging will soften the plates and jars, and shorten their life considerably.
In the winter, it is especially important not to allow the battery to become
discharged, as there is danger of the electrolyte freezing. A fully charged battery will
not freeze except at an extremely low temperature. The water expands as it freezes,
loosening the active materials, and cracking the grids. As soon as a charging current
thaws the battery, the active material is loosened, and drops to the bottom of the jars,
with the result that the whole battery may disintegrate. Jars may also be cracked by
the expansion of the water when a battery freezes.
temperatures. Evaporation of the water takes place very rapidly, the separators are
attacked by the hot acid and are ruined, the active materials and plates expand to such
an extent that the active materials break away from the grids and the grids warp and
buckle. The active materials themselves are burned and made practically useless. The
hot acid also attacks the grids and the sponge lead and forms dense layers of sulphate.
Such temperatures are therefore extremely dangerous.
A battery that persistently runs hot, requiring frequent addition of water, is either
receiving too much charging current, or has internal trouble. The remedy for excessive
charge is to decrease the output of the generator, or to burn the lamps during the day
time. Motorists who make long touring trips in which considerable day driving is
done, with little use of the starter, experience the most trouble from high temperature.
The remedy is either to decrease the charging rate or burn the lamps, even in the day
time.
Internal short-circuits cause excessive temperature rise, both on charge and
discharge. Such short circuits usually result from buckled plates which break through
the separators, or from an excessive amount of sediment. This sediment consists of
active material or lead sulphate which has dropped from the positive plate and fallen
to the bottom of the battery jar. All battery jars are provided with ridges which keep
the plates raised an inch or more from the bottom of the jar, and which form pockets
into which the materials drop. See Fig. 10. If these pockets become filled, and the
sediment reaches the bottom of the plates, internal short circuits result which cause the
battery to run down and cause excessive temperatures.
If the electrolyte is allowed to fall below the tops of the plates, the parts of the
plates above the acid become dry, and when the battery is charged grow hot. The parts
still covered by the acid also become hot because all the charging current is carried by
these parts, and the plate surface is less than before. The water will also become hot
and boil away. A battery which is thus "charged while dry" deteriorates rapidly, its life
being very short.
If a battery is placed in a hot place on the car, this heat in addition to that caused by
charging will soften the plates and jars, and shorten their life considerably.
In the winter, it is especially important not to allow the battery to become
discharged, as there is danger of the electrolyte freezing. A fully charged battery will
not freeze except at an extremely low temperature. The water expands as it freezes,
loosening the active materials, and cracking the grids. As soon as a charging current
thaws the battery, the active material is loosened, and drops to the bottom of the jars,
with the result that the whole battery may disintegrate. Jars may also be cracked by
the expansion of the water when a battery freezes.
Page 107
To avoid freezing, a battery should therefore be kept charged, The temperatures at
which electrolyte of various specific gravities freezes are as follows:
Specific Gravity Freezing Pt. Specific Gravity Freezing Pt.
1.000 32°F 1.200 -16°F
1.050 26°F 1.250 -58°F
1.100 18°F 1.280 -92°F
1.150 5°F 1.300 -96°F
9. Care of Storage Battery When Not in Service. A storage battery may be out of
service for a considerable period at certain times of the year, for example, when the
automobile is put away during the winter months, and during this time it should not be
allowed to stand without attention. When the battery is to be out of service for only
three or four weeks, it should be kept well filled with distilled water and given as
complete a charge as possible the last few days, the car is in service by using the
lamps and starting motor very sparingly. The specific gravity of the electrolyte in each
cell should be tested, and it should be somewhere between 1.280 and 1.300. All
connections to the battery should be removed, as any slight discharge current will in
time completely discharge it, and the possibilities of such an occurrence are to be
avoided. If the battery is to be put out of service for several months, it should be given
a complete charge by operating the generator on the car or by connecting it to an
outside charging circuit. During the out-of-service period, water should be added to
the cells every six or eight weeks and the battery given what is called a freshening
charge; that is, the engine should be run until the cells have been gassing for perhaps
one hour, and the battery may then be allowed to stand for another similar period
without further attention. Water should be added and the battery fully charged before
it is put back into service. It is desirable to have the temperature of the room where the
battery is stored fairly constant and as near 70 degrees Fahrenheit as possible.
(Table of) Contents
which electrolyte of various specific gravities freezes are as follows:
Specific Gravity Freezing Pt. Specific Gravity Freezing Pt.
1.000 32°F 1.200 -16°F
1.050 26°F 1.250 -58°F
1.100 18°F 1.280 -92°F
1.150 5°F 1.300 -96°F
9. Care of Storage Battery When Not in Service. A storage battery may be out of
service for a considerable period at certain times of the year, for example, when the
automobile is put away during the winter months, and during this time it should not be
allowed to stand without attention. When the battery is to be out of service for only
three or four weeks, it should be kept well filled with distilled water and given as
complete a charge as possible the last few days, the car is in service by using the
lamps and starting motor very sparingly. The specific gravity of the electrolyte in each
cell should be tested, and it should be somewhere between 1.280 and 1.300. All
connections to the battery should be removed, as any slight discharge current will in
time completely discharge it, and the possibilities of such an occurrence are to be
avoided. If the battery is to be put out of service for several months, it should be given
a complete charge by operating the generator on the car or by connecting it to an
outside charging circuit. During the out-of-service period, water should be added to
the cells every six or eight weeks and the battery given what is called a freshening
charge; that is, the engine should be run until the cells have been gassing for perhaps
one hour, and the battery may then be allowed to stand for another similar period
without further attention. Water should be added and the battery fully charged before
it is put back into service. It is desirable to have the temperature of the room where the
battery is stored fairly constant and as near 70 degrees Fahrenheit as possible.
(Table of) Contents
Page 108
CHAPTER 10.
STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES.
The Storage Battery is a most faithful servant, and if given even a fighting chance,
will respond instantly to the demands made upon it. Given reasonable care and
consideration, it performs its duties faithfully for many months. When such care is
lacking, however, it is soon discovered that the battery is subject to a number of
diseases, most of which are "preventable," and all of which, if they do not kill the
battery, at least, greatly impair its efficiency.
In discussing these diseases, we may consider the various parts of which a battery is
composed, and describe the troubles to which they are subject. Every battery used on
an automobile is composed of:
1. Plates
2. Separators
3. Jars in which Plates, Separators, and Electrolyte are placed
4. Wooden case
5. Cell Connectors, and Terminals
6. Electrolyte
Most battery diseases are contagious, and if one part fails, some of the other parts are
Affected. These diseases may best be considered in the order in which the parts are
given in the foregoing list.
PLATE TROUBLES
Plates are the "vitals" of a battery, and their troubles affect the life of the battery more
seriously than those of the other parts. It is often difficult to diagnose their troubles,
and the following descriptions are given to aid in the diagnosis.
Sulphation
1. Over discharge. Some battery men say that a battery is suflphated whenever
anything is wrong with it. Sulphation is the formation of lead sulphate on the plates.
As a battery of the lead acid type discharges, lead sulphate must form. There can
be no discharge of such a battery without the formation of lead sulphate, which is the
natural product of the chemical reactions by virtue of which current may be drawn
STORAGE BATTERY TROUBLES.
The Storage Battery is a most faithful servant, and if given even a fighting chance,
will respond instantly to the demands made upon it. Given reasonable care and
consideration, it performs its duties faithfully for many months. When such care is
lacking, however, it is soon discovered that the battery is subject to a number of
diseases, most of which are "preventable," and all of which, if they do not kill the
battery, at least, greatly impair its efficiency.
In discussing these diseases, we may consider the various parts of which a battery is
composed, and describe the troubles to which they are subject. Every battery used on
an automobile is composed of:
1. Plates
2. Separators
3. Jars in which Plates, Separators, and Electrolyte are placed
4. Wooden case
5. Cell Connectors, and Terminals
6. Electrolyte
Most battery diseases are contagious, and if one part fails, some of the other parts are
Affected. These diseases may best be considered in the order in which the parts are
given in the foregoing list.
PLATE TROUBLES
Plates are the "vitals" of a battery, and their troubles affect the life of the battery more
seriously than those of the other parts. It is often difficult to diagnose their troubles,
and the following descriptions are given to aid in the diagnosis.
Sulphation
1. Over discharge. Some battery men say that a battery is suflphated whenever
anything is wrong with it. Sulphation is the formation of lead sulphate on the plates.
As a battery of the lead acid type discharges, lead sulphate must form. There can
be no discharge of such a battery without the formation of lead sulphate, which is the
natural product of the chemical reactions by virtue of which current may be drawn
Page 109
from the battery. This sulphate gradually replaces the lead peroxide of the positive
plate, and the spongy lead of the negative plate. When a battery has been discharged
until the voltage per cell has fallen to the voltage limits, considerable portions of the
lead peroxide and spongy lead remain on the plates. The sulphate which is then
present is in a finely divided, porous condition, and can readily be changed back to
lead peroxide and spongy lead by charging the battery.
If the discharge is continued after the voltage has fallen to the voltage limits, an
excessive amount of sulphate forms. It fills up the pores in the active materials, and
covers up much of the active material which remains, so that it is difficult to change
the sulphate back to active material. Moreover, the expansion of active material which
takes place as the sulphate forms is then so great that it causes the active material to
break off from the plate and drop to the bottom of the jar.
2. Allowing a Battery to Stand Idle. When lead sulphate is first formed, it is in a
finely divided, porous condition, and the electrolyte soaks through it readily. If a
battery which has been discharged is allowed to stand idle without being charged, the
lead sulphate crystals grow by the combination of the crystals to form larger crystals.
The sulphate, instead of having a very large surface area, upon which the electrolyte
may act in changing the sulphate to active material, as it does when it is first formed,
now presents only a very small surface to the electrolyte, and it is therefore only with
great difficulty that the large crystals of sulphate are changed to active material. The
sulphate is a poor conductor, and furthermore, it covers up much of the remaining
active material so that the electrolyte cannot reach it.
A charged battery will also become sulphated if allowed to stand idle, because it
gradually becomes discharged, even though no wires of any kind are attached to the
battery terminals. How this takes place is explained later. The discharge and formation
of sulphate continue until the battery is completely discharged. The sulphate then
gradually forms larger crystals as explained in the preceding paragraph, until all of the
active material is either changed to sulphate, or is covered over by the sulphate so that
the electrolyte cannot reach it. The sulphate thus forms a high resistance coating
which hinders the passage of charging current through the battery and causes heating
on charge. It is for this reason that sulphated plates should be charged at a low
rate. The chemical actions which are necessary to change the sulphate to active
material can take place but very slowly, and thus only a small current can be absorbed.
Forcing a large current through a sulphated battery causes heating since the sulphate
does not form uniformly throughout the plate, and the parts which are the least
sulphated will carry the charging current, causing them to become heated. The heating
damages the plates and separators, and causes buckling, as explained later.
If batteries which have been discharged to the voltage limits are allowed to stand idle
without being charged, they will, of course, continue to discharge themselves just as
plate, and the spongy lead of the negative plate. When a battery has been discharged
until the voltage per cell has fallen to the voltage limits, considerable portions of the
lead peroxide and spongy lead remain on the plates. The sulphate which is then
present is in a finely divided, porous condition, and can readily be changed back to
lead peroxide and spongy lead by charging the battery.
If the discharge is continued after the voltage has fallen to the voltage limits, an
excessive amount of sulphate forms. It fills up the pores in the active materials, and
covers up much of the active material which remains, so that it is difficult to change
the sulphate back to active material. Moreover, the expansion of active material which
takes place as the sulphate forms is then so great that it causes the active material to
break off from the plate and drop to the bottom of the jar.
2. Allowing a Battery to Stand Idle. When lead sulphate is first formed, it is in a
finely divided, porous condition, and the electrolyte soaks through it readily. If a
battery which has been discharged is allowed to stand idle without being charged, the
lead sulphate crystals grow by the combination of the crystals to form larger crystals.
The sulphate, instead of having a very large surface area, upon which the electrolyte
may act in changing the sulphate to active material, as it does when it is first formed,
now presents only a very small surface to the electrolyte, and it is therefore only with
great difficulty that the large crystals of sulphate are changed to active material. The
sulphate is a poor conductor, and furthermore, it covers up much of the remaining
active material so that the electrolyte cannot reach it.
A charged battery will also become sulphated if allowed to stand idle, because it
gradually becomes discharged, even though no wires of any kind are attached to the
battery terminals. How this takes place is explained later. The discharge and formation
of sulphate continue until the battery is completely discharged. The sulphate then
gradually forms larger crystals as explained in the preceding paragraph, until all of the
active material is either changed to sulphate, or is covered over by the sulphate so that
the electrolyte cannot reach it. The sulphate thus forms a high resistance coating
which hinders the passage of charging current through the battery and causes heating
on charge. It is for this reason that sulphated plates should be charged at a low
rate. The chemical actions which are necessary to change the sulphate to active
material can take place but very slowly, and thus only a small current can be absorbed.
Forcing a large current through a sulphated battery causes heating since the sulphate
does not form uniformly throughout the plate, and the parts which are the least
sulphated will carry the charging current, causing them to become heated. The heating
damages the plates and separators, and causes buckling, as explained later.
If batteries which have been discharged to the voltage limits are allowed to stand idle
without being charged, they will, of course, continue to discharge themselves just as
Page 110
fully charged batteries do when allowed to stand idle.
3. Starvation. If a battery is charged and discharged intermittently, and the discharge
is greater than the charge, the battery will never be fully charged, and lead sulphate
will always be present. Gradually this sulphate forms the large tough crystals that
cover the active material and remove it from action. This action continues until all
parts of the plate are covered with the crystalline sulphate and we have the same
condition that results when a battery is allowed to stand idle without any charge.
4. Allowing Electrolyte to Fall Below Tops of Plates. If the electrolyte is allowed to
fall below the tops of the plates, so that the active materials are exposed to the air, the
parts thus exposed will gradually become sulphated. The spongy lead of the negative
plate, being in a very finely divided state, offers a very large surface to the oxygen of
the air, and is rapidly oxidized, the chemical action causing the active material to
become hot. The charging current, in passing through the parts of the plates not
covered by the electrolyte also heats the active materials. The electrolyte which
occasionally splashes over the exposed parts of the plates and which rises in the pores
of the separators, is heated also, and since hot acid attacks the active materials readily,
sulphation takes place quickly. The parts above the electrolyte, of course, cannot be
charged and sulphate continues to form. Soon the whole exposed parts are sulphated
as shown in Fig. 209.
As the level of the electrolyte drops, the electrolyte becomes stronger, because it is
only the water which evaporates, the acid remaining and becoming more and more
concentrated. The remaining electrolyte and the parts of the plates covered by it
become heated by the current, because there is a smaller plate area to carry the
current, and because the resistance of the electrolyte increases as it grows more
concentrated. Since hot acid attacks the active materials, sulphation also takes place in
the parts of the plates still covered by the electrolyte.
The separators in a battery having the electrolyte below the tops of the plates suffer
also, as will be explained later. See page 346.
5. Impurities. These are explained later. See page 76.
6. Adding Acid Instead of Water. The sulphuric acid in the electrolyte is a heavy,
oily liquid that does not evaporate. It is only the water in the electrolyte which
evaporates. Therefore, when the level of the electrolyte falls, only water should be
added to bring the electrolyte to the correct height. There are, however, many car
owners who still believe that a battery may be charged by adding acid when the level
of the electrolyte falls. Batteries in which this is done then contain too much acid. This
leads to two troubles. The first is that the readings taken with a hydrometer will then
be misleading. A specific gravity of 1.150 is always taken to indicate that a battery is
3. Starvation. If a battery is charged and discharged intermittently, and the discharge
is greater than the charge, the battery will never be fully charged, and lead sulphate
will always be present. Gradually this sulphate forms the large tough crystals that
cover the active material and remove it from action. This action continues until all
parts of the plate are covered with the crystalline sulphate and we have the same
condition that results when a battery is allowed to stand idle without any charge.
4. Allowing Electrolyte to Fall Below Tops of Plates. If the electrolyte is allowed to
fall below the tops of the plates, so that the active materials are exposed to the air, the
parts thus exposed will gradually become sulphated. The spongy lead of the negative
plate, being in a very finely divided state, offers a very large surface to the oxygen of
the air, and is rapidly oxidized, the chemical action causing the active material to
become hot. The charging current, in passing through the parts of the plates not
covered by the electrolyte also heats the active materials. The electrolyte which
occasionally splashes over the exposed parts of the plates and which rises in the pores
of the separators, is heated also, and since hot acid attacks the active materials readily,
sulphation takes place quickly. The parts above the electrolyte, of course, cannot be
charged and sulphate continues to form. Soon the whole exposed parts are sulphated
as shown in Fig. 209.
As the level of the electrolyte drops, the electrolyte becomes stronger, because it is
only the water which evaporates, the acid remaining and becoming more and more
concentrated. The remaining electrolyte and the parts of the plates covered by it
become heated by the current, because there is a smaller plate area to carry the
current, and because the resistance of the electrolyte increases as it grows more
concentrated. Since hot acid attacks the active materials, sulphation also takes place in
the parts of the plates still covered by the electrolyte.
The separators in a battery having the electrolyte below the tops of the plates suffer
also, as will be explained later. See page 346.
5. Impurities. These are explained later. See page 76.
6. Adding Acid Instead of Water. The sulphuric acid in the electrolyte is a heavy,
oily liquid that does not evaporate. It is only the water in the electrolyte which
evaporates. Therefore, when the level of the electrolyte falls, only water should be
added to bring the electrolyte to the correct height. There are, however, many car
owners who still believe that a battery may be charged by adding acid when the level
of the electrolyte falls. Batteries in which this is done then contain too much acid. This
leads to two troubles. The first is that the readings taken with a hydrometer will then
be misleading. A specific gravity of 1.150 is always taken to indicate that a battery is
Page 111
discharged, and a specific gravity of 1.280 that a battery is charged. These two values
of specific gravity indicate a discharged and charged condition of the battery ONLY
WHEN THE PROPORTION OF ACID IN THE ELECTROLYTE IS
CORRECT. It is the condition of the plates, and not the specific gravity of the
electrolyte which determines when a battery is either charged or discharged. With the
correct proportion of acid in the electrolyte, the specific gravity of the electrolyte is
1.150 when the plates are discharged and 1.280 when the plates are charged, and that
is why specific gravity readings are generally used as an indication of the condition of
the battery.
If there is too much acid in the electrolyte, the plates will be in a discharged condition
before the specific gravity of the electrolyte drops to 1.150, and will not be in a
charged condition until after the specific gravity has risen beyond the usual value. As
a result of these facts a battery may be over-discharged, and never fully charged, this
resulting in the formation of sulphate.
The second trouble caused by adding acid to the electrolyte is that the acid will then
be too concentrated and attacks both plates and separators. This will cause the plates
to become sulphated, and the separators rotted.
7. Overheating. This was explained in Chapter 9. See page 66.
Buckling
Buckling is the bending or twisting of plates due to unequal expansion of the different
parts of the plate, Figs. 207 and 208. It is natural and unavoidable for plates to expand.
As a battery discharges, lead sulphate forms. This sulphate occupies more space than
the lead peroxide and spongy lead, and the active materials expand. Heat expands both
active materials and grids. As long as all parts of a plate expand equally, no buckling
will occur. Unequal expansion, however, causes buckling.
1. Over discharge. If discharge is carried too far, the expansion of the active material
on account of the formation of lead sulphate will bend the grids out of shape, and may
even break them.
2. Continued Operation with Battery in a Discharged Condition. When a
considerable amount of lead sulphate has, formed, and current is still drawn from the
battery, those portions of the plate which have the least amount of sulphate will carry
most of the current, and will therefore become heated and expand. The parts covered
with sulphate will not expand, and the result is that the parts that do expand will twist
the plate out of shape. A normal rate of discharge may be sufficient to cause buckling
in a sulphated plate.
of specific gravity indicate a discharged and charged condition of the battery ONLY
WHEN THE PROPORTION OF ACID IN THE ELECTROLYTE IS
CORRECT. It is the condition of the plates, and not the specific gravity of the
electrolyte which determines when a battery is either charged or discharged. With the
correct proportion of acid in the electrolyte, the specific gravity of the electrolyte is
1.150 when the plates are discharged and 1.280 when the plates are charged, and that
is why specific gravity readings are generally used as an indication of the condition of
the battery.
If there is too much acid in the electrolyte, the plates will be in a discharged condition
before the specific gravity of the electrolyte drops to 1.150, and will not be in a
charged condition until after the specific gravity has risen beyond the usual value. As
a result of these facts a battery may be over-discharged, and never fully charged, this
resulting in the formation of sulphate.
The second trouble caused by adding acid to the electrolyte is that the acid will then
be too concentrated and attacks both plates and separators. This will cause the plates
to become sulphated, and the separators rotted.
7. Overheating. This was explained in Chapter 9. See page 66.
Buckling
Buckling is the bending or twisting of plates due to unequal expansion of the different
parts of the plate, Figs. 207 and 208. It is natural and unavoidable for plates to expand.
As a battery discharges, lead sulphate forms. This sulphate occupies more space than
the lead peroxide and spongy lead, and the active materials expand. Heat expands both
active materials and grids. As long as all parts of a plate expand equally, no buckling
will occur. Unequal expansion, however, causes buckling.
1. Over discharge. If discharge is carried too far, the expansion of the active material
on account of the formation of lead sulphate will bend the grids out of shape, and may
even break them.
2. Continued Operation with Battery in a Discharged Condition. When a
considerable amount of lead sulphate has, formed, and current is still drawn from the
battery, those portions of the plate which have the least amount of sulphate will carry
most of the current, and will therefore become heated and expand. The parts covered
with sulphate will not expand, and the result is that the parts that do expand will twist
the plate out of shape. A normal rate of discharge may be sufficient to cause buckling
in a sulphated plate.
Page 112
3. Charging at High Rates. If the charging rate is excessive, the temperature will rise
so high that excessive expansion will take place. This is usually unequal in the
different parts of the plate, and buckling results. With a battery that has been over
discharged, the charging current will be carried by those parts of the plates which are
the least sulphated. These parts will therefore expand while others will not, and
buckling results.
4. Non-Uniform Distribution of Current Over the Plates. Buckling may occur in a
battery which has not been over-discharged, if the current carried by the various parts
of the plate is not uniform on account of faulty design, or careless application of the
paste. This is a fault of the manufacturers, and not the operating conditions.
5. Defective Grid Alloy. If the metals of which the grids are composed are not
uniformly mixed throughout the plate, areas of pure lead may be left here and there,
with air holes at various points. The electrolyte enters the air holes, attacks the lead
and converts the grid partly into active material. This causes expansion and
consequent distortion and buckling.
Buckling will not necessarily cause trouble, and batteries with buckled plates may
operate satisfactorily for a long time. If, however, the expansion and twisting has
caused much of the active material to break away from the grid, or has loosened the
active material from the grids, much of the battery capacity is lost. Another danger is
that the lower edges of a plate may press against the separator with sufficient force to
cut through it, touch the next plate, and cause a short-circuit.
Shedding, or Loss of Active Material
The result of shedding, provided no other troubles occur, is simply to reduce the
capacity of the plates. The positives, of course, suffer more from shedding than the
negatives do, shedding being one of the chief weaknesses of the positives. There is no
remedy for this condition. When the shedding has taken place to such an extent that
the capacity of the battery has fallen very low, new plates should be installed. After a
time, the sediment space in the bottom of the jar becomes filled with sediment, which
touches the plates. This short-circuits the cell, of course, and new plates must be
installed, and the jars washed out thoroughly.
1. Normal Shedding. It is natural and unavoidable for the positives to shed. Lead
Peroxide is a powder-like substance, the particles of which do not hold together. A
small amount of sulphate will cement the particles together to a considerable extent.
At the surface of the plate, however, this sulphate is soon changed to active material,
and the peroxide loses its coherence. Particles of peroxide drop from the plates and
fall, into the space in the bottom of the jar provided for this purpose.
so high that excessive expansion will take place. This is usually unequal in the
different parts of the plate, and buckling results. With a battery that has been over
discharged, the charging current will be carried by those parts of the plates which are
the least sulphated. These parts will therefore expand while others will not, and
buckling results.
4. Non-Uniform Distribution of Current Over the Plates. Buckling may occur in a
battery which has not been over-discharged, if the current carried by the various parts
of the plate is not uniform on account of faulty design, or careless application of the
paste. This is a fault of the manufacturers, and not the operating conditions.
5. Defective Grid Alloy. If the metals of which the grids are composed are not
uniformly mixed throughout the plate, areas of pure lead may be left here and there,
with air holes at various points. The electrolyte enters the air holes, attacks the lead
and converts the grid partly into active material. This causes expansion and
consequent distortion and buckling.
Buckling will not necessarily cause trouble, and batteries with buckled plates may
operate satisfactorily for a long time. If, however, the expansion and twisting has
caused much of the active material to break away from the grid, or has loosened the
active material from the grids, much of the battery capacity is lost. Another danger is
that the lower edges of a plate may press against the separator with sufficient force to
cut through it, touch the next plate, and cause a short-circuit.
Shedding, or Loss of Active Material
The result of shedding, provided no other troubles occur, is simply to reduce the
capacity of the plates. The positives, of course, suffer more from shedding than the
negatives do, shedding being one of the chief weaknesses of the positives. There is no
remedy for this condition. When the shedding has taken place to such an extent that
the capacity of the battery has fallen very low, new plates should be installed. After a
time, the sediment space in the bottom of the jar becomes filled with sediment, which
touches the plates. This short-circuits the cell, of course, and new plates must be
installed, and the jars washed out thoroughly.
1. Normal Shedding. It is natural and unavoidable for the positives to shed. Lead
Peroxide is a powder-like substance, the particles of which do not hold together. A
small amount of sulphate will cement the particles together to a considerable extent.
At the surface of the plate, however, this sulphate is soon changed to active material,
and the peroxide loses its coherence. Particles of peroxide drop from the plates and
fall, into the space in the bottom of the jar provided for this purpose.
Page 113
Bubbles of gas which occur at the end of a charge blow some of the peroxide particles
from the plate. The electrolyte moving about as the battery is jolted by the motion of
the car washes particles of peroxide from the positive plates. Any slight motion
between positive plates and separators rubs some peroxide from the plates. It is
therefore entirely natural for shedding to occur, especially at the positives. The spongy
lead of the negatives is much more elastic than the peroxide, and hence very little
shed. ding occurs at the negative plates. The shedding at the positives explains why
the grooved side of the separator is always placed against the positive plate. The
grooves, being vertical, allow the peroxide to fall to the bottom of the jar, where it
accumulates as sediment, or "mud."
2. Excessive Charging Rate, or Overcharging. If a battery is charged at too high a
rate, only part of the current is used to produce the chemical actions by which the
battery is charged. The balance of the current decomposes the water of the electrolyte
into hydrogen and oxygen, causing gassing. As the bubbles of gas force their way out
of the plates, they blow off particles of the active material.
When a battery is overcharged, the long continued gassing has the same effect as
described in the preceding paragraph.
3. Charging Sulphated Plates at too High a Rate. In sulphated plates, the chemical
actions which take place as a battery is charged can proceed but very slowly, because
the sulphate, besides being a poor conductor, has formed larger crystals which present
only a small surface for the electrolyte to act upon, and has also covered up much of
the remaining active material. Since the chemical actions take place slowly, the
charging current must be kept at a low value. If too heavy a charging current is used,
the battery will be overheated, and some of the current will simply cause gassing as
explained in No. 2 above. The gas bubbles will break off pieces of the sulphate, which
then fall to the bottom of the jars as "mud."
4. Charging Only a Part of the Plate. If the electrolyte falls below the tops of the
plates, and the usual charging current is sent into the battery, the current will be too
great for the plate area through which it passes, and hence gassing and shedding will
result as already explained.
The same condition exists in a battery in which one or more plates have been broken
from the strap, either because of mechanical vibration or because of impurities such as
acetic acid in improperly treated separators. The remaining plates are called upon to
do more work, and carry the entire charging current. Gassing and shedding will result.
5. Freezing. If a battery is given any care whatever, there is little danger of freezing.
The electrolyte of a fully charged battery with a specific gravity of 1.280 freezes at
from the plate. The electrolyte moving about as the battery is jolted by the motion of
the car washes particles of peroxide from the positive plates. Any slight motion
between positive plates and separators rubs some peroxide from the plates. It is
therefore entirely natural for shedding to occur, especially at the positives. The spongy
lead of the negatives is much more elastic than the peroxide, and hence very little
shed. ding occurs at the negative plates. The shedding at the positives explains why
the grooved side of the separator is always placed against the positive plate. The
grooves, being vertical, allow the peroxide to fall to the bottom of the jar, where it
accumulates as sediment, or "mud."
2. Excessive Charging Rate, or Overcharging. If a battery is charged at too high a
rate, only part of the current is used to produce the chemical actions by which the
battery is charged. The balance of the current decomposes the water of the electrolyte
into hydrogen and oxygen, causing gassing. As the bubbles of gas force their way out
of the plates, they blow off particles of the active material.
When a battery is overcharged, the long continued gassing has the same effect as
described in the preceding paragraph.
3. Charging Sulphated Plates at too High a Rate. In sulphated plates, the chemical
actions which take place as a battery is charged can proceed but very slowly, because
the sulphate, besides being a poor conductor, has formed larger crystals which present
only a small surface for the electrolyte to act upon, and has also covered up much of
the remaining active material. Since the chemical actions take place slowly, the
charging current must be kept at a low value. If too heavy a charging current is used,
the battery will be overheated, and some of the current will simply cause gassing as
explained in No. 2 above. The gas bubbles will break off pieces of the sulphate, which
then fall to the bottom of the jars as "mud."
4. Charging Only a Part of the Plate. If the electrolyte falls below the tops of the
plates, and the usual charging current is sent into the battery, the current will be too
great for the plate area through which it passes, and hence gassing and shedding will
result as already explained.
The same condition exists in a battery in which one or more plates have been broken
from the strap, either because of mechanical vibration or because of impurities such as
acetic acid in improperly treated separators. The remaining plates are called upon to
do more work, and carry the entire charging current. Gassing and shedding will result.
5. Freezing. If a battery is given any care whatever, there is little danger of freezing.
The electrolyte of a fully charged battery with a specific gravity of 1.280 freezes at
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about 92° below zero. With a specific gravity of 1.150, the electrolyte freezes at about
5° above zero. A frozen battery therefore indicates gross neglect.
As the electrolyte freezes, the water of the electrolyte expands. Since there is
electrolyte in all the inner parts of the plate, the expansion as the water in the paste
freezes forces the pastes out of the grids. The expansion also cracks the rubber jars,
and sometimes bulges out the ends of the battery case.
Loose Active Material
This refers to a condition in which the active materials are no longer in contact with
the grid. Corrosion, or sulphation, of the grids themselves is generally present at the
same time, since the chemical actions are shifted from the active material to the grids
themselves.
1. Over discharge. As a battery discharges, the lead sulphate which forms causes an
expansion of the active material. If a battery is repeatedly over-discharged, this results
in the positives shedding. In the negatives, the spongy lead is puffed out, resulting in
the condition known as "bulged negatives" as illustrated in Fig 122.
2. Buckling. As a plate grid is bent out of shape, the active material, especially the
peroxide, breaks loose from the grid, since the peroxide cannot bend as much as the
grids. This occurs in the negatives also, though not to such an extent as in the
positives.
If the plates are buckled to such an extent that the element will not go back into the
jar, the positives should be discarded. If the positives are buckled, the negatives will
be also, but not to the extent that the positives are.
In the case of the positives, there is no remedy, and the plates should be discarded.
The negatives, however, may be fully charged, and then straightened, and the active
material forced back flush with the grids by pressings, as described in Chapter 15.
Impurities
Impurities may be divided into two general classes. The first class includes those
which do not attack the separators or grids, but merely cause internal self-discharge.
The second class includes those which attack the grids or separators.
1. Impurities Which Merely Cause Self-discharge. This includes metals other than
lead. If these metals are in solution in the electrolyte, they deposit on the negative
plate, during charge, in their ordinary metallic state, and form small cells with the
spongy lead. These small cells discharge as soon as the charging circuit is opened, and
5° above zero. A frozen battery therefore indicates gross neglect.
As the electrolyte freezes, the water of the electrolyte expands. Since there is
electrolyte in all the inner parts of the plate, the expansion as the water in the paste
freezes forces the pastes out of the grids. The expansion also cracks the rubber jars,
and sometimes bulges out the ends of the battery case.
Loose Active Material
This refers to a condition in which the active materials are no longer in contact with
the grid. Corrosion, or sulphation, of the grids themselves is generally present at the
same time, since the chemical actions are shifted from the active material to the grids
themselves.
1. Over discharge. As a battery discharges, the lead sulphate which forms causes an
expansion of the active material. If a battery is repeatedly over-discharged, this results
in the positives shedding. In the negatives, the spongy lead is puffed out, resulting in
the condition known as "bulged negatives" as illustrated in Fig 122.
2. Buckling. As a plate grid is bent out of shape, the active material, especially the
peroxide, breaks loose from the grid, since the peroxide cannot bend as much as the
grids. This occurs in the negatives also, though not to such an extent as in the
positives.
If the plates are buckled to such an extent that the element will not go back into the
jar, the positives should be discarded. If the positives are buckled, the negatives will
be also, but not to the extent that the positives are.
In the case of the positives, there is no remedy, and the plates should be discarded.
The negatives, however, may be fully charged, and then straightened, and the active
material forced back flush with the grids by pressings, as described in Chapter 15.
Impurities
Impurities may be divided into two general classes. The first class includes those
which do not attack the separators or grids, but merely cause internal self-discharge.
The second class includes those which attack the grids or separators.
1. Impurities Which Merely Cause Self-discharge. This includes metals other than
lead. If these metals are in solution in the electrolyte, they deposit on the negative
plate, during charge, in their ordinary metallic state, and form small cells with the
spongy lead. These small cells discharge as soon as the charging circuit is opened, and
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some of the lead is changed to lead sulphate. This, of course, causes a loss in capacity.
Free hydrogen is given off by this local discharge, and so much of it is at times given
off that the hydrogen bubbles give the electrolyte a milky appearance.
Silver, gold, and platinum are the most active in forming small local cells. These
metals form local cells which have comparatively high voltages, and which take away
a considerable portion of the energy of a cell. Platinum is especially active, and a
small amount of platinum will prevent a negative plate from taking a charge.
Gradually, however, the spongy lead covers up the foreign metal and prevents it from
forming local cells.
Iron also forms local cells which rob the cell of a considerable portion of its capacity.
This may be brought into the cell by impure acid or water. Iron remains in solution in
the electrolyte, and is not precipitated as metallic iron. The iron in solution travels
from the positive to the negative plate, and back again, causing a local discharge at
each plate. It is, moreover, very difficult to remove the iron, except by pouring out all
of the electrolyte. Manganese acts the same as the iron.
2. Impurities Which Attack the Plates. In general, this class includes acids other
than sulphuric acid, compounds formed from such acids, or substances which will
readily form acids by chemical action in the cell. Nitric acid, hydrochloric or muriatic
acid, and acetic acid belong in this class of impurities. Organic matter in a state of
decomposition attacks the lead grids readily.
Impurities in the second class dissolve the lead grids, and the plate disintegrates and
falls to pieces, since its backbone is destroyed. When a battery which contains these
impurities is opened, it will be found that the plates crumble and fall apart at the
slightest touch. See Fig. 210.
Separators which have not been treated properly introduce acetic acid into a cell.
The acetic acid attacks and rots the lead, especially the lugs projecting above the
electrolyte, and the plate connecting straps. The plates will generally be found broken
from the connecting strap, with the plate lugs broken and crumbled.
As for remedies, there is not much to be done. Impurities in the first class merely
decrease the capacity of the battery. If the battery is fully charged, and the negatives
then washed thoroughly, some of the impurities may be removed. Impurities of the
second class have generally damaged the plates beyond repairs by the time their
presence is suspected.
The best thing to do is to keep impurities out of the battery. This means that only
distilled water, which is known to be absolutely free from impurities should be used.
Free hydrogen is given off by this local discharge, and so much of it is at times given
off that the hydrogen bubbles give the electrolyte a milky appearance.
Silver, gold, and platinum are the most active in forming small local cells. These
metals form local cells which have comparatively high voltages, and which take away
a considerable portion of the energy of a cell. Platinum is especially active, and a
small amount of platinum will prevent a negative plate from taking a charge.
Gradually, however, the spongy lead covers up the foreign metal and prevents it from
forming local cells.
Iron also forms local cells which rob the cell of a considerable portion of its capacity.
This may be brought into the cell by impure acid or water. Iron remains in solution in
the electrolyte, and is not precipitated as metallic iron. The iron in solution travels
from the positive to the negative plate, and back again, causing a local discharge at
each plate. It is, moreover, very difficult to remove the iron, except by pouring out all
of the electrolyte. Manganese acts the same as the iron.
2. Impurities Which Attack the Plates. In general, this class includes acids other
than sulphuric acid, compounds formed from such acids, or substances which will
readily form acids by chemical action in the cell. Nitric acid, hydrochloric or muriatic
acid, and acetic acid belong in this class of impurities. Organic matter in a state of
decomposition attacks the lead grids readily.
Impurities in the second class dissolve the lead grids, and the plate disintegrates and
falls to pieces, since its backbone is destroyed. When a battery which contains these
impurities is opened, it will be found that the plates crumble and fall apart at the
slightest touch. See Fig. 210.
Separators which have not been treated properly introduce acetic acid into a cell.
The acetic acid attacks and rots the lead, especially the lugs projecting above the
electrolyte, and the plate connecting straps. The plates will generally be found broken
from the connecting strap, with the plate lugs broken and crumbled.
As for remedies, there is not much to be done. Impurities in the first class merely
decrease the capacity of the battery. If the battery is fully charged, and the negatives
then washed thoroughly, some of the impurities may be removed. Impurities of the
second class have generally damaged the plates beyond repairs by the time their
presence is suspected.
The best thing to do is to keep impurities out of the battery. This means that only
distilled water, which is known to be absolutely free from impurities should be used.
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Impurities which exist in the separators or acid cannot be detected readily, but in
repairing a battery, separators furnished by one of the reliable battery makers should
be used. Pure acid should also be used. This means that only chemically pure, or "C.
P." acid, also known as battery acid should be used. In handling the acid in the shop, it
should always be kept in its glass bottle, and should be poured only into a glass,
porcelain, earthenware, lead, or rubber vessel. Never use a vessel made of any other
material.
Corroded Grids
When the grids of a plate are attacked chemically, they become thin and weak, and
may be spoken of as being corroded.
1. Impurities. Those impurities which attack the lead grids, such as acids other than
sulphuric acid, compounds formed from these acids, or substances which will readily
form acids dissolve some of the lead which composes the grids. The grids gradually
become weakened. The decrease in the amount of metal in the grids increases the
internal resistance of the cell and give a tendency for temperatures to be higher in the
cell. The contact between grids and active material is in time made poor. If the action
of the impurities continues for any length of time, the plate becomes very weak, and
breaks at the slightest touch.
2. High Temperatures. Anything that raises the temperature of the electrolyte, such
as too high a charging rate, causes the acid to attack the grids and form a layer of
sulphate on them. The sulphate is changed to active material on charge, and the grids
are thereby weakened.
3. Age. Grids gradually become weak and brittle as a battery remains in service. The
acid in the electrolyte, even though the electrolyte has the correct gravity and
temperature, has some effect upon the grids, and in time this weakens them. During
the life of a battery it is at times subjected to high temperatures, impurities,
sulphation, etc., the combined effects of which result in a gradual weakening of the
grids.
Granulated Negatives
1. Age. The spongy lead of the negative plate gradually assumes a "grainy" or
"granulated" appearance. The lead then seems to be made up of small grains, like
grains of sand, instead of being a smooth paste. This action is a natural one, and is due
to the gradual increase in the size of the particles of the lead. The plate loses its
porosity, the particles cementing together and closing the pores in the lead. The
increase in the size of the particles of the spongy lead decreases the amount of surface
repairing a battery, separators furnished by one of the reliable battery makers should
be used. Pure acid should also be used. This means that only chemically pure, or "C.
P." acid, also known as battery acid should be used. In handling the acid in the shop, it
should always be kept in its glass bottle, and should be poured only into a glass,
porcelain, earthenware, lead, or rubber vessel. Never use a vessel made of any other
material.
Corroded Grids
When the grids of a plate are attacked chemically, they become thin and weak, and
may be spoken of as being corroded.
1. Impurities. Those impurities which attack the lead grids, such as acids other than
sulphuric acid, compounds formed from these acids, or substances which will readily
form acids dissolve some of the lead which composes the grids. The grids gradually
become weakened. The decrease in the amount of metal in the grids increases the
internal resistance of the cell and give a tendency for temperatures to be higher in the
cell. The contact between grids and active material is in time made poor. If the action
of the impurities continues for any length of time, the plate becomes very weak, and
breaks at the slightest touch.
2. High Temperatures. Anything that raises the temperature of the electrolyte, such
as too high a charging rate, causes the acid to attack the grids and form a layer of
sulphate on them. The sulphate is changed to active material on charge, and the grids
are thereby weakened.
3. Age. Grids gradually become weak and brittle as a battery remains in service. The
acid in the electrolyte, even though the electrolyte has the correct gravity and
temperature, has some effect upon the grids, and in time this weakens them. During
the life of a battery it is at times subjected to high temperatures, impurities,
sulphation, etc., the combined effects of which result in a gradual weakening of the
grids.
Granulated Negatives
1. Age. The spongy lead of the negative plate gradually assumes a "grainy" or
"granulated" appearance. The lead then seems to be made up of small grains, like
grains of sand, instead of being a smooth paste. This action is a natural one, and is due
to the gradual increase in the size of the particles of the lead. The plate loses its
porosity, the particles cementing together and closing the pores in the lead. The
increase in the size of the particles of the spongy lead decreases the amount of surface
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exposed to the action of the electrolyte, and the plate loses capacity. Such plates
should be thrown away, as charging and discharging will not bring the paste back to
its original state.
2. Heat will also cause the paste to become granulated, and its surface to become
rough or even blistered.
Heating of Negatives Exposed to the Air
When charged negatives are exposed to the air, there is a decided increase in their
temperature. Spongy lead is in an extremely finely divided state, the particles of lead
being very minute, and forming a very porous mass. When the plate is exposed to the
air, rapid oxidation takes place because the oxygen of the air has a very large surface
to act upon. The oxidation causes the lead to become heated. The heating, of course,
raises the temperature of the electrolyte, and the hot acid attacks both grids and lead.
Fully charged negatives should therefore be watched carefully when removed from a
battery. When they become heated and begin to steam, they should be dipped in water
until they have cooled. They may then be removed from the water, but should be
dipped whenever they begin to steam. After they no longer heat, they may be left
exposed to the air.
This method of dipping the negatives to prevent overheating has always been
followed. However, the Electric Storage Battery Company, which makes the Exide
batteries, does not take any steps to prevent the heating of the negatives when exposed
to the air, stating that their plates are not injured by the heating which takes place.
Negatives With Very Hard Active Material
This is the characteristic condition of badly sulphated negatives. The active material
may be as hard as a stone. The best method of treating such negatives is to charge
them in distilled water. See Chapter 15.
Bulged Negatives
This is a characteristic of a repeatedly over-discharged negative. The lead sulphate
which forms as a battery discharges is bulkier than the spongy lead, and the lead
expands and bulges out between the ribs of the grid.
Negative With Soft, Mushy Active Material
should be thrown away, as charging and discharging will not bring the paste back to
its original state.
2. Heat will also cause the paste to become granulated, and its surface to become
rough or even blistered.
Heating of Negatives Exposed to the Air
When charged negatives are exposed to the air, there is a decided increase in their
temperature. Spongy lead is in an extremely finely divided state, the particles of lead
being very minute, and forming a very porous mass. When the plate is exposed to the
air, rapid oxidation takes place because the oxygen of the air has a very large surface
to act upon. The oxidation causes the lead to become heated. The heating, of course,
raises the temperature of the electrolyte, and the hot acid attacks both grids and lead.
Fully charged negatives should therefore be watched carefully when removed from a
battery. When they become heated and begin to steam, they should be dipped in water
until they have cooled. They may then be removed from the water, but should be
dipped whenever they begin to steam. After they no longer heat, they may be left
exposed to the air.
This method of dipping the negatives to prevent overheating has always been
followed. However, the Electric Storage Battery Company, which makes the Exide
batteries, does not take any steps to prevent the heating of the negatives when exposed
to the air, stating that their plates are not injured by the heating which takes place.
Negatives With Very Hard Active Material
This is the characteristic condition of badly sulphated negatives. The active material
may be as hard as a stone. The best method of treating such negatives is to charge
them in distilled water. See Chapter 15.
Bulged Negatives
This is a characteristic of a repeatedly over-discharged negative. The lead sulphate
which forms as a battery discharges is bulkier than the spongy lead, and the lead
expands and bulges out between the ribs of the grid.
Negative With Soft, Mushy Active Material
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1. High Gravity. Gravity above 1.300 causes the acid to act upon the spongy lead and
soften it.
2. Heat will soften the spongy lead also. The softened spongy lead is loosened and
falls from the grids, as shown in Fig. 211. Little can be done for such negatives.
Negatives With Roughened Surface
This is caused by slight overheating, and is not a serious condition.
Frozen Positives
A battery which is allowed to stand in a cold place while completely discharged will
freeze. The water in the electrolyte expands as it freezes, cracking the rubber jars and
bulging out the end of the wooden case. As the electrolyte which fills the pores of the
positive plates freezes and expands, it breaks the active material loose from the grids.
When the battery thaws, the active material does not go back into the grids. When
such a battery is opened, and the groups separated, the positive active material sticks
to the separators in large pieces, Fig. 112, and that remaining in the grids falls out very
easily. The active material has a pinkish color and is badly shrunken.
Rotted, Disintegrated Positives
1. Impurities. This has already been discussed. See page 76.
2. Overheating. The hot electrolyte dissolves the lead of the grids and that which is
dissolved is never converted back to lead. Continued overheating wears out the grids,
and the active material also, and the plate falls to pieces at the slightest pressure.
3. Age. Positives gradually disintegrate due to the prolonged action of the electrolyte
on the grids, an occasional overheating, occasional use of impure water, etc.
Positives which are rotted and disintegrated are, of course, hopeless, and must be
junked.
Buckled Positives
As previously described, buckling is caused by unequal expansion. If the buckling is
only slight, the plates may be used as they are. If the plates are badly buckled, the
active material will be found to be loose, and the plates cannot be straightened. Such
positives should be discarded.
soften it.
2. Heat will soften the spongy lead also. The softened spongy lead is loosened and
falls from the grids, as shown in Fig. 211. Little can be done for such negatives.
Negatives With Roughened Surface
This is caused by slight overheating, and is not a serious condition.
Frozen Positives
A battery which is allowed to stand in a cold place while completely discharged will
freeze. The water in the electrolyte expands as it freezes, cracking the rubber jars and
bulging out the end of the wooden case. As the electrolyte which fills the pores of the
positive plates freezes and expands, it breaks the active material loose from the grids.
When the battery thaws, the active material does not go back into the grids. When
such a battery is opened, and the groups separated, the positive active material sticks
to the separators in large pieces, Fig. 112, and that remaining in the grids falls out very
easily. The active material has a pinkish color and is badly shrunken.
Rotted, Disintegrated Positives
1. Impurities. This has already been discussed. See page 76.
2. Overheating. The hot electrolyte dissolves the lead of the grids and that which is
dissolved is never converted back to lead. Continued overheating wears out the grids,
and the active material also, and the plate falls to pieces at the slightest pressure.
3. Age. Positives gradually disintegrate due to the prolonged action of the electrolyte
on the grids, an occasional overheating, occasional use of impure water, etc.
Positives which are rotted and disintegrated are, of course, hopeless, and must be
junked.
Buckled Positives
As previously described, buckling is caused by unequal expansion. If the buckling is
only slight, the plates may be used as they are. If the plates are badly buckled, the
active material will be found to be loose, and the plates cannot be straightened. Such
positives should be discarded.
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Positives That Have Lost Considerable Active Material
This is the result of continued shedding, the causes of which have already been given.
If the shedding is only slight, and the plate is good otherwise, it may be used again. If
such active material has been lost, the plates must be discarded.
Positives With Soft Active Material
Continued operation at high temperatures, will soften the peroxide, and make the
plates unfit for further use. Old positives are soft, clue to the natural deterioration of
the paste with age.
Positives With Hard, Shiny Active Material
This condition is found in batteries that have been charged with the acid below the
tops of the plates. The part of the plate above the acid is continually being heated by
the charging current. It becomes hard and shiny, and has cracks running through it.
The peroxide becomes orange or brick colored, and the grid deteriorates. The part of
the plate below the electrolyte suffers also, as explained more fully on page 71. Such
plates should be discarded if any considerable portion of the plates is affected. Plates
in which 1/2 to 1 inch of the upper parts are affected may be used again if otherwise in
good condition.
Plates Which Have Been Charged in Wrong Direction
Such plates have been partly reversed, so that there is lead peroxide and spongy lead
on both positive and negative plates, and such plates are generally worthless. If the
active materials have not become loosened from the grids, and the grids have not been
disintegrated and broken, the plates may sometimes be reversed by a long charge at a
low rate in the right direction. If this does not restore the plates, discard them.
SEPARATOR TROUBLES
Separators form the weakest part of a battery, but at the same time perform a very
important duty. New separators should therefore be installed whenever a battery is
opened for repairs. Repairs should never be attempted on separators.
1. Not Properly Expanded Before Installation. Separators in stock must be kept
moist. This not only prevents them from becoming dry and brittle, but keeps them
fully expanded. If separators which have been kept dry in stock are installed in a
battery, they do their expanding inside the battery. This causes them to project beyond
the edges of the plates. The crowding to which they are subjected causes them to
This is the result of continued shedding, the causes of which have already been given.
If the shedding is only slight, and the plate is good otherwise, it may be used again. If
such active material has been lost, the plates must be discarded.
Positives With Soft Active Material
Continued operation at high temperatures, will soften the peroxide, and make the
plates unfit for further use. Old positives are soft, clue to the natural deterioration of
the paste with age.
Positives With Hard, Shiny Active Material
This condition is found in batteries that have been charged with the acid below the
tops of the plates. The part of the plate above the acid is continually being heated by
the charging current. It becomes hard and shiny, and has cracks running through it.
The peroxide becomes orange or brick colored, and the grid deteriorates. The part of
the plate below the electrolyte suffers also, as explained more fully on page 71. Such
plates should be discarded if any considerable portion of the plates is affected. Plates
in which 1/2 to 1 inch of the upper parts are affected may be used again if otherwise in
good condition.
Plates Which Have Been Charged in Wrong Direction
Such plates have been partly reversed, so that there is lead peroxide and spongy lead
on both positive and negative plates, and such plates are generally worthless. If the
active materials have not become loosened from the grids, and the grids have not been
disintegrated and broken, the plates may sometimes be reversed by a long charge at a
low rate in the right direction. If this does not restore the plates, discard them.
SEPARATOR TROUBLES
Separators form the weakest part of a battery, but at the same time perform a very
important duty. New separators should therefore be installed whenever a battery is
opened for repairs. Repairs should never be attempted on separators.
1. Not Properly Expanded Before Installation. Separators in stock must be kept
moist. This not only prevents them from becoming dry and brittle, but keeps them
fully expanded. If separators which have been kept dry in stock are installed in a
battery, they do their expanding inside the battery. This causes them to project beyond
the edges of the plates. The crowding to which they are subjected causes them to
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crack. Cracked separators permit "treeing" between plates, with a consequent short
circuit.
2. Not Properly Treated. Separators which have not been given the proper chemical
treatment are likely to develop Acetic acid after they are in the battery. Acetic acid
dissolves the lead grids, the plate lugs, and the plate connecting straps rapidly. If the
plate lugs are found broken, and crumble easily, acetic acid is very likely present,
especially if an odor like that of vinegar is noticeable. Improperly treated separators
will cause a battery to show low voltage at high rates of discharge, particularly in cold
weather, and will also cause the negatives to give poor cadmium readings, which may
lead the repairman to conclude that the negatives are defective. The separators of
batteries which have been shipped completely assembled without electrolyte and with
moistened plates and separators will sometimes have the same effect.
3. Cracked. Separators should be carefully "candled" — placed in front of a light and
looked through. Cracks, resinous streaks, etc., mean that the separator should not be
used, as it will breed trouble.
4. Rotted and Carbonized. This may be the result of old age, overheating, or high
gravity electrolyte.
5. Pores Clogged. Impurities, dirt from impure water, and lead sulphate fill the pores
of a separator and prevent the proper circulation of the electrolyte. The active material
of frozen positives also fills up the pores of a separator.
6. Edges Chiseled Off. A buckling plate will cut through the lower edge of a
separator and short circuit the cell. Holes will be cut through any part of a separator by
a buckling plate, or a negative with bulged active material.
JAR TROUBLES
Battery jars are made of hard rubber, and are easily broken. They are not acted upon
by the electrolyte, or any of the impurities which may be found in the jar. Their
troubles are all mechanical, and consist of being cracked, or having small holes
through the walls. Jars are softened by high temperatures, but this does no particular
harm unless they are actually burned by an open flame or red hot metal. The causes of
jar troubles are as follows:
1. Rough Handling. By far the most common cause of jar breakage is rough handling
by careless or inexperienced persons. If one end of a battery rests on the floor, and the
other is allowed to drop several inches, broken jars will probably result from the
severe impact of the heavy lead plates. Storage batteries should be handled as if made
circuit.
2. Not Properly Treated. Separators which have not been given the proper chemical
treatment are likely to develop Acetic acid after they are in the battery. Acetic acid
dissolves the lead grids, the plate lugs, and the plate connecting straps rapidly. If the
plate lugs are found broken, and crumble easily, acetic acid is very likely present,
especially if an odor like that of vinegar is noticeable. Improperly treated separators
will cause a battery to show low voltage at high rates of discharge, particularly in cold
weather, and will also cause the negatives to give poor cadmium readings, which may
lead the repairman to conclude that the negatives are defective. The separators of
batteries which have been shipped completely assembled without electrolyte and with
moistened plates and separators will sometimes have the same effect.
3. Cracked. Separators should be carefully "candled" — placed in front of a light and
looked through. Cracks, resinous streaks, etc., mean that the separator should not be
used, as it will breed trouble.
4. Rotted and Carbonized. This may be the result of old age, overheating, or high
gravity electrolyte.
5. Pores Clogged. Impurities, dirt from impure water, and lead sulphate fill the pores
of a separator and prevent the proper circulation of the electrolyte. The active material
of frozen positives also fills up the pores of a separator.
6. Edges Chiseled Off. A buckling plate will cut through the lower edge of a
separator and short circuit the cell. Holes will be cut through any part of a separator by
a buckling plate, or a negative with bulged active material.
JAR TROUBLES
Battery jars are made of hard rubber, and are easily broken. They are not acted upon
by the electrolyte, or any of the impurities which may be found in the jar. Their
troubles are all mechanical, and consist of being cracked, or having small holes
through the walls. Jars are softened by high temperatures, but this does no particular
harm unless they are actually burned by an open flame or red hot metal. The causes of
jar troubles are as follows:
1. Rough Handling. By far the most common cause of jar breakage is rough handling
by careless or inexperienced persons. If one end of a battery rests on the floor, and the
other is allowed to drop several inches, broken jars will probably result from the
severe impact of the heavy lead plates. Storage batteries should be handled as if made
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of glass. When installed on a car, the springs protect the battery from shock to a
considerable extent, but rough roads or exceptionally severe jolts may break jars.
2. Battery Not Properly Fastened. In this case a battery is bumped around inside the
battery compartment, and damage is very likely to result.
3. Any Weight Placed on Top of the Battery is transmitted from the links to the
plates, and by them to the bottom of the jars. Batteries should always be stored in
racks, and not one on top of another. The practice of putting any weight whatever on
top of a battery should be promptly discouraged.
4. Freezing. This condition has already been explained. It causes a great many broken
jars every winter.
5. Groups Not Properly Trimmed. The outside negative plates in a cell come just
inside the jar, and the strap ends must be carefully trimmed off flush with the plates, to
prevent them from breaking the top of the jars. Jars have slightly rounded corners, and
are somewhat narrower at the extreme ends than nearer the center. A group may
therefore go into a jar quite readily when moved toward the other end of the jar to that
into which the post strap must go when in proper position for the cover. When the
group is forced back into its proper position the strap may break the jar. It is a good
plan not only to trim the ends of the negative straps perfectly flush, but to round the
strap corners where they go into the jar corners.
6. Defective Jars. (a) A jar not properly vulcanized may come apart at the scam. (b) A
small impurity in the rubber may dissolve in the acid and leave a minute pinhole. All
jars are carefully tested at the factory and the likelihood of trouble from defective jars
is extremely small.
7. Explosion in Cell. (a) Hydrogen and oxygen gases evolved during charging make a
very explosive mixture. An open flame brought near a battery on charge or freshly
charged, will probably produce an explosion resulting in broken jars and jar covers.
(b) An open circuit produced inside a cell on charge in the manner described on page
86 under the heading "Open Circuits," will cause a spark at the instant the circuit is
broken, with the same result as bringing a flame near the battery. (c) The small holes
in the vents must be kept free for the escape of the gases. These holes are usually
sealed in batteries shipped with moistened plates and separators, to keep air out of the
cells. The seals must be removed when the battery is prepared for service. If the vents
remain plugged, the pressure of the gases formed during charge will finally burst the
covers of jars.
BATTERY CASE TROUBLE
considerable extent, but rough roads or exceptionally severe jolts may break jars.
2. Battery Not Properly Fastened. In this case a battery is bumped around inside the
battery compartment, and damage is very likely to result.
3. Any Weight Placed on Top of the Battery is transmitted from the links to the
plates, and by them to the bottom of the jars. Batteries should always be stored in
racks, and not one on top of another. The practice of putting any weight whatever on
top of a battery should be promptly discouraged.
4. Freezing. This condition has already been explained. It causes a great many broken
jars every winter.
5. Groups Not Properly Trimmed. The outside negative plates in a cell come just
inside the jar, and the strap ends must be carefully trimmed off flush with the plates, to
prevent them from breaking the top of the jars. Jars have slightly rounded corners, and
are somewhat narrower at the extreme ends than nearer the center. A group may
therefore go into a jar quite readily when moved toward the other end of the jar to that
into which the post strap must go when in proper position for the cover. When the
group is forced back into its proper position the strap may break the jar. It is a good
plan not only to trim the ends of the negative straps perfectly flush, but to round the
strap corners where they go into the jar corners.
6. Defective Jars. (a) A jar not properly vulcanized may come apart at the scam. (b) A
small impurity in the rubber may dissolve in the acid and leave a minute pinhole. All
jars are carefully tested at the factory and the likelihood of trouble from defective jars
is extremely small.
7. Explosion in Cell. (a) Hydrogen and oxygen gases evolved during charging make a
very explosive mixture. An open flame brought near a battery on charge or freshly
charged, will probably produce an explosion resulting in broken jars and jar covers.
(b) An open circuit produced inside a cell on charge in the manner described on page
86 under the heading "Open Circuits," will cause a spark at the instant the circuit is
broken, with the same result as bringing a flame near the battery. (c) The small holes
in the vents must be kept free for the escape of the gases. These holes are usually
sealed in batteries shipped with moistened plates and separators, to keep air out of the
cells. The seals must be removed when the battery is prepared for service. If the vents
remain plugged, the pressure of the gases formed during charge will finally burst the
covers of jars.
BATTERY CASE TROUBLE
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1. Ends Bulged Out. This may be due to a battery having been frozen or to hold-
downs being screwed down too tight, or some similar cause. Whether the case can be
repaired depends on the extent of the bulging. This can best be determined by the
repairman.
2. Rotted. If the case is rotted around the top, it is evidence that: (a) Too much water
was added, with subsequent overflowing when electrolyte warmed up during charge.
(b) The tops were poorly sealed, resulting in leaks between the covers and the, jars. (c)
Battery has not been fastened down properly, and acid has been thrown out of the jars
by the jolting of the car on the road. (d) The vent plugs have not been turned down
tightly. (e) Electrolyte has been spilled in measuring specific gravity.
If the case is rotted around the lower part it indicates that the jars are cracked or
contain holes. Instructions for making repairs on battery cases are given on page 360.
TROUBLE WITH CONNECTORS AND TERMINALS
1. Corroded. This is a very common trouble, and one which should be guarded
against very carefully. Corrosion is indicated by the presence of a grayish or greenish
substance on the battery terminals, especially the positive. It is due to several causes:
(a) Too much water added to cells. The electrolyte expands on charge and flows out
on the top of the battery.
(b) Battery not fastened firmly. The jolting caused by the motion of the car on the road
will cause electrolyte to be thrown out of the vent caps.
(c) Battery poorly sealed. The electrolyte will be thrown out on the cover by the
motion of the car through the leaks which result from poor sealing.
(d) Vent caps loose. This also allows electrolyte to be thrown out on the battery top.
(e) Electrolyte spilled on top of battery in measuring specific gravity.
(f) Battery cables damaged, or loose. The cables attached to the battery terminals are
connected to lugs which are heavily coated with lead. The cables are insulated with
rubber, upon which sulphuric acid has no effect. Care should be taken that the lead
coating is not worn off, and that the rubber insulation is not broken or cut so as to
allow electrolyte, which is spilled on the battery top as explained in (a), (b), (c), (d)
and (e), to reach the bare copper conductors of the cable. The terminal parts are
always so made that when the connections are kept tight no acid can come into contact
with anything but lead and rubber, neither of which is attacked by sulphuric acid.
downs being screwed down too tight, or some similar cause. Whether the case can be
repaired depends on the extent of the bulging. This can best be determined by the
repairman.
2. Rotted. If the case is rotted around the top, it is evidence that: (a) Too much water
was added, with subsequent overflowing when electrolyte warmed up during charge.
(b) The tops were poorly sealed, resulting in leaks between the covers and the, jars. (c)
Battery has not been fastened down properly, and acid has been thrown out of the jars
by the jolting of the car on the road. (d) The vent plugs have not been turned down
tightly. (e) Electrolyte has been spilled in measuring specific gravity.
If the case is rotted around the lower part it indicates that the jars are cracked or
contain holes. Instructions for making repairs on battery cases are given on page 360.
TROUBLE WITH CONNECTORS AND TERMINALS
1. Corroded. This is a very common trouble, and one which should be guarded
against very carefully. Corrosion is indicated by the presence of a grayish or greenish
substance on the battery terminals, especially the positive. It is due to several causes:
(a) Too much water added to cells. The electrolyte expands on charge and flows out
on the top of the battery.
(b) Battery not fastened firmly. The jolting caused by the motion of the car on the road
will cause electrolyte to be thrown out of the vent caps.
(c) Battery poorly sealed. The electrolyte will be thrown out on the cover by the
motion of the car through the leaks which result from poor sealing.
(d) Vent caps loose. This also allows electrolyte to be thrown out on the battery top.
(e) Electrolyte spilled on top of battery in measuring specific gravity.
(f) Battery cables damaged, or loose. The cables attached to the battery terminals are
connected to lugs which are heavily coated with lead. The cables are insulated with
rubber, upon which sulphuric acid has no effect. Care should be taken that the lead
coating is not worn off, and that the rubber insulation is not broken or cut so as to
allow electrolyte, which is spilled on the battery top as explained in (a), (b), (c), (d)
and (e), to reach the bare copper conductors of the cable. The terminal parts are
always so made that when the connections are kept tight no acid can come into contact
with anything but lead and rubber, neither of which is attacked by sulphuric acid.
Page 123
(g) Attaching wires directly to battery terminals. There should be no exposed metal
except lead at the battery terminals. No wires of any other metal should be attached to
the battery terminals. Such wires should be connected to the rubber covered cables
which are attached to battery, and the connections should be made far enough away
from the battery to prevent electrolyte from coming in contact with the wire. Car
manufacturers generally observe this rule, but the car owner may, through ignorance,
attach copper wires directly to the battery terminals. The positive terminal is
especially subject to corrosion, and should be watched carefully. To avoid corrosion it
is necessary simply to keep the top of the battery dry, keep the terminal connections
tight, and coat the terminals with vaseline. The rule about connecting wires directly to
the battery terminals must of course be observed also.
2. Loose. Loose terminal connections cause a loss of energy due to their resistance,
and all such connections must be well made. If the inter-cell connectors are loose, it is
due to a poor job of lead burning. This is also true of burned on terminals, and in
either case, the connections should be drilled off, cleaned and re-burned.
Terminals sometimes become so badly corroded that it is impossible to disconnect the
cables front the battery. Stitch terminals should be drilled off and soaked in boiling
soda water.
ELECTROLYTE TROUBLES
(1) Low Gravity.See page 321.
(2) High Gravity. See page 323.
(3) Low Level. See page 323.
(4) High Level. This condition is due to the addition of too much water. It leads to
corrosion as already explained. It also causes a loss of acid. The Electrolyte which
overflows is lost, this of course, causing a loss of acid. The condition of Low Gravity
then arises, as described on page 321.
(5) Specific gravity will not rise during charge. See page 204.
(6) Milky Electrolyte:
(a) Lead Sulphate in Battery Acid. It sometimes happens that sulphuric acid
contains some lead sulphate in solution. This sulphate is precipitated when water is
added to the acid in mixing electrolyte, and gives the electrolyte a milky
appearance. This sulphate settles if the electrolyte is allowed to stand.
except lead at the battery terminals. No wires of any other metal should be attached to
the battery terminals. Such wires should be connected to the rubber covered cables
which are attached to battery, and the connections should be made far enough away
from the battery to prevent electrolyte from coming in contact with the wire. Car
manufacturers generally observe this rule, but the car owner may, through ignorance,
attach copper wires directly to the battery terminals. The positive terminal is
especially subject to corrosion, and should be watched carefully. To avoid corrosion it
is necessary simply to keep the top of the battery dry, keep the terminal connections
tight, and coat the terminals with vaseline. The rule about connecting wires directly to
the battery terminals must of course be observed also.
2. Loose. Loose terminal connections cause a loss of energy due to their resistance,
and all such connections must be well made. If the inter-cell connectors are loose, it is
due to a poor job of lead burning. This is also true of burned on terminals, and in
either case, the connections should be drilled off, cleaned and re-burned.
Terminals sometimes become so badly corroded that it is impossible to disconnect the
cables front the battery. Stitch terminals should be drilled off and soaked in boiling
soda water.
ELECTROLYTE TROUBLES
(1) Low Gravity.See page 321.
(2) High Gravity. See page 323.
(3) Low Level. See page 323.
(4) High Level. This condition is due to the addition of too much water. It leads to
corrosion as already explained. It also causes a loss of acid. The Electrolyte which
overflows is lost, this of course, causing a loss of acid. The condition of Low Gravity
then arises, as described on page 321.
(5) Specific gravity will not rise during charge. See page 204.
(6) Milky Electrolyte:
(a) Lead Sulphate in Battery Acid. It sometimes happens that sulphuric acid
contains some lead sulphate in solution. This sulphate is precipitated when water is
added to the acid in mixing electrolyte, and gives the electrolyte a milky
appearance. This sulphate settles if the electrolyte is allowed to stand.
Page 124
(b) Gassing. The most common cause of the milky appearance, however, is the
presence of minute gas bubbles in large quantities. These may be the result of local
action caused by the presence of metallic impurities in the battery. The local action
will stop when the battery is put on charge, but will begin as soon as the battery is
taken off charge. The impurities are gradually covered by lead or lead sulphate,
and the local action is thus stopped.
Excessive gassing in a cell which contains no impurities may also cause the
electrolyte to have a milky appearance. The gas bubbles are very numerous and
make the electrolyte look milky white.
(c) Impurities in the electrolyte will also give it a milky appearance.
GENERAL TROUBLES
Open Circuits
1. Poor Burning of Connectors to Posts. Unless a good burned connection is made
between each connector and post, the joint may melt under high discharge rates, or it
may offer so much resistance to the passage of current that the starting motor cannot
operate. Sometimes the post is not burned to the connector at all, although the latter is
well finished off on top. Under such conditions the battery may operate for a time, due
to frictional contact between the post and connector, but the parts may become
oxidized or sulphated, or vibration may break the connection, preventing the flow of
current. Frequently, however, the circuit is not completely open, and the poor
connection acts simply as a high resistance. Under such a condition the constant
current generator automatically increases its voltage, and forces charging current
through the battery, although the latter, having only a low fixed voltage, cannot force
out the heavy current required for starting the engine.
2. Terminals Broken Off. Inexperienced workmen frequently pound on the terminals
to loosen the cable lugs, or pry on them sufficiently to break off the battery terminals.
If the terminals and lugs are kept properly greased, they will come apart easily. A pair
of terminal tongs is a very convenient tool. These exert a pressure between the
terminal and the head of the terminal screw, which is first unscrewed a few turns.
3. Acid on Soldered Joints. Amateurs sometimes attempt to make connections by the
use of a soldering iron and solder. Solder is readily dissolved by acid, not only
spoiling the joint, but endangering the plates if any gets into the cells. Solder must
never be used on a battery except for sweating the cables into the cable lugs, and the
joint even here must be well protected by rubber tape.
presence of minute gas bubbles in large quantities. These may be the result of local
action caused by the presence of metallic impurities in the battery. The local action
will stop when the battery is put on charge, but will begin as soon as the battery is
taken off charge. The impurities are gradually covered by lead or lead sulphate,
and the local action is thus stopped.
Excessive gassing in a cell which contains no impurities may also cause the
electrolyte to have a milky appearance. The gas bubbles are very numerous and
make the electrolyte look milky white.
(c) Impurities in the electrolyte will also give it a milky appearance.
GENERAL TROUBLES
Open Circuits
1. Poor Burning of Connectors to Posts. Unless a good burned connection is made
between each connector and post, the joint may melt under high discharge rates, or it
may offer so much resistance to the passage of current that the starting motor cannot
operate. Sometimes the post is not burned to the connector at all, although the latter is
well finished off on top. Under such conditions the battery may operate for a time, due
to frictional contact between the post and connector, but the parts may become
oxidized or sulphated, or vibration may break the connection, preventing the flow of
current. Frequently, however, the circuit is not completely open, and the poor
connection acts simply as a high resistance. Under such a condition the constant
current generator automatically increases its voltage, and forces charging current
through the battery, although the latter, having only a low fixed voltage, cannot force
out the heavy current required for starting the engine.
2. Terminals Broken Off. Inexperienced workmen frequently pound on the terminals
to loosen the cable lugs, or pry on them sufficiently to break off the battery terminals.
If the terminals and lugs are kept properly greased, they will come apart easily. A pair
of terminal tongs is a very convenient tool. These exert a pressure between the
terminal and the head of the terminal screw, which is first unscrewed a few turns.
3. Acid on Soldered Joints. Amateurs sometimes attempt to make connections by the
use of a soldering iron and solder. Solder is readily dissolved by acid, not only
spoiling the joint, but endangering the plates if any gets into the cells. Solder must
never be used on a battery except for sweating the cables into the cable lugs, and the
joint even here must be well protected by rubber tape.
Page 125
4. Defective Posts. Posts withdrawn from the post mould before they are cool enough
may develop cracks. Bubbles sometimes occur in the posts. Either trouble may reduce
the current carrying capacity or mechanical strength of the post and result in a broken
or burned-out spot.
5. Plates Improperly Burned. As previously explained, this is not likely to cause
immediate trouble, but by imposing extra work on the balance of the plates, causes
them to wear out quickly.
Battery Discharged
1. Due to excessive use of starting motor and lamps.
2. Failure of generator.
3. Defective switches, which by being grounded, or failing to open allow battery to
discharge.
4. Defective cutout, allowing battery to discharge into generator.
5. Addition of accessories, or use of too large lamps.
6. Defective wiring, causing grounds or short-circuits.
7. Insufficient charging rate.
8. Battery allowed to remain idle.
Dead Cells
1. Worn out Separators. The duties of separators are to prevent the plates from
touching each other, and to prevent "treeing," or growth of active material from the
negative to the positive plates. If they fail to perform these duties, the battery will
become short-circuited internally. The separator troubles described on page 81
eventually lead to short-circuited cells.
2. Foreign Material. If a piece of lead falls between plates so as to later punch a hole
through a separator, a short circuit will result. Great care should be taken in burning
plates on the straps to prevent lead from running down between plates, as this lead
will cause a short circuit by punching through the separator.
3. Accumulation of Sediment. The active material which drops from the plates
accumulates in the "mud" space in the bottom of the jar. If this rises until it touches
may develop cracks. Bubbles sometimes occur in the posts. Either trouble may reduce
the current carrying capacity or mechanical strength of the post and result in a broken
or burned-out spot.
5. Plates Improperly Burned. As previously explained, this is not likely to cause
immediate trouble, but by imposing extra work on the balance of the plates, causes
them to wear out quickly.
Battery Discharged
1. Due to excessive use of starting motor and lamps.
2. Failure of generator.
3. Defective switches, which by being grounded, or failing to open allow battery to
discharge.
4. Defective cutout, allowing battery to discharge into generator.
5. Addition of accessories, or use of too large lamps.
6. Defective wiring, causing grounds or short-circuits.
7. Insufficient charging rate.
8. Battery allowed to remain idle.
Dead Cells
1. Worn out Separators. The duties of separators are to prevent the plates from
touching each other, and to prevent "treeing," or growth of active material from the
negative to the positive plates. If they fail to perform these duties, the battery will
become short-circuited internally. The separator troubles described on page 81
eventually lead to short-circuited cells.
2. Foreign Material. If a piece of lead falls between plates so as to later punch a hole
through a separator, a short circuit will result. Great care should be taken in burning
plates on the straps to prevent lead from running down between plates, as this lead
will cause a short circuit by punching through the separator.
3. Accumulation of Sediment. The active material which drops from the plates
accumulates in the "mud" space in the bottom of the jar. If this rises until it touches
Page 126
the bottom of the plates, a short-circuit results. Usually it is advisable to renew the
positives in a battery which has become short-circuited by sediment, since the
sediment comes largely from the positives, and if they have lost enough active
material to completely fill the sediment space, they are no longer fit for use.
4. Badly sulphated plates and separators, impurities which attack the plates.
Loss of Capacity
A battery loses capacity due to a number of causes. Some of them have already been
considered.
1. Impurities in the Electrolyte. These have already been discussed.
2. Sulphation. This also has been described.
3. Loose Active Material, as already described. The active materials which are not in
contact with the grids cannot do their work.
4. Incorrect Proportions of Acid and Water in the Electrolyte. In order that all the
active material in the plates may be utilized, there must be enough acid in the
electrolyte, and also enough water. If there is not enough acid, the battery will lack
capacity. If there is too much acid, the acid when the battery is fully charged will be
strong enough to attack and seriously damage the plates and separators. Insufficient
amount of acid may be due to replacing, with water, electrolyte which has been spilled
or which has leaked out. Too much acid results from an incorrect proportion of acid
and water in the electrolyte, or from adding acid instead of water to bring the
electrolyte above the plate tops, and causes sulphation, corroded plates, and
carbonized separators.
The remedy for incorrect proportions of acid and water in the electrolyte is to give the
battery a full charge and adjust the gravity by drawing off some of the electrolyte and
replacing it with water, or 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte, as the case may require.
5. Separators Clogged. The pores of the separators may become filled with sulphate
or impurities, and thus prevent the proper circulation of the electrolyte. New
separators must be put in.
6. Shedding. The capacity of a battery naturally decreases as the active material falls
from the plates, since the amount of active material which can take part in the
chemical actions that enable us to draw current from the battery decreases.
positives in a battery which has become short-circuited by sediment, since the
sediment comes largely from the positives, and if they have lost enough active
material to completely fill the sediment space, they are no longer fit for use.
4. Badly sulphated plates and separators, impurities which attack the plates.
Loss of Capacity
A battery loses capacity due to a number of causes. Some of them have already been
considered.
1. Impurities in the Electrolyte. These have already been discussed.
2. Sulphation. This also has been described.
3. Loose Active Material, as already described. The active materials which are not in
contact with the grids cannot do their work.
4. Incorrect Proportions of Acid and Water in the Electrolyte. In order that all the
active material in the plates may be utilized, there must be enough acid in the
electrolyte, and also enough water. If there is not enough acid, the battery will lack
capacity. If there is too much acid, the acid when the battery is fully charged will be
strong enough to attack and seriously damage the plates and separators. Insufficient
amount of acid may be due to replacing, with water, electrolyte which has been spilled
or which has leaked out. Too much acid results from an incorrect proportion of acid
and water in the electrolyte, or from adding acid instead of water to bring the
electrolyte above the plate tops, and causes sulphation, corroded plates, and
carbonized separators.
The remedy for incorrect proportions of acid and water in the electrolyte is to give the
battery a full charge and adjust the gravity by drawing off some of the electrolyte and
replacing it with water, or 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte, as the case may require.
5. Separators Clogged. The pores of the separators may become filled with sulphate
or impurities, and thus prevent the proper circulation of the electrolyte. New
separators must be put in.
6. Shedding. The capacity of a battery naturally decreases as the active material falls
from the plates, since the amount of active material which can take part in the
chemical actions that enable us to draw current from the battery decreases.
Page 127
7. Low Level of Electrolyte. Aside from the loss of capacity which results from the
sulphation caused by low electrolyte, there is a loss of capacity caused by the decrease
in the useful plate area when the electrolyte is below the tops of the plates. Only that
part of the plate surface which is below the electrolyte does any work, and the area of
this part gradually decreases as the electrolyte falls.
8. Reversal of Plates. If one cell of a battery has an internal short circuit, or some
other defect which causes it to lose its charge, the cell will be discharged before the
others which are in series with it, and when this cell is completely discharged, the
other cells will send a current through it in a discharge direction, and the negative
plates will have a coating of lead peroxide formed on them, and will assume the
characteristics of positive plates. The positives will be reversed also.
This reversal may also be the result of charging a battery in the wrong direction, on
account of reversed charging connections. The remedy for reversed plates, provided
they have not become disintegrated, is to give them a long charge in the right direction
at a low rate.
9. Effect of Age. A battery gradually loses capacity due to its age. This effect is
independent of the loss of capacity due to the other causes. In the negatives, the size
of the grain increases its size, giving the plates a granulated appearance. Stitch plates
are called "granulated" negatives. The spongy lead cements together and loses
porosity.
Loss of Charge in An Idle Battery
It has been found that if a charged battery is allowed to stand idle, and is not charged,
and no current is drawn from it, the battery will gradually become completely
discharged and must be given an occasional "freshening" charge.
Now, as we have learned, when a battery discharges lead sulphate forms on each plate,
and acid is taken from the electrolyte as the sulphate forms. In our idle battery,
therefore, such actions must be taking place. The only difference in this case is that
the sulphate forms without any current passing through the battery.
At the lead peroxide plate we have lead peroxide paste, lead grid, and sulphuric acid.
These are all the element-, needed to produce a storage battery, and as the lead
peroxide and the lead are touching each other, each lead peroxide plate really forms a
short circuited cell. Why does this plate not discharge itself completely? A certain.
amount of discharge does take place, and results in a layer of lead sulphate forming
between the lead peroxide and the grid. The sulphate, having high resistance then
protects the lead grid and prevents any further action. This discharge action therefore
does not continue, but causes a loss of a certain part of the charge.
sulphation caused by low electrolyte, there is a loss of capacity caused by the decrease
in the useful plate area when the electrolyte is below the tops of the plates. Only that
part of the plate surface which is below the electrolyte does any work, and the area of
this part gradually decreases as the electrolyte falls.
8. Reversal of Plates. If one cell of a battery has an internal short circuit, or some
other defect which causes it to lose its charge, the cell will be discharged before the
others which are in series with it, and when this cell is completely discharged, the
other cells will send a current through it in a discharge direction, and the negative
plates will have a coating of lead peroxide formed on them, and will assume the
characteristics of positive plates. The positives will be reversed also.
This reversal may also be the result of charging a battery in the wrong direction, on
account of reversed charging connections. The remedy for reversed plates, provided
they have not become disintegrated, is to give them a long charge in the right direction
at a low rate.
9. Effect of Age. A battery gradually loses capacity due to its age. This effect is
independent of the loss of capacity due to the other causes. In the negatives, the size
of the grain increases its size, giving the plates a granulated appearance. Stitch plates
are called "granulated" negatives. The spongy lead cements together and loses
porosity.
Loss of Charge in An Idle Battery
It has been found that if a charged battery is allowed to stand idle, and is not charged,
and no current is drawn from it, the battery will gradually become completely
discharged and must be given an occasional "freshening" charge.
Now, as we have learned, when a battery discharges lead sulphate forms on each plate,
and acid is taken from the electrolyte as the sulphate forms. In our idle battery,
therefore, such actions must be taking place. The only difference in this case is that
the sulphate forms without any current passing through the battery.
At the lead peroxide plate we have lead peroxide paste, lead grid, and sulphuric acid.
These are all the element-, needed to produce a storage battery, and as the lead
peroxide and the lead are touching each other, each lead peroxide plate really forms a
short circuited cell. Why does this plate not discharge itself completely? A certain.
amount of discharge does take place, and results in a layer of lead sulphate forming
between the lead peroxide and the grid. The sulphate, having high resistance then
protects the lead grid and prevents any further action. This discharge action therefore
does not continue, but causes a loss of a certain part of the charge.
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At the negative plate, we have pure spongy lead, and the grid. This grid is not
composed entirely of lead, but contains a percentage of antimony, a metal which
makes the grid harder and stronger. There is but very little difference of potential
between the spongy lead and the grid. A small amount of lead sulphate does form,
however, on the surface of the negative plate. This is due to the action between the
spongy lead and the electrolyte.
Some of the lead combines with the acid to form lead sulphate, but after a small
amount has been formed the action is stopped because a balanced chemical condition
is soon obtained.
Thus only a small amount of lead sulphate is formed at each plate, and the cell thereby
loses only a small part of its charge. In a perfectly constructed battery the discharge
would then stop. The only further action which would take place would be the slow
evaporation of the water of the electrolyte. The loss of charge which actually occurs in
an idle charged battery is greater than that due to the formation of the small amounts
of sulphate on the plates, and the evaporation of the water from the electrolyte.
Does an idle cell discharge itself by decomposing its electrolyte? We have a
difference of potential of about two volts between the lead and lead peroxide plate.
Why is the electrolyte not decomposed by this difference? At first it might seem that
the water and acid should be separated into its parts, and hydrogen liberated at the
negative plate. As a matter of fact, very little hydrogen gas is set free in an idle
charged cell because to do so would require a voltage of about 2.5. At two volts, so
little gas is formed that the loss of charge due to it may be neglected entirely.
The greatest loss of charge in an idle battery results from conditions arising from
the processes of manufacture, internal troubles, and leakage between terminals.
The grids of a cell are an alloy of lead and antimony. These are mixed while in a
molten condition, and are then allowed to cool. If the cooling is not done properly, or
if a poor grade of antimony is used, the resulting grid is not a uniform mixture of
antimony and lead. There will be areas of pure lead, with an air hole here and there.
The lack of uniformity in the grid material results in a local discharge in the grid. This
causes some loss of charge.
If the active material completely fills the spaces between the grids, the acid formed as
the cell is charged may not be able to diffuse into the main body of the electrolyte, but
forms a small pocket of acid in the plate. This acid will cause a discharge between
paste and grid and a coating of lead sulphate forms on the arid, resulting in a certain
loss of charge.
In general any metallic impurity in a cell will cause a loss at the lead plate. When
a cell is charged, the current causes the metals to deposit on the lead plate. Local
composed entirely of lead, but contains a percentage of antimony, a metal which
makes the grid harder and stronger. There is but very little difference of potential
between the spongy lead and the grid. A small amount of lead sulphate does form,
however, on the surface of the negative plate. This is due to the action between the
spongy lead and the electrolyte.
Some of the lead combines with the acid to form lead sulphate, but after a small
amount has been formed the action is stopped because a balanced chemical condition
is soon obtained.
Thus only a small amount of lead sulphate is formed at each plate, and the cell thereby
loses only a small part of its charge. In a perfectly constructed battery the discharge
would then stop. The only further action which would take place would be the slow
evaporation of the water of the electrolyte. The loss of charge which actually occurs in
an idle charged battery is greater than that due to the formation of the small amounts
of sulphate on the plates, and the evaporation of the water from the electrolyte.
Does an idle cell discharge itself by decomposing its electrolyte? We have a
difference of potential of about two volts between the lead and lead peroxide plate.
Why is the electrolyte not decomposed by this difference? At first it might seem that
the water and acid should be separated into its parts, and hydrogen liberated at the
negative plate. As a matter of fact, very little hydrogen gas is set free in an idle
charged cell because to do so would require a voltage of about 2.5. At two volts, so
little gas is formed that the loss of charge due to it may be neglected entirely.
The greatest loss of charge in an idle battery results from conditions arising from
the processes of manufacture, internal troubles, and leakage between terminals.
The grids of a cell are an alloy of lead and antimony. These are mixed while in a
molten condition, and are then allowed to cool. If the cooling is not done properly, or
if a poor grade of antimony is used, the resulting grid is not a uniform mixture of
antimony and lead. There will be areas of pure lead, with an air hole here and there.
The lack of uniformity in the grid material results in a local discharge in the grid. This
causes some loss of charge.
If the active material completely fills the spaces between the grids, the acid formed as
the cell is charged may not be able to diffuse into the main body of the electrolyte, but
forms a small pocket of acid in the plate. This acid will cause a discharge between
paste and grid and a coating of lead sulphate forms on the arid, resulting in a certain
loss of charge.
In general any metallic impurity in a cell will cause a loss at the lead plate. When
a cell is charged, the current causes the metals to deposit on the lead plate. Local
Page 129
cells are formed by the metallic impurity, the lead plate, and the acid, and these tiny
cells will discharge completely, causing a loss of charge. This has already been
described on page 76.
Another cause of loss of charge in an idle cell is leakage of current between the
terminals on the outside of the battery. During charge, the bubbles of gas which
escape from the electrolyte carry with them minute quantities of acid which may
deposit on the top of the battery and gradually form a thin conducting layer of
electrolyte through which a current will flow from the positive to the negative
terminals. This danger may be avoided by carefully wiping any moisture from the
battery. Condensation of moisture from the air, on the top or sides and bottom of a
battery will cause the same condition. This will be especially noticeable if a battery is
kept in a damp place.
The tendency for crystals of lead to "tree" over from the negative to the positive
plates is well known. An idle battery is one in which this action tends to take place.
Treeing will occur through the pores of the separators and as there is no flow of
electrolyte in or out of the plates, the lead "trees" are not disturbed in their growth. A
freshening charge causes this flow to take place, and break up the "trees" which would
otherwise gradually short circuit the cells.
(Table of) Contents
cells will discharge completely, causing a loss of charge. This has already been
described on page 76.
Another cause of loss of charge in an idle cell is leakage of current between the
terminals on the outside of the battery. During charge, the bubbles of gas which
escape from the electrolyte carry with them minute quantities of acid which may
deposit on the top of the battery and gradually form a thin conducting layer of
electrolyte through which a current will flow from the positive to the negative
terminals. This danger may be avoided by carefully wiping any moisture from the
battery. Condensation of moisture from the air, on the top or sides and bottom of a
battery will cause the same condition. This will be especially noticeable if a battery is
kept in a damp place.
The tendency for crystals of lead to "tree" over from the negative to the positive
plates is well known. An idle battery is one in which this action tends to take place.
Treeing will occur through the pores of the separators and as there is no flow of
electrolyte in or out of the plates, the lead "trees" are not disturbed in their growth. A
freshening charge causes this flow to take place, and break up the "trees" which would
otherwise gradually short circuit the cells.
(Table of) Contents
Page 130
Section II
Shop Equipment
Shop Methods
Shop Equipment
Shop Methods
Page 131
CHAPTER 11.
CARE OF THE BATTERY ON THE CAR.
Any man who goes into the battery repair business will gradually learn by experience
what equipment he finds necessary for his work. Some men will be able to do good
work with comparatively little equipment, while others will require a somewhat
elaborate layout.
Fig. 38. Typical Work Room Showing Bench About 34 Inches High, Lead Burning
Outfit, Hot Plates for Melting Sealing Compound and Hand Drill-Press for Drilling
off Inter-Cell Connectors.
There are some things, however, which are necessary, and the following lists are given
to help the repairman select his equipment. The man with limited capital will be
unable to buy a complete equipment at the start, but he should add to his equipment as
CARE OF THE BATTERY ON THE CAR.
Any man who goes into the battery repair business will gradually learn by experience
what equipment he finds necessary for his work. Some men will be able to do good
work with comparatively little equipment, while others will require a somewhat
elaborate layout.
Fig. 38. Typical Work Room Showing Bench About 34 Inches High, Lead Burning
Outfit, Hot Plates for Melting Sealing Compound and Hand Drill-Press for Drilling
off Inter-Cell Connectors.
There are some things, however, which are necessary, and the following lists are given
to help the repairman select his equipment. The man with limited capital will be
unable to buy a complete equipment at the start, but he should add to his equipment as
Page 132
fast as his earnings will permit. The repairman may be able to "get-by" with crude
equipment when his business is very small, but to make his business grow he must
absolutely have good equipment.
The following list gives the various articles in the order of their importance. The first
seven are absolutely necessary, even for the poorest beginner. The others are also
essential, but may be bought as soon, as the money begins to come in. Some of the
tools must also be bought before opening doors for business, such as the putty knife,
screwdrivers, pliers, and so on. Each article, which requires explanation, is described
in detail, beginning on page 100.
Equipment Which is Absolutely Necessary
1. Charging Outfit, such as a motor-generator set, rectifier, or charging
resistance where direct current is available.
2. Charging Bench and Accessories. With the charging bench must go the
following:
A. A syringe-hydrometer for measuring specific gravity of
electrolyte, for drawing off electrolyte and for adding water to
cells.
B. A special battery thermometer for measuring temperature of
electrolyte.
C. A voltmeter to measure cell, battery, and cadmium voltages.
D. An ammeter to measure charging current.
E. A glass bottle for distilled water. Also one for electrolyte.
F. A number of eighteen inch lengths of No. 12 flexible wire fitted
with lead coated test clips, for connecting batteries in series while
on charge.
3. Work bench with vise.
4. Sink or wash tank and water supply.
5. Lead-burning outfit. (This should properly be called a lead welding
outfit, since it is used to melt lead parts so that they will be welded
together.)
6. For handling sealing compound, the following are necessary.
A. Stove.
B. Pot in which compound is melted.
equipment when his business is very small, but to make his business grow he must
absolutely have good equipment.
The following list gives the various articles in the order of their importance. The first
seven are absolutely necessary, even for the poorest beginner. The others are also
essential, but may be bought as soon, as the money begins to come in. Some of the
tools must also be bought before opening doors for business, such as the putty knife,
screwdrivers, pliers, and so on. Each article, which requires explanation, is described
in detail, beginning on page 100.
Equipment Which is Absolutely Necessary
1. Charging Outfit, such as a motor-generator set, rectifier, or charging
resistance where direct current is available.
2. Charging Bench and Accessories. With the charging bench must go the
following:
A. A syringe-hydrometer for measuring specific gravity of
electrolyte, for drawing off electrolyte and for adding water to
cells.
B. A special battery thermometer for measuring temperature of
electrolyte.
C. A voltmeter to measure cell, battery, and cadmium voltages.
D. An ammeter to measure charging current.
E. A glass bottle for distilled water. Also one for electrolyte.
F. A number of eighteen inch lengths of No. 12 flexible wire fitted
with lead coated test clips, for connecting batteries in series while
on charge.
3. Work bench with vise.
4. Sink or wash tank and water supply.
5. Lead-burning outfit. (This should properly be called a lead welding
outfit, since it is used to melt lead parts so that they will be welded
together.)
6. For handling sealing compound, the following are necessary.
A. Stove.
B. Pot in which compound is melted.
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C. An iron ladle for dipping up the melted compound.
D. One or two old coffee pots for pouring compound.
7. Shelving or racks for batteries waiting to be repaired, batteries which
have been repaired, rental batteries, new batteries, battery boxes, battery
jars, battery plates, etc.
8. Bins for battery parts, such as covers, inter-cell connectors, plate straps,
terminals, handles, vent plugs, hold down bolts, separator hold-downs,
and so on.
Equipment Needed In Opening Batteries
9. A battery steamer for softening sealing-compound and making covers
limp, for softening compound around defective jars which are to be
removed, for softening jars which are to be set in a battery box, and so on.
10. Putty knife to remove softened scaling compound.
11. One ratchet brace with set of wood bits or square shank drills of the
following sizes: 3/8, 5/8, 3/4, 13/16, and 7/8 inch, for drilling off
terminals and inter-cell connectors. A power drill press, or a portable
electric drill will save time and labor in drilling off the terminals and
connectors.
12. Center punch for marking terminals and connectors before drilling.
13. Ten inch screwdriver for prying off connectors and terminals which
have been drilled. The screwdriver may, of course, be used on various
other kinds of work also.
14. A ten-inch length of 3/4 inch angle iron to protect upper edge of case
when prying off the connectors and terminals which have been drilled.
15. Two pairs of standard combination pliers for lifting elements out of
jars. A pair of six or eight inch gas pliers will also do for this work.
16. Machinist hammer. This is, of course, also used for other purposes.
17. Terminal tongs for removing taper lugs from terminals.
18. Pair of long, fiat nosed pliers for pulling out separators and jars.
19. Open-end wrench for use in removing taper lugs from terminals.
D. One or two old coffee pots for pouring compound.
7. Shelving or racks for batteries waiting to be repaired, batteries which
have been repaired, rental batteries, new batteries, battery boxes, battery
jars, battery plates, etc.
8. Bins for battery parts, such as covers, inter-cell connectors, plate straps,
terminals, handles, vent plugs, hold down bolts, separator hold-downs,
and so on.
Equipment Needed In Opening Batteries
9. A battery steamer for softening sealing-compound and making covers
limp, for softening compound around defective jars which are to be
removed, for softening jars which are to be set in a battery box, and so on.
10. Putty knife to remove softened scaling compound.
11. One ratchet brace with set of wood bits or square shank drills of the
following sizes: 3/8, 5/8, 3/4, 13/16, and 7/8 inch, for drilling off
terminals and inter-cell connectors. A power drill press, or a portable
electric drill will save time and labor in drilling off the terminals and
connectors.
12. Center punch for marking terminals and connectors before drilling.
13. Ten inch screwdriver for prying off connectors and terminals which
have been drilled. The screwdriver may, of course, be used on various
other kinds of work also.
14. A ten-inch length of 3/4 inch angle iron to protect upper edge of case
when prying off the connectors and terminals which have been drilled.
15. Two pairs of standard combination pliers for lifting elements out of
jars. A pair of six or eight inch gas pliers will also do for this work.
16. Machinist hammer. This is, of course, also used for other purposes.
17. Terminal tongs for removing taper lugs from terminals.
18. Pair of long, fiat nosed pliers for pulling out separators and jars.
19. Open-end wrench for use in removing taper lugs from terminals.
Page 134
Equipment for Lead Burning (Welding)
In addition to the lead burning-outfit, the following tools are needed:
20. A plate burning rack for setting up plates which are to be burned to a
plate strap.
21. A plumber's or tinner's triangular scraper for cleaning surfaces which
are to be welded together. A pocketknife will do in a pinch.
22. Steel wire brush for cleaning surfaces which are to be welded together.
This may also be used for general cleaning of lead parts.
23. Coarse files, vixen, round, and flat, for filing lead parts.
24. Set of burning, collars to be used in burning inter-cell connectors to
posts.
25. Moulds for casting sticks of burning lead. A pot for melting lead is
needed with the mould, and mould compound is also needed.
26. Set of post builders-moulds used for building up posts which have
been drilled short in removing terminals and intercell connectors.
27. Pair of blue or smoked glasses to be worn when using lead burning
outfit.
Equipment for General Work on Cell Connectors and
Terminals
28. Set of moulds for casting inter-cell connectors, terminals, terminal
screws, taper lugs, plate straps and posts, etc.
29. Set of reamers to ream holes in terminals and connectors.
30. Set of hollow reamers for reducing posts.
Equipment for Work on Cases
31. Cans of asphaltum paint for painting cases. May also be used for acid-
proofing work benches, floor, shelves, charging bench, and so on.
32. Paint brushes, one wide and several narrow.
In addition to the lead burning-outfit, the following tools are needed:
20. A plate burning rack for setting up plates which are to be burned to a
plate strap.
21. A plumber's or tinner's triangular scraper for cleaning surfaces which
are to be welded together. A pocketknife will do in a pinch.
22. Steel wire brush for cleaning surfaces which are to be welded together.
This may also be used for general cleaning of lead parts.
23. Coarse files, vixen, round, and flat, for filing lead parts.
24. Set of burning, collars to be used in burning inter-cell connectors to
posts.
25. Moulds for casting sticks of burning lead. A pot for melting lead is
needed with the mould, and mould compound is also needed.
26. Set of post builders-moulds used for building up posts which have
been drilled short in removing terminals and intercell connectors.
27. Pair of blue or smoked glasses to be worn when using lead burning
outfit.
Equipment for General Work on Cell Connectors and
Terminals
28. Set of moulds for casting inter-cell connectors, terminals, terminal
screws, taper lugs, plate straps and posts, etc.
29. Set of reamers to ream holes in terminals and connectors.
30. Set of hollow reamers for reducing posts.
Equipment for Work on Cases
31. Cans of asphaltum paint for painting cases. May also be used for acid-
proofing work benches, floor, shelves, charging bench, and so on.
32. Paint brushes, one wide and several narrow.
Page 135
33. Battery turntable.
34. Several wood chisels of different sizes.
35. Small wood-plane for smoothing up top edges of case.
36. Large glazed earthenware jars of washing or baking soda solution for
soaking cases to neutralize acid.
Tools and Equipment for General Work
37. One pair of large end cutting nippers for cutting connectors, posts,
plate lugs, and so on.
38. One pair of 8 inch side cutting pliers.
39. One pair of 8 inch diagonal cutting pliers.
40. Several screwdrivers.
41. Adjustable hacksaw frame with set of coarse blades.
42. Gasoline torch.
42. Soldering iron, solder and flux.
44. Separator cutter.
45. Plate press for pressing bulged, spongy lead of negative plates flush
with surface of grids.
46. Battery carrier.
47. Battery truck.
48. Lead lined box for storing separators. A large glazed earthenware jar
may be used for this purpose, and is much cheaper, although it will not
hold as many separators, on account of its round shape, as the lead lined
box.
49. Several old stew pans for boiling acid soaked terminals, connectors,
covers, etc., in a solution of washing soda.
34. Several wood chisels of different sizes.
35. Small wood-plane for smoothing up top edges of case.
36. Large glazed earthenware jars of washing or baking soda solution for
soaking cases to neutralize acid.
Tools and Equipment for General Work
37. One pair of large end cutting nippers for cutting connectors, posts,
plate lugs, and so on.
38. One pair of 8 inch side cutting pliers.
39. One pair of 8 inch diagonal cutting pliers.
40. Several screwdrivers.
41. Adjustable hacksaw frame with set of coarse blades.
42. Gasoline torch.
42. Soldering iron, solder and flux.
44. Separator cutter.
45. Plate press for pressing bulged, spongy lead of negative plates flush
with surface of grids.
46. Battery carrier.
47. Battery truck.
48. Lead lined box for storing separators. A large glazed earthenware jar
may be used for this purpose, and is much cheaper, although it will not
hold as many separators, on account of its round shape, as the lead lined
box.
49. Several old stew pans for boiling acid soaked terminals, connectors,
covers, etc., in a solution of washing soda.
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50. Set of metal lettering stamps, for stamping POS and NEG on battery
terminals, repairman's initials, date battery was repaired, and nature of
repairs, on inter-cell connectors.
51. Cadmium test set.
52. High rate discharge testers.
53. Pair of rubber gloves to protect hands when handling acid.
54. Rubber apron to protect clothing from acid.
55. Pair of rubber sleeve protectors.
56. Rubbers to protect shoes, or pair of low rubber boots.
57. Tags for tagging repair and rental batteries, batteries in storage, etc.
58. Pot of paraffine which may be heated, and paper tags dipped after date
has been written on tag in pencil. A 60-watt lamp hung in the can may be
used for heating the compound. In this way the tag is protected from the
action of acid, and the writing on the tag cannot be rubbed off or made
illegible.
59. A number of wooden boxes, about 12 inches long, 8 inches wide, and
4 inches deep, in which are placed terminals, inter-cell connectors, covers,
vent plugs, etc., of batteries being repaired.
60. Several large glazed earthenware jars are convenient for waste acid,
old separators, and general junk, which would otherwise litter up the shop.
Stock
61. A supply of spare parts, such as cases, jars, covers, plate straps, inter-
cell connectors, plates, vent plugs, etc., should be kept.
62. A supply of sealing compound is necessary.
63. A carboy of pure acid, and carboys of 1.400 electrolyte ready for use
should be on hand. A 16 oz. and a 32 or 64 oz. graduate are very useful in
measuring out acid and water.
64. A ten gallon bottle of distilled water is necessary for use in making up
electrolyte, for addition to cell electrolyte to bring electrolyte up to proper
terminals, repairman's initials, date battery was repaired, and nature of
repairs, on inter-cell connectors.
51. Cadmium test set.
52. High rate discharge testers.
53. Pair of rubber gloves to protect hands when handling acid.
54. Rubber apron to protect clothing from acid.
55. Pair of rubber sleeve protectors.
56. Rubbers to protect shoes, or pair of low rubber boots.
57. Tags for tagging repair and rental batteries, batteries in storage, etc.
58. Pot of paraffine which may be heated, and paper tags dipped after date
has been written on tag in pencil. A 60-watt lamp hung in the can may be
used for heating the compound. In this way the tag is protected from the
action of acid, and the writing on the tag cannot be rubbed off or made
illegible.
59. A number of wooden boxes, about 12 inches long, 8 inches wide, and
4 inches deep, in which are placed terminals, inter-cell connectors, covers,
vent plugs, etc., of batteries being repaired.
60. Several large glazed earthenware jars are convenient for waste acid,
old separators, and general junk, which would otherwise litter up the shop.
Stock
61. A supply of spare parts, such as cases, jars, covers, plate straps, inter-
cell connectors, plates, vent plugs, etc., should be kept.
62. A supply of sealing compound is necessary.
63. A carboy of pure acid, and carboys of 1.400 electrolyte ready for use
should be on hand. A 16 oz. and a 32 or 64 oz. graduate are very useful in
measuring out acid and water.
64. A ten gallon bottle of distilled water is necessary for use in making up
electrolyte, for addition to cell electrolyte to bring electrolyte up to proper
Page 137
level, and so on. If you wish to distill water yourself, buy a water still.
65. A supply of pure vaseline is necessary for coating terminals to prevent
corrosion.
Special Tools
Owing to special constructions used oil sonic of the standard makes of
batteries, special tools are required, and such tools should be obtained if
work is done oil these batteries. Some of these tools are as follows:
66. Special wrenches for turning sealing nuts on Exide batteries.
67. Two hollow reamers (post-freeing tools) for cutting lead seal around
posts of Prest-O-Lite batteries. There are two sizes, large and small, see
page 389.
68. Style "B" peening press for sealing posts of Prest-O-Lite batteries to
covers, see page 390.
69. Pressure tongs for forcing lead collar oil posts of Vesta batteries, see
page 415.
70. Special wrench for tightening sealing nut oil Titan batteries.
71. Special reamer for cutting sealing ring oil Universal batteries.
The list of special tools is not intended to be complete, and the repairman
will probably find other special tools necessary from time to time. In any
case, it is best to buy from the battery manufacturer such special tools as
are necessary for the batteries that come in for repairs. It is sometimes
possible to get along without the special tools, but time and labor will be
saved by using them.
DESCRIPTIONS OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT NAMED IN
FOREGOING LIST
Charging Equipment
A battery is charged by sending a direct current through it, this "charging" current
entering the battery at, the positive terminal and passing out at the negative terminal.
To send this current through the battery, a voltage of about 7.5 volts is applied to each
battery.
65. A supply of pure vaseline is necessary for coating terminals to prevent
corrosion.
Special Tools
Owing to special constructions used oil sonic of the standard makes of
batteries, special tools are required, and such tools should be obtained if
work is done oil these batteries. Some of these tools are as follows:
66. Special wrenches for turning sealing nuts on Exide batteries.
67. Two hollow reamers (post-freeing tools) for cutting lead seal around
posts of Prest-O-Lite batteries. There are two sizes, large and small, see
page 389.
68. Style "B" peening press for sealing posts of Prest-O-Lite batteries to
covers, see page 390.
69. Pressure tongs for forcing lead collar oil posts of Vesta batteries, see
page 415.
70. Special wrench for tightening sealing nut oil Titan batteries.
71. Special reamer for cutting sealing ring oil Universal batteries.
The list of special tools is not intended to be complete, and the repairman
will probably find other special tools necessary from time to time. In any
case, it is best to buy from the battery manufacturer such special tools as
are necessary for the batteries that come in for repairs. It is sometimes
possible to get along without the special tools, but time and labor will be
saved by using them.
DESCRIPTIONS OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT NAMED IN
FOREGOING LIST
Charging Equipment
A battery is charged by sending a direct current through it, this "charging" current
entering the battery at, the positive terminal and passing out at the negative terminal.
To send this current through the battery, a voltage of about 7.5 volts is applied to each
battery.
Page 138
Two things are therefore necessary in charging a battery:
1. We must have a source of direct current.
2. The voltage impressed across each battery must be, about 2.5 per cell. The
charging voltage across each six volt battery must therefore be 7.5, and for each
twelve volt battery the charging voltage must be about 15 volts.
With the battery on the car, there are two general methods of charging, i. e.,
constant potential (voltage) and constant current. Generators having a constant voltage
regulator have a constant voltage of about 7.5, the charging current depending upon
the condition of the battery. A discharged battery thus receives a high charging
current, this current gradually decreasing, or "tapering" as the battery becomes more
fully charged. This system has the desirable characteristic that a discharged battery
receives a heavy charging current, and a fully charged battery receives a small
charging current. The time of charging is thereby decreased.
With a constant-current charging system, the generator current output is
maintained at a certain value, regardless of the state of charge of the battery. The
disadvantage of this system is that a fully charged battery is charged at as high a rate
and in most cases at a higher rate than a discharged battery.
In the shop, either the constant-potential, or the constant-current system of
charging may be used. Up to the present time, the constant current system has been
used in the majority of shops. The equipment for constant current charging uses a
lamp bank or rheostat to regulate the charging current where direct current is
available, and a rectifier or motor-generator set where only alternating current is
available. Recently, the Hobart Brothers Company of Troy, Ohio, has put on the
market a constant potential motor-generator set which gives the same desirable
"tapering" charge as does the constant voltage generator on the car. This set will be
described later.
Where a 110-volt direct current supply is available, fifteen 6-volt batteries may be
connected in series across the line without the use of any rheostat or lamp bank, only
an ammeter being required in the circuit to indicate the charging current. The charging
rate may be varied by cutting out some of the batteries, or connecting more batteries
in the circuit. This method is feasible only where many batteries are charged, since not
less than fifteen 6-volt batteries may be charged at one time.
Constant Current Charging
Using Lamp Banks, or Rheostats
1. We must have a source of direct current.
2. The voltage impressed across each battery must be, about 2.5 per cell. The
charging voltage across each six volt battery must therefore be 7.5, and for each
twelve volt battery the charging voltage must be about 15 volts.
With the battery on the car, there are two general methods of charging, i. e.,
constant potential (voltage) and constant current. Generators having a constant voltage
regulator have a constant voltage of about 7.5, the charging current depending upon
the condition of the battery. A discharged battery thus receives a high charging
current, this current gradually decreasing, or "tapering" as the battery becomes more
fully charged. This system has the desirable characteristic that a discharged battery
receives a heavy charging current, and a fully charged battery receives a small
charging current. The time of charging is thereby decreased.
With a constant-current charging system, the generator current output is
maintained at a certain value, regardless of the state of charge of the battery. The
disadvantage of this system is that a fully charged battery is charged at as high a rate
and in most cases at a higher rate than a discharged battery.
In the shop, either the constant-potential, or the constant-current system of
charging may be used. Up to the present time, the constant current system has been
used in the majority of shops. The equipment for constant current charging uses a
lamp bank or rheostat to regulate the charging current where direct current is
available, and a rectifier or motor-generator set where only alternating current is
available. Recently, the Hobart Brothers Company of Troy, Ohio, has put on the
market a constant potential motor-generator set which gives the same desirable
"tapering" charge as does the constant voltage generator on the car. This set will be
described later.
Where a 110-volt direct current supply is available, fifteen 6-volt batteries may be
connected in series across the line without the use of any rheostat or lamp bank, only
an ammeter being required in the circuit to indicate the charging current. The charging
rate may be varied by cutting out some of the batteries, or connecting more batteries
in the circuit. This method is feasible only where many batteries are charged, since not
less than fifteen 6-volt batteries may be charged at one time.
Constant Current Charging
Using Lamp Banks, or Rheostats
Page 139
Figures 39 and 40 show the wiring for a "bank" of twenty 100-watt lamps for battery
charging from a 110 volt line. Figure 39 shows the wiring to be used when the
positive side of the line is grounded, while Figure 40 shows the wiring to be used
when the negative side of the line is grounded. In either case, the "live" wire connects
to the lamp bank. The purpose of this is to eliminate the possibility of a short-circuit if
any part of the charging line beyond the lamp bank is accidentally grounded.
charging from a 110 volt line. Figure 39 shows the wiring to be used when the
positive side of the line is grounded, while Figure 40 shows the wiring to be used
when the negative side of the line is grounded. In either case, the "live" wire connects
to the lamp bank. The purpose of this is to eliminate the possibility of a short-circuit if
any part of the charging line beyond the lamp bank is accidentally grounded.
Page 140
Page 141
Page 142
Page 143
Figures 41 and 42 show the wiring of two charging rheostats which may be used
instead of the lamp banks shown in Figures 39 and 40. In these two rheostats the live
wire is connected to the rheostat resistances in order to prevent short-circuits by
grounding any part of the circuit beyond the rheostats. These rheostats may be bought
ready for use, and should not be "homemade." The wiring as shown in Figures 41 and
42 is probably not the same as will be found on a rheostat which may be bought, but
when installing a rheostat, the wiring should be examined to make sure that the "live"
wire is connected to the rheostat resistance and does not connect directly to the
charging circuit. If necessary, change the wiring to agree with Figures 41 and 42.
Figures 43 and 44 show the wiring of the charging circuits. In Figure 43 each battery
has a double pole, double throw knife switch. This is probably the better layout, since
any battery may be connected in the circuit by throwing down the knife switch, and
any battery may be cut out by throwing the switch up. With this wiring layout, any
number of batteries from one to ten may be cut-in by means of the switches. Thus, to
charge five batteries, switches 1 to 5 are thrown down, and switches 5 to 10 are
thrown up, thereby short-circuiting them.
instead of the lamp banks shown in Figures 39 and 40. In these two rheostats the live
wire is connected to the rheostat resistances in order to prevent short-circuits by
grounding any part of the circuit beyond the rheostats. These rheostats may be bought
ready for use, and should not be "homemade." The wiring as shown in Figures 41 and
42 is probably not the same as will be found on a rheostat which may be bought, but
when installing a rheostat, the wiring should be examined to make sure that the "live"
wire is connected to the rheostat resistance and does not connect directly to the
charging circuit. If necessary, change the wiring to agree with Figures 41 and 42.
Figures 43 and 44 show the wiring of the charging circuits. In Figure 43 each battery
has a double pole, double throw knife switch. This is probably the better layout, since
any battery may be connected in the circuit by throwing down the knife switch, and
any battery may be cut out by throwing the switch up. With this wiring layout, any
number of batteries from one to ten may be cut-in by means of the switches. Thus, to
charge five batteries, switches 1 to 5 are thrown down, and switches 5 to 10 are
thrown up, thereby short-circuiting them.
Page 144
Figure 44 shows a ten-battery charging circuit on which the batteries are connected in
series by means of jumpers fitted with lead coated test clips, as shown. This layout is
not as convenient as that shown in Figure 43, but is less expensive.
Using Motor-Generator Sets
Where no direct current supply is available, a motor-generator or a rectifier must be
installed. The motor-generator is more expensive than a rectifier, but is preferred by
some service stations because it is extremely flexible as to voltage and current, is
easily operated, is free from complications, and has no delicate parts to cause trouble.
Motor-Generator sets are made by a number of manufacturers. Accompanying these
sets are complete instructions for installation and operation, and we will not attempt to
duplicate such instructions in this book. Rules to assist in selecting the equipment
will, however, be given.
series by means of jumpers fitted with lead coated test clips, as shown. This layout is
not as convenient as that shown in Figure 43, but is less expensive.
Using Motor-Generator Sets
Where no direct current supply is available, a motor-generator or a rectifier must be
installed. The motor-generator is more expensive than a rectifier, but is preferred by
some service stations because it is extremely flexible as to voltage and current, is
easily operated, is free from complications, and has no delicate parts to cause trouble.
Motor-Generator sets are made by a number of manufacturers. Accompanying these
sets are complete instructions for installation and operation, and we will not attempt to
duplicate such instructions in this book. Rules to assist in selecting the equipment
will, however, be given.
Page 145
Except in very large service
stations, a 40 volt generator
is preferable. It requires
approximately 2.5 volts per
cell to overcome the voltage
of a battery in order to
charge it, and hence the 40
volt generator has a voltage
sufficient to charge 15 cells
in series on one charging
line. Five 6 volt batteries
may therefore be charged at
one time on each line. With
a charging rate of 10
amperes, each charging line
will require 10 times 40, or
400 watts. The size of the
generator will depend on
the number of charging
lines desired. With 10
amperes charging current
per line, the capacity of the
generator required will be equal to 400 watts multiplied by the number of charging
lines. One charging line will need a 400 watt outfit. For two charging lines 800 watts
are required. Each charging line is generally provided with a separate rheostat so that
its charging rate may be adjusted to any desired value. This is an important feature, as
it is wrong to charge all batteries at the same rate, and with separate rheostats the
current on each line may be adjusted to the correct value for the batteries connected to
that line. Any number of batteries up to the maximum may be charged on each line.
stations, a 40 volt generator
is preferable. It requires
approximately 2.5 volts per
cell to overcome the voltage
of a battery in order to
charge it, and hence the 40
volt generator has a voltage
sufficient to charge 15 cells
in series on one charging
line. Five 6 volt batteries
may therefore be charged at
one time on each line. With
a charging rate of 10
amperes, each charging line
will require 10 times 40, or
400 watts. The size of the
generator will depend on
the number of charging
lines desired. With 10
amperes charging current
per line, the capacity of the
generator required will be equal to 400 watts multiplied by the number of charging
lines. One charging line will need a 400 watt outfit. For two charging lines 800 watts
are required. Each charging line is generally provided with a separate rheostat so that
its charging rate may be adjusted to any desired value. This is an important feature, as
it is wrong to charge all batteries at the same rate, and with separate rheostats the
current on each line may be adjusted to the correct value for the batteries connected to
that line. Any number of batteries up to the maximum may be charged on each line.
Page 146
In choosing a charging outfit, it is important not to get one which is too large, as the
outfit will operate at a loss when running under a minimum load. It is equally
important not to get one which is too small, as it will not be able to take care of the
batteries fast enough, and there will be a "waiting list" of batteries which cannot be
charged until others are taken off charge. This will prevent the giving of good service.
Buy an outfit that will care for your needs in the future, and also operate economically
at the present time. Most men going into the battery business make the mistake of
underestimating their needs, and getting equipment which must soon be discarded
because of lack of capacity.
The manufacturers each make a number of sizes, and the one which will best fill the
requirements should be chosen. In selecting an outfit the manufacturer's distributor or
dealer should be consulted in deciding what size outfit to obtain. The particular outfit
will depend on the voltage and frequency of the alternating current power circuits, the
maximum charging current desired (10 amperes per line is ample), and the greatest
number of batteries to be charged at one time.
For the beginner, a 500 watt ten battery outfit, as shown in Fig. 45, is suitable. For the
medium sized garage that specializes in battery charging, or for the small battery
service station, a one kilowatt outfit is most satisfactory. Two charging panels are
generally furnished with this outfit, and two charging lines may thus be used. This is
outfit will operate at a loss when running under a minimum load. It is equally
important not to get one which is too small, as it will not be able to take care of the
batteries fast enough, and there will be a "waiting list" of batteries which cannot be
charged until others are taken off charge. This will prevent the giving of good service.
Buy an outfit that will care for your needs in the future, and also operate economically
at the present time. Most men going into the battery business make the mistake of
underestimating their needs, and getting equipment which must soon be discarded
because of lack of capacity.
The manufacturers each make a number of sizes, and the one which will best fill the
requirements should be chosen. In selecting an outfit the manufacturer's distributor or
dealer should be consulted in deciding what size outfit to obtain. The particular outfit
will depend on the voltage and frequency of the alternating current power circuits, the
maximum charging current desired (10 amperes per line is ample), and the greatest
number of batteries to be charged at one time.
For the beginner, a 500 watt ten battery outfit, as shown in Fig. 45, is suitable. For the
medium sized garage that specializes in battery charging, or for the small battery
service station, a one kilowatt outfit is most satisfactory. Two charging panels are
generally furnished with this outfit, and two charging lines may thus be used. This is
Page 147
an important feature, as one line may be used in starting a charge at 10 amperes, and
the other for charging the batteries, that have begun to gas, at a reduced rate. Fig. 46
shows a 2 K. W. four-circuit, 32 battery motor-generator set. Each circuit is provided
with a separate rheostat and ammeter. The two terminals near the top of each rheostat
are connected to one charging circuit. The two terminals near the lower end of each
rheostat are connected to the generator.
The 2 kilowatt set is suitable for a city garage, or a battery service station in a medium
sized town. A beginner should not purchase this large set, unless the set can be
operated at at least one-fourth capacity continuously. As a service station grows, a 5
kilowatt set may be needed. The 1, 2 and 5 kilowatt sets should not be used on
anything but city power lines. Single phase, or lighting lines are not satisfactory for
handling these sets.
A few suggestions on Motor-Generator Sets
1. Installation. Set the motor-generator on as firm a foundation as possible. A good
plan is to bolt it to a heavy bench, in which position it is easily inspected and adjusted,
and is also less likely to be hit by acid spray, water, etc.
Set the motor-generator at some distance from the batteries so that acid spray and
fumes will not reach it. Sulphuric acid will attack any metal and if you are not careful,
your motor-generator may be damaged seriously. The best plan is to have the motor
generator set outside of the charging room, so as to have a wall or partition between
the motor-generator and the batteries. The charging panels may be placed as near the
batteries as necessary for convenience, but should not be mounted above the batteries.
Figure 47 shows a convenient layout of motor-generator, charging panels, and
charging benches. Note that the junipers used in connecting the batteries together are
run through the upper holes of the wire porcelain insulating cleats, the lower hole of
each insulator supporting the wire from the charging panel which runs to the end of
the bench.
the other for charging the batteries, that have begun to gas, at a reduced rate. Fig. 46
shows a 2 K. W. four-circuit, 32 battery motor-generator set. Each circuit is provided
with a separate rheostat and ammeter. The two terminals near the top of each rheostat
are connected to one charging circuit. The two terminals near the lower end of each
rheostat are connected to the generator.
The 2 kilowatt set is suitable for a city garage, or a battery service station in a medium
sized town. A beginner should not purchase this large set, unless the set can be
operated at at least one-fourth capacity continuously. As a service station grows, a 5
kilowatt set may be needed. The 1, 2 and 5 kilowatt sets should not be used on
anything but city power lines. Single phase, or lighting lines are not satisfactory for
handling these sets.
A few suggestions on Motor-Generator Sets
1. Installation. Set the motor-generator on as firm a foundation as possible. A good
plan is to bolt it to a heavy bench, in which position it is easily inspected and adjusted,
and is also less likely to be hit by acid spray, water, etc.
Set the motor-generator at some distance from the batteries so that acid spray and
fumes will not reach it. Sulphuric acid will attack any metal and if you are not careful,
your motor-generator may be damaged seriously. The best plan is to have the motor
generator set outside of the charging room, so as to have a wall or partition between
the motor-generator and the batteries. The charging panels may be placed as near the
batteries as necessary for convenience, but should not be mounted above the batteries.
Figure 47 shows a convenient layout of motor-generator, charging panels, and
charging benches. Note that the junipers used in connecting the batteries together are
run through the upper holes of the wire porcelain insulating cleats, the lower hole of
each insulator supporting the wire from the charging panel which runs to the end of
the bench.
Page 148
Fig. 47. Convenient Arrangement of Motor-Generator, Charging Panels, and Charging
Benches
Instructions for the wiring connections to the power lines generally come with each
outfit, and they should be followed carefully. Fuses in both the motor and generator
circuits are especially important, as they protect the machines from damage due to
overloads, grounds, or short-circuits. The generator must be driven in the proper
direction or the generator will not build up. The rotation of a three-phase motor may
be reversed by reversing, and Charging Benches any two of the cables. To reverse a
two-phase motor, reverse the cables of either phase. Before putting a motor-generator
set into operation, be sure to check all connections to make sure that everything
checks with the instructions furnished by the manufacturer.
Operating the Charging Circuits
A generator operates most efficiently when delivering its rated output. Therefore, keep
the generator as fully loaded as possible at all times. When you do not have enough
batteries to run the generator at full load, run each charging circuit at full load, and use
as few circuits as possible. This will reduce your power bill, since there is a loss of
power in the rheostat of each charging circuit, this loss being the greatest when only
one battery is on the circuit, and a minimum when the circuit is fully loaded.
Benches
Instructions for the wiring connections to the power lines generally come with each
outfit, and they should be followed carefully. Fuses in both the motor and generator
circuits are especially important, as they protect the machines from damage due to
overloads, grounds, or short-circuits. The generator must be driven in the proper
direction or the generator will not build up. The rotation of a three-phase motor may
be reversed by reversing, and Charging Benches any two of the cables. To reverse a
two-phase motor, reverse the cables of either phase. Before putting a motor-generator
set into operation, be sure to check all connections to make sure that everything
checks with the instructions furnished by the manufacturer.
Operating the Charging Circuits
A generator operates most efficiently when delivering its rated output. Therefore, keep
the generator as fully loaded as possible at all times. When you do not have enough
batteries to run the generator at full load, run each charging circuit at full load, and use
as few circuits as possible. This will reduce your power bill, since there is a loss of
power in the rheostat of each charging circuit, this loss being the greatest when only
one battery is on the circuit, and a minimum when the circuit is fully loaded.
Page 149
With several charging circuits, it is also possible to put batteries which are in the same
condition on one circuit and adjust the charging rate to the most suitable value. Thus,
badly sulphated batteries, which must be charged at a low rate, may be put on the
same circuit, while batteries which have had only a normal discharge may be put oil
another circuit and charged at a higher rate. As each battery becomes almost fully
charged, it may be removed from the circuit and put on another circuit and the charge
completed at the finishing rate. This is a good practice, since some batteries will begin
to gas sooner than others, and if the charging rate is not reduced, the batteries which
have begun to gas will have active material blown out by the continued gassing. A
careful study of such points will lead to a considerable saving in power costs.
Care of Motor-Generator Set
A. Machine will not build up or generate. This may be due to:
1. Machine rotating in wrong direction.
2. Brushes not making good contact. Clean commutator with fine sandpaper.
3. Wrong connections of field rheostat-check connections with diagram.
4. Open circuit in field rheostat. See if machine will build up with field rheostat cut
out.
B. Excessive heating of the commutator. This may be due to:
1. Overload — Check your load and compare it with nameplate reading. Add the
total amperes on all the panels and see that it does not exceed the ampere reading
on the nameplate.
2. Wrong setting of the brush rocker arm. This causes sparking, which soon will
cause excessive heating.
3. Rough commutator. This will cause the brushes to chatter, be noisy and spark.
Caused many times by allowing copper to accumulate on the bottom of the
brushes.
4. Insufficient pressure on brushes, resulting in sparking. This may be due to
brushes wearing down to the point where the brush lead screw rests on the brush
holder.
5. Dirt and grease accumulating between the brush and brush holder causing brush
to stick;brush must always move freely in the holder.
6. Brush holder may have come loose, causing it to slip back, relieving brush press-
Lire.
7. Brush spring may have become loosened, releasing the tension.
8. Watch commutator carefully and keep it in the best of condition. There will not
be excessive heating without sparking. Excessive sparking may raise the
condition on one circuit and adjust the charging rate to the most suitable value. Thus,
badly sulphated batteries, which must be charged at a low rate, may be put on the
same circuit, while batteries which have had only a normal discharge may be put oil
another circuit and charged at a higher rate. As each battery becomes almost fully
charged, it may be removed from the circuit and put on another circuit and the charge
completed at the finishing rate. This is a good practice, since some batteries will begin
to gas sooner than others, and if the charging rate is not reduced, the batteries which
have begun to gas will have active material blown out by the continued gassing. A
careful study of such points will lead to a considerable saving in power costs.
Care of Motor-Generator Set
A. Machine will not build up or generate. This may be due to:
1. Machine rotating in wrong direction.
2. Brushes not making good contact. Clean commutator with fine sandpaper.
3. Wrong connections of field rheostat-check connections with diagram.
4. Open circuit in field rheostat. See if machine will build up with field rheostat cut
out.
B. Excessive heating of the commutator. This may be due to:
1. Overload — Check your load and compare it with nameplate reading. Add the
total amperes on all the panels and see that it does not exceed the ampere reading
on the nameplate.
2. Wrong setting of the brush rocker arm. This causes sparking, which soon will
cause excessive heating.
3. Rough commutator. This will cause the brushes to chatter, be noisy and spark.
Caused many times by allowing copper to accumulate on the bottom of the
brushes.
4. Insufficient pressure on brushes, resulting in sparking. This may be due to
brushes wearing down to the point where the brush lead screw rests on the brush
holder.
5. Dirt and grease accumulating between the brush and brush holder causing brush
to stick;brush must always move freely in the holder.
6. Brush holder may have come loose, causing it to slip back, relieving brush press-
Lire.
7. Brush spring may have become loosened, releasing the tension.
8. Watch commutator carefully and keep it in the best of condition. There will not
be excessive heating without sparking. Excessive sparking may raise the
Page 150
temperature so high as to cause throwing of solder. You can avoid all this by
taking proper care of the commutator.
C. Ammeters on Panels Read Reverse: This is caused by improperly connecting up
batteries, which has reversed the polarity of the generator. This generally does no
harm, since in most cases the batteries will automatically reverse the polarity of the
generator. Generally the condition may be remedied by stopping the machine,
reversing the batteries and starting the machine again. If this is unsuccessful raise the
brushes on the machine. Connect five or six batteries in series in the correct way to
one panel, while the machine is not in operation. Turn on the panel switch. When the
machine is started, it will then build up in the right direction. If it does not do so,
repeat the above, using a larger number of batteries.
D. Machine Refuses to Start. If there is a humming noise when you try to start the
motor, and the outfit does not start, one of the fuses needs replacing. The outfit will
hum only on two or three phase current. Never leave the power turned on with any of
the fuses out.
Constant-Potential Charging
In the Constant-Potential system of battery charging, the charging voltage is adjusted
to about 7.5, and is held constant throughout the charge. With this system a discharged
battery receives a heavy current when it is put on charge. This current gradually
decreases as the battery charges, due to the increasing battery voltage, which opposes,
or "bucks" the charging voltage, and reduces the voltage which is effective in sending
current through the batteries. Such a charge is called "tapering" charge because the
charging current gradually decreases, or "tapers" off.
The principle of a "tapering" charge is, of course, that a discharged battery may safely
be charged at a higher rate than one which is only partly discharged, because there is
more lead sulphate in the discharged battery which the action of the current changes
back to active material. As the battery charges, the amount of lead sulphate decreases
and since there is less sulphate for the current to act upon, the charging rate should be
reduced gradually. If this is not done, excessive gassing will occur, resulting in active
material being blown from the grids.
A battery which has been badly sulphated, is of course, in a discharged condition, but
is not, of course, able to absorb a heavy charging rate, and in handling such batteries
on a constant potential system, care must be taken that the charging rate is low.
Another precaution to be observed in all constant potential charging is to watch the
temperature of batteries while they are drawing a heavy charging current. A battery
which gasses soon after it is put oil charge, and while still in a discharged condition,
taking proper care of the commutator.
C. Ammeters on Panels Read Reverse: This is caused by improperly connecting up
batteries, which has reversed the polarity of the generator. This generally does no
harm, since in most cases the batteries will automatically reverse the polarity of the
generator. Generally the condition may be remedied by stopping the machine,
reversing the batteries and starting the machine again. If this is unsuccessful raise the
brushes on the machine. Connect five or six batteries in series in the correct way to
one panel, while the machine is not in operation. Turn on the panel switch. When the
machine is started, it will then build up in the right direction. If it does not do so,
repeat the above, using a larger number of batteries.
D. Machine Refuses to Start. If there is a humming noise when you try to start the
motor, and the outfit does not start, one of the fuses needs replacing. The outfit will
hum only on two or three phase current. Never leave the power turned on with any of
the fuses out.
Constant-Potential Charging
In the Constant-Potential system of battery charging, the charging voltage is adjusted
to about 7.5, and is held constant throughout the charge. With this system a discharged
battery receives a heavy current when it is put on charge. This current gradually
decreases as the battery charges, due to the increasing battery voltage, which opposes,
or "bucks" the charging voltage, and reduces the voltage which is effective in sending
current through the batteries. Such a charge is called "tapering" charge because the
charging current gradually decreases, or "tapers" off.
The principle of a "tapering" charge is, of course, that a discharged battery may safely
be charged at a higher rate than one which is only partly discharged, because there is
more lead sulphate in the discharged battery which the action of the current changes
back to active material. As the battery charges, the amount of lead sulphate decreases
and since there is less sulphate for the current to act upon, the charging rate should be
reduced gradually. If this is not done, excessive gassing will occur, resulting in active
material being blown from the grids.
A battery which has been badly sulphated, is of course, in a discharged condition, but
is not, of course, able to absorb a heavy charging rate, and in handling such batteries
on a constant potential system, care must be taken that the charging rate is low.
Another precaution to be observed in all constant potential charging is to watch the
temperature of batteries while they are drawing a heavy charging current. A battery
which gasses soon after it is put oil charge, and while still in a discharged condition,
Page 151
should be taken off the line, or the charging line voltage reduced. With constant
potential charging, as with constant current charging, the two things to watch are
temperature and gassing. Any charging rate which does not cause an excessive
temperature or early gassing is safe, and conversely any charging rate which causes
an excessive battery temperature, or causes gassing while the battery is still less than
three-fourths charged, is too high.
Fig. 48. Hobart Bros. Co. 3 K. W. Constant Potential Motor-Generator Charging Set
The Constant-Potential Charging Set manufactured by the Hobart Bros. Co., consists
of a 3 K.W. generator rated at 7.5 volts, and 400 amperes. This generator is direct
connected to a 5 H.P. motor, both machines being mounted oil the same base plate.
Figure 48 shows this outfit. Note that for the charging line there are three bus-bars to
which the batteries are connected. Twelve volt batteries are connected across the two
outside bus-bars, while six volt batteries are connected between the center bus-bar and
one of the outer ones.
The Tungar Rectifier
All rectifiers using oil are operated on the principle that current can pass through them
in one direction only, due to the great resistance offered to the flow of current in the
potential charging, as with constant current charging, the two things to watch are
temperature and gassing. Any charging rate which does not cause an excessive
temperature or early gassing is safe, and conversely any charging rate which causes
an excessive battery temperature, or causes gassing while the battery is still less than
three-fourths charged, is too high.
Fig. 48. Hobart Bros. Co. 3 K. W. Constant Potential Motor-Generator Charging Set
The Constant-Potential Charging Set manufactured by the Hobart Bros. Co., consists
of a 3 K.W. generator rated at 7.5 volts, and 400 amperes. This generator is direct
connected to a 5 H.P. motor, both machines being mounted oil the same base plate.
Figure 48 shows this outfit. Note that for the charging line there are three bus-bars to
which the batteries are connected. Twelve volt batteries are connected across the two
outside bus-bars, while six volt batteries are connected between the center bus-bar and
one of the outer ones.
The Tungar Rectifier
All rectifiers using oil are operated on the principle that current can pass through them
in one direction only, due to the great resistance offered to the flow of current in the
Page 152
opposite direction. It is, of course, not necessary to use
mercury vapor for the arc. Some rectifiers operate on
another principle. Examples of such rectifiers are the
Tungar made by the General Electric Co., and the Reetigon,
made by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co.
The Tungar Rectifier is used extensively and will therefore
be described in detail.
The essential parts of a Tungar Rectifier are: A bulb,
transformer, reactance, and the enclosing case and
equipment.
The bulb is the most important of these parts, since it does
the rectifying. It is a sort of check valve that permits current
to flow through the charging circuit in one direction only. In
appearance the bulb, see Figure 49, resembles somewhat an
ordinary incandescent bulb. In the bulb is a short tungsten
filament wound in the form of a tight spiral, and supported
between two lead-in wires. Close to the filament is a
graphite disk which serves as one of the electrodes. Figure
50 shows the operating principle of the Tungar. "B" is the
bulb, containing the filament "F" and the graphite electrode
"A." To serve as a rectifier the bulb filament "F" must be
heated, this being done by the transformer "T." The battery is connected as shown, the
positive terminal directly to one side of the alternating current supply, and the
negative terminal to the graphite electrode "A."
To understand the action which takes place, assume an instant when line wire C is
positive. The current then flows through the battery, through the rheostat and to the
graphite electrode. The current then flows through the are to the filament and to the
negative side of the line, as indicated by the arrows.
During the next half cycle when line wire D is positive, and C is negative, current
tends to flow through the bulb from the filament to the graphite, but as the resistance
offered to the flow of current in this direction is very high, no current will flow
through the bulb and consequently none through the battery.
mercury vapor for the arc. Some rectifiers operate on
another principle. Examples of such rectifiers are the
Tungar made by the General Electric Co., and the Reetigon,
made by the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Co.
The Tungar Rectifier is used extensively and will therefore
be described in detail.
The essential parts of a Tungar Rectifier are: A bulb,
transformer, reactance, and the enclosing case and
equipment.
The bulb is the most important of these parts, since it does
the rectifying. It is a sort of check valve that permits current
to flow through the charging circuit in one direction only. In
appearance the bulb, see Figure 49, resembles somewhat an
ordinary incandescent bulb. In the bulb is a short tungsten
filament wound in the form of a tight spiral, and supported
between two lead-in wires. Close to the filament is a
graphite disk which serves as one of the electrodes. Figure
50 shows the operating principle of the Tungar. "B" is the
bulb, containing the filament "F" and the graphite electrode
"A." To serve as a rectifier the bulb filament "F" must be
heated, this being done by the transformer "T." The battery is connected as shown, the
positive terminal directly to one side of the alternating current supply, and the
negative terminal to the graphite electrode "A."
To understand the action which takes place, assume an instant when line wire C is
positive. The current then flows through the battery, through the rheostat and to the
graphite electrode. The current then flows through the are to the filament and to the
negative side of the line, as indicated by the arrows.
During the next half cycle when line wire D is positive, and C is negative, current
tends to flow through the bulb from the filament to the graphite, but as the resistance
offered to the flow of current in this direction is very high, no current will flow
through the bulb and consequently none through the battery.
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The rectifier shown in Figure 50 is a "half-wave" rectifier. That is, only one-half of
each alternating current wave passes through it to the battery. If two bulbs are used, as
each alternating current wave passes through it to the battery. If two bulbs are used, as
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shown ill Figure 51, each half of the alternating current wave is used in charging the
battery. To trace the current through this rectifier assume an instant when line wire C
is positive. Current will then flow to the graphite electrode of tube A, through the
secondary winding of the transformer S to the center tap, through the rheostat, to the
positive battery terminal, through the battery to the center of the primary transformer
winding P, and through part of the primary winding to D. When D is positive, current
will flow through tube B from the graphite electrode to the filament, to the center of
transformer winding S, through the rheostat and battery to the center of transformer
winding P, and through part of this winding to line wire C. In the actual rectifiers the
rheostat shown in Figures 50 and 51 are not used, regulation being obtained entirely
by means of other windings.
From the foregoing description it will be seen that if the alternating current supply
should fail, the batteries cannot discharge into the line, because in order to do so, they
would have to heat up the filament and send current through the bulb from the
filament to the graphite electrode. This the batteries cannot do, because the
connections are such that the battery cannot send a current through the complete
filament circuit and because, even if the batteries could heat the filament they could
not send a current from the filament to the graphite, since current cannot flow in this
direction.
As soon as the alternating line is made alive again, the batteries will automatically
start charging again. For these reasons night charging with the Tungar is entirely
feasible, and no attendant is required to watch the batteries during the night. The
Tungar Rectifier is made in the following sizes:
A. Two Ampere Rectifier
Catalogue No. 195529
battery. To trace the current through this rectifier assume an instant when line wire C
is positive. Current will then flow to the graphite electrode of tube A, through the
secondary winding of the transformer S to the center tap, through the rheostat, to the
positive battery terminal, through the battery to the center of the primary transformer
winding P, and through part of the primary winding to D. When D is positive, current
will flow through tube B from the graphite electrode to the filament, to the center of
transformer winding S, through the rheostat and battery to the center of transformer
winding P, and through part of this winding to line wire C. In the actual rectifiers the
rheostat shown in Figures 50 and 51 are not used, regulation being obtained entirely
by means of other windings.
From the foregoing description it will be seen that if the alternating current supply
should fail, the batteries cannot discharge into the line, because in order to do so, they
would have to heat up the filament and send current through the bulb from the
filament to the graphite electrode. This the batteries cannot do, because the
connections are such that the battery cannot send a current through the complete
filament circuit and because, even if the batteries could heat the filament they could
not send a current from the filament to the graphite, since current cannot flow in this
direction.
As soon as the alternating line is made alive again, the batteries will automatically
start charging again. For these reasons night charging with the Tungar is entirely
feasible, and no attendant is required to watch the batteries during the night. The
Tungar Rectifier is made in the following sizes:
A. Two Ampere Rectifier
Catalogue No. 195529
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Fig. 52. The Two Ampere Tungar Rectifier
This is the smallest Tungar made. Figure 52 shows the complete rectifier.
Figure 53 shows the internal wiring. This Tungar will charge a 6 volt
battery at two amperes, a 12 volt battery at one ampere and eight cells at
0.75 ampere. It is suitable for charging a lighting battery, or for a quick
charge of a motorcycle or ignition battery. It will also give a fairly good
charge over night to a starting battery. Another use for this rectifier is to
connect it to a run-down starting battery to prevent it from freezing over
night. Of course, a battery should not be allowed to run down during cold
weather, but if by chance a battery does run down, this Tungar will
prevent it from freezing during the night.
The two ampere Tungar is, of course, more suitable for the car owner than
for a garage or service station. It is also very suitable for charging one
Radio "A" battery. The two ampere Tungar is normally made for operation
on a sixty cycle circuit, at 115 volts. It may also be obtained for operation
This is the smallest Tungar made. Figure 52 shows the complete rectifier.
Figure 53 shows the internal wiring. This Tungar will charge a 6 volt
battery at two amperes, a 12 volt battery at one ampere and eight cells at
0.75 ampere. It is suitable for charging a lighting battery, or for a quick
charge of a motorcycle or ignition battery. It will also give a fairly good
charge over night to a starting battery. Another use for this rectifier is to
connect it to a run-down starting battery to prevent it from freezing over
night. Of course, a battery should not be allowed to run down during cold
weather, but if by chance a battery does run down, this Tungar will
prevent it from freezing during the night.
The two ampere Tungar is, of course, more suitable for the car owner than
for a garage or service station. It is also very suitable for charging one
Radio "A" battery. The two ampere Tungar is normally made for operation
on a sixty cycle circuit, at 115 volts. It may also be obtained for operation
Page 156
on 25-30, 40-50, and
125-133 cycles
alternating supply line.
See table on Page 130.
B. The One Battery Rectifier
Catalogue No. 219865
125-133 cycles
alternating supply line.
See table on Page 130.
B. The One Battery Rectifier
Catalogue No. 219865
Page 157
Fig. 54. The One Battery Tungar Rectifier
This Tungar will charge a 6 volt battery at five amperes, or a 12 volt battery at three
amperes. Figure 54 shows this Tungar, with part of the casing cut away to show the
internal parts.
To take care of variations in the voltage of the alternating current supply from 100 to
130, a set of connections is provided which are numbered 105, 115, and 125. For most
supply voltages, the 115 volt tap is used, for lower voltage the 105 volt tap is used,
and for higher voltage the 125 volt tap is used. This Tungar is designed for 60 cycle
circuits, but on special order it may be obtained for operation on other frequencies.
This Tungar is most suitable for a car owner, is satisfactory for charging a radio "A"
battery, and a six volt starting and lighting battery at one time.
C. The Two Battery Rectifier
Catalogue No. 195530
This Tungar will charge a 6 volt battery at five amperes, or a 12 volt battery at three
amperes. Figure 54 shows this Tungar, with part of the casing cut away to show the
internal parts.
To take care of variations in the voltage of the alternating current supply from 100 to
130, a set of connections is provided which are numbered 105, 115, and 125. For most
supply voltages, the 115 volt tap is used, for lower voltage the 105 volt tap is used,
and for higher voltage the 125 volt tap is used. This Tungar is designed for 60 cycle
circuits, but on special order it may be obtained for operation on other frequencies.
This Tungar is most suitable for a car owner, is satisfactory for charging a radio "A"
battery, and a six volt starting and lighting battery at one time.
C. The Two Battery Rectifier
Catalogue No. 195530
Page 158
Fig. 55. The Two Battery Tungar Rectifier
This Tungar is shown in Figure 55, with part of the casing cut away to show the
internal parts. It was formerly sold to the car owner, but the one battery Tungar is now
recommended for the use of the car owner. The two-battery Tungar is therefore
recommended for the very small service station, or for department stores for taking
care of one or two batteries. The four battery Tungar, which is the next one described,
is recommended in preference to the two-battery outfit where there is the slightest
possibility of having more than two batteries to charge at one time.
The two-battery rectifier will charge two 6-volt batteries, or one 12-volt battery at six
amperes, or one 18-volt battery at three amperes. It has a double-pole fuse block
mounted on the auto transformer core, which has one fuse plug only. Figure 55 shows
the fuse plug in the position for charging a 6-volt battery. When it is desired to charge
a 12-volt battery or an 18-volt battery, the fuse is removed from the first receptacle
and is screwed into the second receptacle.
This Tungar is shown in Figure 55, with part of the casing cut away to show the
internal parts. It was formerly sold to the car owner, but the one battery Tungar is now
recommended for the use of the car owner. The two-battery Tungar is therefore
recommended for the very small service station, or for department stores for taking
care of one or two batteries. The four battery Tungar, which is the next one described,
is recommended in preference to the two-battery outfit where there is the slightest
possibility of having more than two batteries to charge at one time.
The two-battery rectifier will charge two 6-volt batteries, or one 12-volt battery at six
amperes, or one 18-volt battery at three amperes. It has a double-pole fuse block
mounted on the auto transformer core, which has one fuse plug only. Figure 55 shows
the fuse plug in the position for charging a 6-volt battery. When it is desired to charge
a 12-volt battery or an 18-volt battery, the fuse is removed from the first receptacle
and is screwed into the second receptacle.
Page 159
Fig. 56. The Four Battery Tungar Rectifier Complete
The two-battery rectifier is designed to operate on a 115-volt, 60-cycle line, but oil
special order may be obtained for operation on 25-30, 40-50, and 125-133 cycle lines.
D. The Four Battery Tungar
Catalogue No. 193191
This Tungar is shown complete in Figure 56. In Figure 57 the top has been raised to
show the internal parts. Figure 58 gives the internal wiring connections for a four
battery Tungar designed for operation on a 115 volt line.
The two-battery rectifier is designed to operate on a 115-volt, 60-cycle line, but oil
special order may be obtained for operation on 25-30, 40-50, and 125-133 cycle lines.
D. The Four Battery Tungar
Catalogue No. 193191
This Tungar is shown complete in Figure 56. In Figure 57 the top has been raised to
show the internal parts. Figure 58 gives the internal wiring connections for a four
battery Tungar designed for operation on a 115 volt line.
Page 160
The four battery Tungar will charge from one to four 6 volt batteries at 5 amperes or
less. It is designed especially for garages having very few batteries to charge. These
garages generally charge their boarders batteries rather than send them to a service
station, and seldom have more than four batteries to charge at one time. The four
battery Tungar is also suitable for the use of car dealers who wish to keep the batteries
on their cars in good shape, and is convenient for preparing for service batteries as
they come from the car manufacturer.
Fig. 57. The Four Battery Tungar Rectifier, with Top Raised to Show Internal Parts.
The four battery Tungar is designed for operation on a 60-cycle line at 115 or 230
volts. On special order this Tungar may be obtained for operation on other
frequencies.
E. The Ten Battery Rectifier
Catalogue No. 179492
This is the Tungar which is most popular in the service stations, since it meets the
charging requirements of the average shop better than the smaller Tungars. It will
charge from one to ten 6 volt batteries, or the equivalent at six amperes or less. Where
more than ten batteries are generally to be charged at one time, two or more of the ten
less. It is designed especially for garages having very few batteries to charge. These
garages generally charge their boarders batteries rather than send them to a service
station, and seldom have more than four batteries to charge at one time. The four
battery Tungar is also suitable for the use of car dealers who wish to keep the batteries
on their cars in good shape, and is convenient for preparing for service batteries as
they come from the car manufacturer.
Fig. 57. The Four Battery Tungar Rectifier, with Top Raised to Show Internal Parts.
The four battery Tungar is designed for operation on a 60-cycle line at 115 or 230
volts. On special order this Tungar may be obtained for operation on other
frequencies.
E. The Ten Battery Rectifier
Catalogue No. 179492
This is the Tungar which is most popular in the service stations, since it meets the
charging requirements of the average shop better than the smaller Tungars. It will
charge from one to ten 6 volt batteries, or the equivalent at six amperes or less. Where
more than ten batteries are generally to be charged at one time, two or more of the ten
Page 161
battery Tungars should be used. Large service stations use as many as ten of these
Tungars.
The efficiency of the ten battery Tungar at full load is approximately 75 per cent,
which compares favorably with that of a mercury-are rectifier, or motor-generator of
Tungars.
The efficiency of the ten battery Tungar at full load is approximately 75 per cent,
which compares favorably with that of a mercury-are rectifier, or motor-generator of
Page 162
the same size. This makes the ten battery Tungar a very desirable piece of apparatus
for the service station.
Figure 59 shows the complete ten battery Tungar, Figure 60 gives a side view without
the door to show the internal parts.
for the service station.
Figure 59 shows the complete ten battery Tungar, Figure 60 gives a side view without
the door to show the internal parts.
Page 163
Figure 61 shows the internal connections for use on a 115-volt A.C. line and Figure 62
the internal connections for use on a 230-volt line. This Tungar is made for a 60-cycle
circuit, 25-30, 40-50, and 125-133 cycle circuits.
the internal connections for use on a 230-volt line. This Tungar is made for a 60-cycle
circuit, 25-30, 40-50, and 125-133 cycle circuits.
Page 164
Page 165
F. The Twenty Battery Tungar
Catalogue No. 221514
This Tungar will charge ten 6-volt batteries at 12 amperes, or twenty 6-volt batteries at
six amperes. Figure 63 shows the complete rectifier, and Figure 64 shows the rectifier
with the side door open to show the internal parts. This rectifier will do the work of
two of the ten battery Tungars. It is designed for operation on 60 cycles, 230-volts. On
special order it may be obtained for operation on 115 volts and also for other
frequencies.
The twenty battery Tungar uses two bulbs, each of which is the same as that used in
the ten battery Tungar, and has two charging circuits, having an ammeter and
regulating switch for each circuit. One snap switch connects both circuits to the
Catalogue No. 221514
This Tungar will charge ten 6-volt batteries at 12 amperes, or twenty 6-volt batteries at
six amperes. Figure 63 shows the complete rectifier, and Figure 64 shows the rectifier
with the side door open to show the internal parts. This rectifier will do the work of
two of the ten battery Tungars. It is designed for operation on 60 cycles, 230-volts. On
special order it may be obtained for operation on 115 volts and also for other
frequencies.
The twenty battery Tungar uses two bulbs, each of which is the same as that used in
the ten battery Tungar, and has two charging circuits, having an ammeter and
regulating switch for each circuit. One snap switch connects both circuits to the
Page 166
supply circuit. The two charging circuits are regulated independently. For example,
one circuit may be regulated to three amperes while the other circuit is delivering six
amperes. It is also possible, by a system of connections to charge the equivalent of
three circuits. For instance, five batteries could be charged at six amperes, five
batteries at four amperes, and five batteries at ten amperes. Other corresponding
combinations are possible also.
General Instructions and Information on Tungars
Life of Tungar Bulbs. The life of the Tungar Bulb is rated at 600 to 800 hours, but
actually a bulb will give service for 1,200 to 3,000 hours if the user is careful not to
overload the bulb by operating it at more than the rated current.
Instructions. Complete instructions are furnished with each Tungar outfit, the
following being those for the ten battery Tungar.
Installation
A Tungar should be installed in a clean, dry place in order to keep the apparatus free
from dirt and moisture. To avoid acid fumes, do not place the Tungar directly over the
batteries. These precautions will prevent corrosion of the metal parts and liability of
poor contacts.
one circuit may be regulated to three amperes while the other circuit is delivering six
amperes. It is also possible, by a system of connections to charge the equivalent of
three circuits. For instance, five batteries could be charged at six amperes, five
batteries at four amperes, and five batteries at ten amperes. Other corresponding
combinations are possible also.
General Instructions and Information on Tungars
Life of Tungar Bulbs. The life of the Tungar Bulb is rated at 600 to 800 hours, but
actually a bulb will give service for 1,200 to 3,000 hours if the user is careful not to
overload the bulb by operating it at more than the rated current.
Instructions. Complete instructions are furnished with each Tungar outfit, the
following being those for the ten battery Tungar.
Installation
A Tungar should be installed in a clean, dry place in order to keep the apparatus free
from dirt and moisture. To avoid acid fumes, do not place the Tungar directly over the
batteries. These precautions will prevent corrosion of the metal parts and liability of
poor contacts.
Page 167
Fasten the Tungar to a wall by four screws, if the wall is of wood, or by four
expansion bolts if it is made of brick or concrete.
Though the electrical connections of the outfit are very simple, it is advisable (when
installing the apparatus) to employ an experienced wireman familiar with local
requirements regarding wiring.
Line Connections
The two wires extending from the top of the Tungar should be connected to the
alternating current supply of the same voltage and frequency, as stamped on the name
plate attached to the front panel. These connections should be not less than No. 12 B.
& S. gauge wire and should be firmly soldered to the copper lugs.
External fuses are recommended for the alternating-current circuit, as follows:
With 115-volt line use 15-ampere capacity fuses.
With 230-volt line use 10 ampere capacity fuses.
One of the bulbs (Cat. No. 189049) should now be firmly screwed into its socket.
Squeeze the spring clip attached to the beaded cable and slip this clip over the wire
protruding from the top of the bulb. Do not bend the wire.
Battery Connections
In making battery connections have the snap-switch in the "Off" position.
The two wires extending from the bottom of the Tungar should be connected to the
batteries. The wire on the left, facing the front panel, is marked + (positive) and the
other wire - (negative). The positive wire should be connected to the positive terminal
of the battery and the negative wire to the negative terminal.
The two flexible battery cables are sometimes connected directly to the two wires
projecting from the bottom of the Tungar. These cables should be securely cleated to
the wall about six inches below the outfit. This arrangement will relieve the strain on
the Tungar wires when cables are changed to different batteries.
When two or more batteries are to be charged, they should be connected in series. The
positive wire of the Tungar should be connected to the positive terminal of battery No.
1, the negative terminal of this battery of the positive terminal of battery No. 2, the
negative terminal of battery No. 2 to the positive terminal of battery No. 3, and so on,
expansion bolts if it is made of brick or concrete.
Though the electrical connections of the outfit are very simple, it is advisable (when
installing the apparatus) to employ an experienced wireman familiar with local
requirements regarding wiring.
Line Connections
The two wires extending from the top of the Tungar should be connected to the
alternating current supply of the same voltage and frequency, as stamped on the name
plate attached to the front panel. These connections should be not less than No. 12 B.
& S. gauge wire and should be firmly soldered to the copper lugs.
External fuses are recommended for the alternating-current circuit, as follows:
With 115-volt line use 15-ampere capacity fuses.
With 230-volt line use 10 ampere capacity fuses.
One of the bulbs (Cat. No. 189049) should now be firmly screwed into its socket.
Squeeze the spring clip attached to the beaded cable and slip this clip over the wire
protruding from the top of the bulb. Do not bend the wire.
Battery Connections
In making battery connections have the snap-switch in the "Off" position.
The two wires extending from the bottom of the Tungar should be connected to the
batteries. The wire on the left, facing the front panel, is marked + (positive) and the
other wire - (negative). The positive wire should be connected to the positive terminal
of the battery and the negative wire to the negative terminal.
The two flexible battery cables are sometimes connected directly to the two wires
projecting from the bottom of the Tungar. These cables should be securely cleated to
the wall about six inches below the outfit. This arrangement will relieve the strain on
the Tungar wires when cables are changed to different batteries.
When two or more batteries are to be charged, they should be connected in series. The
positive wire of the Tungar should be connected to the positive terminal of battery No.
1, the negative terminal of this battery of the positive terminal of battery No. 2, the
negative terminal of battery No. 2 to the positive terminal of battery No. 3, and so on,
Page 168
according to the number of batteries in circuit. Finally the negative terminal of the last
battery should be connected to the negative wire from the Tungar.
Reverse connections on one battery is likely to damage the plates; and reverse
connections oil all the batteries will blow one or more fuses.
Operation
A Tungar is operated by means of a snap-switch in the upper left-hand corner and a
regulating switch in the center. Before starting the apparatus, the regulating switch
should be in the "low" position.
The Tungar is now ready to operate. Turn the snap-switch to the right to the "On"
position, and the bulb will light. Then turn the regulating switch slowly to the right,
and, as soon as the batteries commence to charge, the needle on the ammeter will
indicate the charging current. This current may be adjusted to whatever value is
desired within the limits of the Tungar. The normal charging rate is six amperes, but a
current of as high as seven amperes may be obtained without greatly reducing the life
of the bulb. Higher charging rates reduce its life to a considerable extent. Lower rates
than normal (six amperes) will increase the life of the bulb.
Turn the snap-switch to the "Off" position when the charging of one battery or of all
the batteries is completed; or when it is desired to add more batteries to the line.
The Tungar should be operated only by the snap-switch and not by any other external
switch in either line or battery circuits.
When the snap-switch is turned, the batteries will be disconnected from the supply
line, and then they may be handled without danger of shock.
Immediately after turning the snap-switch, move the regulating handle back to the
"Low" position. This prevents any damage to the bulb from the dial switch being in an
improper position for the number of batteries next charged.
Troubles
If on turning on the alternating-current switch the bulb does not glow:
1. See whether the alternating-current supply is on.
2. Examine the supply line fuses. If these are blown, or are defective, replace them
with 15 ampere fuses for a 115-volt line or with 10-ampere fuses for a 220-volt
line.
3. Make sure that the bulb is screwed well into the socket.
battery should be connected to the negative wire from the Tungar.
Reverse connections on one battery is likely to damage the plates; and reverse
connections oil all the batteries will blow one or more fuses.
Operation
A Tungar is operated by means of a snap-switch in the upper left-hand corner and a
regulating switch in the center. Before starting the apparatus, the regulating switch
should be in the "low" position.
The Tungar is now ready to operate. Turn the snap-switch to the right to the "On"
position, and the bulb will light. Then turn the regulating switch slowly to the right,
and, as soon as the batteries commence to charge, the needle on the ammeter will
indicate the charging current. This current may be adjusted to whatever value is
desired within the limits of the Tungar. The normal charging rate is six amperes, but a
current of as high as seven amperes may be obtained without greatly reducing the life
of the bulb. Higher charging rates reduce its life to a considerable extent. Lower rates
than normal (six amperes) will increase the life of the bulb.
Turn the snap-switch to the "Off" position when the charging of one battery or of all
the batteries is completed; or when it is desired to add more batteries to the line.
The Tungar should be operated only by the snap-switch and not by any other external
switch in either line or battery circuits.
When the snap-switch is turned, the batteries will be disconnected from the supply
line, and then they may be handled without danger of shock.
Immediately after turning the snap-switch, move the regulating handle back to the
"Low" position. This prevents any damage to the bulb from the dial switch being in an
improper position for the number of batteries next charged.
Troubles
If on turning on the alternating-current switch the bulb does not glow:
1. See whether the alternating-current supply is on.
2. Examine the supply line fuses. If these are blown, or are defective, replace them
with 15 ampere fuses for a 115-volt line or with 10-ampere fuses for a 220-volt
line.
3. Make sure that the bulb is screwed well into the socket.
Page 169
4. Examine the contacts inside the socket. If they are tarnished or dirty, clean them
with sandpaper.
5. Try a new bulb, Cat. No. 189049. The old bulb may be defective.
If the bulb lights but no current shows on the ammeter:
1. Examine the connections to the batteries, and also the connections between them.
Most troubles are caused by imperfect battery connections.
2. Examine the fuses inside the case. If these are blown or are defective, replace
them with 15 ampere fuses, Cat. No. 6335.
3. See that the clip is on the wire of the bulb.
4. The bulb may have a slow leak and not rectify. Try a new bulb, Cat. No. 189049.
5. Have the switch arm make good contact on the regulating switch.
If the current on the ammeter is high and cannot be reduced:
1. The ammeter pointer may be sticking; tap it lightly with the hand. The ammeter
will not indicate the current correctly if the pointer is not on the zero line when
the Tungar is not operating. The pointer may be easily reset by turning slightly
the screw on the lower part of the instrument.
2. Be sure that the batteries are not connected with reversed polarity.
3. The alternating-current supply may be abnormally high. If only one three-cell
battery is being charged, and the alternating-current supply is slightly high, then
the current on the ammeter may be high. The simplest remedy is to connect in
another battery or a small amount of resistance.
A spare bulb should always be kept on hand and should be tested for at least one
complete charge before being placed in reserve. All Tungar bulbs are made as nearly
perfect as possible, but occasionally one is damaged in shipment. It may look perfect
and yet not operate. For this reason all bulbs should be tried out on receipt. If any bulb
is found defective, the tag which accompanies it should be filled out, and bulb and tag
should be returned to your dealer or to the nearest office of the General Electric
Company, transportation prepaid.
Tungar Rectifiers
(The following columns omitted from the table below: Catalog Numbers, Dimensions,
Net Weight, and Shipping Weight.)
No. No. D.C. D.C. A.C.
Name Freq.
6V Bats 12V Bats. Amps Volts Volts
with sandpaper.
5. Try a new bulb, Cat. No. 189049. The old bulb may be defective.
If the bulb lights but no current shows on the ammeter:
1. Examine the connections to the batteries, and also the connections between them.
Most troubles are caused by imperfect battery connections.
2. Examine the fuses inside the case. If these are blown or are defective, replace
them with 15 ampere fuses, Cat. No. 6335.
3. See that the clip is on the wire of the bulb.
4. The bulb may have a slow leak and not rectify. Try a new bulb, Cat. No. 189049.
5. Have the switch arm make good contact on the regulating switch.
If the current on the ammeter is high and cannot be reduced:
1. The ammeter pointer may be sticking; tap it lightly with the hand. The ammeter
will not indicate the current correctly if the pointer is not on the zero line when
the Tungar is not operating. The pointer may be easily reset by turning slightly
the screw on the lower part of the instrument.
2. Be sure that the batteries are not connected with reversed polarity.
3. The alternating-current supply may be abnormally high. If only one three-cell
battery is being charged, and the alternating-current supply is slightly high, then
the current on the ammeter may be high. The simplest remedy is to connect in
another battery or a small amount of resistance.
A spare bulb should always be kept on hand and should be tested for at least one
complete charge before being placed in reserve. All Tungar bulbs are made as nearly
perfect as possible, but occasionally one is damaged in shipment. It may look perfect
and yet not operate. For this reason all bulbs should be tried out on receipt. If any bulb
is found defective, the tag which accompanies it should be filled out, and bulb and tag
should be returned to your dealer or to the nearest office of the General Electric
Company, transportation prepaid.
Tungar Rectifiers
(The following columns omitted from the table below: Catalog Numbers, Dimensions,
Net Weight, and Shipping Weight.)
No. No. D.C. D.C. A.C.
Name Freq.
6V Bats 12V Bats. Amps Volts Volts
Page 170
2 Amp. Tungar 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 60
2 Amp. Tungar 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 60
2 Amp. Tungar 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 40-50
2 Amp. Tungar 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 25-30
2 Amp. Tungar 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 125-133
1 Battery Tungar 1 (5 amps.) 1 (3 amps.) 1-5 7.5-15 115 60
2 Battery Tungar 2 (6 amps.) 1 (6 amps.) 1-6 7.5-15 115 60
2 Battery Tungar 2 (6 amps.) 1 (6 amps.) 1-6 7.5-15 115 40-50
2 Battery Tungar 2 (6 amps.) 1 (6 amps.) 1-6 7.5-15 115 25-30
2 Battery Tungar 2 (6 amps.) 1 (6 amps.) 1-6 7.5-15 115 125-130
4 Battery Tungar 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 115 60
4 Battery Tungar 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 115 40-50
4 Battery Tungar 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 115 25-30
4 Battery Tungar 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 115 125-133
2 Amp. Tungar 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 60
2 Amp. Tungar 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 40-50
2 Amp. Tungar 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 25-30
2 Amp. Tungar 1 (2 amps.) 1 (1 amps.) 1-2 7.5-15 115 125-133
1 Battery Tungar 1 (5 amps.) 1 (3 amps.) 1-5 7.5-15 115 60
2 Battery Tungar 2 (6 amps.) 1 (6 amps.) 1-6 7.5-15 115 60
2 Battery Tungar 2 (6 amps.) 1 (6 amps.) 1-6 7.5-15 115 40-50
2 Battery Tungar 2 (6 amps.) 1 (6 amps.) 1-6 7.5-15 115 25-30
2 Battery Tungar 2 (6 amps.) 1 (6 amps.) 1-6 7.5-15 115 125-130
4 Battery Tungar 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 115 60
4 Battery Tungar 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 115 40-50
4 Battery Tungar 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 115 25-30
4 Battery Tungar 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 115 125-133
Page 171
4 Battery Tungar 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 230 60
4 Battery Tungar 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 230 40-50
10 Battery Tungar 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 115 60
10 Battery Tungar 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 115 40-50
10 Battery Tungar 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 115 25-30
10 Battery Tungar 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 115 125-133
10 Battery Tungar 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 230 60
10 Battery Tungar 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 230 40-50
10 (12A.)
20 Battery Tungar 10 (6A.) 1-12 7.5-75 230 60
20 (6A.)
10 (12A.)
20 Battery Tungar 10 (6A.) 1-12 7.5-75 230 40-50
20 (6A.)
10 (12A.)
20 Battery Tungar 10 (6A.) 1-12 7.5-75 230 25-30
20 (6A.)
Bulb (all
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
4 Amp. Tung.)
Bulb (all 10 and
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
12 Amp. Tung.)
4 Battery Tungar 4 (5 amps.) 2 (5 amps.) 1-5 7.5-30 230 40-50
10 Battery Tungar 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 115 60
10 Battery Tungar 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 115 40-50
10 Battery Tungar 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 115 25-30
10 Battery Tungar 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 115 125-133
10 Battery Tungar 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 230 60
10 Battery Tungar 10 5 1-6 7.5-75 230 40-50
10 (12A.)
20 Battery Tungar 10 (6A.) 1-12 7.5-75 230 60
20 (6A.)
10 (12A.)
20 Battery Tungar 10 (6A.) 1-12 7.5-75 230 40-50
20 (6A.)
10 (12A.)
20 Battery Tungar 10 (6A.) 1-12 7.5-75 230 25-30
20 (6A.)
Bulb (all
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
4 Amp. Tung.)
Bulb (all 10 and
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
12 Amp. Tung.)
Page 172
Bulb (all 2
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
Amp. Tung.)
Bulb (all 1-2
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
Bat. Tung.)
Mercury Arc Rectifier
The operation of the mercury are rectifier depends upon the fact that a tube containing
mercury vapor under a low pressure and provided with two electrodes, one of mercury
and the other of some other conductor, offers a very high resistance to a current
tending to pass through the tube from the mercury electrode to the other electrode, but
offers a very low resistance to a current tending to pass through the tube in the
opposite direction. Current passes from the metallic electrode to the mercury electrode
through an are of mercury vapor which is established in the tube by tilting it so the
mercury bridges the gap between the mercury and an auxiliary electrode just for an
instant.
The absence of moving parts to got out of order is an advantage possessed by this
rectifier over the motor-generator. The charging current from the rectifier cannot,
however, be reduced to as low a value as with the motor-generator, and this is a
disadvantage. This rectifier is therefore more suitable for larger shops, especially
where electric truck and pleasure cars are charged.
Mechanical Rectifiers
Mechanical rectifiers have a vibrating armature which opens and closes the charging
circuit. The circuit is closed during one half of each alternating current cycle, and
open during the next half cycle. The circuit is thus closed as long as the alternating
current is flowing in the proper direction to charge the battery, and is open as long as
the alternating current is flowing in the reverse direction. These rectifiers therefore
charge the battery during half the time the battery is on charge, this also being the case
in some of the are rectifiers.
The desired action is secured by a combination of a permanent magnet and an
electromagnet which is connected to the alternating current supply. During half of the
alternating current cycle, the alternating current flowing through the winding of the
electromagnet magnetizes the electromagnet so that it strengthens the magnetism of
the permanent magnet, thus causing the vibrator arm to be drawn against the magnet.
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
Amp. Tung.)
Bulb (all 1-2
,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,
Bat. Tung.)
Mercury Arc Rectifier
The operation of the mercury are rectifier depends upon the fact that a tube containing
mercury vapor under a low pressure and provided with two electrodes, one of mercury
and the other of some other conductor, offers a very high resistance to a current
tending to pass through the tube from the mercury electrode to the other electrode, but
offers a very low resistance to a current tending to pass through the tube in the
opposite direction. Current passes from the metallic electrode to the mercury electrode
through an are of mercury vapor which is established in the tube by tilting it so the
mercury bridges the gap between the mercury and an auxiliary electrode just for an
instant.
The absence of moving parts to got out of order is an advantage possessed by this
rectifier over the motor-generator. The charging current from the rectifier cannot,
however, be reduced to as low a value as with the motor-generator, and this is a
disadvantage. This rectifier is therefore more suitable for larger shops, especially
where electric truck and pleasure cars are charged.
Mechanical Rectifiers
Mechanical rectifiers have a vibrating armature which opens and closes the charging
circuit. The circuit is closed during one half of each alternating current cycle, and
open during the next half cycle. The circuit is thus closed as long as the alternating
current is flowing in the proper direction to charge the battery, and is open as long as
the alternating current is flowing in the reverse direction. These rectifiers therefore
charge the battery during half the time the battery is on charge, this also being the case
in some of the are rectifiers.
The desired action is secured by a combination of a permanent magnet and an
electromagnet which is connected to the alternating current supply. During half of the
alternating current cycle, the alternating current flowing through the winding of the
electromagnet magnetizes the electromagnet so that it strengthens the magnetism of
the permanent magnet, thus causing the vibrator arm to be drawn against the magnet.
Page 173
The vibrator arm carries a contact which touches a stationary contact point when the
arm is drawn against the magnet, thus closing the charging circuit.
During the next half of the alternating current cycle, or wave, the current through the
electromagnet coil is reversed, and the magnetism of the electromagnet then weakens
the magnetism of the permanent magnet, and the vibrator arm is drawn away from the
magnet and the charging circuit is thus opened. During the next half of the alternating
current cycle the vibrator arm is again drawn against the magnet, and so on, the
contact points being closed and opened during half of each alternating current cycle.
Mechanical rectifiers are operated from the secondary windings of transformers which
reduce the voltage of the alternating current line to the voltage desired for charging.
Each rectifier unit may have its own complete transformer, or one large transformer
may operate a number of rectifier units by having its secondary, or low tension
winding divided into a number of sections, each of which operates one rectifier.
The advantages of the mechanical rectifier are its simplicity, cheapness and
portability. This rectifier also has the advantage of opening the charging circuit when
the alternating current supply fails, and starting again automatically when the line is
made alive again. Any desired number of independent units, each having its own
charging line, may be used. The charging current generally has a maximum value of 6
amperes. Each rectifier unit is generally designed to charge only one or two six volt
batteries at one time.
Stahl Rectifier
This is a unique rectifier, in which the alternating current is rectified by being sent
through a commutator which is rotated by a small alternating current motor, similar to
the way the alternating current generated in the armature of a direct current generator
is rectified in the commutator of the machine. The Stahl rectifier supplies the
alternating current from a transformer instead of generating it as is done in a direct
current generator. Brushes which bear on the commutator lead to the charging circuit.
The Stahl rectifier is suitable for the larger service stations. It gives an interrupted
direct current. It is simple in construction and operation, and is free of delicate parts.
Other Charging Equipment
If there is no electric lighting in the shop, it will be necessary to install a generator and
a gas, gasoline, or steam engine, or a waterwheel to drive it. A 10 battery belt driven
generator may be used in such a shop, and may also, of course, be used with a
separate motor. The generator should, of course, be a direct current machine. The size
arm is drawn against the magnet, thus closing the charging circuit.
During the next half of the alternating current cycle, or wave, the current through the
electromagnet coil is reversed, and the magnetism of the electromagnet then weakens
the magnetism of the permanent magnet, and the vibrator arm is drawn away from the
magnet and the charging circuit is thus opened. During the next half of the alternating
current cycle the vibrator arm is again drawn against the magnet, and so on, the
contact points being closed and opened during half of each alternating current cycle.
Mechanical rectifiers are operated from the secondary windings of transformers which
reduce the voltage of the alternating current line to the voltage desired for charging.
Each rectifier unit may have its own complete transformer, or one large transformer
may operate a number of rectifier units by having its secondary, or low tension
winding divided into a number of sections, each of which operates one rectifier.
The advantages of the mechanical rectifier are its simplicity, cheapness and
portability. This rectifier also has the advantage of opening the charging circuit when
the alternating current supply fails, and starting again automatically when the line is
made alive again. Any desired number of independent units, each having its own
charging line, may be used. The charging current generally has a maximum value of 6
amperes. Each rectifier unit is generally designed to charge only one or two six volt
batteries at one time.
Stahl Rectifier
This is a unique rectifier, in which the alternating current is rectified by being sent
through a commutator which is rotated by a small alternating current motor, similar to
the way the alternating current generated in the armature of a direct current generator
is rectified in the commutator of the machine. The Stahl rectifier supplies the
alternating current from a transformer instead of generating it as is done in a direct
current generator. Brushes which bear on the commutator lead to the charging circuit.
The Stahl rectifier is suitable for the larger service stations. It gives an interrupted
direct current. It is simple in construction and operation, and is free of delicate parts.
Other Charging Equipment
If there is no electric lighting in the shop, it will be necessary to install a generator and
a gas, gasoline, or steam engine, or a waterwheel to drive it. A 10 battery belt driven
generator may be used in such a shop, and may also, of course, be used with a
separate motor. The generator should, of course, be a direct current machine. The size
Page 174
of the generator will depend upon the average number of batteries to be charged, and
the amount of money available. Any of the large electrical manufacturers or supply
houses will give any information necessary for the selection of the type and size of the
outfit required.
If an old automobile engine, and radiator, gas tank, etc., are on hand, they can be
suitably mounted so as to drive the generator.
CHARGING BENCH
Fig. 65. Charging Bench with D.P.D.T. Switch for Each Battery
Figures 47 and 65 show charging benches in operation. Note that they are made of
heavy stock, which is of course necessary on account of the weight of the batteries.
The top of the charging bench should be low, to eliminate as much lifting of batteries
as possible. Figure 66 is a working drawing of the bench illustrated in Figure 65. Note
the elevated shelf extending down the center. This is convenient for holding water
bottle, acid pitcher, hydrometer. Note also the strip "D" on this shelf, with the
voltmeter hung from an iron bracket. With this arrangement the meter may be moved
to any battery for voltage, cadmium, and high rate discharge readings. It also has the
advantage of keeping the volt meter in a convenient and safe place, where it is not
liable to have acid spilled on it, or to be damaged by rough handling. In building the
the amount of money available. Any of the large electrical manufacturers or supply
houses will give any information necessary for the selection of the type and size of the
outfit required.
If an old automobile engine, and radiator, gas tank, etc., are on hand, they can be
suitably mounted so as to drive the generator.
CHARGING BENCH
Fig. 65. Charging Bench with D.P.D.T. Switch for Each Battery
Figures 47 and 65 show charging benches in operation. Note that they are made of
heavy stock, which is of course necessary on account of the weight of the batteries.
The top of the charging bench should be low, to eliminate as much lifting of batteries
as possible. Figure 66 is a working drawing of the bench illustrated in Figure 65. Note
the elevated shelf extending down the center. This is convenient for holding water
bottle, acid pitcher, hydrometer. Note also the strip "D" on this shelf, with the
voltmeter hung from an iron bracket. With this arrangement the meter may be moved
to any battery for voltage, cadmium, and high rate discharge readings. It also has the
advantage of keeping the volt meter in a convenient and safe place, where it is not
liable to have acid spilled on it, or to be damaged by rough handling. In building the
Page 175
bench shown in Figure 66, give each part a coat of asphaltum paint before assembling.
After assembling the bench give it two more coats of asphaltum paint.
Figures 67, 68, 69 and 70 show the working plans for other charging benches or
tables. The repairman should choose the one which he considers most suitable for his
shop. In wiring these benches, the elevated shelf shown in Figure 66 may be added
and the double pole, double throw switches used. Instead of these switches, the
jumpers shown on the benches illustrated in Figure 47 may be used. If this is done, the
elevated shelf should also be installed, as it is a great convenience for the hydrometer,
voltmeter, and so on, as already described.
As for the hydrometer, thermometer, etc., which were listed on page 96 as essential
accessories of a charging bench, the Exide vehicle type hydrometer is a most excellent
After assembling the bench give it two more coats of asphaltum paint.
Figures 67, 68, 69 and 70 show the working plans for other charging benches or
tables. The repairman should choose the one which he considers most suitable for his
shop. In wiring these benches, the elevated shelf shown in Figure 66 may be added
and the double pole, double throw switches used. Instead of these switches, the
jumpers shown on the benches illustrated in Figure 47 may be used. If this is done, the
elevated shelf should also be installed, as it is a great convenience for the hydrometer,
voltmeter, and so on, as already described.
As for the hydrometer, thermometer, etc., which were listed on page 96 as essential
accessories of a charging bench, the Exide vehicle type hydrometer is a most excellent
Page 176
one for general use. This hydrometer has a round bulb and a straight barrel which has
projections on the float to keep the hydrometer in an upright position when taking
gravity readings. The special thermometer is shown in Figure 37. A good voltmeter is
shown in Figure 121. This voltmeter has a 2.5 and a 25 volt scale, which makes it
convenient for battery work. It also gives readings of a .2 and 2.0 to the left of the
zero, and special scale markings to facilitate the making of Cadmium tests as
described on page 174. As for the ammeter, if a motor-generator set, Tungar Rectifier
or a charging-rheostat is used, the ammeter is always furnished with the set. If a lamp
bank is used, a switchboard type meter reading to about 25 amperes is suitable. With
the constant potential system of charging, the ammeters are furnished with the motor-
generator set. They read up to 300 amperes.
The bottles for the distilled water and electrolyte are not of special design and may be
obtained in local stores, There are several special water bottles sold by jobbers, and
they are convenient, but not necessary. Figure 133 shows a very handy arrangement
for a water or acid bottle.
projections on the float to keep the hydrometer in an upright position when taking
gravity readings. The special thermometer is shown in Figure 37. A good voltmeter is
shown in Figure 121. This voltmeter has a 2.5 and a 25 volt scale, which makes it
convenient for battery work. It also gives readings of a .2 and 2.0 to the left of the
zero, and special scale markings to facilitate the making of Cadmium tests as
described on page 174. As for the ammeter, if a motor-generator set, Tungar Rectifier
or a charging-rheostat is used, the ammeter is always furnished with the set. If a lamp
bank is used, a switchboard type meter reading to about 25 amperes is suitable. With
the constant potential system of charging, the ammeters are furnished with the motor-
generator set. They read up to 300 amperes.
The bottles for the distilled water and electrolyte are not of special design and may be
obtained in local stores, There are several special water bottles sold by jobbers, and
they are convenient, but not necessary. Figure 133 shows a very handy arrangement
for a water or acid bottle.
Page 177
Page 178
Page 179
Page 180
Page 181
WORK BENCH
Page 182
A work bench is more of a standard article than the charging bench, and
there should be no trouble in building one. Figure 38 illustrates a good bench
in actual use. A vise is, of course, necessary, and the bench should be of solid
construction, and should be given several coats of asphaltum paint.
Figure 71 shows a single work bench which may be placed against a wall.
Figures 72 and 73 show double work benches. Note that each bench has the
elevated shelf, which should not, under any consideration be omitted, as it is
absolutely necessary for good work. The tool drawers are also very
convenient.
It is best to have a separate "tear down" bench where batteries are opened, as
such a bench will be a wet, sloppy place and would not be suitable for
anything else. It should be placed near the sink or wash tank, as shown in the
shop layouts illustrated in Figures 136 to 142.
SINK OR WASH TANK
there should be no trouble in building one. Figure 38 illustrates a good bench
in actual use. A vise is, of course, necessary, and the bench should be of solid
construction, and should be given several coats of asphaltum paint.
Figure 71 shows a single work bench which may be placed against a wall.
Figures 72 and 73 show double work benches. Note that each bench has the
elevated shelf, which should not, under any consideration be omitted, as it is
absolutely necessary for good work. The tool drawers are also very
convenient.
It is best to have a separate "tear down" bench where batteries are opened, as
such a bench will be a wet, sloppy place and would not be suitable for
anything else. It should be placed near the sink or wash tank, as shown in the
shop layouts illustrated in Figures 136 to 142.
SINK OR WASH TANK
Page 183
An ordinary sink may
be used, as shown in
Figure 74. This figure
also shows a convenient
arrangement for
washing out jars. This
consists of a three-
fourths inch pipe having
a perforated cap
screwed over its upper
end. Near the-floor is a
valve which is normally
held closed by a spring,
and which has attached
to it a foot operated
lever. In washing
sediment out of jars, the
case is inverted over the
pipe, and the water
turned on by means of
the foot lever. A number
of fine, sharp jets of
water are thrown up into
the jar, thereby washing
out the sediment
thoroughly.
If an ordinary sink is used, a settling tank should be placed under it, as
shown in Figure 75. Otherwise, the drain pipe may become stopped up with
sediment washed out of the jars. Pipe B is removable, which is convenient in
cleaning out the tank. When the tank is to be cleaned, lift pipe B up very
carefully and let the water drain out slowly. Then scoop out the sediment,
rinse the tank with water, and replace pipe B. In some places junk men will
buy the sediment, or "mud," as it is called.
Fig. 74. Sink with Faucet, and Extra Swinging Arm Pipe for
Washing Out Jars. Four Inch Paint Brush for Washing Battery
be used, as shown in
Figure 74. This figure
also shows a convenient
arrangement for
washing out jars. This
consists of a three-
fourths inch pipe having
a perforated cap
screwed over its upper
end. Near the-floor is a
valve which is normally
held closed by a spring,
and which has attached
to it a foot operated
lever. In washing
sediment out of jars, the
case is inverted over the
pipe, and the water
turned on by means of
the foot lever. A number
of fine, sharp jets of
water are thrown up into
the jar, thereby washing
out the sediment
thoroughly.
If an ordinary sink is used, a settling tank should be placed under it, as
shown in Figure 75. Otherwise, the drain pipe may become stopped up with
sediment washed out of the jars. Pipe B is removable, which is convenient in
cleaning out the tank. When the tank is to be cleaned, lift pipe B up very
carefully and let the water drain out slowly. Then scoop out the sediment,
rinse the tank with water, and replace pipe B. In some places junk men will
buy the sediment, or "mud," as it is called.
Fig. 74. Sink with Faucet, and Extra Swinging Arm Pipe for
Washing Out Jars. Four Inch Paint Brush for Washing Battery
Page 184
Cases
Figures 76 and 77 give the working drawings for more elaborate wash tanks.
The water supply shown in Figure 74 may be used here, and the drain pipe
arrangement shown in Figure 75 may be used if desired.
Figures 76 and 77 give the working drawings for more elaborate wash tanks.
The water supply shown in Figure 74 may be used here, and the drain pipe
arrangement shown in Figure 75 may be used if desired.
Page 185
Page 186
LEAD BURNING (WELDING) OUTFIT
In joining the connectors and terminals to the positive and negative posts,
and in joining plate straps to form a "group," the parts are joined or welded
together, melting the surfaces to be joined, and then melting in lead from
sticks called "burning lead." The process of joining these parts in this
manner is known as "lead burning." Directions for "lead burning" are given
on page 210.
There are various devices by means of which the lead is melted during the
"lead burning" process. The most satisfactory of these use a hot, pointed
flame. Where such a flame is not obtainable, a hot carbon rod is used.
The methods are given in the following list in the order of their efficiency:
1. Oxygen and Acetylene Under Pressure in Separate Tanks. The gases
are sent through a mixing valve to the burning tip. These gases give the
hottest flame.
In joining the connectors and terminals to the positive and negative posts,
and in joining plate straps to form a "group," the parts are joined or welded
together, melting the surfaces to be joined, and then melting in lead from
sticks called "burning lead." The process of joining these parts in this
manner is known as "lead burning." Directions for "lead burning" are given
on page 210.
There are various devices by means of which the lead is melted during the
"lead burning" process. The most satisfactory of these use a hot, pointed
flame. Where such a flame is not obtainable, a hot carbon rod is used.
The methods are given in the following list in the order of their efficiency:
1. Oxygen and Acetylene Under Pressure in Separate Tanks. The gases
are sent through a mixing valve to the burning tip. These gases give the
hottest flame.
Page 187
2. Oxygen and Hydrogen Under Pressure in Separate Tanks, Fig. 78. The
flame is a very hot one and is very nearly as satisfactory as the oxygen and
acetylene.
Fig. 78. Hydrogen-Oxygen
Lead Burning Outfit. A and
B are Regulating Valves. C
is the Safety Flash Back
Tank. D is the Mixing Valve.
E is the Burning Tip.
3. Oxygen and Illuminating Gas. This is a very satisfactory method, and
one that has become very popular. In this method it is absolutely necessary
flame is a very hot one and is very nearly as satisfactory as the oxygen and
acetylene.
Fig. 78. Hydrogen-Oxygen
Lead Burning Outfit. A and
B are Regulating Valves. C
is the Safety Flash Back
Tank. D is the Mixing Valve.
E is the Burning Tip.
3. Oxygen and Illuminating Gas. This is a very satisfactory method, and
one that has become very popular. In this method it is absolutely necessary
Page 188
to have a flash back tank (Fig. 79) in the gas line to prevent the oxygen from
backing up into the gas line and making a highly explosive mixture which
will cause a violent explosion that may wreck the entire shop.
To make such a
trap, any strong
walled vessel may
be used, as shown
in Figure 79. A six
to eight inch length
of four inch pipe
with caps screwed
over the ends will
make a good trap.
One of the caps
should have a 1/2
inch hole drilled
and tapped with a
pipe thread at the
center. This cap
should also have two holes drilled and tapped to take a 1/4 inch pipe,
these holes being near the inner wall of the large pipe, and
diametrically opposite one another.
Into one of these holes screw a short length of 1/4 inch pipe so Fig. 79.
Flash-Back Tank for Lead Burning Outfit that it comes flush with the
inner face of the cap. This pipe should lead to the burning outfit.
Into the other small hole screw a length of 1/4 inch pipe so that its lower end
comes within 1/2 inch of the bottom of the trap. This pipe is to be connected
to the illuminating gas supply.
backing up into the gas line and making a highly explosive mixture which
will cause a violent explosion that may wreck the entire shop.
To make such a
trap, any strong
walled vessel may
be used, as shown
in Figure 79. A six
to eight inch length
of four inch pipe
with caps screwed
over the ends will
make a good trap.
One of the caps
should have a 1/2
inch hole drilled
and tapped with a
pipe thread at the
center. This cap
should also have two holes drilled and tapped to take a 1/4 inch pipe,
these holes being near the inner wall of the large pipe, and
diametrically opposite one another.
Into one of these holes screw a short length of 1/4 inch pipe so Fig. 79.
Flash-Back Tank for Lead Burning Outfit that it comes flush with the
inner face of the cap. This pipe should lead to the burning outfit.
Into the other small hole screw a length of 1/4 inch pipe so that its lower end
comes within 1/2 inch of the bottom of the trap. This pipe is to be connected
to the illuminating gas supply.
Page 189
To use the trap, fill within one inch of top with water, and screw a 1/2 inch
plug into the center hole. All connections should be airtight.
4. Acetylene and Compressed Air. The acetylene is bought in tanks, and the
air compressed by a pump.
5. Hydrogen and Compressed Air. This is the method that was very
popular several years ago, but is not used to any extent at present because of
the development of the first three methods. A special torch and low pressure
air supply give a very satisfactory flame.
6. Wood Alcohol Torch. A hand torch with a double jet burner gives a very
clean, nonoxidizing flame. The flame is not as sharp as the oxygen flame,
and the torch is not easily handled without the use of burning collars and
moulds. The torch has the advantage of being small, light and portable. A
joint may be burned without removing the battery from the car.
7. Gasoline Torch. A double jet gasoline torch may be used, provided
collars or moulds are used to prevent the lead from running off. The torch
gives a broad flame which heats the parts very slowly, and the work cannot
be controlled as easily as in the preceding methods.
8. Carbon Arc. This is a very simple method, and requires only a spare 6
volt battery, a 1/4 inch carbon rod, carbon holder, cable, and clamp for
plug into the center hole. All connections should be airtight.
4. Acetylene and Compressed Air. The acetylene is bought in tanks, and the
air compressed by a pump.
5. Hydrogen and Compressed Air. This is the method that was very
popular several years ago, but is not used to any extent at present because of
the development of the first three methods. A special torch and low pressure
air supply give a very satisfactory flame.
6. Wood Alcohol Torch. A hand torch with a double jet burner gives a very
clean, nonoxidizing flame. The flame is not as sharp as the oxygen flame,
and the torch is not easily handled without the use of burning collars and
moulds. The torch has the advantage of being small, light and portable. A
joint may be burned without removing the battery from the car.
7. Gasoline Torch. A double jet gasoline torch may be used, provided
collars or moulds are used to prevent the lead from running off. The torch
gives a broad flame which heats the parts very slowly, and the work cannot
be controlled as easily as in the preceding methods.
8. Carbon Arc. This is a very simple method, and requires only a spare 6
volt battery, a 1/4 inch carbon rod, carbon holder, cable, and clamp for
Page 190
attaching to battery. This outfit is shown in Fig. 80. It may be bought from
the American Bureau of Engineering, Inc., Chicago, Ill. This outfit is
intended to be used only when gas is not available, and not where
considerable burning is to be done.
In using this outfit, one terminal of an extra 6 volt battery is connected by a
piece of cable with the connectors to be burned. The contact between cable
and connector should be clean and tight. The cable which is attached to the
carbon rod is then connected to the other terminal of the extra battery, if the
battery is not fully charged, or to the connector on the next cell if the battery
is fully charged. The number of cells used should be such that the carbon is
heated to at least a bright cherry red color when it is touching the joint which
is to be burned together.
Sharpen the carbon to a pencil point, and adjust its position so that it projects
from the holder about one inch. Occasionally plunge the holder and hot
carbon in a pail of water to prevent carbon from overheating. After a short
time, a scale will form on the surface of the carbon, and this should be
scraped off with a knife or file.
In burning in a connector, first melt the lead of the post and connector before
adding the burning lead. Keep the carbon point moving over all parts to be
joined, in order to insure a perfectly welded joint.
9. Illuminating Gas and Compressed Air. This is the slowest method of
any. Pump equipment is required, and this method should not be used unless
none of the other methods is available.
The selection of the burning apparatus will depend upon individual
conditions as well as prices, and the apparatus selected should be one as near
the beginning of the foregoing list as possible. Directions for the
manipulation of the apparatus are given by the manufacturers.
The most convenient arrangement for the lead burning outfit is to run pipes
from one end of the work bench to the other, just below the center shelf.
Then set the gas tanks at one end of the bench and connect them to the pipes.
At convenient intervals have outlets for attaching the hoses leading to the
torch.
the American Bureau of Engineering, Inc., Chicago, Ill. This outfit is
intended to be used only when gas is not available, and not where
considerable burning is to be done.
In using this outfit, one terminal of an extra 6 volt battery is connected by a
piece of cable with the connectors to be burned. The contact between cable
and connector should be clean and tight. The cable which is attached to the
carbon rod is then connected to the other terminal of the extra battery, if the
battery is not fully charged, or to the connector on the next cell if the battery
is fully charged. The number of cells used should be such that the carbon is
heated to at least a bright cherry red color when it is touching the joint which
is to be burned together.
Sharpen the carbon to a pencil point, and adjust its position so that it projects
from the holder about one inch. Occasionally plunge the holder and hot
carbon in a pail of water to prevent carbon from overheating. After a short
time, a scale will form on the surface of the carbon, and this should be
scraped off with a knife or file.
In burning in a connector, first melt the lead of the post and connector before
adding the burning lead. Keep the carbon point moving over all parts to be
joined, in order to insure a perfectly welded joint.
9. Illuminating Gas and Compressed Air. This is the slowest method of
any. Pump equipment is required, and this method should not be used unless
none of the other methods is available.
The selection of the burning apparatus will depend upon individual
conditions as well as prices, and the apparatus selected should be one as near
the beginning of the foregoing list as possible. Directions for the
manipulation of the apparatus are given by the manufacturers.
The most convenient arrangement for the lead burning outfit is to run pipes
from one end of the work bench to the other, just below the center shelf.
Then set the gas tanks at one end of the bench and connect them to the pipes.
At convenient intervals have outlets for attaching the hoses leading to the
torch.
Page 191
EQUIPMENT FOR HANDLING SEALING COMPOUND
(a) Stove. Where city gas is available, a two or three burner gas stove or hot-
plate should be used. Where there is no gas supply, the most satisfactory is
perhaps an oil stove. It is now possible to get an odorless oil stove which
gives a hot smokeless flame which is very satisfactory. In the winter, if a
coal stove is used to heat the shop, the stove may also be used for heating the
sealing compound, but it will be more difficult to keep the temperature low
enough to prevent burning the compound.
(b) Pot or Kettle. An iron kettle is suitable for use in heating compound.
Special kettles, some of which are non-metallic, are on the market, and may
be obtained from the jobbers.
(c) An iron ladle should be obtained for dipping up compound, and for
pouring compound when sealing a battery. Figure 81 shows a convenient
form of ladle which has a pouring hole in the bottom. A taper pin, which is
raised by the extra handle allows a very fine stream of compound to be
poured.
The exact size of the ladle is not important, but one which is too heavy to be
held in one hand should not be used.
(d) Several old coffee pots are convenient, and save much time in sealing
batteries.
Sealing compound is a combination of heavy residues produced by the
fractional distillation of petroleum. It is not all alike-that accepted for factory
use and distribution to Service Stations must usually conform to rigid
specifications laid down by the testing laboratories governing exact degrees
of brittleness, elongation, strength and melting point. For these qualities it is
dependent upon certain volatile oils which may be driven off from the
compound if the temperature of the molten mass is raised above the
comparatively low points where some of these oils begin to volatilize off as
gaseous vapor or smoke.
Compound from which certain of these valuable constituent oils have been
driven off or "burned out" through overheating is recognized through too
(a) Stove. Where city gas is available, a two or three burner gas stove or hot-
plate should be used. Where there is no gas supply, the most satisfactory is
perhaps an oil stove. It is now possible to get an odorless oil stove which
gives a hot smokeless flame which is very satisfactory. In the winter, if a
coal stove is used to heat the shop, the stove may also be used for heating the
sealing compound, but it will be more difficult to keep the temperature low
enough to prevent burning the compound.
(b) Pot or Kettle. An iron kettle is suitable for use in heating compound.
Special kettles, some of which are non-metallic, are on the market, and may
be obtained from the jobbers.
(c) An iron ladle should be obtained for dipping up compound, and for
pouring compound when sealing a battery. Figure 81 shows a convenient
form of ladle which has a pouring hole in the bottom. A taper pin, which is
raised by the extra handle allows a very fine stream of compound to be
poured.
The exact size of the ladle is not important, but one which is too heavy to be
held in one hand should not be used.
(d) Several old coffee pots are convenient, and save much time in sealing
batteries.
Sealing compound is a combination of heavy residues produced by the
fractional distillation of petroleum. It is not all alike-that accepted for factory
use and distribution to Service Stations must usually conform to rigid
specifications laid down by the testing laboratories governing exact degrees
of brittleness, elongation, strength and melting point. For these qualities it is
dependent upon certain volatile oils which may be driven off from the
compound if the temperature of the molten mass is raised above the
comparatively low points where some of these oils begin to volatilize off as
gaseous vapor or smoke.
Compound from which certain of these valuable constituent oils have been
driven off or "burned out" through overheating is recognized through too
Page 192
great BRITTLENESS and SHRINKAGE on cooling, causing "CRACKED
COMPOUND" with all of its attending difficulties.
Do not put too much cold compound in the kettle to begin with. It is not
advisable to carry much more molten compound in the kettle at any time
than can easily be dipped out-cold compound may be added during the day
as needed. When there is considerable cold compound in the kettle, and the
heating flame is applied, the lower bottom part of the mass next to the
surface of the iron is brought to a melting point first-heat must be conveyed
from this already hot part of the compound upward throughout the whole
mass-so that before the top part of it is brought to a molten condition the
lower inside layers are very hot indeed. If there is too much in the kettle
these lower layers are necessarily raised in temperature beyond the point
where they lose some of their volatile oils-they are "burned" before the
whole mass of compound can be brought to a molten state.
Do not use too large a heating flame under the kettle for the same reasons. A
flame turned on "full blast" will certainly "burn" the bottom layers before the
succeeding layers above are brought to the fusion point. USE A SLOW
FLAME and TAKE TIME IN MELTING UP THE COMPOUND. It PAYS
in the resulting jobs.
The more compound is heated, the thinner it becomes—it should never be
allowed to become so hot that it flows too freely—it should never exceed the
viscosity of medium molasses. It should flow freely enough to run in all
narrow spaces but NOT freely enough to flow THROUGH them before it
cools.
Stir the kettle frequently during the day. It is advisable about once a week to
work as much compound out of the kettle as possible, empty that still
remaining, clean the kettle out, and start with fresh compound.
COMPOUND" with all of its attending difficulties.
Do not put too much cold compound in the kettle to begin with. It is not
advisable to carry much more molten compound in the kettle at any time
than can easily be dipped out-cold compound may be added during the day
as needed. When there is considerable cold compound in the kettle, and the
heating flame is applied, the lower bottom part of the mass next to the
surface of the iron is brought to a melting point first-heat must be conveyed
from this already hot part of the compound upward throughout the whole
mass-so that before the top part of it is brought to a molten condition the
lower inside layers are very hot indeed. If there is too much in the kettle
these lower layers are necessarily raised in temperature beyond the point
where they lose some of their volatile oils-they are "burned" before the
whole mass of compound can be brought to a molten state.
Do not use too large a heating flame under the kettle for the same reasons. A
flame turned on "full blast" will certainly "burn" the bottom layers before the
succeeding layers above are brought to the fusion point. USE A SLOW
FLAME and TAKE TIME IN MELTING UP THE COMPOUND. It PAYS
in the resulting jobs.
The more compound is heated, the thinner it becomes—it should never be
allowed to become so hot that it flows too freely—it should never exceed the
viscosity of medium molasses. It should flow freely enough to run in all
narrow spaces but NOT freely enough to flow THROUGH them before it
cools.
Stir the kettle frequently during the day. It is advisable about once a week to
work as much compound out of the kettle as possible, empty that still
remaining, clean the kettle out, and start with fresh compound.
Page 193
NEVER USE OLD COMPOUND OVER AGAIN — that is, do not throw
compound that has been dug out of used batteries into the kettle with the
new compound. The old compound is no doubt acid soaked, and this acid
will work through the whole molten mass, making a satisfactory job a very
doubtful matter indeed.
Cold weather hardens sealing compound, of course, and renders it somewhat
brittle and liable to crack. This tendency could be overcome by using a softer
compound, but, on the other hand, compound so soft that it would have no
tendency to crack in cold weather would be so soft in warm weather that it
would fail to hold the assembly with the necessary firmness and security. It
is far better policy to run the risk of developing a few cracks in the winter
than a loose assembly in summer. Surface cracks developed in cold weather
may be easily remedied by stripping off the compound around the crack with
a heated tool, flashing with the torch and quickly re-sealing according to the
above directions.
It is not practical to work any oil agent, such as paraffin or castor oil, into the
compound in an effort to soften it for use in cold weather.
SHELVING AND RACKS
The essential things about shelving in a battery shop are, that it must be
covered with acid-proof paint, and must be made of heavy lumber if it is to
carry complete batteries. Figure 82 shows the heavy shelving required in a
stock-room, while Figure 83 shows the lighter shelving which may be used
for parts, such as jars, cases, extra plates, and so on.
compound that has been dug out of used batteries into the kettle with the
new compound. The old compound is no doubt acid soaked, and this acid
will work through the whole molten mass, making a satisfactory job a very
doubtful matter indeed.
Cold weather hardens sealing compound, of course, and renders it somewhat
brittle and liable to crack. This tendency could be overcome by using a softer
compound, but, on the other hand, compound so soft that it would have no
tendency to crack in cold weather would be so soft in warm weather that it
would fail to hold the assembly with the necessary firmness and security. It
is far better policy to run the risk of developing a few cracks in the winter
than a loose assembly in summer. Surface cracks developed in cold weather
may be easily remedied by stripping off the compound around the crack with
a heated tool, flashing with the torch and quickly re-sealing according to the
above directions.
It is not practical to work any oil agent, such as paraffin or castor oil, into the
compound in an effort to soften it for use in cold weather.
SHELVING AND RACKS
The essential things about shelving in a battery shop are, that it must be
covered with acid-proof paint, and must be made of heavy lumber if it is to
carry complete batteries. Figure 82 shows the heavy shelving required in a
stock-room, while Figure 83 shows the lighter shelving which may be used
for parts, such as jars, cases, extra plates, and so on.
Page 194
Fig. 82. Typical Stockroom, Showing Heavy Shelving Necessary for Storing
Batteries.
BINS
Figure 90 gives the dimensions for equipment bins suitable for covers,
terminals, inter-cell connectors, jars, cases, and various other parts. These
bins can be made with any desired number of sections, and additional
sections built as they are needed.
Batteries.
BINS
Figure 90 gives the dimensions for equipment bins suitable for covers,
terminals, inter-cell connectors, jars, cases, and various other parts. These
bins can be made with any desired number of sections, and additional
sections built as they are needed.
Page 195
Fig. 83. Corner of Workshop, Showing Lead Burning Outfit, Workbench and
Vises.
Figures 84 and 85 show two receiving racks for batteries which come in for
repairs. In many shops batteries are set on the floor while waiting for repairs.
If there is plenty of floor space, this practice is not objectionable. In any
case, however, it improves the looks of the shop, and makes a better
impression on the customer to have racks to receive such batteries. Note that
the shelves are arranged so as to permit acid to drain off. Batteries often
come in with wet, leaky cases, and this shelf construction is suitable for such
batteries.
Vises.
Figures 84 and 85 show two receiving racks for batteries which come in for
repairs. In many shops batteries are set on the floor while waiting for repairs.
If there is plenty of floor space, this practice is not objectionable. In any
case, however, it improves the looks of the shop, and makes a better
impression on the customer to have racks to receive such batteries. Note that
the shelves are arranged so as to permit acid to drain off. Batteries often
come in with wet, leaky cases, and this shelf construction is suitable for such
batteries.
Page 196
Page 197
The racks shown in Figures 86 and 87 are for repaired batteries, new
batteries, rental batteries, batteries in dry storage, and for any batteries which
do not have wet leaky cases.
batteries, rental batteries, batteries in dry storage, and for any batteries which
do not have wet leaky cases.
Page 198
Page 199
Figures 88 and 89 show racks suitable for new batteries which have been
shipped filled with electrolyte, batteries in "wet" or "live" storage, rental
batteries, and so on. Note that these racks are provided with charging circuits
so that the batteries may be given a low charge without removing them from
the racks. Note. also that the shelves are spaced two feet apart so as to be
able to take hydrometer readings, voltage readings, add water, and so on,
without removing the batteries from the racks.
shipped filled with electrolyte, batteries in "wet" or "live" storage, rental
batteries, and so on. Note that these racks are provided with charging circuits
so that the batteries may be given a low charge without removing them from
the racks. Note. also that the shelves are spaced two feet apart so as to be
able to take hydrometer readings, voltage readings, add water, and so on,
without removing the batteries from the racks.
Page 200
Page 201
Page 202
Page 203
Figure 90 gives the dimensions for equipment bins suitable for covers,
terminals, inter-cell connectors, jars, cases, and various other parts. These
bins can be made with any desired number of sections, and additional
sections built as they are needed.
BATTERY STEAMER
Steaming is the most satisfactory method of softening sealing compound,
making covers and jars limp and pliable. An open flame should never be
used for this work, as the temperature of the flame is too high and there is
danger of burning jars and covers and making them worthless. With steam, it
is impossible to damage sealing compound or rubber parts.
terminals, inter-cell connectors, jars, cases, and various other parts. These
bins can be made with any desired number of sections, and additional
sections built as they are needed.
BATTERY STEAMER
Steaming is the most satisfactory method of softening sealing compound,
making covers and jars limp and pliable. An open flame should never be
used for this work, as the temperature of the flame is too high and there is
danger of burning jars and covers and making them worthless. With steam, it
is impossible to damage sealing compound or rubber parts.
Page 204
A soft flame from a lead burning torch is used to dry out the channels in the
covers before sealing, and is run over the compound quickly to make the
compound flow evenly and unite with the jars and covers. But in such work
the flame is used for only a few seconds and is not applied long enough to do
any damage.
With a steaming outfit, it is also possible to distill water for use in mixing
electrolyte and replacing evaporation in the cells. The only additional
equipment needed is a condenser to condense the steam into water.
Fig. 91. Battery Steamer, with Steam Hose
for Each Cell
covers before sealing, and is run over the compound quickly to make the
compound flow evenly and unite with the jars and covers. But in such work
the flame is used for only a few seconds and is not applied long enough to do
any damage.
With a steaming outfit, it is also possible to distill water for use in mixing
electrolyte and replacing evaporation in the cells. The only additional
equipment needed is a condenser to condense the steam into water.
Fig. 91. Battery Steamer, with Steam Hose
for Each Cell
Page 205
Figure 91 shows a steaming outfit mounted on a wall, and shows the rubber
tube connections between the several parts. The boiler is set on the stove,
water being supplied from the water supply tank which is hung above the
boiler to obtain gravity feed. The water supply tank is open at the top, and is
filled every morning with faucet water. This tank is suitable for any shop,
even though a city water supply is available. A water pipe from the city lines
may be run to a point immediately above the tank and a faucet or valve
attached. Where there is no city water supply, the tank may, of course, be
filled with a pail or pitcher.
The boiler is equipped with a float operated valve which maintains a one to
one and one-half inch depth of water. As the water boils away, the float
lowers slightly and allows water to enter the boiler. In this way, the water is
maintained at the proper level at all times. A manifold is fitted to the boiler
and has six openings to which lengths of rubber tubing are attached. These
tubes are inserted in the vent holes of the battery which is to be steamed.
Any number of the steam outlets may be opened by drawing out the
manifold plunger valve to the proper point. When distilling water, a tube is
attached to one of the steam outlets as shown, and connected to the
condenser as shown. A bottle is placed under the distilled water outlet to
collect the distilled water.
Cooling water enters the condenser through the tubing shown attached to the
condenser at the lower right-hand edge. The other end of this tube is attached
to the water faucet, or other cooling water supply. The cooling water outlet is
shown at the lower left hand edge of the condenser. The cooling water inlet
and outlet are shown in Figure 92.
If there is no city water supply, a ten or twenty gallon tank may be mounted
above the condenser and attached by means of a rubber tube to the cooling
water inlet shown at the lower right hand edge of the condenser in Figure 92.
A similar tank is placed under the cooling water outlet. The upper tank is
then filled with water. When the water has run out of the upper tank through
the condenser and into the lower tank, it is poured back into the upper tank.
In this way a steady supply of cooling water is obtained.
tube connections between the several parts. The boiler is set on the stove,
water being supplied from the water supply tank which is hung above the
boiler to obtain gravity feed. The water supply tank is open at the top, and is
filled every morning with faucet water. This tank is suitable for any shop,
even though a city water supply is available. A water pipe from the city lines
may be run to a point immediately above the tank and a faucet or valve
attached. Where there is no city water supply, the tank may, of course, be
filled with a pail or pitcher.
The boiler is equipped with a float operated valve which maintains a one to
one and one-half inch depth of water. As the water boils away, the float
lowers slightly and allows water to enter the boiler. In this way, the water is
maintained at the proper level at all times. A manifold is fitted to the boiler
and has six openings to which lengths of rubber tubing are attached. These
tubes are inserted in the vent holes of the battery which is to be steamed.
Any number of the steam outlets may be opened by drawing out the
manifold plunger valve to the proper point. When distilling water, a tube is
attached to one of the steam outlets as shown, and connected to the
condenser as shown. A bottle is placed under the distilled water outlet to
collect the distilled water.
Cooling water enters the condenser through the tubing shown attached to the
condenser at the lower right-hand edge. The other end of this tube is attached
to the water faucet, or other cooling water supply. The cooling water outlet is
shown at the lower left hand edge of the condenser. The cooling water inlet
and outlet are shown in Figure 92.
If there is no city water supply, a ten or twenty gallon tank may be mounted
above the condenser and attached by means of a rubber tube to the cooling
water inlet shown at the lower right hand edge of the condenser in Figure 92.
A similar tank is placed under the cooling water outlet. The upper tank is
then filled with water. When the water has run out of the upper tank through
the condenser and into the lower tank, it is poured back into the upper tank.
In this way a steady supply of cooling water is obtained.
Page 206
Another type of steamer uses a steaming box, Figure 93. The battery is
placed in the box and steam is sent in through the cover. The boiler has only
one steam outlet, and this is connected to the box by means of a hose.
If desired, a special bench may be made for the steaming outfit, as shown in
Figure 94.
placed in the box and steam is sent in through the cover. The boiler has only
one steam outlet, and this is connected to the box by means of a hose.
If desired, a special bench may be made for the steaming outfit, as shown in
Figure 94.
Page 207
The other tools needed for opening batteries, as given in the list on page 97
are standard articles, and may be obtained at any hardware store, except the
terminal tongs, which should be purchased from a battery supply house.
Figure 95 illustrates the use of terminal tongs. Battery terminals usually stick
so tight that they must be forced out with pliers or other tools. Here is shown
a pair of tongs that makes easy work of the job. One end has a fork and the
other is shaped to come between the fork. It is placed on the battery terminal,
as shown, and when the handles are brought together the terminal attached to
the battery lead is forced out without marring any of the parts.
EQUIPMENT FOR LEAD BURNING (WELDING)
Plate Burning Rack
The plates which compose a "group" are joined to the plate connecting strap
to which the post is attached. The plates are "burned" to the strap, and this
must be done in such a manner that the plates are absolutely parallel, that the
distance between plates is correct, and that the top surface of the strap is at
are standard articles, and may be obtained at any hardware store, except the
terminal tongs, which should be purchased from a battery supply house.
Figure 95 illustrates the use of terminal tongs. Battery terminals usually stick
so tight that they must be forced out with pliers or other tools. Here is shown
a pair of tongs that makes easy work of the job. One end has a fork and the
other is shaped to come between the fork. It is placed on the battery terminal,
as shown, and when the handles are brought together the terminal attached to
the battery lead is forced out without marring any of the parts.
EQUIPMENT FOR LEAD BURNING (WELDING)
Plate Burning Rack
The plates which compose a "group" are joined to the plate connecting strap
to which the post is attached. The plates are "burned" to the strap, and this
must be done in such a manner that the plates are absolutely parallel, that the
distance between plates is correct, and that the top surface of the strap is at
Page 208
right angles to the surface of the plates. These conditions are necessary in
order that the positive and negative groups may mesh properly, that the
complete element, consisting of the plates and separators may fit in the jar
properly, and that the cell covers may fit over the posts easily.
Fig. 96. Universal Plate
Burning Rack. Will Hold
Three Groups of Plates at
One Time. Designed for
Standard and Special Plates
order that the positive and negative groups may mesh properly, that the
complete element, consisting of the plates and separators may fit in the jar
properly, and that the cell covers may fit over the posts easily.
Fig. 96. Universal Plate
Burning Rack. Will Hold
Three Groups of Plates at
One Time. Designed for
Standard and Special Plates
Page 209
In order to secure these conditions, plates that are to be burned to the strap
are set in a "burning rack," shown in Figs. 96 and 97, which consists mainly
of a base upon which the plate rest, and a slotted bar into which the lugs on
the plates fit. The distance between successive slots is equal to the correct
distance between the plates of the group. An improved form of burning rack
has a wooden base which has slots along the side. The plates are set into
these slots and are thus held in the correct position at both top and bottom.
Fig. 97 shows a rack for use with 1/8 inch and 7-64 inch plates. Fig. 96
shows a "Universal" rack which may be used with both the 1/8 and 7-64 inch
plates, and also many special plates.
The guide-bar, or "comb," E, has slots along two sides, the base having
corresponding slots, as shown. To accommodate different sized plates, the
comb may be raised or lowered, and the uprights may be moved back and
forth in two slots, one of which is shown at F. In using this rack, the plates
are set in position, with their lower edges in the slots of the base, and their
lugs in the slots in the comb. The plates are in this way held at opposite
corners, and are absolutely straight and parallel.
are set in a "burning rack," shown in Figs. 96 and 97, which consists mainly
of a base upon which the plate rest, and a slotted bar into which the lugs on
the plates fit. The distance between successive slots is equal to the correct
distance between the plates of the group. An improved form of burning rack
has a wooden base which has slots along the side. The plates are set into
these slots and are thus held in the correct position at both top and bottom.
Fig. 97 shows a rack for use with 1/8 inch and 7-64 inch plates. Fig. 96
shows a "Universal" rack which may be used with both the 1/8 and 7-64 inch
plates, and also many special plates.
The guide-bar, or "comb," E, has slots along two sides, the base having
corresponding slots, as shown. To accommodate different sized plates, the
comb may be raised or lowered, and the uprights may be moved back and
forth in two slots, one of which is shown at F. In using this rack, the plates
are set in position, with their lower edges in the slots of the base, and their
lugs in the slots in the comb. The plates are in this way held at opposite
corners, and are absolutely straight and parallel.
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Special fittings are provided to simplify the work of burning. A bar, D, fits
along the edge of the comb, and holds the lugs of the plates firmly in the
slots. This bar is movable to any part of the comb, being held by two spring
clips, C. Two bars, A and B, which are adjustable, make a form around the
plate lugs which will prevent the hot lead from running off while burning in
the plates.
Instructions for burning on plates are given on page 217.
The triangular scraper, steel wire brush, coarse files and smoked or blue
glasses are all standard articles and may be obtained from any supply house.
The burning collars are made of iron, and are set over the end of inter-cell
connectors when burning these to the posts, see Figure 98. Experienced
repairmen generally do not use them, but those who have trouble with the
whole end of the connector melting and the lead running off should use
collars to hold in the lead.
The Burning Lead Mould
In every shop there is an accumulation of scrap lead from post drillings, old
connecting straps, old plate straps, etc. These should be kept in a special box
provided for that purpose, and when a sufficient amount has accumulated,
the lead should be melted and run off into moulds for making burning-lead.
The Burning Lead Mould is designed to be used for this purpose. As shown
in Fig. 99, the mould consists of a sheet iron form which has been pressed
into six troughs or grooves into which the melted lead is poured. This sheet
iron form is conveniently mounted on a block of wood which has a handle at
one end, making it possible to hold the mould while hot without danger of
being burned. A sheet of asbestos separates the iron form from the wood,
thus protecting the wood from the heat of the melted lead. A hole is drilled in
the end of the handle to permit the mould being hung on a nail when not in
use. The grooves in the iron form will produce bars of burning lead 15
along the edge of the comb, and holds the lugs of the plates firmly in the
slots. This bar is movable to any part of the comb, being held by two spring
clips, C. Two bars, A and B, which are adjustable, make a form around the
plate lugs which will prevent the hot lead from running off while burning in
the plates.
Instructions for burning on plates are given on page 217.
The triangular scraper, steel wire brush, coarse files and smoked or blue
glasses are all standard articles and may be obtained from any supply house.
The burning collars are made of iron, and are set over the end of inter-cell
connectors when burning these to the posts, see Figure 98. Experienced
repairmen generally do not use them, but those who have trouble with the
whole end of the connector melting and the lead running off should use
collars to hold in the lead.
The Burning Lead Mould
In every shop there is an accumulation of scrap lead from post drillings, old
connecting straps, old plate straps, etc. These should be kept in a special box
provided for that purpose, and when a sufficient amount has accumulated,
the lead should be melted and run off into moulds for making burning-lead.
The Burning Lead Mould is designed to be used for this purpose. As shown
in Fig. 99, the mould consists of a sheet iron form which has been pressed
into six troughs or grooves into which the melted lead is poured. This sheet
iron form is conveniently mounted on a block of wood which has a handle at
one end, making it possible to hold the mould while hot without danger of
being burned. A sheet of asbestos separates the iron form from the wood,
thus protecting the wood from the heat of the melted lead. A hole is drilled in
the end of the handle to permit the mould being hung on a nail when not in
use. The grooves in the iron form will produce bars of burning lead 15
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inches long, 5-16 inch thick, 3/8 inch wide at the top, and 1/4 inch wide at
the bottom.
Fig. 99. Burning-Lead Moulds, and Burning Sticks Cast in Them
The advantage of this type of Burning Lead Mould over a cast iron mould is
obvious. The form, being made of sheet iron, heats up very quickly, and
absorbs only a very small amount of heat from the melted lead. The cast-iron
mould, on the other hand, takes so much heat from the melted lead that the
latter cools very quickly, and is hard to handle.
An iron pot that will hold at least ten pounds of molten lead should be used
in melting up lead scraps for burning sticks.
When the metal has become soft enough to stir with a clean pine stick skim
off the dross. Continue heating metal until slightly yellow on top.
With a paddle or ladle drop in a cleaning compound of equal parts of
powdered rosin, borax and flower of sulphur. Use a teaspoonful for a ten-
pound melting and make sure the compound is perfectly dry.
Stir a little and if metal is at proper heat there will be a flare, flash or a little
burning. A sort of tinfoil popcorn effect will be noticed floating on top of the
metal. Stir until this melts down. Have your ladle hot and skim off soft
particles. Dust the mould with mould compound, a powder which makes the
lead fill the entire grooves, and not become cool before it does.
When everything is ready, fill the ladle and pour the lead into one of the
grooves. Hold the ladle above one end of the groove while pouring, and do
the bottom.
Fig. 99. Burning-Lead Moulds, and Burning Sticks Cast in Them
The advantage of this type of Burning Lead Mould over a cast iron mould is
obvious. The form, being made of sheet iron, heats up very quickly, and
absorbs only a very small amount of heat from the melted lead. The cast-iron
mould, on the other hand, takes so much heat from the melted lead that the
latter cools very quickly, and is hard to handle.
An iron pot that will hold at least ten pounds of molten lead should be used
in melting up lead scraps for burning sticks.
When the metal has become soft enough to stir with a clean pine stick skim
off the dross. Continue heating metal until slightly yellow on top.
With a paddle or ladle drop in a cleaning compound of equal parts of
powdered rosin, borax and flower of sulphur. Use a teaspoonful for a ten-
pound melting and make sure the compound is perfectly dry.
Stir a little and if metal is at proper heat there will be a flare, flash or a little
burning. A sort of tinfoil popcorn effect will be noticed floating on top of the
metal. Stir until this melts down. Have your ladle hot and skim off soft
particles. Dust the mould with mould compound, a powder which makes the
lead fill the entire grooves, and not become cool before it does.
When everything is ready, fill the ladle and pour the lead into one of the
grooves. Hold the ladle above one end of the groove while pouring, and do
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not move it along the groove. Fill the other grooves in a similar manner.
Post Builders. These are moulds which are set over the stumps of posts
which have been drilled short in removing the inter-cell connectors. Lead is
then melted in with a burning flame to build the post up to the proper height.
Figure 100 shows a set of post-builders, and Figure 101 illustrates their use.
Post Builders. These are moulds which are set over the stumps of posts
which have been drilled short in removing the inter-cell connectors. Lead is
then melted in with a burning flame to build the post up to the proper height.
Figure 100 shows a set of post-builders, and Figure 101 illustrates their use.
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EQUIPMENT FOR GENERAL WORK ON CONNECTORS
AND
TERMINALS
Moulds for Casting Inter-Cell Connectors, Terminals, Terminal
Screws, Taper Lugs, Plate Straps, Etc.
Figure 102 shows a plate strap mould with which three straps and posts may
be cast in one minute. It has a sliding movable tooth rack for casting an odd
or even number of teeth on the strap.
AND
TERMINALS
Moulds for Casting Inter-Cell Connectors, Terminals, Terminal
Screws, Taper Lugs, Plate Straps, Etc.
Figure 102 shows a plate strap mould with which three straps and posts may
be cast in one minute. It has a sliding movable tooth rack for casting an odd
or even number of teeth on the strap.
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Figure 103 shows a Link Combination Mould which casts five inter-cell
connectors for use on standard 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 plate batteries, four end
connectors (two Dodge tapers, and standard tapers, negative and positive),
one end connector with 3/8 inch cable used on 12 volt Maxwell battery and
on all other cars a wire cable, and one small wire to connect with end post on
batteries requiring direct connection. It also casts two post support rings to
fit standard size rubber covers and to fit posts cast with plate strap mould,
and two washers which are often needed when installing needed when
installing new or rental batteries.
connectors for use on standard 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 plate batteries, four end
connectors (two Dodge tapers, and standard tapers, negative and positive),
one end connector with 3/8 inch cable used on 12 volt Maxwell battery and
on all other cars a wire cable, and one small wire to connect with end post on
batteries requiring direct connection. It also casts two post support rings to
fit standard size rubber covers and to fit posts cast with plate strap mould,
and two washers which are often needed when installing needed when
installing new or rental batteries.
Page 215
Figure 104 shows the parts which may be made with this mould.
Page 216
Page 217
Figure 105 shows a cell connector mould which casts practically all the cell
connectors used on standard 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 plate batteries. This mould is
similar to the Link Combination Mould shown in Figure 103.
connectors used on standard 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 plate batteries. This mould is
similar to the Link Combination Mould shown in Figure 103.
Page 218
Figure 106 shows a production type strap mould which is designed to be
used by large battery shops. Forty-two styles of straps are, cast by this
mould. This mould has an indexing device as shown in Figure 107, which is
adjusted by means of a screw for moulding the straps for any number of
plates from seven to nineteen. Figure 109 shows some of the castings which
are made with this mould.
Figure 109 shows a Terminal Mould which casts five reversible end terminal
connectors, a cable connector, such as is used on the Maxwell battery, and
two washers often needed in making a tight connection.
used by large battery shops. Forty-two styles of straps are, cast by this
mould. This mould has an indexing device as shown in Figure 107, which is
adjusted by means of a screw for moulding the straps for any number of
plates from seven to nineteen. Figure 109 shows some of the castings which
are made with this mould.
Figure 109 shows a Terminal Mould which casts five reversible end terminal
connectors, a cable connector, such as is used on the Maxwell battery, and
two washers often needed in making a tight connection.
Page 219
Figure 110 shows a Screw Mould which casts standard square lead leads on
four screws in one operation, two 5/8 inch and two 3/8 inch. This mould has
a screw adjustment in the base which makes each cavity adaptable to any
length screw.
EQUIPMENT FOR WORK ON CASES
The acid proof asphaltum paint, paint brushes, wood chisels, wood plane,
and earthenware jars are all standard articles.
four screws in one operation, two 5/8 inch and two 3/8 inch. This mould has
a screw adjustment in the base which makes each cavity adaptable to any
length screw.
EQUIPMENT FOR WORK ON CASES
The acid proof asphaltum paint, paint brushes, wood chisels, wood plane,
and earthenware jars are all standard articles.
Page 220
Figure 111 shows a battery turntable which is very convenient when painting
cases, lead burning, etc.
TOOLS FOR GENERAL WORK
Most of the articles in this list require no explanation. Some of them,
however, are of special construction.
Separator Cutter. Some battery supply houses sell special separator cutters,
but a large size photograph trimmer is entirely satisfactory.
Fig. 112. Plate Press for Pressing Swollen,
Bulged Negatives (After Plates Have Been Fully
Charged)
cases, lead burning, etc.
TOOLS FOR GENERAL WORK
Most of the articles in this list require no explanation. Some of them,
however, are of special construction.
Separator Cutter. Some battery supply houses sell special separator cutters,
but a large size photograph trimmer is entirely satisfactory.
Fig. 112. Plate Press for Pressing Swollen,
Bulged Negatives (After Plates Have Been Fully
Charged)
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Fig. 113. Inserting Plate Press Boards Between
Negatives Preparatory to Pressing
Plate Press. Figure 112 shows a special plate press in which the plates are
pressed between wooden jaws. No iron can come into contact with the
plates. This is a very important feature, since iron in solution causes a
battery to lose its charge very quickly. This press is made of heavy hardwood
timbers, and may be set on a bench or mounted on the wall. A set of lead
coated troughs carry away the acid which is squeezed from the plates.
Negatives Preparatory to Pressing
Plate Press. Figure 112 shows a special plate press in which the plates are
pressed between wooden jaws. No iron can come into contact with the
plates. This is a very important feature, since iron in solution causes a
battery to lose its charge very quickly. This press is made of heavy hardwood
timbers, and may be set on a bench or mounted on the wall. A set of lead
coated troughs carry away the acid which is squeezed from the plates.
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This press is designed for pressing negative plates, the active material of
which has become bulged or swollen. A plate in this condition has a low
capacity and cannot give good service. Swollen negatives often make it
impossible to replace the plates in a jar. When negatives are found to be
bulged or swollen, the battery must be fully charged, and the negatives then
pressed. To do this, plate press boards, which are of acid proof material, and
of the proper thickness are inserted between the negatives, as shown in
Figure 113, and the plates are then set in the press is shown in Figure 114.
which has become bulged or swollen. A plate in this condition has a low
capacity and cannot give good service. Swollen negatives often make it
impossible to replace the plates in a jar. When negatives are found to be
bulged or swollen, the battery must be fully charged, and the negatives then
pressed. To do this, plate press boards, which are of acid proof material, and
of the proper thickness are inserted between the negatives, as shown in
Figure 113, and the plates are then set in the press is shown in Figure 114.
Page 223
Figure 115 shows a group before and after pressing. Note that pressing has
forced the active material back into the grid where it must be if the plates are
to give good service. Never send out a battery with swollen or bulged
negatives.
Slightly buckled negatives may also be straightened out in the Plate Press.
Positives do not swell or bulge as they discharge, but shed the active
material. They are therefore not pressed Positives buckle, of course, but
should never be pressed to straighten them. The lead peroxide of the positive
plates is not elastic like the spongy the negatives, and if positives are pressed
to straighten them the paste will crack and break from the grid. Slightly
buckled positives may be used, but if they are so badly buckled that it is
impossible to reassemble the element or put the element back into the jars,
they should be discarded.
forced the active material back into the grid where it must be if the plates are
to give good service. Never send out a battery with swollen or bulged
negatives.
Slightly buckled negatives may also be straightened out in the Plate Press.
Positives do not swell or bulge as they discharge, but shed the active
material. They are therefore not pressed Positives buckle, of course, but
should never be pressed to straighten them. The lead peroxide of the positive
plates is not elastic like the spongy the negatives, and if positives are pressed
to straighten them the paste will crack and break from the grid. Slightly
buckled positives may be used, but if they are so badly buckled that it is
impossible to reassemble the element or put the element back into the jars,
they should be discarded.
Page 224
Battery Carrier. Figure 116 shows a very convenient battery carrier, having
a wooden handle with two swinging steel hooks for attaching to the battery
a wooden handle with two swinging steel hooks for attaching to the battery
Page 225
to be carried. With this type of carrier no strain is put on the handle, as is the
case if a strap is used.
Battery Truck. When a battery must be moved any considerable distance, a
truck, such as that shown in Figure 117 should be used. This truck may
easily be made in the shop, or may be made at a reasonable cost in a
carpenter shop. The rollers should be four inches or more in diameter and
should preferably be of the ball-bearing type. Rubber tires on the rollers are
a great advantage, since the rubber protects the rollers from acid and also
eliminates the very disagreeable noise which iron wheels make, especially in
going over a concrete floor or sidewalk. The repairman need not make his
truck exactly like that shown in Figure 117, which is merely shown to give a
general idea of how such a truck should be constructed.
The truck shown in Figure 117 was made from a heavy wooden box. With
this construction lifting batteries is largely eliminated, which is most
desirable, since a battery is not the lightest thing in the world. The battery is
carried in a horizontal position and the truck is small enough to be wheeled
between cars in the shop.
Another form of battery truck is shown in Figure 118, although this, is not as
good as that shown in Figure 117.
CADMIUM TEST SET AND HOW TO MAKE THE TEST
As the cell voltage falls while the battery is on discharge, the voltage of the
positive plates, and also the voltage of the negative plates falls. When the
battery is charged again the voltages of both positive and negative plates
rise. If a battery gives its rated ampere-hour capacity on discharge, we do not
care particularly how the voltages of the individual positive and negative
case if a strap is used.
Battery Truck. When a battery must be moved any considerable distance, a
truck, such as that shown in Figure 117 should be used. This truck may
easily be made in the shop, or may be made at a reasonable cost in a
carpenter shop. The rollers should be four inches or more in diameter and
should preferably be of the ball-bearing type. Rubber tires on the rollers are
a great advantage, since the rubber protects the rollers from acid and also
eliminates the very disagreeable noise which iron wheels make, especially in
going over a concrete floor or sidewalk. The repairman need not make his
truck exactly like that shown in Figure 117, which is merely shown to give a
general idea of how such a truck should be constructed.
The truck shown in Figure 117 was made from a heavy wooden box. With
this construction lifting batteries is largely eliminated, which is most
desirable, since a battery is not the lightest thing in the world. The battery is
carried in a horizontal position and the truck is small enough to be wheeled
between cars in the shop.
Another form of battery truck is shown in Figure 118, although this, is not as
good as that shown in Figure 117.
CADMIUM TEST SET AND HOW TO MAKE THE TEST
As the cell voltage falls while the battery is on discharge, the voltage of the
positive plates, and also the voltage of the negative plates falls. When the
battery is charged again the voltages of both positive and negative plates
rise. If a battery gives its rated ampere-hour capacity on discharge, we do not
care particularly how the voltages of the individual positive and negative
Page 226
groups change. If, however, the battery fails to give its rated capacity, the
fault may be due to defective positives or defective negatives.
If the voltage of a battery fails to come up when the battery is put on charge,
the trouble may be due to either the positives or negatives. Positives and
negatives may not charge at the same rate, and one group may become fully
charged before the other group. This may be the case in a cell which has had
a new positive group put in with the old negatives. Cadmium tests made
while the battery is on charge will tell how fully the individual groups are
charged.
Since the voltages of the positives and negatives both fall as a battery is
discharged, and rise as the battery is charged, if we measure the voltages of
the positives and negatives separately, we can tell how far each group is
charged or discharged. If the voltage of each cell of a battery drops to 1.7
before the battery has given its rated capacity, we can tell which set of plates
has become discharged by measuring the voltages of positives and negatives
separately. If the voltage of the positives show that they are discharged, then
the Positives are not up to capacity. Similarly, negatives are not up to
capacity if their voltage indicates that they are discharged before the battery
has given its rated capacity.
Cadmium readings alone do not give any indication of the capacity of a
battery, and the repairman must be careful in drawing conclusions from
Cadmium tests.
In general it is not always safe to depend upon Cadmium tests on a battery
which has not been opened, unless the battery is almost new. Plates having
very little active material, due to shedding, or due to the active material
being loosened from the grid, will often give good Cadmium readings, and
yet a battery with such plates will have very little capacity. Such a condition
would be disclosed by an actual examination of the plates, or by a capacity
discharge test.
How Cadmium Tests Are Made
To measure the voltages of the positives and negatives separately, Cadmium
is used. The Cadmium is dipped in the electrolyte, and a voltage reading is
fault may be due to defective positives or defective negatives.
If the voltage of a battery fails to come up when the battery is put on charge,
the trouble may be due to either the positives or negatives. Positives and
negatives may not charge at the same rate, and one group may become fully
charged before the other group. This may be the case in a cell which has had
a new positive group put in with the old negatives. Cadmium tests made
while the battery is on charge will tell how fully the individual groups are
charged.
Since the voltages of the positives and negatives both fall as a battery is
discharged, and rise as the battery is charged, if we measure the voltages of
the positives and negatives separately, we can tell how far each group is
charged or discharged. If the voltage of each cell of a battery drops to 1.7
before the battery has given its rated capacity, we can tell which set of plates
has become discharged by measuring the voltages of positives and negatives
separately. If the voltage of the positives show that they are discharged, then
the Positives are not up to capacity. Similarly, negatives are not up to
capacity if their voltage indicates that they are discharged before the battery
has given its rated capacity.
Cadmium readings alone do not give any indication of the capacity of a
battery, and the repairman must be careful in drawing conclusions from
Cadmium tests.
In general it is not always safe to depend upon Cadmium tests on a battery
which has not been opened, unless the battery is almost new. Plates having
very little active material, due to shedding, or due to the active material
being loosened from the grid, will often give good Cadmium readings, and
yet a battery with such plates will have very little capacity. Such a condition
would be disclosed by an actual examination of the plates, or by a capacity
discharge test.
How Cadmium Tests Are Made
To measure the voltages of the positives and negatives separately, Cadmium
is used. The Cadmium is dipped in the electrolyte, and a voltage reading is
Page 227
taken between the Cadmium and the plates which are to be tested. Thus, if
we wish to test the negatives, we take a voltage reading between the
Cadmium and the negatives, as shown in Fig. 119. Similarly, if we wish to
test the positives, we take a voltage reading between the Cadmium and the
positives, as shown in Fig. 120.
In dipping the Cadmium into the electrolyte, we make two cells out of the
battery cell. One of these consists of the Cadmium and the positives, while
the other consists of the Cadmium and the negatives. If the battery is
charged, the Cadmium forms the negative element in the Cadmium-Positives
cell, and is the positive element in the Cadmium-Negatives cell. The voltage
of the Cadmium does not change, and variations in the voltage readings
obtained in making Cadmium tests are due to changes in the state of charge
of the negative and positive plates which are being tested.
we wish to test the negatives, we take a voltage reading between the
Cadmium and the negatives, as shown in Fig. 119. Similarly, if we wish to
test the positives, we take a voltage reading between the Cadmium and the
positives, as shown in Fig. 120.
In dipping the Cadmium into the electrolyte, we make two cells out of the
battery cell. One of these consists of the Cadmium and the positives, while
the other consists of the Cadmium and the negatives. If the battery is
charged, the Cadmium forms the negative element in the Cadmium-Positives
cell, and is the positive element in the Cadmium-Negatives cell. The voltage
of the Cadmium does not change, and variations in the voltage readings
obtained in making Cadmium tests are due to changes in the state of charge
of the negative and positive plates which are being tested.
Page 228
What Cadmium Is: Cadmium is a metal, just like iron, copper, or lead. It is
one of the chemical elements; that is, it is a separate and distinct substance.
It is not made by mixing two or more substances, as for instance, solder is
made by mixing tin and lead, but is obtained by separating the cadmium
from the compounds in which it is found in nature, just as iron is obtained by
treatment of iron ore in the steel mill.
When Cadmium Readings Should Be Made
1. When the battery voltage drops to 1.7 per cell on discharge before the
battery has delivered its rated ampere-hour capacity, at the 5-hour rate when
a discharge test is made.
2. When a battery on charge will not "come up," that is, if its voltage will not
come up to 2.5-2.7 per cell on charge, and its specific gravity will not come
up to 1.280-1.300.
3. Whenever you charge a battery, at the end of the charge, when the voltage
and specific gravity no longer rise, make Cadmium tests to be sure that both
positives and negatives are fully charged.
4. When you put in a new group, charge the battery fully and make
Cadmium tests to be sure that both the new and old groups are fully charged.
5. When a 20-minute high rate discharge test is made. See page 267.
That Cadmium Readings should be taken only while a battery is in action;
that is, while it is on discharge, or while it is on charge.
Cadmium Readings taken on a battery which is on open circuit are not
reliable.
When you are not using the Cadmium, it should be put in a vessel of
water and kept there. Never let the Cadmium become dry, as it will then
give unreliable readings.
Open Circuit Voltage Readings Worthless
one of the chemical elements; that is, it is a separate and distinct substance.
It is not made by mixing two or more substances, as for instance, solder is
made by mixing tin and lead, but is obtained by separating the cadmium
from the compounds in which it is found in nature, just as iron is obtained by
treatment of iron ore in the steel mill.
When Cadmium Readings Should Be Made
1. When the battery voltage drops to 1.7 per cell on discharge before the
battery has delivered its rated ampere-hour capacity, at the 5-hour rate when
a discharge test is made.
2. When a battery on charge will not "come up," that is, if its voltage will not
come up to 2.5-2.7 per cell on charge, and its specific gravity will not come
up to 1.280-1.300.
3. Whenever you charge a battery, at the end of the charge, when the voltage
and specific gravity no longer rise, make Cadmium tests to be sure that both
positives and negatives are fully charged.
4. When you put in a new group, charge the battery fully and make
Cadmium tests to be sure that both the new and old groups are fully charged.
5. When a 20-minute high rate discharge test is made. See page 267.
That Cadmium Readings should be taken only while a battery is in action;
that is, while it is on discharge, or while it is on charge.
Cadmium Readings taken on a battery which is on open circuit are not
reliable.
When you are not using the Cadmium, it should be put in a vessel of
water and kept there. Never let the Cadmium become dry, as it will then
give unreliable readings.
Open Circuit Voltage Readings Worthless
Page 229
Voltage readings of a battery taken while the battery is on open circuit; that
is, when no current is passing through the battery, are not reliable. The
voltage of a normal, fully charged cell on open circuit is slightly over 2
volts. If this cell is given a full normal discharge, so that the specific gravity
of its electrolyte drops to 1.150, and is allowed to stand for several hours
after the end of the discharge, the open circuit voltage will still be 2 volts.
Open circuit voltage readings are therefore of little or no value, except when
a cell is "dead," as a dead cell will give an open circuit voltage very much
less than 2, and it may even give no voltage at all.
What the Cadmium Test Set Consists of
The Cadmium Tester consists of a voltmeter, Fig. 121, and two pointed brass
prods which are fastened in wooden handles, as shown in Fig. 122. A length
of flexible wire having a terminal at one end is soldered to each prod for
attachment to the voltmeter. Fastened at right angles to one of the brass
prods is a rod of pure cadmium.
Cadmium tests may be made with any accurate voltmeter which gives
readings up to 2.5 volts in divisions of .05 volt.
is, when no current is passing through the battery, are not reliable. The
voltage of a normal, fully charged cell on open circuit is slightly over 2
volts. If this cell is given a full normal discharge, so that the specific gravity
of its electrolyte drops to 1.150, and is allowed to stand for several hours
after the end of the discharge, the open circuit voltage will still be 2 volts.
Open circuit voltage readings are therefore of little or no value, except when
a cell is "dead," as a dead cell will give an open circuit voltage very much
less than 2, and it may even give no voltage at all.
What the Cadmium Test Set Consists of
The Cadmium Tester consists of a voltmeter, Fig. 121, and two pointed brass
prods which are fastened in wooden handles, as shown in Fig. 122. A length
of flexible wire having a terminal at one end is soldered to each prod for
attachment to the voltmeter. Fastened at right angles to one of the brass
prods is a rod of pure cadmium.
Cadmium tests may be made with any accurate voltmeter which gives
readings up to 2.5 volts in divisions of .05 volt.
Page 230
The instructions given below apply especially to the special AMBU
voltmeter but these instructions may also be used in making cadmium tests
with any voltmeter that will give the correct reading.
The AMBU Cadmium Voltmeter
Fig. 121 is a view of the special AMBU Voltmeter, which is designed to be
used specially in making Cadmium tests. Fig. 122 shows the Cadmium
leads. The four red lines marked "Neg. Charged," "Neg. Discharged," "Pos.
Charged," and "Pos. Discharged," indicate the readings that should be
obtained. Thus, in testing the positives of a battery on charge, the pointer
will move to the line which is marked "Pos. Charged," if the positive plates
are fully charged. In testing the negatives, the pointer will move to the line
marked "Neg. Charged," which is to the left of the "0" line, if the negatives
are fully charged, and so on. Figs. 123, 124, 125 and 126 show the pointer in
the four positions on the scale which it takes when testing fully charged or
discharged plates. In each figure the pointer is over one of the red lines on
the scale. These figures also show the readings, in volts, obtained in making
the cadmium tests on fully charged or completely discharged plates.
voltmeter but these instructions may also be used in making cadmium tests
with any voltmeter that will give the correct reading.
The AMBU Cadmium Voltmeter
Fig. 121 is a view of the special AMBU Voltmeter, which is designed to be
used specially in making Cadmium tests. Fig. 122 shows the Cadmium
leads. The four red lines marked "Neg. Charged," "Neg. Discharged," "Pos.
Charged," and "Pos. Discharged," indicate the readings that should be
obtained. Thus, in testing the positives of a battery on charge, the pointer
will move to the line which is marked "Pos. Charged," if the positive plates
are fully charged. In testing the negatives, the pointer will move to the line
marked "Neg. Charged," which is to the left of the "0" line, if the negatives
are fully charged, and so on. Figs. 123, 124, 125 and 126 show the pointer in
the four positions on the scale which it takes when testing fully charged or
discharged plates. In each figure the pointer is over one of the red lines on
the scale. These figures also show the readings, in volts, obtained in making
the cadmium tests on fully charged or completely discharged plates.
Page 231
Page 232
If Pointer Is Not Over the "0" Line: It sometimes happens, in shipping the
instrument, and also in the use of it, that the pointer does not stand over the
"0" line, but is a short distance away. Should you find this to be the case,
take a small screwdriver and turn the screw which projects through the case,
and which is marked "Correct Zero," so as to bring the pointer exactly over
the "0" line on the scale while the meter has no wires connected to its
binding posts.
Connections of Cadmium Leads: In making Cadmium Tests, connect the
prod which has the cadmium fastened to it to the negative voltmeter binding
post. Connect the plain brass prod to the positive voltmeter binding post. The
connections to the AMBU Cadmium Voltmeter are shown in Fig. 127.
Testing a Battery on Discharge
instrument, and also in the use of it, that the pointer does not stand over the
"0" line, but is a short distance away. Should you find this to be the case,
take a small screwdriver and turn the screw which projects through the case,
and which is marked "Correct Zero," so as to bring the pointer exactly over
the "0" line on the scale while the meter has no wires connected to its
binding posts.
Connections of Cadmium Leads: In making Cadmium Tests, connect the
prod which has the cadmium fastened to it to the negative voltmeter binding
post. Connect the plain brass prod to the positive voltmeter binding post. The
connections to the AMBU Cadmium Voltmeter are shown in Fig. 127.
Testing a Battery on Discharge
Page 233
The battery should be discharging continuously, at a constant, fixed rate, see
page 265.
Generally, on a starting ability test (see page 267), the positive Cadmium
readings will start at about 2.05 volts for a hard or very new set of positives,
and at 2.12 volts or even higher for a set of soft or somewhat developed
positives, and will drop during the test, ending at 1.95 volts or less. The
negative Cadmium readings will start at 0.23 volt or higher, up to 0.30, and
will rise gradually, more suddenly toward the end if the plates are old,
ending anywhere above 0.35 and up to 0.6 to 0.7 for poor negatives.
Short Circuited Cells: In cases of short circuited cells, the voltage of the
cell will be almost down to zero. The Cadmium readings would therefore be
nearly zero also for both positives and negatives. Such a battery should be
opened for inspection and repairs.
page 265.
Generally, on a starting ability test (see page 267), the positive Cadmium
readings will start at about 2.05 volts for a hard or very new set of positives,
and at 2.12 volts or even higher for a set of soft or somewhat developed
positives, and will drop during the test, ending at 1.95 volts or less. The
negative Cadmium readings will start at 0.23 volt or higher, up to 0.30, and
will rise gradually, more suddenly toward the end if the plates are old,
ending anywhere above 0.35 and up to 0.6 to 0.7 for poor negatives.
Short Circuited Cells: In cases of short circuited cells, the voltage of the
cell will be almost down to zero. The Cadmium readings would therefore be
nearly zero also for both positives and negatives. Such a battery should be
opened for inspection and repairs.
Page 234
Testing a Battery on Charge
The Battery should be charging at the finishing rate. (This i's usually
stamped on the battery box.) Dip the cadmium in the electrolyte as before,
and test the negatives by holding the plain prod on the negative post of the
cell. See Fig. 119. Test the positives in a similar manner. See Fig. 120. The
cell voltage should also be measured. If the positives are fully charged, the
positive cadmium reading will be such that the pointer will move to the red
line marked "Pos. Charged." See Fig. 125. If you are using an ordinary
voltmeter, the meter will give a reading of from 2.35 to 2.42 volts. The
negatives are then tested in a similar manner. The negative-cadmium reading
on an ordinary voltmeter will be from .175 to .2 to the left of the "0" line;
that is, the reading is a reversed one. If you are using the special ABM
voltmeter, the pointer will move to the red line marked "Neg. Charged." See
Fig. 123. The cell voltage should be the sum of the positive-cadmium and
the negative cadmium readings.
If the voltage of each cell will not come up to 2.5 to 2.7 volts on charge, or if
the specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 or over, make the cadmium tests to
determine whether both sets of plates, or one of them, give readings
indicating that they are fully charged. If the positives will not give a reading
of at least 2.35 volts, or if the negatives will not give a reversed reading of at
least 0.1 volt, these plates lack capacity.
In case of a battery on charge, if the negatives do not give a minus Cadmium
reading, they may be lacking in capacity, but, on the other hand, a minus
negative Cadmium reading does not prove that the negatives are up to hill
capacity. A starting ability discharge test (page 267) is the only means of
telling whether a battery is up to capacity.
Improperly treated separators will cause poor negative-Cadmium readings to
be obtained. The charging rate should be high enough to give cell voltages of
2.5-2.7 when testing negatives. Otherwise it may not be possible to get
satisfactory negative-Cadmium reading. Separators which have been allowed
to become partly dry at any time will also make it difficult to obtain
satisfactory negative-Cadmium readings.
HIGH RATE DISCHARGE TESTERS
The Battery should be charging at the finishing rate. (This i's usually
stamped on the battery box.) Dip the cadmium in the electrolyte as before,
and test the negatives by holding the plain prod on the negative post of the
cell. See Fig. 119. Test the positives in a similar manner. See Fig. 120. The
cell voltage should also be measured. If the positives are fully charged, the
positive cadmium reading will be such that the pointer will move to the red
line marked "Pos. Charged." See Fig. 125. If you are using an ordinary
voltmeter, the meter will give a reading of from 2.35 to 2.42 volts. The
negatives are then tested in a similar manner. The negative-cadmium reading
on an ordinary voltmeter will be from .175 to .2 to the left of the "0" line;
that is, the reading is a reversed one. If you are using the special ABM
voltmeter, the pointer will move to the red line marked "Neg. Charged." See
Fig. 123. The cell voltage should be the sum of the positive-cadmium and
the negative cadmium readings.
If the voltage of each cell will not come up to 2.5 to 2.7 volts on charge, or if
the specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 or over, make the cadmium tests to
determine whether both sets of plates, or one of them, give readings
indicating that they are fully charged. If the positives will not give a reading
of at least 2.35 volts, or if the negatives will not give a reversed reading of at
least 0.1 volt, these plates lack capacity.
In case of a battery on charge, if the negatives do not give a minus Cadmium
reading, they may be lacking in capacity, but, on the other hand, a minus
negative Cadmium reading does not prove that the negatives are up to hill
capacity. A starting ability discharge test (page 267) is the only means of
telling whether a battery is up to capacity.
Improperly treated separators will cause poor negative-Cadmium readings to
be obtained. The charging rate should be high enough to give cell voltages of
2.5-2.7 when testing negatives. Otherwise it may not be possible to get
satisfactory negative-Cadmium reading. Separators which have been allowed
to become partly dry at any time will also make it difficult to obtain
satisfactory negative-Cadmium readings.
HIGH RATE DISCHARGE TESTERS
Page 235
(See page 265 for directions for making tests.)
Figure 128 shows a high rate discharge cell tester. It consists of a handle
carrying two heavy prongs which are bridged by a length of heavy nichrome
wire. When the ends of the prongs are pressed down on the terminals of a
cell, a current of 150 to 200 amperes is drawn from the cell. A voltage
reading of the cell, taken while this discharge current is flowing is a means
of determining the condition of the cell, since the heavy discharge current
duplicates the heavy current drawn by the starting motor. Each prong carries
a binding post, a low reading voltmeter being connected to these posts while
the test is made. This form of discharge tester is riot suitable for making
starting ability discharge tests, which are described on page 267.
Other forms of high rate discharge testers are made, but for the shop the type
shown in Figure 128 is most convenient, since it is light and portable and has
no moving parts, and because the test is made very quickly without making
any connections to the battery. Furthermore, each cell is tested separately
and thus six or twelve volt batteries may be tested without making any
change in the tester.
For making starting ability discharge tests at high rates, a carbon plate or
similar rheostat is most suitable, and such rheostats are on the market.
Figure 128 shows a high rate discharge cell tester. It consists of a handle
carrying two heavy prongs which are bridged by a length of heavy nichrome
wire. When the ends of the prongs are pressed down on the terminals of a
cell, a current of 150 to 200 amperes is drawn from the cell. A voltage
reading of the cell, taken while this discharge current is flowing is a means
of determining the condition of the cell, since the heavy discharge current
duplicates the heavy current drawn by the starting motor. Each prong carries
a binding post, a low reading voltmeter being connected to these posts while
the test is made. This form of discharge tester is riot suitable for making
starting ability discharge tests, which are described on page 267.
Other forms of high rate discharge testers are made, but for the shop the type
shown in Figure 128 is most convenient, since it is light and portable and has
no moving parts, and because the test is made very quickly without making
any connections to the battery. Furthermore, each cell is tested separately
and thus six or twelve volt batteries may be tested without making any
change in the tester.
For making starting ability discharge tests at high rates, a carbon plate or
similar rheostat is most suitable, and such rheostats are on the market.
Page 236
Page 237
PARAFFINE DIP POT
Paper tags are not acid proof, and if acid is spilled on tags tied to batteries
which are being repaired, the writing on the tags is often obliterated so that it
is practically impossible to identify the batteries. An excellent plan to
overcome this trouble is to dip the tags in hot paraffine after they have been
properly filled out. The writing on the tags can be read easily and since
paraffine is acid proof, any acid which may be spilled on the paraffine
coated tags will not damage the tags in any way.
Figure 129 shows a paraffine dip pot. A small earthenware jar is best for this
purpose. Melt the paraffine slowly on a stove, pour it into the pot, and partly
immerse a 60-watt carbon lamp in the paraffine as shown. The lamp will
give enough heat to keep the paraffine melted, without causing it to smoke to
Paper tags are not acid proof, and if acid is spilled on tags tied to batteries
which are being repaired, the writing on the tags is often obliterated so that it
is practically impossible to identify the batteries. An excellent plan to
overcome this trouble is to dip the tags in hot paraffine after they have been
properly filled out. The writing on the tags can be read easily and since
paraffine is acid proof, any acid which may be spilled on the paraffine
coated tags will not damage the tags in any way.
Figure 129 shows a paraffine dip pot. A small earthenware jar is best for this
purpose. Melt the paraffine slowly on a stove, pour it into the pot, and partly
immerse a 60-watt carbon lamp in the paraffine as shown. The lamp will
give enough heat to keep the paraffine melted, without causing it to smoke to
Page 238
any extent. After filling out a Battery Card, dip it into the Paraffine, and hold
the card above the pot to let the excess paraffine run off. Let the paraffine
dry before attaching the tag to the battery, otherwise the paraffine may be
scratched off.
WOODEN BOXES FOR BATTERY PARTS
Fig. 130. Boxes for Holding Parts of Batteries Being Prepaired
Figure 130 shows a number of wooden boxes, about 12 inches long, 8 inches
wide, and 4 inches deep. These boxes are very useful for holding the
terminals inter-cell connectors, covers, plugs, etc., of batteries which are
dismantled for repairs. Write the name of the owner with chalk on the end of
the box, and rub the name off after the battery has been put together again.
The boxes shown in Figure 130 had been used for plug tobacco, and served
the purpose very well. The larger box shown in Figure 130 may be used for
collecting old terminals, inter-cell connectors, lead drillings, etc.
EARTHENWARE JARS
The twenty gallon size is very convenient for waste acid, old separators, and
any junk parts which are wet with acid. The jars are acid proof and will help
keep the shop floor dry and anything which will help in this is most
desirable.
the card above the pot to let the excess paraffine run off. Let the paraffine
dry before attaching the tag to the battery, otherwise the paraffine may be
scratched off.
WOODEN BOXES FOR BATTERY PARTS
Fig. 130. Boxes for Holding Parts of Batteries Being Prepaired
Figure 130 shows a number of wooden boxes, about 12 inches long, 8 inches
wide, and 4 inches deep. These boxes are very useful for holding the
terminals inter-cell connectors, covers, plugs, etc., of batteries which are
dismantled for repairs. Write the name of the owner with chalk on the end of
the box, and rub the name off after the battery has been put together again.
The boxes shown in Figure 130 had been used for plug tobacco, and served
the purpose very well. The larger box shown in Figure 130 may be used for
collecting old terminals, inter-cell connectors, lead drillings, etc.
EARTHENWARE JARS
The twenty gallon size is very convenient for waste acid, old separators, and
any junk parts which are wet with acid. The jars are acid proof and will help
keep the shop floor dry and anything which will help in this is most
desirable.
Page 239
ACID CARBOYS
Acid is shipped in large glass bottles around each of which a wooden box is
built to prevent breakage, the combination being called a "carboy." Since the
acid is heavy, some means of drawing it out of the bottle is necessary. One
method is illustrated in Figure 131, wooden rockers being screwed to the
box in which the bottle is placed.
A very good addition to the rockers shown in Figure 131 is the inner tube
shown in Figure 132. In this illustration the rockers are not shown, but
should be used. The combination of the rockers with the inner tube gives a
very convenient method of pouring acid from a carboy, since the heavy
bottle need not be lifted, and since it helps keep the floor and the top of the
box dry.
Acid is shipped in large glass bottles around each of which a wooden box is
built to prevent breakage, the combination being called a "carboy." Since the
acid is heavy, some means of drawing it out of the bottle is necessary. One
method is illustrated in Figure 131, wooden rockers being screwed to the
box in which the bottle is placed.
A very good addition to the rockers shown in Figure 131 is the inner tube
shown in Figure 132. In this illustration the rockers are not shown, but
should be used. The combination of the rockers with the inner tube gives a
very convenient method of pouring acid from a carboy, since the heavy
bottle need not be lifted, and since it helps keep the floor and the top of the
box dry.
Page 240
The rubber tube shown in Figure 132 is a piece of 4 inch inner tube which is
slit down one side to make it lie flat. Near one end is cut a hole large enough
to fit tightly over the neck of the acid bottle. Slip this rubber over the neck of
the bottle and allow the long end to hang a few inches over the side of the
carboy bottle or box. This is for pouring acid from a carboy when it is too
full to allow the contents to be removed without spilling. This device will
allow the contents of the carboy to be poured into a crock or other receptacle
placed on the floor without spilling, and also prevents dirt that may be laying
on top of the carboy from falling into the crock.
Figure 133 shows a siphon method for drawing acid from a bottle,
although this method is more suitable for distilled water than for acid.
"A" is the bottle, "B" a rubber stopper, "C" and "D" are 3/8 inch glass
or hard rubber tubes, "E" is a length of rubber tubing having a pinch
clamp at its lower end. To use this device, the stopper and tubes are
inserted in the bottle, and air blown or pumped in at "C," while the
pinch clamp is open, until acid or water begins to run out of the lower
end of tubing "E." The pinch clamp is then released. Whenever acid or
water is to be drawn from the bottle the pinch clamp is squeezed so as
slit down one side to make it lie flat. Near one end is cut a hole large enough
to fit tightly over the neck of the acid bottle. Slip this rubber over the neck of
the bottle and allow the long end to hang a few inches over the side of the
carboy bottle or box. This is for pouring acid from a carboy when it is too
full to allow the contents to be removed without spilling. This device will
allow the contents of the carboy to be poured into a crock or other receptacle
placed on the floor without spilling, and also prevents dirt that may be laying
on top of the carboy from falling into the crock.
Figure 133 shows a siphon method for drawing acid from a bottle,
although this method is more suitable for distilled water than for acid.
"A" is the bottle, "B" a rubber stopper, "C" and "D" are 3/8 inch glass
or hard rubber tubes, "E" is a length of rubber tubing having a pinch
clamp at its lower end. To use this device, the stopper and tubes are
inserted in the bottle, and air blown or pumped in at "C," while the
pinch clamp is open, until acid or water begins to run out of the lower
end of tubing "E." The pinch clamp is then released. Whenever acid or
water is to be drawn from the bottle the pinch clamp is squeezed so as
Page 241
to release the pressure on the tube.
The water or acid will flow down the
tube automatically as long as the
pinch clamp is held open. The clamp
may be made of flat or round spring
brass or bronze. This is bent round at
(a). At (c) an opening is made,
through which the part (b) is bent.
The clamp is operated by pressing at
(d) and (e). The rubber tubing is
passed through the opening between
(b) and (c).
This method is a very good one for
the small bottle of distilled water
placed on the charging bench to
bring the electrolyte up to the proper
height. The lower end of tube (e) is
held over the vent hole of the cell.
The pinch clamp is then squeezed
and water will flow. Releasing the
clamp stops the flow of water
instantly. If tube (e) is made long enough, the water bottle may be set
on the elevated shelf extending down the center of the charging bench.
The water or acid will flow down the
tube automatically as long as the
pinch clamp is held open. The clamp
may be made of flat or round spring
brass or bronze. This is bent round at
(a). At (c) an opening is made,
through which the part (b) is bent.
The clamp is operated by pressing at
(d) and (e). The rubber tubing is
passed through the opening between
(b) and (c).
This method is a very good one for
the small bottle of distilled water
placed on the charging bench to
bring the electrolyte up to the proper
height. The lower end of tube (e) is
held over the vent hole of the cell.
The pinch clamp is then squeezed
and water will flow. Releasing the
clamp stops the flow of water
instantly. If tube (e) is made long enough, the water bottle may be set
on the elevated shelf extending down the center of the charging bench.
Page 242
Figure 134 shows another arrangement, using a tire pump. D and E are 3/8
inch hard rubber tubes. D is open at both ends and has a "T" branch to which
the pump tubing is attached. To operate, a finger is held over the upper end
of D, and air is pumped into the acid bottle, forcing the acid into the vessel F.
To stop the flow of acid, the finger is removed from D. This stops the flow
instantly. This method is the most satisfactory one when fairly large
quantities of acid or water are to be drawn off.
SHOP LAYOUTS
The degree of success which the battery repairman attains depends to a
considerable extent upon the workshop in which the batteries are handled. It
is, of course, desirable to be able to build your shop, and thus be able to have
everything arranged as you wish. If you must work in a rented shop, select a
place which has plenty of light and ventilation. The ventilation is especially
important on account of the acid fumes from the batteries. A shop which
receives most of its light from the north is the best, as the light is then more
inch hard rubber tubes. D is open at both ends and has a "T" branch to which
the pump tubing is attached. To operate, a finger is held over the upper end
of D, and air is pumped into the acid bottle, forcing the acid into the vessel F.
To stop the flow of acid, the finger is removed from D. This stops the flow
instantly. This method is the most satisfactory one when fairly large
quantities of acid or water are to be drawn off.
SHOP LAYOUTS
The degree of success which the battery repairman attains depends to a
considerable extent upon the workshop in which the batteries are handled. It
is, of course, desirable to be able to build your shop, and thus be able to have
everything arranged as you wish. If you must work in a rented shop, select a
place which has plenty of light and ventilation. The ventilation is especially
important on account of the acid fumes from the batteries. A shop which
receives most of its light from the north is the best, as the light is then more
Page 243
uniform during the day, and the direct rays of the sun are avoided. Fig. 38
shows a light, well ventilated workroom.
The floor should be in good condition, since acid rots the wood and if the
floor is already in a poor condition, the acid will soon eat through it. A tile
floor, as described below, is best. A wooden floor should be thoroughly
scrubbed, using water to which baking soda has been added. Then give the
floor a coat of asphaltum paint, which should be applied hot so as to flow
into all cracks in the wood. When the first coat is dry, several more coats
should be given. Whenever you make a solution of soda for any purpose, do
not throw it away when you are through with it. Instead, pour it on the floor
where the acid is most likely to be spilled. This will neutralize the acid and
prevent it from rotting the wood.
If you can afford to build a shop, make it of brick, with a floor of vitrified
brick, or of tile which is not less than two inches thick, and is preferably
eight inches square. The seams should not be less than one-eighth inch wide,
and not wider than one fourth. They should be grouted with asphaltum,
melted as hot and as thin as possible (not less than 350° F.). This should be
poured in the seams. The brick or tile should be heated near the seams before
pouring in the asphaltum. When all the seams have been filled, heat them
again. After the second heating, the asphaltum may shrink, and it may be
necessary to pour in more asphaltum.
If possible, the floor should slope evenly from one end of the room to the
other. A lead drainage trough and pipe at the lower end of the shop will carry
off the acid and electrolyte.
It is a good plan to give all work benches and storage racks and shelves at
least two coatings of asphaltum paint. This will prevent rotting by the acid.
The floor of a battery repair shop is, at best, a wet, sloppy affair, and if a lead
drainage trough is too expensive, there should be a drain in the center of the
floor if the shop is small, and several if the shop is a large one. The floor
should slope toward the drains, and the drain-pipes should be made of glazed
tile.
shows a light, well ventilated workroom.
The floor should be in good condition, since acid rots the wood and if the
floor is already in a poor condition, the acid will soon eat through it. A tile
floor, as described below, is best. A wooden floor should be thoroughly
scrubbed, using water to which baking soda has been added. Then give the
floor a coat of asphaltum paint, which should be applied hot so as to flow
into all cracks in the wood. When the first coat is dry, several more coats
should be given. Whenever you make a solution of soda for any purpose, do
not throw it away when you are through with it. Instead, pour it on the floor
where the acid is most likely to be spilled. This will neutralize the acid and
prevent it from rotting the wood.
If you can afford to build a shop, make it of brick, with a floor of vitrified
brick, or of tile which is not less than two inches thick, and is preferably
eight inches square. The seams should not be less than one-eighth inch wide,
and not wider than one fourth. They should be grouted with asphaltum,
melted as hot and as thin as possible (not less than 350° F.). This should be
poured in the seams. The brick or tile should be heated near the seams before
pouring in the asphaltum. When all the seams have been filled, heat them
again. After the second heating, the asphaltum may shrink, and it may be
necessary to pour in more asphaltum.
If possible, the floor should slope evenly from one end of the room to the
other. A lead drainage trough and pipe at the lower end of the shop will carry
off the acid and electrolyte.
It is a good plan to give all work benches and storage racks and shelves at
least two coatings of asphaltum paint. This will prevent rotting by the acid.
The floor of a battery repair shop is, at best, a wet, sloppy affair, and if a lead
drainage trough is too expensive, there should be a drain in the center of the
floor if the shop is small, and several if the shop is a large one. The floor
should slope toward the drains, and the drain-pipes should be made of glazed
tile.
Page 244
To keep the feet as dry as possible, rubbers, or even low rubber boots should
be worn. Sulphuric acid ruins leather shoes, although leather shoes can be
protected to a certain extent by dipping them in hot paraffine.
A good plan is to lay a wooden grating over the floor as shown in Figure
135. Water and acid will run down between the wooden strips, leaving the
walking surface fairly dry. If such a grating is made, it should be built in
sections which may be lifted easily to be washed, and to permit washing the
floor. Keep both the grating and the floor beneath covered with asphaltum
paint to prevent rotting by acid. Once a week, or oftener, if necessary, sweep
up all loose dirt and then turn the hose on the floor and grating to wash off as
much acid as possible. When the wood has dried, a good thing to do is to
pour on the floor and grating several pails of water in which washing soda or
ammonia has been dissolved.
be worn. Sulphuric acid ruins leather shoes, although leather shoes can be
protected to a certain extent by dipping them in hot paraffine.
A good plan is to lay a wooden grating over the floor as shown in Figure
135. Water and acid will run down between the wooden strips, leaving the
walking surface fairly dry. If such a grating is made, it should be built in
sections which may be lifted easily to be washed, and to permit washing the
floor. Keep both the grating and the floor beneath covered with asphaltum
paint to prevent rotting by acid. Once a week, or oftener, if necessary, sweep
up all loose dirt and then turn the hose on the floor and grating to wash off as
much acid as possible. When the wood has dried, a good thing to do is to
pour on the floor and grating several pails of water in which washing soda or
ammonia has been dissolved.
Page 245
Watch your floor. It will pay-in better work by yourself and by the men
working for you. Have large earthenware jars set wherever necessary in
which lead drillings, old plates, old connectors, old separators, etc., may be
thrown. Do not let junk cases, jars, separators, etc., accumulate. Throw them
away immediately and keep your shop clean. A clean shop pleases Your
customers, —and satisfied customers mean success.
On the following pages a number of shop layouts are given for both large
and small shops. The beginner, of course, may not be able to rent even a
small shop, but he may rent part of an established repair shop, and later rent
an entire shop. A man working in a corner of an established service must
arrange his equipment according to the space available. Later on, when he
branches out for himself, he should plan his shop to got the best working
arrangement. Figure 136 shows a suggested layout for a small shop. Such a
layout may have to be altered because of the size and shape of the shop, and
the location of the windows.
working for you. Have large earthenware jars set wherever necessary in
which lead drillings, old plates, old connectors, old separators, etc., may be
thrown. Do not let junk cases, jars, separators, etc., accumulate. Throw them
away immediately and keep your shop clean. A clean shop pleases Your
customers, —and satisfied customers mean success.
On the following pages a number of shop layouts are given for both large
and small shops. The beginner, of course, may not be able to rent even a
small shop, but he may rent part of an established repair shop, and later rent
an entire shop. A man working in a corner of an established service must
arrange his equipment according to the space available. Later on, when he
branches out for himself, he should plan his shop to got the best working
arrangement. Figure 136 shows a suggested layout for a small shop. Such a
layout may have to be altered because of the size and shape of the shop, and
the location of the windows.
Page 246
As soon as growth of business permits, a shop should have a drive-in, so that
the customer may bring his car off the street. Without a drive-in all testing to
determine what work is necessary will have to be done at the curb, which is
too public for many car owners. A drive-in is also convenient if a customer
leaves his car while his battery is being repaired. To a certain extent, the
advantages of a drive-in may be secured by having a vacant lot next to the
shop, with a covering of cinders. As soon as possible, however, a shop which
is large enough to have a drive-in should be rented or built.
the customer may bring his car off the street. Without a drive-in all testing to
determine what work is necessary will have to be done at the curb, which is
too public for many car owners. A drive-in is also convenient if a customer
leaves his car while his battery is being repaired. To a certain extent, the
advantages of a drive-in may be secured by having a vacant lot next to the
shop, with a covering of cinders. As soon as possible, however, a shop which
is large enough to have a drive-in should be rented or built.
Page 247
Figure 137 shows a 24 x 60 shop with space for three cars. The shop
equipment is explained in the table.
Figure 138 shows a 40 x 75 shop with room for six cars and a drive-in and
drive-out. This facilitates the handling of the cars.
Figure 139 shows a 30 x 100 shop in a long and somewhat narrow building.
It also has a drive-in and drive-out.
Another arrangement for the same sized shop as shown in the preceding
illustration is shown in Figure 140. Here the drive-out is at the side and this
layout is, therefore, suitable for a building located on a corner, or next to an
alley.
Figure 141 shows a larger shop, which may be used after the business has
grown considerably.
Figure 142 shows a layout suitable for the largest station.
Somewhere between Figures 136 and 142 is a layout for any service station.
The thing to do is to select the one most suitable for the size of the business,
and to fit local conditions, If a special building is put up, local conditions are
not so important.
If a shop is rented, it may not be possible to follow any of the layouts shown
in Figs. 136 to 142. However, the layout which is best adapted for the actual
shop should be selected as a guide, and the equipment shown obtained. This
should then be arranged as nearly like the pattern layout as the shop
arrangement will permit.
Concerning Light
Light is essential to good work, so you must have plenty of good light and at
the right place. For a light that is needed from one end of a bench to the
other, to look into each individual battery, or to take the reading of each
individual battery, there is nothing better than a 60 Watt tungsten lamp under
a good metal shade, dark on outside and white on inside.
equipment is explained in the table.
Figure 138 shows a 40 x 75 shop with room for six cars and a drive-in and
drive-out. This facilitates the handling of the cars.
Figure 139 shows a 30 x 100 shop in a long and somewhat narrow building.
It also has a drive-in and drive-out.
Another arrangement for the same sized shop as shown in the preceding
illustration is shown in Figure 140. Here the drive-out is at the side and this
layout is, therefore, suitable for a building located on a corner, or next to an
alley.
Figure 141 shows a larger shop, which may be used after the business has
grown considerably.
Figure 142 shows a layout suitable for the largest station.
Somewhere between Figures 136 and 142 is a layout for any service station.
The thing to do is to select the one most suitable for the size of the business,
and to fit local conditions, If a special building is put up, local conditions are
not so important.
If a shop is rented, it may not be possible to follow any of the layouts shown
in Figs. 136 to 142. However, the layout which is best adapted for the actual
shop should be selected as a guide, and the equipment shown obtained. This
should then be arranged as nearly like the pattern layout as the shop
arrangement will permit.
Concerning Light
Light is essential to good work, so you must have plenty of good light and at
the right place. For a light that is needed from one end of a bench to the
other, to look into each individual battery, or to take the reading of each
individual battery, there is nothing better than a 60 Watt tungsten lamp under
a good metal shade, dark on outside and white on inside.
Page 248
A unique way to hang a light and have it movable from one end of the bench
to the other, is to stretch a wire from one end of the bench to the other. Steel
or copper about 10 or 12 B & S gauge may be used. Stretch it about four or
five feet above top of bench directly above where the light is most needed. If
You have a double charging bench, stretch the wire directly above middle of
bench. Before fastening wire to support, slip an old fashioned porcelain knob
(or an ordinary thread spool) on the wire. The drop cord is to be tied to this
knob or spool at whatever height you wish the light to hang (a few inches
lower than your head is the right height).
Put the ceiling rosette above center of bench; cut your drop cord long
enough so that you can slide the light from one end of bench to the other
after being attached to rosette. Put vaseline on the wire so the fumes of gas
will not corrode it. This will also make the spool slide easily. This gives you
a movable, flexible light, with which you will reach any battery on bench for
inspection. The work bench light can be rigged up the same way and a 75 or
100 Watt nitrogen lamp used.
to the other, is to stretch a wire from one end of the bench to the other. Steel
or copper about 10 or 12 B & S gauge may be used. Stretch it about four or
five feet above top of bench directly above where the light is most needed. If
You have a double charging bench, stretch the wire directly above middle of
bench. Before fastening wire to support, slip an old fashioned porcelain knob
(or an ordinary thread spool) on the wire. The drop cord is to be tied to this
knob or spool at whatever height you wish the light to hang (a few inches
lower than your head is the right height).
Put the ceiling rosette above center of bench; cut your drop cord long
enough so that you can slide the light from one end of bench to the other
after being attached to rosette. Put vaseline on the wire so the fumes of gas
will not corrode it. This will also make the spool slide easily. This gives you
a movable, flexible light, with which you will reach any battery on bench for
inspection. The work bench light can be rigged up the same way and a 75 or
100 Watt nitrogen lamp used.
Page 249
Page 250
Fig. 137 and 138: A-Receiving Rack. B-Portable Electric Drill, or Hand
Drill. C-Wash Tank, D-Tear Down Bench. E-Hot Water Pan. F-Waiting Rack
(5 Shelves). G-Repair Bench (6 ft. by 2 ft. 3 in.). H-Charging Table (3
Circuits). I-Electrolyte(10 Gal. Crocks). J-Separator Rack. K-Generator. L-
Switchboard. M-Stock Bins, N-New Batteries, O-Live storage. P-Sealing
Compound. R-Ready Rack (5-Shelves). S-Dry Storage. (S is not in Fig. 137.)
Drill. C-Wash Tank, D-Tear Down Bench. E-Hot Water Pan. F-Waiting Rack
(5 Shelves). G-Repair Bench (6 ft. by 2 ft. 3 in.). H-Charging Table (3
Circuits). I-Electrolyte(10 Gal. Crocks). J-Separator Rack. K-Generator. L-
Switchboard. M-Stock Bins, N-New Batteries, O-Live storage. P-Sealing
Compound. R-Ready Rack (5-Shelves). S-Dry Storage. (S is not in Fig. 137.)
Page 251
Fig. 139, 140 and 141: A-Receiving Rack. B-Power Drill. C-Wash Tank. D-
Tear Down Bench. E-Hot Water Pan. F-Waiting Rack (6 Shelves). G-Repair
Bench. H-Charging Table (3 Circuits). I-Electrolyte (10 Gal. Crocks). J-
Separator Rack. K-Generator. L-Switchboard. M-Stock Bins. N-New
Batteries. O-Live storage. P-Sealing Compound. R-Ready Rack (5-Shelves).
S-Dry Storage. T-Torn Down Parts. (O and T in 141, not in 139 and 140.)
Tear Down Bench. E-Hot Water Pan. F-Waiting Rack (6 Shelves). G-Repair
Bench. H-Charging Table (3 Circuits). I-Electrolyte (10 Gal. Crocks). J-
Separator Rack. K-Generator. L-Switchboard. M-Stock Bins. N-New
Batteries. O-Live storage. P-Sealing Compound. R-Ready Rack (5-Shelves).
S-Dry Storage. T-Torn Down Parts. (O and T in 141, not in 139 and 140.)
Page 252
Fig. 142: A-Receiving Rack. B-Power Drill. C-Wash Tank. D-Tear Down
Bench. E-Hot Water Pan. F-Waiting Rack (6 Shelves). G-Repair Bench. H-
Charging Table. I-Electrolyte (10 Gal. Crocks). J-Separator Rack. K-
Generator. L-Switchboard. M-Stock Bins. N-New Batteries. O-Live storage.
P-Sealing Compound. R-Ready Rack. S-Dry Storage. T-Torn Down Parts.
(Table of) Contents
Bench. E-Hot Water Pan. F-Waiting Rack (6 Shelves). G-Repair Bench. H-
Charging Table. I-Electrolyte (10 Gal. Crocks). J-Separator Rack. K-
Generator. L-Switchboard. M-Stock Bins. N-New Batteries. O-Live storage.
P-Sealing Compound. R-Ready Rack. S-Dry Storage. T-Torn Down Parts.
(Table of) Contents
Page 253
Page 254
CHAPTER 12.
GENERAL SHOP INSTRUCTIONS.
GENERAL SHOP INSTRUCTIONS.
Page 255
CHARGING BATTERIES.
The equipment for charging batteries, instructions for building and wiring
charging benches have already been given. What we shall now discuss is the
actual charging. The charge a battery receives on the charging bench is
called a "bench charge."
Battery charging in the service station may be divided into two general
classes:
1. Charging batteries which have run down, but which are otherwise in good
condition, and which do not require repairs.
2. Charging batteries during or after the repair process.
The second class of charging is really a part of the repair process and will-be
described in the chapter on "Rebuilding the Battery." Charging a battery
always consists of sending a direct current through it, the current entering
the battery at the positive terminal and leaving it at the negative terminal, the
charging current, of course, passing through the battery in the opposite
direction to the current which the battery produces when discharging. When
a battery discharges chemical changes take place by means of which
electrical energy is produced. When a battery is on charge, the charging
current causes chemical changes which are the reverse of those which take
place on discharge and which put the active materials and electrolyte in such
a condition that the battery serves as a source of electricity when replaced in
the car.
Batteries are charged not only in a repair shop but also in garages which
board automobiles, and in car dealers' shops. No matter where a battery is
charged, however, the same steps must be taken and the same precautions
observed.
When a Bench Charge is Necessary:
The equipment for charging batteries, instructions for building and wiring
charging benches have already been given. What we shall now discuss is the
actual charging. The charge a battery receives on the charging bench is
called a "bench charge."
Battery charging in the service station may be divided into two general
classes:
1. Charging batteries which have run down, but which are otherwise in good
condition, and which do not require repairs.
2. Charging batteries during or after the repair process.
The second class of charging is really a part of the repair process and will-be
described in the chapter on "Rebuilding the Battery." Charging a battery
always consists of sending a direct current through it, the current entering
the battery at the positive terminal and leaving it at the negative terminal, the
charging current, of course, passing through the battery in the opposite
direction to the current which the battery produces when discharging. When
a battery discharges chemical changes take place by means of which
electrical energy is produced. When a battery is on charge, the charging
current causes chemical changes which are the reverse of those which take
place on discharge and which put the active materials and electrolyte in such
a condition that the battery serves as a source of electricity when replaced in
the car.
Batteries are charged not only in a repair shop but also in garages which
board automobiles, and in car dealers' shops. No matter where a battery is
charged, however, the same steps must be taken and the same precautions
observed.
When a Bench Charge is Necessary:
Page 256
(a) When a battery runs down on account of the generator on the car not
having a sufficient output, or on account of considerable night driving
being done, or on account of frequent use of the starting motor, or on
account of neglect on the part of the car owner.
(b) Batteries used on cars or trucks without a generator, or batteries used
for Radio work should, of course, be given a bench charge at regular
intervals.
(c) When the specific gravity readings of all cells are below 1.200, and
these readings are within 50 points of each other.
Should the gravity reading of any cell be 50 points lower or higher than that
of the other cells, it is best to make a 15-seconds high rate discharge test (see
page 266) to determine whether the cell is defective or whether electrolyte
has been lost due to flooding caused by over-filling and has been replaced by
water or higher gravity electrolyte. If any defect shows up during the high
rate test, the battery should be opened for inspection. If no defect shows up,
put the battery on charge.
(d) When the lamps burn dimly while the engine is running.
(e) When the lamps become very dim when the starting switch is closed.
If a battery is tested by turning on the lights and then closing the starting
switch, make sure that there is no short-circuit or ground in the starting
motor circuits. Such trouble will cause a very heavy current to be drawn
from the battery, resulting in a drop in the voltage of the battery.
(f) When the voltage of the battery has fallen below 1.7 volts per cell,
measured while all the lights are turned on.
(g) When the owner has neglected to add water to the cells regularly, and
the electrolyte has fallen below the tops of the plates.
(h) When a battery has been doped by the addition of electrolyte or acid
instead of water, or when one of the "dope" electrolytes which are
advertised to make old, worn out batteries charge up in a ridiculously
short time and show as much life and power as a new battery. Use
having a sufficient output, or on account of considerable night driving
being done, or on account of frequent use of the starting motor, or on
account of neglect on the part of the car owner.
(b) Batteries used on cars or trucks without a generator, or batteries used
for Radio work should, of course, be given a bench charge at regular
intervals.
(c) When the specific gravity readings of all cells are below 1.200, and
these readings are within 50 points of each other.
Should the gravity reading of any cell be 50 points lower or higher than that
of the other cells, it is best to make a 15-seconds high rate discharge test (see
page 266) to determine whether the cell is defective or whether electrolyte
has been lost due to flooding caused by over-filling and has been replaced by
water or higher gravity electrolyte. If any defect shows up during the high
rate test, the battery should be opened for inspection. If no defect shows up,
put the battery on charge.
(d) When the lamps burn dimly while the engine is running.
(e) When the lamps become very dim when the starting switch is closed.
If a battery is tested by turning on the lights and then closing the starting
switch, make sure that there is no short-circuit or ground in the starting
motor circuits. Such trouble will cause a very heavy current to be drawn
from the battery, resulting in a drop in the voltage of the battery.
(f) When the voltage of the battery has fallen below 1.7 volts per cell,
measured while all the lights are turned on.
(g) When the owner has neglected to add water to the cells regularly, and
the electrolyte has fallen below the tops of the plates.
(h) When a battery has been doped by the addition of electrolyte or acid
instead of water, or when one of the "dope" electrolytes which are
advertised to make old, worn out batteries charge up in a ridiculously
short time and show as much life and power as a new battery. Use
Page 257
nothing but a mixture of distilled water and sulphuric acid for
electrolyte. The "dope" solutions are not only worthless, but they
damage a battery considerably and shorten its life. Such a "doped"
battery may give high gravity *readings and yet the lamps will become
very dim when the starting motor cranks the car, the voltage per cell will
be low when the lights are burning, or low voltage readings (1.50 per
cell) will be obtained if a high rate discharge test is made.
Every battery which comes in for any reason whatsoever, or any battery
which is given a bench charge whenever necessary should also be examined
for other defects, such as poorly burned on connectors and terminals, rotted
case, handles pulled off, sealing compound cracked, or a poor sealing job
between the covers and jars, or covers and posts. A slight leakage of
electrolyte through cracks or imperfect joints between the covers and jars or
covers and posts is very often present without causing any considerable
trouble. If any of the other troubles are found, however, the battery needs
repairing.
Arrangement of Batteries on Charging Bench. If a battery comes in
covered with dirt, set it on the wash rack or in the sink and clean it
thoroughly before putting it on charge. In setting the batteries on the
charging bench, place all of them so that the positive terminal is toward the
right as you face the bench. The positive terminal may be found to be
painted red, or may be stamped "+", "P", or "POS". If the markings on one
of the terminals has been scratched or worn off, examine the other terminal.
The negative terminal may be found to be painted black, or be stamped "-",
"N" or "NEG".
If neither terminal is marked, the polarity may be determined with a
voltmeter, or by a cadmium test. To make the voltmeter test, hold the meter
wires on the battery terminals, or the terminals of either end cell. When the
voltmeter pointer moves to the right of the "0" line on the scale, the wire
attached to the "+" terminal of the meter is touching the positive battery
terminal, and the wire attached to the "-" terminal of the meter is touching
the negative battery terminal. If this test is made with a meter having the "0"
line at the center of the scale, be sure that you know whether the pointer
should move to the left or right of the "0" line when the wire attached to the
"+" meter terminal is touching the positive battery terminal.
electrolyte. The "dope" solutions are not only worthless, but they
damage a battery considerably and shorten its life. Such a "doped"
battery may give high gravity *readings and yet the lamps will become
very dim when the starting motor cranks the car, the voltage per cell will
be low when the lights are burning, or low voltage readings (1.50 per
cell) will be obtained if a high rate discharge test is made.
Every battery which comes in for any reason whatsoever, or any battery
which is given a bench charge whenever necessary should also be examined
for other defects, such as poorly burned on connectors and terminals, rotted
case, handles pulled off, sealing compound cracked, or a poor sealing job
between the covers and jars, or covers and posts. A slight leakage of
electrolyte through cracks or imperfect joints between the covers and jars or
covers and posts is very often present without causing any considerable
trouble. If any of the other troubles are found, however, the battery needs
repairing.
Arrangement of Batteries on Charging Bench. If a battery comes in
covered with dirt, set it on the wash rack or in the sink and clean it
thoroughly before putting it on charge. In setting the batteries on the
charging bench, place all of them so that the positive terminal is toward the
right as you face the bench. The positive terminal may be found to be
painted red, or may be stamped "+", "P", or "POS". If the markings on one
of the terminals has been scratched or worn off, examine the other terminal.
The negative terminal may be found to be painted black, or be stamped "-",
"N" or "NEG".
If neither terminal is marked, the polarity may be determined with a
voltmeter, or by a cadmium test. To make the voltmeter test, hold the meter
wires on the battery terminals, or the terminals of either end cell. When the
voltmeter pointer moves to the right of the "0" line on the scale, the wire
attached to the "+" terminal of the meter is touching the positive battery
terminal, and the wire attached to the "-" terminal of the meter is touching
the negative battery terminal. If this test is made with a meter having the "0"
line at the center of the scale, be sure that you know whether the pointer
should move to the left or right of the "0" line when the wire attached to the
"+" meter terminal is touching the positive battery terminal.
Page 258
Another method of determining which is the positive terminal of the battery
is to use the cadmium test. When a reading of about two volts is obtained,
the prod held on one of the cell terminals is touching the positive terminal.
When a reading of almost zero is obtained, that is, when the needle of the
meter just barely moves from the "0" line, or when it does not move at all,
the prod held on one of the cell terminals is touching the negative terminal.
This test, made while the battery is on open-circuit, is not a regular cadmium
test, but is made merely to determine the polarity of the battery.
The polarity of the charging line will always be known if the bench is wired
permanently. The positive charging wire should always be to the right. If a
separate switch is used for each battery (Figures 43 and 65), the wire
attached to the right side of the switch is positive. If the batteries are
connected together by means of jumpers (Figures 44 and 47), the positive
charging wire should be at the right hand end of the bench as seen when
facing the bench. If a constant-potential charging circuit is used as shown in
Figure 48, the positive bus-bar should be at the top and the neutral in the
center, and the negative at the bottom.
If the polarity of the charging line wires is not known, it may be determined
by a voltmeter, in the same way as the batter-, polarity is determined. If this
is done, care should be taken to use a meter having a range sufficient to
measure the line voltage. If no such voltmeter is available, a simple test is to
fill a tumbler with weak electrolyte or salt water and insert two wires
attached to the line. The ends of these wires should, of course, be bare for an
inch or more. Hold these wires about an inch apart, with the line alive.
Numerous fine bubbles of gas will collect around the negative wire.
With the polarities of all the batteries known, arrange them so that all the
positive terminals are at the right. Then connect them to the individual
switches (see Figure 43), or connect them together with jumpers (see Figure
44), being sure to connect the negative of one battery to the positive of the
next. Connect the positive charging line wire to the positive terminal of the
first battery, and the negative line wire to the negative terminal of the last
battery. See page 105.
With all connections made, and before starting to charge, go over all the
batteries again very carefully. You cannot be too careful in checking the
is to use the cadmium test. When a reading of about two volts is obtained,
the prod held on one of the cell terminals is touching the positive terminal.
When a reading of almost zero is obtained, that is, when the needle of the
meter just barely moves from the "0" line, or when it does not move at all,
the prod held on one of the cell terminals is touching the negative terminal.
This test, made while the battery is on open-circuit, is not a regular cadmium
test, but is made merely to determine the polarity of the battery.
The polarity of the charging line will always be known if the bench is wired
permanently. The positive charging wire should always be to the right. If a
separate switch is used for each battery (Figures 43 and 65), the wire
attached to the right side of the switch is positive. If the batteries are
connected together by means of jumpers (Figures 44 and 47), the positive
charging wire should be at the right hand end of the bench as seen when
facing the bench. If a constant-potential charging circuit is used as shown in
Figure 48, the positive bus-bar should be at the top and the neutral in the
center, and the negative at the bottom.
If the polarity of the charging line wires is not known, it may be determined
by a voltmeter, in the same way as the batter-, polarity is determined. If this
is done, care should be taken to use a meter having a range sufficient to
measure the line voltage. If no such voltmeter is available, a simple test is to
fill a tumbler with weak electrolyte or salt water and insert two wires
attached to the line. The ends of these wires should, of course, be bare for an
inch or more. Hold these wires about an inch apart, with the line alive.
Numerous fine bubbles of gas will collect around the negative wire.
With the polarities of all the batteries known, arrange them so that all the
positive terminals are at the right. Then connect them to the individual
switches (see Figure 43), or connect them together with jumpers (see Figure
44), being sure to connect the negative of one battery to the positive of the
next. Connect the positive charging line wire to the positive terminal of the
first battery, and the negative line wire to the negative terminal of the last
battery. See page 105.
With all connections made, and before starting to charge, go over all the
batteries again very carefully. You cannot be too careful in checking the
Page 259
connections, for if one or more batteries are connected reversed, they will be
charged in the wrong direction, and will most likely be severely damaged.
As a final check on the connections of the batteries on the line, measure the
total voltage of these batteries and see if the reading is equal to two times the
total number of cells on the line.
Now inspect the electrolyte in each cell. If it is low, add distilled water to
bring the electrolyte one-half inch above the plates. Do not wait until a
battery is charged before adding water. Do it now. Do not add so much water
that the electrolyte comes above the lower end of the vent tube. This will
cause flooding.
Charging, Rate. If you connect batteries of various sizes together on one
circuit, charge at the rate which is normal for the smallest battery. If the rate
used is the normal one for the larger batteries, the smaller batteries will be
overheated and "boiled" to death, or they may gas so violently as to blow a
considerable portion of the active material from the plates.
It is quite possible to charge 6 and 12 volt batteries in series. The important
point is not to have the total number of cells too high. For instance, if the 10
battery Tungar is used, ten 6-volt batteries (30 cells), or any combination
which gives 30 cells or less may be used. For instance, five 12-volt batteries
(30 cells), or six 6-volt batteries (18 cells) and two 12-volt batteries (12
cells), or any other combination totaling 30 cells may be used. The same
holds true for motor-generators.
The charging rate is generally determined by the size of the charging outfit.
The ten battery Tungar should never have its output raised above 6 amperes.
A charging rate of 6 amperes is suitable for all but the very smallest
batteries. In any case, whether you are certain just what charging rate to use,
or not, there are two things which will guide you, temperature and gassing.
1. Temperature. Have a battery thermometer (Figure 37) on hand, and
measure the temperature of the electrolyte of each cell on the line. If you
note that some particular cell is running hotter than the others, keep the
thermometer in that cell and watch the temperature. Do not let the
temperature rise above 110 degrees Fahrenheit, except for a very short time.
charged in the wrong direction, and will most likely be severely damaged.
As a final check on the connections of the batteries on the line, measure the
total voltage of these batteries and see if the reading is equal to two times the
total number of cells on the line.
Now inspect the electrolyte in each cell. If it is low, add distilled water to
bring the electrolyte one-half inch above the plates. Do not wait until a
battery is charged before adding water. Do it now. Do not add so much water
that the electrolyte comes above the lower end of the vent tube. This will
cause flooding.
Charging, Rate. If you connect batteries of various sizes together on one
circuit, charge at the rate which is normal for the smallest battery. If the rate
used is the normal one for the larger batteries, the smaller batteries will be
overheated and "boiled" to death, or they may gas so violently as to blow a
considerable portion of the active material from the plates.
It is quite possible to charge 6 and 12 volt batteries in series. The important
point is not to have the total number of cells too high. For instance, if the 10
battery Tungar is used, ten 6-volt batteries (30 cells), or any combination
which gives 30 cells or less may be used. For instance, five 12-volt batteries
(30 cells), or six 6-volt batteries (18 cells) and two 12-volt batteries (12
cells), or any other combination totaling 30 cells may be used. The same
holds true for motor-generators.
The charging rate is generally determined by the size of the charging outfit.
The ten battery Tungar should never have its output raised above 6 amperes.
A charging rate of 6 amperes is suitable for all but the very smallest
batteries. In any case, whether you are certain just what charging rate to use,
or not, there are two things which will guide you, temperature and gassing.
1. Temperature. Have a battery thermometer (Figure 37) on hand, and
measure the temperature of the electrolyte of each cell on the line. If you
note that some particular cell is running hotter than the others, keep the
thermometer in that cell and watch the temperature. Do not let the
temperature rise above 110 degrees Fahrenheit, except for a very short time.
Page 260
Should the highest of the temperature of the cells rise above 110 degrees,
reduce the charging rate.
2. Gassing. Near the end of a charge and when the specific gravity has
stopped rising, or is rising very slowly, bubbles of gas will rise from the
electrolyte, this being due to the charging current decomposing the water of
the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen. If this gassing is too violent, a
considerable amount of active material will be blown from the plates.
Therefore, when this gassing begins, the charging rate should be reduced,
unless the entire charging has been done at a low rate, say about five
amperes.
If gassing begins in any cell soon after the charge is started, or before the
specific gravity has reached its highest point, reduce the charging rate to
eliminate the gassing.
If one battery or one cell shows a high temperature and the others do not, or
begins gassing long before the others do, remove that battery from the
charging line for further investigation and replace it with another so as not to
slow up the charge of the other batteries which are acting normally.
As long as excessive temperatures and too-early gassing are avoided,
practically any charging rate may be used, especially at the start. With a
constant potential charging set, as shown in Figure 48, the charge may start
at as high a rate as 50 amperes. If this system of charging is used, the
temperature must be watched very carefully and gassing must be looked for.
With the usual series method of charging, a charge may, in an emergency, be
started at 20 amperes or more. As a general rule do not use a higher rate than
10 amperes. A five ampere rate is even better, but more time will be required
for the charge.
Time Required for a Charge. The time required is not determined by the
clock, but by the battery. Continue the charge until each cell is gassing freely
(not violently) and for five hours after the specific gravity has stopped rising.
The average condition of batteries brought in for charge permits them to be
fully charged in about 48 hours, the time being determined as stated above.
Some batteries may charge fully in less time, and some may require from
four days to a week, depending entirely upon the condition of the batteries.
reduce the charging rate.
2. Gassing. Near the end of a charge and when the specific gravity has
stopped rising, or is rising very slowly, bubbles of gas will rise from the
electrolyte, this being due to the charging current decomposing the water of
the electrolyte into hydrogen and oxygen. If this gassing is too violent, a
considerable amount of active material will be blown from the plates.
Therefore, when this gassing begins, the charging rate should be reduced,
unless the entire charging has been done at a low rate, say about five
amperes.
If gassing begins in any cell soon after the charge is started, or before the
specific gravity has reached its highest point, reduce the charging rate to
eliminate the gassing.
If one battery or one cell shows a high temperature and the others do not, or
begins gassing long before the others do, remove that battery from the
charging line for further investigation and replace it with another so as not to
slow up the charge of the other batteries which are acting normally.
As long as excessive temperatures and too-early gassing are avoided,
practically any charging rate may be used, especially at the start. With a
constant potential charging set, as shown in Figure 48, the charge may start
at as high a rate as 50 amperes. If this system of charging is used, the
temperature must be watched very carefully and gassing must be looked for.
With the usual series method of charging, a charge may, in an emergency, be
started at 20 amperes or more. As a general rule do not use a higher rate than
10 amperes. A five ampere rate is even better, but more time will be required
for the charge.
Time Required for a Charge. The time required is not determined by the
clock, but by the battery. Continue the charge until each cell is gassing freely
(not violently) and for five hours after the specific gravity has stopped rising.
The average condition of batteries brought in for charge permits them to be
fully charged in about 48 hours, the time being determined as stated above.
Some batteries may charge fully in less time, and some may require from
four days to a week, depending entirely upon the condition of the batteries.
Page 261
Do not give any promise as to when a recharge battery will be ready. No one
can tell how long it will take to charge.
Specific Gravity at the End of the Charge. The specific gravity of the
electrolyte in a fully charged cell should be from 1.280 to 1.300. If it varies
more than 10 points above or below these values, adjust it by drawing off
some of the electrolyte with a hydrometer and adding water to lower the
gravity, or 1.400 acid to raise the gravity. After adjusting the gravity charge
for one hour more.
Battery Voltage at End of Charge. The voltage of a fully charged cell is
from 2.5 to 2.7 when the temperature of the electrolyte is 80 degrees
Fahrenheit; 2.4 to 2.6 when the temperature of the electrolyte is 100 degrees
Fahrenheit, and 2.35 to 2.55 volts when the temperature of the electrolyte is
120 degrees Fahrenheit, and this voltage, together with hydrometer readings
of 1.280-1.300 indicate that the battery is fully charged.
Just before putting a battery which has been charged into service, give it a 15
seconds high rate discharge test, see page 266.
Painting. Before returning a battery to the owner wipe it perfectly clean and
dry. Then wipe the covers, terminals, connectors and handles with a rag wet
with ammonia. Next give the case a light coat of black paint which may be
made by mixing lamp black and shellac. This paint dries in about five
minutes and gives a good gloss. The customer may not believe that you are
returning the battery which he brought in but he will most certainly be
pleased with your service and will feel that if you take such pains with the
outside of his battery you will certainly treat the inside with the same care
when repairs are necessary. The light coat of paint costs very little for one
battery, but may bring you many dollars worth of work.
Level of Electrolyte. During charge the electrolyte will expand, and will
generally flow out on the covers. This need not be wiped off until the end of
the charge. When the electrolyte has cooled after the battery is taken off
charge, it must be about 1/2 inch above the plates. While the electrolyte is
still warm it will stand higher than this, but it should not be lowered by
drawing off some of it, as this will probably cause it to be below the tops of
the plates and separators when it cools.
can tell how long it will take to charge.
Specific Gravity at the End of the Charge. The specific gravity of the
electrolyte in a fully charged cell should be from 1.280 to 1.300. If it varies
more than 10 points above or below these values, adjust it by drawing off
some of the electrolyte with a hydrometer and adding water to lower the
gravity, or 1.400 acid to raise the gravity. After adjusting the gravity charge
for one hour more.
Battery Voltage at End of Charge. The voltage of a fully charged cell is
from 2.5 to 2.7 when the temperature of the electrolyte is 80 degrees
Fahrenheit; 2.4 to 2.6 when the temperature of the electrolyte is 100 degrees
Fahrenheit, and 2.35 to 2.55 volts when the temperature of the electrolyte is
120 degrees Fahrenheit, and this voltage, together with hydrometer readings
of 1.280-1.300 indicate that the battery is fully charged.
Just before putting a battery which has been charged into service, give it a 15
seconds high rate discharge test, see page 266.
Painting. Before returning a battery to the owner wipe it perfectly clean and
dry. Then wipe the covers, terminals, connectors and handles with a rag wet
with ammonia. Next give the case a light coat of black paint which may be
made by mixing lamp black and shellac. This paint dries in about five
minutes and gives a good gloss. The customer may not believe that you are
returning the battery which he brought in but he will most certainly be
pleased with your service and will feel that if you take such pains with the
outside of his battery you will certainly treat the inside with the same care
when repairs are necessary. The light coat of paint costs very little for one
battery, but may bring you many dollars worth of work.
Level of Electrolyte. During charge the electrolyte will expand, and will
generally flow out on the covers. This need not be wiped off until the end of
the charge. When the electrolyte has cooled after the battery is taken off
charge, it must be about 1/2 inch above the plates. While the electrolyte is
still warm it will stand higher than this, but it should not be lowered by
drawing off some of it, as this will probably cause it to be below the tops of
the plates and separators when it cools.
Page 262
TROUBLES
If all goes well, the charging process will take place as described in the
preceding paragraphs. It frequently happens, however, that all does not go
well, and troubles arise. Such troubles generally consist of the following:
Specific gravity will not rise to 1.280. This may be due to the plates not
taking a full charge, or to water having been used to replace electrolyte
which has been spilled. To determine which of these conditions exist, make
cadmium test (see page 174) on the positives and negatives, also measure the
voltage of each cell. If these tests indicate that the plates are fully charged
(cell voltage 2.5 to 2.7, Positive-Cadmium 2.4 volts, Negative-Cadmium
minus 0.15 to 0.20 volts), you will know that there is not enough acid in the
electrolyte. The thing to do then is to dump out the old electrolyte, refill with
1.300 electrolyte and continue the charge until the specific gravity becomes
constant. Some adjustment may then have to be made by drawing off some
of the electrolyte with a hydrometer and adding water to lower the gravity, or
1.400 acid to bring it up. Remember that specific gravity readings tell you
nothing about the plates, unless it is known that the electrolyte contains
the correct proportions of water and acid. The cadmium test is the test
which tells you directly whether or not the plates are charged and in
charging a battery the aim is to charge the plates, and not merely to
bring the specific gravity to 1.280.
If the specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 and cadmium tests show that
the plates will not take a full charge, then the battery is, of course,
defective in some way. If the battery is an old one, the negatives are
probably somewhat granulated, the positives have probably lost much of
their active material, resulting in a considerable amount of sediment in the
jars, and the separators are worn out, carbonized, or clogged with sediment.
Such a battery should not be expected to give as good service as a new one,
and the best thing to do if the tests show the battery to be more than half
charged, is to put it back on the car, taking care to explain to the owner why
his battery will not "come up" and telling him that he will soon need a new
battery. Remember that improperly treated separators, or defective separators
will cause poor Negative-Cadmium readings to be obtained.
If all goes well, the charging process will take place as described in the
preceding paragraphs. It frequently happens, however, that all does not go
well, and troubles arise. Such troubles generally consist of the following:
Specific gravity will not rise to 1.280. This may be due to the plates not
taking a full charge, or to water having been used to replace electrolyte
which has been spilled. To determine which of these conditions exist, make
cadmium test (see page 174) on the positives and negatives, also measure the
voltage of each cell. If these tests indicate that the plates are fully charged
(cell voltage 2.5 to 2.7, Positive-Cadmium 2.4 volts, Negative-Cadmium
minus 0.15 to 0.20 volts), you will know that there is not enough acid in the
electrolyte. The thing to do then is to dump out the old electrolyte, refill with
1.300 electrolyte and continue the charge until the specific gravity becomes
constant. Some adjustment may then have to be made by drawing off some
of the electrolyte with a hydrometer and adding water to lower the gravity, or
1.400 acid to bring it up. Remember that specific gravity readings tell you
nothing about the plates, unless it is known that the electrolyte contains
the correct proportions of water and acid. The cadmium test is the test
which tells you directly whether or not the plates are charged and in
charging a battery the aim is to charge the plates, and not merely to
bring the specific gravity to 1.280.
If the specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 and cadmium tests show that
the plates will not take a full charge, then the battery is, of course,
defective in some way. If the battery is an old one, the negatives are
probably somewhat granulated, the positives have probably lost much of
their active material, resulting in a considerable amount of sediment in the
jars, and the separators are worn out, carbonized, or clogged with sediment.
Such a battery should not be expected to give as good service as a new one,
and the best thing to do if the tests show the battery to be more than half
charged, is to put it back on the car, taking care to explain to the owner why
his battery will not "come up" and telling him that he will soon need a new
battery. Remember that improperly treated separators, or defective separators
will cause poor Negative-Cadmium readings to be obtained.
Page 263
If a fairly new battery will not take a full charge, as indicated by
hydrometer readings and cadmium tests, some trouble has developed due to
neglect, abuse, or defect in manufacture. If all cells of a fairly new battery
fail to take a full charge within 48 hours, the battery has probably been
abused by failing to add water regularly, or by allowing battery to remain in
an undercharged condition. Such a battery should be kept on the line for
several days more, and if it then still will not take a full charge the owner
should be told what the condition of the battery is, and advised to have it
opened for inspection.
If one cell of a battery fails to take a charge, but the other cells charge
satisfactorily, and cadmium tests show that the plates of this cell are not
taking a charge, the cell should be opened for inspection. If one cell of a
battery charges slowly, cut the other cells out of the line, and charge the low
cell in series with the other batteries on the charging line.
If all cells of a battery, whether new or old, will not take even half a
charge, as indicated by hydrometer readings (1.200), the battery should be
opened for inspection.
If the gravity of a battery on charge begins to rise long before the
voltage rises, and if the gravity rises above 1.300, there is too great a
proportion of acid in the electrolyte. The remedy is to dump out the
electrolyte, refill with pure water and continue the charge at a lower rate than
before, until the specific gravity stops rising. Then charge for ten hours
longer, dump out the water (which has now become electrolyte by the acid
formed by the charging current), refill with about 1.350 electrolyte and
continue the charge, balancing the gravity if necessary at the end of the
charge.
If a battery becomes very hot while on charge at a rate which is not
normally too high for the battery, it indicates that the battery is badly
sulphated, or has a partial short-circuit. Gassing generally goes with the high
temperature.
If you can detect a vinegar-like odor rising from the vent holes, you may
be absolutely sure that the separators used in that battery have developed
acetic acid due to not having received the proper treatment necessary to
hydrometer readings and cadmium tests, some trouble has developed due to
neglect, abuse, or defect in manufacture. If all cells of a fairly new battery
fail to take a full charge within 48 hours, the battery has probably been
abused by failing to add water regularly, or by allowing battery to remain in
an undercharged condition. Such a battery should be kept on the line for
several days more, and if it then still will not take a full charge the owner
should be told what the condition of the battery is, and advised to have it
opened for inspection.
If one cell of a battery fails to take a charge, but the other cells charge
satisfactorily, and cadmium tests show that the plates of this cell are not
taking a charge, the cell should be opened for inspection. If one cell of a
battery charges slowly, cut the other cells out of the line, and charge the low
cell in series with the other batteries on the charging line.
If all cells of a battery, whether new or old, will not take even half a
charge, as indicated by hydrometer readings (1.200), the battery should be
opened for inspection.
If the gravity of a battery on charge begins to rise long before the
voltage rises, and if the gravity rises above 1.300, there is too great a
proportion of acid in the electrolyte. The remedy is to dump out the
electrolyte, refill with pure water and continue the charge at a lower rate than
before, until the specific gravity stops rising. Then charge for ten hours
longer, dump out the water (which has now become electrolyte by the acid
formed by the charging current), refill with about 1.350 electrolyte and
continue the charge, balancing the gravity if necessary at the end of the
charge.
If a battery becomes very hot while on charge at a rate which is not
normally too high for the battery, it indicates that the battery is badly
sulphated, or has a partial short-circuit. Gassing generally goes with the high
temperature.
If you can detect a vinegar-like odor rising from the vent holes, you may
be absolutely sure that the separators used in that battery have developed
acetic acid due to not having received the proper treatment necessary to
Page 264
prepare them for use in the battery. The electrolyte should be dumped from
such a battery immediately and the battery should be filled and rinsed with
water several times. Then the battery should be opened without loss of time,
to see whether, by removing the separators and washing the plates
thoroughly, the plates may be saved. If the acetic acid has been present for
any length of time, however, the plates will have been ruined beyond repair,
the lead parts being dissolved by the acid.
If the electrolyte of a battery on charge has a white, milky look, there
may be impurities which cause numerous minute bubbles to form, such
bubbles giving the electrolyte its milky appearance. The milky appearance
may be due to the use of "hard" water in refilling, this water containing lime.
The electrolyte as seen with the acid of an electric lamp or flashlight should
be perfectly clear and colorless. Any scum, particles of dirt, any color
whatsoever shows that the electrolyte is impure. This calls for dumping out
the electrolyte, filling and rinsing with pure water, refilling with new
electrolyte and putting the battery back on the charging line. Of course, this
may not cause the battery to charge satisfactorily, which may be due to the
troubles already described.
Should it ever happen that it is impossible to send a current through a
charging circuit go over all the connections to make sure that you have
good contact at each battery terminal, and that there are no loose inter-cell
connectors. If all connections to the batteries are good, and there are no
loose inter-cell connectors, cut out one battery at a time until you start the
current flowing, when you cut out some particular battery. This battery
should then be opened without further tests, as it is without a doubt in a bad
condition.
The conditions which may exist when a battery will not charge, as shown
especially by cadmium tests, are as follows:
(a) The battery may have been allowed to remain in a discharged
condition, or the owner may have neglected to add water, with the result
that the electrolyte did not cover the plates. In either case a considerable
amount of crystallized sulphate will have formed in the plates. Plates in
such a condition will require a charge of about a week at a low rate and
such a battery immediately and the battery should be filled and rinsed with
water several times. Then the battery should be opened without loss of time,
to see whether, by removing the separators and washing the plates
thoroughly, the plates may be saved. If the acetic acid has been present for
any length of time, however, the plates will have been ruined beyond repair,
the lead parts being dissolved by the acid.
If the electrolyte of a battery on charge has a white, milky look, there
may be impurities which cause numerous minute bubbles to form, such
bubbles giving the electrolyte its milky appearance. The milky appearance
may be due to the use of "hard" water in refilling, this water containing lime.
The electrolyte as seen with the acid of an electric lamp or flashlight should
be perfectly clear and colorless. Any scum, particles of dirt, any color
whatsoever shows that the electrolyte is impure. This calls for dumping out
the electrolyte, filling and rinsing with pure water, refilling with new
electrolyte and putting the battery back on the charging line. Of course, this
may not cause the battery to charge satisfactorily, which may be due to the
troubles already described.
Should it ever happen that it is impossible to send a current through a
charging circuit go over all the connections to make sure that you have
good contact at each battery terminal, and that there are no loose inter-cell
connectors. If all connections to the batteries are good, and there are no
loose inter-cell connectors, cut out one battery at a time until you start the
current flowing, when you cut out some particular battery. This battery
should then be opened without further tests, as it is without a doubt in a bad
condition.
The conditions which may exist when a battery will not charge, as shown
especially by cadmium tests, are as follows:
(a) The battery may have been allowed to remain in a discharged
condition, or the owner may have neglected to add water, with the result
that the electrolyte did not cover the plates. In either case a considerable
amount of crystallized sulphate will have formed in the plates. Plates in
such a condition will require a charge of about a week at a low rate and
Page 265
will then have to be discharged and recharged again. Several such cycles
of charge and discharge may be necessary. It may even be impossible to
charge such a battery, no matter how many cycles of charge and
discharge are given. If the owner admits that his battery has been
neglected and allowed to stand idle for a considerable time, get his
permission to open the battery.
(b) The battery may have been overheated by an excessive charging rate,
or by putting it on a car in a sulphated condition. The normal charging
rate of the generator on the car will over heat a sulphated battery.
Overheated plates buckle their lower edges cut through the separators,
causing a short-circuit between plates.
(c) The pockets in the bottoms of the jars may have become filled with
sediment, and the sediment may be short-circuiting the plates.
(d) Impurities may have attacked the plates and changed the active
materials to other substances which do not form a battery. Such plates
may be so badly damaged that they are brittle and crumbled. Acetic acid
from improperly treated separators will dissolve lead very quickly, and
may even cause an open circuit in the cell.
(e) The conditions described in (a), (b), and (c) will permit a charging
current to pass through the battery, but the plates will not become
charged. It is possible, of course, but not probable, that a condition may
exist in which all the plates of one or both groups of a cell may be broken
from the connecting straps, or inter-cell connectors may be making no
contact with the posts. In such a case, it would be impossible to send a
charging current through the battery. Acetic acid from improperly treated
separators, and organic matter introduced by the use of impure water in
refilling will attack the lead of the plates, especially at the upper surface
of the electrolyte, and may dissolve all the plate lugs from the connecting
straps and cause an open-circuit.
(f) The separators may be soggy and somewhat charred and blackened,
or they may be clogged up with sulphate, and the battery may need new
separators.
of charge and discharge may be necessary. It may even be impossible to
charge such a battery, no matter how many cycles of charge and
discharge are given. If the owner admits that his battery has been
neglected and allowed to stand idle for a considerable time, get his
permission to open the battery.
(b) The battery may have been overheated by an excessive charging rate,
or by putting it on a car in a sulphated condition. The normal charging
rate of the generator on the car will over heat a sulphated battery.
Overheated plates buckle their lower edges cut through the separators,
causing a short-circuit between plates.
(c) The pockets in the bottoms of the jars may have become filled with
sediment, and the sediment may be short-circuiting the plates.
(d) Impurities may have attacked the plates and changed the active
materials to other substances which do not form a battery. Such plates
may be so badly damaged that they are brittle and crumbled. Acetic acid
from improperly treated separators will dissolve lead very quickly, and
may even cause an open circuit in the cell.
(e) The conditions described in (a), (b), and (c) will permit a charging
current to pass through the battery, but the plates will not become
charged. It is possible, of course, but not probable, that a condition may
exist in which all the plates of one or both groups of a cell may be broken
from the connecting straps, or inter-cell connectors may be making no
contact with the posts. In such a case, it would be impossible to send a
charging current through the battery. Acetic acid from improperly treated
separators, and organic matter introduced by the use of impure water in
refilling will attack the lead of the plates, especially at the upper surface
of the electrolyte, and may dissolve all the plate lugs from the connecting
straps and cause an open-circuit.
(f) The separators may be soggy and somewhat charred and blackened,
or they may be clogged up with sulphate, and the battery may need new
separators.
Page 266
(g) The spongy lead may be bulged, or the positives may be buckled. The
active material is then not making good contact with the grids, and the
charging current cannot get at all the sulphate and change it to active
material. The remedy in such a case is to press the negatives so as to
force the active material back into the grids, and to put in new positives
if they are considerably buckled.
(h) One of the numerous "dope" electrolytes which are offered to the
trustful car owner may have been put in the battery. Such "dopes" might
cause very severe damage to the plates. Tell your customers to avoid
using such "dope."
The conditions which may exist when the plates of a battery take a charge,
as indicated by cadmium tests, but the gravity will not come up to 1.280 are
as follows:
(a) There may be considerable sediment in the jars but not enough to
short circuit the plates. If the battery has at some time been in a sulphated
condition and has been charged At too high a rate, the gassing that
resulted will have caused chips of the sulphate to drop to the bottom of
the jars. When this sulphate was formed, some of the acid was taken
from the electrolyte, and if the sulphate drops from the plates, this
amount of acid cannot be recovered no matter how long the charge is
continued. If the owner tells you that his battery has stood idle for several
months at some time, this is a condition which may exist. The remedy is
to wash and press the negatives, wash the positives, put in new
separators, pour out the old electrolyte and wash out the jars, fill with
1.400 acid, and charge the battery.
(b) Impurities may have used up some of the acid which cannot be
recovered by charging. If the plates are not much damaged the remedy is
the same as for (a). Damaged plates may require renewal.
(c) Electrolyte may have been spilled accidentally and replaced by water.
(d) Too much water may have been added, with the result that the
expansion of the electrolyte due to a rise in temperature on charge caused
it to overflow. This, of course, resulted in a loss of some of the acid.
active material is then not making good contact with the grids, and the
charging current cannot get at all the sulphate and change it to active
material. The remedy in such a case is to press the negatives so as to
force the active material back into the grids, and to put in new positives
if they are considerably buckled.
(h) One of the numerous "dope" electrolytes which are offered to the
trustful car owner may have been put in the battery. Such "dopes" might
cause very severe damage to the plates. Tell your customers to avoid
using such "dope."
The conditions which may exist when the plates of a battery take a charge,
as indicated by cadmium tests, but the gravity will not come up to 1.280 are
as follows:
(a) There may be considerable sediment in the jars but not enough to
short circuit the plates. If the battery has at some time been in a sulphated
condition and has been charged At too high a rate, the gassing that
resulted will have caused chips of the sulphate to drop to the bottom of
the jars. When this sulphate was formed, some of the acid was taken
from the electrolyte, and if the sulphate drops from the plates, this
amount of acid cannot be recovered no matter how long the charge is
continued. If the owner tells you that his battery has stood idle for several
months at some time, this is a condition which may exist. The remedy is
to wash and press the negatives, wash the positives, put in new
separators, pour out the old electrolyte and wash out the jars, fill with
1.400 acid, and charge the battery.
(b) Impurities may have used up some of the acid which cannot be
recovered by charging. If the plates are not much damaged the remedy is
the same as for (a). Damaged plates may require renewal.
(c) Electrolyte may have been spilled accidentally and replaced by water.
(d) Too much water may have been added, with the result that the
expansion of the electrolyte due to a rise in temperature on charge caused
it to overflow. This, of course, resulted in a loss of some of the acid.
Page 267
The causes given in (c) and (d) may have resulted in the top of the battery
case being acid-eaten or rotted. The remedy in these two instances is to draw
off some of the electrolyte, add some 1.400 acid and continue the charge. If
plates and separators look good and there is but little sediment, this is the
thing to do.
If Battery will not hold a Charge. If a battery charges properly but loses its
charge in a week or less, as indicated by specific gravity readings, the
following troubles may exist:
(a) Impurities in the cells, due to the use of impure water in the
electrolyte, or in the separators. Some impurities (see page 76) do not
attack the plates, but merely cause self-discharge. The remedy is to dump
out the old electrolyte, rinse the jars with pure water, fill with new
electrolyte of the same gravity as the old and recharge. If this does not
remove impurities, the battery should be opened, the plates washed, jars
cleaned out, new separators put in, and battery reassembled and charged.
(b) There may be a slow short-circuit, due to defective separators or
excessive amount of sediment. If preliminary treatment in (a) does not
cause battery to hold charge, the opening of battery and subsequent
treatment will remove the cause of the slow short-circuit.
Suggestions
1. Make sure every battery is properly tagged before going on line.
2. Determine as quickly as possible from day to day, those batteries that will
not charge. Call owner and get permission to open up any such battery and
do whatever is necessary to put it in good shape.
3. As soon as a battery charges to 1.280-1.300, the voltage is 2.5-2.7 per cell
and the cadmium readings are 2.4 or more for the positives and -0.15 to
-0.20 for the negatives and the gravity voltage and cadmium readings do not
change for five hours, remove it from the line as finished and replace it with
another if possible. Go over your line at least three times a day and make
gravity, temperature, and cadmium tests.
case being acid-eaten or rotted. The remedy in these two instances is to draw
off some of the electrolyte, add some 1.400 acid and continue the charge. If
plates and separators look good and there is but little sediment, this is the
thing to do.
If Battery will not hold a Charge. If a battery charges properly but loses its
charge in a week or less, as indicated by specific gravity readings, the
following troubles may exist:
(a) Impurities in the cells, due to the use of impure water in the
electrolyte, or in the separators. Some impurities (see page 76) do not
attack the plates, but merely cause self-discharge. The remedy is to dump
out the old electrolyte, rinse the jars with pure water, fill with new
electrolyte of the same gravity as the old and recharge. If this does not
remove impurities, the battery should be opened, the plates washed, jars
cleaned out, new separators put in, and battery reassembled and charged.
(b) There may be a slow short-circuit, due to defective separators or
excessive amount of sediment. If preliminary treatment in (a) does not
cause battery to hold charge, the opening of battery and subsequent
treatment will remove the cause of the slow short-circuit.
Suggestions
1. Make sure every battery is properly tagged before going on line.
2. Determine as quickly as possible from day to day, those batteries that will
not charge. Call owner and get permission to open up any such battery and
do whatever is necessary to put it in good shape.
3. As soon as a battery charges to 1.280-1.300, the voltage is 2.5-2.7 per cell
and the cadmium readings are 2.4 or more for the positives and -0.15 to
-0.20 for the negatives and the gravity voltage and cadmium readings do not
change for five hours, remove it from the line as finished and replace it with
another if possible. Go over your line at least three times a day and make
gravity, temperature, and cadmium tests.
Page 268
4. Make a notation, with chalk, of the gravity of each cell each morning. Do
not trust to memory.
5. Remove from the line as soon as possible any battery that has a leaky cell
and neutralize with soda the acid that has leaked out.
6. Batteries that are sloppers, with rotten cases, and without handles are sick
and need a doctor. Go after the owner and get permission to repair.
7. Keep the bench orderly and clean.
8. Remember that if you have a line only partly full and have other batteries
waiting to be charged you are losing money by not keeping a full line.
9. Leave the Vent Plugs in When Charging. The atmosphere in many
service stations, where the ventilation is poor, is so filled with acid fumes
that customers object to doing business there.
The owners of these places may not notice these conditions, being used to it,
or rather glory in being able to breathe such air without coughing or choking,
but it certainly does not invite a customer to linger and spend his money.
The remedy for such a condition is to leave the vent plugs in place on the
batteries that are charging so that the acid spray in the gas from the battery
condenses out as it strikes these plugs and drips back into the cells, while the
gas passes out through the small openings in the plug.
The plugs need only be screwed into the openings by one turn, or only set on
top of the vent openings to accomplish the result.
This takes no additional time and more than repays for itself in the saving of
rusted tools and improved conditions in the battery room and surroundings.
In charging old Exide batteries, be sure to replace the vent plugs and turn
them to open the air passages which permit the escape of gases which form
under the covers. If you wish to keep these air passages open without
replacing the plugs, which may be done for convenience, give the valve (see
page 21) a quarter turn with a screwdriver or some other tool.
not trust to memory.
5. Remove from the line as soon as possible any battery that has a leaky cell
and neutralize with soda the acid that has leaked out.
6. Batteries that are sloppers, with rotten cases, and without handles are sick
and need a doctor. Go after the owner and get permission to repair.
7. Keep the bench orderly and clean.
8. Remember that if you have a line only partly full and have other batteries
waiting to be charged you are losing money by not keeping a full line.
9. Leave the Vent Plugs in When Charging. The atmosphere in many
service stations, where the ventilation is poor, is so filled with acid fumes
that customers object to doing business there.
The owners of these places may not notice these conditions, being used to it,
or rather glory in being able to breathe such air without coughing or choking,
but it certainly does not invite a customer to linger and spend his money.
The remedy for such a condition is to leave the vent plugs in place on the
batteries that are charging so that the acid spray in the gas from the battery
condenses out as it strikes these plugs and drips back into the cells, while the
gas passes out through the small openings in the plug.
The plugs need only be screwed into the openings by one turn, or only set on
top of the vent openings to accomplish the result.
This takes no additional time and more than repays for itself in the saving of
rusted tools and improved conditions in the battery room and surroundings.
In charging old Exide batteries, be sure to replace the vent plugs and turn
them to open the air passages which permit the escape of gases which form
under the covers. If you wish to keep these air passages open without
replacing the plugs, which may be done for convenience, give the valve (see
page 21) a quarter turn with a screwdriver or some other tool.
Page 269
10. If the electrolyte from a battery rises until it floods over the top of the jar,
it shows that too much water was added when the battery was put on charge,
the water rising to the bottom of the vent tube, thereby preventing gases
formed (except those directly below the vent hole) from escaping. This gas
collects under the covers, and its pressure forces the electrolyte up into the
vent hole and over the top of the battery. In charging old U.S.L. batteries it is
especially necessary to keep the air vent (see page 20) open to prevent
flooding, since the lower end of the vent tube is normally a little below the
surface of the electrolyte.
Remember, do not have the electrolyte come up to the lower end of the vent
tube.
NOTE: To obtain satisfactory negative cadmium readings, the charging rate
should be high enough to give a cell voltage of 2.5-2.7.
Improperly treated separators, or separators which have been allowed to
become partly dry at any time will make it impossible to obtain satisfactory
negative cadmium readings.
LEAD BURNING (WELDING)
Lead cannot be "burned" in the sense that it bursts into flame as a piece of
paper does when a match is applied to it. If sufficient heat is applied, the
lead will oxidize and feather away into a yellow looking dust, but it does not
burn. The experienced battery man knows that by "lead burning" is meant
the heating of lead to its melting point, so that two lead surfaces will weld
together. This is a welding and not a "burning" process, and much confusion
would be avoided if the term "lead welding" were used in place of the term
"lead burning."
The purpose of welding lead surfaces together is to obtain a joint which
offers very little resistance to the flow of current, it being absolutely
necessary to have as low a resistance as possible in the starting circuit.
Welding also makes joints which are strong mechanically and which cannot
corrode or become loose as bolted connections do. Some earlier types of
starting and lighting batteries had inter-cell connectors which were bolted to
the posts, but these are no longer used.
it shows that too much water was added when the battery was put on charge,
the water rising to the bottom of the vent tube, thereby preventing gases
formed (except those directly below the vent hole) from escaping. This gas
collects under the covers, and its pressure forces the electrolyte up into the
vent hole and over the top of the battery. In charging old U.S.L. batteries it is
especially necessary to keep the air vent (see page 20) open to prevent
flooding, since the lower end of the vent tube is normally a little below the
surface of the electrolyte.
Remember, do not have the electrolyte come up to the lower end of the vent
tube.
NOTE: To obtain satisfactory negative cadmium readings, the charging rate
should be high enough to give a cell voltage of 2.5-2.7.
Improperly treated separators, or separators which have been allowed to
become partly dry at any time will make it impossible to obtain satisfactory
negative cadmium readings.
LEAD BURNING (WELDING)
Lead cannot be "burned" in the sense that it bursts into flame as a piece of
paper does when a match is applied to it. If sufficient heat is applied, the
lead will oxidize and feather away into a yellow looking dust, but it does not
burn. The experienced battery man knows that by "lead burning" is meant
the heating of lead to its melting point, so that two lead surfaces will weld
together. This is a welding and not a "burning" process, and much confusion
would be avoided if the term "lead welding" were used in place of the term
"lead burning."
The purpose of welding lead surfaces together is to obtain a joint which
offers very little resistance to the flow of current, it being absolutely
necessary to have as low a resistance as possible in the starting circuit.
Welding also makes joints which are strong mechanically and which cannot
corrode or become loose as bolted connections do. Some earlier types of
starting and lighting batteries had inter-cell connectors which were bolted to
the posts, but these are no longer used.
Page 270
The different kinds of lead-burning outfits are listed on page 143 The
oxygen-acetylene and the oxygen-hydrogen flames give extremely high
temperatures and enable you to work fast. Where city gas is available, the
oxygen illuminating gas combination will give a very good flame which is
softer than the oxygen acetylene, oxygen-hydrogen outfits. Acetylene and
compressed air is another good combination.
There are two general classes of lead-welding:
(a) Welding connecting bars, called "cell" connectors, top connectors, or
simply "connectors," to the posts which project up through the cell
covers, and welding terminals to the end posts of a battery.
(b) Welding plates to "straps" to form groups. The straps, of course, have
joined to them the posts which project through the cell covers and by
means of which cells are connected together, and connections made to
the electrical system of the car.
In addition to the above, there are other processes in which a burning
(welding) flame is used:
(c) Post-building, or building posts, which have been drilled or cut short,
up to their original size.
(d) Extending plate lug. If the lug which connects a plate to the plate
strap is too short, due to being broken, or cut too short, the lug may be
extended by melting lead into a suitable iron form placed around the lug.
(e) Making temporary charging connections between cells by lightly
welding lead strips to the posts so as to connect the cells together.
(f) A lead-burning (welding) flame is also used to dry out the channel in
cell covers before pouring in the sealing compound, in re-melting sealing
compound which has already been poured, so as to assure a perfect joint
between the compound cover and jar, and to give the compound a
smooth glossy finish. These processes are not welding processes and will
not be described here.
oxygen-acetylene and the oxygen-hydrogen flames give extremely high
temperatures and enable you to work fast. Where city gas is available, the
oxygen illuminating gas combination will give a very good flame which is
softer than the oxygen acetylene, oxygen-hydrogen outfits. Acetylene and
compressed air is another good combination.
There are two general classes of lead-welding:
(a) Welding connecting bars, called "cell" connectors, top connectors, or
simply "connectors," to the posts which project up through the cell
covers, and welding terminals to the end posts of a battery.
(b) Welding plates to "straps" to form groups. The straps, of course, have
joined to them the posts which project through the cell covers and by
means of which cells are connected together, and connections made to
the electrical system of the car.
In addition to the above, there are other processes in which a burning
(welding) flame is used:
(c) Post-building, or building posts, which have been drilled or cut short,
up to their original size.
(d) Extending plate lug. If the lug which connects a plate to the plate
strap is too short, due to being broken, or cut too short, the lug may be
extended by melting lead into a suitable iron form placed around the lug.
(e) Making temporary charging connections between cells by lightly
welding lead strips to the posts so as to connect the cells together.
(f) A lead-burning (welding) flame is also used to dry out the channel in
cell covers before pouring in the sealing compound, in re-melting sealing
compound which has already been poured, so as to assure a perfect joint
between the compound cover and jar, and to give the compound a
smooth glossy finish. These processes are not welding processes and will
not be described here.
Page 271
General Lead Burning Instructions
Flame. With all the lead burning outfits, it is possible to adjust the pressures
of the gases so as to get extremely hot, medium, and soft flames. With the
oxygen-acetylene, or oxygen-hydrogen flame, each gas should have a
pressure of about two pounds. With the oxygen-illuminating gas flame, the
oxygen should have a pressure of 8 to 10 pounds. The city gas then does not
need to have its pressure increased by means of a pump, the normal pressure
(6 to 8 ounces) being satisfactory.
Various makes of lead-burning outfits are on the market, and the repairman
should choose the one which he likes best; since they all give good results.
All such outfits have means of regulating the pressures of the gases used.
With some the gases are run close to the burning tip before being mixed, and
have an adjusting screw where the gases mix. Others have a Y shaped
mixing valve at some distance from the burning tip, as shown in Figure 78.
Still others have separate regulating valves for each gas line.
With these adjustments for varying the gas pressure, extremely hot, hissing
flames, or soft flames may be obtained. For the different welding jobs, the
following flames are suitable:
1. A sharp, hissing flame, having a very high temperature is the one most
suitable for the first stage in welding terminals and connectors to the posts.
2. A medium flame with less of a hiss is suitable for welding plates to strips
and lengthening plate lugs.
3. A soft flame which is just beginning to hiss is best for the finishing of the
weld between the posts and terminals or connectors. This sort of a flame is
also used for finishing a sealing job, drying out the cover channels before
sealing, and so on.
In adjusting the burning flame, 4 the oxygen is turned off entirely, a smoky
yellow flame is obtained. Such a flame gives but little heat. As the oxygen is
gradually turned on the flame becomes less smoky and begins to assume a
blue tinge. It will also be noticed that a sort of a greenish cone forms in the
center portion of the flame, with the base of the cone at the torch and the tip
Flame. With all the lead burning outfits, it is possible to adjust the pressures
of the gases so as to get extremely hot, medium, and soft flames. With the
oxygen-acetylene, or oxygen-hydrogen flame, each gas should have a
pressure of about two pounds. With the oxygen-illuminating gas flame, the
oxygen should have a pressure of 8 to 10 pounds. The city gas then does not
need to have its pressure increased by means of a pump, the normal pressure
(6 to 8 ounces) being satisfactory.
Various makes of lead-burning outfits are on the market, and the repairman
should choose the one which he likes best; since they all give good results.
All such outfits have means of regulating the pressures of the gases used.
With some the gases are run close to the burning tip before being mixed, and
have an adjusting screw where the gases mix. Others have a Y shaped
mixing valve at some distance from the burning tip, as shown in Figure 78.
Still others have separate regulating valves for each gas line.
With these adjustments for varying the gas pressure, extremely hot, hissing
flames, or soft flames may be obtained. For the different welding jobs, the
following flames are suitable:
1. A sharp, hissing flame, having a very high temperature is the one most
suitable for the first stage in welding terminals and connectors to the posts.
2. A medium flame with less of a hiss is suitable for welding plates to strips
and lengthening plate lugs.
3. A soft flame which is just beginning to hiss is best for the finishing of the
weld between the posts and terminals or connectors. This sort of a flame is
also used for finishing a sealing job, drying out the cover channels before
sealing, and so on.
In adjusting the burning flame, 4 the oxygen is turned off entirely, a smoky
yellow flame is obtained. Such a flame gives but little heat. As the oxygen is
gradually turned on the flame becomes less smoky and begins to assume a
blue tinge. It will also be noticed that a sort of a greenish cone forms in the
center portion of the flame, with the base of the cone at the torch and the tip
Page 272
pointed away from the torch. At first this inner-cone is long and of almost
the same color as the outer portion of the flame. As the oxygen pressure is
increased, this center cone becomes shorter and of a more vivid color, and its
tip begins to whip about. When the flame is at its highest temperature it will
produce a hissing sound and the inner cone will be short and bright. With a
softer flame, which has a temperature suitable for welding plates to a strap,
the inner cone will be longer and less vivid, and the hissing will be greatly
diminished.
The temperature of the different parts of the flame varies considerably, the
hottest part being just beyond the end of the inner cone. Experience with the
particular welding outfit used will soon show how far the tip of the torch
should be held from the lead to be melted.
Cleanliness. Lead surfaces which are to be welded together must be
absolutely free from dirt. Lead and dirt will not mix, and the dirt will float
on top of the lead. Therefore, before trying to do any lead welding, clean the
surfaces which are to be joined. The upper ends of plate lugs may be cleaned
with a flat file, knife., or wire brush. The posts and inter-cell connectors
should be cleaned with a knife, steel wire brush, or triangular scraper. Do not
clean the surfaces and then wait a long time before doing the lead burning.
The lead may begin to oxidize if this is done and make it difficult to do a
good job.
The surfaces which are to be welded together should also be dry. If there is a
small hole in the top of a post which is to be welded to a connector or
terminal, and this hole contains acid, a shower of hot lead may be thrown up
by the acid, with possible injury to the operator.
Do not try to save time by attempting to weld dirty or wet lead surfaces,
because time cannot be saved by doing so, and you run the risk of being
injured if hot lead is thrown into your face. Remove absolutely every speck
of dirt — you will soon learn that it is the only way to do a good job.
Safety Precautions. Remove the vent plugs and blow down through the vent
holes to remove any gases which may have collected above the surface of
the electrolyte. An explosion may result if this is not done. To protect the
rubber covers, you may cover the whole top of the battery except the part at
the same color as the outer portion of the flame. As the oxygen pressure is
increased, this center cone becomes shorter and of a more vivid color, and its
tip begins to whip about. When the flame is at its highest temperature it will
produce a hissing sound and the inner cone will be short and bright. With a
softer flame, which has a temperature suitable for welding plates to a strap,
the inner cone will be longer and less vivid, and the hissing will be greatly
diminished.
The temperature of the different parts of the flame varies considerably, the
hottest part being just beyond the end of the inner cone. Experience with the
particular welding outfit used will soon show how far the tip of the torch
should be held from the lead to be melted.
Cleanliness. Lead surfaces which are to be welded together must be
absolutely free from dirt. Lead and dirt will not mix, and the dirt will float
on top of the lead. Therefore, before trying to do any lead welding, clean the
surfaces which are to be joined. The upper ends of plate lugs may be cleaned
with a flat file, knife., or wire brush. The posts and inter-cell connectors
should be cleaned with a knife, steel wire brush, or triangular scraper. Do not
clean the surfaces and then wait a long time before doing the lead burning.
The lead may begin to oxidize if this is done and make it difficult to do a
good job.
The surfaces which are to be welded together should also be dry. If there is a
small hole in the top of a post which is to be welded to a connector or
terminal, and this hole contains acid, a shower of hot lead may be thrown up
by the acid, with possible injury to the operator.
Do not try to save time by attempting to weld dirty or wet lead surfaces,
because time cannot be saved by doing so, and you run the risk of being
injured if hot lead is thrown into your face. Remove absolutely every speck
of dirt — you will soon learn that it is the only way to do a good job.
Safety Precautions. Remove the vent plugs and blow down through the vent
holes to remove any gases which may have collected above the surface of
the electrolyte. An explosion may result if this is not done. To protect the
rubber covers, you may cover the whole top of the battery except the part at
Page 273
which the welding is to be done, with a large piece of burlap or a towel
which has been soaked in water. The parts covered by the cloth must be
dried thoroughly if any welding on them. Instead of using a wet cloth, a strip
of asbestos may be laid over the vent holes, or a small square of asbestos
may be laid over each vent hole.
Burning on the Cell Connectors and Terminals
Have the posts perfectly clean and free from acid. Clean the tops, bottoms
and sides of the connectors with a wire brush, Figure 143. Finish the top
surfaces with a coarse file, Figure 144. With a pocket knife clean the inside
surfaces of the connector holes. Place the connectors and terminals in their
proper positions on the posts, and with a short length of a two by two, two
by one, or two by four wood pound them snugly in position, Figure 145. Be
sure that the connectors are perfectly level and that the connectors are in the
correct position as required on the car on which the battery is to be used. The
top of the post should not come flush with the top of the connector. Note,
from Figure 146, that the connector has a double taper, and that the lower
tapered surface is not welded to the post. If the post has been built up too
high it should be cut down with a pair of end cutting nippers so that the
entire length of the upper taper in the connector is in plain sight when the
connector is put in position on the post. This is shown in Figure 146. With
the connectors in place, and before welding them to the posts, measure the
voltage of the whole battery to be sure that the cells are properly connected,
as shown by the voltage reading being equal to two times the number of
cells. If one cell has been reversed, as shown by a lower voltage reading now
is the time to correct the mistake.
which has been soaked in water. The parts covered by the cloth must be
dried thoroughly if any welding on them. Instead of using a wet cloth, a strip
of asbestos may be laid over the vent holes, or a small square of asbestos
may be laid over each vent hole.
Burning on the Cell Connectors and Terminals
Have the posts perfectly clean and free from acid. Clean the tops, bottoms
and sides of the connectors with a wire brush, Figure 143. Finish the top
surfaces with a coarse file, Figure 144. With a pocket knife clean the inside
surfaces of the connector holes. Place the connectors and terminals in their
proper positions on the posts, and with a short length of a two by two, two
by one, or two by four wood pound them snugly in position, Figure 145. Be
sure that the connectors are perfectly level and that the connectors are in the
correct position as required on the car on which the battery is to be used. The
top of the post should not come flush with the top of the connector. Note,
from Figure 146, that the connector has a double taper, and that the lower
tapered surface is not welded to the post. If the post has been built up too
high it should be cut down with a pair of end cutting nippers so that the
entire length of the upper taper in the connector is in plain sight when the
connector is put in position on the post. This is shown in Figure 146. With
the connectors in place, and before welding them to the posts, measure the
voltage of the whole battery to be sure that the cells are properly connected,
as shown by the voltage reading being equal to two times the number of
cells. If one cell has been reversed, as shown by a lower voltage reading now
is the time to correct the mistake.
Page 274
The connectors and terminals are now ready to be welded to the posts.
Before bringing any flame near the battery be sure that you have blown
out any gas which may have collected under the covers. Then cover the
vents with asbestos or a wet cloth as already described. You will need strips
of burning lead, such as those made in the burning lead mould described on
page 164.
Use a hot, hissing flame for the first stage. With the flame properly adjusted,
hold it straight above the post, and do not run it across the top of the battery.
Now bring the flame straight down over the center of the post, holding it so
that the end of the inner cone of the flame is a short distance above the post.
When the center of the post begins to melt, move the flame outward with a
circular motion to gradually melt the whole top of the post, and to melt the
inner surface of the hole in the connector. Then bring the lower end of your
Before bringing any flame near the battery be sure that you have blown
out any gas which may have collected under the covers. Then cover the
vents with asbestos or a wet cloth as already described. You will need strips
of burning lead, such as those made in the burning lead mould described on
page 164.
Use a hot, hissing flame for the first stage. With the flame properly adjusted,
hold it straight above the post, and do not run it across the top of the battery.
Now bring the flame straight down over the center of the post, holding it so
that the end of the inner cone of the flame is a short distance above the post.
When the center of the post begins to melt, move the flame outward with a
circular motion to gradually melt the whole top of the post, and to melt the
inner surface of the hole in the connector. Then bring the lower end of your
Page 275
burning lead strip close to and over the center of the hole, and melt in the
lead, being sure to keep the top of the post and the inner surface of the hole
in the connector melted so that the lead you are melting in will flow together
and unite. Melt in lead until it comes up flush with the upper surface of the
connector. Then remove the flame. This completes the first stage of the
welding process. Now repeat the above operation for each post and terminal.
It is essential that the top of the post and the inner surface of the hole in the
connector be kept melted as long as you are running in lead from the strip of
burning lead. This is necessary to have all parts fuse together thoroughly. If
you allow the top of the post, or the inner surface of the hole in the
connector to chill slightly while you are feeding in the lead, the parts will not
fuse, and the result will be a poor joint, which will heat up and possibly
reduce the current obtained from the battery when the starting switch is
closed. This reduction may prevent the starting motor from developing
sufficient torque to crank the engine.
When the joint cools, the lead will shrink slightly over the center of the
posts. To finish the welding, this lead is to be built up flush or slightly higher
than the connector. Brush the tops of the post and connector thoroughly with
a wire brush to remove any dirt which may have been floating in the lead.
(Dirt always floats on top of the lead.) Soften the burning flame so that it is
just barely beginning to hiss. Bring the flame down over the center of the
lead, being sure to keep the top of the post and the inner surface of the hole
in the connector melted so that the lead you are melting in will flow together
and unite. Melt in lead until it comes up flush with the upper surface of the
connector. Then remove the flame. This completes the first stage of the
welding process. Now repeat the above operation for each post and terminal.
It is essential that the top of the post and the inner surface of the hole in the
connector be kept melted as long as you are running in lead from the strip of
burning lead. This is necessary to have all parts fuse together thoroughly. If
you allow the top of the post, or the inner surface of the hole in the
connector to chill slightly while you are feeding in the lead, the parts will not
fuse, and the result will be a poor joint, which will heat up and possibly
reduce the current obtained from the battery when the starting switch is
closed. This reduction may prevent the starting motor from developing
sufficient torque to crank the engine.
When the joint cools, the lead will shrink slightly over the center of the
posts. To finish the welding, this lead is to be built up flush or slightly higher
than the connector. Brush the tops of the post and connector thoroughly with
a wire brush to remove any dirt which may have been floating in the lead.
(Dirt always floats on top of the lead.) Soften the burning flame so that it is
just barely beginning to hiss. Bring the flame down over the center of the
Page 276
post. When this begins to melt, move the flame outward with a circular
motion until the whole top of post and connector begins to melt and fuse. If
necessary run in some lead from the burning lead strip. When the post and
connector are fused, clear to the outer edge of the connector, raise the flame
straight up from the work.
You will save time by doing the first stage of the burning on all posts first,
and then finish all of them. This is quicker than trying to complete both
stages of burning on each post before going to the next post. The object in
the finishing stage is to melt a thin layer of the top of post and connector, not
melting deep enough to have the outer edge of the connector melt and allow
the lead to run off. All this must be done carefully and dexterously to do a
first-class job, and you must keep the flame moving around over the top and
not hold it in any one place for ally length of time, so as not to melt too deep,
or to melt the outer edge and allow the lead to run off and spoil the job.
Sometimes the whole mass becomes too hot and the top cannot be made
smooth with the flame. If this occurs wait until the connector cools, soften
the flame, and try again. Figure 147 shows the welding completed.
motion until the whole top of post and connector begins to melt and fuse. If
necessary run in some lead from the burning lead strip. When the post and
connector are fused, clear to the outer edge of the connector, raise the flame
straight up from the work.
You will save time by doing the first stage of the burning on all posts first,
and then finish all of them. This is quicker than trying to complete both
stages of burning on each post before going to the next post. The object in
the finishing stage is to melt a thin layer of the top of post and connector, not
melting deep enough to have the outer edge of the connector melt and allow
the lead to run off. All this must be done carefully and dexterously to do a
first-class job, and you must keep the flame moving around over the top and
not hold it in any one place for ally length of time, so as not to melt too deep,
or to melt the outer edge and allow the lead to run off and spoil the job.
Sometimes the whole mass becomes too hot and the top cannot be made
smooth with the flame. If this occurs wait until the connector cools, soften
the flame, and try again. Figure 147 shows the welding completed.
Page 277
Burning Plates to Strap and Post
First clean all the surfaces which are to be welded together. Take your time
in doing this because you cannot weld dirty surfaces together.
Plates which compose a group are welded to a "strap" to which a post is
attached, as shown in Figure 5. The straps shown in Figure 5 are new ones,
as made in the factory. Plate lugs are set in the notches in the straps and each
one burned in separately. In using old straps from a defective group, it is best
to cut the strap close to the post, thus separating all the plates from the post
in one operation, as was done with the post shown in Figure 96. If only one
or two plates are to be burned on, they are broken or cut off and slots cut in
the strap to receive the lugs of the new plates, as shown in Figures 148 and
149.
First clean all the surfaces which are to be welded together. Take your time
in doing this because you cannot weld dirty surfaces together.
Plates which compose a group are welded to a "strap" to which a post is
attached, as shown in Figure 5. The straps shown in Figure 5 are new ones,
as made in the factory. Plate lugs are set in the notches in the straps and each
one burned in separately. In using old straps from a defective group, it is best
to cut the strap close to the post, thus separating all the plates from the post
in one operation, as was done with the post shown in Figure 96. If only one
or two plates are to be burned on, they are broken or cut off and slots cut in
the strap to receive the lugs of the new plates, as shown in Figures 148 and
149.
Page 278
Set the plates in a plate burning rack, as shown in Figure 96, placing the
adjustable form around the lugs and strap as shown in this figure. Be sure to
set the post straight, so that the covers will fit. A good thing is to try a cover
over the post to see that the post is set up properly. The post must, of course,
be perpendicular to the tops of the plates. If the slotted plate strap shown in
Figure 5 is used, or if one or two plates have been cut off, melt the top of the
lug of one of the plates which are to be burned oil, and the surfaces of the
strap to which the plate is to be welded. Melt in lead from a burning-lead
strip to bring the metal up flush with the surface of the strap. Proceed with
each plate which is to be burned on.
If all the plates have been sawed from the strap, leaving the post with a short
section of the strap attached, as shown in Figure 96, melt the edge of the
strap, and the top of one or two of the end plate lugs and run in lead from the
burning strip to make a good joint. Proceed in this way until all the lugs are
joined to the strap and then run the flame over the top of the entire strap to
make a smooth uniform weld. Be sure to have the lower edge of the strap
fuse with the plate lugs and then run in lead to build the strap up to the
proper thickness. Raise the flame occasionally to see that all parts are fusing
thoroughly and to prevent too rapid heating.
adjustable form around the lugs and strap as shown in this figure. Be sure to
set the post straight, so that the covers will fit. A good thing is to try a cover
over the post to see that the post is set up properly. The post must, of course,
be perpendicular to the tops of the plates. If the slotted plate strap shown in
Figure 5 is used, or if one or two plates have been cut off, melt the top of the
lug of one of the plates which are to be burned oil, and the surfaces of the
strap to which the plate is to be welded. Melt in lead from a burning-lead
strip to bring the metal up flush with the surface of the strap. Proceed with
each plate which is to be burned on.
If all the plates have been sawed from the strap, leaving the post with a short
section of the strap attached, as shown in Figure 96, melt the edge of the
strap, and the top of one or two of the end plate lugs and run in lead from the
burning strip to make a good joint. Proceed in this way until all the lugs are
joined to the strap and then run the flame over the top of the entire strap to
make a smooth uniform weld. Be sure to have the lower edge of the strap
fuse with the plate lugs and then run in lead to build the strap up to the
proper thickness. Raise the flame occasionally to see that all parts are fusing
thoroughly and to prevent too rapid heating.
Page 279
When enough lead has been run in to build the strap tip to the correct
thickness and the plate lugs are thoroughly fused with the strap, raise the
flame straight up from the work. Allow the lead to "set" and then remove the
adjustable form and lift the group from the burning rack. Turn the group up-
side-down and examine the bottom of the strap for lead which ran down the
lugs during the welding process. Cut off any such lead with a saw, as it may
cause a short-circuit when the plates are meshed with the other group.
Post Building
In drilling down through the inter-cell connectors to separate them from the
posts in opening a battery, the posts may be drilled too short. In
reassembling the battery it is then necessary to build the posts up to their
original height. This is done with the aid of post-builders, shown in Figure
100.
Clean the stub of the post thoroughly and also clean the inside of the post
builder. Then set the post builder carefully over the stub post, so that the
upper surface of the post builder is parallel to the upper surface of the plate
strap. The built up post will then be perpendicular to the surface of the strap,
which is necessary, in order to have the covers and connectors fit properly.
With the post builder set properly adjust the burning torch to get a sharp,
hissing flame. Bring the flame straight down on the center of the post stub.
thickness and the plate lugs are thoroughly fused with the strap, raise the
flame straight up from the work. Allow the lead to "set" and then remove the
adjustable form and lift the group from the burning rack. Turn the group up-
side-down and examine the bottom of the strap for lead which ran down the
lugs during the welding process. Cut off any such lead with a saw, as it may
cause a short-circuit when the plates are meshed with the other group.
Post Building
In drilling down through the inter-cell connectors to separate them from the
posts in opening a battery, the posts may be drilled too short. In
reassembling the battery it is then necessary to build the posts up to their
original height. This is done with the aid of post-builders, shown in Figure
100.
Clean the stub of the post thoroughly and also clean the inside of the post
builder. Then set the post builder carefully over the stub post, so that the
upper surface of the post builder is parallel to the upper surface of the plate
strap. The built up post will then be perpendicular to the surface of the strap,
which is necessary, in order to have the covers and connectors fit properly.
With the post builder set properly adjust the burning torch to get a sharp,
hissing flame. Bring the flame straight down on the center of the post stub.
Page 280
When the center of the post stub begins to melt, move the flame outward
with a circular motion until the whole top of the stub begins to melt. Then
run in lead from a burning lead strip, Figure 101, at the same time keeping
the flame moving around on the top of the post to insure a good weld. In this
way build up the post until the lead comes up to the top of the post builder.
Then lift the flame straight up from the post. Allow the lead to set, and then
remove the post builder, grasping it with a pair of gas or combination pliers
and turn the post builder around to loosen it.
Extending Plate Lugs
It sometimes happens that a good plate is broken from a strap, thus
shortening the lug. Before the plate may be used again, the lug must be
extended to its original length. To do this, clean the surfaces of the lug
carefully, lay the plate on a sheet of asbestos, and place an iron form having
a slot of the correct width, length, and thickness, as shown in Figure 150.
Use a medium hissing flame, and melt the upper edge of the lug, and then
run in lead from the lead burning strip to fill the slot in the iron form. The
plate may then be used again.
with a circular motion until the whole top of the stub begins to melt. Then
run in lead from a burning lead strip, Figure 101, at the same time keeping
the flame moving around on the top of the post to insure a good weld. In this
way build up the post until the lead comes up to the top of the post builder.
Then lift the flame straight up from the post. Allow the lead to set, and then
remove the post builder, grasping it with a pair of gas or combination pliers
and turn the post builder around to loosen it.
Extending Plate Lugs
It sometimes happens that a good plate is broken from a strap, thus
shortening the lug. Before the plate may be used again, the lug must be
extended to its original length. To do this, clean the surfaces of the lug
carefully, lay the plate on a sheet of asbestos, and place an iron form having
a slot of the correct width, length, and thickness, as shown in Figure 150.
Use a medium hissing flame, and melt the upper edge of the lug, and then
run in lead from the lead burning strip to fill the slot in the iron form. The
plate may then be used again.
Page 281
Making Temporary Charging Connections
After a battery has been opened it is often desired to charge a battery without
burning on the intercell connectors. Temporary connections may be made
between cells by placing a short length of a burning lead strip from post to
post and applying a flame for an instant to spot-weld the strip to the top of
the post.
MOULDING LEAD PARTS
In using special moulds for casting inter-cell connectors, plate straps with
posts, terminals, etc., follow the special instructions furnished by the
manufacturers as to the manipulation of the special moulds made by them.
Aside from the special instructions for the use of moulds, there are general
rules for the melting of lead and handling it after it is melted, which must be
observed if good castings are to be made.
After a battery has been opened it is often desired to charge a battery without
burning on the intercell connectors. Temporary connections may be made
between cells by placing a short length of a burning lead strip from post to
post and applying a flame for an instant to spot-weld the strip to the top of
the post.
MOULDING LEAD PARTS
In using special moulds for casting inter-cell connectors, plate straps with
posts, terminals, etc., follow the special instructions furnished by the
manufacturers as to the manipulation of the special moulds made by them.
Aside from the special instructions for the use of moulds, there are general
rules for the melting of lead and handling it after it is melted, which must be
observed if good castings are to be made.
Page 282
Raw Materials. In every battery repair shop a supply of old terminals, cell
connectors, posts, and straps, will gradually accumulate. These should not be
thrown away or sold as junk, but should be kept in a box or jar provided for
that purpose. Old plates should not be saved, since the amount of lead in the
grid is small and it is often covered with sulphate. The lugs connecting the
plates to the straps may, however, be used. Before using the scrap lead as
much dirt as possible should be brushed off, and all moisture must be dried
off thoroughly. Scrap lead contains some antimony, which is metal used to
give stiffness to the parts. Using miscellaneous scrap sometimes gives
castings which do not contain the proper percentage of antimony. If there is
too much antimony present, cracked castings will be the result. To remedy
this condition, bars of pure lead should be purchased from some lead
manufacturing company. Adding pure lead will reduce the percentage of
antimony. Bars of pure antimony should also be kept oil hand in case the
castings are too soft.
Lead Melting Pots are standard articles which may be purchased from
jobbers. A pot having a 25 pound capacity is suitable for small shops and for
larger shops a 125-pound size is best. Before melting any lead in such pots,
have them thoroughly free from dirt, grease, or moisture, not merely in order
to get clean castings, but also to avoid melted lead being thrown out of the
pot on account of the presence of moisture. Severe burns may be the result
of carelessness in this respect.
In starting with an empty melting pot, turn oil the heat before putting in any
lead, and let the pot become thoroughly heated in order to drive off any
moisture. With the pot thoroughly hot, drop in the lead, which must also be
dry. When the metal has become soft enough to stir with a clean pine stick,
skim off the dirt and dross which collects on top and continue heating the
lead until it is slightly yellow oil top. Dirt and lead do not mix, and the dirt
rises to the top of the metal where it may readily be skimmed off.
With a paddle or ladle, drop in a cleaning compound of equal parts of
powdered rosin, borax, and flower of sulphur. Use a teaspoonful of this
compound for each ten pounds of metal, and be sure that the compound is
absolutely dry. Stir the metal a little, and if it is at the proper temperature,
there will be a flare, flash, or a little burning. A sort of tinfoil popcorn effect
will be noticed oil top of the lead. Stir until this melts down.
connectors, posts, and straps, will gradually accumulate. These should not be
thrown away or sold as junk, but should be kept in a box or jar provided for
that purpose. Old plates should not be saved, since the amount of lead in the
grid is small and it is often covered with sulphate. The lugs connecting the
plates to the straps may, however, be used. Before using the scrap lead as
much dirt as possible should be brushed off, and all moisture must be dried
off thoroughly. Scrap lead contains some antimony, which is metal used to
give stiffness to the parts. Using miscellaneous scrap sometimes gives
castings which do not contain the proper percentage of antimony. If there is
too much antimony present, cracked castings will be the result. To remedy
this condition, bars of pure lead should be purchased from some lead
manufacturing company. Adding pure lead will reduce the percentage of
antimony. Bars of pure antimony should also be kept oil hand in case the
castings are too soft.
Lead Melting Pots are standard articles which may be purchased from
jobbers. A pot having a 25 pound capacity is suitable for small shops and for
larger shops a 125-pound size is best. Before melting any lead in such pots,
have them thoroughly free from dirt, grease, or moisture, not merely in order
to get clean castings, but also to avoid melted lead being thrown out of the
pot on account of the presence of moisture. Severe burns may be the result
of carelessness in this respect.
In starting with an empty melting pot, turn oil the heat before putting in any
lead, and let the pot become thoroughly heated in order to drive off any
moisture. With the pot thoroughly hot, drop in the lead, which must also be
dry. When the metal has become soft enough to stir with a clean pine stick,
skim off the dirt and dross which collects on top and continue heating the
lead until it is slightly yellow oil top. Dirt and lead do not mix, and the dirt
rises to the top of the metal where it may readily be skimmed off.
With a paddle or ladle, drop in a cleaning compound of equal parts of
powdered rosin, borax, and flower of sulphur. Use a teaspoonful of this
compound for each ten pounds of metal, and be sure that the compound is
absolutely dry. Stir the metal a little, and if it is at the proper temperature,
there will be a flare, flash, or a little burning. A sort of tinfoil popcorn effect
will be noticed oil top of the lead. Stir until this melts down.
Page 283
Have the ladle with which you dip up the melted lead quite dry. When
dipping up some of the lead, skim back the dark skin which forms oil top of
the lead and dip up the clean bright lead for pouring.
In throwing additional lead into a pot which is partly filled with melted lead,
be sure that the lead which is thrown in the pot is dry, or else hot lead may
be spattered in your face.
Have the moulds clean and dry. The parts with which the lead comes into
contact should be dusted with a mould compound which fills in the rough
spots in the metal so that the flow of lead will not be obstructed, and the lead
will fill the mould quickly. Dip tip enough lead to fill the part of the mould
you use. When you once start pouring do not, under any circumstance, stop
pouring until the lead has completely filled the mould. Lead cools very
quickly after it is poured into the mould, and if you stop pouring even for all
instant, you will have a worthless casting.
In a shop having an ordinary room temperature, it is generally unnecessary
to heat the moulds before making up a number of castings. If it is found,
however, that the first castings are defective due to the cold mould chilling
the lead, the mould should be heated with a soft flame. After a few castings
have been made, the mould will become hot enough so that there will be no
danger of the castings becoming chilled.
When the castings have cooled sufficiently to be removed, strike the mould a
few blows with a wooden mallet or a rawhide hammer to loosen, the castings
before opening the mould. The castings may then be removed with a
screwdriver.
Cracked castings indicate that the mould was opened before the castings had
cooled sufficiently, or that there is too much antimony in the castings. The
remedy is to let the castings cool for a longer time, or to add pure lead to the
melting pot.
HANDLING AND MIXING ACID
The electrolyte used in the battery is made by mixing chemically pure
concentrated Sulphuric Acid with chemically pure water. The concentrated
dipping up some of the lead, skim back the dark skin which forms oil top of
the lead and dip up the clean bright lead for pouring.
In throwing additional lead into a pot which is partly filled with melted lead,
be sure that the lead which is thrown in the pot is dry, or else hot lead may
be spattered in your face.
Have the moulds clean and dry. The parts with which the lead comes into
contact should be dusted with a mould compound which fills in the rough
spots in the metal so that the flow of lead will not be obstructed, and the lead
will fill the mould quickly. Dip tip enough lead to fill the part of the mould
you use. When you once start pouring do not, under any circumstance, stop
pouring until the lead has completely filled the mould. Lead cools very
quickly after it is poured into the mould, and if you stop pouring even for all
instant, you will have a worthless casting.
In a shop having an ordinary room temperature, it is generally unnecessary
to heat the moulds before making up a number of castings. If it is found,
however, that the first castings are defective due to the cold mould chilling
the lead, the mould should be heated with a soft flame. After a few castings
have been made, the mould will become hot enough so that there will be no
danger of the castings becoming chilled.
When the castings have cooled sufficiently to be removed, strike the mould a
few blows with a wooden mallet or a rawhide hammer to loosen, the castings
before opening the mould. The castings may then be removed with a
screwdriver.
Cracked castings indicate that the mould was opened before the castings had
cooled sufficiently, or that there is too much antimony in the castings. The
remedy is to let the castings cool for a longer time, or to add pure lead to the
melting pot.
HANDLING AND MIXING ACID
The electrolyte used in the battery is made by mixing chemically pure
concentrated Sulphuric Acid with chemically pure water. The concentrated
Page 284
acid, or "full strength" acid cannot be used, not only because it would
destroy the plates, but also because water is needed for the chemical actions
which take place as a cell charges and discharges. The water therefore
serves, not only to dilute the acid, but also to make possible the chemical
reactions of charge and discharge.
The full strength acid has a specific gravity of 1.835, and is mixed with the
water to obtain the lower specific gravity which is necessary in the battery.
The simplest scheme is to use only 1.400 specific gravity acid. This acid is
used in adjusting the specific gravity of a battery on charge in case the
specific gravity fails to rise to a high enough value. It is also used in filling
batteries that have been repaired.
Acid is received from the manufacturer in ten gallon glass bottles enclosed
in wooden boxes, these being called "carboys." Distilled water comes in
similar bottles. When distilled in the shop, the water should be collected in
bottles also, although smaller ones may be used.
Neither the acid nor the water should ever be placed in any vessels but those
made of lead, glass, porcelain, rubber, or glazed earthenware. Lead cups,
tanks, and funnels may be used in handling electrolyte, but the electrolyte
must not be put in containers made of any metal except lead. Lead is rather
expensive for making such containers, and the glass bottles, porcelain,
rubber, or glazed earthenware may be used.
In mixing acid with water, pour the water in the bottle, pitcher or jar, and
then add the acid to the water very slowly. Do not pour the acid in quickly,
as the mixture will become very hot, and may throw spray in your face and
eyes and cause severe burns. Never add the water to the acid, as this might
cause an explosion and burn your face and eyes seriously. Stir the mixture
thoroughly with a wooden paddle while adding the acid. A graduate, such as
is used in photography, is very useful in measuring out the quantities of acid
and water. The graduate may be obtained in any size up to 64 ounces, or two
quarts. In using the graduate for measuring both acid and water, be sure to
use the following table giving the parts of water by volume. Although the
graduate is marked in ounces, it is for ounces of water only. If, for instance,
the graduate were filled to the 8 ounce mark with acid, there would be more
than eight ounces of acid in the graduate because the acid is heavier than the
destroy the plates, but also because water is needed for the chemical actions
which take place as a cell charges and discharges. The water therefore
serves, not only to dilute the acid, but also to make possible the chemical
reactions of charge and discharge.
The full strength acid has a specific gravity of 1.835, and is mixed with the
water to obtain the lower specific gravity which is necessary in the battery.
The simplest scheme is to use only 1.400 specific gravity acid. This acid is
used in adjusting the specific gravity of a battery on charge in case the
specific gravity fails to rise to a high enough value. It is also used in filling
batteries that have been repaired.
Acid is received from the manufacturer in ten gallon glass bottles enclosed
in wooden boxes, these being called "carboys." Distilled water comes in
similar bottles. When distilled in the shop, the water should be collected in
bottles also, although smaller ones may be used.
Neither the acid nor the water should ever be placed in any vessels but those
made of lead, glass, porcelain, rubber, or glazed earthenware. Lead cups,
tanks, and funnels may be used in handling electrolyte, but the electrolyte
must not be put in containers made of any metal except lead. Lead is rather
expensive for making such containers, and the glass bottles, porcelain,
rubber, or glazed earthenware may be used.
In mixing acid with water, pour the water in the bottle, pitcher or jar, and
then add the acid to the water very slowly. Do not pour the acid in quickly,
as the mixture will become very hot, and may throw spray in your face and
eyes and cause severe burns. Never add the water to the acid, as this might
cause an explosion and burn your face and eyes seriously. Stir the mixture
thoroughly with a wooden paddle while adding the acid. A graduate, such as
is used in photography, is very useful in measuring out the quantities of acid
and water. The graduate may be obtained in any size up to 64 ounces, or two
quarts. In using the graduate for measuring both acid and water, be sure to
use the following table giving the parts of water by volume. Although the
graduate is marked in ounces, it is for ounces of water only. If, for instance,
the graduate were filled to the 8 ounce mark with acid, there would be more
than eight ounces of acid in the graduate because the acid is heavier than the
Page 285
water. But if the proportions of acid and water are taken by volume, the
graduate may be used.
A convenient method in making up electrolyte, is to have a 16 ounce
graduate for the acid, and a 32 or 64 ounce graduate for the water. In the
larger graduate pour the water up to the correct mark. In the 16 ounce
graduate, pour 1.400 acid up to the 10 ounce mark. Then add the acid
directly to the water in the graduate, or else pour the water into a bottle or
pitcher, and add the acid to that. For instance, if we have a 32 ounce
graduate, and wish to make up some 1.280 acid, we fill this graduate with
water up to the 5-1/2 ounce mark. We then fill the 16 ounce graduate with
1.400 acid up to the 10 ounce mark. Then we slowly pour the 1.400 acid into
the graduate containing the water, giving us 1.280 acid. In a similar manner
other specific gravities are obtained, using the same amount of 1.400 acid in
each case, but varying the amount of water according to the figures given in
the last column of the next to the last table.
The following table shows the number of parts of distilled water to one part
of 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte to prepare electrolyte of various specific
gravities. The specific gravity of the mixture must be taken when the
temperature of the mixture is 70° F. If its temperature varies more than 5
degrees above or below 70°F, make the corrections described on page 65 to
find what the specific gravity would be if the temperature were 70° F.
BY WEIGHT
For 1.300 specific gravity use 5 ounces of distilled water for each pound of
1.400 electrolyte.
For 1.280 specific gravity use 6-1/2 ounces of distilled water for each pound
of 1.400 electrolyte.
For 1.275 specific gravity use 6-3/4 ounces distilled water for each pound of
1.400 electrolyte.
For 1.260 specific gravity use 7-1/2 ounces distilled water for each pound of
1.400 electrolyte.
graduate may be used.
A convenient method in making up electrolyte, is to have a 16 ounce
graduate for the acid, and a 32 or 64 ounce graduate for the water. In the
larger graduate pour the water up to the correct mark. In the 16 ounce
graduate, pour 1.400 acid up to the 10 ounce mark. Then add the acid
directly to the water in the graduate, or else pour the water into a bottle or
pitcher, and add the acid to that. For instance, if we have a 32 ounce
graduate, and wish to make up some 1.280 acid, we fill this graduate with
water up to the 5-1/2 ounce mark. We then fill the 16 ounce graduate with
1.400 acid up to the 10 ounce mark. Then we slowly pour the 1.400 acid into
the graduate containing the water, giving us 1.280 acid. In a similar manner
other specific gravities are obtained, using the same amount of 1.400 acid in
each case, but varying the amount of water according to the figures given in
the last column of the next to the last table.
The following table shows the number of parts of distilled water to one part
of 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte to prepare electrolyte of various specific
gravities. The specific gravity of the mixture must be taken when the
temperature of the mixture is 70° F. If its temperature varies more than 5
degrees above or below 70°F, make the corrections described on page 65 to
find what the specific gravity would be if the temperature were 70° F.
BY WEIGHT
For 1.300 specific gravity use 5 ounces of distilled water for each pound of
1.400 electrolyte.
For 1.280 specific gravity use 6-1/2 ounces of distilled water for each pound
of 1.400 electrolyte.
For 1.275 specific gravity use 6-3/4 ounces distilled water for each pound of
1.400 electrolyte.
For 1.260 specific gravity use 7-1/2 ounces distilled water for each pound of
1.400 electrolyte.
Page 286
BY VOLUME
For 1.300 specific gravity use 3-1/2 pints distilled water for each gallon of
1.400 electrolyte.
For 1.280 specific gravity use 4-1/2 pints distilled water for each gallon of
1.400 electrolyte.
For 1.275 specific gravity use 5 pints distilled water for each gallon of 1.400
electrolyte.
For 1.260 specific gravity use 5-1/4 pints distilled water for each gallon of
1.400 electrolyte.
In case you wish to use other measuring units than those given in the above
table, this table may be written as follows, giving the number of parts
distilled water to 10 parts of 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte:
Specific Gravity
Parts by Weight Parts by Volume
Desired
1.300 3 4-1/4
1.280 4 5-1/4
1.275 4-1/6 6
1.260 4-7/10 6-1/2
The next table gives the number of parts of distilled water to 10 parts of
concentrated sulphuric acid (which has a specific gravity of 1.835) to
prepare electrolyte of various specific gravities:
Specific Gravity
Parts by Weight Parts by Volume
Desired
1.400 8-1/2 15-8/10
1.300 13-1/2 15-8/10
1.300 13-1/2 25
1.280 15 27
For 1.300 specific gravity use 3-1/2 pints distilled water for each gallon of
1.400 electrolyte.
For 1.280 specific gravity use 4-1/2 pints distilled water for each gallon of
1.400 electrolyte.
For 1.275 specific gravity use 5 pints distilled water for each gallon of 1.400
electrolyte.
For 1.260 specific gravity use 5-1/4 pints distilled water for each gallon of
1.400 electrolyte.
In case you wish to use other measuring units than those given in the above
table, this table may be written as follows, giving the number of parts
distilled water to 10 parts of 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte:
Specific Gravity
Parts by Weight Parts by Volume
Desired
1.300 3 4-1/4
1.280 4 5-1/4
1.275 4-1/6 6
1.260 4-7/10 6-1/2
The next table gives the number of parts of distilled water to 10 parts of
concentrated sulphuric acid (which has a specific gravity of 1.835) to
prepare electrolyte of various specific gravities:
Specific Gravity
Parts by Weight Parts by Volume
Desired
1.400 8-1/2 15-8/10
1.300 13-1/2 15-8/10
1.300 13-1/2 25
1.280 15 27
Page 287
1.270 16 28
1.260 17 30
PUTTING NEW BATTERIES INTO SERVICE
New batteries are received (a) fully charged and ready for service, (b) fully
assembled with moistened plates and separators, but without electrolyte, (c)
in a "knockdown" condition, with dry plates and without separators, (d) fully
assembled with "bone dry" plates and rubber separators, and without
electrolyte.
Those received fully charged should be put on a car as soon as possible.
Otherwise they will grow old on the shelf. Every month on the shelf is a
month less of life. If the battery cannot be sold, put it into dry-storage.
Batteries received in condition (b) should not be kept in stock for more than
six months. Batteries received with dry plates and without separators or with
rubber separators may be stored indefinitely without deteriorating.
Batteries Shipped Fully Charged, or "Wet." All Makes
Unpack the battery, keeping the packing case right side up to avoid spilling
electrolyte.
Brush off all excelsior and dirt, and examine the battery carefully to see if it
has been damaged during shipment. If any damage has been done, claim
should be made against the express or railroad company.
1. Remove the vent caps from the cells and determine the height of the
electrolyte. It should stand from three-eighths to one-half inch above the tops
of the plates. The level may be determined with a glass tube, as shown in
Fig. 30. If the electrolyte is below the tops of the plates, it has either been
spilled, or else there is a leaky jar. If all cells have a low level of electrolyte,
it is probable that the electrolyte has been spilled.
2. Next measure the specific gravity of the electrolyte of each cell with the
hydrometer, and then add water to bring the electrolyte up to the correct
level, if this is necessary. Should the temperature of the air be below
1.260 17 30
PUTTING NEW BATTERIES INTO SERVICE
New batteries are received (a) fully charged and ready for service, (b) fully
assembled with moistened plates and separators, but without electrolyte, (c)
in a "knockdown" condition, with dry plates and without separators, (d) fully
assembled with "bone dry" plates and rubber separators, and without
electrolyte.
Those received fully charged should be put on a car as soon as possible.
Otherwise they will grow old on the shelf. Every month on the shelf is a
month less of life. If the battery cannot be sold, put it into dry-storage.
Batteries received in condition (b) should not be kept in stock for more than
six months. Batteries received with dry plates and without separators or with
rubber separators may be stored indefinitely without deteriorating.
Batteries Shipped Fully Charged, or "Wet." All Makes
Unpack the battery, keeping the packing case right side up to avoid spilling
electrolyte.
Brush off all excelsior and dirt, and examine the battery carefully to see if it
has been damaged during shipment. If any damage has been done, claim
should be made against the express or railroad company.
1. Remove the vent caps from the cells and determine the height of the
electrolyte. It should stand from three-eighths to one-half inch above the tops
of the plates. The level may be determined with a glass tube, as shown in
Fig. 30. If the electrolyte is below the tops of the plates, it has either been
spilled, or else there is a leaky jar. If all cells have a low level of electrolyte,
it is probable that the electrolyte has been spilled.
2. Next measure the specific gravity of the electrolyte of each cell with the
hydrometer, and then add water to bring the electrolyte up to the correct
level, if this is necessary. Should the temperature of the air be below
Page 288
freezing, charge the battery for an hour if water is added no matter what the
specific gravity readings are. This will cause the water to mix thoroughly
with the electrolyte. If the battery were not charged after water is added, the
water, being lighter than the electrolyte, would remain on top and freeze. For
this one hour charge, use the "starting" rate, as stamped on the nameplate.
3. If the specific gravity of the electrolyte reads below 1.250, charge the
battery until the specific gravity reads between 1.280 and 1.300. For this
charge use the normal bench charging rates.
4. After this charge place the battery on a clean, dry spot for twenty-four
hours as an extra test for a leaky jar. If there is any dampness under the
battery, or on the lower part of the battery case, a leaky jar is indicated. An
inspection of the level of the electrolyte, which even though no dampness
shows, will show the leaky jar.
5. Just before putting the battery on the car, make the high rate discharge test
on it. See page 266.
BATTERIES SHIPPED "DRY"
Exide Batteries
Storing. 1. Keep the battery in a dry, clean place, and keep the room
temperature above 32 degrees, and below 110 degrees Fahrenheit.
2. Put the battery into service before the expiration of the time limit given on
the tag attached to the battery. The process of putting the battery into service
will require about five days.
3. If the battery has been allowed to stand beyond the time limit, open up
one of the cells just before beginning the process necessary to put the battery
into service. If the separators are found to be cracked, split, or warped, throw
away all the separators from all the cells and put in new ones. If the
separators are in good condition, reassemble the cell and put the battery into
service.
specific gravity readings are. This will cause the water to mix thoroughly
with the electrolyte. If the battery were not charged after water is added, the
water, being lighter than the electrolyte, would remain on top and freeze. For
this one hour charge, use the "starting" rate, as stamped on the nameplate.
3. If the specific gravity of the electrolyte reads below 1.250, charge the
battery until the specific gravity reads between 1.280 and 1.300. For this
charge use the normal bench charging rates.
4. After this charge place the battery on a clean, dry spot for twenty-four
hours as an extra test for a leaky jar. If there is any dampness under the
battery, or on the lower part of the battery case, a leaky jar is indicated. An
inspection of the level of the electrolyte, which even though no dampness
shows, will show the leaky jar.
5. Just before putting the battery on the car, make the high rate discharge test
on it. See page 266.
BATTERIES SHIPPED "DRY"
Exide Batteries
Storing. 1. Keep the battery in a dry, clean place, and keep the room
temperature above 32 degrees, and below 110 degrees Fahrenheit.
2. Put the battery into service before the expiration of the time limit given on
the tag attached to the battery. The process of putting the battery into service
will require about five days.
3. If the battery has been allowed to stand beyond the time limit, open up
one of the cells just before beginning the process necessary to put the battery
into service. If the separators are found to be cracked, split, or warped, throw
away all the separators from all the cells and put in new ones. If the
separators are in good condition, reassemble the cell and put the battery into
service.
Page 289
Putting Battery into Service. 1. Fill the cells with electrolyte of the correct
specific gravity. To do this, remove the vent plugs and pour in the electrolyte
until it rises to the bottom of the vent tubes. The correct specific gravities of
the electrolyte to be used are as follows:
specific gravity. To do this, remove the vent plugs and pour in the electrolyte
until it rises to the bottom of the vent tubes. The correct specific gravities of
the electrolyte to be used are as follows:
Page 290
(a) For Types DX, XC, XE, XX and XXV, use 1.360 electrolyte. In tropical
countries use 1.260 electrolyte.
(b) For Types LX, LXR, LXRE, LXRV, use 1.340 electrolyte. In tropical countries
use 1.260 electrolyte.
(c) For Types MHA and PHC, use 1.320 electrolyte. In tropical countries use 1.260
electrolyte.
(d) For Types KXD and KZ, use 1.300 electrolyte. In tropical countries use 1.240
electrolyte.
2. After filling with the electrolyte, allow the battery to stand ten to fifteen hours
before starting the initial charge. This gives the electrolyte time to cool.
3. No sooner than ten to fifteen hours after filling the battery with electrolyte, add
water to bring the electrolyte up to the bottom of the vent tubes, if the level has fallen.
Replace the vent caps and turn them to the right.
Start charging at the rates shown in the following table. Continue charging at this rate
for at least 96 hours (4 days).
Table of Initial and Repair Charging Rates
Charging Minimum
Type and Size of Cell Rate, Ampere
Amperes Hours
KZ-3 1/2 50
LX-5, LXR-5, LXRE-5 1-1/2 145
KXD-5 2 190
XC-9, XX-9 2-1/2 240
DX-11, KXD-7, LXR-9, LXRE-9, XC-11, XE-
3 290
11
DX-13, KXD-9, LXR-11, XC-13, XE-13, XX-
4 385
13
LXR-13, LXRE-13, XC-15, XE-15, XX-15 4-1/2 430
KXD-11, XC-17, XE-17 5 480
LXRV-15, LXR-15, LXRE-15 5-1/2 525
LX-17, LXR-17, LXRE-17, XC-19, XE-19,
6 575
XXV-19
countries use 1.260 electrolyte.
(b) For Types LX, LXR, LXRE, LXRV, use 1.340 electrolyte. In tropical countries
use 1.260 electrolyte.
(c) For Types MHA and PHC, use 1.320 electrolyte. In tropical countries use 1.260
electrolyte.
(d) For Types KXD and KZ, use 1.300 electrolyte. In tropical countries use 1.240
electrolyte.
2. After filling with the electrolyte, allow the battery to stand ten to fifteen hours
before starting the initial charge. This gives the electrolyte time to cool.
3. No sooner than ten to fifteen hours after filling the battery with electrolyte, add
water to bring the electrolyte up to the bottom of the vent tubes, if the level has fallen.
Replace the vent caps and turn them to the right.
Start charging at the rates shown in the following table. Continue charging at this rate
for at least 96 hours (4 days).
Table of Initial and Repair Charging Rates
Charging Minimum
Type and Size of Cell Rate, Ampere
Amperes Hours
KZ-3 1/2 50
LX-5, LXR-5, LXRE-5 1-1/2 145
KXD-5 2 190
XC-9, XX-9 2-1/2 240
DX-11, KXD-7, LXR-9, LXRE-9, XC-11, XE-
3 290
11
DX-13, KXD-9, LXR-11, XC-13, XE-13, XX-
4 385
13
LXR-13, LXRE-13, XC-15, XE-15, XX-15 4-1/2 430
KXD-11, XC-17, XE-17 5 480
LXRV-15, LXR-15, LXRE-15 5-1/2 525
LX-17, LXR-17, LXRE-17, XC-19, XE-19,
6 575
XXV-19
Page 291
MHA-11, PHC-13 6 575
XC-21, XE-21 6-1/2 625
XC-23 7 675
XC-25 7-1/2 720
4. Occasionally measure the temperature of the electrolyte. Do not allow the
temperature to rise above 110° Fahrenheit (120° Fahrenheit in tropical countries).
Should the temperature reach 110°, stop the charge long enough to allow the
temperature to drop below 100°.
5. At the end of the charge, the specific gravity of the electrolyte should be between
1.280 and 1.300 (1.210 and 1.230 in tropical countries). If it is not between these
limits adjust it by drawing off some of the electrolyte with the hydrometer and
replacing with water if the specific gravity is too high, or with electrolyte of the same
specific gravity used in filling the battery, if the specific gravity is too low.
6. Wipe off the top and sides of the battery case with a rag dampened with ammonia to
neutralize any electrolyte which may have been spilled.
7. Just before putting the battery into service, give it a high rate discharge test. See
page 266.
Vesta Batteries
1. Remove vent caps from each cell and fill with electrolyte of 1.300 specific gravity.
This electrolyte should not have a temperature greater than 75° Fahrenheit when
added to the cells.
2. After the addition of this acid, the battery will begin to heat and it should be left
standing from 12 to 24 hours or until it has cooled off.
3. Battery should then be put on charge at the finish charging rate stamped on the
name plate. Continue charging at this rate for approximately 48 to 72 hours or until
the gravity and voltage readings of each cell stop rising.
4. Care should be taken to see that the temperature of battery does not rise above 110°
Fahrenheit. If this occurs., the charging rate should be cut down.
5. The acid in each cell will undoubtedly have to be equalized.
6. At the finish of this developing charge the gravity should read 1.280 in each cell. If
below this, equalize by putting in 1.400 specific gravity acid, or if the contrary is the
XC-21, XE-21 6-1/2 625
XC-23 7 675
XC-25 7-1/2 720
4. Occasionally measure the temperature of the electrolyte. Do not allow the
temperature to rise above 110° Fahrenheit (120° Fahrenheit in tropical countries).
Should the temperature reach 110°, stop the charge long enough to allow the
temperature to drop below 100°.
5. At the end of the charge, the specific gravity of the electrolyte should be between
1.280 and 1.300 (1.210 and 1.230 in tropical countries). If it is not between these
limits adjust it by drawing off some of the electrolyte with the hydrometer and
replacing with water if the specific gravity is too high, or with electrolyte of the same
specific gravity used in filling the battery, if the specific gravity is too low.
6. Wipe off the top and sides of the battery case with a rag dampened with ammonia to
neutralize any electrolyte which may have been spilled.
7. Just before putting the battery into service, give it a high rate discharge test. See
page 266.
Vesta Batteries
1. Remove vent caps from each cell and fill with electrolyte of 1.300 specific gravity.
This electrolyte should not have a temperature greater than 75° Fahrenheit when
added to the cells.
2. After the addition of this acid, the battery will begin to heat and it should be left
standing from 12 to 24 hours or until it has cooled off.
3. Battery should then be put on charge at the finish charging rate stamped on the
name plate. Continue charging at this rate for approximately 48 to 72 hours or until
the gravity and voltage readings of each cell stop rising.
4. Care should be taken to see that the temperature of battery does not rise above 110°
Fahrenheit. If this occurs., the charging rate should be cut down.
5. The acid in each cell will undoubtedly have to be equalized.
6. At the finish of this developing charge the gravity should read 1.280 in each cell. If
below this, equalize by putting in 1.400 specific gravity acid, or if the contrary is the
Page 292
case and the acid is above 1.280 add sufficient distilled water until the gravity reads
1.280.
7. After the acid has been equalized and it has stopped rising in density the voltage of
each cell while still on charge at the finishing rate should read at least 2.5 volts per
cell or better.
8. The battery is then ready for service. Just before putting battery into service, make a
high rate discharge test on it. See page 266.
Philadelphia Diamond Grid Batteries
1. Remove the vent plugs and immediately fill the cells With electrolyte until the level
is even with the bottom of the vent tube in the cover. Do not fill with electrolyte
whose temperature is above 90° Fahrenheit. The specific gravity of the electrolyte to
be used in starting batteries varies with the number of plates in each cell, the correct
values being as follows:
Charging Rates
Fill batteries listed in Table No. 1 with 1.270 sp. gr. acid.
TABLE — No. 1
LL-LLR LM LT LS
No. of Plates LG LT LSF
and LH LMR LTR LSR
9 2.0 2.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
11 2.5 3.0 2.5 3.5 4.0
13 3.0 3.5 3.0 4.0 2.5
15 3.5 4.0 3.5 4.5 5.5
17 4.0 5.0 4.0 5.5 6.0
19 4.5 5.5 4.5 6.0
Special Battery: 136 USA................6. 0 amps.
TABLE NO.2
Fill batteries listed in Table No. 2 with 1.250 sp. gr. acid.
1.280.
7. After the acid has been equalized and it has stopped rising in density the voltage of
each cell while still on charge at the finishing rate should read at least 2.5 volts per
cell or better.
8. The battery is then ready for service. Just before putting battery into service, make a
high rate discharge test on it. See page 266.
Philadelphia Diamond Grid Batteries
1. Remove the vent plugs and immediately fill the cells With electrolyte until the level
is even with the bottom of the vent tube in the cover. Do not fill with electrolyte
whose temperature is above 90° Fahrenheit. The specific gravity of the electrolyte to
be used in starting batteries varies with the number of plates in each cell, the correct
values being as follows:
Charging Rates
Fill batteries listed in Table No. 1 with 1.270 sp. gr. acid.
TABLE — No. 1
LL-LLR LM LT LS
No. of Plates LG LT LSF
and LH LMR LTR LSR
9 2.0 2.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
11 2.5 3.0 2.5 3.5 4.0
13 3.0 3.5 3.0 4.0 2.5
15 3.5 4.0 3.5 4.5 5.5
17 4.0 5.0 4.0 5.5 6.0
19 4.5 5.5 4.5 6.0
Special Battery: 136 USA................6. 0 amps.
TABLE NO.2
Fill batteries listed in Table No. 2 with 1.250 sp. gr. acid.
Page 293
LL-LLR LM LT LS S
No. of Plates ST LSF
and LLH LMR LTR LSR SH
5 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.5
7 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.5
9 4.0
11 5.0
Special Batteries: 330 AA ............ 1.0 amps.
524 STD-H2 ............ 1.0 amps.
7 6 SPN ............ 1.5 amps.
The number of plates per cell is; indicated in the first numeral of the type name. For
instance, 712 LLA-1 is a 7 plate LL. For all lighting batteries, types S and ST. use
1.210 electrolyte.
2. Allow the battery to stand for one or two hours.
3. Remove the seal from the top of the vent caps, and open by blowing through the
cap.
4. Insert vent plugs in the vent tubes.
5. Put the battery on charge at the rate given in the table on page 228. To determine
the rate to use, see type name given on the battery nameplate and find correct rate in
the table. Keep the battery charging at this rate throughout the charge.
6. Continue the charge until the battery voltage and the specific gravity of the
electrolyte stop rising, as shown by readings taken every four hours. From three and
one-half to four days of continuous charging will be required to fully charge the
battery.
7. Watch the temperature of the electrolyte, and do not allow it to rise above 110°
Fahrenheit. If the temperature rises to 110° F., stop the charge and allow battery to
cool. Extend the time of charging by the length of time required for the battery to
cool.
8. After the specific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising, adjust the electrolyte to a
specific gravity of 1.280 at a temperature of 70° Fahrenheit. If the temperature is not
70°, make temperature corrections as described on page 65.
9. The battery is now ready to be installed on the car. Just before installing the battery,
make a high rate discharge test on it.
No. of Plates ST LSF
and LLH LMR LTR LSR SH
5 1.0 1.0 2.0 1.5
7 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.5
9 4.0
11 5.0
Special Batteries: 330 AA ............ 1.0 amps.
524 STD-H2 ............ 1.0 amps.
7 6 SPN ............ 1.5 amps.
The number of plates per cell is; indicated in the first numeral of the type name. For
instance, 712 LLA-1 is a 7 plate LL. For all lighting batteries, types S and ST. use
1.210 electrolyte.
2. Allow the battery to stand for one or two hours.
3. Remove the seal from the top of the vent caps, and open by blowing through the
cap.
4. Insert vent plugs in the vent tubes.
5. Put the battery on charge at the rate given in the table on page 228. To determine
the rate to use, see type name given on the battery nameplate and find correct rate in
the table. Keep the battery charging at this rate throughout the charge.
6. Continue the charge until the battery voltage and the specific gravity of the
electrolyte stop rising, as shown by readings taken every four hours. From three and
one-half to four days of continuous charging will be required to fully charge the
battery.
7. Watch the temperature of the electrolyte, and do not allow it to rise above 110°
Fahrenheit. If the temperature rises to 110° F., stop the charge and allow battery to
cool. Extend the time of charging by the length of time required for the battery to
cool.
8. After the specific gravity of the electrolyte stops rising, adjust the electrolyte to a
specific gravity of 1.280 at a temperature of 70° Fahrenheit. If the temperature is not
70°, make temperature corrections as described on page 65.
9. The battery is now ready to be installed on the car. Just before installing the battery,
make a high rate discharge test on it.
Page 294
Willard Bone-Dry Batteries
A Willard Threaded Rubber insulated battery is shipped and carried in stock "bone-
dry." It is filled with electrolyte and charged for the first time when being made ready
for delivery.
Threaded Rubber Insulated Batteries received bone-dry must be prepared for service,
as follows:
1. Mix electrolyte to a density of 1.275.
2. Remove the vent plugs and fill to the top of the vent hole with 1.275 electrolyte. Be
sure that the electrolyte is thoroughly mixed by stirring and that its temperature is not
above 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
3. A portion of the solution will be absorbed by the plates and insulation because they
have been standing dry without any liquid in the cells. The volume is thus decreased,
necessitating the addition of electrolyte after first filling.
Wait five minutes and then again fill to the top of the vent hole with 1.275 electrolyte.
4. The battery must now stand at least twelve hours and not more than twenty-four
hours before charging. After it has been filled an increase in temperature of the battery
solution will take place. This is caused by the action of the acid in the solution
penetrating the plates mid reacting with the active material, but does no injury. Since
the acid in the solution joins the active material in the plates the density of the solution
becomes proportionately lower. This is to be expected and should cause no concern.
In order that the entire plate volume of active material may be in chemical action
during charge, the battery should stand before being placed on charge—until the
solution has bad time to penetrate the entire thickness of the plates. This requires at
least twelve hours, but not more than twenty-four hours.
5. Just before charging the battery, again fill with 1.275 electrolyte to 3/8 inch over the
top of the separators. After this, do not add anything but distilled water to the battery
solution.
6. The battery should then be put on charge at the finish rate until the gravity stops
rising. At the end of this period the specific gravity should be between 1.280 and
1.300. It may take from 36 to 72 hours before this density is reached.
Care should be taken not to prolong the charging unduly, for that may cause active
material to fall out of the grids, thus injuring the plates beyond repair.
A Willard Threaded Rubber insulated battery is shipped and carried in stock "bone-
dry." It is filled with electrolyte and charged for the first time when being made ready
for delivery.
Threaded Rubber Insulated Batteries received bone-dry must be prepared for service,
as follows:
1. Mix electrolyte to a density of 1.275.
2. Remove the vent plugs and fill to the top of the vent hole with 1.275 electrolyte. Be
sure that the electrolyte is thoroughly mixed by stirring and that its temperature is not
above 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
3. A portion of the solution will be absorbed by the plates and insulation because they
have been standing dry without any liquid in the cells. The volume is thus decreased,
necessitating the addition of electrolyte after first filling.
Wait five minutes and then again fill to the top of the vent hole with 1.275 electrolyte.
4. The battery must now stand at least twelve hours and not more than twenty-four
hours before charging. After it has been filled an increase in temperature of the battery
solution will take place. This is caused by the action of the acid in the solution
penetrating the plates mid reacting with the active material, but does no injury. Since
the acid in the solution joins the active material in the plates the density of the solution
becomes proportionately lower. This is to be expected and should cause no concern.
In order that the entire plate volume of active material may be in chemical action
during charge, the battery should stand before being placed on charge—until the
solution has bad time to penetrate the entire thickness of the plates. This requires at
least twelve hours, but not more than twenty-four hours.
5. Just before charging the battery, again fill with 1.275 electrolyte to 3/8 inch over the
top of the separators. After this, do not add anything but distilled water to the battery
solution.
6. The battery should then be put on charge at the finish rate until the gravity stops
rising. At the end of this period the specific gravity should be between 1.280 and
1.300. It may take from 36 to 72 hours before this density is reached.
Care should be taken not to prolong the charging unduly, for that may cause active
material to fall out of the grids, thus injuring the plates beyond repair.
Page 295
7. Because of the evaporation of water in the solution during the charging process, it is
necessary to add distilled water from time to time in order to keep the solution above
the tops of the separators.
The temperature of the battery while on charge should never exceed 110 degrees
Fahrenheit. If the temperature rises above this point the charging must be discontinued
for a time or the rate decreased.
If at any time during the initial charging the density rises above 1.300 some of the
solution should immediately be drawn off with a syringe and distilled water added.
This must be done as often as is necessary to keep the density below 1.300.
If the specific gravity does not change after two successive readings and does not then
read within the limits of 1.280 to 1.300 it should be adjusted to read correctly. If the
reading is less than 1.280 it should be adjusted by drawing off as much solution as can
be taken out with a syringe and electrolyte of 1.400 specific gravity added. The
battery must then be placed on charge for at least four hours and another reading
taken. If it is again found to be less than 1.280 this operation should be repeated as
many times as necessary to bring the density up to 1.280.
9. The height of solution when taking the battery off charge should be 5/8 of an inch
above the top of the separators. After the battery has been off charge long enough to
permit the solution to cool to normal temperature, draw off the excess to a final height
of 3/8 inch above separators. Replace the vent plugs and battery is ready for service.
Unfilled Willard Wood Insulated Batteries
Unfilled, wood-insulated batteries have not had an initial charge and require a
treatment similar to batteries with threaded rubber insulation. When shipment is made
in this manner, such batteries should be placed in service before the date indicated on
the tag attached to the battery.
To prepare such a battery for service:
1. Remove the vent plugs and fill each cell with 1.335 specific gravity electrolyte (one
part of concentrated sulphuric acid by volume to two parts of distilled water by
volume) to 3/8 inch above the tops of the separators.
2. Wait 5 minutes and then fill each cell again with 1.335 specific gravity electrolyte
to 3/8 inch above the tops of the separators.
3. The battery must then stand from 10 to 15 hours before placing on charge.
necessary to add distilled water from time to time in order to keep the solution above
the tops of the separators.
The temperature of the battery while on charge should never exceed 110 degrees
Fahrenheit. If the temperature rises above this point the charging must be discontinued
for a time or the rate decreased.
If at any time during the initial charging the density rises above 1.300 some of the
solution should immediately be drawn off with a syringe and distilled water added.
This must be done as often as is necessary to keep the density below 1.300.
If the specific gravity does not change after two successive readings and does not then
read within the limits of 1.280 to 1.300 it should be adjusted to read correctly. If the
reading is less than 1.280 it should be adjusted by drawing off as much solution as can
be taken out with a syringe and electrolyte of 1.400 specific gravity added. The
battery must then be placed on charge for at least four hours and another reading
taken. If it is again found to be less than 1.280 this operation should be repeated as
many times as necessary to bring the density up to 1.280.
9. The height of solution when taking the battery off charge should be 5/8 of an inch
above the top of the separators. After the battery has been off charge long enough to
permit the solution to cool to normal temperature, draw off the excess to a final height
of 3/8 inch above separators. Replace the vent plugs and battery is ready for service.
Unfilled Willard Wood Insulated Batteries
Unfilled, wood-insulated batteries have not had an initial charge and require a
treatment similar to batteries with threaded rubber insulation. When shipment is made
in this manner, such batteries should be placed in service before the date indicated on
the tag attached to the battery.
To prepare such a battery for service:
1. Remove the vent plugs and fill each cell with 1.335 specific gravity electrolyte (one
part of concentrated sulphuric acid by volume to two parts of distilled water by
volume) to 3/8 inch above the tops of the separators.
2. Wait 5 minutes and then fill each cell again with 1.335 specific gravity electrolyte
to 3/8 inch above the tops of the separators.
3. The battery must then stand from 10 to 15 hours before placing on charge.
Page 296
4. After standing for this length of time, fill each cell again, if necessary, with 1.335
specific gravity electrolyte to bring the level of the electrolyte 3/8 inch above the tops
of the separators before charging.
5. Place the battery on charge at the finish rate marked on the name plate until the
gravity and cell voltage stop rising. This charging will require at least 48 hours.
6. If, after a charge of 48 hours or longer the specific gravity does not rise for two
consecutive hours, the gravity should be between 1.280 and 1.300. If it is not between
these limits, the specific gravity should be adjusted to these values at the end of the
charge.
7. If, during the charge, the temperature exceeds 110 degrees Fahrenheit, the charge
rate should be reduced so as to keep the temperature below 110 degrees Fahrenheit
and the time of charging lengthened proportionately.
Preparing Westinghouse Batteries for Service
(These batteries are prepared for shipment in what is known as export condition.)
1. Remove vent plugs and discard soft rubber caps.
2. Fill all cells with 1.300 specific gravity sulphuric acid until top of connecting
straps, as seen through vent holes are completely covered. Temperature of filling acid
should never be above 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
Note: The aim is to fill the cells with acid of such a Specific gravity that the
electrolyte, at the end of charge, will need very little adjusting to bring it to the proper
specific gravity.
1.300 specific gravity acid has been found to be approximately correct for this
purpose. However, if after several batteries have been prepared for service using 1.300
specific gravity acid, considerable adjusting at the end of charge is necessary, it is
permissible to use a slightly different specific gravity of filling acid, but the use of
acid above 1.325 specific gravity or below 1,250 specific gravity is not recommended.
3. Allow batteries to stand after filling for from two to three hours before putting on
charge.
4. Put on charge at finish charge rate shown on name plate of battery.
Note: If temperature of electrolyte in battery reaches 100 degrees Fahrenheit
(determined by inserting special thermometer through vent hole in cover), the
specific gravity electrolyte to bring the level of the electrolyte 3/8 inch above the tops
of the separators before charging.
5. Place the battery on charge at the finish rate marked on the name plate until the
gravity and cell voltage stop rising. This charging will require at least 48 hours.
6. If, after a charge of 48 hours or longer the specific gravity does not rise for two
consecutive hours, the gravity should be between 1.280 and 1.300. If it is not between
these limits, the specific gravity should be adjusted to these values at the end of the
charge.
7. If, during the charge, the temperature exceeds 110 degrees Fahrenheit, the charge
rate should be reduced so as to keep the temperature below 110 degrees Fahrenheit
and the time of charging lengthened proportionately.
Preparing Westinghouse Batteries for Service
(These batteries are prepared for shipment in what is known as export condition.)
1. Remove vent plugs and discard soft rubber caps.
2. Fill all cells with 1.300 specific gravity sulphuric acid until top of connecting
straps, as seen through vent holes are completely covered. Temperature of filling acid
should never be above 90 degrees Fahrenheit.
Note: The aim is to fill the cells with acid of such a Specific gravity that the
electrolyte, at the end of charge, will need very little adjusting to bring it to the proper
specific gravity.
1.300 specific gravity acid has been found to be approximately correct for this
purpose. However, if after several batteries have been prepared for service using 1.300
specific gravity acid, considerable adjusting at the end of charge is necessary, it is
permissible to use a slightly different specific gravity of filling acid, but the use of
acid above 1.325 specific gravity or below 1,250 specific gravity is not recommended.
3. Allow batteries to stand after filling for from two to three hours before putting on
charge.
4. Put on charge at finish charge rate shown on name plate of battery.
Note: If temperature of electrolyte in battery reaches 100 degrees Fahrenheit
(determined by inserting special thermometer through vent hole in cover), the
Page 297
charging rate should be immediately reduced, as continued charging at a temperature
above 100 degrees Fahrenheit is injurious to both separators and plates.
5. Continue charging until all cells are gassing freely and individual cell voltage and
specific gravity of electrolyte have shown no decided rise for a period of five hours.
Note: The length of time required to completely charge a new battery depends largely
upon the time the battery has been in stock, varying from twelve to twenty-four hours
for a comparatively fresh battery to four or five days for a battery six months or more
old.
6. Keep level of electrolyte above tops of separators at all times, while charging by
adding distilled water to replace that lost by evaporation.
7. After battery is completely charged the specific gravity of electrolyte in all cells
should be adjusted to 1.285 at 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and the level of electrolyte
adjusted so that after battery is taken off charge the height of electrolyte stands 1/8
inch above tops of connecting straps.
Note: Corrections for temperature if temperature of electrolyte is above or below 70
degrees Fahrenheit the correction is one point of gravity for each three degrees of
temperature. See page 65.
If specific gravity of electrolyte is above 1.285, a portion of the electrolyte should be
removed and replaced with distilled water.
If the specific gravity is below 1.285, a portion of electrolyte should be removed and
replaced with 1.400 specific gravity sulphuric acid. Acid of higher gravity than 1.400
should never be put in batteries.
Batteries should always be charged for several hours after adjusting gravity to insure
proper mixing of the electrolyte and to see that the correct specific gravity of 1.285
has been obtained.
8. After first seven sections have been followed examine vent plugs to see that gas
passage is Dot obstructed and screw back in place. Battery is now ready for service.
The Prest-O-Lite Assembled Green Seal Battery
This type of battery is made up of the same sort of plates as the old partly assembled
green seal battery. The elements are, however, completely assembled will wood
separators and sealed in the jars and box in the same manner as a wet battery to be put
into immediate service; the cell connectors are burned in place.
above 100 degrees Fahrenheit is injurious to both separators and plates.
5. Continue charging until all cells are gassing freely and individual cell voltage and
specific gravity of electrolyte have shown no decided rise for a period of five hours.
Note: The length of time required to completely charge a new battery depends largely
upon the time the battery has been in stock, varying from twelve to twenty-four hours
for a comparatively fresh battery to four or five days for a battery six months or more
old.
6. Keep level of electrolyte above tops of separators at all times, while charging by
adding distilled water to replace that lost by evaporation.
7. After battery is completely charged the specific gravity of electrolyte in all cells
should be adjusted to 1.285 at 70 degrees Fahrenheit, and the level of electrolyte
adjusted so that after battery is taken off charge the height of electrolyte stands 1/8
inch above tops of connecting straps.
Note: Corrections for temperature if temperature of electrolyte is above or below 70
degrees Fahrenheit the correction is one point of gravity for each three degrees of
temperature. See page 65.
If specific gravity of electrolyte is above 1.285, a portion of the electrolyte should be
removed and replaced with distilled water.
If the specific gravity is below 1.285, a portion of electrolyte should be removed and
replaced with 1.400 specific gravity sulphuric acid. Acid of higher gravity than 1.400
should never be put in batteries.
Batteries should always be charged for several hours after adjusting gravity to insure
proper mixing of the electrolyte and to see that the correct specific gravity of 1.285
has been obtained.
8. After first seven sections have been followed examine vent plugs to see that gas
passage is Dot obstructed and screw back in place. Battery is now ready for service.
The Prest-O-Lite Assembled Green Seal Battery
This type of battery is made up of the same sort of plates as the old partly assembled
green seal battery. The elements are, however, completely assembled will wood
separators and sealed in the jars and box in the same manner as a wet battery to be put
into immediate service; the cell connectors are burned in place.
Page 298
How to Store It. A room of ordinary humidity, one in which the air is never dryer for
any reason than the average, should be used to store these batteries. They should be
shielded from direct sunlight.
Examine the vents-they should be securely inserted and remain so during the entire
storage period.
If these precautions are observed, this type battery may be stored for at least a year.
To Prepare Battery for Use. 1. Prepare sufficient pure electrolyte of 1.300 specific
gravity. If during the mixing considerable heat is evolved, allow electrolyte to cool
down to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Never pour electrolyte, that is warmer than 90 degrees
Fahrenheit, into cells.
2. Remove the vents and lay them aside until the final charging operation has been
completed.
Within 15 minutes from the time the vents are removed fill all cells to the bottom of
vent openings with the electrolyte prepared, as stated above.
3. Allow the electrolyte to remain in the cells, not less than one hour. At the end of this
time, should the electrolyte level fall below the tops of the separators, add enough
electrolyte to bring level at least one-half inch above separators. If the temperature in
the cells does not rise above 100 degrees Fahrenheit, proceed immediately (before two
hours have elapsed) with the initial charging operation. If the temperature remains
above 100 degrees Fahrenheit, allow the battery to stand until the electrolyte cools
down to 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Then proceed immediately with the charge. It is
important that the acid does not stand in the cells for more than two hours, unless it is
necessary to allow the acid to cool.
4. Initial Charging Operation. Place the battery on charge at the ampere rate given in
the following table. The total initial charge must be for fifty-two hours, but at no time
permit the electrolyte temperature to rise above 115 degrees Fahrenheit. If the
temperature should reach 115 degrees Fahrenheit, take the battery off the line and
allow the electrolyte to cool, but be sure that the total of fifty-two hours actual
charging at the ampere rate specified is completed.
Initial Charge---52 Hours
Plates Type of Plate
per Cell AHS WHN RHN SHC BHN JFN GM CLN KPN
3 1.5
any reason than the average, should be used to store these batteries. They should be
shielded from direct sunlight.
Examine the vents-they should be securely inserted and remain so during the entire
storage period.
If these precautions are observed, this type battery may be stored for at least a year.
To Prepare Battery for Use. 1. Prepare sufficient pure electrolyte of 1.300 specific
gravity. If during the mixing considerable heat is evolved, allow electrolyte to cool
down to 90 degrees Fahrenheit. Never pour electrolyte, that is warmer than 90 degrees
Fahrenheit, into cells.
2. Remove the vents and lay them aside until the final charging operation has been
completed.
Within 15 minutes from the time the vents are removed fill all cells to the bottom of
vent openings with the electrolyte prepared, as stated above.
3. Allow the electrolyte to remain in the cells, not less than one hour. At the end of this
time, should the electrolyte level fall below the tops of the separators, add enough
electrolyte to bring level at least one-half inch above separators. If the temperature in
the cells does not rise above 100 degrees Fahrenheit, proceed immediately (before two
hours have elapsed) with the initial charging operation. If the temperature remains
above 100 degrees Fahrenheit, allow the battery to stand until the electrolyte cools
down to 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Then proceed immediately with the charge. It is
important that the acid does not stand in the cells for more than two hours, unless it is
necessary to allow the acid to cool.
4. Initial Charging Operation. Place the battery on charge at the ampere rate given in
the following table. The total initial charge must be for fifty-two hours, but at no time
permit the electrolyte temperature to rise above 115 degrees Fahrenheit. If the
temperature should reach 115 degrees Fahrenheit, take the battery off the line and
allow the electrolyte to cool, but be sure that the total of fifty-two hours actual
charging at the ampere rate specified is completed.
Initial Charge---52 Hours
Plates Type of Plate
per Cell AHS WHN RHN SHC BHN JFN GM CLN KPN
3 1.5
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5 2 2 2.5 3
7 3 3 3.5 4 3 5
9 4 4 5 5 7
11 5 5 6 7 7.5 5 9
13 6 6 7 8 9 6 10.5 10.5
15 7 7 9 9.5 10.5 7 12
17 10 12 9
19 9 9 11 12 9
The nominal battery voltage and the number of plates per cell is indicated by the
Prest-O-Lite type designations, i. e.: 613 RHN denotes 6 volts, 13 plates per cell or
127 SHC denotes 12 volts, 7 plates per cell.
5. The electrolyte density at the end of fifty-two hours charge should be near 1.290
specific gravity. A variation between 1.285 and 1.300 is permissible. If, after fifty
hours of the initial charge, the electrolyte density of any of the cells is outside these
limits, adjustment should be begun while still charging. For those cells in which the
density is higher than 1.300 specific gravity replace some of the electrolyte with
distilled water. In those cells where the density is lighter than 1.285 specific gravity
replace some of the electrolyte with previously prepared electrolyte of 1.400 specific
gravity. Wait until the cells have charged one hour before taking readings to determine
the effect of adjustment, which, if not accomplished, should be attempted again as
before. Practice Will enable the attendant to estimate the amount of electrolyte
necessary to replace in order to accomplish the proper density desired-at the end of
initial charge.
6. Following the completion of the fifty-two hour charge, if there is time to do so, it is
good practice to put the battery through a development cycle, i. e., to discharge it at
about the four-hour rate and then put it on the charging line again at the normal rate
until a condition of full charge is again reached. The objects gained by this discharge
are:
(a) Further development of the plates.
(b) Adjustment or stabilization of the electrolyte.
(c) Checking the assembly by noting the failure of any cell or cells to act
uniformly and satisfactorily during discharge.
The four-hour discharge rate is, of course, like the normal rate of Initial Charge,
dependent upon the size and number of plates per cell in any particular battery; the
7 3 3 3.5 4 3 5
9 4 4 5 5 7
11 5 5 6 7 7.5 5 9
13 6 6 7 8 9 6 10.5 10.5
15 7 7 9 9.5 10.5 7 12
17 10 12 9
19 9 9 11 12 9
The nominal battery voltage and the number of plates per cell is indicated by the
Prest-O-Lite type designations, i. e.: 613 RHN denotes 6 volts, 13 plates per cell or
127 SHC denotes 12 volts, 7 plates per cell.
5. The electrolyte density at the end of fifty-two hours charge should be near 1.290
specific gravity. A variation between 1.285 and 1.300 is permissible. If, after fifty
hours of the initial charge, the electrolyte density of any of the cells is outside these
limits, adjustment should be begun while still charging. For those cells in which the
density is higher than 1.300 specific gravity replace some of the electrolyte with
distilled water. In those cells where the density is lighter than 1.285 specific gravity
replace some of the electrolyte with previously prepared electrolyte of 1.400 specific
gravity. Wait until the cells have charged one hour before taking readings to determine
the effect of adjustment, which, if not accomplished, should be attempted again as
before. Practice Will enable the attendant to estimate the amount of electrolyte
necessary to replace in order to accomplish the proper density desired-at the end of
initial charge.
6. Following the completion of the fifty-two hour charge, if there is time to do so, it is
good practice to put the battery through a development cycle, i. e., to discharge it at
about the four-hour rate and then put it on the charging line again at the normal rate
until a condition of full charge is again reached. The objects gained by this discharge
are:
(a) Further development of the plates.
(b) Adjustment or stabilization of the electrolyte.
(c) Checking the assembly by noting the failure of any cell or cells to act
uniformly and satisfactorily during discharge.
The four-hour discharge rate is, of course, like the normal rate of Initial Charge,
dependent upon the size and number of plates per cell in any particular battery; the
Page 300
number of cells determines the voltage only and has nothing to do with the battery's
charge or discharging rating. These four-hour discharge rates are as follows:
Plates Type of Plate
per Cell AHS WHN RHN SHC BHN JFN GM CLN KPN
3 3
5 5 5 5.5 6.5
7 7.5 7.5 8 10 7.5 13.5
9 10 10 11 13 18
11 12.5 12.5 14 16 19 12.5 22.5
13 15 15 16.5 19.5 22.5 15 27 27
15 17.5 17.5 19 23 26 17.5 31.5
17 22 26
19 22.5 22.5 25 29 22.5
Immediately at the end of the four-hour discharge, put the battery on the line and
charge it at the normal rate prescribed in the Initial Charge rate table until a state of
complete charge, as noted by cell voltage and gravity is reached. This charging time
should be about sixteen hours.
Any adjustments of electrolyte found necessary at the end of this charging period in
the same manner prescribed in paragraph No. 5, for such adjustments made just before
the completion of the initial fifty-two hour charge.
(TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: No item number 7. in original publication.)
8. At the end of the fifty-two hour charge, or, if the Development discharge has been
given, at the end of the Development Cycle Charge, replace the vent plugs, wash all
exterior surfaces with clean water and dry quickly. The battery is then ready for
service.
INSTALLING A BATTERY ON A CAR
A battery must be installed carefully on the car if it is to have any chance to give good
service. Careless installation of a battery which is in good working order will
invariably lead to trouble in a very short time. On the other hand, a properly installed
battery is, nine times out of ten, a good working and long lived battery.
After you have removed the old battery, scrape all rust and corrosion from the inside
of the battery box or compartment in which the battery is placed. This can best be
done with a putty knife and wire brush. If you find that electrolyte has been spilled in
charge or discharging rating. These four-hour discharge rates are as follows:
Plates Type of Plate
per Cell AHS WHN RHN SHC BHN JFN GM CLN KPN
3 3
5 5 5 5.5 6.5
7 7.5 7.5 8 10 7.5 13.5
9 10 10 11 13 18
11 12.5 12.5 14 16 19 12.5 22.5
13 15 15 16.5 19.5 22.5 15 27 27
15 17.5 17.5 19 23 26 17.5 31.5
17 22 26
19 22.5 22.5 25 29 22.5
Immediately at the end of the four-hour discharge, put the battery on the line and
charge it at the normal rate prescribed in the Initial Charge rate table until a state of
complete charge, as noted by cell voltage and gravity is reached. This charging time
should be about sixteen hours.
Any adjustments of electrolyte found necessary at the end of this charging period in
the same manner prescribed in paragraph No. 5, for such adjustments made just before
the completion of the initial fifty-two hour charge.
(TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: No item number 7. in original publication.)
8. At the end of the fifty-two hour charge, or, if the Development discharge has been
given, at the end of the Development Cycle Charge, replace the vent plugs, wash all
exterior surfaces with clean water and dry quickly. The battery is then ready for
service.
INSTALLING A BATTERY ON A CAR
A battery must be installed carefully on the car if it is to have any chance to give good
service. Careless installation of a battery which is in good working order will
invariably lead to trouble in a very short time. On the other hand, a properly installed
battery is, nine times out of ten, a good working and long lived battery.
After you have removed the old battery, scrape all rust and corrosion from the inside
of the battery box or compartment in which the battery is placed. This can best be
done with a putty knife and wire brush. If you find that electrolyte has been spilled in
Page 301
the box, pour a saturated solution of baking soda on the parts affected so as to
neutralize the acid. Then wipe the inside of the box dry and paint it with a good acid
proof paint.
Next take out the hold down bolts. Clean them with a wire brush, and oil the threads
on the bolt and in the nut to make them work easily. It is very important that this
oiling be done, as the oil protects the bolts from corrosion, and to remove the nuts
from a corroded bolt is an extremely difficult and aggravating piece of work, often
resulting in the bolts being broken. Should such bolts become loose while the car is in
use, it is hard to tighten them.
Wooden strips found in the battery box should be thoroughly cleaned and scraped, and
then painted with acid proof paint. When you lower the battery into its box, lower it
all the way gently. Do not lower it within an inch or so of the bottom of the case and
then drop it. This will result in broken jars and plate lugs. Turn the hold downs tight,
but not so tight as to break the sealing compound at the ends of the battery, thereby
causing electrolyte to leak out, and battery to become a "slopper".
Cables and connectors should be scraped bright with a knife and brushed thoroughly
with the wire brush to remove all corrosion. Old tape which has become acid soaked
should be removed and the cable or wire underneath cleaned. Before applying new
tape, take a small round bristle brush and paint Vaseline liberally over the exposed
cable immediately back of the taper terminal. Then cover the Vaseline with tape,
which Should be run well back from the terminal. The Vaseline prevents the corrosion
of the cable and the tape holds the Vaseline in place. After the tape has been applied,
paint it with acid proof paint. Cover the terminals of the battery with Vaseline. Cables
must have enough slack to prevent strains from being put on the battery terminals.
By following these directions, you will not only have a properly installed battery,
which will have a good chance to give good service, but will have a neat looking job
which is most pleasing to the eye of the car owner.
Remove all dirt from the battery and cable terminals and thoroughly clean the surfaces
which are to connect together, but do not scrape off the lead coating. Apply a heavy
coating of pure Vaseline to these surfaces and tighten the connection perfectly,
squeezing out the Vaseline. Then give the whole connection a heavy coating of
Vaseline. This is very important in order to prevent connection trouble.
If battery is installed in an enclosing box, be sure that none of the ventilating holes are
clogged.
STORING BATTERIES
neutralize the acid. Then wipe the inside of the box dry and paint it with a good acid
proof paint.
Next take out the hold down bolts. Clean them with a wire brush, and oil the threads
on the bolt and in the nut to make them work easily. It is very important that this
oiling be done, as the oil protects the bolts from corrosion, and to remove the nuts
from a corroded bolt is an extremely difficult and aggravating piece of work, often
resulting in the bolts being broken. Should such bolts become loose while the car is in
use, it is hard to tighten them.
Wooden strips found in the battery box should be thoroughly cleaned and scraped, and
then painted with acid proof paint. When you lower the battery into its box, lower it
all the way gently. Do not lower it within an inch or so of the bottom of the case and
then drop it. This will result in broken jars and plate lugs. Turn the hold downs tight,
but not so tight as to break the sealing compound at the ends of the battery, thereby
causing electrolyte to leak out, and battery to become a "slopper".
Cables and connectors should be scraped bright with a knife and brushed thoroughly
with the wire brush to remove all corrosion. Old tape which has become acid soaked
should be removed and the cable or wire underneath cleaned. Before applying new
tape, take a small round bristle brush and paint Vaseline liberally over the exposed
cable immediately back of the taper terminal. Then cover the Vaseline with tape,
which Should be run well back from the terminal. The Vaseline prevents the corrosion
of the cable and the tape holds the Vaseline in place. After the tape has been applied,
paint it with acid proof paint. Cover the terminals of the battery with Vaseline. Cables
must have enough slack to prevent strains from being put on the battery terminals.
By following these directions, you will not only have a properly installed battery,
which will have a good chance to give good service, but will have a neat looking job
which is most pleasing to the eye of the car owner.
Remove all dirt from the battery and cable terminals and thoroughly clean the surfaces
which are to connect together, but do not scrape off the lead coating. Apply a heavy
coating of pure Vaseline to these surfaces and tighten the connection perfectly,
squeezing out the Vaseline. Then give the whole connection a heavy coating of
Vaseline. This is very important in order to prevent connection trouble.
If battery is installed in an enclosing box, be sure that none of the ventilating holes are
clogged.
STORING BATTERIES
Page 302
When a battery is not in active use on a car it should be put into storage. Storage is
necessary:
1. When a car is to stand idle for a considerable period, such as is the case when it is
held for future delivery.
2. When a car is laid up for the winter.
3. When batteries are kept in stock.
Batteries may be stored "wet," i.e., completely assembled and filled with electrolyte,
or "dry," i.e., in a dry disassembled condition, without electrolyte. In deciding whether
a battery should be stored "wet" or "dry," two things are to be considered, i.e. the
length of time the battery is to be in storage, and the condition of the battery. If a
battery is to be out of commission for a year or more, it should be put into "dry"
storage. If it is to be in storage for less than one year, it may be put into "wet" storage
if it is in a good condition. If the condition of the battery is such that it will need to be
dismantled soon for repairs, it should be put into "dry" storage, even though it is to be
out of service for less than one year.
Batteries in "dry" storage require no attention while they are in storage, but they must
be dismantled before being put into storage and reassembled when put back into
service.
When a battery is brought in to be stored, note its general condition carefully.
(a) Its General Appearance-condition of case, handles, terminals, sealing compound,
and so on.
(b) Height and specific gravity of the electrolyte in each cell.
(c) Age of Battery. Question owner as to length of time he has had battery. Read date
marks on battery if there are any, or determine age by the age code. See page 243. If a
battery is less than a year old, is in good condition, and is to be stored for less than
one year, it may be put into "wet" storage. If it is more than a year old, put it into dry
storage, unless it is in first class shape and is to be stored for only several months.
After making your general observations, clean the battery, add distilled water to bring
the electrolyte up to the proper level, put the battery on charge and keep it on the line
until it is fully charged. Watch for any abnormal condition during the charge, such as
excessive temperature rise, failure of voltage to come up, failure of specific gravity to
come up, and gassing before gravity becomes constant.
necessary:
1. When a car is to stand idle for a considerable period, such as is the case when it is
held for future delivery.
2. When a car is laid up for the winter.
3. When batteries are kept in stock.
Batteries may be stored "wet," i.e., completely assembled and filled with electrolyte,
or "dry," i.e., in a dry disassembled condition, without electrolyte. In deciding whether
a battery should be stored "wet" or "dry," two things are to be considered, i.e. the
length of time the battery is to be in storage, and the condition of the battery. If a
battery is to be out of commission for a year or more, it should be put into "dry"
storage. If it is to be in storage for less than one year, it may be put into "wet" storage
if it is in a good condition. If the condition of the battery is such that it will need to be
dismantled soon for repairs, it should be put into "dry" storage, even though it is to be
out of service for less than one year.
Batteries in "dry" storage require no attention while they are in storage, but they must
be dismantled before being put into storage and reassembled when put back into
service.
When a battery is brought in to be stored, note its general condition carefully.
(a) Its General Appearance-condition of case, handles, terminals, sealing compound,
and so on.
(b) Height and specific gravity of the electrolyte in each cell.
(c) Age of Battery. Question owner as to length of time he has had battery. Read date
marks on battery if there are any, or determine age by the age code. See page 243. If a
battery is less than a year old, is in good condition, and is to be stored for less than
one year, it may be put into "wet" storage. If it is more than a year old, put it into dry
storage, unless it is in first class shape and is to be stored for only several months.
After making your general observations, clean the battery, add distilled water to bring
the electrolyte up to the proper level, put the battery on charge and keep it on the line
until it is fully charged. Watch for any abnormal condition during the charge, such as
excessive temperature rise, failure of voltage to come up, failure of specific gravity to
come up, and gassing before gravity becomes constant.
Page 303
If no abnormal conditions develop during the charge, put the battery on discharge at a
rate which will cause the voltage to drop to 1.7 volts per cell in about four hours.
Measure the cell voltages at regular intervals during the discharge test. If the voltage
of any cell drops much more rapidly than that of the other cells, that cell is defective
in some way, and should be opened for inspection. If the voltage of all cells drops to
1.7 in three hours or less, the battery should be put into dry storage.
After completing the discharge test, recharge it fully, no matter whether it is to be put
into wet or dry storage.
If no trouble developed during the charge or discharge, the battery may be put into
"wet" storage. If trouble did develop, the battery should be put into "dry" storage.
If dry storage is found to be necessary the owner should be informed that the
condition of his battery would cause it to deteriorate in wet storage and necessitate
much more expensive repairs when put into use again than will be necessary in the
thorough overhauling and rejuvenation of dry storage. He should be advised that dry
storage involves dismantling, drying out elements and reassembling with the needed
repairs and new separators in the Spring. Be sure that the customer understands this.
If it is evident that repairs or new parts, involving costs additional to storage
charges, will be necessary, tell him so. Do not leave room for a complaint about
costs in the Spring.
To avoid any misunderstanding, it is highly advisable to have the customer put his
signature on a STORAGE AGREEMENT which states fully the terms under which
the battery is accepted for storage. The storage cost may be figured on a monthly
basis, or a price for the entire storage period may be agreed upon. The monthly rate
should be the same as the regular price for a single battery recharge. If a flat rate is
paid for the entire storage period, $2.00 to $3.00 is a fair price.
"Wet" Storage
1. Store the batteries on a bench or shelf in a convenient location and large enough to
allow a little air space around each battery.
2. Place each battery upon wooden strips in order to keep the bottom of the battery
clear of the bench or shelf.
3. Apply Vaseline freely to the battery terminals, and to exposed copper wires in the
battery cables if the cables are burned directly to the battery terminals. If the cables
are not burned on, remove them from the battery.
rate which will cause the voltage to drop to 1.7 volts per cell in about four hours.
Measure the cell voltages at regular intervals during the discharge test. If the voltage
of any cell drops much more rapidly than that of the other cells, that cell is defective
in some way, and should be opened for inspection. If the voltage of all cells drops to
1.7 in three hours or less, the battery should be put into dry storage.
After completing the discharge test, recharge it fully, no matter whether it is to be put
into wet or dry storage.
If no trouble developed during the charge or discharge, the battery may be put into
"wet" storage. If trouble did develop, the battery should be put into "dry" storage.
If dry storage is found to be necessary the owner should be informed that the
condition of his battery would cause it to deteriorate in wet storage and necessitate
much more expensive repairs when put into use again than will be necessary in the
thorough overhauling and rejuvenation of dry storage. He should be advised that dry
storage involves dismantling, drying out elements and reassembling with the needed
repairs and new separators in the Spring. Be sure that the customer understands this.
If it is evident that repairs or new parts, involving costs additional to storage
charges, will be necessary, tell him so. Do not leave room for a complaint about
costs in the Spring.
To avoid any misunderstanding, it is highly advisable to have the customer put his
signature on a STORAGE AGREEMENT which states fully the terms under which
the battery is accepted for storage. The storage cost may be figured on a monthly
basis, or a price for the entire storage period may be agreed upon. The monthly rate
should be the same as the regular price for a single battery recharge. If a flat rate is
paid for the entire storage period, $2.00 to $3.00 is a fair price.
"Wet" Storage
1. Store the batteries on a bench or shelf in a convenient location and large enough to
allow a little air space around each battery.
2. Place each battery upon wooden strips in order to keep the bottom of the battery
clear of the bench or shelf.
3. Apply Vaseline freely to the battery terminals, and to exposed copper wires in the
battery cables if the cables are burned directly to the battery terminals. If the cables
are not burned on, remove them from the battery.
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4. If convenient, install the necessary wiring, switches, etc., so that batteries may be
connected up and charged where they stand. Otherwise the batteries must be charged
occasionally oil the charging bench.
5. Batteries in wet storage may be charged by the Exide "Trickle" charge method, or
may be given a bench charge at regular intervals.
6. Bench Charge Method. — Once every month, add distilled water to replace
evaporation. Then give battery a bench charge. See page 198. Before putting battery
into service repeat this process and just before putting the battery into service, make
the high rate discharge test on it. See page 266.
7. Trickle Charge Method. — This consists of charging the batteries in storage
continuously at a very low rate, which is so low that no gassing occurs, and still gives
enough charge to maintain the batteries in good condition. In many cases the "Trickle"
Charge method will be found more convenient than the bench charge method, and it
has the advantage of keeping the batteries in condition for putting into service on short
notice. It should, however, be used only where direct current lighting circuits are
available.
In the "Trickle" method, the batteries are first given a complete bench charge, and are
then connected in series across a charging circuit with one or several incandescent
lamps in series with the batteries to limit the current. In Fig. 151, an example of
connections for a "Trickle" charge is given. The charging current for different sized
batteries varies from 0.05 to 0.15 ampere. The following table gives the lamps
required to give the desired current on 110 volt circuit.
connected up and charged where they stand. Otherwise the batteries must be charged
occasionally oil the charging bench.
5. Batteries in wet storage may be charged by the Exide "Trickle" charge method, or
may be given a bench charge at regular intervals.
6. Bench Charge Method. — Once every month, add distilled water to replace
evaporation. Then give battery a bench charge. See page 198. Before putting battery
into service repeat this process and just before putting the battery into service, make
the high rate discharge test on it. See page 266.
7. Trickle Charge Method. — This consists of charging the batteries in storage
continuously at a very low rate, which is so low that no gassing occurs, and still gives
enough charge to maintain the batteries in good condition. In many cases the "Trickle"
Charge method will be found more convenient than the bench charge method, and it
has the advantage of keeping the batteries in condition for putting into service on short
notice. It should, however, be used only where direct current lighting circuits are
available.
In the "Trickle" method, the batteries are first given a complete bench charge, and are
then connected in series across a charging circuit with one or several incandescent
lamps in series with the batteries to limit the current. In Fig. 151, an example of
connections for a "Trickle" charge is given. The charging current for different sized
batteries varies from 0.05 to 0.15 ampere. The following table gives the lamps
required to give the desired current on 110 volt circuit.
Page 305
In each case, the lamps are connected in series with the batteries. The "2-25 watt,
(lamps), in parallel" listed in the table are to be connected in parallel with each other
and then in series with the batteries. The same is true of the "3-25 watt (lamps), in
series" listed in the table.
Series on 115 Volt Line
Amp. Hours No. of Cells in No. 115 Volt
Amperes
Capacity Series on Line Lamps Required
Approximate
5 Amp. Rate 115-Volt 115-Volt
50 or less 0.05 3 5-15 watt, in series
50 or less 0.05 30 2-15 watt, in series
50 or less 0.05 45 1-15 watt, in series
50-100 0.10 3 3-25 watt, in series
50-100 0.10 3 1-25 watt, in series
2-25 watt, in
50-100 0.10 45
parallel
100 or over 0.15 3 2-25 watt, in series
100 or over 0.15 30 1-25 watt, in series
3-25 watt, in
100 or over 0.15 45
parallel
Every two months interrupt the trickle charge long enough to add water to bring the
electrolyte up to the proper level. When this has been done, continue the trickle
charge.
Before putting the batteries into service, see that the electrolyte is up to the correct
level, and that the specific gravity of the electrolyte is 1.280-1.300. If necessary, give
a short charge on the charging bench to bring the specific gravity up to the correct
value.
Dry Storage
1. Give the battery a complete charge. Pour out the electrolyte, and separate the
groups. If the negatives have bulged active material, press them in the plate press. In
batteries such as the Prest-OLite in which it is difficult to remove the plates from the
cover, the groups need not be separated unless the negatives have badly bulged active
material. It may not be necessary to separate the groups even then, provided that the
positives are not buckled to any noticeable extent. If only a very slight amount of
(lamps), in parallel" listed in the table are to be connected in parallel with each other
and then in series with the batteries. The same is true of the "3-25 watt (lamps), in
series" listed in the table.
Series on 115 Volt Line
Amp. Hours No. of Cells in No. 115 Volt
Amperes
Capacity Series on Line Lamps Required
Approximate
5 Amp. Rate 115-Volt 115-Volt
50 or less 0.05 3 5-15 watt, in series
50 or less 0.05 30 2-15 watt, in series
50 or less 0.05 45 1-15 watt, in series
50-100 0.10 3 3-25 watt, in series
50-100 0.10 3 1-25 watt, in series
2-25 watt, in
50-100 0.10 45
parallel
100 or over 0.15 3 2-25 watt, in series
100 or over 0.15 30 1-25 watt, in series
3-25 watt, in
100 or over 0.15 45
parallel
Every two months interrupt the trickle charge long enough to add water to bring the
electrolyte up to the proper level. When this has been done, continue the trickle
charge.
Before putting the batteries into service, see that the electrolyte is up to the correct
level, and that the specific gravity of the electrolyte is 1.280-1.300. If necessary, give
a short charge on the charging bench to bring the specific gravity up to the correct
value.
Dry Storage
1. Give the battery a complete charge. Pour out the electrolyte, and separate the
groups. If the negatives have bulged active material, press them in the plate press. In
batteries such as the Prest-OLite in which it is difficult to remove the plates from the
cover, the groups need not be separated unless the negatives have badly bulged active
material. It may not be necessary to separate the groups even then, provided that the
positives are not buckled to any noticeable extent. If only a very slight amount of
Page 306
buckling exists, the entire element may be pressed by putting thin boards between the
plates in place of the separators.
2. Immerse the negatives in distilled water for ten to twelve hours. If positives and
negatives cannot be separated, wash each complete element in a gentle stream of
water.
3. Remove plates from water and allow them to drain thoroughly and dry. The
negatives will heat up when exposed to the air, and when they do so they should be
immersed in the water again to cool them. Repeat this as long as they tend to heat up.
Then allow them to dry thoroughly.
4. Throw away the old separators. Rubber separators may be saved if in good
condition. Clean the covers and terminals., wash out the jars, and turn the case up side
down to drain out the water. Examine the box carefully. It is advisable to wash with a
solution of baking soda, rinsing the water in order to neutralize as far as possible the
action of acid remaining on the box. If this is not done, the acid may start
decomposition of the box while in storage, in which case the owner of the battery may
insist on its renewal before acceptance at the end of the storage period.
5. When, the plates are perfectly dry, nest the positives and negatives together, using
dry cardboard instead of separators, and replace them in the jars in their proper
positions.
6. Replace the covers and vent plugs, but, of course, do not use any sealing compound
on them.
7. Tie the terminals and top connectors to the handle on the case with a wire.
8. Tag the battery with the owner's name and address, using the tag on which you
made the sketch of the arrangement of the terminals and top connections.
9. Store the battery in a dry place, free from dust, until called for.
10. When the battery is to be put into service again, put in new separators, put the
elements in the jars, seal the covers, and burn on the top connectors and terminals (if
these are of the burned-on type). Fill the cells with electrolyte of about 1.310 specific
gravity and allow the battery to stand for ten to twelve hours in order to cool. Then put
the battery on charge at one-half the normal charging rate and charge until the specific
gravity of the electrolyte stops rising and remains stationary for five hours. The total
time required for this development charge will be about four days. Watch the
temperature of the electrolyte carefully, and if it should rise to 110° Fahrenheit, stop
the charge until it cools.
plates in place of the separators.
2. Immerse the negatives in distilled water for ten to twelve hours. If positives and
negatives cannot be separated, wash each complete element in a gentle stream of
water.
3. Remove plates from water and allow them to drain thoroughly and dry. The
negatives will heat up when exposed to the air, and when they do so they should be
immersed in the water again to cool them. Repeat this as long as they tend to heat up.
Then allow them to dry thoroughly.
4. Throw away the old separators. Rubber separators may be saved if in good
condition. Clean the covers and terminals., wash out the jars, and turn the case up side
down to drain out the water. Examine the box carefully. It is advisable to wash with a
solution of baking soda, rinsing the water in order to neutralize as far as possible the
action of acid remaining on the box. If this is not done, the acid may start
decomposition of the box while in storage, in which case the owner of the battery may
insist on its renewal before acceptance at the end of the storage period.
5. When, the plates are perfectly dry, nest the positives and negatives together, using
dry cardboard instead of separators, and replace them in the jars in their proper
positions.
6. Replace the covers and vent plugs, but, of course, do not use any sealing compound
on them.
7. Tie the terminals and top connectors to the handle on the case with a wire.
8. Tag the battery with the owner's name and address, using the tag on which you
made the sketch of the arrangement of the terminals and top connections.
9. Store the battery in a dry place, free from dust, until called for.
10. When the battery is to be put into service again, put in new separators, put the
elements in the jars, seal the covers, and burn on the top connectors and terminals (if
these are of the burned-on type). Fill the cells with electrolyte of about 1.310 specific
gravity and allow the battery to stand for ten to twelve hours in order to cool. Then put
the battery on charge at one-half the normal charging rate and charge until the specific
gravity of the electrolyte stops rising and remains stationary for five hours. The total
time required for this development charge will be about four days. Watch the
temperature of the electrolyte carefully, and if it should rise to 110° Fahrenheit, stop
the charge until it cools.
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11. The specific gravity will fall during the first part of the charge, due to the new
separators; at the end of the charge, the specific gravity should be 1.280-1.300. If it is
not within these limits, adjust it by withdrawing some electrolyte with the hydrometer
and adding water if the gravity is high, or 1.400 electrolyte if the gravity is low.
12. Clean the case thoroughly and give it a coat of asphaltum paint.
13. Just before putting the battery into service, give it a high rate discharge test. See
page 266.
DETERMINING AGE OF BATTERY
Battery manufacturers use codes to indicate the age of their batteries. These codes
consist of letters, figures, or combinations of letters and figures, which are stamped on
the inter-cell connectors or on the nameplate. The codes may also be burned on the
case.
The codes of the leading makes of batteries follow. In addition to determining the age
of a battery by means of the code, the owner should be questioned as to the time the
battery was installed on his car. If the battery is the original one which came with the
car, the dealer's or car manufacturer's records will help determine the battery's age. If a
new battery has been installed to replace the one that came with the car, the battery
distributor's records will help determine the age of the battery.
Familiarity with the different makes and types of battery will also help in determining
a battery's age. Manufacturers make improvements in the construction of their
batteries from time to time, and by keeping up-to-date on battery constructions, it is
often possible to approximate the age of a battery by such changes.
If a battery was kept "dry" while in stock, its age should be figured from the time it
was prepared for service and placed on the car, since batteries in dry storage do not
deteriorate. Some batteries are shipped from the factory "wet," i.e., filled with
electrolyte and fully charged and the age of such batteries should be figured from the
time they were shipped from the factory, because deterioration begins as soon as a
battery is filled with electrolyte. When batteries are "dry" no chemical action can take
place, and the battery does not deteriorate, while in a "wet" battery, chemical action
takes place which gradually causes a battery to deteriorate.
Exide Age Code.
Since October, 1917, the date of shipment of Exide batteries from the factory, or from
Exide Deposts has been stamped on the top of the first inter-cell connector from the
separators; at the end of the charge, the specific gravity should be 1.280-1.300. If it is
not within these limits, adjust it by withdrawing some electrolyte with the hydrometer
and adding water if the gravity is high, or 1.400 electrolyte if the gravity is low.
12. Clean the case thoroughly and give it a coat of asphaltum paint.
13. Just before putting the battery into service, give it a high rate discharge test. See
page 266.
DETERMINING AGE OF BATTERY
Battery manufacturers use codes to indicate the age of their batteries. These codes
consist of letters, figures, or combinations of letters and figures, which are stamped on
the inter-cell connectors or on the nameplate. The codes may also be burned on the
case.
The codes of the leading makes of batteries follow. In addition to determining the age
of a battery by means of the code, the owner should be questioned as to the time the
battery was installed on his car. If the battery is the original one which came with the
car, the dealer's or car manufacturer's records will help determine the battery's age. If a
new battery has been installed to replace the one that came with the car, the battery
distributor's records will help determine the age of the battery.
Familiarity with the different makes and types of battery will also help in determining
a battery's age. Manufacturers make improvements in the construction of their
batteries from time to time, and by keeping up-to-date on battery constructions, it is
often possible to approximate the age of a battery by such changes.
If a battery was kept "dry" while in stock, its age should be figured from the time it
was prepared for service and placed on the car, since batteries in dry storage do not
deteriorate. Some batteries are shipped from the factory "wet," i.e., filled with
electrolyte and fully charged and the age of such batteries should be figured from the
time they were shipped from the factory, because deterioration begins as soon as a
battery is filled with electrolyte. When batteries are "dry" no chemical action can take
place, and the battery does not deteriorate, while in a "wet" battery, chemical action
takes place which gradually causes a battery to deteriorate.
Exide Age Code.
Since October, 1917, the date of shipment of Exide batteries from the factory, or from
Exide Deposts has been stamped on the top of the first inter-cell connector from the
Page 308
negative end of the batter instead of on the nameplate figures are used to indicate the
dates, as follows:
All Philadelphia batteries shipped prior to April 1, 1920 and all batteries shipped from
depot stock after this date carry double letter branding. The first battery is the factory
date and the second letter in this code indicates latest month during which the
guarantee may begin.
Batteries sold direct from Philadelphia to all classes of customers after April 1, 1920,
carry the single letter branding code, indicating month of manufacture.
The letters used in the double letter age code are selected from the table given above,
and the second letter is the important one, since it gives the latest date from which
adjustment can be made. If a Philadelphia battery with a double letter age code comes
dates, as follows:
All Philadelphia batteries shipped prior to April 1, 1920 and all batteries shipped from
depot stock after this date carry double letter branding. The first battery is the factory
date and the second letter in this code indicates latest month during which the
guarantee may begin.
Batteries sold direct from Philadelphia to all classes of customers after April 1, 1920,
carry the single letter branding code, indicating month of manufacture.
The letters used in the double letter age code are selected from the table given above,
and the second letter is the important one, since it gives the latest date from which
adjustment can be made. If a Philadelphia battery with a double letter age code comes
Page 309
in, therefore, the foregoing table should be consulted in determining the age of the
battery.
If a Philadelphia battery with a single letter age code comes in, the following table
should be consulted in determining the age of the battery:
Prest-O-Lite Age Code.
All Prest-O-Lite batteries carry a date letter stamped on the cell-connectors. This letter
indicates the month and year in which the battery was manufacture. The letter is
preceeded by a number which represents the factory at which the battery was built.
Prest-O-Lite Factory Marks.
Indianapolis—50 Cleveland—7 San Francisco—23
battery.
If a Philadelphia battery with a single letter age code comes in, the following table
should be consulted in determining the age of the battery:
Prest-O-Lite Age Code.
All Prest-O-Lite batteries carry a date letter stamped on the cell-connectors. This letter
indicates the month and year in which the battery was manufacture. The letter is
preceeded by a number which represents the factory at which the battery was built.
Prest-O-Lite Factory Marks.
Indianapolis—50 Cleveland—7 San Francisco—23
Page 310
For example: "50-K" indicates that the battery was manufactured at Indianopolis in
January, 1920.
In addition to the above, each "Wet" Prest-O-Lite battery is branded in the side with a
date, as "9-19," indicating October, 1919. This date is really sixty days ahead of the
actual building date, to allow time for shipping, etc., before the guarentee starts. The
branded "9-19" was actually built in August, 1919.
Titan Age Code.
The age of Titan batteries is indicated by a number stamped on one of the inter-cell
connectors, this number indicating the month the battery was hipped from the factory.
January, 1920.
In addition to the above, each "Wet" Prest-O-Lite battery is branded in the side with a
date, as "9-19," indicating October, 1919. This date is really sixty days ahead of the
actual building date, to allow time for shipping, etc., before the guarentee starts. The
branded "9-19" was actually built in August, 1919.
Titan Age Code.
The age of Titan batteries is indicated by a number stamped on one of the inter-cell
connectors, this number indicating the month the battery was hipped from the factory.
Page 311
Page 312
RENTAL BATTERIES
Rental batteries are those which are put on a customer's car while his own is being
repaired or recharged. They are usually rebuilt batteries turned in when a new battery
is bought. They may also be made of the good parts of batteries which are junked. By
carefully saving good parts, such as plates, jars, covers, and cases, a stock of parts will
gradually be acquired from which rental batteries may be made. Rental batteries may
also be bought from the battery manufacturers.
A supply of rental batteries should, of course, be kept ready to go out at any time. The
number of such batteries depends upon the size of the business. 25 batteries for each
1000 cars in the territory served is a good average. Do not have too many rental
batteries of the same type. Many of them will be idle most of the time and thus will
Rental batteries are those which are put on a customer's car while his own is being
repaired or recharged. They are usually rebuilt batteries turned in when a new battery
is bought. They may also be made of the good parts of batteries which are junked. By
carefully saving good parts, such as plates, jars, covers, and cases, a stock of parts will
gradually be acquired from which rental batteries may be made. Rental batteries may
also be bought from the battery manufacturers.
A supply of rental batteries should, of course, be kept ready to go out at any time. The
number of such batteries depends upon the size of the business. 25 batteries for each
1000 cars in the territory served is a good average. Do not have too many rental
batteries of the same type. Many of them will be idle most of the time and thus will
Page 313
not bring in any money. Rentals should be made to fit those makes of cars of which
there are the greatest number in the territory served by the repair shop. Sufficient parts
should be kept on hand to make up other rentals on short notice.
Terminals for Rental Batteries
There are several combination terminals on the market which allow rental batteries
equipped with them to be easily connected to several of the various types of cable
terminals that are in use. Yet it is a universal experience for the average service station
always to have calls for rental batteries with just the type of terminals which are not
on hand. When the station has many batteries with the clamp type straight posts the
call always seems to be for the taper plug type and vice versa.
Most of us will agree that the clamp type post terminal is the cause of much trouble. It
is almost impossible to prevent corrosion at the positive post and many a car owner
has found that this has been his trouble when his lights burn all right but the battery
seemingly does not have power enough to turn over the engine and yet every cell tests
1.280. Service Station men should not scrape and clean up a corroded clamp type
terminal and put it back on again, but should cut it off and put on either a taper plug
or, preferably, a lead-plated copper terminal lug. Of course either of these terminal
connections necessitates changing the battery terminals to correspond.
For rental batteries it will be found that short cable terminals with lead-plated copper
lugs at the end will enable a battery man to connect most any type of cable terminal on
any car. It is true that such connections must be taped up, but the prompt service
rendered more than offsets a little tape. Figures 152 to 158 illustrate how these
connections can be made to the taper plug and clamp types which are used on most
cars.
there are the greatest number in the territory served by the repair shop. Sufficient parts
should be kept on hand to make up other rentals on short notice.
Terminals for Rental Batteries
There are several combination terminals on the market which allow rental batteries
equipped with them to be easily connected to several of the various types of cable
terminals that are in use. Yet it is a universal experience for the average service station
always to have calls for rental batteries with just the type of terminals which are not
on hand. When the station has many batteries with the clamp type straight posts the
call always seems to be for the taper plug type and vice versa.
Most of us will agree that the clamp type post terminal is the cause of much trouble. It
is almost impossible to prevent corrosion at the positive post and many a car owner
has found that this has been his trouble when his lights burn all right but the battery
seemingly does not have power enough to turn over the engine and yet every cell tests
1.280. Service Station men should not scrape and clean up a corroded clamp type
terminal and put it back on again, but should cut it off and put on either a taper plug
or, preferably, a lead-plated copper terminal lug. Of course either of these terminal
connections necessitates changing the battery terminals to correspond.
For rental batteries it will be found that short cable terminals with lead-plated copper
lugs at the end will enable a battery man to connect most any type of cable terminal on
any car. It is true that such connections must be taped up, but the prompt service
rendered more than offsets a little tape. Figures 152 to 158 illustrate how these
connections can be made to the taper plug and clamp types which are used on most
cars.
Page 314
Fig. 155. Showing method of
connecting rental batteries with cable
terminals, to cars with clamp type
terminals. In Fig. 155 the cable
insulation is stripped for a space of
an inch and the strands are equally
divided with an awl. A bolt is passed
through the opening and a washer
and nut complete the connection.
Two methods of connecting a clamp
type terminal to taper plug terminals.
In Fig. 156 a taper plug is inserted
and screwed tight. The projecting
part of the plug has been turned
down to fit the clamp type terminal
which is clamped to it. In Fig. 157 a
connecting rental batteries with cable
terminals, to cars with clamp type
terminals. In Fig. 155 the cable
insulation is stripped for a space of
an inch and the strands are equally
divided with an awl. A bolt is passed
through the opening and a washer
and nut complete the connection.
Two methods of connecting a clamp
type terminal to taper plug terminals.
In Fig. 156 a taper plug is inserted
and screwed tight. The projecting
part of the plug has been turned
down to fit the clamp type terminal
which is clamped to it. In Fig. 157 a
Page 315
bolt is passed through and the clamp
type terminal tightened to the plug
type terminal with a washer and nut.
Fig. 158 shows a simple means of putting on a lead-plated copper terminal lug
without solder. These lugs should be soldered on whenever possible, but it is often a
difficult job to put one on in the confined space of some battery compartments. In
such places, a quick and lasting job can be made with a band vise and a short piece of
round iron. This latter is laid across the lug and the vise screwed up, making a crimp
across the lug which firmly grips down upon the bared cable strands that have been
inserted into the lug.
New batteries sold to replace other batteries should be installed with cable
connections, as illustrated in Figure 152. This method of connecting a battery is
superior to any other method and will never cause trouble. It will usually be found that
the old taper plugs or clamp terminals that have been in use have started to corrode
and that a new battery works increasingly at a disadvantage from the day it is installed
until the corrosion becomes so great that the car cannot be started and then the
customer kicks about his new battery. The best connection possible will pay handsome
dividends to all concerned, in the end.
Marking Rental Batteries. Rental batteries should be marked in a mariner which
enables them to be recognized quickly. Painting the cases a red color is a good way.
The service station's name should appear somewhere on the battery. A good plan is to
have a lead tag, which is attached to the handle at the negative end of the battery, or is
tacked to the case. The name may also be painted on the case. Each battery should be
given a number which should preferably be painted in large white figures on the end
or side of each case. The number may also be stamped on a lead tag tied to the handle
at the negative end.
A service station which sells a certain make of battery should not use cases of some
other make if the name of the other make appears on the case. Such names may give a
wrong impression to the customer, which will not be fair either to the service station
or to the manufacturer whose name appears on the case. If the service station sells,
type terminal tightened to the plug
type terminal with a washer and nut.
Fig. 158 shows a simple means of putting on a lead-plated copper terminal lug
without solder. These lugs should be soldered on whenever possible, but it is often a
difficult job to put one on in the confined space of some battery compartments. In
such places, a quick and lasting job can be made with a band vise and a short piece of
round iron. This latter is laid across the lug and the vise screwed up, making a crimp
across the lug which firmly grips down upon the bared cable strands that have been
inserted into the lug.
New batteries sold to replace other batteries should be installed with cable
connections, as illustrated in Figure 152. This method of connecting a battery is
superior to any other method and will never cause trouble. It will usually be found that
the old taper plugs or clamp terminals that have been in use have started to corrode
and that a new battery works increasingly at a disadvantage from the day it is installed
until the corrosion becomes so great that the car cannot be started and then the
customer kicks about his new battery. The best connection possible will pay handsome
dividends to all concerned, in the end.
Marking Rental Batteries. Rental batteries should be marked in a mariner which
enables them to be recognized quickly. Painting the cases a red color is a good way.
The service station's name should appear somewhere on the battery. A good plan is to
have a lead tag, which is attached to the handle at the negative end of the battery, or is
tacked to the case. The name may also be painted on the case. Each battery should be
given a number which should preferably be painted in large white figures on the end
or side of each case. The number may also be stamped on a lead tag tied to the handle
at the negative end.
A service station which sells a certain make of battery should not use cases of some
other make if the name of the other make appears on the case. Such names may give a
wrong impression to the customer, which will not be fair either to the service station
or to the manufacturer whose name appears on the case. If the service station sells,
Page 316
another make of battery, the customer may get the impression that the service station
man does not have enough confidence in the make which he sells, and must use some
other make for his rentals. If the rental battery does not give good service, the
customer will get the impression that the manufacturer whose name appears on the
case does not turn out good batteries, when as a matter of fact, the plates, covers, jars,
and other parts used in the rental battery may not have been made by this
manufacturer. Some battery men would, perhaps, consider the failure of a rental
battery as an opportunity to "knock" the manufacturer whose name appears on the
case. Such an action may have the desired effect on a very few customers, but the
great majority of men have no use for any one who "knocks" a competitor's products.
Keeping a Record of Rental Batteries. A careful record should be kept of all rental
batteries. The more carefully such a record is kept, the less confusion there will be in
knowing just where every rental battery is. A special rack for rental batteries, such as
those shown in Figures 88 and 89 should be provided, and all rental batteries which
are in the shop should be kept there, except when they are on charge or are being
overhauled. Have them fully charged and ready to go out immediately, without
keeping a customer waiting around, when he is in a hurry to go somewhere else.
General Rental Policy. No service station should make a practice of installing rental
batteries on any car unless the owner leaves his own battery to be repaired or
recharged. The purpose of having a stock of rental batteries is to enable customers to
have the use of their cars while their own batteries are being repaired by the battery
man who furnishes the rental battery and not to furnish batteries to car owners who
may be taking their batteries to some other station to be repaired. It is, of course, a
good thing to be generous and accommodating, but every battery repairman should
think of his own business first, before he helps build up the business of a competitor.
The customer must have some inducement to bring in your rental battery and get his
own. A rental charge of 25 cents-per day serves as a reminder to most customers.
However, some customers are forgetful and the battery man must telephone or write to
any owner who fails to call for his battery. If, due to failure to keep after the owner, a
rental battery is out for several weeks, there is likely to be an argument when the
rental bill is presented to the owner. If the delay in calling in a rental battery is due to
failure to repair the customer's battery, the rental charge should be reduced.
A rental battery should not be put in place of a battery which is almost ready for the
junk pile. The thing to do is to sell the customer a new battery. Repairs on an almost
worn out battery are expensive and the results may not be satisfactory.
RADIO BATTERIES
man does not have enough confidence in the make which he sells, and must use some
other make for his rentals. If the rental battery does not give good service, the
customer will get the impression that the manufacturer whose name appears on the
case does not turn out good batteries, when as a matter of fact, the plates, covers, jars,
and other parts used in the rental battery may not have been made by this
manufacturer. Some battery men would, perhaps, consider the failure of a rental
battery as an opportunity to "knock" the manufacturer whose name appears on the
case. Such an action may have the desired effect on a very few customers, but the
great majority of men have no use for any one who "knocks" a competitor's products.
Keeping a Record of Rental Batteries. A careful record should be kept of all rental
batteries. The more carefully such a record is kept, the less confusion there will be in
knowing just where every rental battery is. A special rack for rental batteries, such as
those shown in Figures 88 and 89 should be provided, and all rental batteries which
are in the shop should be kept there, except when they are on charge or are being
overhauled. Have them fully charged and ready to go out immediately, without
keeping a customer waiting around, when he is in a hurry to go somewhere else.
General Rental Policy. No service station should make a practice of installing rental
batteries on any car unless the owner leaves his own battery to be repaired or
recharged. The purpose of having a stock of rental batteries is to enable customers to
have the use of their cars while their own batteries are being repaired by the battery
man who furnishes the rental battery and not to furnish batteries to car owners who
may be taking their batteries to some other station to be repaired. It is, of course, a
good thing to be generous and accommodating, but every battery repairman should
think of his own business first, before he helps build up the business of a competitor.
The customer must have some inducement to bring in your rental battery and get his
own. A rental charge of 25 cents-per day serves as a reminder to most customers.
However, some customers are forgetful and the battery man must telephone or write to
any owner who fails to call for his battery. If, due to failure to keep after the owner, a
rental battery is out for several weeks, there is likely to be an argument when the
rental bill is presented to the owner. If the delay in calling in a rental battery is due to
failure to repair the customer's battery, the rental charge should be reduced.
A rental battery should not be put in place of a battery which is almost ready for the
junk pile. The thing to do is to sell the customer a new battery. Repairs on an almost
worn out battery are expensive and the results may not be satisfactory.
RADIO BATTERIES
Page 317
The wide-awake battery man will not overlook the new and rapidly growing field
which has been opened for him by the installation of hundreds of thousands of radio-
phone receiving sets in all parts of the country. The so-called radio "craze" has
affected every state, and every battery repairman can increase his income to a
considerable extent by selling, charging, and repairing radio storage batteries.
The remarkable growth of the radio-phone has, of course, been due to the radio
broadcasting stations which have been established in all parts of the country, and from
which concerts, speeches, market reports, baseball reports, news reports, children's
stories and religious services are sent out. These broadcasting stations have sending
ranges as high as 1,000 miles. The fact that a service station is not located near a
broadcasting station is therefore no reason why it should not have its share of the
radio battery business, because the broadcasting stations are scattered all over the
United States, and receiving sets may be made powerful enough to "pick up" the
waves from at least one of the broadcasting stations.
Radio receiving sets may be divided into two general classes, the "Crystal" sets and
the "Bulb" sets. "Crystal" sets use crystals of galena (lead sulphide), silicon (a
crystalline form of silicon, one of the chemical elements), or carborundum (carbide of
silicon) to "detect" or, in other words, to rectify the incoming radio waves so that they
may be translated into sound by the telephone receivers. Receiving sets using these
crystals do not use a battery, but these sets are not very sensitive, and cannot "pick up"
weak waves. This means that crystal receiving sets must be used near the broadcasting
stations, before the waves have been weakened by traveling any considerable distance.
As a general rule, the radio-listener's first receiving set uses a crystal detector. Very
often it is difficult to obtain good results with such a set, and a more elaborate set is
obtained. Moreover, even if a crystal set does give good results, the owner of such a
set soon hears of friends who are able to hear concerts sent out from distance stations.
This gives him the desire to be able to hear such stations also and he then buys a
receiving set which uses the "audion-bulb" for detecting, or rectifying the incoming
waves.
The audion-bulb resembles an ordinary incandescent lamp. It contains three elements:
1. In the center of the bulb is a short tungsten filament, the ends of which are brought
out to two terminals in the base of the bulb. This filament must be heated to
incandescence, and a storage battery is required for this purpose, because it is
necessary to have a very steady current in order to obtain clear sounds in the receiver.
Lately plans have been suggested for using a direct current lighting line, and even an
alternating current lighting line for heating the filament, but at present such plans have
not been perfected, and the battery will undoubtedly continue to be used with the
majority of sets.
which has been opened for him by the installation of hundreds of thousands of radio-
phone receiving sets in all parts of the country. The so-called radio "craze" has
affected every state, and every battery repairman can increase his income to a
considerable extent by selling, charging, and repairing radio storage batteries.
The remarkable growth of the radio-phone has, of course, been due to the radio
broadcasting stations which have been established in all parts of the country, and from
which concerts, speeches, market reports, baseball reports, news reports, children's
stories and religious services are sent out. These broadcasting stations have sending
ranges as high as 1,000 miles. The fact that a service station is not located near a
broadcasting station is therefore no reason why it should not have its share of the
radio battery business, because the broadcasting stations are scattered all over the
United States, and receiving sets may be made powerful enough to "pick up" the
waves from at least one of the broadcasting stations.
Radio receiving sets may be divided into two general classes, the "Crystal" sets and
the "Bulb" sets. "Crystal" sets use crystals of galena (lead sulphide), silicon (a
crystalline form of silicon, one of the chemical elements), or carborundum (carbide of
silicon) to "detect" or, in other words, to rectify the incoming radio waves so that they
may be translated into sound by the telephone receivers. Receiving sets using these
crystals do not use a battery, but these sets are not very sensitive, and cannot "pick up"
weak waves. This means that crystal receiving sets must be used near the broadcasting
stations, before the waves have been weakened by traveling any considerable distance.
As a general rule, the radio-listener's first receiving set uses a crystal detector. Very
often it is difficult to obtain good results with such a set, and a more elaborate set is
obtained. Moreover, even if a crystal set does give good results, the owner of such a
set soon hears of friends who are able to hear concerts sent out from distance stations.
This gives him the desire to be able to hear such stations also and he then buys a
receiving set which uses the "audion-bulb" for detecting, or rectifying the incoming
waves.
The audion-bulb resembles an ordinary incandescent lamp. It contains three elements:
1. In the center of the bulb is a short tungsten filament, the ends of which are brought
out to two terminals in the base of the bulb. This filament must be heated to
incandescence, and a storage battery is required for this purpose, because it is
necessary to have a very steady current in order to obtain clear sounds in the receiver.
Lately plans have been suggested for using a direct current lighting line, and even an
alternating current lighting line for heating the filament, but at present such plans have
not been perfected, and the battery will undoubtedly continue to be used with the
majority of sets.
Page 318
2. Surrounding the filament but not touching it is a helix of wire, only one end of
which is brought out to a terminal in the base of the bulb. This helix is called the
"grid." In some bulbs the grid is not made in the form of a helix, but is made of two
flat gridlike structures, one on each side of the filament.
3. Surrounding the "grid" is the "plate" which is sometimes in the shape of a hollow
metallic cylinder. Some plates are not round, but may be oval, or they may be two flat
plates joined together at some point, and one placed on either side of the grid. The
plate has one terminal in the base of the bulb.
The action of an
audion-bulb is quite
complex, but a
simpler
explanation, though
one which may not
be exactly correct
from a purely
technical point of
view, is as follows,
referring to Figure
159:
The "A" battery
heats the filament,
causing a stream of
electrically charged
particles to flow out from the filament in all directions. These electrons act
as a conductor, and close the circuit which consists of the plate, the "B"
battery, and the telephone receivers, one end of this circuit being connected
to one side of the filament circuit. Current then flows from the positive
terminal of the "B" battery to the plate, then to the filament by means of the
stream of electrons emitted by the filament, along one side of the filament,
through the wire connected to the positive terminal of the "A" battery to the
telephone receivers, through the receivers to the negative terminal of the "B"
battery.
As long as the filament remains lighted a steady current flows through the above
circuit. The "grid" is connected to the aerial wire to intercept the radio waves. These
which is brought out to a terminal in the base of the bulb. This helix is called the
"grid." In some bulbs the grid is not made in the form of a helix, but is made of two
flat gridlike structures, one on each side of the filament.
3. Surrounding the "grid" is the "plate" which is sometimes in the shape of a hollow
metallic cylinder. Some plates are not round, but may be oval, or they may be two flat
plates joined together at some point, and one placed on either side of the grid. The
plate has one terminal in the base of the bulb.
The action of an
audion-bulb is quite
complex, but a
simpler
explanation, though
one which may not
be exactly correct
from a purely
technical point of
view, is as follows,
referring to Figure
159:
The "A" battery
heats the filament,
causing a stream of
electrically charged
particles to flow out from the filament in all directions. These electrons act
as a conductor, and close the circuit which consists of the plate, the "B"
battery, and the telephone receivers, one end of this circuit being connected
to one side of the filament circuit. Current then flows from the positive
terminal of the "B" battery to the plate, then to the filament by means of the
stream of electrons emitted by the filament, along one side of the filament,
through the wire connected to the positive terminal of the "A" battery to the
telephone receivers, through the receivers to the negative terminal of the "B"
battery.
As long as the filament remains lighted a steady current flows through the above
circuit. The "grid" is connected to the aerial wire to intercept the radio waves. These
Page 319
waves produce varying electrical charges on the grid. Since the stream of charged
particles emitted by the filament must pass through the grid to reach the plate, the
charges which the radio waves produce on the grid strengthen or weaken the stream of
electrons emitted by the filament, and thus vary the current flowing in the telephone
receiver circuit. The changes in this current cause the receiver diaphragm to vibrate,
the vibrations causing sounds to be heard. Since the variation in the telephone receiver
circuit is caused by electrical charges produced by the radio waves, and since the radio
waves change according to the sounds made at the transmitting station, the variations
in the telephone receiver current produces the same sounds that are sent out at the
transmitting station. In this way concerts, speeches, etc., are reproduced in the
receivers.
The modern radio receiving set includes various devices, such as variable condensers,
variocouplers, loose-couplers, variometers, the purpose of which is to "tune" or adjust
the receiving set to be capable of receiving the radio waves. An explanation of such
devices is not within the scope of this book, but there are numerous reasonably priced
books and pamphlets on the market which describes in a simple manner all the
component parts of a radio-receiving set.
From the foregoing remarks it is seen that a six-volt storage battery is required with
each receiving set which uses the audionbulb type detector. The filament current of an
audion-bulb averages about one ampere. If additional bulbs are used to obtain louder
sounds, each such bulb also draws one ampere from the storage battery. The standard
audion-bulb receiving set does not use more than three bulbs, and hence the maximum
current drawn from the battery does not exceed three amperes.
The automobile battery manufacturers have built special radio batteries which have
thick plates and thick separators to give longer life. The thick plates are much stronger
and more durable than the thin plates used in starting and lighting work, but do not
have the heavy current capacity that the starting and lighting battery plates have. A
high current capacity is, of course, not necessary for radio work, and hence thick
plates are used.
Batteries used for radio work do not operate under the severe conditions which exist
on automobiles, and trouble is much less likely to develop. However, the owner of the
radio set rarely has any means of keeping his battery charged, and his battery
gradually discharges and must then be recharged. It is in the sale of batteries for radio
work and in the recharging of them that the battery man can "cash-in" on the radio
phone "craze."
This business rightfully belongs to the automobile battery man and he should go after
it as hard as he can. A little advertising by the service station man, stating that he sells
radio batteries, and also recharges them should bring in: very profitable business. The
particles emitted by the filament must pass through the grid to reach the plate, the
charges which the radio waves produce on the grid strengthen or weaken the stream of
electrons emitted by the filament, and thus vary the current flowing in the telephone
receiver circuit. The changes in this current cause the receiver diaphragm to vibrate,
the vibrations causing sounds to be heard. Since the variation in the telephone receiver
circuit is caused by electrical charges produced by the radio waves, and since the radio
waves change according to the sounds made at the transmitting station, the variations
in the telephone receiver current produces the same sounds that are sent out at the
transmitting station. In this way concerts, speeches, etc., are reproduced in the
receivers.
The modern radio receiving set includes various devices, such as variable condensers,
variocouplers, loose-couplers, variometers, the purpose of which is to "tune" or adjust
the receiving set to be capable of receiving the radio waves. An explanation of such
devices is not within the scope of this book, but there are numerous reasonably priced
books and pamphlets on the market which describes in a simple manner all the
component parts of a radio-receiving set.
From the foregoing remarks it is seen that a six-volt storage battery is required with
each receiving set which uses the audionbulb type detector. The filament current of an
audion-bulb averages about one ampere. If additional bulbs are used to obtain louder
sounds, each such bulb also draws one ampere from the storage battery. The standard
audion-bulb receiving set does not use more than three bulbs, and hence the maximum
current drawn from the battery does not exceed three amperes.
The automobile battery manufacturers have built special radio batteries which have
thick plates and thick separators to give longer life. The thick plates are much stronger
and more durable than the thin plates used in starting and lighting work, but do not
have the heavy current capacity that the starting and lighting battery plates have. A
high current capacity is, of course, not necessary for radio work, and hence thick
plates are used.
Batteries used for radio work do not operate under the severe conditions which exist
on automobiles, and trouble is much less likely to develop. However, the owner of the
radio set rarely has any means of keeping his battery charged, and his battery
gradually discharges and must then be recharged. It is in the sale of batteries for radio
work and in the recharging of them that the battery man can "cash-in" on the radio
phone "craze."
This business rightfully belongs to the automobile battery man and he should go after
it as hard as he can. A little advertising by the service station man, stating that he sells
radio batteries, and also recharges them should bring in: very profitable business. The
Page 320
battery man who calls for and delivers the radio batteries which need recharging and
leaves rental batteries in their place so that there is no interruption in the reception of
the evening concerts is the one who will get the business.
As already stated, radio storage batteries have thick plates and thick separators.
Perforated rubber sheets are also used in addition to the separators. Large sediment
spaces are also generally provided to allow a considerable amount of sediment to
accumulate without causing short-circuits. The cases are made of wood or hard
rubber. Since radio batteries are used in homes and are, therefore, used with
handsomely finished cabinets containing the radio apparatus, the manufacturers give
the cases of some of their radio batteries a pleasing varnished or mahogany finish.
Before returning radio batteries which have been recharged, the entire batteries should
be cleaned and the cases polished. Returning radio batteries in a dirty condition, when
they were received clean, and polished, will drive the radio recharging business to
some other service station.
VESTA RADIO BATTERIES
The Vesta Battery Corporation manufacturers three special types of "A" batteries for
radio work, as follows:
1. The 6EA battery, made in capacities of 60, 80, and 100 ampere hours. Fig. 160.
2. The V6EA7 battery, having a capacity of 80 ampere hours. Fig. 161.
3. The R6EA battery, having a capacity of 100 ampere hours. Fig. 162.
leaves rental batteries in their place so that there is no interruption in the reception of
the evening concerts is the one who will get the business.
As already stated, radio storage batteries have thick plates and thick separators.
Perforated rubber sheets are also used in addition to the separators. Large sediment
spaces are also generally provided to allow a considerable amount of sediment to
accumulate without causing short-circuits. The cases are made of wood or hard
rubber. Since radio batteries are used in homes and are, therefore, used with
handsomely finished cabinets containing the radio apparatus, the manufacturers give
the cases of some of their radio batteries a pleasing varnished or mahogany finish.
Before returning radio batteries which have been recharged, the entire batteries should
be cleaned and the cases polished. Returning radio batteries in a dirty condition, when
they were received clean, and polished, will drive the radio recharging business to
some other service station.
VESTA RADIO BATTERIES
The Vesta Battery Corporation manufacturers three special types of "A" batteries for
radio work, as follows:
1. The 6EA battery, made in capacities of 60, 80, and 100 ampere hours. Fig. 160.
2. The V6EA7 battery, having a capacity of 80 ampere hours. Fig. 161.
3. The R6EA battery, having a capacity of 100 ampere hours. Fig. 162.
Page 321
Vesta Radio Batteries. Fig. 160 shows the 6EA Series, "A" Battery. Fig. 161 shows the
V6EA Series, "A" Battery. Fig. 162 shows the R6EA (Rubber Case) Series, "A"
Battery. Fig. 163 shows the "B" Battery.
These batteries have 5, 7, 9 plates per cell, respectively. The plates are each 5 inches
high, 5 7/8 inches wide, and 5/32 inches thick. The cases for these batteries are
furnished in three designs — plain black boxes (all sizes), finished maple boxes (7
plate size only), and hard rubber boxes (9 plate size only). These Vesta batteries are
the "A" batteries used for heating the filaments of the audion bulbs. The Vesta Radio
"B" battery, Fig. 163, is a 12 cell, 24 volt battery, with a 22 and a 20 volt tap.
EXIDE RADIO BATTERIES
V6EA Series, "A" Battery. Fig. 162 shows the R6EA (Rubber Case) Series, "A"
Battery. Fig. 163 shows the "B" Battery.
These batteries have 5, 7, 9 plates per cell, respectively. The plates are each 5 inches
high, 5 7/8 inches wide, and 5/32 inches thick. The cases for these batteries are
furnished in three designs — plain black boxes (all sizes), finished maple boxes (7
plate size only), and hard rubber boxes (9 plate size only). These Vesta batteries are
the "A" batteries used for heating the filaments of the audion bulbs. The Vesta Radio
"B" battery, Fig. 163, is a 12 cell, 24 volt battery, with a 22 and a 20 volt tap.
EXIDE RADIO BATTERIES
Page 322
The Exide Radio "A" battery, Fig. 164, is made in four sizes, the capacities ranging
from 20 to 120 ampere-hours. The design and construction of these batteries are
similar to the Exide starting batteries. The over-all height of these batteries is
approximately 95/8 inches, the width 7-5/16 inches, while the length varies with the
number of the plates.
Type Cat. No. Length Weight Capacity
20 amp.
3-LXL-3 13735 4-9/16 15-1/2 lbs.
hrs.
40 amp.
3-LXL-5 13736 5-11/16 24-1/2 lbs.
hrs.
80 amp.
3-LXL-9 13737 9-1/16 42-1/2 lbs.
hrs.
120 amp.
3-LXL-13 13750 12-7/16 59-1/2 lbs.
hrs.
WILLARD RADIO BATTERIES
The Willard Storage Battery Co. manufactures both "A" and "B" storage batteries. The
Willard "A" battery, Fig. 165, is an all-rubber battery. The case is a rubber
from 20 to 120 ampere-hours. The design and construction of these batteries are
similar to the Exide starting batteries. The over-all height of these batteries is
approximately 95/8 inches, the width 7-5/16 inches, while the length varies with the
number of the plates.
Type Cat. No. Length Weight Capacity
20 amp.
3-LXL-3 13735 4-9/16 15-1/2 lbs.
hrs.
40 amp.
3-LXL-5 13736 5-11/16 24-1/2 lbs.
hrs.
80 amp.
3-LXL-9 13737 9-1/16 42-1/2 lbs.
hrs.
120 amp.
3-LXL-13 13750 12-7/16 59-1/2 lbs.
hrs.
WILLARD RADIO BATTERIES
The Willard Storage Battery Co. manufactures both "A" and "B" storage batteries. The
Willard "A" battery, Fig. 165, is an all-rubber battery. The case is a rubber
Page 323
"Monobloc" construction, that is, the entire case is pressed into shape at one time.
There are no separate jars for the cells, there being rubber partitions which form
integral parts of the case. The case is, therefore, really a solid, one piece, three
compartment jar. The ribs at the bottoms of the compartments are parts of the one-
piece block, and are higher than those found in the usual starting and lighting battery.
Embedded in each side wall of the case is a bronze button which holds the handle in
place. Soft rubber gaskets of pure gum rubber surround the post to make an acid proof
seal to prevent electrolyte from seeping from the cells. The separators are the standard
Willard "Threaded Rubber" separators.
Willard Radio Batteries. Fig. 165 shows the All-Rubber "A" Battery. Fig. 166 shows
the complete "B" Battery. Fig. 167 shows one cell of the "B" Battery.
The Willard "A" battery comes in five sizes, type WRR97 (20 ampere hours capacity),
type WRRO (50 ampere hours capacity), type WRR1 (89 ampere hours capacity),
type WRR2 (100 ampere hours capacity), and type WRR3 (125 ampere hours
capacity).
The Willard "B" storage battery, type CBR124, Figs. 166 and 167, is a twelve cell
battery, each cell consisting of a round glass container having one negative and one
positive plate insulated from each other by a small "Threaded Rubber" separator. The
plates and separators rest on a hard rubber "bottom rest" which consists of a short
length of hard rubber tube, so formed as to support the plates and separators and at the
same time hold them together. The cells are assembled in a case which has a separate
compartment for each cell. As seen from Fig, 166, the upper parts of the cells project
above the top of the case, which simplifies inspection.
There are no separate jars for the cells, there being rubber partitions which form
integral parts of the case. The case is, therefore, really a solid, one piece, three
compartment jar. The ribs at the bottoms of the compartments are parts of the one-
piece block, and are higher than those found in the usual starting and lighting battery.
Embedded in each side wall of the case is a bronze button which holds the handle in
place. Soft rubber gaskets of pure gum rubber surround the post to make an acid proof
seal to prevent electrolyte from seeping from the cells. The separators are the standard
Willard "Threaded Rubber" separators.
Willard Radio Batteries. Fig. 165 shows the All-Rubber "A" Battery. Fig. 166 shows
the complete "B" Battery. Fig. 167 shows one cell of the "B" Battery.
The Willard "A" battery comes in five sizes, type WRR97 (20 ampere hours capacity),
type WRRO (50 ampere hours capacity), type WRR1 (89 ampere hours capacity),
type WRR2 (100 ampere hours capacity), and type WRR3 (125 ampere hours
capacity).
The Willard "B" storage battery, type CBR124, Figs. 166 and 167, is a twelve cell
battery, each cell consisting of a round glass container having one negative and one
positive plate insulated from each other by a small "Threaded Rubber" separator. The
plates and separators rest on a hard rubber "bottom rest" which consists of a short
length of hard rubber tube, so formed as to support the plates and separators and at the
same time hold them together. The cells are assembled in a case which has a separate
compartment for each cell. As seen from Fig, 166, the upper parts of the cells project
above the top of the case, which simplifies inspection.
Page 324
WESTINGHOUSE RADIO BATTERIES
The Westinghouse Union Battery Co. manufactures both "A" and "B" storage
batteries. Their "ER" type, Fig. 168, is the "A" battery, and their "L" and "M" types,
Figs. 169 and 170, are the "B" batteries. The HR battery has 3/16 inch thick plates,
high rests to provide ample mud and acid space, and thick separators. Rubber sheets
are placed on both sides of the positive plates. Rubber covered cables are moulded
into the terminals to minimize corrosion at the positive terminal. The "HR" batteries
are made in six and eight volt sizes, with 3 plates per cell, 5 plates per cell, 9 plates
per cell, and 13 plates per cell.
The Westinghouse Union Battery Co. manufactures both "A" and "B" storage
batteries. Their "ER" type, Fig. 168, is the "A" battery, and their "L" and "M" types,
Figs. 169 and 170, are the "B" batteries. The HR battery has 3/16 inch thick plates,
high rests to provide ample mud and acid space, and thick separators. Rubber sheets
are placed on both sides of the positive plates. Rubber covered cables are moulded
into the terminals to minimize corrosion at the positive terminal. The "HR" batteries
are made in six and eight volt sizes, with 3 plates per cell, 5 plates per cell, 9 plates
per cell, and 13 plates per cell.
Page 325
The Westinghouse Radio "B" batteries are made in two sizes. Type 22-M-2, Fig. 170,
has a capacity of 1.2 ampere hours at 0.04 ampere. It is designed to operate a
receiving set having one detector and two amplifier bulbs for three to five weeks
between charges. The type 22-L-2 battery, Fig. 169, has a capacity of 4.5 ampere
hours at 0.25 ampere.
Amp. Hours at 3 Amps.
Part No. Type Volts Weight
Intermittent Rate
100110 6-HR-5 6 54 A.H. 30 Lbs.
100111 6-HR-9 6 108 A.H. 46 Lbs.
100112 6-HR-13 6 162 A.H. 65 Lbs.
100135 8-HR-5 8 54 A.H. 40 Lbs.
100136 8-HR-9 8 108 A.H. 60 Lbs.
100137 8-HR-13 8 162 A.H. 87 Lbs.
100145 6-HR-3 6 27 A.H. 20 Lbs.
Part No. Type Volts Capacity Weight
100148 22-M-2 22 1.2 A.H. at .04 Amps. 6-1/4 Lbs.
100140 22-L-2 22 1.2 A.H. at 25 Amps. 19-3/4 Lbs.
PHILADELHIA RADIO BATTERIES
has a capacity of 1.2 ampere hours at 0.04 ampere. It is designed to operate a
receiving set having one detector and two amplifier bulbs for three to five weeks
between charges. The type 22-L-2 battery, Fig. 169, has a capacity of 4.5 ampere
hours at 0.25 ampere.
Amp. Hours at 3 Amps.
Part No. Type Volts Weight
Intermittent Rate
100110 6-HR-5 6 54 A.H. 30 Lbs.
100111 6-HR-9 6 108 A.H. 46 Lbs.
100112 6-HR-13 6 162 A.H. 65 Lbs.
100135 8-HR-5 8 54 A.H. 40 Lbs.
100136 8-HR-9 8 108 A.H. 60 Lbs.
100137 8-HR-13 8 162 A.H. 87 Lbs.
100145 6-HR-3 6 27 A.H. 20 Lbs.
Part No. Type Volts Capacity Weight
100148 22-M-2 22 1.2 A.H. at .04 Amps. 6-1/4 Lbs.
100140 22-L-2 22 1.2 A.H. at 25 Amps. 19-3/4 Lbs.
PHILADELHIA RADIO BATTERIES
Page 326
The Philadelphia Storage Battery Co. makes both "A" and "B" Radio batteries. The
"A" battery, Fig. 171, uses the standard diamond-grid plates, and the "Philco Slotted
Retainer" used in Philadelphia starting batteries. The cases of the "A" batteries are
made of hardwood, finished in an ebonite black. Soft rubber insulating feet on the
bottom of the case prevent scratching any table or varnished floor on which the
battery may be set. The instructions for preparing the Philadelphia "A" battery for
service are similar to those given for the starting and lighting batteries, given on page
228. For the initial filling, 1.220 electolyte is used, and the battery charged at the
following rates:
Initial and Recharge Charging Rate
Type Initial Rate Recharge Rate
56LAR 1.0 2
56RAR 2.0 3
76RAR 3.0 4.5
96RAR 4.0 6
116RAR 5.6 7.5
136RAR 6.0 9
The final gravity of the electrolyte should be 1.250. However, if the owner insists on
getting maximum capacity, the battery may be filled with 1.250 electrolyte and
"A" battery, Fig. 171, uses the standard diamond-grid plates, and the "Philco Slotted
Retainer" used in Philadelphia starting batteries. The cases of the "A" batteries are
made of hardwood, finished in an ebonite black. Soft rubber insulating feet on the
bottom of the case prevent scratching any table or varnished floor on which the
battery may be set. The instructions for preparing the Philadelphia "A" battery for
service are similar to those given for the starting and lighting batteries, given on page
228. For the initial filling, 1.220 electolyte is used, and the battery charged at the
following rates:
Initial and Recharge Charging Rate
Type Initial Rate Recharge Rate
56LAR 1.0 2
56RAR 2.0 3
76RAR 3.0 4.5
96RAR 4.0 6
116RAR 5.6 7.5
136RAR 6.0 9
The final gravity of the electrolyte should be 1.250. However, if the owner insists on
getting maximum capacity, the battery may be filled with 1.250 electrolyte and
Page 327
balanced to 1.290 at the end of the charge.
The Philadelphia Radio "B" battery, type 224-RB, Fig. 172, has 12 cells contained in a
one-piece rubber case. It is shipped dry, and requires no initial charge. To prepare it
for service, the soft rubber vent caps are removed and 25 c. c. of 1.250 electrolyte
poured into each cell.
U. S. L. RADIO BATTERY
The U. S. L. Radio "A" battery, Fig. 173, uses 1/4 inch positives, with 3/16 inch
intermediate and 1/8 inch outside negatives. Port Orford cedar separators are used
which are four times as thick as the usual starting battery separator. The case is made
of hardwood, and is varnished to match cabinet work. The electrolyte has a specific
gravity of 1.220. The heavy plates and separators and the low gravity of the
electrolyte are designed to give long life.
The Philadelphia Radio "B" battery, type 224-RB, Fig. 172, has 12 cells contained in a
one-piece rubber case. It is shipped dry, and requires no initial charge. To prepare it
for service, the soft rubber vent caps are removed and 25 c. c. of 1.250 electrolyte
poured into each cell.
U. S. L. RADIO BATTERY
The U. S. L. Radio "A" battery, Fig. 173, uses 1/4 inch positives, with 3/16 inch
intermediate and 1/8 inch outside negatives. Port Orford cedar separators are used
which are four times as thick as the usual starting battery separator. The case is made
of hardwood, and is varnished to match cabinet work. The electrolyte has a specific
gravity of 1.220. The heavy plates and separators and the low gravity of the
electrolyte are designed to give long life.
Page 328
Ampere
Ampere Hour
Plates Hour Capacity
Type per Capacity @ 1 Amperes Dimensions Weight
Cell @3 (or
Amperes intermittent
use)
DXA- 5-3/16 x 7-
3 12 20 18
303-X 1/4 x 9-1/4
DXA- 9-1/8 x 7-1/4
5 40 60 39
305-X x 9-1/4
DXA- 11-3/4 x 7-
7 70 85 48
307-X 7/16 x 9-1/4
DXA- 14-3/8 x 7-
9 98 115 59
309-X 7/16 x 9-1/4
PREST-O-LITE RADIO BATTERIES
The Prest-O-Lite Co. makes two lines of Radio "A" Batteries. First, an inexpensive
battery, Fig. 174, and a deluxe battery, Fig. 175, which has a better finish and
appearance. Both types have a mahogany finished case with rubber feet to prevent
damaging furniture. A bail handle simplifies the carrying of the battery. Capacities
range from 47 ampere-hours to 127 ampere-hours at a one ampere discharge rate.
Ampere Hour
Plates Hour Capacity
Type per Capacity @ 1 Amperes Dimensions Weight
Cell @3 (or
Amperes intermittent
use)
DXA- 5-3/16 x 7-
3 12 20 18
303-X 1/4 x 9-1/4
DXA- 9-1/8 x 7-1/4
5 40 60 39
305-X x 9-1/4
DXA- 11-3/4 x 7-
7 70 85 48
307-X 7/16 x 9-1/4
DXA- 14-3/8 x 7-
9 98 115 59
309-X 7/16 x 9-1/4
PREST-O-LITE RADIO BATTERIES
The Prest-O-Lite Co. makes two lines of Radio "A" Batteries. First, an inexpensive
battery, Fig. 174, and a deluxe battery, Fig. 175, which has a better finish and
appearance. Both types have a mahogany finished case with rubber feet to prevent
damaging furniture. A bail handle simplifies the carrying of the battery. Capacities
range from 47 ampere-hours to 127 ampere-hours at a one ampere discharge rate.
Page 329
Table of Prest-O-Lite Radio Batteries
Hours Discharge at Rate of:
Type 1 Amp. 2 Amps. 3 Amps. 5 Amps. 10 Amps.
67 WHNR 47.5 21.7 13.6 7.5 3.0
69 WHNR 66 30 18.9 10.5 4.5
611 WHNR 82.8 38.5 24.3 13.5 6.0
67 KPNR 95 44.2 27.8 15.0 6.5
69 KPNR 127 61.5 38.5 21.5 9.5
UNIVERSAL RADIO BATTERIES
The Universal Battery Co. manufacture three types of Radio "A" storage
batteries. Type WR, Fig. 176, has three sealed hard rubber jars assembled in a
Hours Discharge at Rate of:
Type 1 Amp. 2 Amps. 3 Amps. 5 Amps. 10 Amps.
67 WHNR 47.5 21.7 13.6 7.5 3.0
69 WHNR 66 30 18.9 10.5 4.5
611 WHNR 82.8 38.5 24.3 13.5 6.0
67 KPNR 95 44.2 27.8 15.0 6.5
69 KPNR 127 61.5 38.5 21.5 9.5
UNIVERSAL RADIO BATTERIES
The Universal Battery Co. manufacture three types of Radio "A" storage
batteries. Type WR, Fig. 176, has three sealed hard rubber jars assembled in a
Page 330
hardwood case which
is stained and finished
in mahogany. The
separators are made of
Port Orford cedar and
are 1/8 inch thick,
about twice the
thickness of the
separator used in
starting and lighting
batteries. The plates
also are much thicker
than the standard
starting and lighting
battery plate. The type
WR battery comes in
three sizes. Types WR-
5, WR-7, and WR-9,
having capacities of 60, 85, and 105 ampere hours, respectively, at a 3 ampere
rate.
The Universal type RR radio "A" battery, Fig. 177, is assembled in a hard rubber
combination case, which is a solid piece of rubber divided into three compartments.
This gives a compact, acid proof case. This battery also comes in three sizes, types
RR-5, RR-7, and RR-9, having capacities of 60, 85 and 105 ampere hours,
respectively, at a three ampere discharge rate.
is stained and finished
in mahogany. The
separators are made of
Port Orford cedar and
are 1/8 inch thick,
about twice the
thickness of the
separator used in
starting and lighting
batteries. The plates
also are much thicker
than the standard
starting and lighting
battery plate. The type
WR battery comes in
three sizes. Types WR-
5, WR-7, and WR-9,
having capacities of 60, 85, and 105 ampere hours, respectively, at a 3 ampere
rate.
The Universal type RR radio "A" battery, Fig. 177, is assembled in a hard rubber
combination case, which is a solid piece of rubber divided into three compartments.
This gives a compact, acid proof case. This battery also comes in three sizes, types
RR-5, RR-7, and RR-9, having capacities of 60, 85 and 105 ampere hours,
respectively, at a three ampere discharge rate.
Page 331
Page 332
The Universal type GR radio "A" battery, Fig. 178, is assembled in three sealed glass
jars which are placed in a mahogany finished wooden crate. This construction makes
the cell interiors visible, enabling the owner to detect troubles and to watch the action
of the cells on charge and discharge. The GR battery comes in two sizes, GR-5 and
GR-Jr., having respective capacities of 60 and 16 ampere hours at a 3 ampere
discharge rate.
"DRY" STORAGE BATTERIES
During the past year or two, so-called "dry" starting and lighting storage batteries
have appeared on the market. This class includes batteries having "dry," "semi-dry,"
and "jelly" electrolytes. The claims made for these batteries are that there is nothing to
evaporate and that the periodical addition of water is therefore unnecessary, that
spilling and slopping of electrolyte is impossible, and that injurious sulphation does
not take place.
The "dry" storage battery is not a new idea, for as much as thirty-five years ago, the
Oerlikon Company of Switzerland manufactured "dry" electrolyte storage batteries in
commercial quantities. These batteries were for a long time a distinct success for work
requiring only low rates of discharge. For high rates of discharge the lack of diffusion,
due to the absence of a liquid electrolyte, reduces the capacity. The lack of diffusion
will cause a rapid drop in voltage when cranking the engine! and a slow recovery after
the engine begins to run under its own power.
The manufacturers of the "dry" storage batteries, of course, claim that their batteries
are more efficient and satisfactory than the standard "wet" battery, but it has been
impossible to get sufficient data from the manufacturers to go into detail on the
subject.
Several of the largest of "wet" battery manufacturers formerly made "dry" storage
batteries for lighting and ignition service, but when starting motors came into use,
discarded the "dry" batteries in favor of the present "wet" storage batteries.
DISCHARGE TESTS
Discharge tests may be divided into four general classes:
(a) Brief High Rate Discharge Tests to determine condition of battery. These tests
are made for 15 seconds at a high rate.
(b) Lighting Ability Discharge Tests.
(c) Starting Ability Discharge Tests.
jars which are placed in a mahogany finished wooden crate. This construction makes
the cell interiors visible, enabling the owner to detect troubles and to watch the action
of the cells on charge and discharge. The GR battery comes in two sizes, GR-5 and
GR-Jr., having respective capacities of 60 and 16 ampere hours at a 3 ampere
discharge rate.
"DRY" STORAGE BATTERIES
During the past year or two, so-called "dry" starting and lighting storage batteries
have appeared on the market. This class includes batteries having "dry," "semi-dry,"
and "jelly" electrolytes. The claims made for these batteries are that there is nothing to
evaporate and that the periodical addition of water is therefore unnecessary, that
spilling and slopping of electrolyte is impossible, and that injurious sulphation does
not take place.
The "dry" storage battery is not a new idea, for as much as thirty-five years ago, the
Oerlikon Company of Switzerland manufactured "dry" electrolyte storage batteries in
commercial quantities. These batteries were for a long time a distinct success for work
requiring only low rates of discharge. For high rates of discharge the lack of diffusion,
due to the absence of a liquid electrolyte, reduces the capacity. The lack of diffusion
will cause a rapid drop in voltage when cranking the engine! and a slow recovery after
the engine begins to run under its own power.
The manufacturers of the "dry" storage batteries, of course, claim that their batteries
are more efficient and satisfactory than the standard "wet" battery, but it has been
impossible to get sufficient data from the manufacturers to go into detail on the
subject.
Several of the largest of "wet" battery manufacturers formerly made "dry" storage
batteries for lighting and ignition service, but when starting motors came into use,
discarded the "dry" batteries in favor of the present "wet" storage batteries.
DISCHARGE TESTS
Discharge tests may be divided into four general classes:
(a) Brief High Rate Discharge Tests to determine condition of battery. These tests
are made for 15 seconds at a high rate.
(b) Lighting Ability Discharge Tests.
(c) Starting Ability Discharge Tests.
Page 333
(d) "Cycling" Discharge Tests.
The 15 Seconds High Rate Discharge Test
The 15 seconds high rate discharge test is a valuable aid in determining the condition
of a battery, particularly where the hydrometer readings give false indications, such as
is the case when electrolyte or acid is added to a cell instead of water to replace
evaporation. Only two or three percent of the battery capacity is consumed by the test,
and it is not usually necessary to recharge the battery after making the test. The test
must be made in conjunction with hydrometer readings, as otherwise it might give
false indications itself. Both incoming and outgoing batteries may be tested, and the
method of testing depends upon whether the battery is coming in for repairs, or is
going out after having been charged, repaired, or worked on in any way. In either case,
the test consists of discharging the battery at a high rate for a short time, and taking
voltage readings and making observations while the battery is discharging.
Rates of Discharge. It
is not necessary to have
any definitely fixed
discharge rate. The rate
should merely be high
enough to reveal any
improperly burned
joints, short-circuited
cells, or cells low in
capacity for any reason.
The discharge tester is
suitable for all batteries
used on cars and trucks.
For an Incoming
Battery. Take a
hydrometer reading of
each cell. If the
readings are all below 1.200 and are within 50 points of each other, most
likely all the battery needs is a bench charge, with a possible adjustment of
the gravity of the electrolyte at the end of the charge. The discharge test
should in this case be made after the battery has been fully charged.
The 15 Seconds High Rate Discharge Test
The 15 seconds high rate discharge test is a valuable aid in determining the condition
of a battery, particularly where the hydrometer readings give false indications, such as
is the case when electrolyte or acid is added to a cell instead of water to replace
evaporation. Only two or three percent of the battery capacity is consumed by the test,
and it is not usually necessary to recharge the battery after making the test. The test
must be made in conjunction with hydrometer readings, as otherwise it might give
false indications itself. Both incoming and outgoing batteries may be tested, and the
method of testing depends upon whether the battery is coming in for repairs, or is
going out after having been charged, repaired, or worked on in any way. In either case,
the test consists of discharging the battery at a high rate for a short time, and taking
voltage readings and making observations while the battery is discharging.
Rates of Discharge. It
is not necessary to have
any definitely fixed
discharge rate. The rate
should merely be high
enough to reveal any
improperly burned
joints, short-circuited
cells, or cells low in
capacity for any reason.
The discharge tester is
suitable for all batteries
used on cars and trucks.
For an Incoming
Battery. Take a
hydrometer reading of
each cell. If the
readings are all below 1.200 and are within 50 points of each other, most
likely all the battery needs is a bench charge, with a possible adjustment of
the gravity of the electrolyte at the end of the charge. The discharge test
should in this case be made after the battery has been fully charged.
Page 334
If the gravity readings are all above 1.200, or if the reading of one cell
differs from the others by 50 points or more, make the discharge test, as
shown in Fig. 179.
After fifteen seconds, read the voltage of each cell. If the cells are uniformly low in
voltage; that is, below 1.5 volts per cell, the battery needs recharging. If the voltage
readings of the cells differ by 0.1.0 volt or more and the battery is fairly well charged,
there is something wrong in the cell having the low reading, and the battery should be
opened and examined. With a discharged battery the difference in cell voltage will be
greater, depending on the extent of the discharge, and only experience can guide in
drawing correct conclusions. A short-circuited cell will give a very low voltage
reading. Remember that the actual voltage reading is not as important in indicating a
defective cell as the difference between the voltage readings of the cells. A cell which
gives a voltage which is 0.1 volt or more less than the others is generally defective.
For Outgoing New, Charged, or Repaired Batteries. Just before putting the battery
into service, make the test as a check on the internal condition of the battery,
particularly if the battery has been repaired or has stood for sometime since being
charged. (It is assumed that the battery has been charged and the gravity of the
electrolyte properly adjusted when the test is made.)
The battery should not show more than 0.10 volt difference between any two cells at
the end of 15 seconds, and no cell should show a voltage less than 1.75 volts, and the
voltage should remain fairly constant during the test. If every cell reads below 1.75
volts, the battery has not been completely charged. If one cell is more than 0.10 volt
lower than the others, or if its voltage falls off rapidly, that cell still needs repairs, or is
insufficiently charged, or else the top connectors are not burned on properly. Top
connectors which heat up during the test are not burned on properly.
Lighting Ability Discharge Tests
These are tests continuing for 5 hours to a final voltage of 1.7 per cell. These tests are
not of as great an interest as the Starting Ability Tests, description of which follows:
Starting Ability Discharge Tests
The Society of Automotive Engineers recommends two ratings for starting and
lighting batteries:
"Batteries for combined lighting and starting service shall have two ratings. The first
shall indicate the lighting ability and be the capacity in ampere-hours of the battery
when discharged continuously at the 5 hour rate to a final voltage of not less than 1.7
differs from the others by 50 points or more, make the discharge test, as
shown in Fig. 179.
After fifteen seconds, read the voltage of each cell. If the cells are uniformly low in
voltage; that is, below 1.5 volts per cell, the battery needs recharging. If the voltage
readings of the cells differ by 0.1.0 volt or more and the battery is fairly well charged,
there is something wrong in the cell having the low reading, and the battery should be
opened and examined. With a discharged battery the difference in cell voltage will be
greater, depending on the extent of the discharge, and only experience can guide in
drawing correct conclusions. A short-circuited cell will give a very low voltage
reading. Remember that the actual voltage reading is not as important in indicating a
defective cell as the difference between the voltage readings of the cells. A cell which
gives a voltage which is 0.1 volt or more less than the others is generally defective.
For Outgoing New, Charged, or Repaired Batteries. Just before putting the battery
into service, make the test as a check on the internal condition of the battery,
particularly if the battery has been repaired or has stood for sometime since being
charged. (It is assumed that the battery has been charged and the gravity of the
electrolyte properly adjusted when the test is made.)
The battery should not show more than 0.10 volt difference between any two cells at
the end of 15 seconds, and no cell should show a voltage less than 1.75 volts, and the
voltage should remain fairly constant during the test. If every cell reads below 1.75
volts, the battery has not been completely charged. If one cell is more than 0.10 volt
lower than the others, or if its voltage falls off rapidly, that cell still needs repairs, or is
insufficiently charged, or else the top connectors are not burned on properly. Top
connectors which heat up during the test are not burned on properly.
Lighting Ability Discharge Tests
These are tests continuing for 5 hours to a final voltage of 1.7 per cell. These tests are
not of as great an interest as the Starting Ability Tests, description of which follows:
Starting Ability Discharge Tests
The Society of Automotive Engineers recommends two ratings for starting and
lighting batteries:
"Batteries for combined lighting and starting service shall have two ratings. The first
shall indicate the lighting ability and be the capacity in ampere-hours of the battery
when discharged continuously at the 5 hour rate to a final voltage of not less than 1.7
Page 335
per cell, the temperature of the battery beginning such a discharge being 80 deg. Fahr.
The second rating shall indicate the starting ability and shall be the capacity in
ampere-hours when the battery is discharged continuously at the 20 minute rate to a
final voltage of not less than 1.50 per cell, the temperature of the battery beginning
such discharge being 80 deg. Fahr."
The capacity in ampere-hours given by manufacturers is for a continuous discharge
for 5 hours. In the battery shop, however, the "starting-ability" discharge test is the test
which should be made, though the conditions of the test are changed somewhat. To
make this test, the battery should be fully charged. Connect a rheostat to the battery
terminals and adjust the rheostat to draw about 100 amperes from an 11 plate battery,
120 amperes from a 13 plate battery, 135 amperes from a 15 plate battery, 155
amperes from a 17 plate battery, 170 amperes from a 19 plate battery and so on.
Continue the discharge for 20 minutes, keeping the discharge current constant, and
taking voltage readings of each cell at the start, and at the end of 5, 10, 15, and 20
minutes. At the end of 20 minutes, if the battery is in good condition, the voltage of
each cell should not be less than 1.5, and the temperature of the electrolyte in any cell
should not exceed 95 degrees Fahrenheit, provided that the temperature at the start
was about 80 degrees.
The cell voltages should drop slowly during the test. If the voltage begins to drop
rapidly during the test, as shown by the current falling off so rapidly that it is difficult
to keep it at 100 amperes, measure the cell voltages quickly to see which cells are
dropping rapidly. An example of a 100 ampere test on a good rebuilt cell with eleven
plates is as follows:
Voltage immediately after start of discharge, 1.88. After 5 minutes, 1.86 volts. After
10 minutes, 1.80 volts. After 15 minutes, 1.72 volts. After 20 minutes, 1.5 volts.
If the voltage of a cell begins to fall off rapidly before the twenty minutes are up, but
not before 15 minutes, the cell needs "cycling" (charging and discharging) to bring it
up to capacity.
If the voltage drops rapidly before the end of 15 minutes, the plates are low in
capacity, due to age, or some defect. It is not safe to expect very good service from a
cell which will not stand up for 20 minutes before de voltage begins to drop rapidly.
If the rapid voltage drop begins very much before 20 minutes, it is very doubtful
whether the battery will give good service. Comparisons of the results of tests with the
service which the battery gives after installed on the car will soon enable the
repairman to tell from the results of the tests just what to expect from any battery.
The second rating shall indicate the starting ability and shall be the capacity in
ampere-hours when the battery is discharged continuously at the 20 minute rate to a
final voltage of not less than 1.50 per cell, the temperature of the battery beginning
such discharge being 80 deg. Fahr."
The capacity in ampere-hours given by manufacturers is for a continuous discharge
for 5 hours. In the battery shop, however, the "starting-ability" discharge test is the test
which should be made, though the conditions of the test are changed somewhat. To
make this test, the battery should be fully charged. Connect a rheostat to the battery
terminals and adjust the rheostat to draw about 100 amperes from an 11 plate battery,
120 amperes from a 13 plate battery, 135 amperes from a 15 plate battery, 155
amperes from a 17 plate battery, 170 amperes from a 19 plate battery and so on.
Continue the discharge for 20 minutes, keeping the discharge current constant, and
taking voltage readings of each cell at the start, and at the end of 5, 10, 15, and 20
minutes. At the end of 20 minutes, if the battery is in good condition, the voltage of
each cell should not be less than 1.5, and the temperature of the electrolyte in any cell
should not exceed 95 degrees Fahrenheit, provided that the temperature at the start
was about 80 degrees.
The cell voltages should drop slowly during the test. If the voltage begins to drop
rapidly during the test, as shown by the current falling off so rapidly that it is difficult
to keep it at 100 amperes, measure the cell voltages quickly to see which cells are
dropping rapidly. An example of a 100 ampere test on a good rebuilt cell with eleven
plates is as follows:
Voltage immediately after start of discharge, 1.88. After 5 minutes, 1.86 volts. After
10 minutes, 1.80 volts. After 15 minutes, 1.72 volts. After 20 minutes, 1.5 volts.
If the voltage of a cell begins to fall off rapidly before the twenty minutes are up, but
not before 15 minutes, the cell needs "cycling" (charging and discharging) to bring it
up to capacity.
If the voltage drops rapidly before the end of 15 minutes, the plates are low in
capacity, due to age, or some defect. It is not safe to expect very good service from a
cell which will not stand up for 20 minutes before de voltage begins to drop rapidly.
If the rapid voltage drop begins very much before 20 minutes, it is very doubtful
whether the battery will give good service. Comparisons of the results of tests with the
service which the battery gives after installed on the car will soon enable the
repairman to tell from the results of the tests just what to expect from any battery.
Page 336
The "starting-ability" test should be made on all batteries which have been rebuilt
whenever there is time to do so and on all batteries about which there is any doubt as
to what service they will give. After the test, the batteries should be put on the line
again and charged before sending them out.
The rates of discharge given here for the "starting-ability" tests may be varied if
experience with a particular make of battery shows some other rate to be better. The
important thing is to use the same rate of discharge for the same make and type of
battery at all times. In this way the repairman will soon be able to distinguish between
good and bad batteries of a particular make and type.
Cadmium Tests may be made during the Starting Ability Discharge Tests. See page
174.
"Cycling" Discharge Tests
New batteries, or rebuilt batteries which have had new plates installed, or sulphated
batteries which will not "come up" on charge, should be discharged when they have
"come-up," as far as they will go. In some cases it is necessary to charge and
discharge them several times before they will be ready for service. This charging and
discharging is often called "cycling" the battery.
New batteries are generally "cycled" at the factory before sending them out. The
forming charge generally does not convert all the pastes into active material and the
battery using plates which have been treated in the forming room is put through
several discharges and charges after the battery is fully assembled. In service on a car,
the battery is being "cycled" constantly and there is generally an increase in capacity
after a battery is put on a car. Positive plates naturally increase in capacity, sometimes
up to the very clay when they fall to pieces, while negatives tend to lose capacity with
age.
Batteries which are assembled in the service station, using new plates, generally
require several cycles of charge and discharge before the specific gravity will rise to
1.280 before the positives will give 2.4-2.5 volts on a Cadmium test, before the
negatives will give a reversed voltage reading of 0.175 to 0.20 volt on a Cadmium
test, and before a satisfactory "starting-ability" or "breakdown" test can be made.
A battery which has been abused by failing to add water to replace evaporation, by
allowing to remain in a partially or completely discharged condition for sometime, or
which has been allowed to become sulphated in any other way, will generally require
"cycling" before it will "come-up" to a serviceable condition.
whenever there is time to do so and on all batteries about which there is any doubt as
to what service they will give. After the test, the batteries should be put on the line
again and charged before sending them out.
The rates of discharge given here for the "starting-ability" tests may be varied if
experience with a particular make of battery shows some other rate to be better. The
important thing is to use the same rate of discharge for the same make and type of
battery at all times. In this way the repairman will soon be able to distinguish between
good and bad batteries of a particular make and type.
Cadmium Tests may be made during the Starting Ability Discharge Tests. See page
174.
"Cycling" Discharge Tests
New batteries, or rebuilt batteries which have had new plates installed, or sulphated
batteries which will not "come up" on charge, should be discharged when they have
"come-up," as far as they will go. In some cases it is necessary to charge and
discharge them several times before they will be ready for service. This charging and
discharging is often called "cycling" the battery.
New batteries are generally "cycled" at the factory before sending them out. The
forming charge generally does not convert all the pastes into active material and the
battery using plates which have been treated in the forming room is put through
several discharges and charges after the battery is fully assembled. In service on a car,
the battery is being "cycled" constantly and there is generally an increase in capacity
after a battery is put on a car. Positive plates naturally increase in capacity, sometimes
up to the very clay when they fall to pieces, while negatives tend to lose capacity with
age.
Batteries which are assembled in the service station, using new plates, generally
require several cycles of charge and discharge before the specific gravity will rise to
1.280 before the positives will give 2.4-2.5 volts on a Cadmium test, before the
negatives will give a reversed voltage reading of 0.175 to 0.20 volt on a Cadmium
test, and before a satisfactory "starting-ability" or "breakdown" test can be made.
A battery which has been abused by failing to add water to replace evaporation, by
allowing to remain in a partially or completely discharged condition for sometime, or
which has been allowed to become sulphated in any other way, will generally require
"cycling" before it will "come-up" to a serviceable condition.
Page 337
The rates for a "cycling" discharge should be such that the battery will be discharged
during the daytime, the discharge being started in the morning, and the battery being
put back oil the charging line in the evening in order that it may be charging during
the night. The rate of discharge should be somewhat higher than the rate used when
the plates are formed. Two or three amperes per positive plate in each cell will
generally be satisfactory.
Discharge Apparatus
A simple discharge rheostat is shown in Fig. 180. The terminal on the end of the cable
attached to the right hand terminal of the battery shown in the illustration is movable,
and it may be clamped at any point along the coils of wire so as to give various
currents. The wire should be greased lightly to prevent rusting.
Another simple apparatus consists of a board on which are mounted six double
contact automobile lamp sockets which are all connected in parallel. A pair of leads
having test clips attached is brought out from the sockets for fastening to the battery
terminals. Lamps of various candlepower may be turned into the sockets to obtain
different currents.
Discharge tests are helpful in the case of a battery that has lost capacity. The battery is
first fully charged, and is then discharged at the 5 hour rate. When the voltage of the
battery has fallen to 1.7 volts per cell (measured while the battery is discharging) a
during the daytime, the discharge being started in the morning, and the battery being
put back oil the charging line in the evening in order that it may be charging during
the night. The rate of discharge should be somewhat higher than the rate used when
the plates are formed. Two or three amperes per positive plate in each cell will
generally be satisfactory.
Discharge Apparatus
A simple discharge rheostat is shown in Fig. 180. The terminal on the end of the cable
attached to the right hand terminal of the battery shown in the illustration is movable,
and it may be clamped at any point along the coils of wire so as to give various
currents. The wire should be greased lightly to prevent rusting.
Another simple apparatus consists of a board on which are mounted six double
contact automobile lamp sockets which are all connected in parallel. A pair of leads
having test clips attached is brought out from the sockets for fastening to the battery
terminals. Lamps of various candlepower may be turned into the sockets to obtain
different currents.
Discharge tests are helpful in the case of a battery that has lost capacity. The battery is
first fully charged, and is then discharged at the 5 hour rate. When the voltage of the
battery has fallen to 1.7 volts per cell (measured while the battery is discharging) a
Page 338
Cadmium test is made to determine whether the positives or negatives are causing the
lack of capacity. For further descriptions of the Cadmium Test see Page 174.
In reviving sulphated batteries, it is sometimes necessary to charge and discharge the
battery several times to put the active material in a healthy condition.
Discharge tests at a high rate are very valuable in diagnosing the condition of a
battery. A description of such tests will be found on Page 267. For making the heavy
discharge tests a rheostat of the carbon plate type is suitable. With such a rheostat
currents from 25 to more than 200 may be drawn from a six volt battery, and a
smooth, even variation of a current may be obtained from the minimum to the
maximum values. Such a rheostat is on the market and may be purchased complete
with ammeter and leads for attaching to the battery.
PACKING BATTERIES FOR SHIPPING
Batteries which are shipped without electrolyte need merely have plenty of excelsior
placed around them in a strong crate for protection from mechanical injury.
Batteries which are shipped filled with electrolyte must be protected from mechanical
injury and must also be packed so that it is difficult to turn the crate upside down and
thus allow the electrolyte to run out. A very popular crate has been the so-called "dog-
house," with a gable roof such as is actually used on dog-houses. The idea of such a
roof is that it is impossible to place the crate with the roof down, since it will tip over
if this is done. However, if these crates are placed side by side, it is a very simple
matter to put a second row of crates on top of them, turning the second row up-side-
down, as shown in Fig. 181, and allowing the electrolyte to run out. The men who
load freight or express-cars have often shown great skill and cunning in packing "dog-
house" crates in other ways so as to damage the batteries. Many have attained a high
degree of perfection in breaking the crates.
Some sort of a roof on a battery crate is required by law, the idea being to make it
difficult to turn the crate up-side-down. Perhaps the best crate would be one with a flat
lack of capacity. For further descriptions of the Cadmium Test see Page 174.
In reviving sulphated batteries, it is sometimes necessary to charge and discharge the
battery several times to put the active material in a healthy condition.
Discharge tests at a high rate are very valuable in diagnosing the condition of a
battery. A description of such tests will be found on Page 267. For making the heavy
discharge tests a rheostat of the carbon plate type is suitable. With such a rheostat
currents from 25 to more than 200 may be drawn from a six volt battery, and a
smooth, even variation of a current may be obtained from the minimum to the
maximum values. Such a rheostat is on the market and may be purchased complete
with ammeter and leads for attaching to the battery.
PACKING BATTERIES FOR SHIPPING
Batteries which are shipped without electrolyte need merely have plenty of excelsior
placed around them in a strong crate for protection from mechanical injury.
Batteries which are shipped filled with electrolyte must be protected from mechanical
injury and must also be packed so that it is difficult to turn the crate upside down and
thus allow the electrolyte to run out. A very popular crate has been the so-called "dog-
house," with a gable roof such as is actually used on dog-houses. The idea of such a
roof is that it is impossible to place the crate with the roof down, since it will tip over
if this is done. However, if these crates are placed side by side, it is a very simple
matter to put a second row of crates on top of them, turning the second row up-side-
down, as shown in Fig. 181, and allowing the electrolyte to run out. The men who
load freight or express-cars have often shown great skill and cunning in packing "dog-
house" crates in other ways so as to damage the batteries. Many have attained a high
degree of perfection in breaking the crates.
Some sort of a roof on a battery crate is required by law, the idea being to make it
difficult to turn the crate up-side-down. Perhaps the best crate would be one with a flat
Page 339
top marked "This Side Up," but such a crate would not comply with the law.
A better form of crate than the "dog-house" and one which complies with the law, is
shown in Fig. 182. The top of each end piece is cut at an angle, the peak on one end
being placed opposite the low point of the opposite end piece. Fig. 182 shows the
steps in the construction of the crate.
1. The case should be built of strong lumber (11/2 inch preferably), and of ample size
to allow packing with excelsior top, bottom, sides and ends to a thickness of two or
three inches. Nail strongly.
2. When the case is complete (except cover) place a thick, even layer of excelsior (or
packing straw) in the bottom and set in *he battery right side up. Lay paper
(preferably paraffined) over top of battery to keep it clean, then pack tightly with
excelsior sides and ends.
3. Now lay sufficient packing material on top of the battery so that cover will
compress it tightly, stuffing it under cover boards as they are put on.
The extended boards at bottom, and the gable roof are provided to prevent the battery
from being tipped over; extensions of sides for carrying. Box should be plainly
labeled: "HANDLE WITH CARE. DAMAGES CLAIMED IF TIPPED ON
SIDE." In addition to the address of destination, as given in shipping instructions be
sure to mark with name of shipper for identification upon arrival. When shipping by
freight, the proper freight classification in the United States is "Electric Storage
Batteries, Assembled." When shipping by express in the United States, "Acid" caution
labels must be attached to each package.
A better form of crate than the "dog-house" and one which complies with the law, is
shown in Fig. 182. The top of each end piece is cut at an angle, the peak on one end
being placed opposite the low point of the opposite end piece. Fig. 182 shows the
steps in the construction of the crate.
1. The case should be built of strong lumber (11/2 inch preferably), and of ample size
to allow packing with excelsior top, bottom, sides and ends to a thickness of two or
three inches. Nail strongly.
2. When the case is complete (except cover) place a thick, even layer of excelsior (or
packing straw) in the bottom and set in *he battery right side up. Lay paper
(preferably paraffined) over top of battery to keep it clean, then pack tightly with
excelsior sides and ends.
3. Now lay sufficient packing material on top of the battery so that cover will
compress it tightly, stuffing it under cover boards as they are put on.
The extended boards at bottom, and the gable roof are provided to prevent the battery
from being tipped over; extensions of sides for carrying. Box should be plainly
labeled: "HANDLE WITH CARE. DAMAGES CLAIMED IF TIPPED ON
SIDE." In addition to the address of destination, as given in shipping instructions be
sure to mark with name of shipper for identification upon arrival. When shipping by
freight, the proper freight classification in the United States is "Electric Storage
Batteries, Assembled." When shipping by express in the United States, "Acid" caution
labels must be attached to each package.
Page 340
STORING SEPARATORS
Separators which have been given the chemical treatment necessary to remove the
substances which would cause trouble in the battery, and to make the wood porous,
must be kept wet and never be allowed to become dry. A lead lined box, or large
earthenware jars may be used as containers. Put the separators in the container and
then pour in enough very weak electrolyte to cover the separators. This electrolyte
may be made of I part of 1.220 electrolyte to 10 parts of distilled water, by volume. Be
very careful to have the container absolutely clean and to use chemically pure acid
and distilled water in making the weak electrolyte. Remember that impurities which
are picked up by the separators will go into the battery in which the separators are
placed. Therefore, keep the separator tank in a clean place and keep a cover on it.
Have your hands clean when you take separators out of the tank to place in a battery,
and do not put the separators on a dirty bench before inserting them between plates.
The best thing to do is to hold the separators in one hand and insert them with the
other, and not lay them on any bench at all.
REINSULATION
Separators are the weakest part of a battery and wear out while the other parts of a
battery are still in good condition. Good plates are often ruined by weakened
separators causing short-circuits. Many batteries which have to be junked after being
in service about a year would have given considerable service if they had been
reinsulated.
Generally the separators of one cell wear out before those of the other cells. Do not,
however, reinsulate that cell alone. The separators in the other cells are as old as those
which have worn out, and are very near the breaking down point. If you reinsulate
only one cell, the owner will naturally assume that the other cells are in good
condition. What happens? A month or so later one of the other cells "goes dead." This
does not have a very soothing effect on the owner, who will begin to lose confidence
in you and begin to look around for another service station.
If you explain frankly that it is useless to reinsulate only one cell of a battery and that
the other cells will break down in a short time, the customer will want you to
reinsulate all the cells. A somewhat higher bill for reinsulating all the cells at once will
be more agreeable than having the cells break down one at a time within a month or
two.
In the case of the customers who come in regularly for testing and filling service, you
will be able to tell when the separators are wearing out. When you find that a battery
which has been in service about a year begins to run down frequently, and successive
Separators which have been given the chemical treatment necessary to remove the
substances which would cause trouble in the battery, and to make the wood porous,
must be kept wet and never be allowed to become dry. A lead lined box, or large
earthenware jars may be used as containers. Put the separators in the container and
then pour in enough very weak electrolyte to cover the separators. This electrolyte
may be made of I part of 1.220 electrolyte to 10 parts of distilled water, by volume. Be
very careful to have the container absolutely clean and to use chemically pure acid
and distilled water in making the weak electrolyte. Remember that impurities which
are picked up by the separators will go into the battery in which the separators are
placed. Therefore, keep the separator tank in a clean place and keep a cover on it.
Have your hands clean when you take separators out of the tank to place in a battery,
and do not put the separators on a dirty bench before inserting them between plates.
The best thing to do is to hold the separators in one hand and insert them with the
other, and not lay them on any bench at all.
REINSULATION
Separators are the weakest part of a battery and wear out while the other parts of a
battery are still in good condition. Good plates are often ruined by weakened
separators causing short-circuits. Many batteries which have to be junked after being
in service about a year would have given considerable service if they had been
reinsulated.
Generally the separators of one cell wear out before those of the other cells. Do not,
however, reinsulate that cell alone. The separators in the other cells are as old as those
which have worn out, and are very near the breaking down point. If you reinsulate
only one cell, the owner will naturally assume that the other cells are in good
condition. What happens? A month or so later one of the other cells "goes dead." This
does not have a very soothing effect on the owner, who will begin to lose confidence
in you and begin to look around for another service station.
If you explain frankly that it is useless to reinsulate only one cell of a battery and that
the other cells will break down in a short time, the customer will want you to
reinsulate all the cells. A somewhat higher bill for reinsulating all the cells at once will
be more agreeable than having the cells break down one at a time within a month or
two.
In the case of the customers who come in regularly for testing and filling service, you
will be able to tell when the separators are wearing out. When you find that a battery
which has been in service about a year begins to run down frequently, and successive
Page 341
tests made in connection with testing and filling service show that the generator is not
able to keep the battery charged, advise the owner to have the battery reinsulated. Do
not wait for the battery to have a dead cell. Sell the owner on the idea that reinsulation
will prevent the possibility of his battery breaking down when he may be out on a
tour, and when it may be necessary to have his car towed in to a service station. If you
allow the battery to remain on the car when it begins to lose its charge, the owner will
not, of course, suspect that anything is wrong, and if his battery one day breaks down
suddenly, lie will very likely lose confidence both in you and the battery, since he has
been bringing in his car regularly in order to have his battery kept in good shape. The
sudden failure of his battery will, therefore, make him believe that you do not know
your business, or that the battery is a poor one.
New separators will give every battery which is a year old a new lease on life. If you
explain to a customer that he will get a much longer period of service from his battery
if he has it reinsulated when the battery is a year old, you should have no trouble in
getting the job, and the subsequent performance of the battery will show that you
knew what you were talking about.
SAFETY FIRST FOR THE BATTERY REPAIRMAN
1. Do not work on an empty stomach-you can then absorb lead easily.
2. Keep your fingers out of your mouth when at work.
3. Keep your finger nails short and clean.
4. Do not chew tobacco while at work. In handling tobacco, the lead oxides are
carried to your mouth. Chewing tobacco does not prevent you from swallowing
lead.
5. When you leave the shop at night, and before eating, wash your face, hands, and
arms with soap, and clean your nose, mouth, and finger nails.
6. Do not eat in the repair shop.
7. Drink plenty of good milk. It prevents lead poisoning.
8. Use Epsom Salts when constipated. This is very important.
9. Bathe frequently to prevent lead poisoning.
10. Leave your working clothes in the shop.
able to keep the battery charged, advise the owner to have the battery reinsulated. Do
not wait for the battery to have a dead cell. Sell the owner on the idea that reinsulation
will prevent the possibility of his battery breaking down when he may be out on a
tour, and when it may be necessary to have his car towed in to a service station. If you
allow the battery to remain on the car when it begins to lose its charge, the owner will
not, of course, suspect that anything is wrong, and if his battery one day breaks down
suddenly, lie will very likely lose confidence both in you and the battery, since he has
been bringing in his car regularly in order to have his battery kept in good shape. The
sudden failure of his battery will, therefore, make him believe that you do not know
your business, or that the battery is a poor one.
New separators will give every battery which is a year old a new lease on life. If you
explain to a customer that he will get a much longer period of service from his battery
if he has it reinsulated when the battery is a year old, you should have no trouble in
getting the job, and the subsequent performance of the battery will show that you
knew what you were talking about.
SAFETY FIRST FOR THE BATTERY REPAIRMAN
1. Do not work on an empty stomach-you can then absorb lead easily.
2. Keep your fingers out of your mouth when at work.
3. Keep your finger nails short and clean.
4. Do not chew tobacco while at work. In handling tobacco, the lead oxides are
carried to your mouth. Chewing tobacco does not prevent you from swallowing
lead.
5. When you leave the shop at night, and before eating, wash your face, hands, and
arms with soap, and clean your nose, mouth, and finger nails.
6. Do not eat in the repair shop.
7. Drink plenty of good milk. It prevents lead poisoning.
8. Use Epsom Salts when constipated. This is very important.
9. Bathe frequently to prevent lead poisoning.
10. Leave your working clothes in the shop.
Page 342
11. It is better not to wear a beard or mustache. Keep your hair covered with a cap.
12. Before sweeping the shop dampen the floor to keep down the dust.
13. Do not drink beer or whisky, or any other alcoholic liquors. These weaken
your system and make you more susceptible to lead poisoning.
14. In handling lead, wear gloves as much as possible, and wash and dry the
gloves every day that you wear them.
15. Wear goggles to keep lead and acid out of your eyes.
16. When melting lead in a hydrogen flame, as in burning on the top connectors,
the fumes given off may be blown away by a stream of air. The air supply to the
flame may be tapped for this purpose.
17. The symptoms of lead poisoning are: gums darken or become blue,
indigestion, colic, constipation, loss of appetite, muscular pain. In the later stages
there is muscular weakness and paralysis. The hands become limp and useless.
18. Wear rubber shoes or boots. Leather shoes should be painted with a hot
mixture of equal parts of paraffine and beeswax.
19. Wear woolen clothes if possible. Cotton clothing should be dipped in a strong
solution of baking soda and dried. Wear a flannel apron covered with sacking.
20. Keep a bottle of strong ammonia handy. If you should spill acid on your
clothes, apply some of the ammonia immediately to neutralize the acid, which will
otherwise burn a hole in your clothes.
21. Keep a stone, earthenware, or porcelain jar filled with a solution of washing
soda or baking soda (bicarbonate of soda). Rinse your hands in this solution
occasionally to prevent the acid from irritating them.
22. If you should splash acid in your eye, wash it out immediately with warm
water, and drop olive oil on the eye. If you have no olive oil at hand, do not wait to
get some, but use any, lubricating oil, or vaseline.
TESTING THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
"Out of sight, out of mind," is a familiar saying. But when does it hold true?
What about the battery repairman? Are the batteries he repairs "out of sight, out of
mind?" Does his responsibility end when he has installed a battery on a car? Suppose
12. Before sweeping the shop dampen the floor to keep down the dust.
13. Do not drink beer or whisky, or any other alcoholic liquors. These weaken
your system and make you more susceptible to lead poisoning.
14. In handling lead, wear gloves as much as possible, and wash and dry the
gloves every day that you wear them.
15. Wear goggles to keep lead and acid out of your eyes.
16. When melting lead in a hydrogen flame, as in burning on the top connectors,
the fumes given off may be blown away by a stream of air. The air supply to the
flame may be tapped for this purpose.
17. The symptoms of lead poisoning are: gums darken or become blue,
indigestion, colic, constipation, loss of appetite, muscular pain. In the later stages
there is muscular weakness and paralysis. The hands become limp and useless.
18. Wear rubber shoes or boots. Leather shoes should be painted with a hot
mixture of equal parts of paraffine and beeswax.
19. Wear woolen clothes if possible. Cotton clothing should be dipped in a strong
solution of baking soda and dried. Wear a flannel apron covered with sacking.
20. Keep a bottle of strong ammonia handy. If you should spill acid on your
clothes, apply some of the ammonia immediately to neutralize the acid, which will
otherwise burn a hole in your clothes.
21. Keep a stone, earthenware, or porcelain jar filled with a solution of washing
soda or baking soda (bicarbonate of soda). Rinse your hands in this solution
occasionally to prevent the acid from irritating them.
22. If you should splash acid in your eye, wash it out immediately with warm
water, and drop olive oil on the eye. If you have no olive oil at hand, do not wait to
get some, but use any, lubricating oil, or vaseline.
TESTING THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
"Out of sight, out of mind," is a familiar saying. But when does it hold true?
What about the battery repairman? Are the batteries he repairs "out of sight, out of
mind?" Does his responsibility end when he has installed a battery on a car? Suppose
Page 343
he put a battery in first class shape, installs it on a car, and, after a week or two the
battery comes back, absolutely dead? Is the battery at fault, or is the repairman to
blame for neglecting to make sure that the battery would be given a reasonably good
chance to give good service and receive fair treatment from the other part of the
electrical system?
The actual work on the battery is finished when the battery cables are fastened to the
battery terminals. But real battery SERVICE does not end there. The battery is the
most important part of the electrical system of a car, but it is only one part, and a good
battery cannot be expected to give satisfactory service when it is connected to the
other parts of the electrical system without making sure that these parts are working
properly, any more than a man wearing new, shoes can step into a mud puddle and not
have his shoes covered with dirt.
The battery functions by means of the current which flows through it by way of the
cables which are connected to its terminals. A battery is human in many respects. It
must have both food and exercise and there must be a proper balance between the
food and the exercise. Too much food for the amount of exercise, or too much
exercise for the amount of food consumed will both lead to a lowering of efficiency,
and disease frequently results. A battery exercises when it turns over the starting
motor, furnishes energy to the lamps, or operates the a ignition system. It receives
food when it is charged. Proper attention to the electrical system will result in a
correct balance between food and exercise, or in other words, charge and discharge.
The electrical equipment of a car consists of five principal parts:
1. The Battery.
2. The Ignition System.
3. The Starting Motor.
4. The Generator.
5. The Lighting System.
The normal course of operation of this system is as follows:
Starting. The ignition switch is closed, and connects the ignition system to the
battery. The starting switch is then closed, connecting the starting motor to the battery.
The battery sends a heavy current through the starting motor, causing the motor to
turn over, or "crank" the engine. The motion of the engine pistons draws a mixture of
air and gasoline vapor into the cylinders. At the proper instant sparks are made to
battery comes back, absolutely dead? Is the battery at fault, or is the repairman to
blame for neglecting to make sure that the battery would be given a reasonably good
chance to give good service and receive fair treatment from the other part of the
electrical system?
The actual work on the battery is finished when the battery cables are fastened to the
battery terminals. But real battery SERVICE does not end there. The battery is the
most important part of the electrical system of a car, but it is only one part, and a good
battery cannot be expected to give satisfactory service when it is connected to the
other parts of the electrical system without making sure that these parts are working
properly, any more than a man wearing new, shoes can step into a mud puddle and not
have his shoes covered with dirt.
The battery functions by means of the current which flows through it by way of the
cables which are connected to its terminals. A battery is human in many respects. It
must have both food and exercise and there must be a proper balance between the
food and the exercise. Too much food for the amount of exercise, or too much
exercise for the amount of food consumed will both lead to a lowering of efficiency,
and disease frequently results. A battery exercises when it turns over the starting
motor, furnishes energy to the lamps, or operates the a ignition system. It receives
food when it is charged. Proper attention to the electrical system will result in a
correct balance between food and exercise, or in other words, charge and discharge.
The electrical equipment of a car consists of five principal parts:
1. The Battery.
2. The Ignition System.
3. The Starting Motor.
4. The Generator.
5. The Lighting System.
The normal course of operation of this system is as follows:
Starting. The ignition switch is closed, and connects the ignition system to the
battery. The starting switch is then closed, connecting the starting motor to the battery.
The battery sends a heavy current through the starting motor, causing the motor to
turn over, or "crank" the engine. The motion of the engine pistons draws a mixture of
air and gasoline vapor into the cylinders. At the proper instant sparks are made to
Page 344
jump between the points of the spark plugs, igniting the air and gasoline vapor
mixture, forming a large amount of gas. This gas expands, and in doing so puts the
engine into motion. The engine begins to run under its own power and the starting
switch is opened, since the starting motor has performed the work required of it, and
has nothing further to do as long as the engine runs.
The engine now operates the generator. The generator begins to build up a voltage as
the engine speed increases. When the voltage of the generator has risen to about 7-7.5,
the generator is automatically connected to the battery by the cutout (also known as
reverse-current relay, cut-out relay, or relay). The voltage of the generator being
higher than that of the battery, the generator sends a current through the battery, which
"charges" the battery. As long As the engine continues to run above the speed at which
the generator develops a voltage higher than that of the battery, a charging current will
normally flow through the battery. When the ignition switch is opened the engine can
no longer develop any power and consequently stops running. When the decreasing
engine speed causes the generator speed to drop to a point at which the generator
voltage is less than that of battery, the battery sends a reverse, or discharge current
through the cutout and generator, thereby causing the cutout to open and disconnect
the generator from the battery.
Lights. When the engine is not running, the battery furnishes current to the lights.
This is a discharge current. When the engine runs at a speed which is greater than that
at which the the cutout closes, the generator furnishes current for the lights, and also
for the ignition system, in addition to sending a charging current through the battery.
From the foregoing description, we see that the battery is at rest, is discharging, or
charging under the following conditions:
Engine Not Running, Lamps Off, Ignition Off. Under these conditions all switches
are open, and hence no current should be passing through the battery. If a current is
found to be passing through the battery under these conditions, it is a discharge
current which is not doing any work and is caused by a defective cutout, defective
switches, or grounds and short-circuits in the wires, cables, or apparatus connected to
the battery.
Starting the Engine. A heavy discharge current is drawn from the battery. This
current should not flow more than 10 seconds. If the starting motor does not crank the
engine or cranks it too slowly, the motor or the cables and switch connecting the
motor to the battery are defective, assuming that the battery is large enough and is in a
good condition. If the starting motor cranks the engine, but the engine does not begin
to run under its own power within ten seconds, the starting system is not at fault, and
the starting switch should be opened.
mixture, forming a large amount of gas. This gas expands, and in doing so puts the
engine into motion. The engine begins to run under its own power and the starting
switch is opened, since the starting motor has performed the work required of it, and
has nothing further to do as long as the engine runs.
The engine now operates the generator. The generator begins to build up a voltage as
the engine speed increases. When the voltage of the generator has risen to about 7-7.5,
the generator is automatically connected to the battery by the cutout (also known as
reverse-current relay, cut-out relay, or relay). The voltage of the generator being
higher than that of the battery, the generator sends a current through the battery, which
"charges" the battery. As long As the engine continues to run above the speed at which
the generator develops a voltage higher than that of the battery, a charging current will
normally flow through the battery. When the ignition switch is opened the engine can
no longer develop any power and consequently stops running. When the decreasing
engine speed causes the generator speed to drop to a point at which the generator
voltage is less than that of battery, the battery sends a reverse, or discharge current
through the cutout and generator, thereby causing the cutout to open and disconnect
the generator from the battery.
Lights. When the engine is not running, the battery furnishes current to the lights.
This is a discharge current. When the engine runs at a speed which is greater than that
at which the the cutout closes, the generator furnishes current for the lights, and also
for the ignition system, in addition to sending a charging current through the battery.
From the foregoing description, we see that the battery is at rest, is discharging, or
charging under the following conditions:
Engine Not Running, Lamps Off, Ignition Off. Under these conditions all switches
are open, and hence no current should be passing through the battery. If a current is
found to be passing through the battery under these conditions, it is a discharge
current which is not doing any work and is caused by a defective cutout, defective
switches, or grounds and short-circuits in the wires, cables, or apparatus connected to
the battery.
Starting the Engine. A heavy discharge current is drawn from the battery. This
current should not flow more than 10 seconds. If the starting motor does not crank the
engine or cranks it too slowly, the motor or the cables and switch connecting the
motor to the battery are defective, assuming that the battery is large enough and is in a
good condition. If the starting motor cranks the engine, but the engine does not begin
to run under its own power within ten seconds, the starting system is not at fault, and
the starting switch should be opened.
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Engine Not Running, All Lamps On. A discharge current flows from the battery
which is equal to the sum of the currents drawn by lamps when connected to the
battery separately. If the current is greater than this sum, trouble is present.
Engine Running, Lamps Off. The generator sends a charging current into the battery
and also supplies current to the ignition system (except when a magneto is used). If
the generator does not send a charging current through the battery there is trouble in
the generator, or in the parts connecting the generator to the battery (assuming the
battery to be in a good condition). If the generator sends a current through the battery,
it may be of the correct value, it may be insufficient, or it may be excessive. A normal
current is one which keeps the battery fully charged, but does not overheat it or cause
excessive gassing. An insufficient current is one which fails to keep the battery
charged. An excessive charging current is one which keeps the battery charged, but
which at the same time overheats the battery and causes excessive gassing. The
excessive current may also overheat the generator, while a normal or insufficient
charging current will not injure the generator.
It is possible, but not probable, that the generator may be sending current
through the battery in the wrong direction, so as to discharge it instead of charging
it. This will happen if a very badly discharged battery is installed with the connections
reversed. If a fully or even partly charged battery is installed with its connections
reversed, the battery will generally reverse the polarity of the generator automatically,
and the battery will be charged in the proper direction, although the current flow in the
charging circuit is actually reversed.
Engine Running, Lamps On. Under these conditions, the generator should supply
the current for the lights, and still send a charging current of 3 to 5 amperes through
the battery. This means that the current drawn from the battery when the engine is not
running and the lights are all turned on should be at least several amperes less than the
charging current which the generator sends into the battery when the engine is running
and the lamps are turned off.
Tests to Be Made by the Repairman
The battery repairman can, and always should, make a few simple tests which will tell
him whether the various conditions of operation are normal. This should be done as
follows:
1. Install the battery carefully (see page 236), and connect the negative battery cable
to the negative battery terminal. Now tap the positive battery cable on the positive
battery terminal. If a snappy spark is obtained when this is done, some of the switches
which is equal to the sum of the currents drawn by lamps when connected to the
battery separately. If the current is greater than this sum, trouble is present.
Engine Running, Lamps Off. The generator sends a charging current into the battery
and also supplies current to the ignition system (except when a magneto is used). If
the generator does not send a charging current through the battery there is trouble in
the generator, or in the parts connecting the generator to the battery (assuming the
battery to be in a good condition). If the generator sends a current through the battery,
it may be of the correct value, it may be insufficient, or it may be excessive. A normal
current is one which keeps the battery fully charged, but does not overheat it or cause
excessive gassing. An insufficient current is one which fails to keep the battery
charged. An excessive charging current is one which keeps the battery charged, but
which at the same time overheats the battery and causes excessive gassing. The
excessive current may also overheat the generator, while a normal or insufficient
charging current will not injure the generator.
It is possible, but not probable, that the generator may be sending current
through the battery in the wrong direction, so as to discharge it instead of charging
it. This will happen if a very badly discharged battery is installed with the connections
reversed. If a fully or even partly charged battery is installed with its connections
reversed, the battery will generally reverse the polarity of the generator automatically,
and the battery will be charged in the proper direction, although the current flow in the
charging circuit is actually reversed.
Engine Running, Lamps On. Under these conditions, the generator should supply
the current for the lights, and still send a charging current of 3 to 5 amperes through
the battery. This means that the current drawn from the battery when the engine is not
running and the lights are all turned on should be at least several amperes less than the
charging current which the generator sends into the battery when the engine is running
and the lamps are turned off.
Tests to Be Made by the Repairman
The battery repairman can, and always should, make a few simple tests which will tell
him whether the various conditions of operation are normal. This should be done as
follows:
1. Install the battery carefully (see page 236), and connect the negative battery cable
to the negative battery terminal. Now tap the positive battery cable on the positive
battery terminal. If a snappy spark is obtained when this is done, some of the switches
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are open or are defective, the cutout is stuck in the closed position, or there are
grounds or short-circuits in the parts which are permanently connected to the battery.
Even though no spark is obtained when you tap the positive battery cable on the
positive battery terminal, there may be some trouble which draws enough current from
the battery to cause it to run down in a short time. To detect such trouble, connect a
voltmeter (which has sufficient range to indicate the battery voltage) between the
positive battery cable and the positive battery terminal. (Cable is disconnected from
the terminal.) If the voltmeter now gives a reading equal to the voltage of the battery,
there is some condition causing a current leakage from the battery, such as a cutout
stuck in the closed position, defective switches which do not break the circuits when
in the open position, or grounds or short-circuits in the cables and wires connected to
the battery.
If the voltmeter pointer does not move from the "0" line on the scale, complete the
battery connections by fastening the positive battery cable to the positive battery
terminal, and make the test described in Section 2. If the voltmeter pointer moves
from the "0" line, and gives a reading equal to the battery voltage, connect the
voltmeter permanently between the positive battery cable and the positive battery
terminal and make a general inspection of the wiring, looking for cut or torn insulation
which allows a wire or cable to come in contact with the frame of the car, or with
some other wire or cable, thereby causing a ground or short-circuit. Old, oil-soaked
insulation on wires and cables will often cause such trouble. If a general inspection
does not reveal the cause of the current leakage, proceed as follows:
Closed Cutout, or Defective Cutout Windings. (a) If the cutout is mounted
outside the generator, remove the cover from it and see if the points are stuck
together. If they are, separate them and see if the voltmeter pointer returns to the "0"
line. If it does, you have found the trouble. The points should be made smooth with 00
sandpaper. See that the moving arm of the cutout moves freely and that the spring
which tends to hold the arm in the open position is not weak or broken.
If the voltmeter pointer does not return to the "0" line when the cutout points are
separated, or if the points were not found to be stuck together, disconnect from the
cutout the wire which goes to the ammeter or battery. If this causes the voltmeter
pointer to return to the "0" line, the cutout is defective and a new one should be
installed, unless the trouble can be found by inspection and repaired.
If the voltmeter pointer does not return to the "0" line when the battery or ammeter
wire is disconnected from the cutout, see paragraph (d)
(b) If the cutout is mounted inside the generator, disconnect from the generator the
wire which goes to the ammeter or indicator. If this causes the voltmeter pointer to
grounds or short-circuits in the parts which are permanently connected to the battery.
Even though no spark is obtained when you tap the positive battery cable on the
positive battery terminal, there may be some trouble which draws enough current from
the battery to cause it to run down in a short time. To detect such trouble, connect a
voltmeter (which has sufficient range to indicate the battery voltage) between the
positive battery cable and the positive battery terminal. (Cable is disconnected from
the terminal.) If the voltmeter now gives a reading equal to the voltage of the battery,
there is some condition causing a current leakage from the battery, such as a cutout
stuck in the closed position, defective switches which do not break the circuits when
in the open position, or grounds or short-circuits in the cables and wires connected to
the battery.
If the voltmeter pointer does not move from the "0" line on the scale, complete the
battery connections by fastening the positive battery cable to the positive battery
terminal, and make the test described in Section 2. If the voltmeter pointer moves
from the "0" line, and gives a reading equal to the battery voltage, connect the
voltmeter permanently between the positive battery cable and the positive battery
terminal and make a general inspection of the wiring, looking for cut or torn insulation
which allows a wire or cable to come in contact with the frame of the car, or with
some other wire or cable, thereby causing a ground or short-circuit. Old, oil-soaked
insulation on wires and cables will often cause such trouble. If a general inspection
does not reveal the cause of the current leakage, proceed as follows:
Closed Cutout, or Defective Cutout Windings. (a) If the cutout is mounted
outside the generator, remove the cover from it and see if the points are stuck
together. If they are, separate them and see if the voltmeter pointer returns to the "0"
line. If it does, you have found the trouble. The points should be made smooth with 00
sandpaper. See that the moving arm of the cutout moves freely and that the spring
which tends to hold the arm in the open position is not weak or broken.
If the voltmeter pointer does not return to the "0" line when the cutout points are
separated, or if the points were not found to be stuck together, disconnect from the
cutout the wire which goes to the ammeter or battery. If this causes the voltmeter
pointer to return to the "0" line, the cutout is defective and a new one should be
installed, unless the trouble can be found by inspection and repaired.
If the voltmeter pointer does not return to the "0" line when the battery or ammeter
wire is disconnected from the cutout, see paragraph (d)
(b) If the cutout is mounted inside the generator, disconnect from the generator the
wire which goes to the ammeter or indicator. If this causes the voltmeter pointer to
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return to the "0" line, the cutout points are stuck together or the cutout is defective,
and the generator should be taken apart for inspection. If this does not cause the
voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, replace the wire and see paragraph (d).
(c) If no cutout is used and connections between the generator (or motor- generator)
and the battery are made by closing the ignition or starting switch, such as is the case
on Delco and Dyneto motor-generators, and some Delco generators, disconnect from
the generator or motorgenerator the wire that goes to the ammeter or indicator. If this
causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, the switch which connects the
generator or motor-generator to the ammeter or indicator is defective. If the voltmeter
pointer does not return to the "0" line, replace the wire and consult paragraph (d).
(d) Defective Starting Switch. Disconnect from the starting switch the cable that
goes to the battery. If one or more smaller wires are connected to the same terminal as
the heavy cable, disconnect them also and hold their bare ends on the bare end of the
heavy cable. If this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, the starting
switch is defective. If the voltmeter pointer does not return to the "0" line, replace the
cable and wires on the starting switch terminal and proceed as follows:
Defective Switches. See that the ignition and lighting switches are in their "OFF"
positions. If they are not, open them and see if the voltmeter pointer returns to the "0"
line. If it does, you have found the trouble. If it does not, disconnect from the switch
(or switches, if there are separate lighting and ignition switches), the feed wire which
supplies current to the switch from the battery. If this causes the voltmeter pointer to
return to the "0" line, the switches are defective. If the pointer does not return to the
"0" line, replace the wires on the switch and consult the next paragraph.
If there are other switches which control a spot light, or special circuits, such as
tonneau lamps, or accessories, such as gasoline vaporizers, electric primers, etc., make
the same tests on these switches. If no trouble has been found, see paragraph (e).
(e) Grounds or Short-Circuits in Wiring. Disconnect from each terminal point in
the wiring system the wires which are connected together at that point. Also remove
fuses from the fuse blocks. If the voltmeter pointer returns to the "0" line when a
certain wire or fuse is removed, there is a ground or short-circuit in the wire or in the
circuit to which the fuse is connected.
(f) Turn on the Lights. Remove the voltmeter and complete the battery connection.
Note how much current is indicated on the ammeter mounted on the instrument panel
of the car as the different lamps are turned on. In each case the ammeter should
indicate "discharge." Should the ammeter indicate "charge" the battery connections
have been reversed, or the ammeter connections are reversed. The driver will tell you
and the generator should be taken apart for inspection. If this does not cause the
voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, replace the wire and see paragraph (d).
(c) If no cutout is used and connections between the generator (or motor- generator)
and the battery are made by closing the ignition or starting switch, such as is the case
on Delco and Dyneto motor-generators, and some Delco generators, disconnect from
the generator or motorgenerator the wire that goes to the ammeter or indicator. If this
causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, the switch which connects the
generator or motor-generator to the ammeter or indicator is defective. If the voltmeter
pointer does not return to the "0" line, replace the wire and consult paragraph (d).
(d) Defective Starting Switch. Disconnect from the starting switch the cable that
goes to the battery. If one or more smaller wires are connected to the same terminal as
the heavy cable, disconnect them also and hold their bare ends on the bare end of the
heavy cable. If this causes the voltmeter pointer to return to the "0" line, the starting
switch is defective. If the voltmeter pointer does not return to the "0" line, replace the
cable and wires on the starting switch terminal and proceed as follows:
Defective Switches. See that the ignition and lighting switches are in their "OFF"
positions. If they are not, open them and see if the voltmeter pointer returns to the "0"
line. If it does, you have found the trouble. If it does not, disconnect from the switch
(or switches, if there are separate lighting and ignition switches), the feed wire which
supplies current to the switch from the battery. If this causes the voltmeter pointer to
return to the "0" line, the switches are defective. If the pointer does not return to the
"0" line, replace the wires on the switch and consult the next paragraph.
If there are other switches which control a spot light, or special circuits, such as
tonneau lamps, or accessories, such as gasoline vaporizers, electric primers, etc., make
the same tests on these switches. If no trouble has been found, see paragraph (e).
(e) Grounds or Short-Circuits in Wiring. Disconnect from each terminal point in
the wiring system the wires which are connected together at that point. Also remove
fuses from the fuse blocks. If the voltmeter pointer returns to the "0" line when a
certain wire or fuse is removed, there is a ground or short-circuit in the wire or in the
circuit to which the fuse is connected.
(f) Turn on the Lights. Remove the voltmeter and complete the battery connection.
Note how much current is indicated on the ammeter mounted on the instrument panel
of the car as the different lamps are turned on. In each case the ammeter should
indicate "discharge." Should the ammeter indicate "charge" the battery connections
have been reversed, or the ammeter connections are reversed. The driver will tell you
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whether the ammeter has been reading "charge" or "discharge" when the lamps were
turned on. This is a good way to check your battery connections.
If the car has no ammeter, or has an indicator which is marked "ON" or "OFF," or
"Charge" or "Discharge," an ammeter may be connected in series with the battery by
disconnecting the cable from the positive battery terminal and connecting the ammeter
to the cable and to the terminal, and the readings obtained from this meter.
The amperes indicated on the ammeter should be the greatest when the main
headlamps are burning bright. By comparing the readings obtained when the different
lighting combinations are turned on, it is sometimes possible to detect trouble in some
of the lighting lines.
3. Start the Engine. Before you do this, be sure that the cables are connected directly
to the battery terminals, and that no ammeter or voltmeter is connected in series with
the battery, as the heavy current drawn by the starting motor would ruin the
instruments very quickly. An ammeter may be left connected in series with the battery,
providing that a switch is used to short-circuit the meter while starting the engine. A
meter having a 500 ampere scale may be left connected in series with the battery
while the engine is being started, but for the tests which are to be made a 25 ampere
scale should be used.
The engine should start within ten seconds after the starting switch is closed. If more
time than this is required, carburetor adjustments, position of the choke lever, etc.,
should be looked after. Continued cranking of the engine will run the battery down
very quickly, and the chances are that the car will not be run long enough to allow the
generator to recharge the battery. Make whatever adjustments are necessary to reduce
the cranking time to ten seconds, or advise the owner to have them made, warning him
that otherwise you will not be responsible if the battery runs down very quickly.
4. When the engine has started, set the throttle lever so that the engine runs As
slowly as possible. The ammeter (either that on the instrument panel, or a special test
ammeter connected in series with the battery) will indicate several amperes discharge,
this being the current taken by the ignition system.
Now speed up the engine gradually. At an engine speed corresponding to a car speed
of 7 to 10 miles per hour in "high" (if there is any difficulty in estimating this speed,
drive the car around the block while making this and the following tests) the ammeter
pointer should move back to, or slightly past, the "0" line, showing that the cutout has
closed. If the ammeter needle jumps back and forth and the cutout opens and closes
rapidly, the polarity of the battery and that of the generator are not the same. This
condition may be remedied by holding the cutout points closed for several seconds, or
turned on. This is a good way to check your battery connections.
If the car has no ammeter, or has an indicator which is marked "ON" or "OFF," or
"Charge" or "Discharge," an ammeter may be connected in series with the battery by
disconnecting the cable from the positive battery terminal and connecting the ammeter
to the cable and to the terminal, and the readings obtained from this meter.
The amperes indicated on the ammeter should be the greatest when the main
headlamps are burning bright. By comparing the readings obtained when the different
lighting combinations are turned on, it is sometimes possible to detect trouble in some
of the lighting lines.
3. Start the Engine. Before you do this, be sure that the cables are connected directly
to the battery terminals, and that no ammeter or voltmeter is connected in series with
the battery, as the heavy current drawn by the starting motor would ruin the
instruments very quickly. An ammeter may be left connected in series with the battery,
providing that a switch is used to short-circuit the meter while starting the engine. A
meter having a 500 ampere scale may be left connected in series with the battery
while the engine is being started, but for the tests which are to be made a 25 ampere
scale should be used.
The engine should start within ten seconds after the starting switch is closed. If more
time than this is required, carburetor adjustments, position of the choke lever, etc.,
should be looked after. Continued cranking of the engine will run the battery down
very quickly, and the chances are that the car will not be run long enough to allow the
generator to recharge the battery. Make whatever adjustments are necessary to reduce
the cranking time to ten seconds, or advise the owner to have them made, warning him
that otherwise you will not be responsible if the battery runs down very quickly.
4. When the engine has started, set the throttle lever so that the engine runs As
slowly as possible. The ammeter (either that on the instrument panel, or a special test
ammeter connected in series with the battery) will indicate several amperes discharge,
this being the current taken by the ignition system.
Now speed up the engine gradually. At an engine speed corresponding to a car speed
of 7 to 10 miles per hour in "high" (if there is any difficulty in estimating this speed,
drive the car around the block while making this and the following tests) the ammeter
pointer should move back to, or slightly past, the "0" line, showing that the cutout has
closed. If the ammeter needle jumps back and forth and the cutout opens and closes
rapidly, the polarity of the battery and that of the generator are not the same. This
condition may be remedied by holding the cutout points closed for several seconds, or
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by short-circuiting the "Battery" terminal on the cutout with the "Generator" terminal
on the cutout.
After a slight movement of the ammeter pointer indicates that the cutout has closed,
speed up the engine gradually. When the engine speed corresponds to a car speed of
18-25 miles per hour in "high," the current indicated on the ammeter should reach its
maximum value and the pointer should then stop moving, or should begin to drop
back toward the "0" line as the speed is increased.
For average driving conditions, the maximum charging current should not exceed 12
to 14 amperes for a 6 volt, 11 to 13 plate battery, and 6 to 7 amperes for a 12 volt
battery. (These currents should be obtained if "constant-current" generators, such as
the "third brush," "reversed-series," or vibrating current regulators are used. The "third
brush" type of generator is used on more than 99 per cent of the modern cars. Some
cars use a "constant-voltage" regulated generator, such as the Bijur generator, having a
voltage regulator carried in a box mounted on the generator. On all cars using a
"constant-voltage" generator, the charging rate when the battery is fully charged
should not exceed five amperes for a six volt generator). If the generator has a
thermostat, such as is used on the Remy generators, the charging rate will be as high
as 20 amperes until the generator warms up, and then the charging rate will drop to
10-12 amperes, due to the opening of the thermostat points, which inserts a resistance
coil in series with the shunt field.
If the charging current reaches its maximum value at 18-25 miles per hour, and shows
no increase at higher speeds, decrease the engine speed. When the engine is running at
a speed corresponding to a car speed of about 7 miles per hour, or less, the cutout
should open, indicated by the ammeter indicating several amperes discharge, in
addition to the ignition current, for an instant, and then dropping back to the amount
taken by the ignition system.
Now turn on the headlights (and whatever lamps are turned on at the same time) and
speed the engine up again. The ammeter should indicate some charging current at
engine speeds corresponding to the usual speed at which the car is driven. If it does
not, the charging current should be increased or smaller lamps must be installed.
Troubles
The operation of the electrical system when the engine is running may not be as
described in the foregoing paragraphs. Troubles may be found as follows:
1. Cutout does not close until engine reaches a speed in excess of 10 miles per
hour. This trouble may be due to the cutout or to the generator. If the ammeter shows
a charging current of three amperes or more as soon as it closes, the cutout is at fault.
on the cutout.
After a slight movement of the ammeter pointer indicates that the cutout has closed,
speed up the engine gradually. When the engine speed corresponds to a car speed of
18-25 miles per hour in "high," the current indicated on the ammeter should reach its
maximum value and the pointer should then stop moving, or should begin to drop
back toward the "0" line as the speed is increased.
For average driving conditions, the maximum charging current should not exceed 12
to 14 amperes for a 6 volt, 11 to 13 plate battery, and 6 to 7 amperes for a 12 volt
battery. (These currents should be obtained if "constant-current" generators, such as
the "third brush," "reversed-series," or vibrating current regulators are used. The "third
brush" type of generator is used on more than 99 per cent of the modern cars. Some
cars use a "constant-voltage" regulated generator, such as the Bijur generator, having a
voltage regulator carried in a box mounted on the generator. On all cars using a
"constant-voltage" generator, the charging rate when the battery is fully charged
should not exceed five amperes for a six volt generator). If the generator has a
thermostat, such as is used on the Remy generators, the charging rate will be as high
as 20 amperes until the generator warms up, and then the charging rate will drop to
10-12 amperes, due to the opening of the thermostat points, which inserts a resistance
coil in series with the shunt field.
If the charging current reaches its maximum value at 18-25 miles per hour, and shows
no increase at higher speeds, decrease the engine speed. When the engine is running at
a speed corresponding to a car speed of about 7 miles per hour, or less, the cutout
should open, indicated by the ammeter indicating several amperes discharge, in
addition to the ignition current, for an instant, and then dropping back to the amount
taken by the ignition system.
Now turn on the headlights (and whatever lamps are turned on at the same time) and
speed the engine up again. The ammeter should indicate some charging current at
engine speeds corresponding to the usual speed at which the car is driven. If it does
not, the charging current should be increased or smaller lamps must be installed.
Troubles
The operation of the electrical system when the engine is running may not be as
described in the foregoing paragraphs. Troubles may be found as follows:
1. Cutout does not close until engine reaches a speed in excess of 10 miles per
hour. This trouble may be due to the cutout or to the generator. If the ammeter shows
a charging current of three amperes or more as soon as it closes, the cutout is at fault.
Page 350
The thing to do in such a case is to adjust the cutout. First see that the movable
armature of the cutout moves freely and does not bind at the pivot. If no trouble is
found here, the thing to do is to decrease the air gap which exists between the
stationary and movable cutout points when the cutout is open., or to decrease the
tension of the spring which tends to keep the points open. On most cutouts there is a
stop which the cutout armature strikes when the cutout opens. By bending this stop
the air-gap between the points may be decreased. This is the adjustment which should
be made to have the cutout close earlier, rather than to decrease the spring tension.
Some cutouts have a spiral spring attached to the cutout armature. Others have a flat
spring. On still others, the spring forms the connection between the armature and the
cutout frame. In the first two types, the spring tension may be decreased, but wherever
possible the air-gap adjustment should be made as described.
If the cutout closes late, and only about an ampere of charging current is
indicated on the ammeter, and the cutout points are fairly clean and smooth, the
trouble is generally in the generator.
The generator troubles which are most likely to exist are:
armature of the cutout moves freely and does not bind at the pivot. If no trouble is
found here, the thing to do is to decrease the air gap which exists between the
stationary and movable cutout points when the cutout is open., or to decrease the
tension of the spring which tends to keep the points open. On most cutouts there is a
stop which the cutout armature strikes when the cutout opens. By bending this stop
the air-gap between the points may be decreased. This is the adjustment which should
be made to have the cutout close earlier, rather than to decrease the spring tension.
Some cutouts have a spiral spring attached to the cutout armature. Others have a flat
spring. On still others, the spring forms the connection between the armature and the
cutout frame. In the first two types, the spring tension may be decreased, but wherever
possible the air-gap adjustment should be made as described.
If the cutout closes late, and only about an ampere of charging current is
indicated on the ammeter, and the cutout points are fairly clean and smooth, the
trouble is generally in the generator.
The generator troubles which are most likely to exist are:
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a. Dirty commutator.
b. Dirty brush contact surface.
c. Loose brushes.
d. Brushes bearing on wrong point of commutator (to set brushes
properly, remove all outside connections from generator, open the shunt
field circuit, and apply a battery across the main brushes. Shift the
brushes until the armature does not tend to rotate in either direction. This
is, of course, a test which must be made with the generator on the test
bench).
e. Loose connections in the shunt field circuit.
The foregoing conditions are the ones which will generally be found. More
serious troubles will generally prevent the generator from building up at all.
2. Cutout does hot open when engine stops. This condition is shown by a
discharge current of about 5 amperes when the engine has stopped. (In Delco
systems which have no cutout, an even greater discharge will be noted as
long as the ignition switch remains closed.) This trouble is generally due to
cutout points stuck together, a broken cutout spring, or a bent or binding
cutout armature.
3. Cutout does not open until ammeter indicates a discharge of three or
more amperes (in addition to the ignition discharge). This may be remedied
by increasing the spring tension of the cutout, or removing any trouble
which causes the cutout armature to bind. On many cutouts the armature
does not actually touch the core of the cutout winding when the points are
closed, there being a small piece of copper or other non-magnetic metal on
the armature which touches the end of the cutout and maintains a small air
gap between the core and armature, even when the points are closed. The
opening action of the cutout may be changed by filing this piece of non-
magnetic material so as to decrease the air gap, or pinching it with heavy
pliers so as to make it stand farther out from the cutout armature and thus
increase the air gap between the armature and core when the points are
closed.
b. Dirty brush contact surface.
c. Loose brushes.
d. Brushes bearing on wrong point of commutator (to set brushes
properly, remove all outside connections from generator, open the shunt
field circuit, and apply a battery across the main brushes. Shift the
brushes until the armature does not tend to rotate in either direction. This
is, of course, a test which must be made with the generator on the test
bench).
e. Loose connections in the shunt field circuit.
The foregoing conditions are the ones which will generally be found. More
serious troubles will generally prevent the generator from building up at all.
2. Cutout does hot open when engine stops. This condition is shown by a
discharge current of about 5 amperes when the engine has stopped. (In Delco
systems which have no cutout, an even greater discharge will be noted as
long as the ignition switch remains closed.) This trouble is generally due to
cutout points stuck together, a broken cutout spring, or a bent or binding
cutout armature.
3. Cutout does not open until ammeter indicates a discharge of three or
more amperes (in addition to the ignition discharge). This may be remedied
by increasing the spring tension of the cutout, or removing any trouble
which causes the cutout armature to bind. On many cutouts the armature
does not actually touch the core of the cutout winding when the points are
closed, there being a small piece of copper or other non-magnetic metal on
the armature which touches the end of the cutout and maintains a small air
gap between the core and armature, even when the points are closed. The
opening action of the cutout may be changed by filing this piece of non-
magnetic material so as to decrease the air gap, or pinching it with heavy
pliers so as to make it stand farther out from the cutout armature and thus
increase the air gap between the armature and core when the points are
closed.
Page 352
Decreasing this air gap will cause the cutout to open late, and increasing it
will cause the cutout to open early.
4. Cutout will not close at any engine speed. If cutout does not close the
first time the engine speed is increased, stop the engine. This condition may
be due to a defective cutout, an open-circuit in the charging line, a ground or
short-circuit between the cutout and the generator, or a defective generator.
To determine whether the cutout is defective, remove the wires from it and
hold together the ends of the wires coming from the generator, and the one
going to the ammeter. Start the engine. If no other trouble exists, the
ammeter will indicate a charging current at speeds above 8-10 miles per
hour. If no current is obtained, stop the engine. If the cutout trouble consisted
of an open circuit in one of its windings, or in the points not closing, due to
dirt or a binding armature, or if there is an open-circuit in the charging line,
the generator will, of course, have been running on open-circuit. This will
cause the fuse in the shunt field circuit to blow if there is such a fuse, and if
there is no such fuse, the shunt field coils may be burned open, or the
insulation on the field coil wires may have become overheated to a point at
which it burns and carbonizes, and causes a short-circuit between wires.
Such troubles will, of course, prevent a generator from building up when the
cutout wires are disconnected and their ends held together.
If there is a ground in the cutout, or between the cutout and the generator, the
generator will very likely be unable to generate (if a "one-wire" system is
used on the car). If there is some defect in the generator-such as dirty
commutator, high mica, brushes not touching, commutator dirty, or loose
brushes, brushes too far from neutral, grounded brushes, brushes not well
ground in, wrong type of brushes, grounded commutator or armature
windings, short-circuited commutator or armature windings, open-circuited
armature windings, grounded field windings, short-circuited field windings,
open-circuit or poor connections in field circuit, one or more field coil
connections reversed, wrong type of armature or field coils used in repairing
generator, generator drive mechanism broken-then the generator will not
build up.
If no charging current is, therefore, obtained when the generator and
ammeter wires are disconnected from the cutout and their ends held together,
there may be a ground or short-circuit in the cutout windings or in the circuit
will cause the cutout to open early.
4. Cutout will not close at any engine speed. If cutout does not close the
first time the engine speed is increased, stop the engine. This condition may
be due to a defective cutout, an open-circuit in the charging line, a ground or
short-circuit between the cutout and the generator, or a defective generator.
To determine whether the cutout is defective, remove the wires from it and
hold together the ends of the wires coming from the generator, and the one
going to the ammeter. Start the engine. If no other trouble exists, the
ammeter will indicate a charging current at speeds above 8-10 miles per
hour. If no current is obtained, stop the engine. If the cutout trouble consisted
of an open circuit in one of its windings, or in the points not closing, due to
dirt or a binding armature, or if there is an open-circuit in the charging line,
the generator will, of course, have been running on open-circuit. This will
cause the fuse in the shunt field circuit to blow if there is such a fuse, and if
there is no such fuse, the shunt field coils may be burned open, or the
insulation on the field coil wires may have become overheated to a point at
which it burns and carbonizes, and causes a short-circuit between wires.
Such troubles will, of course, prevent a generator from building up when the
cutout wires are disconnected and their ends held together.
If there is a ground in the cutout, or between the cutout and the generator, the
generator will very likely be unable to generate (if a "one-wire" system is
used on the car). If there is some defect in the generator-such as dirty
commutator, high mica, brushes not touching, commutator dirty, or loose
brushes, brushes too far from neutral, grounded brushes, brushes not well
ground in, wrong type of brushes, grounded commutator or armature
windings, short-circuited commutator or armature windings, open-circuited
armature windings, grounded field windings, short-circuited field windings,
open-circuit or poor connections in field circuit, one or more field coil
connections reversed, wrong type of armature or field coils used in repairing
generator, generator drive mechanism broken-then the generator will not
build up.
If no charging current is, therefore, obtained when the generator and
ammeter wires are disconnected from the cutout and their ends held together,
there may be a ground or short-circuit in the cutout windings or in the circuit
Page 353
between the generator and the cutout, or the generator may be defective, due
to having been operated on open-circuit, or due to troubles as described in
the foregoing paragraph. The presence of a ground or short in the circuit
between the generator and cutout or in the cutout may be determined by
disconnected the wire from the generator, disconnecting the battery (or
ammeter) wire from the cutout, and running a separate extra wire from the
generator to the wire removed from the cutout. Then start the engine again.
If a charging current is obtained, there is a ground or short either in the
cutout or in the circuit between the cutout and the generator. (It is also
possible that the failure of the generator to build up was due to poor brush
contact in the generator. The use of the extra wire connected the generator
directly to the battery, thus magnetizing the generator fields and causing
generator to build up. If poor brush contact prevented the generator from
building up, closing the cutout by hand will often cause the generator to start
charging. If you can therefore cause the generator to build up by holding the
cutout points closed by hand, or by shorting across from the generator
terminal to the battery terminal of the cutout, it is probable that the generator
brushes are not making good contact). The cutout may be tested by stopping
the engine, replacing the battery (or ammeter) wire on the cutout, and
holding the end of the extra wire on the generator terminal of the cutout. If a
charging current is then obtained, the cutout is 0. K. and the trouble is
between the cutout and the generator.
5. An excessive current is obtained. If a third brush generator is used, look
for loose or dirty connections in the charging line, dirty cutout points, dirty
commutator, dirty brushes (especially the brush, or brushes, which is Dot
connected to one end of the field winding), brushes loose, brushes not well
ground in, and any other conditions which will cause a high resistance in the
charging line. It is characteristic of third brush generators that their current
output increases if there is an increase in resistance in the charging circuit. If
no troubles such as those enumerated above are found, the third brush may
need adjusting.
Generators using vibrating current or voltage regulators will give an
excessive output if the points need adjusting or if the regulating resistance is
short-circuited.
to having been operated on open-circuit, or due to troubles as described in
the foregoing paragraph. The presence of a ground or short in the circuit
between the generator and cutout or in the cutout may be determined by
disconnected the wire from the generator, disconnecting the battery (or
ammeter) wire from the cutout, and running a separate extra wire from the
generator to the wire removed from the cutout. Then start the engine again.
If a charging current is obtained, there is a ground or short either in the
cutout or in the circuit between the cutout and the generator. (It is also
possible that the failure of the generator to build up was due to poor brush
contact in the generator. The use of the extra wire connected the generator
directly to the battery, thus magnetizing the generator fields and causing
generator to build up. If poor brush contact prevented the generator from
building up, closing the cutout by hand will often cause the generator to start
charging. If you can therefore cause the generator to build up by holding the
cutout points closed by hand, or by shorting across from the generator
terminal to the battery terminal of the cutout, it is probable that the generator
brushes are not making good contact). The cutout may be tested by stopping
the engine, replacing the battery (or ammeter) wire on the cutout, and
holding the end of the extra wire on the generator terminal of the cutout. If a
charging current is then obtained, the cutout is 0. K. and the trouble is
between the cutout and the generator.
5. An excessive current is obtained. If a third brush generator is used, look
for loose or dirty connections in the charging line, dirty cutout points, dirty
commutator, dirty brushes (especially the brush, or brushes, which is Dot
connected to one end of the field winding), brushes loose, brushes not well
ground in, and any other conditions which will cause a high resistance in the
charging line. It is characteristic of third brush generators that their current
output increases if there is an increase in resistance in the charging circuit. If
no troubles such as those enumerated above are found, the third brush may
need adjusting.
Generators using vibrating current or voltage regulators will give an
excessive output if the points need adjusting or if the regulating resistance is
short-circuited.
Page 354
Generators using reversed series regulation will give an excessive output if
there is a short-circuit in the series field coils.
6. Low charging current is obtained. This may be due to adjustment of the
regulating device, to high resistance in the shunt field circuit in case of a
third brush generator. In case of generators using other kinds of regulation,
loose connections, dirty commutator and brushes, etc., will cause low
charging current.
7. Generator charges up to a certain speed and then stops charging. The
trouble is caused by some condition which causes the brushes to break
contact with the commutator, especially in the case of a "third" brush. High
mica, loose brush spring, or a commutator which has been turned down off-
center may cause the trouble. This trouble most frequently occurs on cars
using third brush motor-generators having a 3 to 1 or more speed ratio
between them and the engine. These motor-generators operate at such high
speeds that high mica and a commutator which is even slightly off center
have a much greater effect than the same conditions would cause in separate
generators which operate at much lower speeds. The remedy for this trouble
is to keep the mica under-cut, and to be very careful to center the armature in
the lathe when taking a cut from the armature. In turning down the
commutators of high speed motor-generators, special fittings should be made
by means of which the armature may be mounted in its own ball-bearings
while the commutator is turned down.
ADJUSTING GENERATOR OUTPUTS
The repairman should be very slow in adjusting generator outputs. Most
cases of insufficient or excessive charging current are due to the troubles
enumerated in the foregoing paragraphs, and not due to incorrect adjustment
of the regulating device. Before changing the adjustment of any generator,
therefore, be sure that everything is in good condition. The third brush
generator, for instance, will have an excessive output if the brushes are dirty,
loose, or not well seated on the commutator. The use of a third brush which
is too wide, for instance, will change the output considerably. A high
resistance third brush will decrease the output, while a low resistance brush
will increase the output. On the other hand, an increase in the resistance of
the charging circuit will cause an increase in the output of a third brush
there is a short-circuit in the series field coils.
6. Low charging current is obtained. This may be due to adjustment of the
regulating device, to high resistance in the shunt field circuit in case of a
third brush generator. In case of generators using other kinds of regulation,
loose connections, dirty commutator and brushes, etc., will cause low
charging current.
7. Generator charges up to a certain speed and then stops charging. The
trouble is caused by some condition which causes the brushes to break
contact with the commutator, especially in the case of a "third" brush. High
mica, loose brush spring, or a commutator which has been turned down off-
center may cause the trouble. This trouble most frequently occurs on cars
using third brush motor-generators having a 3 to 1 or more speed ratio
between them and the engine. These motor-generators operate at such high
speeds that high mica and a commutator which is even slightly off center
have a much greater effect than the same conditions would cause in separate
generators which operate at much lower speeds. The remedy for this trouble
is to keep the mica under-cut, and to be very careful to center the armature in
the lathe when taking a cut from the armature. In turning down the
commutators of high speed motor-generators, special fittings should be made
by means of which the armature may be mounted in its own ball-bearings
while the commutator is turned down.
ADJUSTING GENERATOR OUTPUTS
The repairman should be very slow in adjusting generator outputs. Most
cases of insufficient or excessive charging current are due to the troubles
enumerated in the foregoing paragraphs, and not due to incorrect adjustment
of the regulating device. Before changing the adjustment of any generator,
therefore, be sure that everything is in good condition. The third brush
generator, for instance, will have an excessive output if the brushes are dirty,
loose, or not well seated on the commutator. The use of a third brush which
is too wide, for instance, will change the output considerably. A high
resistance third brush will decrease the output, while a low resistance brush
will increase the output. On the other hand, an increase in the resistance of
the charging circuit will cause an increase in the output of a third brush
Page 355
generator, which is just the opposite to what is ordinarily expected. Such an
increase in resistance may be due to loose or dirty connections, dirty cutout
contact points, corroded battery terminals and so on. Remember also that the
third brush generator sends a higher current into a fully charged battery than
it sends into a discharged battery. It is, therefore, essential that a fully
charged battery be on the car when the output of a third brush generator is
adjusted.
There are two things which determine whether any change should be
made in the charging rate on the car, viz: Driving, Conditions and the
Season of the Year.
Driving Conditions. A car which makes short runs, with numerous stops,
requires that the starting motor be used frequently. This tends to run the
battery down very quickly. Moreover, such a car usually does not have its
engine running long enough to give the generator an opportunity to keep the
battery charged, and to accomplish this, the charging rate should be
increased.
A car which is used mostly at night may need a higher charging rate,
especially if short runs are made, and if the car stands at the curb with its
lights burning. Long night runs will generally call for only a normal
charging rate, since the long charging periods are offset by the continuous
use of the lamps.
A car used on long daylight runs should generally have the charging rate
reduced, because the battery is charged throughout such runs with no
discharge into lamps or starting of motor to offset the continued charge. If
the lamps are kept lighted during such runs, the normal charge rate will be
satisfactory, because the lamp current will automatically reduce the current
sent into the battery.
In the winter time, engines must be cranked for a longer time before they
will start, the battery is less efficient than in warm weather, and lights are
burning for a greater length of time than in summer. Such conditions require
an increase in the charging rate, especially if the car is used on short runs.
Oil long runs in the winter time, the normal charging rate will generally be
increase in resistance may be due to loose or dirty connections, dirty cutout
contact points, corroded battery terminals and so on. Remember also that the
third brush generator sends a higher current into a fully charged battery than
it sends into a discharged battery. It is, therefore, essential that a fully
charged battery be on the car when the output of a third brush generator is
adjusted.
There are two things which determine whether any change should be
made in the charging rate on the car, viz: Driving, Conditions and the
Season of the Year.
Driving Conditions. A car which makes short runs, with numerous stops,
requires that the starting motor be used frequently. This tends to run the
battery down very quickly. Moreover, such a car usually does not have its
engine running long enough to give the generator an opportunity to keep the
battery charged, and to accomplish this, the charging rate should be
increased.
A car which is used mostly at night may need a higher charging rate,
especially if short runs are made, and if the car stands at the curb with its
lights burning. Long night runs will generally call for only a normal
charging rate, since the long charging periods are offset by the continuous
use of the lamps.
A car used on long daylight runs should generally have the charging rate
reduced, because the battery is charged throughout such runs with no
discharge into lamps or starting of motor to offset the continued charge. If
the lamps are kept lighted during such runs, the normal charge rate will be
satisfactory, because the lamp current will automatically reduce the current
sent into the battery.
In the winter time, engines must be cranked for a longer time before they
will start, the battery is less efficient than in warm weather, and lights are
burning for a greater length of time than in summer. Such conditions require
an increase in the charging rate, especially if the car is used on short runs.
Oil long runs in the winter time, the normal charging rate will generally be
Page 356
satisfactory because the long charging period will offset the longer cranking
period.
In the summer time, engines start more easily than in winter, and hence
require less cranking. The lamps are used for only short periods and the
battery is more efficient than in winter. A lower charging rate will, therefore,
keep the battery charged. Long tours in the summer time are especially
likely to result in overcharged, overheated batteries, and a reduced charging
rate is called for.
How and When to Adjust Charging Rates
A correct charging rate is one which keeps a battery fully charged, but does
not overcharge it, and which does not cause either the generator or the
battery to become overheated. The only way to determine whether a certain
charging rate is correct on any particular car is to make an arrangement with
the car owner to bring in his car every two weeks. On such occasions
hydrometer readings should be taken and water added, if necessary, to bring
the surface of the electrolyte up to the proper level. The hydrometer readings
will show whether the generator is keeping the battery charged, and if a
change in the charging rate is necessary, the necessary adjustments may be
made. If a customer does not bring in his car every two weeks, call him up
on the phone or write to him. The interest which you show in his battery by
doing this will generally result in the customer giving you all his repair
business, and he will also tell his acquaintances about your good service.
This will give you considerable "word of mouth" advertising, which is by far
the best form of advertising and which cannot be bought. It must be earned
by good battery service.
Adjusting a third brush generator. The best rule to remember for changing
the output of a third brush machine is that to increase the output, move the
third brush in the direction in which the commutator rotates, and to decrease
the output, move the third brush in the opposite direction. Move the third
brush only 1/16 inch and then sandpaper the brush seat with 00 sandpaper.
Allow the generator to run for about twenty minutes to "run-in" the brush.
Then vary the speed to see what the maximum charging rate is. If the change
in the charging rate is not sufficient, move the third brush another 1/16 inch
and proceed as before until the desired charging rate is obtained.
period.
In the summer time, engines start more easily than in winter, and hence
require less cranking. The lamps are used for only short periods and the
battery is more efficient than in winter. A lower charging rate will, therefore,
keep the battery charged. Long tours in the summer time are especially
likely to result in overcharged, overheated batteries, and a reduced charging
rate is called for.
How and When to Adjust Charging Rates
A correct charging rate is one which keeps a battery fully charged, but does
not overcharge it, and which does not cause either the generator or the
battery to become overheated. The only way to determine whether a certain
charging rate is correct on any particular car is to make an arrangement with
the car owner to bring in his car every two weeks. On such occasions
hydrometer readings should be taken and water added, if necessary, to bring
the surface of the electrolyte up to the proper level. The hydrometer readings
will show whether the generator is keeping the battery charged, and if a
change in the charging rate is necessary, the necessary adjustments may be
made. If a customer does not bring in his car every two weeks, call him up
on the phone or write to him. The interest which you show in his battery by
doing this will generally result in the customer giving you all his repair
business, and he will also tell his acquaintances about your good service.
This will give you considerable "word of mouth" advertising, which is by far
the best form of advertising and which cannot be bought. It must be earned
by good battery service.
Adjusting a third brush generator. The best rule to remember for changing
the output of a third brush machine is that to increase the output, move the
third brush in the direction in which the commutator rotates, and to decrease
the output, move the third brush in the opposite direction. Move the third
brush only 1/16 inch and then sandpaper the brush seat with 00 sandpaper.
Allow the generator to run for about twenty minutes to "run-in" the brush.
Then vary the speed to see what the maximum charging rate is. If the change
in the charging rate is not sufficient, move the third brush another 1/16 inch
and proceed as before until the desired charging rate is obtained.
Page 357
Adjusting Vibrating Regulators. The output of generators which use a
vibrating regulator is adjusted by changing the tension of the spring fastened
to the regulator arm. In many cases this adjustment is made by means of a
screw which is turned up or down to change the spring tension. In other
cases a hook or prong is bent to change the spring tension. Where a coil
spring is used, lengthening the spring will decrease the tension and lower the
output, while shortening the spring will increase the tension and raise the
output.
Vibrating regulators are of the "constant" current or the "constant-voltage"
types. The constant current regulator has a winding of heavy wire which
carries the charging current. When the charging current reaches the value for
which the regulator is set, the electromagnet formed by the coil and the core
on which it is wound draws the regulator armature toward it and thereby
separates the regulator points, which are in series with the shunt field. A
resistance coil, which is connected across the regulator points and which is
short-circuited when the points are closed, is put in series with the shunt
field when the points separate. This reduces the shunt field current, causing a
decrease in generator voltage and hence current output. As the current
decreases, the pull of the electromagnet on the regulator armature weakens
and the spring overcomes the pull of the electromagnet and closes the
regulator points. This short-circuits the resistance coil connected across the
regulator points and allows the shunt field current to increase again, thereby
increasing the generator output. This cycle is repeated at a high rate of
speed, causing the regulator points to vibrate rapidly.
The action of a vibrating "constant-voltage" regulator is exactly the same as
that of the "constant current" regulator, except that the coil is connected
across the generator brushes. The action of this coil therefore depends on the
generator voltage, the regulator points vibrating when the generator voltage
rises to the value for which the regulator is set.
Adjusting Reverse-Series Generators. The regulation of the output of this
type of generator is accomplished by means of a field winding which is in
series with the armature, and which therefore carries the charging current.
These series field coils are magnetically opposed to the shunt field coils, and
an increase in charging current results in a weakening of the field flux. A
balanced condition is reached at which no increase of flux takes place as the
vibrating regulator is adjusted by changing the tension of the spring fastened
to the regulator arm. In many cases this adjustment is made by means of a
screw which is turned up or down to change the spring tension. In other
cases a hook or prong is bent to change the spring tension. Where a coil
spring is used, lengthening the spring will decrease the tension and lower the
output, while shortening the spring will increase the tension and raise the
output.
Vibrating regulators are of the "constant" current or the "constant-voltage"
types. The constant current regulator has a winding of heavy wire which
carries the charging current. When the charging current reaches the value for
which the regulator is set, the electromagnet formed by the coil and the core
on which it is wound draws the regulator armature toward it and thereby
separates the regulator points, which are in series with the shunt field. A
resistance coil, which is connected across the regulator points and which is
short-circuited when the points are closed, is put in series with the shunt
field when the points separate. This reduces the shunt field current, causing a
decrease in generator voltage and hence current output. As the current
decreases, the pull of the electromagnet on the regulator armature weakens
and the spring overcomes the pull of the electromagnet and closes the
regulator points. This short-circuits the resistance coil connected across the
regulator points and allows the shunt field current to increase again, thereby
increasing the generator output. This cycle is repeated at a high rate of
speed, causing the regulator points to vibrate rapidly.
The action of a vibrating "constant-voltage" regulator is exactly the same as
that of the "constant current" regulator, except that the coil is connected
across the generator brushes. The action of this coil therefore depends on the
generator voltage, the regulator points vibrating when the generator voltage
rises to the value for which the regulator is set.
Adjusting Reverse-Series Generators. The regulation of the output of this
type of generator is accomplished by means of a field winding which is in
series with the armature, and which therefore carries the charging current.
These series field coils are magnetically opposed to the shunt field coils, and
an increase in charging current results in a weakening of the field flux. A
balanced condition is reached at which no increase of flux takes place as the
Page 358
generator speed increases, the tendency of the increased shunt field current
to increase the total flux being counterbalanced by the weakening action of
the flux produced by the series field current.
To increase the output of a reverse series generator, it is necessary to weaken
the opposing series field flux. The only way of doing this is to short-circuit
the series field coils, or connect a resistance across them. To decrease the
output of a reverse series generator, a resistance coil may be connected in
series with the shunt field winding. Neither of these schemes is practicable,
and hence the reverse series generator may be considered as a "non-
adjustable" machine. Under-charging may be prevented by using the starting
motor and lights as little as possible, or by giving the battery a bench charge
occasionally. Over-charging may be prevented by burning the lights
whenever the engine is running, or leaving the lights turned on over night.
Other forms of regulation have been used on the older cars, but the majority
of the cars now in use use one of the four forms of regulation described in
the foregoing paragraphs. If adjustments need to be made on some car
having a system of-regulation with which the battery man is not familiar, the
work should be done in a service station doing generator work.
If generator outputs are changed because of some special operating
condition, such as summer tours, the rate should be changed to normal as
soon as the usual driving conditions are resumed.
TESTING AND FILLING SERVICE
Every man expects to be paid for his work, since his purpose in working is to
get money. Yet there are numerous instances in every line of work requiring
work to be done for which no money is received. The term "Free Service" is
familiar to every repairman, and it has been the cause of considerable
discussion and dispute, since it is often very difficult to know where to draw
the Tine between Free Service and Paid Service.
The term "Free Service" might be abolished with benefit to all concerned. In
the battery business "Free Inspection" service is a familiar term. It is
intended to apply to the regular addition of distilled water by the repairman
and to tests made at the time the water is added. Since the term "Inspection"
to increase the total flux being counterbalanced by the weakening action of
the flux produced by the series field current.
To increase the output of a reverse series generator, it is necessary to weaken
the opposing series field flux. The only way of doing this is to short-circuit
the series field coils, or connect a resistance across them. To decrease the
output of a reverse series generator, a resistance coil may be connected in
series with the shunt field winding. Neither of these schemes is practicable,
and hence the reverse series generator may be considered as a "non-
adjustable" machine. Under-charging may be prevented by using the starting
motor and lights as little as possible, or by giving the battery a bench charge
occasionally. Over-charging may be prevented by burning the lights
whenever the engine is running, or leaving the lights turned on over night.
Other forms of regulation have been used on the older cars, but the majority
of the cars now in use use one of the four forms of regulation described in
the foregoing paragraphs. If adjustments need to be made on some car
having a system of-regulation with which the battery man is not familiar, the
work should be done in a service station doing generator work.
If generator outputs are changed because of some special operating
condition, such as summer tours, the rate should be changed to normal as
soon as the usual driving conditions are resumed.
TESTING AND FILLING SERVICE
Every man expects to be paid for his work, since his purpose in working is to
get money. Yet there are numerous instances in every line of work requiring
work to be done for which no money is received. The term "Free Service" is
familiar to every repairman, and it has been the cause of considerable
discussion and dispute, since it is often very difficult to know where to draw
the Tine between Free Service and Paid Service.
The term "Free Service" might be abolished with benefit to all concerned. In
the battery business "Free Inspection" service is a familiar term. It is
intended to apply to the regular addition of distilled water by the repairman
and to tests made at the time the water is added. Since the term "Inspection"
Page 359
might be Misinterpreted and taken to apply to the opening of batteries for
examination, the term "Testing and Filling Service" should be used instead
of "Free Inspection Service."
Battery makers furnish cards for distribution to car owners. These cards
entitle the holder to bring in his battery every two weeks to have distilled
water added if necessary, and to have his battery tested without paying for it.
This service requires very little time, and should be given cheerfully by
every service man.
"Testing and Filling Service" is an excellent means of becoming acquainted
with car owners. Be as pleasant and courteous to the "Testing and Filling"
customer as you are to the man who brings in a battery that needs repairs.
For this customer will certainly give you his repair business if you have been
pleasant in giving the Testing and Filling Service.
A thoroughly competent battery man should be put in charge of the Testing
and Filling Service, since this man must meet the car owners, upon whom
the service station depends for its income. Customers are impressed, not by
an imposing array of repair shop equipment, but by the manner of the men
who meet them. These men will increase the number of your customers, or
will drive trade to competitors, depending on the impression they leave in
the minds of the car owners.
Every service station owner should persuade all the car owners in the
vicinity of the station to come in regularly for the free testing and filling
service, and when they do come in they should be given cheerful, courteous
service. Each "testing" and "filling" customer is a prospective paying
customer, for it is entirely natural that a car owner will give his repair work
to the battery man who has been taking care of the testing and filling work
Oil his battery. When a new battery is needed, the "testing" and "filling"
customer will certainly buy it from the man who has been relieving him of
the work of keeping his batteries in good shape.
Car owners who depend on your competitor for their "testing and filling"
service will not come to you when their battery needs repairing, or when
they need a new battery. You may be convinced that you handle a better
make of battery than your competitor does, but your competitor's word will
examination, the term "Testing and Filling Service" should be used instead
of "Free Inspection Service."
Battery makers furnish cards for distribution to car owners. These cards
entitle the holder to bring in his battery every two weeks to have distilled
water added if necessary, and to have his battery tested without paying for it.
This service requires very little time, and should be given cheerfully by
every service man.
"Testing and Filling Service" is an excellent means of becoming acquainted
with car owners. Be as pleasant and courteous to the "Testing and Filling"
customer as you are to the man who brings in a battery that needs repairs.
For this customer will certainly give you his repair business if you have been
pleasant in giving the Testing and Filling Service.
A thoroughly competent battery man should be put in charge of the Testing
and Filling Service, since this man must meet the car owners, upon whom
the service station depends for its income. Customers are impressed, not by
an imposing array of repair shop equipment, but by the manner of the men
who meet them. These men will increase the number of your customers, or
will drive trade to competitors, depending on the impression they leave in
the minds of the car owners.
Every service station owner should persuade all the car owners in the
vicinity of the station to come in regularly for the free testing and filling
service, and when they do come in they should be given cheerful, courteous
service. Each "testing" and "filling" customer is a prospective paying
customer, for it is entirely natural that a car owner will give his repair work
to the battery man who has been taking care of the testing and filling work
Oil his battery. When a new battery is needed, the "testing" and "filling"
customer will certainly buy it from the man who has been relieving him of
the work of keeping his batteries in good shape.
Car owners who depend on your competitor for their "testing and filling"
service will not come to you when their battery needs repairing, or when
they need a new battery. You may be convinced that you handle a better
make of battery than your competitor does, but your competitor's word will
Page 360
carry far more weight than yours with the man who has been coming to him
for testing and filling. Good testing and filling service is, therefore, the best
method of advertising and building up your business. The cost of this service
to you is more than offset by the paying business it certainly brings, and by
the saving in money spent for advertising. Remember that a boost by a
satisfied customer is of considerably greater value to your business than
newspaper advertising.
A careful record should be kept of every battery which is brought in
regularly for testing and filling service. If a test shows that one or more cells
are low in gravity, say about 1.220, this fact should be recorded. If the
gravity is still low when the battery comes in again for test, remove the
battery and give it a bench charge. The customer should, of course, pay for
the bench charge and for the rental battery which is put on the car in the
meantime.
Battery manufacturers generally furnish cards to be used in connection with
the testing and filling service, such cards being issued to the customers. A
punch mark is made every time the battery is brought in, If the owner
neglects to come in, this is indicated by the absence of a punch mark, and
puts the blame for any trouble caused by this neglect on the owner. if any
cell shows low gravity, a notation of that fact may be made opposite the
punch mark for the date on which the low gravity was observed. If the low
gravity is again found the next time the battery is brought in, the battery
should be removed and given a bench charge. If the bench charge puts the
battery in good shape, and the subsequent gravity readings are high, no
trouble is present. If, however, the low gravity readings begin to drop off
again, it is probable that new separators are required, especially if the battery
is about a year old.
The logical course of events in the testing and filling service is to keep the
battery properly filled (at no cost to the customer), give the battery an
occasional bench charge (for which the customer pays), reinsulate the
battery when it is about a year old (for which the customer pays), and sell the
customer a new battery when the old one is worn out. If some trouble
develops during the lifetime of the battery which is not due to lack of proper
attention, the customer should pay to have the repairs made. From this the
battery man will see how the Testing and Filling Service pays. The way to
for testing and filling. Good testing and filling service is, therefore, the best
method of advertising and building up your business. The cost of this service
to you is more than offset by the paying business it certainly brings, and by
the saving in money spent for advertising. Remember that a boost by a
satisfied customer is of considerably greater value to your business than
newspaper advertising.
A careful record should be kept of every battery which is brought in
regularly for testing and filling service. If a test shows that one or more cells
are low in gravity, say about 1.220, this fact should be recorded. If the
gravity is still low when the battery comes in again for test, remove the
battery and give it a bench charge. The customer should, of course, pay for
the bench charge and for the rental battery which is put on the car in the
meantime.
Battery manufacturers generally furnish cards to be used in connection with
the testing and filling service, such cards being issued to the customers. A
punch mark is made every time the battery is brought in, If the owner
neglects to come in, this is indicated by the absence of a punch mark, and
puts the blame for any trouble caused by this neglect on the owner. if any
cell shows low gravity, a notation of that fact may be made opposite the
punch mark for the date on which the low gravity was observed. If the low
gravity is again found the next time the battery is brought in, the battery
should be removed and given a bench charge. If the bench charge puts the
battery in good shape, and the subsequent gravity readings are high, no
trouble is present. If, however, the low gravity readings begin to drop off
again, it is probable that new separators are required, especially if the battery
is about a year old.
The logical course of events in the testing and filling service is to keep the
battery properly filled (at no cost to the customer), give the battery an
occasional bench charge (for which the customer pays), reinsulate the
battery when it is about a year old (for which the customer pays), and sell the
customer a new battery when the old one is worn out. If some trouble
develops during the lifetime of the battery which is not due to lack of proper
attention, the customer should pay to have the repairs made. From this the
battery man will see how the Testing and Filling Service pays. The way to
Page 361
get business is to have people come to your shop. Become acquainted with
them, treat them right, and you need not wonder where the money is to come
from.
SERVICE RECORDS
In order to run a repair shop in an orderly, business-like manner, it is
necessary to have an efficient system of Service Records. Such a system will
protect both the repairman and the customer, and simplify the repairman's
bookkeeping. For a small service station a very simple system should be
adopted. As the business grows, the service record system must necessarily
become more complicated, since each battery will pass through several
persons' hands. Battery manufacturers generally furnish service record sheets
and cards to their service stations, and the repairman who has a contract with
a manufacturer generally adopts them. The manufacturers' service record
systems are often somewhat complicated, and require considerable
bookkeeping.
For the smaller service station a single sheet or card is most suitable, there
being only one for each job, and carbon sheets and copies being unnecessary.
Such a service record has three essential parts: (a) The customer's claim
check. (b) The battery tag. (c) The record card. Fig. 183 shows a service
record card which is suitable for the average repair shop. Part No. I is the
customer's claim check, Part No. 2 the battery tag, and part No. 3 the record
card, and is 5 inches by 8 inches in size. The overall size of the entire card is
5 inches by 12 inches. Parts I and 2 are torn off along the perforated lines
marked (A).
When a battery comes in the three parts are given the same number to
identify them when they have been torn apart. The number may be written in
the "No." space shown on each part, or the numbers may be stamped on the
card. The record should not be made out as soon as a customer comes in, but
after the battery has been examined and tested and the necessary work
determined. Put the customer's name on parts 2 and 3. Record the address,
telephone, etc., in the proper spaces on part 3. Having determined by test and
inspection what is to be done, fill out the "WORKCOSTS" table on part 3,
putting a check mark in the first column to indicate the work to be done and
the material needed. Figure up the cost while the customer waits, if this is
them, treat them right, and you need not wonder where the money is to come
from.
SERVICE RECORDS
In order to run a repair shop in an orderly, business-like manner, it is
necessary to have an efficient system of Service Records. Such a system will
protect both the repairman and the customer, and simplify the repairman's
bookkeeping. For a small service station a very simple system should be
adopted. As the business grows, the service record system must necessarily
become more complicated, since each battery will pass through several
persons' hands. Battery manufacturers generally furnish service record sheets
and cards to their service stations, and the repairman who has a contract with
a manufacturer generally adopts them. The manufacturers' service record
systems are often somewhat complicated, and require considerable
bookkeeping.
For the smaller service station a single sheet or card is most suitable, there
being only one for each job, and carbon sheets and copies being unnecessary.
Such a service record has three essential parts: (a) The customer's claim
check. (b) The battery tag. (c) The record card. Fig. 183 shows a service
record card which is suitable for the average repair shop. Part No. I is the
customer's claim check, Part No. 2 the battery tag, and part No. 3 the record
card, and is 5 inches by 8 inches in size. The overall size of the entire card is
5 inches by 12 inches. Parts I and 2 are torn off along the perforated lines
marked (A).
When a battery comes in the three parts are given the same number to
identify them when they have been torn apart. The number may be written in
the "No." space shown on each part, or the numbers may be stamped on the
card. The record should not be made out as soon as a customer comes in, but
after the battery has been examined and tested and the necessary work
determined. Put the customer's name on parts 2 and 3. Record the address,
telephone, etc., in the proper spaces on part 3. Having determined by test and
inspection what is to be done, fill out the "WORKCOSTS" table on part 3,
putting a check mark in the first column to indicate the work to be done and
the material needed. Figure up the cost while the customer waits, if this is
Page 362
possible. Explain the costs to the customer, and have him sign Contract No.
1. If you do this there can never be any argument about the bill you hand the
customer later If the customer cannot wait, or if he is well known to you and
you know lie will not question your bill, have him sign Contract No. 2. In
either case, the terms printed on the back of the card authorize the repairman
to make whatever repairs he finds to be necessary, and bind the customer to
pay for them. Find out whether the customer will call, whether you are to
deliver the battery, or whether you are to ship it, and put a check mark in the
proper space at the right of the "WORK-COSTS" table. Mark the battery
with the chalk whose color is indicated, and you will know how to dispose
of the battery when the repairs are completed.
Fill out the claim check and give it to the customer, tearing it off along the
perforated lines. Fill out the battery tag, indicating after "Instructions" just
what is to be done.
1. If you do this there can never be any argument about the bill you hand the
customer later If the customer cannot wait, or if he is well known to you and
you know lie will not question your bill, have him sign Contract No. 2. In
either case, the terms printed on the back of the card authorize the repairman
to make whatever repairs he finds to be necessary, and bind the customer to
pay for them. Find out whether the customer will call, whether you are to
deliver the battery, or whether you are to ship it, and put a check mark in the
proper space at the right of the "WORK-COSTS" table. Mark the battery
with the chalk whose color is indicated, and you will know how to dispose
of the battery when the repairs are completed.
Fill out the claim check and give it to the customer, tearing it off along the
perforated lines. Fill out the battery tag, indicating after "Instructions" just
what is to be done.
Page 363
Make a sketch of the top of the battery in the space provided, dip the tag in
the paraffine dip pot (see page 182) and tack the card on the battery. File part
3 in a standard 5 by 8 card index file. To the right of the "WORK-COSTS"
table are spaces for entering the date on which the work is completed, the
date the customer is notified and the date the battery goes out. These dates
are useful in keeping a record of the job. When the job is finished and the
rental comes in, enter the costs in the "COSTS" table, and note the date the
bill was paid, in the space marked "PAID."
the paraffine dip pot (see page 182) and tack the card on the battery. File part
3 in a standard 5 by 8 card index file. To the right of the "WORK-COSTS"
table are spaces for entering the date on which the work is completed, the
date the customer is notified and the date the battery goes out. These dates
are useful in keeping a record of the job. When the job is finished and the
rental comes in, enter the costs in the "COSTS" table, and note the date the
bill was paid, in the space marked "PAID."
Page 364
File all the 5 by 8 cards (Part 3) in alphabetical order in a "dead" ticket file,
in either alphabetical or numerical order. With this file you can build up an
excellent mailing list of your customers. You can note how many new
customers you are securing and how many customers are not coming back.
The latter information is very valuable, as it enables you to find out what
customers have quit, and you can go after them to get their repair business
again.
When a rental is put on a card, the card shown in Fig. 184 may be tied to the
car where it is easily seen. This will serve as a reminder to the customer and
will help advertise your shop to those who ride in the car.
Each rental battery should have a number painted on it in large white letters,
or should have attached to it at all times a lead tag on which is stamped a
number to identify the battery. To keep a record of the rental batteries, a card
or sheet similar to that shown in Fig. 185 may be used. Each time the rental
is put on a car, a record is made of this fact on the card. Each rental battery
has its own card, and reference to this card will show at once where the
in either alphabetical or numerical order. With this file you can build up an
excellent mailing list of your customers. You can note how many new
customers you are securing and how many customers are not coming back.
The latter information is very valuable, as it enables you to find out what
customers have quit, and you can go after them to get their repair business
again.
When a rental is put on a card, the card shown in Fig. 184 may be tied to the
car where it is easily seen. This will serve as a reminder to the customer and
will help advertise your shop to those who ride in the car.
Each rental battery should have a number painted on it in large white letters,
or should have attached to it at all times a lead tag on which is stamped a
number to identify the battery. To keep a record of the rental batteries, a card
or sheet similar to that shown in Fig. 185 may be used. Each time the rental
is put on a car, a record is made of this fact on the card. Each rental battery
has its own card, and reference to this card will show at once where the
Page 365
battery is. Each card thus gives a record of the battery. The number of the
rental is also written on the Stock Card shown in Fig. 183, but the purpose of
putting the number on these cards is merely to make sure that the battery is
returned when the customer's battery is replaced on the car and to be able to
figure out the rental cost quickly and add it to the time and material costs in
repairing the customer's battery.
The Record Card shown in Fig. 183 does not help you locate any particular
rental battery. For instance, suppose that rental battery No. 896 is out and
you wish to know who is using it. You may, of course, look over the "Battery
Tags" which are tied to the batteries which are being repaired in the shop, or
you may examine the file containing the record cards, but this would take
too much time. But if you refer to the rental file you can determine
immediately where rental battery No. 896 is, since the cards in this file
should be arranged numerically.
The rack on which rental batteries are placed should have a tag bearing the
same number as the rental battery tacked to the shelf below the place
provided for the battery. Each rental battery should always be placed in the
same place on the shelf. You can then tell at a glance which batteries are out.
A good plan, and one which will save space, is to write the number of the
rental battery on the customer's claim check, and when repairs on his own
battery are completed, to set his battery in the place provided on the rental
rack for the rental which he is using. When he comes in for his battery, you
can tell at a glance whether his battery is ready by looking at the place where
the rental he is using is normally placed on the rental rack. If a battery is
there you will know that it is his battery, and that it is ready for him.
rental is also written on the Stock Card shown in Fig. 183, but the purpose of
putting the number on these cards is merely to make sure that the battery is
returned when the customer's battery is replaced on the car and to be able to
figure out the rental cost quickly and add it to the time and material costs in
repairing the customer's battery.
The Record Card shown in Fig. 183 does not help you locate any particular
rental battery. For instance, suppose that rental battery No. 896 is out and
you wish to know who is using it. You may, of course, look over the "Battery
Tags" which are tied to the batteries which are being repaired in the shop, or
you may examine the file containing the record cards, but this would take
too much time. But if you refer to the rental file you can determine
immediately where rental battery No. 896 is, since the cards in this file
should be arranged numerically.
The rack on which rental batteries are placed should have a tag bearing the
same number as the rental battery tacked to the shelf below the place
provided for the battery. Each rental battery should always be placed in the
same place on the shelf. You can then tell at a glance which batteries are out.
A good plan, and one which will save space, is to write the number of the
rental battery on the customer's claim check, and when repairs on his own
battery are completed, to set his battery in the place provided on the rental
rack for the rental which he is using. When he comes in for his battery, you
can tell at a glance whether his battery is ready by looking at the place where
the rental he is using is normally placed on the rental rack. If a battery is
there you will know that it is his battery, and that it is ready for him.
Page 366
You could, of course, look through the batteries on the "Ready Rack," but
this would take more time, since the numbers of the batteries on this rack
will always be different, and you would have to look through all the batteries
on the "Ready Rack" before you would be able to tell whether any particular
battery were ready. By putting a customer's battery in place of the rental he
is using, you will have only one place to look at in order to know whether
his battery is ready.
(Table of) Contents
this would take more time, since the numbers of the batteries on this rack
will always be different, and you would have to look through all the batteries
on the "Ready Rack" before you would be able to tell whether any particular
battery were ready. By putting a customer's battery in place of the rental he
is using, you will have only one place to look at in order to know whether
his battery is ready.
(Table of) Contents
Page 367
CHAPTER 13.
BUSINESS METHODS.
Success in this day and age cannot be attained without a well thought-out
plan of action. There is no business which does not demand some sort of
system of management. The smallest business must have it, and will go to
ruin without it. Hence every battery service station proprietor should see to it
that his affairs are systematized — arranged according to a carefully studied
method. Most men look upon "red-tape" with contempt and in the sense of a
mere monotonous and meaningless routine, it merits all the contempt poured
upon it. Hard, fast and iron-clad rules, which cease to be a means, and
become an end, prove a hindrance rather than a help. But an intelligent
method, which adapts itself to the needs of the business, is one of the most
powerful instruments of business. The battery man who despises it will
never do anything well. It does not matter how clever he is, how good a
workman he is, how complete his knowledge of batteries, if he attempts to
run his business without a plan, he will eventually come to grief.
Purchasing Methods.
Every battery service station proprietor is eager to build up his business, and
improve the character of his trade, because this in turn means that he will be
assured of larger sales to a good class of customers. And it is at once evident
that there are a number of requirements that affect this question of building
up a business, one of the first in importance being that of purchasing.
One of the first things with which the battery man is faced is the question of
what, where, and in what quantities to purchase. The philosophy of correct
purchasing consists in getting the right materials, in proper quantities, at a
low price, and with as little cost for the doing of it as possible. The
purchasing problem should be a most interesting and important subject to the
proprietor of every service station, because the policy pursued with regard to
purchasing will not only largely govern the economy of all his expenditures,
BUSINESS METHODS.
Success in this day and age cannot be attained without a well thought-out
plan of action. There is no business which does not demand some sort of
system of management. The smallest business must have it, and will go to
ruin without it. Hence every battery service station proprietor should see to it
that his affairs are systematized — arranged according to a carefully studied
method. Most men look upon "red-tape" with contempt and in the sense of a
mere monotonous and meaningless routine, it merits all the contempt poured
upon it. Hard, fast and iron-clad rules, which cease to be a means, and
become an end, prove a hindrance rather than a help. But an intelligent
method, which adapts itself to the needs of the business, is one of the most
powerful instruments of business. The battery man who despises it will
never do anything well. It does not matter how clever he is, how good a
workman he is, how complete his knowledge of batteries, if he attempts to
run his business without a plan, he will eventually come to grief.
Purchasing Methods.
Every battery service station proprietor is eager to build up his business, and
improve the character of his trade, because this in turn means that he will be
assured of larger sales to a good class of customers. And it is at once evident
that there are a number of requirements that affect this question of building
up a business, one of the first in importance being that of purchasing.
One of the first things with which the battery man is faced is the question of
what, where, and in what quantities to purchase. The philosophy of correct
purchasing consists in getting the right materials, in proper quantities, at a
low price, and with as little cost for the doing of it as possible. The
purchasing problem should be a most interesting and important subject to the
proprietor of every service station, because the policy pursued with regard to
purchasing will not only largely govern the economy of all his expenditures,
Page 368
except rent and payroll, but it will also control his selling policies. Goods are
sold, and services rendered only because some one wants to buy. The
customer's purchasing problems govern the proprietor's selling problems. To
sell properly, it is necessary to meet the requirements of those who buy.
Correct purchasing is not merely a matter of "buying." The buying itself has
but little to do, after all, with the question of real economy in this part of the
business. The proprietor's purchasing policy should not cease when the
purchase order is
made out, but should continue after the goods have been delivered, received
and inspected. He should see that they are properly stored, that they are put
to the use intended, and that they are used efficiently. This can be
accomplished to good advantage by the use of the Stock Record illustrated in
Fig. 186.
When goods are received, each item should be entered on these Stock
Record cards, keeping in mind always that the requirements of a "perpetual"
or "going" inventory of this kind are that a separate account be kept with
each kind or class of stock, and not alone with each class, but with each
grade of each class.
sold, and services rendered only because some one wants to buy. The
customer's purchasing problems govern the proprietor's selling problems. To
sell properly, it is necessary to meet the requirements of those who buy.
Correct purchasing is not merely a matter of "buying." The buying itself has
but little to do, after all, with the question of real economy in this part of the
business. The proprietor's purchasing policy should not cease when the
purchase order is
made out, but should continue after the goods have been delivered, received
and inspected. He should see that they are properly stored, that they are put
to the use intended, and that they are used efficiently. This can be
accomplished to good advantage by the use of the Stock Record illustrated in
Fig. 186.
When goods are received, each item should be entered on these Stock
Record cards, keeping in mind always that the requirements of a "perpetual"
or "going" inventory of this kind are that a separate account be kept with
each kind or class of stock, and not alone with each class, but with each
grade of each class.
Page 369
For example, if a quantity of batteries were received, it would not suffice to
have one card only for the entire quantity, unless they should happen to be
all of the same type and make. It should be understood that these cards are a
record of all articles coming into stock, and all articles going out of stock in
the way of sales or otherwise, with an individual card for each kind, grade,
style or size of stock carried on hand.
From the purchase invoices covering stock received, an entry is made in the
column headed "Received", to the proper account, showing date, order
number, quantity and price.
Each sales tag is used to make the entries in the columns headed
"Disbursed", in which the date, tag number, quantity, price, and the balance
quantity on hand are shown.
If this is done daily, for all the sales tags of the particular day, and the cards
on which the "disbursed" entries were made are kept separate from the
balance of the cards, it is an easy matter to arrive at the cost of all sales for
each day, The advantage of having this daily information will be explained
and illustrated in following paragraphs.
The Use and Abuse of Credit.
The question of the proper use of credit is closely allied with the purchasing
of goods. A great many business failures can be traced directly to
overexpanded credit. Any battery service station proprietor who does not
place a voluntary limit on the amount of credit for which he asks is, to say
the least, running a very great business risk. The moment he expands his
credit to the limit, he leaves himself with no margin of safety, and a sudden
change in business conditions may place him in a serious situation.
Commercial agencies usually call this condition a lack of capital. The real
cause, however, is not so much lack of capital as it is too much business on
credit. This does not mean that credit should not be sought; or that all
business should be done on the capital actually invested in the concern.
Credit is necessary to commercial life. Very few business concerns are so
strong financially as to be able to do without credit.
have one card only for the entire quantity, unless they should happen to be
all of the same type and make. It should be understood that these cards are a
record of all articles coming into stock, and all articles going out of stock in
the way of sales or otherwise, with an individual card for each kind, grade,
style or size of stock carried on hand.
From the purchase invoices covering stock received, an entry is made in the
column headed "Received", to the proper account, showing date, order
number, quantity and price.
Each sales tag is used to make the entries in the columns headed
"Disbursed", in which the date, tag number, quantity, price, and the balance
quantity on hand are shown.
If this is done daily, for all the sales tags of the particular day, and the cards
on which the "disbursed" entries were made are kept separate from the
balance of the cards, it is an easy matter to arrive at the cost of all sales for
each day, The advantage of having this daily information will be explained
and illustrated in following paragraphs.
The Use and Abuse of Credit.
The question of the proper use of credit is closely allied with the purchasing
of goods. A great many business failures can be traced directly to
overexpanded credit. Any battery service station proprietor who does not
place a voluntary limit on the amount of credit for which he asks is, to say
the least, running a very great business risk. The moment he expands his
credit to the limit, he leaves himself with no margin of safety, and a sudden
change in business conditions may place him in a serious situation.
Commercial agencies usually call this condition a lack of capital. The real
cause, however, is not so much lack of capital as it is too much business on
credit. This does not mean that credit should not be sought; or that all
business should be done on the capital actually invested in the concern.
Credit is necessary to commercial life. Very few business concerns are so
strong financially as to be able to do without credit.
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Credit should be sought and used intelligently, and it is not a hard matter for
any battery service station proprietor to keep his credit good. All that is
necessary is to take a few precautions, and observe in general the principles
of good business. The first requisite, of course, is to accept no more credit
than the business will stand. Sometimes it is possible to secure enough credit
to ruin a business. Its present condition and future prospects may appear so
good as to warrant securing all the credit possible under the circumstances.
It requires courage to limit the growth and the temporary prosperity of a
business by keeping down the credit accepted. It is very hard to refuse
business. It is difficult not to make extensions when there is enough business
in sight to pay for the extensions. But the acid test of whether or not you
should extend and borrow is not the amount of business that can be done, but
the amount of money that can be spared. The mere fact that you have the
money or can get it does not in the least mean that it should be spent.
And the reason for this is that, in order to keep your credit good, you must
meet all obligations promptly. Nothing has a more chilling effect on any
business than failure to meet all indebtedness when due. As soon as
additional time is requested in which to meet obligations, your credit rating
begins to contract; and if, at the same time, your credit has been
overexpanded the business is placed in a most difficult position. More than
one concern has gone to the wall when faced with this combination.
Proper Bookkeeping Records.
The principal difficulty in this matter of the proper use of credit will lie in
poor bookkeeping records, making it impossible for the proprietor to know
very much about his financial position or operating condition day by day and
week by week and month by month.
Many service station proprietors figure what they owe once a year only,
when they inventory, and many do not keep a permanent record even then;
and usually those who are neglectful in this regard are the ones who owe the
most, proportionately, who do not take their discounts, and who do not
progress.
any battery service station proprietor to keep his credit good. All that is
necessary is to take a few precautions, and observe in general the principles
of good business. The first requisite, of course, is to accept no more credit
than the business will stand. Sometimes it is possible to secure enough credit
to ruin a business. Its present condition and future prospects may appear so
good as to warrant securing all the credit possible under the circumstances.
It requires courage to limit the growth and the temporary prosperity of a
business by keeping down the credit accepted. It is very hard to refuse
business. It is difficult not to make extensions when there is enough business
in sight to pay for the extensions. But the acid test of whether or not you
should extend and borrow is not the amount of business that can be done, but
the amount of money that can be spared. The mere fact that you have the
money or can get it does not in the least mean that it should be spent.
And the reason for this is that, in order to keep your credit good, you must
meet all obligations promptly. Nothing has a more chilling effect on any
business than failure to meet all indebtedness when due. As soon as
additional time is requested in which to meet obligations, your credit rating
begins to contract; and if, at the same time, your credit has been
overexpanded the business is placed in a most difficult position. More than
one concern has gone to the wall when faced with this combination.
Proper Bookkeeping Records.
The principal difficulty in this matter of the proper use of credit will lie in
poor bookkeeping records, making it impossible for the proprietor to know
very much about his financial position or operating condition day by day and
week by week and month by month.
Many service station proprietors figure what they owe once a year only,
when they inventory, and many do not keep a permanent record even then;
and usually those who are neglectful in this regard are the ones who owe the
most, proportionately, who do not take their discounts, and who do not
progress.
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The following table covers the average discounts allowed in various lines. If
you study it, and find out how much it costs you to lose discounts, you will
at once realize the necessity for the proper sort of bookkeeping records.
1% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
% per year
2% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
% per year
3% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
% per year
5% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
% per year
8% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
% per year
1% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
% per year
2% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
% per year
3% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
% per year
5% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
% per year
8% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
% per year
1% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 % per year
2% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.8 % per year
3% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43.2 % per year
5% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
% per year
8% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.115.2 % per year
Then there is the matter of expenses; rent, wages, insurances, taxes,
depreciation, freight and express, and all the other miscellaneous items that
go to make up the total of your cost of doing business. Expenses eat up a
you study it, and find out how much it costs you to lose discounts, you will
at once realize the necessity for the proper sort of bookkeeping records.
1% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
% per year
2% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
% per year
3% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
% per year
5% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
% per year
8% cash, 30 days net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
% per year
1% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
% per year
2% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
% per year
3% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
% per year
5% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
% per year
8% 10 days, 30 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
% per year
1% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 % per year
2% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.8 % per year
3% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43.2 % per year
5% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
% per year
8% 10 days, 60 days net. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.115.2 % per year
Then there is the matter of expenses; rent, wages, insurances, taxes,
depreciation, freight and express, and all the other miscellaneous items that
go to make up the total of your cost of doing business. Expenses eat up a
Page 372
business unless controlled. They ought to be so analyzed that you are able
to place your finger on items which appear too large, or uncalled for, or
which need explanation.
A Daily Exhibit of Your Business.
In order to accomplish this, you ought to keep a record similar to that shown
by Fig. 187 — a Daily Exhibit of your business.
The advantage of this record is that it will give any battery man daily
information as to the following facts of his business:
1. The amount of stock on hand.
2. The amount of gross profit.
3. The percentage of gross profit.
It will give monthly information as to:
1. The expense and percentage of expense.
2. The actual net profit.
3. The percentage of net profit.
Such information will help you to locate exactly when and where your losses
come; during what months and from what causes. It will enable you to turn
losing months this year into profitable months next year; to tell whether your
losses were due to a too great expense account, or to too low gross profits.
The percentage columns on the sheet are the most important, because only
by percentages can you make proper comparisons, and know just how your
business is headed. You cannot guess percentages; you must have a way of
knowing continually what they are, in order to be certain of getting the right
return on your investment.
to place your finger on items which appear too large, or uncalled for, or
which need explanation.
A Daily Exhibit of Your Business.
In order to accomplish this, you ought to keep a record similar to that shown
by Fig. 187 — a Daily Exhibit of your business.
The advantage of this record is that it will give any battery man daily
information as to the following facts of his business:
1. The amount of stock on hand.
2. The amount of gross profit.
3. The percentage of gross profit.
It will give monthly information as to:
1. The expense and percentage of expense.
2. The actual net profit.
3. The percentage of net profit.
Such information will help you to locate exactly when and where your losses
come; during what months and from what causes. It will enable you to turn
losing months this year into profitable months next year; to tell whether your
losses were due to a too great expense account, or to too low gross profits.
The percentage columns on the sheet are the most important, because only
by percentages can you make proper comparisons, and know just how your
business is headed. You cannot guess percentages; you must have a way of
knowing continually what they are, in order to be certain of getting the right
return on your investment.
Page 373
Page 374
Page 375
Page 376
In analyzing this Daily Exhibit, you will note that it is ruled for five weeks
and two extra days, in order to provide for any one and all months of the
year. The various columns are provided so that the entries in them will give a
clear-cut story of the actual state of your affairs, daily, weekly, and monthly.
Each column will be considered in the order in which it appears on the form.
First Column — "Merchandise on Hand."
In starting this record the first day, the figures entered in this column must be
an actual physical inventory of your stock on hand, priced and extended at
cost. Do not total this column.
Second Column — "New Goods Added to Stock."
The figures entered in this column should be the total value of all new goods
received from manufacturers or jobbers on the particular day. If you return
any articles to the seller immediately upon receipt, and before putting them
into your stock, deduct such goods from the invoices and enter only the net
amount in this column. This column should be totaled every week and every
month.
Third Column — "Goods Returned by Customers; — Deduct from
Sales."
The total value of all goods returned by customers extended at the prices
charged customers should be entered in this column daily. Every week and
every month this column is totaled.
Fourth Column — "Cost of Goods Returned; — Deduct from Cost of
Goods Sold."
The cost of all goods returned by customers should be entered in this
column. The cost prices can always be secured from the Stock Record cards,
as previously explained. Total this column every week and every month.
Fifth Column — "Goods Returned to Manufacturers."
Sometimes there is occasion to return merchandise after it has been put into
stock. In such cases, the money value of the articles sent back to
manufacturers or jobbers should be entered in this column. This does not
mean such goods as were returned on the day received, and were deducted
from the seller's invoice, and at no time have appeared in the second column,
"New Goods Added to Stock," but only to such merchandise as was
and two extra days, in order to provide for any one and all months of the
year. The various columns are provided so that the entries in them will give a
clear-cut story of the actual state of your affairs, daily, weekly, and monthly.
Each column will be considered in the order in which it appears on the form.
First Column — "Merchandise on Hand."
In starting this record the first day, the figures entered in this column must be
an actual physical inventory of your stock on hand, priced and extended at
cost. Do not total this column.
Second Column — "New Goods Added to Stock."
The figures entered in this column should be the total value of all new goods
received from manufacturers or jobbers on the particular day. If you return
any articles to the seller immediately upon receipt, and before putting them
into your stock, deduct such goods from the invoices and enter only the net
amount in this column. This column should be totaled every week and every
month.
Third Column — "Goods Returned by Customers; — Deduct from
Sales."
The total value of all goods returned by customers extended at the prices
charged customers should be entered in this column daily. Every week and
every month this column is totaled.
Fourth Column — "Cost of Goods Returned; — Deduct from Cost of
Goods Sold."
The cost of all goods returned by customers should be entered in this
column. The cost prices can always be secured from the Stock Record cards,
as previously explained. Total this column every week and every month.
Fifth Column — "Goods Returned to Manufacturers."
Sometimes there is occasion to return merchandise after it has been put into
stock. In such cases, the money value of the articles sent back to
manufacturers or jobbers should be entered in this column. This does not
mean such goods as were returned on the day received, and were deducted
from the seller's invoice, and at no time have appeared in the second column,
"New Goods Added to Stock," but only to such merchandise as was
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originally entered in the second column, and later returned to the
manufacturer. This column should be totaled every week and every month.
Sixth Column — "Goods Sold, Less Goods Returned."
Enter here total of selling prices on sales tags for each day, after deducting
amount in the third column. Total this column every week and every month.
Seventh Column — "Cost of Goods Sold, Less Cost of Goods
Returned."
The total of the sales extended at cost prices for each day, minus the amount
showing in the fourth column, should be entered in this column. It should be
totaled every week and every month.
Eighth Column — "Gross Profits."
To arrive at the figures to be entered in this column deduct the amount in the
seventh column from the amount in the sixth column. Total this column
every week and every month.
Ninth Column — "Per Cent to Sales."
This percentage should be figured every day, and every week and every
month, and is arrived at by dividing the figures in the eighth column by the
figures in the sixth column. It will pay you to watch this column closely. You
will be astonished at the way it varies from day to day, week to week, and
month to month. If you watch it closely enough, you will soon learn a great
deal more about your business than you ever knew before. You do not need
to total this column.
Tenth Column — "Accounts Receivable."
On the day the Daily Exhibit is first started, the figures for this column must
be taken from whatever records you have kept in the past. Do not total this
column.
Eleventh Column — "Collections."
Every day you collect any money from those customers who run charge
accounts with you, enter the amount collected in this column. Total it every
week and every month.
manufacturer. This column should be totaled every week and every month.
Sixth Column — "Goods Sold, Less Goods Returned."
Enter here total of selling prices on sales tags for each day, after deducting
amount in the third column. Total this column every week and every month.
Seventh Column — "Cost of Goods Sold, Less Cost of Goods
Returned."
The total of the sales extended at cost prices for each day, minus the amount
showing in the fourth column, should be entered in this column. It should be
totaled every week and every month.
Eighth Column — "Gross Profits."
To arrive at the figures to be entered in this column deduct the amount in the
seventh column from the amount in the sixth column. Total this column
every week and every month.
Ninth Column — "Per Cent to Sales."
This percentage should be figured every day, and every week and every
month, and is arrived at by dividing the figures in the eighth column by the
figures in the sixth column. It will pay you to watch this column closely. You
will be astonished at the way it varies from day to day, week to week, and
month to month. If you watch it closely enough, you will soon learn a great
deal more about your business than you ever knew before. You do not need
to total this column.
Tenth Column — "Accounts Receivable."
On the day the Daily Exhibit is first started, the figures for this column must
be taken from whatever records you have kept in the past. Do not total this
column.
Eleventh Column — "Collections."
Every day you collect any money from those customers who run charge
accounts with you, enter the amount collected in this column. Total it every
week and every month.
Page 378
Twelfth Column — "Cash Sales."
Every day enter the amount of cash sales in this column, and total it every
week and every month.
Thirteenth Column — "Charge Sales."
The amount of daily sales made to those customers who do not pay cash but
run a charge account should be entered in this column. Every week and
every month this column should be totaled.
General Calculations.
To arrive at the amount of "Merchandise on Hand" after the first day, which
is, as has been previously explained, an actual physical inventory, add the
amounts showing in the first and second columns, and deduct from this total
the sum of the fifth and seventh columns. Enter this result in the first column
for the next succeeding day. Continue as above throughout the entire month.
After the first day the figures in "Accounts Receivable" column are obtained
by adding together the amounts showing in the tenth and thirteenth column
and deducting from this total the amount in the eleventh column. This
balance will be entered in the tenth column for the next day, the same
procedure being followed for each day thereafter.
"Merchandise on Hand" after the close of business on the last day of the
month should be entered in the first column on the line marked "Month
Total." This same amount will br carried forward to the first column of next
month's sheet and entered on the line of the particular day of the week on
which the first of the month falls.
Following the "Month Total" are the "Year to Date" and "Last Year to Date."
These figures are important for purposes of comparison. Arrive at total for
"Year to Date" by adding the total for the present month to the total for "Year
to Date" found on the previous month's sheet. The figures for "Last Year to
Date" are taken directly from the sheet kept for the same month last year. It
is, of course, evident that this cannot be done until one year's records have
been completed.
Expenses and Profits.
Every day enter the amount of cash sales in this column, and total it every
week and every month.
Thirteenth Column — "Charge Sales."
The amount of daily sales made to those customers who do not pay cash but
run a charge account should be entered in this column. Every week and
every month this column should be totaled.
General Calculations.
To arrive at the amount of "Merchandise on Hand" after the first day, which
is, as has been previously explained, an actual physical inventory, add the
amounts showing in the first and second columns, and deduct from this total
the sum of the fifth and seventh columns. Enter this result in the first column
for the next succeeding day. Continue as above throughout the entire month.
After the first day the figures in "Accounts Receivable" column are obtained
by adding together the amounts showing in the tenth and thirteenth column
and deducting from this total the amount in the eleventh column. This
balance will be entered in the tenth column for the next day, the same
procedure being followed for each day thereafter.
"Merchandise on Hand" after the close of business on the last day of the
month should be entered in the first column on the line marked "Month
Total." This same amount will br carried forward to the first column of next
month's sheet and entered on the line of the particular day of the week on
which the first of the month falls.
Following the "Month Total" are the "Year to Date" and "Last Year to Date."
These figures are important for purposes of comparison. Arrive at total for
"Year to Date" by adding the total for the present month to the total for "Year
to Date" found on the previous month's sheet. The figures for "Last Year to
Date" are taken directly from the sheet kept for the same month last year. It
is, of course, evident that this cannot be done until one year's records have
been completed.
Expenses and Profits.
Page 379
Under the heading "Summary" at the bottom of the sheet, provision has been
made for finding out how much net profit YOU have made for the month.
On the line marked "Gross Profits" enter the "Month Total" figures in the
eighth column. Below this enter all the various items of expense as follows:
(1) Advertising: By advertising is meant such copy, signs, etc., which may
be prepared and used for the purpose of keeping the public informed as to
your ability to serve them—in other words, any space which is used for
general publicity purposes, such as for instance, your card in the classified
telephone directory, or blotters, folders, dodgers which you may have printed
up and distributed.
Do not load this account with church programs, contributions to the ball
team, tickets to the fireman's ball and the like. These are donations, and not
advertising.
(2) Electricity: All bills for electrical current will be charged to this account.
(3) Freight: Charges for all freight and express will be made to this account.
(4) Insurance: The total yearly insurance should be divined by twelve, to
obtain the amount to be charged to this account monthly.
(5) Proprietor's salary: Many battery service station proprietors do not
charge their own living as an expense. That's a serious mistake, of course. If
those same men should hire a manager to run their service station, the
manager's salary would naturally be charged to expense. The amount of
money withdrawn from the business by the proprietor should therefore be
charged to expense.
(6) Rent: The amount of money you pay monthly for rent should be charged
to this account. If, on the other hand, you own your own building, charge the
business with rent, the same as if you were paying it to someone else. Every
business should stand rent; besides, the building itself should show itself a
profitable investment. Charge yourself just as much as you would anyone
else; don't favor your business by undercharging, nor handicap it by
overcharging.
made for finding out how much net profit YOU have made for the month.
On the line marked "Gross Profits" enter the "Month Total" figures in the
eighth column. Below this enter all the various items of expense as follows:
(1) Advertising: By advertising is meant such copy, signs, etc., which may
be prepared and used for the purpose of keeping the public informed as to
your ability to serve them—in other words, any space which is used for
general publicity purposes, such as for instance, your card in the classified
telephone directory, or blotters, folders, dodgers which you may have printed
up and distributed.
Do not load this account with church programs, contributions to the ball
team, tickets to the fireman's ball and the like. These are donations, and not
advertising.
(2) Electricity: All bills for electrical current will be charged to this account.
(3) Freight: Charges for all freight and express will be made to this account.
(4) Insurance: The total yearly insurance should be divined by twelve, to
obtain the amount to be charged to this account monthly.
(5) Proprietor's salary: Many battery service station proprietors do not
charge their own living as an expense. That's a serious mistake, of course. If
those same men should hire a manager to run their service station, the
manager's salary would naturally be charged to expense. The amount of
money withdrawn from the business by the proprietor should therefore be
charged to expense.
(6) Rent: The amount of money you pay monthly for rent should be charged
to this account. If, on the other hand, you own your own building, charge the
business with rent, the same as if you were paying it to someone else. Every
business should stand rent; besides, the building itself should show itself a
profitable investment. Charge yourself just as much as you would anyone
else; don't favor your business by undercharging, nor handicap it by
overcharging.
Page 380
(7) Supplies: The cost of all supplies, small tools and miscellaneous articles
which are bought for use in the business and not for sale should be charged
to this account.
(8) Taxes: The yearly amount of taxes paid should be divided by twelve, in
order to arrive at the monthly proportion to be charged to this account.
(9) Wages: The amount of wages paid to employees should be charged to
this account. Care should be taken to determine the actual amount for the
month, if wages are paid on a daily or weekly wage rate.
(10) Miscellaneous: Any expenses of the business not listed above will be
charged to this account. This may include such items as donations, loss on
bad accounts, and such like items of expense. You may itemize these into as
many headings as you desire, but for the purposes of the Daily Exhibit
combine all of them under "Miscellaneous Expense."
All these expense items are then added together, and this total is entered on
the line marked "Total Expenses."
Deduct "Total Expenses" from "Gross Profit" to arrive at "Net Profit."
To arrive at the totals for "This Year to Date," carry the figures forward from
the previous month's sheet and add figures for present month.
The figures for "Last Year to Date" will be found on the sheet for the
corresponding month of last year, and are copied in this column.
All percentages should be figured on sales. The figures shown on each line
in the "Amount" columns under the headings "This Month," "This Year to
Date" and "Last Year to Date" should be divided by the "Month Total" of the
sixth column, shown above, i. e., "Goods Sold, Less Goods Returned."
When you take inventory, the amount of stock should equal "Merchandise
on Hand," as shown by the Daily Exhibit. But there will generally be a
discrepancy, varying with the size of your stock, and that discrepancy will
represent the amount of goods gone out of your station without being paid
for; sold for cash and not accounted for; sold on credit and not charged, and
which are bought for use in the business and not for sale should be charged
to this account.
(8) Taxes: The yearly amount of taxes paid should be divided by twelve, in
order to arrive at the monthly proportion to be charged to this account.
(9) Wages: The amount of wages paid to employees should be charged to
this account. Care should be taken to determine the actual amount for the
month, if wages are paid on a daily or weekly wage rate.
(10) Miscellaneous: Any expenses of the business not listed above will be
charged to this account. This may include such items as donations, loss on
bad accounts, and such like items of expense. You may itemize these into as
many headings as you desire, but for the purposes of the Daily Exhibit
combine all of them under "Miscellaneous Expense."
All these expense items are then added together, and this total is entered on
the line marked "Total Expenses."
Deduct "Total Expenses" from "Gross Profit" to arrive at "Net Profit."
To arrive at the totals for "This Year to Date," carry the figures forward from
the previous month's sheet and add figures for present month.
The figures for "Last Year to Date" will be found on the sheet for the
corresponding month of last year, and are copied in this column.
All percentages should be figured on sales. The figures shown on each line
in the "Amount" columns under the headings "This Month," "This Year to
Date" and "Last Year to Date" should be divided by the "Month Total" of the
sixth column, shown above, i. e., "Goods Sold, Less Goods Returned."
When you take inventory, the amount of stock should equal "Merchandise
on Hand," as shown by the Daily Exhibit. But there will generally be a
discrepancy, varying with the size of your stock, and that discrepancy will
represent the amount of goods gone out of your station without being paid
for; sold for cash and not accounted for; sold on credit and not charged, and
Page 381
the like. It's worth something to know exactly what this amounts to. The
place for this information is under "Inventory Variations" on the sheet.
The space headed "Accounts Payable" is provided for recording, on the last
day of every month, just what you owe for accounts and for notes, and also
the same information for the corresponding date of last year.
Invaluable Monthly Comparative Information.
You see now that by the use of the Daily Exhibit you have a running history
of your business by days, weeks and months. But this is hardly sufficient for
a clear view of your business, since you will want some record which will
tell you what the year's business has been, and how it varied from month to
month.
place for this information is under "Inventory Variations" on the sheet.
The space headed "Accounts Payable" is provided for recording, on the last
day of every month, just what you owe for accounts and for notes, and also
the same information for the corresponding date of last year.
Invaluable Monthly Comparative Information.
You see now that by the use of the Daily Exhibit you have a running history
of your business by days, weeks and months. But this is hardly sufficient for
a clear view of your business, since you will want some record which will
tell you what the year's business has been, and how it varied from month to
month.
Page 382
Figure 188. Statistical and Comparative Record.
This is provided for in the Statistical and Comparative Record, illustrated by
Fig. 188, on which the amount of sales, cost of sales, gross profit, expenses
and net profit are entered for each month of the year. All the figures for entry
in this record are taken directly from the Daily Exhibit at the end of the
month, which makes the work of compiling it a very easy task.
The advantages of a record of this kind can hardly be overstated. The figures
in the upper part of this statement will show which months have been profit
payers and which have not, while from the figures in the lower part of the
report you are able to determine the percentage any group of expenses bears
to sales, and are thus in position to subsequently control such items.
Do not let the fear of doing a little bookkeeping work prevent you from
keeping these records. They should go a long way toward solving the
problems which the average proprietor faces today:
1. Selling his goods and services without a profit.
2. Failure to show sufficient net profit at the end of the year.
3. Constantly increasing cost of doing business.
You may think at first glance that it will require a great deal of extra work to
keep these records, but in this you are mistaken. They are very simple and
easy to operate. The American Bureau of Engineering, Inc., will advise you
where to obtain these forms.
(Table of) Contents
This is provided for in the Statistical and Comparative Record, illustrated by
Fig. 188, on which the amount of sales, cost of sales, gross profit, expenses
and net profit are entered for each month of the year. All the figures for entry
in this record are taken directly from the Daily Exhibit at the end of the
month, which makes the work of compiling it a very easy task.
The advantages of a record of this kind can hardly be overstated. The figures
in the upper part of this statement will show which months have been profit
payers and which have not, while from the figures in the lower part of the
report you are able to determine the percentage any group of expenses bears
to sales, and are thus in position to subsequently control such items.
Do not let the fear of doing a little bookkeeping work prevent you from
keeping these records. They should go a long way toward solving the
problems which the average proprietor faces today:
1. Selling his goods and services without a profit.
2. Failure to show sufficient net profit at the end of the year.
3. Constantly increasing cost of doing business.
You may think at first glance that it will require a great deal of extra work to
keep these records, but in this you are mistaken. They are very simple and
easy to operate. The American Bureau of Engineering, Inc., will advise you
where to obtain these forms.
(Table of) Contents
Page 383
CHAPTER 14.
WHAT'S WRONG WITH THE BATTERY?
When a man does not feel well, he visits a doctor. When he has trouble on
his car, he takes the car to a service station. What connection is there
between these two cases? None whatever, you may say. And yet in each
instance the man is seeking service. The term "Service Station" generally
suggests a place where automobile troubles are taken care of. That does not
mean, however, that the term may not be used in other lines of business. The
doctor's office is just as much a "Service Station" as the automobile repair
shop. The one is a "Health Service Station" and the other is an "Automobile
Service Station." The business of each is to eliminate trouble.
The battery repairman may think that he cannot learn anything from a doctor
which will be of any use to his battery business, but, as a matter of fact, the
battery man can learn much that is valuable from the doctor's methods of
handling trouble. The doctor greets a patient courteously and always waits
for him to tell what his symptoms are. He then examines the patient, asking
questions based on what the patient tells him, to bring out certain points
which will help in making an accurate diagnosis. Very often such
questioning will enable the doctor to determine just what the nature of the
illness is. But he does not then proceed to write out a prescription without
making an examination. If he did, the whole case might just as well have
been handled over the telephone. No competent physician will treat patients
from a distance. Neither will he write out a prescription without making a
physical examination of the patient. The questioning of the patient and the
physical examination always go together, some questions being asked before
an examination is made to give an approximate idea of what is wrong and
some during the examination to aid the doctor in making an accurate
diagnosis.
The patient expects a doctor to listen to his description of the symptoms and
to be guided by them in the subsequent examination, but not to arrive at a
WHAT'S WRONG WITH THE BATTERY?
When a man does not feel well, he visits a doctor. When he has trouble on
his car, he takes the car to a service station. What connection is there
between these two cases? None whatever, you may say. And yet in each
instance the man is seeking service. The term "Service Station" generally
suggests a place where automobile troubles are taken care of. That does not
mean, however, that the term may not be used in other lines of business. The
doctor's office is just as much a "Service Station" as the automobile repair
shop. The one is a "Health Service Station" and the other is an "Automobile
Service Station." The business of each is to eliminate trouble.
The battery repairman may think that he cannot learn anything from a doctor
which will be of any use to his battery business, but, as a matter of fact, the
battery man can learn much that is valuable from the doctor's methods of
handling trouble. The doctor greets a patient courteously and always waits
for him to tell what his symptoms are. He then examines the patient, asking
questions based on what the patient tells him, to bring out certain points
which will help in making an accurate diagnosis. Very often such
questioning will enable the doctor to determine just what the nature of the
illness is. But he does not then proceed to write out a prescription without
making an examination. If he did, the whole case might just as well have
been handled over the telephone. No competent physician will treat patients
from a distance. Neither will he write out a prescription without making a
physical examination of the patient. The questioning of the patient and the
physical examination always go together, some questions being asked before
an examination is made to give an approximate idea of what is wrong and
some during the examination to aid the doctor in making an accurate
diagnosis.
The patient expects a doctor to listen to his description of the symptoms and
to be guided by them in the subsequent examination, but not to arrive at a
Page 384
conclusion entirely by the description of the symptoms. A patient very often
misinterprets his pains and aches, and tells the doctor that he has a certain
ailment. Yet the doctor makes his examination and determines what the
trouble is, and frequently find a condition which is entirely different from
what the patient suspected. He then prescribes a treatment based on his own
conclusions and not on what the patient believes to be wrong.
Calling for Batteries. A doctor treats many patients in his office, but also
makes his daily calls on others. Similarly, the battery repairman should have
a service truck for use in calling for customers' batteries, especially where
competition is keen. Some car owners cannot bring their cars to the repair
shop during working hours, and yet if they knew that they could have their
battery called for and have a rental battery installed, they would undoubtedly
have their battery tested and repaired more frequently. In some instances a
battery will be so badly run down that the car cannot be started, and the car
is allowed to stand idle because the owner does not care to remove his
battery, carry it to a service station and carry a rental battery with him.
Batteries are heavy and generally dirty and wet with acid, and few people
wish to run the risk of ruining their clothes by carrying the battery to a shop.
The wise battery mail will not overlook the business possibilities offered by
the call for and deliver service, especially when business is slow. A Ford
roadster with a short express body will furnish this service, or any old
chassis may be fitted up for it at a moderate cost. Of course, you must
advertise this service. Do not wait for car owners to ask whether you will
call for their batteries. Many of them may not think of telephoning for such
service, and even if they do, they might call up some other service station.
When Batteries Come In
What does a man expect when he brings his battery to the battery service-
station? Obviously lie expects to be greeted courteously and to be permitted
to tell the symptoms of trouble which he has observed. He furthermore
expects the repairman to examine and test the battery carefully before
deciding what repairs are necessary and not to tell him that he needs new
positives, new separators, or an entirely new battery without even looking at
the battery.
misinterprets his pains and aches, and tells the doctor that he has a certain
ailment. Yet the doctor makes his examination and determines what the
trouble is, and frequently find a condition which is entirely different from
what the patient suspected. He then prescribes a treatment based on his own
conclusions and not on what the patient believes to be wrong.
Calling for Batteries. A doctor treats many patients in his office, but also
makes his daily calls on others. Similarly, the battery repairman should have
a service truck for use in calling for customers' batteries, especially where
competition is keen. Some car owners cannot bring their cars to the repair
shop during working hours, and yet if they knew that they could have their
battery called for and have a rental battery installed, they would undoubtedly
have their battery tested and repaired more frequently. In some instances a
battery will be so badly run down that the car cannot be started, and the car
is allowed to stand idle because the owner does not care to remove his
battery, carry it to a service station and carry a rental battery with him.
Batteries are heavy and generally dirty and wet with acid, and few people
wish to run the risk of ruining their clothes by carrying the battery to a shop.
The wise battery mail will not overlook the business possibilities offered by
the call for and deliver service, especially when business is slow. A Ford
roadster with a short express body will furnish this service, or any old
chassis may be fitted up for it at a moderate cost. Of course, you must
advertise this service. Do not wait for car owners to ask whether you will
call for their batteries. Many of them may not think of telephoning for such
service, and even if they do, they might call up some other service station.
When Batteries Come In
What does a man expect when he brings his battery to the battery service-
station? Obviously lie expects to be greeted courteously and to be permitted
to tell the symptoms of trouble which he has observed. He furthermore
expects the repairman to examine and test the battery carefully before
deciding what repairs are necessary and not to tell him that he needs new
positives, new separators, or an entirely new battery without even looking at
the battery.
Page 385
When a car is brought to your shop, you are the doctor. Sonic part of the
mechanism is in trouble, and it is your duty to put yourself in charge of the
situation. Listen to what the customer hp to say. He has certainly noticed that
something is wrong, or he would not have come to you. Ask him what he has
observed.
He has been driving the car, starting the engine, and turning on the lights,
and certainly has noticed whether everything. has been operating as it
should. The things he has noticed were caused by the trouble which exists.
He may not know what sort of trouble they indicate, but you, as the battery
doctor can generally make a fairly accurate estimate of what the trouble is.
You should, of course, do more than merely listen to what the customer says.
You can question him as to how the car has been used, just as the doctor,
after listening to what a patient has to say, asks questions to give him a clue
to what has caused such symptoms.
The purpose of the preliminary questioning and examination is not merely to
make an accurate diagnosis of the troubles, but to establish a feeling of
confidence on the part of the customer. A man who owns a car generally
possesses an average amount of intelligence and likes to have it recognized
and respected. Your questioning and examination will either show the
customer that you know your business and know what should be done, or it
will convince him that you are merely putting up a bluff to hide your
ignorance.
What the customer wants to know is how much the repairs will cost, and
how soon lie may have his battery again. Estimate carefully what the work,
will cost, and tell him. If a considerable amount of work is required and you
cannot estimate how much time and material will be needed, tell the
customer that you will let him know the approximate cost later, when you
have gone far enough with the work to be able to make an estimate. If you
find that the battery should be taken off, take it off without any loss of time
and put on a rental battery. If there is something wrong outside of the battery,
however, it will be necessary to eliminate the trouble before the car leaves
the shop otherwise the same battery trouble will occur again. If there is no
actual trouble outside the battery, and if the driving conditions have been
such that the battery is not charged sufficiently while on the car, no actual
repairs are necessary on the electrical system. The customer should be
mechanism is in trouble, and it is your duty to put yourself in charge of the
situation. Listen to what the customer hp to say. He has certainly noticed that
something is wrong, or he would not have come to you. Ask him what he has
observed.
He has been driving the car, starting the engine, and turning on the lights,
and certainly has noticed whether everything. has been operating as it
should. The things he has noticed were caused by the trouble which exists.
He may not know what sort of trouble they indicate, but you, as the battery
doctor can generally make a fairly accurate estimate of what the trouble is.
You should, of course, do more than merely listen to what the customer says.
You can question him as to how the car has been used, just as the doctor,
after listening to what a patient has to say, asks questions to give him a clue
to what has caused such symptoms.
The purpose of the preliminary questioning and examination is not merely to
make an accurate diagnosis of the troubles, but to establish a feeling of
confidence on the part of the customer. A man who owns a car generally
possesses an average amount of intelligence and likes to have it recognized
and respected. Your questioning and examination will either show the
customer that you know your business and know what should be done, or it
will convince him that you are merely putting up a bluff to hide your
ignorance.
What the customer wants to know is how much the repairs will cost, and
how soon lie may have his battery again. Estimate carefully what the work,
will cost, and tell him. If a considerable amount of work is required and you
cannot estimate how much time and material will be needed, tell the
customer that you will let him know the approximate cost later, when you
have gone far enough with the work to be able to make an estimate. If you
find that the battery should be taken off, take it off without any loss of time
and put on a rental battery. If there is something wrong outside of the battery,
however, it will be necessary to eliminate the trouble before the car leaves
the shop otherwise the same battery trouble will occur again. If there is no
actual trouble outside the battery, and if the driving conditions have been
such that the battery is not charged sufficiently while on the car, no actual
repairs are necessary on the electrical system. The customer should be
Page 386
advised to drive in about every two weeks to have his battery tested, and
occasionally taken off and given a bench charge. It is better to do this than to
increase the charging rate to a value which might damage the generator or
battery.
Adopt a standard method of procedure in meeting, a customer and in
determining what is wrong and what should be done. If the customer is one
who brings his car in regularly to have the battery filled and tested, you will:
be able to detect any trouble as soon as it occurs, and will be able to
eliminate it before the battery is seriously damaged. A change in the
charging rate, cleaning of the generator commutator or cutout contact points,
if done in time, will often keep everything in good shape.
With a new customer who has had his battery for sometime, you must,
however, ask questions and make tests to determine what is wrong. Before
sending the customer away with a new, rental, or repaired battery, test the
electrical system as described on page 276.
The most important transaction and one which will save you considerable
argument and trouble is to get everything down in black and white. Always
try to have the customer wait while you test the battery. If you find it
necessary to open the battery do this in his presence. When he leaves there
should be no question as to what he shall have to pay for. If more time is
required to determine the necessary work, do not actually do the work
without getting in touch with the owner and making a written agreement as
to what is to be done and how much the cost will be. The Service Record
shown in Fig. 183 may be used for this purpose.
The following method of procedure is suggested as a standard. Follow it
closely if possible, though in some cases, where the nature of the trouble is
plainly evident, this will not be necessary any more than a doctor who sees
blood streaming from a severe cut needs to question the patient to find out
what is wrong.
It may not always be necessary to ask all the questions which follow, or to
ask them in the order given, but they cover points which the repairman
should know in order to work intelligently. Some of the information called
for in the questions may often be obtained without questioning the customer.
occasionally taken off and given a bench charge. It is better to do this than to
increase the charging rate to a value which might damage the generator or
battery.
Adopt a standard method of procedure in meeting, a customer and in
determining what is wrong and what should be done. If the customer is one
who brings his car in regularly to have the battery filled and tested, you will:
be able to detect any trouble as soon as it occurs, and will be able to
eliminate it before the battery is seriously damaged. A change in the
charging rate, cleaning of the generator commutator or cutout contact points,
if done in time, will often keep everything in good shape.
With a new customer who has had his battery for sometime, you must,
however, ask questions and make tests to determine what is wrong. Before
sending the customer away with a new, rental, or repaired battery, test the
electrical system as described on page 276.
The most important transaction and one which will save you considerable
argument and trouble is to get everything down in black and white. Always
try to have the customer wait while you test the battery. If you find it
necessary to open the battery do this in his presence. When he leaves there
should be no question as to what he shall have to pay for. If more time is
required to determine the necessary work, do not actually do the work
without getting in touch with the owner and making a written agreement as
to what is to be done and how much the cost will be. The Service Record
shown in Fig. 183 may be used for this purpose.
The following method of procedure is suggested as a standard. Follow it
closely if possible, though in some cases, where the nature of the trouble is
plainly evident, this will not be necessary any more than a doctor who sees
blood streaming from a severe cut needs to question the patient to find out
what is wrong.
It may not always be necessary to ask all the questions which follow, or to
ask them in the order given, but they cover points which the repairman
should know in order to work intelligently. Some of the information called
for in the questions may often be obtained without questioning the customer.
Page 387
Do not, however, hesitate to ask any and all questions covering points which
you wish to know.
1. Greet the customer with a smile.
Your manner and appearance are of great importance. Be polite and pleasant.
Do not lose your temper, no matter how much cause the customer gives you
to do so. A calm, courteous manner will generally cool the anger of an irate
customer and make it possible to gain his confidence and good will. Do not
argue with your customers, Your business is to get the job and do it in an
agreeable manner. If you make mistakes admit it and your customer will
come again. Keep your clothes neat and clean and have your face and hands
clean. Remember that the first glimpse the customer has of the man who
approaches him will influence him to a very considerable extent in giving
you his business or going elsewhere. Do not have a customer wait around a
long time before he receives any attention. If he grows impatient because
nobody notices him when he comes in, it will be hard to gain his confidence,
no matter how well you may afterwards do the work.
2. What's the Trouble?
Let the customer tell you his story. While listening, try to get an idea of what
may be wrong. When he has given you all the information he can, question
him so that you will be able to get a better idea of what is wrong.
(a) How long have you had the battery? See page 242.
(b) Was it a new battery when you bought it?
(c) How often has water been added?
(d) Has distilled water been used exclusively, or has faucet, well, or river
water ever been used? Impure water may introduce substances which
will damage or even ruin a battery.
(e) Has too much water been added? If this is done, the electrolyte will
flood the tops of the jars and may rot the upper parts of the wooden case.
you wish to know.
1. Greet the customer with a smile.
Your manner and appearance are of great importance. Be polite and pleasant.
Do not lose your temper, no matter how much cause the customer gives you
to do so. A calm, courteous manner will generally cool the anger of an irate
customer and make it possible to gain his confidence and good will. Do not
argue with your customers, Your business is to get the job and do it in an
agreeable manner. If you make mistakes admit it and your customer will
come again. Keep your clothes neat and clean and have your face and hands
clean. Remember that the first glimpse the customer has of the man who
approaches him will influence him to a very considerable extent in giving
you his business or going elsewhere. Do not have a customer wait around a
long time before he receives any attention. If he grows impatient because
nobody notices him when he comes in, it will be hard to gain his confidence,
no matter how well you may afterwards do the work.
2. What's the Trouble?
Let the customer tell you his story. While listening, try to get an idea of what
may be wrong. When he has given you all the information he can, question
him so that you will be able to get a better idea of what is wrong.
(a) How long have you had the battery? See page 242.
(b) Was it a new battery when you bought it?
(c) How often has water been added?
(d) Has distilled water been used exclusively, or has faucet, well, or river
water ever been used? Impure water may introduce substances which
will damage or even ruin a battery.
(e) Has too much water been added? If this is done, the electrolyte will
flood the tops of the jars and may rot the upper parts of the wooden case.
Page 388
(f) How fast is car generally driven? The speed should average 15 M. P.
H. or more to keep battery charged.
(g) How long must engine be cranked before it starts? This should not
require more than about 10 seconds. If customer is in doubt, start the
engine to find out. If starting motor cranks engine at a fair speed, engine
should start within 10 seconds. If starting motor cranks engine at a low
speed, a longer cranking time may be required. The low cranking speed
may be due to a run-down or defective battery, to trouble in the starting
motor or starting circuit, or to a stiff engine. To determine if battery is at
fault, see "Battery Tests," below.
(h) Has the car been used regularly, or has it been standing idle for any
length of time? An idle battery discharges itself and often becomes
damaged. If car has been standing idle in cold weather, the battery has
probably been frozen.
(i) Has it been necessary to remove the battery occasionally for a bench
charge?
(j) Has battery ever been repaired? See page 322.
Battery Tests
1. Remove the vent plugs and inspect electrolyte. If the electrolyte covers
the plates and separators to a sufficient depth, measure the specific gravity of
the electrolyte. If the electrolyte is below the tops of the plates and
separators, see following section No. 2.
If all cells read 1.150 or less, remove the battery and give it a bench charge.
If the specific gravity readings of all cells are between 1.150 and 1.200,
and if no serious troubles have been found up to this point, advise the owner
to use his lights and starting motor as little as possible until the gravity rises
to 1.280-1.300. If this is not satisfactory to him, remove the battery and give
it a bench charge.
H. or more to keep battery charged.
(g) How long must engine be cranked before it starts? This should not
require more than about 10 seconds. If customer is in doubt, start the
engine to find out. If starting motor cranks engine at a fair speed, engine
should start within 10 seconds. If starting motor cranks engine at a low
speed, a longer cranking time may be required. The low cranking speed
may be due to a run-down or defective battery, to trouble in the starting
motor or starting circuit, or to a stiff engine. To determine if battery is at
fault, see "Battery Tests," below.
(h) Has the car been used regularly, or has it been standing idle for any
length of time? An idle battery discharges itself and often becomes
damaged. If car has been standing idle in cold weather, the battery has
probably been frozen.
(i) Has it been necessary to remove the battery occasionally for a bench
charge?
(j) Has battery ever been repaired? See page 322.
Battery Tests
1. Remove the vent plugs and inspect electrolyte. If the electrolyte covers
the plates and separators to a sufficient depth, measure the specific gravity of
the electrolyte. If the electrolyte is below the tops of the plates and
separators, see following section No. 2.
If all cells read 1.150 or less, remove the battery and give it a bench charge.
If the specific gravity readings of all cells are between 1.150 and 1.200,
and if no serious troubles have been found up to this point, advise the owner
to use his lights and starting motor as little as possible until the gravity rises
to 1.280-1.300. If this is not satisfactory to him, remove the battery and give
it a bench charge.
Page 389
If the specific gravity readings are all above 1.200, or if the gravity
reading of one cell is 50 points (such as the difference between 1.200 and
1.250, which is 50 "points") lower or higher than the others (no matter what
the actual gravity readings may be), make the 15 seconds high rate discharge
test on the battery. See page 266. If this test indicates that the internal
condition of the battery is bad, the battery should be removed from the car
and opened for inspection. If the test indicates that the internal condition of
the battery is good, the specific gravity of the electrolyte needs adjusting.
The difference in specific gravity readings in the cells is due to one of the
following, causes:
(a) Water added to the cell or cells which have low gravity to replace
electrolyte which had been spilled or lost in some other manner.
(b) Electrolyte added to the cell or cells which have high gravity to
replace the water which naturally evaporates from the electrolyte.
(c) Trouble inside the cell or cells which have low gravity. The high
rate discharge test will show whether there is any internal trouble.
If any cell shows a gravity above 1.300, remove the battery, dump out all
the electrolyte, fill battery with distilled water and put the battery on charge.
If the gravity of one or more cells is 50 points less than the others, water
has been used to replace electrolyte which has been spilled or lost in some
other manner, or else one or more jars are cracked. A battery with one or
more cracked jars usually has the bottom parts of its wooden case rotted by
the electrolyte which leaks from the jar. If you are not certain whether the
battery has one or more cracked jars, see that the electrolyte covers the plates
in all the cells one-half inch or so, and then let the battery stand. If the
electrolyte sinks below the tops of the plates in one or more cells within
twenty-four hours, those cells have leaky jars and the battery must be
opened, and new jars put in.
If the low gravity is not caused by leaky jars, give the battery a bench charge
and adjust the level of the electrolyte.
reading of one cell is 50 points (such as the difference between 1.200 and
1.250, which is 50 "points") lower or higher than the others (no matter what
the actual gravity readings may be), make the 15 seconds high rate discharge
test on the battery. See page 266. If this test indicates that the internal
condition of the battery is bad, the battery should be removed from the car
and opened for inspection. If the test indicates that the internal condition of
the battery is good, the specific gravity of the electrolyte needs adjusting.
The difference in specific gravity readings in the cells is due to one of the
following, causes:
(a) Water added to the cell or cells which have low gravity to replace
electrolyte which had been spilled or lost in some other manner.
(b) Electrolyte added to the cell or cells which have high gravity to
replace the water which naturally evaporates from the electrolyte.
(c) Trouble inside the cell or cells which have low gravity. The high
rate discharge test will show whether there is any internal trouble.
If any cell shows a gravity above 1.300, remove the battery, dump out all
the electrolyte, fill battery with distilled water and put the battery on charge.
If the gravity of one or more cells is 50 points less than the others, water
has been used to replace electrolyte which has been spilled or lost in some
other manner, or else one or more jars are cracked. A battery with one or
more cracked jars usually has the bottom parts of its wooden case rotted by
the electrolyte which leaks from the jar. If you are not certain whether the
battery has one or more cracked jars, see that the electrolyte covers the plates
in all the cells one-half inch or so, and then let the battery stand. If the
electrolyte sinks below the tops of the plates in one or more cells within
twenty-four hours, those cells have leaky jars and the battery must be
opened, and new jars put in.
If the low gravity is not caused by leaky jars, give the battery a bench charge
and adjust the level of the electrolyte.
Page 390
2. If you found electrolyte to be below tops of plates in all the cells, the
battery has been neglected, or there mail be leaky jars. Add distilled water
until the electrolyte covers the plates to a depth of about one-half inch.
(a) If it requires only a small amount of water to bring up the level of the
electrolyte, remove the battery and give it a bench charge. See page 198.
Only a brief charge may be necessary. Ask the driver when water was added
last. If more than 1 month has passed since the last filling, the upper parts of
the plates may be sulphated, and the battery should be charged at a low rate.
(b) If it requires a considerable amount of water to bring up the level of
the electrolyte, and the bottom of the wooden battery case shows no signs of
being rotted, the battery has been neglected and has been dry for a long time,
and the plates are mostly likely badly damaged. Open the battery for
inspection.
(c) If only one cell requires a considerable amount of water to bring up
the level of its electrolyte, and the bottom of the wooden battery ease shows
no sign of being rotted, that cell is probably "dead," due to in internal short-
circuit. To test for "dead" cells, turn on the lamps and measure the voltage of
each cell. A dead cell will not give any voltage on test, may give a reversed
voltage reading, or at the most will give a very low voltage. A battery with a
dead cell should be opened for inspection.
(d) If the bottom part of the wooden battery case is rotted, and a
considerable amount of water had to be added to any or all cells to bring up
the level of the electrolyte, the battery has leaky jars and must be opened to
have the leaky jars replaced by good ones.
If there is any doubt in your mind as to whether any or all jars are leaking,
fill the cells with distilled water and let the battery stand for twelve to
twenty-four hours. If at or before the end of that time the electrolyte has,
fallen below the tops of the plates in any or all cells, these cells have leaky
Jars and the battery must be opened and the leaky jars replaced with good
ones. The electrolyte which leaks out will wet the bench or on which the
battery is placed and this is another indication of a leaky jar.
General Inspection
battery has been neglected, or there mail be leaky jars. Add distilled water
until the electrolyte covers the plates to a depth of about one-half inch.
(a) If it requires only a small amount of water to bring up the level of the
electrolyte, remove the battery and give it a bench charge. See page 198.
Only a brief charge may be necessary. Ask the driver when water was added
last. If more than 1 month has passed since the last filling, the upper parts of
the plates may be sulphated, and the battery should be charged at a low rate.
(b) If it requires a considerable amount of water to bring up the level of
the electrolyte, and the bottom of the wooden battery case shows no signs of
being rotted, the battery has been neglected and has been dry for a long time,
and the plates are mostly likely badly damaged. Open the battery for
inspection.
(c) If only one cell requires a considerable amount of water to bring up
the level of its electrolyte, and the bottom of the wooden battery ease shows
no sign of being rotted, that cell is probably "dead," due to in internal short-
circuit. To test for "dead" cells, turn on the lamps and measure the voltage of
each cell. A dead cell will not give any voltage on test, may give a reversed
voltage reading, or at the most will give a very low voltage. A battery with a
dead cell should be opened for inspection.
(d) If the bottom part of the wooden battery case is rotted, and a
considerable amount of water had to be added to any or all cells to bring up
the level of the electrolyte, the battery has leaky jars and must be opened to
have the leaky jars replaced by good ones.
If there is any doubt in your mind as to whether any or all jars are leaking,
fill the cells with distilled water and let the battery stand for twelve to
twenty-four hours. If at or before the end of that time the electrolyte has,
fallen below the tops of the plates in any or all cells, these cells have leaky
Jars and the battery must be opened and the leaky jars replaced with good
ones. The electrolyte which leaks out will wet the bench or on which the
battery is placed and this is another indication of a leaky jar.
General Inspection
Page 391
In addition to the tests which have been described, a general inspection as
outlined below will often be a great help in deciding what must be done.
1. Is battery loose? A battery which is not held down firmly may have
broken jars, cracked sealing compound around posts or between posts and
separators, and active material shaken out of the grids. There may also be
corrosion at the terminals.
2. Are cables loose? This will cause battery to be in a run down condition
and cause failure to crank engine.
3. Is there corrosion at the terminals? This will cause battery to be in a
run-down condition and cause failure to start engine. Corrosion is caused by
electrolyte attacking terminals. A coating of vaseline on the terminals
prevents corrosion.
4. Is top of battery wet? This may be due to addition of too much water,
overheating of battery, cracks around posts and between posts and cover,
electrolyte thrown out of vents because of battery being loose, or electrolyte
or water spilled on battery. Such a condition causes battery to run down.
5. Is top of case acid soaked? This is caused by leaks around posts or
between covers and jars, flooding of electrolyte due to overheating or due to
addition of too much water, or by electrolyte spilled on covers.
6. Is lower part of case acid soaked? This is caused by leaky jars.
7. Are ends of case bulged out? This may be due to battery having been
frozen.
This general inspection of the battery can be made in a few seconds, and
often shows what the condition of the battery is.
Operation Tests
Two simple tests may be made which will help considerably in the
diagnosis.
outlined below will often be a great help in deciding what must be done.
1. Is battery loose? A battery which is not held down firmly may have
broken jars, cracked sealing compound around posts or between posts and
separators, and active material shaken out of the grids. There may also be
corrosion at the terminals.
2. Are cables loose? This will cause battery to be in a run down condition
and cause failure to crank engine.
3. Is there corrosion at the terminals? This will cause battery to be in a
run-down condition and cause failure to start engine. Corrosion is caused by
electrolyte attacking terminals. A coating of vaseline on the terminals
prevents corrosion.
4. Is top of battery wet? This may be due to addition of too much water,
overheating of battery, cracks around posts and between posts and cover,
electrolyte thrown out of vents because of battery being loose, or electrolyte
or water spilled on battery. Such a condition causes battery to run down.
5. Is top of case acid soaked? This is caused by leaks around posts or
between covers and jars, flooding of electrolyte due to overheating or due to
addition of too much water, or by electrolyte spilled on covers.
6. Is lower part of case acid soaked? This is caused by leaky jars.
7. Are ends of case bulged out? This may be due to battery having been
frozen.
This general inspection of the battery can be made in a few seconds, and
often shows what the condition of the battery is.
Operation Tests
Two simple tests may be made which will help considerably in the
diagnosis.
Page 392
Turn on the lights. If they burn dim, battery is run down (and may be
defective) and battery needs bench charge or repairs. If they burn bright
battery is probably in a good condition.
With the lights burning, have the customer or a helper step on the starting
switch. If the lights now become very dim, the battery is run down (and may
also be defective), or else the starting motor is drawing too much current
from the battery.
Trouble Charts
For the convenience of the repairman, the battery troubles which may be
found when a car is brought in, are summarized in the following tables:
All Cells Show Low Gravity or Low Voltage
A. Look for the following conditions:
1. Loose or dirty terminals or cell connectors. This may reduce charging
rate, or open charging circuit entirely. Remedy: Tighten and clean
connections.
2. Corrosion on terminals or cell connectors caused by acid on top of
battery due to over-filling, flooding, defective sealing, lead scraped from
lead-coated terminals, and copper wires attached directly to battery. A
badly corroded battery terminal may cause the generator, ignition coil,
and lamps to burn out because of the high resistance which the corroded
terminal causes in the charging line. It may reduce charging rate, or open
charging circuit entirely. Remedy: Remove cause of corrosion. Clean
corroded parts and give coating of vaseline.
3. Broken terminals or cell connectors. These may reduce charging rate
or open charging circuit entirely. Remedy: Install new parts.
4. Generator not charging. Remedy: Find and remove cause of generator
not charging (see page 284).
defective) and battery needs bench charge or repairs. If they burn bright
battery is probably in a good condition.
With the lights burning, have the customer or a helper step on the starting
switch. If the lights now become very dim, the battery is run down (and may
also be defective), or else the starting motor is drawing too much current
from the battery.
Trouble Charts
For the convenience of the repairman, the battery troubles which may be
found when a car is brought in, are summarized in the following tables:
All Cells Show Low Gravity or Low Voltage
A. Look for the following conditions:
1. Loose or dirty terminals or cell connectors. This may reduce charging
rate, or open charging circuit entirely. Remedy: Tighten and clean
connections.
2. Corrosion on terminals or cell connectors caused by acid on top of
battery due to over-filling, flooding, defective sealing, lead scraped from
lead-coated terminals, and copper wires attached directly to battery. A
badly corroded battery terminal may cause the generator, ignition coil,
and lamps to burn out because of the high resistance which the corroded
terminal causes in the charging line. It may reduce charging rate, or open
charging circuit entirely. Remedy: Remove cause of corrosion. Clean
corroded parts and give coating of vaseline.
3. Broken terminals or cell connectors. These may reduce charging rate
or open charging circuit entirely. Remedy: Install new parts.
4. Generator not charging. Remedy: Find and remove cause of generator
not charging (see page 284).
Page 393
5. Charging rate too low. Remedy: If due to generator trouble, repair
generator. If due to incorrect generator setting change setting. If due to
driving conditions increase charging rate.
6. Acid or moisture on top of battery due to defective sealing, flooding,
spilling electrolyte in taking gravity readings, loose vent plugs. This
causes corrosion and current leakage. Remedy: Find and remove cause.
7. Tools or wires on battery causing short-circuits. Remedy: Tell
customer to keep such things off the battery.
8. Short-circuits or grounds in wiring. Remedy: Repair wiring.
9. Cutout relay closing late, resulting in battery not being charged at
ordinary driving speeds. Remedy: Check action of cutout. See page 282.
10. Excessive lighting current, due to too many or too large lamps.
Remedy: Check by turning on all lamps while engine is running.
Ammeter should show three to five amperes charge with lamps burning.
In winter the charging rate may have to be increased.
B. Question Driver as to following causes of low gravity and low voltage:
1. Has water been added regularly?
2. Has impure water, such as faucet, well, or river water ever been added
to battery?
3. Has too much water been added?
4. Has electrolyte been spilled and replaced by water?
5. Has battery been idle, or stored without regular charging?
6. Is car used more at night than in daytime? Considerable night driving
may prevent battery from being fully charged.
7. Is starter used frequently?
generator. If due to incorrect generator setting change setting. If due to
driving conditions increase charging rate.
6. Acid or moisture on top of battery due to defective sealing, flooding,
spilling electrolyte in taking gravity readings, loose vent plugs. This
causes corrosion and current leakage. Remedy: Find and remove cause.
7. Tools or wires on battery causing short-circuits. Remedy: Tell
customer to keep such things off the battery.
8. Short-circuits or grounds in wiring. Remedy: Repair wiring.
9. Cutout relay closing late, resulting in battery not being charged at
ordinary driving speeds. Remedy: Check action of cutout. See page 282.
10. Excessive lighting current, due to too many or too large lamps.
Remedy: Check by turning on all lamps while engine is running.
Ammeter should show three to five amperes charge with lamps burning.
In winter the charging rate may have to be increased.
B. Question Driver as to following causes of low gravity and low voltage:
1. Has water been added regularly?
2. Has impure water, such as faucet, well, or river water ever been added
to battery?
3. Has too much water been added?
4. Has electrolyte been spilled and replaced by water?
5. Has battery been idle, or stored without regular charging?
6. Is car used more at night than in daytime? Considerable night driving
may prevent battery from being fully charged.
7. Is starter used frequently?
Page 394
8. What is average driving speed? Should be over 15 M. P. 11.
9. How long is engine usually cranked before starting-? Cranking period
should not exceed 10 seconds.
C. If battery has been repaired. The trouble may be due to:
1. Improperly treated separators used.
2. Grooved side of separators put against negatives instead of positives.
3. Separator left out.
4. Cracked separator.
5. Positives used which should have been discarded.
6. Bulged, swollen negatives used.
7. Poor joints due to improper lead-burning.
D. Battery Troubles which may exist:
1. Sulfated plates.
2. Buckled Plates.
3. Internal Short-circuits.
4. Cracked Jars.
5. Clogged Separators.
Gravity Readings Unequal
1. Acid or moisture on top of battery, due to defective sealing, flooding,
spilling electrolyte, loose vent plugs. This causes current leakage. Remedy:
Find and remove cause.
9. How long is engine usually cranked before starting-? Cranking period
should not exceed 10 seconds.
C. If battery has been repaired. The trouble may be due to:
1. Improperly treated separators used.
2. Grooved side of separators put against negatives instead of positives.
3. Separator left out.
4. Cracked separator.
5. Positives used which should have been discarded.
6. Bulged, swollen negatives used.
7. Poor joints due to improper lead-burning.
D. Battery Troubles which may exist:
1. Sulfated plates.
2. Buckled Plates.
3. Internal Short-circuits.
4. Cracked Jars.
5. Clogged Separators.
Gravity Readings Unequal
1. Acid or moisture on top of battery, due to defective sealing, flooding,
spilling electrolyte, loose vent plugs. This causes current leakage. Remedy:
Find and remove cause.
Page 395
2. Tools or wires on battery, causing short-circuits. Remedy: Tell driver to
keep such things off the battery.
3. Electrolyte or acid added to cells giving the high gravity readings.
4. Electrolyte spilled and replaced by water in cells giving low readings.
5. Grooved side of separators placed against negatives in cells giving the low
readings.
6. Separator left out, cracked separator used, hole worn through separator by
buckled plate or swollen negatives, or separators in some cells and new ones
in others.
7. Old plates used in some cells and new ones in others.
8. Impurities in cells showing low gravity.
9. Shorted cell, due to plates cutting through separators.
10. Cracked jar.
11. Oil some of the older cars a three wire lighting system was used. If the
lights are arranged so that more are connected between one of the outside
wires and the center, than between the other outside wire and the center, the
cells carrying the heavier lighting load will show low gravity.
12. On some of the older cars, the battery is made of two or more sections
which are connected in series for starting and in parallel for charging. Oil
such cars the cells in one of the sections may show lower gravity than other
cells due to longer connecting cables, poor connections, corroded terminals,
and so on. Such a condition AN-ill often be found in the old two section
Maxwell batteries used previous to 1918.
High Gravity
This is a condition in which the hydrometer readings would indicate that a
battery is almost or fully-charged, but the battery may fail to operate the
starting motor. If the lights are burning while the starting switch is closed,
keep such things off the battery.
3. Electrolyte or acid added to cells giving the high gravity readings.
4. Electrolyte spilled and replaced by water in cells giving low readings.
5. Grooved side of separators placed against negatives in cells giving the low
readings.
6. Separator left out, cracked separator used, hole worn through separator by
buckled plate or swollen negatives, or separators in some cells and new ones
in others.
7. Old plates used in some cells and new ones in others.
8. Impurities in cells showing low gravity.
9. Shorted cell, due to plates cutting through separators.
10. Cracked jar.
11. Oil some of the older cars a three wire lighting system was used. If the
lights are arranged so that more are connected between one of the outside
wires and the center, than between the other outside wire and the center, the
cells carrying the heavier lighting load will show low gravity.
12. On some of the older cars, the battery is made of two or more sections
which are connected in series for starting and in parallel for charging. Oil
such cars the cells in one of the sections may show lower gravity than other
cells due to longer connecting cables, poor connections, corroded terminals,
and so on. Such a condition AN-ill often be found in the old two section
Maxwell batteries used previous to 1918.
High Gravity
This is a condition in which the hydrometer readings would indicate that a
battery is almost or fully-charged, but the battery may fail to operate the
starting motor. If the lights are burning while the starting switch is closed,
Page 396
they will become very dim. The gravity readings may be found to be above
1.300.
The probable causes of this condition are:
1. Electrolyte or concentrated acid added instead of water.
2. One of the numerous "dope" solutions which have been advertised
extensively within the past two years. Never use them. If customer
admits having used such a "dope" warn him not to do so again.
Low Electrolyte
Probable Causes:
1. Water not added.
2. Electrolyte replaced in wrong cell after taking gravity readings.
3. Cracked jars.
4. Battery overcharged, causing loss of water by overheating and
excessive gassing.
Probable Results:
1. Sulfated Plates.
2. Carbonized, dry, cracked separators.
3. Considerable shedding.
Battery Overheats
Probable Causes:
1. Water not added regularly.
2. Impure water used.
1.300.
The probable causes of this condition are:
1. Electrolyte or concentrated acid added instead of water.
2. One of the numerous "dope" solutions which have been advertised
extensively within the past two years. Never use them. If customer
admits having used such a "dope" warn him not to do so again.
Low Electrolyte
Probable Causes:
1. Water not added.
2. Electrolyte replaced in wrong cell after taking gravity readings.
3. Cracked jars.
4. Battery overcharged, causing loss of water by overheating and
excessive gassing.
Probable Results:
1. Sulfated Plates.
2. Carbonized, dry, cracked separators.
3. Considerable shedding.
Battery Overheats
Probable Causes:
1. Water not added regularly.
2. Impure water used.
Page 397
3. Impure acid used.
4. Battery on hot place on car.
5. Alcohol or other anti-freeze preparation added.
6. Excessive charging rate.
7. Improperly treated separators.
8. Battery over-charged by long daylight runs.
Probable Results:
1. Sulfated Plates.
2. Burned, Carbonized Separators.
3. Buckled Plates.
4. Excessive Shedding.
Electrolyte Leaking Out at Top
Probable Causes:
1. Too much water added.
2. Battery loose in box.
3. Cracks in sealing compound due to poor sealing, or cables pulling on
terminals, or due to poor quality of sealing compound, or good quality
compound which has been burned.
4. Vent plugs loose.
Probable Results:
1. Upper portion of case rotted by acid.
4. Battery on hot place on car.
5. Alcohol or other anti-freeze preparation added.
6. Excessive charging rate.
7. Improperly treated separators.
8. Battery over-charged by long daylight runs.
Probable Results:
1. Sulfated Plates.
2. Burned, Carbonized Separators.
3. Buckled Plates.
4. Excessive Shedding.
Electrolyte Leaking Out at Top
Probable Causes:
1. Too much water added.
2. Battery loose in box.
3. Cracks in sealing compound due to poor sealing, or cables pulling on
terminals, or due to poor quality of sealing compound, or good quality
compound which has been burned.
4. Vent plugs loose.
Probable Results:
1. Upper portion of case rotted by acid.
Page 398
2. Electrolyte low.
3. Plates sulphated.
4. Upper parts of separators dry.
Summary
1. When May a Battery Be Left on the Car?
(a) When you find that the specific gravity of all cells is more than 1.150, the
voltage of each cell is at least 2, the voltage doe's not drop when the lights
are turned on, or the lights do not become very dim when the engine is
cranked with the starting motor, there are no loose terminals or connectors,
the sealing compound is not broken or cracked so as to cause a "slopper," the
electrolyte covers the plates, the box is not rotted by acid, and there are no
broken jars.
These conditions will exist only if battery has been well taken care of, and
some trouble has suddenly and recently arisen, such as caused by a break in
one of the battery cables, loosening of a cable connection at the battery or in
the line to the starting motor.
2. When Should a Battery Be Removed From Car?
(a) When you find broken sealing compound, causing the battery to be a
"slopper."
(b) When you find inter-cell connectors and terminals loose, corroded, or
poorly burned on.
(c) When you find box badly rotted by acid, or otherwise defective.
(d) When you find a cracked jar, indicated by lower part of case being acid
soaked, or by low electrolyte, or find that electrolyte level falls below the
tops of the plates soon after adding water.
(e) When you find a dead cell, indicated by very low or no voltage, even on
open circuit.
3. Plates sulphated.
4. Upper parts of separators dry.
Summary
1. When May a Battery Be Left on the Car?
(a) When you find that the specific gravity of all cells is more than 1.150, the
voltage of each cell is at least 2, the voltage doe's not drop when the lights
are turned on, or the lights do not become very dim when the engine is
cranked with the starting motor, there are no loose terminals or connectors,
the sealing compound is not broken or cracked so as to cause a "slopper," the
electrolyte covers the plates, the box is not rotted by acid, and there are no
broken jars.
These conditions will exist only if battery has been well taken care of, and
some trouble has suddenly and recently arisen, such as caused by a break in
one of the battery cables, loosening of a cable connection at the battery or in
the line to the starting motor.
2. When Should a Battery Be Removed From Car?
(a) When you find broken sealing compound, causing the battery to be a
"slopper."
(b) When you find inter-cell connectors and terminals loose, corroded, or
poorly burned on.
(c) When you find box badly rotted by acid, or otherwise defective.
(d) When you find a cracked jar, indicated by lower part of case being acid
soaked, or by low electrolyte, or find that electrolyte level falls below the
tops of the plates soon after adding water.
(e) When you find a dead cell, indicated by very low or no voltage, even on
open circuit.
Page 399
(f) When specific gravity of electrolyte is less than 1.150, or gravity readings
of cells vary considerably.
(g) When battery voltage drops to about 1.7 or less per cell when lamps are
turned on, or lamps become very dim when the starting motor is cranking the
engine, or the high rate discharge test shows that there is trouble in the cells.
(h) When you find that electrolyte is below tops of plates, and it requires
considerable water to bring it up to the correct height.
(i) When battery overheats on charge, or discharge, although battery is not
located in hot place, charging rate is not too high and lamps and accessories
load is normal.
(j) When battery is more than a year old and action is not satisfactory.
(k) When a blacksmith, tinsmith or plumber has tried his hand at rebuilding
the battery. Such a battery is shown in Fig. 189.
(1) When ends of care are bulged out.
3. When Is It Unnecessary to Open a Battery?
(a) When the only trouble is broken sealing compound. The battery should
be resealed.
(b) When loose, corroded, or poorly burned on terminals and connectors
have merely resulted in keeping battery only partly charged and no internal
troubles exist. The remedy is to drill off the connectors, or terminals, and re-
burn them.
(c) When the external condition of battery is good, and a bench charge, see
page 198 (with several charge and discharge cycles if necessary) puts battery
in a good condition, as indicated by voltage, cadmium, and 20 minute high
rate discharge test.
4. When Must a Battery Be Opened?
of cells vary considerably.
(g) When battery voltage drops to about 1.7 or less per cell when lamps are
turned on, or lamps become very dim when the starting motor is cranking the
engine, or the high rate discharge test shows that there is trouble in the cells.
(h) When you find that electrolyte is below tops of plates, and it requires
considerable water to bring it up to the correct height.
(i) When battery overheats on charge, or discharge, although battery is not
located in hot place, charging rate is not too high and lamps and accessories
load is normal.
(j) When battery is more than a year old and action is not satisfactory.
(k) When a blacksmith, tinsmith or plumber has tried his hand at rebuilding
the battery. Such a battery is shown in Fig. 189.
(1) When ends of care are bulged out.
3. When Is It Unnecessary to Open a Battery?
(a) When the only trouble is broken sealing compound. The battery should
be resealed.
(b) When loose, corroded, or poorly burned on terminals and connectors
have merely resulted in keeping battery only partly charged and no internal
troubles exist. The remedy is to drill off the connectors, or terminals, and re-
burn them.
(c) When the external condition of battery is good, and a bench charge, see
page 198 (with several charge and discharge cycles if necessary) puts battery
in a good condition, as indicated by voltage, cadmium, and 20 minute high
rate discharge test.
4. When Must a Battery Be Opened?
Page 400
(a) When prolonged charging (72 hours or more) will not cause gravity or
voltage to rise. Such trouble is due to defective plates and separators.
(b) When battery case is badly acid soaked. A slightly acid soaked case need
not be discarded, but if the damage caused by the acid has been excessive, a
new case is needed. Plates may also be damaged.
(c) When one or more jars are cracked. New jars are needed. The plates may
also be damaged.
(d) When one or more cells are "dead," as indicated by little or no voltage,
even on open circuit. New plates (positives at least) may be required.
(e) When battery is more than a year old and action is unsatisfactory.
(Battery will not hold its charge.) Battery may have to be junked, or new
separators may be required. Every battery should be reinsulated at least once
during its lifetime.
(f) When a blacksmith, tinsmith, or plumber have tried to repair a case, Fig.
189.
voltage to rise. Such trouble is due to defective plates and separators.
(b) When battery case is badly acid soaked. A slightly acid soaked case need
not be discarded, but if the damage caused by the acid has been excessive, a
new case is needed. Plates may also be damaged.
(c) When one or more jars are cracked. New jars are needed. The plates may
also be damaged.
(d) When one or more cells are "dead," as indicated by little or no voltage,
even on open circuit. New plates (positives at least) may be required.
(e) When battery is more than a year old and action is unsatisfactory.
(Battery will not hold its charge.) Battery may have to be junked, or new
separators may be required. Every battery should be reinsulated at least once
during its lifetime.
(f) When a blacksmith, tinsmith, or plumber have tried to repair a case, Fig.
189.
Page 401
Fig. 189. A Blacksmith and Tinsmith Tried Their
Hands on This Case, Lower Part Enclosed in Tin,
Strap Iron, Covered with Friction Tape, Around
The Top.
(g) When the ends of case are bulged. A new case is needed. If the battery
has been frozen it should generally be junked. There are some cases on
record of a frozen battery having been thawed out and put in serviceable
condition by a long charge at a low rate followed by several cycles of
discharge and recharge. Generally, at least, a new case, jars, and positives are
required.
NOTE: New separators should always be installed, whenever a battery is
opened for repairs, unless the separators already in the battery are new, and
the trouble for which the battery was opened consists of a leaky jar, a
separator left out, or some other trouble which does not require pulling the
plates out of mesh.
(Table of) Contents
Hands on This Case, Lower Part Enclosed in Tin,
Strap Iron, Covered with Friction Tape, Around
The Top.
(g) When the ends of case are bulged. A new case is needed. If the battery
has been frozen it should generally be junked. There are some cases on
record of a frozen battery having been thawed out and put in serviceable
condition by a long charge at a low rate followed by several cycles of
discharge and recharge. Generally, at least, a new case, jars, and positives are
required.
NOTE: New separators should always be installed, whenever a battery is
opened for repairs, unless the separators already in the battery are new, and
the trouble for which the battery was opened consists of a leaky jar, a
separator left out, or some other trouble which does not require pulling the
plates out of mesh.
(Table of) Contents
Page 402
Page 403
CHAPTER 15
REBUILDING THE BATTERY
How to Open a Battery
A battery is open when its plates have been drawn out of the hard rubber
jars. All parts are then exposed, and accessible for inspection and repairs. In
an assembled battery, the top of each cell is closed by a hard rubber cover.
Leakproof joints are made between these covers and the rubber jars and the
wooden case by means of sealing compound which is poured in place while
in a molten condition, and joins the covers to the jars and which hardens as it
cools. The joints between the covers and the posts which project through the
covers are in many batteries made with sealing compound. The cells are then
connected to each other by means of the cell connectors, also called "top-
connectors," or simply "connectors." These connectors are joined to the lead
posts, to which are connected the plate groups by fusing with a flame, and
melting in additional lead to make a joint.
REBUILDING THE BATTERY
How to Open a Battery
A battery is open when its plates have been drawn out of the hard rubber
jars. All parts are then exposed, and accessible for inspection and repairs. In
an assembled battery, the top of each cell is closed by a hard rubber cover.
Leakproof joints are made between these covers and the rubber jars and the
wooden case by means of sealing compound which is poured in place while
in a molten condition, and joins the covers to the jars and which hardens as it
cools. The joints between the covers and the posts which project through the
covers are in many batteries made with sealing compound. The cells are then
connected to each other by means of the cell connectors, also called "top-
connectors," or simply "connectors." These connectors are joined to the lead
posts, to which are connected the plate groups by fusing with a flame, and
melting in additional lead to make a joint.
Page 404
In opening a battery, we must first disconnect the cells from each other, and
then open the joint made by the sealing compound between the covers and
the jars and case. The plates may then be lifted out of the jars, and the
battery is open. The steps necessary to open a battery follow, in the order in
which they must be taken.
1. Clean the Battery. Set the battery on the tear down rack. See that the vent
plugs are all tight in place. Then clean the outside of the battery. Remove the
greater part of the dirt with a brush, old whisk-broom, or a putty knife. Then
put the battery in the water, using a stiff bristled brush to remove whatever
dirt was not removed in the first place. A four-inch paint brush is satisfactory
for this work, and will last a year or more if taken care of. If water will not
remove all the dirt, try a rag wet with gasoline.
2. Drilling Off the Connectors and Terminals. When you have cleaned the
outside of the battery as thoroughly as possible, set the battery on the floor
near your work bench. Make a sketch of the top of the battery, showing the
exact arrangement of the terminals and connectors. This sketch should be
made on the tag which is tied to the battery. Tic this tag on the handle near
the negative terminal of the battery or tack it to the ease. Then drill down
over the Center of the posts. For this you will need a large brace with a
heavy chuck, a drill the same size as the post (the part that goes down into
the battery), a large screw driver, a center punch, and a hammer.
then open the joint made by the sealing compound between the covers and
the jars and case. The plates may then be lifted out of the jars, and the
battery is open. The steps necessary to open a battery follow, in the order in
which they must be taken.
1. Clean the Battery. Set the battery on the tear down rack. See that the vent
plugs are all tight in place. Then clean the outside of the battery. Remove the
greater part of the dirt with a brush, old whisk-broom, or a putty knife. Then
put the battery in the water, using a stiff bristled brush to remove whatever
dirt was not removed in the first place. A four-inch paint brush is satisfactory
for this work, and will last a year or more if taken care of. If water will not
remove all the dirt, try a rag wet with gasoline.
2. Drilling Off the Connectors and Terminals. When you have cleaned the
outside of the battery as thoroughly as possible, set the battery on the floor
near your work bench. Make a sketch of the top of the battery, showing the
exact arrangement of the terminals and connectors. This sketch should be
made on the tag which is tied to the battery. Tic this tag on the handle near
the negative terminal of the battery or tack it to the ease. Then drill down
over the Center of the posts. For this you will need a large brace with a
heavy chuck, a drill the same size as the post (the part that goes down into
the battery), a large screw driver, a center punch, and a hammer.
Page 405
With the center punch, mark the exact centers of the tops of the posts and
connectors. Then drill down about half way through the connectors and
terminals until you cut through the part of the connector which is welded to
the post. When you can see a seam between the post and connector you have
drilled through the welded part. See Figs. 191 and 192.
Now pry off the connectors with the screw driver, as shown in Fig. 193. Lay
a flat tool such as a chisel or file on the top edge of the ease to avoid
damaging the ease when prying off the connectors.
If any connector is still tight, and you cannot pry it off with a reasonable
effort, drill down a little deeper, and it will come off easily, provided that the
hole which you are drilling is exactly over the center of the post and as large
as the post. There are five things to remember in drilling the connectors and
posts:
connectors. Then drill down about half way through the connectors and
terminals until you cut through the part of the connector which is welded to
the post. When you can see a seam between the post and connector you have
drilled through the welded part. See Figs. 191 and 192.
Now pry off the connectors with the screw driver, as shown in Fig. 193. Lay
a flat tool such as a chisel or file on the top edge of the ease to avoid
damaging the ease when prying off the connectors.
If any connector is still tight, and you cannot pry it off with a reasonable
effort, drill down a little deeper, and it will come off easily, provided that the
hole which you are drilling is exactly over the center of the post and as large
as the post. There are five things to remember in drilling the connectors and
posts:
Page 406
(a) Be sure that the
hole is exactly over the
center of the post.
(b) Do not drill too
deep. Make each hole
just deep enough so
that the connector will
come off easily. Fig.
192 shows a cross
section of a post and
connector drilled to the
proper depth. Notice
that you need not drill
down the whole depth
of the connector,
because the bottom
part is not burned to
the post.
(c) Be sure that the drill makes the right sized hole to permit the connectors
and terminals to be removed easily when drilled half way through. An
electric drill will do the work much faster than a hand brace.
(d) Protect the edge of the battery box when you pry up the connectors with
a screw driver.
(e) Remove your drill after the hole is well started and see whether the hole
is in the center of the post. Should you find that it is off center, tilt the drill,
and with the end of the drill pointing the center of the post as you drill,
gradually straighten the drill. This will bring the hole over the center of the
post.
Having removed the connectors, sweep all the lead drillings front the top of
the battery into a box kept for lead drillings only. Fig. 194. When this box is
full, melt the drillings and pour off in the burning lead mould.
hole is exactly over the
center of the post.
(b) Do not drill too
deep. Make each hole
just deep enough so
that the connector will
come off easily. Fig.
192 shows a cross
section of a post and
connector drilled to the
proper depth. Notice
that you need not drill
down the whole depth
of the connector,
because the bottom
part is not burned to
the post.
(c) Be sure that the drill makes the right sized hole to permit the connectors
and terminals to be removed easily when drilled half way through. An
electric drill will do the work much faster than a hand brace.
(d) Protect the edge of the battery box when you pry up the connectors with
a screw driver.
(e) Remove your drill after the hole is well started and see whether the hole
is in the center of the post. Should you find that it is off center, tilt the drill,
and with the end of the drill pointing the center of the post as you drill,
gradually straighten the drill. This will bring the hole over the center of the
post.
Having removed the connectors, sweep all the lead drillings front the top of
the battery into a box kept for lead drillings only. Fig. 194. When this box is
full, melt the drillings and pour off in the burning lead mould.
Page 407
Post Seal. If the post seal consists of a lead sealing nut, this may be removed
now. With some types of batteries (Willard and U. S. L.), drilling the
connectors also breaks the post seal. With other batteries, such as the Vesta,
Westinghouse, Prest-0-Lite, Universal, it is more difficult to break the post
seal.
On these batteries, therefore, do not break this seal before drawing out the
plates. You may find that it will not be necessary to separate the groups, and
the post seal will not have to be broken at all, thereby saving yourself
considerable time on the overhauling job.
3. Heating Up the Sealing Compound. Having disconnected the cells from
each other by removing the cell connectors, the next step is to open the joint
now. With some types of batteries (Willard and U. S. L.), drilling the
connectors also breaks the post seal. With other batteries, such as the Vesta,
Westinghouse, Prest-0-Lite, Universal, it is more difficult to break the post
seal.
On these batteries, therefore, do not break this seal before drawing out the
plates. You may find that it will not be necessary to separate the groups, and
the post seal will not have to be broken at all, thereby saving yourself
considerable time on the overhauling job.
3. Heating Up the Sealing Compound. Having disconnected the cells from
each other by removing the cell connectors, the next step is to open the joint
Page 408
made by the sealing compound between the covers and jars. Fig. 195 shows
the battery ready for this step. When cold, the compound is a tough
substance that sticks to the cover and jar, and hence it must be heated until it
is so soft that it is easily removed. There are several methods by means of
which compound may be heated. These are as follows:
Steam. This is the most popular, and undoubtedly the best means of heating
the compound, and in the following instructions it will be assumed that
steam has been used. The battery is either placed in a special box in which
steam is sent, or else steam is sent directly into each cell through the vent
tube. In the first method the compound is heated from the outside, and in the
second it is heated from the inside of the cell.
the battery ready for this step. When cold, the compound is a tough
substance that sticks to the cover and jar, and hence it must be heated until it
is so soft that it is easily removed. There are several methods by means of
which compound may be heated. These are as follows:
Steam. This is the most popular, and undoubtedly the best means of heating
the compound, and in the following instructions it will be assumed that
steam has been used. The battery is either placed in a special box in which
steam is sent, or else steam is sent directly into each cell through the vent
tube. In the first method the compound is heated from the outside, and in the
second it is heated from the inside of the cell.
Page 409
If the battery is placed in the steaming box, about ten minutes will be
required for the steam to heat up the sealing compound. For batteries which
use but very little compound, less time is required. if steam is sent directly
into the cells through the vent tubes, five to seven minutes will generally be
enough. The covers must be limp and the 1 compound must be soft before
turning off the steam.
Hot Water. The electrolyte is poured out of the battery, which is then
inverted in a vessel of hot water. This method is slower than the others, and
is more expensive because it requires a larger volume of water to be heated.
Hot Putty Knife and Screwdriver. The compound may be dug out with a
hot putty knife. This is a slow, unsatisfactory method in most instances,
especially in those batteries which use a considerable amount of sealing
compound. With some batteries using only a small quantity of compound, a
heated putty knife may be run around the inside of the jar between the jar
and the cover. This will break the joint between the cover and the jar, and
allow the plates to be lifted out. The compound is then scraped from covers
and inside of jars, heating the knife or screwdriver whenever it cools off.
required for the steam to heat up the sealing compound. For batteries which
use but very little compound, less time is required. if steam is sent directly
into the cells through the vent tubes, five to seven minutes will generally be
enough. The covers must be limp and the 1 compound must be soft before
turning off the steam.
Hot Water. The electrolyte is poured out of the battery, which is then
inverted in a vessel of hot water. This method is slower than the others, and
is more expensive because it requires a larger volume of water to be heated.
Hot Putty Knife and Screwdriver. The compound may be dug out with a
hot putty knife. This is a slow, unsatisfactory method in most instances,
especially in those batteries which use a considerable amount of sealing
compound. With some batteries using only a small quantity of compound, a
heated putty knife may be run around the inside of the jar between the jar
and the cover. This will break the joint between the cover and the jar, and
allow the plates to be lifted out. The compound is then scraped from covers
and inside of jars, heating the knife or screwdriver whenever it cools off.
Page 410
Lead Burning Flame. Any soft lead burning flame may be used. Such a
flame may be adjusted to any desired size. Where steam is available, a flame
should, however, never be used. The temperature of the flame is very high,
and the covers, jars, case, posts, and vent plugs may be burned and made
worthless. Even for the expert repairman, a flame is not as satisfactory as
steam.
The Gasoline Torch. This is the most unsatisfactory method, and should not
be used if possible. The torch gives a hot, spreading flame and it is difficult
to prevent the covers, jars, case, etc., from being burned. Do not use a
gasoline torch if you can possibly avoid doing so. Alcohol torches are open
to the same objections, and are not satisfactory, even in the hands of a highly
skilled workman.
If a flame is used for heating the compound, be sure to blow out with a hand
bellows or compressed air any gas that may have gathered above the plates,
before you bring the flame near the battery.
Electric Heat. Special electric ovens for softening sealing compound are on
the market. The heating element is brought close to the top of the battery.
Where electric power is cheap, this method may be used. Otherwise it is
rather expensive.
When the sealing compound has
been softened, place the battery on
the floor between your feet. Grasp the
two posts of one cell with pliers, and
pull straight up with an even, steady
pull. If the battery has been steamed
long enough, the plates will come up
easily, carrying with them the cover
(or covers, if the batter has upper and
lower covers) to which the compound
is sticking, as shown in Fig. 196. Do
not remove the plates of the other
cells until later.
flame may be adjusted to any desired size. Where steam is available, a flame
should, however, never be used. The temperature of the flame is very high,
and the covers, jars, case, posts, and vent plugs may be burned and made
worthless. Even for the expert repairman, a flame is not as satisfactory as
steam.
The Gasoline Torch. This is the most unsatisfactory method, and should not
be used if possible. The torch gives a hot, spreading flame and it is difficult
to prevent the covers, jars, case, etc., from being burned. Do not use a
gasoline torch if you can possibly avoid doing so. Alcohol torches are open
to the same objections, and are not satisfactory, even in the hands of a highly
skilled workman.
If a flame is used for heating the compound, be sure to blow out with a hand
bellows or compressed air any gas that may have gathered above the plates,
before you bring the flame near the battery.
Electric Heat. Special electric ovens for softening sealing compound are on
the market. The heating element is brought close to the top of the battery.
Where electric power is cheap, this method may be used. Otherwise it is
rather expensive.
When the sealing compound has
been softened, place the battery on
the floor between your feet. Grasp the
two posts of one cell with pliers, and
pull straight up with an even, steady
pull. If the battery has been steamed
long enough, the plates will come up
easily, carrying with them the cover
(or covers, if the batter has upper and
lower covers) to which the compound
is sticking, as shown in Fig. 196. Do
not remove the plates of the other
cells until later.
Page 411
Rest the plates on the top of the jar just long enough to allow most of the
acid to drain from them, Fig. 197. If you have removed the post seal, or if
the seal consists of compound (old Philadelphia batteries), pry off the covers
now with a screw driver. Otherwise, leave the covers in place while cleaning
off the compound.
While the plates are resting on the jars to drain, scrape the compound from
the covers with a warm screw driver or putty knife, Fig. 198. Work quickly
while the compound is still hot and soft, and comes off easily. As the
compound cools it hardens and sticks to the covers and is removed with
difficulty. If the battery has sealing compound around the posts, this should
also be removed thoroughly, both from the cover and from the post.
When you scrape the compound from the covers, do a good job. Do not
scrape off most of it, and then leave pieces of it here and there. Remove
every bit of compound, on the tops, edges, sides, and bottoms of the covers.
If you need different sized putty knives or screw drivers to do this, use them.
The time to remove all the compound is while it is still hot, and not after it
has become hard and cold. If the battery has single covers, the compound
can be removed very quickly. If the battery is of the old double-cover type,
the job will take more time, since all the compound should be scraped from
both top and bottom covers, Fig. 199.
As soon as you have removed the compound from the covers of the first cell,
serape away the compound which may be sticking to the top and inside walls
of the jar, Fig. 200. Here again you must do a good job, and remove all of
this compound. If you do not do it now, you will have to do it when you try
to put the plates back into the jar later on, as compound sticking to the inside
walls of the jar will make it difficult, and even impossible to lower the plates
into the jar.
Now draw up the plates of the next cell. Rest the plates on the top of the jar
just long enough to drain, and then lift off the covers, and remove all of the
compound, from cover, posts, and jar, just as you did in the first cell. The
third cell, (and the others, if there are more than three cells) are handled just
as you did the first one.
acid to drain from them, Fig. 197. If you have removed the post seal, or if
the seal consists of compound (old Philadelphia batteries), pry off the covers
now with a screw driver. Otherwise, leave the covers in place while cleaning
off the compound.
While the plates are resting on the jars to drain, scrape the compound from
the covers with a warm screw driver or putty knife, Fig. 198. Work quickly
while the compound is still hot and soft, and comes off easily. As the
compound cools it hardens and sticks to the covers and is removed with
difficulty. If the battery has sealing compound around the posts, this should
also be removed thoroughly, both from the cover and from the post.
When you scrape the compound from the covers, do a good job. Do not
scrape off most of it, and then leave pieces of it here and there. Remove
every bit of compound, on the tops, edges, sides, and bottoms of the covers.
If you need different sized putty knives or screw drivers to do this, use them.
The time to remove all the compound is while it is still hot, and not after it
has become hard and cold. If the battery has single covers, the compound
can be removed very quickly. If the battery is of the old double-cover type,
the job will take more time, since all the compound should be scraped from
both top and bottom covers, Fig. 199.
As soon as you have removed the compound from the covers of the first cell,
serape away the compound which may be sticking to the top and inside walls
of the jar, Fig. 200. Here again you must do a good job, and remove all of
this compound. If you do not do it now, you will have to do it when you try
to put the plates back into the jar later on, as compound sticking to the inside
walls of the jar will make it difficult, and even impossible to lower the plates
into the jar.
Now draw up the plates of the next cell. Rest the plates on the top of the jar
just long enough to drain, and then lift off the covers, and remove all of the
compound, from cover, posts, and jar, just as you did in the first cell. The
third cell, (and the others, if there are more than three cells) are handled just
as you did the first one.
Page 412
Remember that you should lose no
time after you have steamed the
battery. Hot compound is soft and does
not stick to the covers, jars, and posts
and may therefore be removed quickly
and easily. Cold compound is hard, and
sticks to the covers. Draw out the
plates of only one cell at a time, and
clean the compound from the cover,
posts and jar of that one cell before you
draw out the plates of the other cells. In
this way, the compound on the covers
of the other cells will remain hotter
than if all the plates of the battery were
drawn out of the jars before any of the
compound was removed from the
covers. You should have all the plates
drawn out, and all the compound
removed within five minutes after you draw up the plates.
time after you have steamed the
battery. Hot compound is soft and does
not stick to the covers, jars, and posts
and may therefore be removed quickly
and easily. Cold compound is hard, and
sticks to the covers. Draw out the
plates of only one cell at a time, and
clean the compound from the cover,
posts and jar of that one cell before you
draw out the plates of the other cells. In
this way, the compound on the covers
of the other cells will remain hotter
than if all the plates of the battery were
drawn out of the jars before any of the
compound was removed from the
covers. You should have all the plates
drawn out, and all the compound
removed within five minutes after you draw up the plates.
Page 413
Throw away the old compound. If is very likely acid-soaked and not fit for
further use.
What Must Be Done with the Battery?
The battery is now open, and in a condition to be examined and judgment
pronounced upon it. The question now arises, "What must be done with it!"
In deciding upon this, be honest with your customer, put yourself in his
place, and do just what you would like to have him do if he were the
repairman and you the car owner. The best battery men occasionally make
mistakes in their diagnosis of the battery's condition, and the repairs
necessary. Experience is the best teacher in this respect, and you will in time
learn to analyze the condition of a battery quickly.
Handle every cell of a battery that comes in for repairs in the same way,
even though only one dead cell is found, and the others are apparently in
further use.
What Must Be Done with the Battery?
The battery is now open, and in a condition to be examined and judgment
pronounced upon it. The question now arises, "What must be done with it!"
In deciding upon this, be honest with your customer, put yourself in his
place, and do just what you would like to have him do if he were the
repairman and you the car owner. The best battery men occasionally make
mistakes in their diagnosis of the battery's condition, and the repairs
necessary. Experience is the best teacher in this respect, and you will in time
learn to analyze the condition of a battery quickly.
Handle every cell of a battery that comes in for repairs in the same way,
even though only one dead cell is found, and the others are apparently in
Page 414
good condition. Each cell must be overhauled, for all cells are of the same
age, and the active materials are in about the same condition in all the cells,
and one cell just happened to give out before the others. If you overhaul only
the dead cell, the others cells are quite likely to give out soon after the
battery is put into service again.
It is absolutely necessary for you to have
a standard method in working on
battery plates. You must divide your
work into a number of definite steps,
and always perform these steps, and in
the same order each time. If you have a
different method of procedure for every
battery, you will never be successful.
Without a definite, tangible method of
procedure for your work you will be
working in the dark, and groping around
like a blind man, never becoming a battery
expert, never knowing why you did a
certain thing, never gaining confidence in
yourself.
It is impossible to overemphasize the importance of having a standard
method of procedure and to stick to that method. Careless, slip-shod
methods will please your competitor and give him the business which
belongs to you.
1. Examine plates to determine whether they can be used again Rules for
determining when to discard or use old plates follow.
2. If all plates of both positive and negative groups are to be discarded, use
new groups.
The question as to whether the old negatives should be used with new
positives has caused considerable discussion. If the negatives are old and
granulated, they should of course be discarded. Remember that the capacity
age, and the active materials are in about the same condition in all the cells,
and one cell just happened to give out before the others. If you overhaul only
the dead cell, the others cells are quite likely to give out soon after the
battery is put into service again.
It is absolutely necessary for you to have
a standard method in working on
battery plates. You must divide your
work into a number of definite steps,
and always perform these steps, and in
the same order each time. If you have a
different method of procedure for every
battery, you will never be successful.
Without a definite, tangible method of
procedure for your work you will be
working in the dark, and groping around
like a blind man, never becoming a battery
expert, never knowing why you did a
certain thing, never gaining confidence in
yourself.
It is impossible to overemphasize the importance of having a standard
method of procedure and to stick to that method. Careless, slip-shod
methods will please your competitor and give him the business which
belongs to you.
1. Examine plates to determine whether they can be used again Rules for
determining when to discard or use old plates follow.
2. If all plates of both positive and negative groups are to be discarded, use
new groups.
The question as to whether the old negatives should be used with new
positives has caused considerable discussion. If the negatives are old and
granulated, they should of course be discarded. Remember that the capacity
Page 415
of negatives decreases steadily after they are put into service, while the
capacity of positives increases. Putting new positives against negatives
which are rapidly losing capacity is not advisable. However, trouble often
arises in a battery whose negatives still have considerable capacity, and such
negatives may safely be used with new positives.
If you feel that a battery will not give at least six months more service after
rebuilding with the old negatives, put in all new plates, or sell the owner a
new battery, allowing him some money on the old battery. But if you really
believe that the negatives still have considerable capacity, put in new
positives if required. If all new plates are used, proceed as directed in this
chapter, beginning at page 348.
3. If you find that only some of the plates are to be discarded, or if you are
not certain as to the condition of the plates, eliminate any short circuits
which may exist, and give the battery a preliminary charge, as described
later, before you do any work on the plates. Plates that are fully charged are
in the best possible condition for handling, and you should make it an
ironclad rule that if some of the plates can be used again always to charge
a battery before you work on the plates, no matter what is to be done to
them. If both positives and negatives are to be discarded, the preliminary
charge should not, of course, be given, but if only the negatives, or the
negatives and some or all of the positives are to be used again, give this
preliminary charge. Very few batteries will come to your shop in a charged
condition, and an exhausted battery is not in a good condition to be worked
on. Charge the whole battery even though only one cell is in a very bad
condition. This is a method that has been tried out thoroughly in
practice, not in one or two cases, but in thousands. Batteries in all sorts of
conditions have been rebuilt by this method, and have always given first
class service, a service which was frequently as good, if not better than that
given by new batteries.
Examining the Plates
Place an element on a block of wood as shown in Fig. 201. Carefully pry the
plates apart so that you can look down between them and make a fair
preliminary examination. Whenever possible, make your examination of the
capacity of positives increases. Putting new positives against negatives
which are rapidly losing capacity is not advisable. However, trouble often
arises in a battery whose negatives still have considerable capacity, and such
negatives may safely be used with new positives.
If you feel that a battery will not give at least six months more service after
rebuilding with the old negatives, put in all new plates, or sell the owner a
new battery, allowing him some money on the old battery. But if you really
believe that the negatives still have considerable capacity, put in new
positives if required. If all new plates are used, proceed as directed in this
chapter, beginning at page 348.
3. If you find that only some of the plates are to be discarded, or if you are
not certain as to the condition of the plates, eliminate any short circuits
which may exist, and give the battery a preliminary charge, as described
later, before you do any work on the plates. Plates that are fully charged are
in the best possible condition for handling, and you should make it an
ironclad rule that if some of the plates can be used again always to charge
a battery before you work on the plates, no matter what is to be done to
them. If both positives and negatives are to be discarded, the preliminary
charge should not, of course, be given, but if only the negatives, or the
negatives and some or all of the positives are to be used again, give this
preliminary charge. Very few batteries will come to your shop in a charged
condition, and an exhausted battery is not in a good condition to be worked
on. Charge the whole battery even though only one cell is in a very bad
condition. This is a method that has been tried out thoroughly in
practice, not in one or two cases, but in thousands. Batteries in all sorts of
conditions have been rebuilt by this method, and have always given first
class service, a service which was frequently as good, if not better than that
given by new batteries.
Examining the Plates
Place an element on a block of wood as shown in Fig. 201. Carefully pry the
plates apart so that you can look down between them and make a fair
preliminary examination. Whenever possible, make your examination of the
Page 416
plates without separating the groups or removing the old separators. This
should be done because:
(a) Very often the active material is bulged or swollen, and if you pull out the
old separators and put in new ones before charging, the element spreads out
so at the bottom that it cannot be put back into the jars without first pressing
in a plate press. Pressing a complete element with the separators in place
should never be done if it can possibly be avoided. If it is done the
separators should be thrown. away after you have charged the battery,
washed and pressed the negatives, and washed the positive.
(b) If you put in new separators before giving the battery the preliminary
charge, the new separators may pick up any impurities which may be on the
plates, and will probably be cracked by forcing them between the bulged and
sulphated plates. If, however, the old separators are covered with sulphate, it
is best to throw them away and put in new separators before giving the
battery its preliminary charge, because such separators will greatly hinder
the flow of the charging current. In batteries using rubber sheets in addition
to the wooden separators, remove all the wooden separators and leave the
rubber sheets in place between the plates. Where only wooden separators are
used in a battery, these may be thrown away and perforated rubber
should be done because:
(a) Very often the active material is bulged or swollen, and if you pull out the
old separators and put in new ones before charging, the element spreads out
so at the bottom that it cannot be put back into the jars without first pressing
in a plate press. Pressing a complete element with the separators in place
should never be done if it can possibly be avoided. If it is done the
separators should be thrown. away after you have charged the battery,
washed and pressed the negatives, and washed the positive.
(b) If you put in new separators before giving the battery the preliminary
charge, the new separators may pick up any impurities which may be on the
plates, and will probably be cracked by forcing them between the bulged and
sulphated plates. If, however, the old separators are covered with sulphate, it
is best to throw them away and put in new separators before giving the
battery its preliminary charge, because such separators will greatly hinder
the flow of the charging current. In batteries using rubber sheets in addition
to the wooden separators, remove all the wooden separators and leave the
rubber sheets in place between the plates. Where only wooden separators are
used in a battery, these may be thrown away and perforated rubber
Page 417
separators used for the preliminary charge. Rubber separators may be used
again. See (a) above about precautions against pressing a complete element.
If you are not absolutely certain as to
the condition of the plates, draw out a
few separators. If separators stick to
the plates, loosen them by inserting a
putty knife blade between them and
the plates. Removing a few separators
will permit you to separate the groups
before removing the rest of the
separators. To separate the groups,
grasp a post in each hand, as, in Fig.
202, and work them back and forth,
being careful not to injure the posts,
or break off any plates. With the groups separated, the remaining separators
will either fall out or may be easily pushed out with a putty knife. Ordinarily,
the groups may be separated in this way if the elements have thirteen plates
or less.
The natural thing to do at this point is to decide what must be done to the
plates, and we therefore give a number of rules to help you determine which
are to be junked, and which are to be used again. Study these rules carefully,
and have them fixed firmly in your mind so that you can tell instantly what
must be done with the plates.
again. See (a) above about precautions against pressing a complete element.
If you are not absolutely certain as to
the condition of the plates, draw out a
few separators. If separators stick to
the plates, loosen them by inserting a
putty knife blade between them and
the plates. Removing a few separators
will permit you to separate the groups
before removing the rest of the
separators. To separate the groups,
grasp a post in each hand, as, in Fig.
202, and work them back and forth,
being careful not to injure the posts,
or break off any plates. With the groups separated, the remaining separators
will either fall out or may be easily pushed out with a putty knife. Ordinarily,
the groups may be separated in this way if the elements have thirteen plates
or less.
The natural thing to do at this point is to decide what must be done to the
plates, and we therefore give a number of rules to help you determine which
are to be junked, and which are to be used again. Study these rules carefully,
and have them fixed firmly in your mind so that you can tell instantly what
must be done with the plates.
Page 418
When to Put In New Plates
1. If one or more jars are cracked and leak, and positive plates have
been ruined by freezing, as shown in Fig. 203, and if upon drawing out the
separators, and separating the positive and negative groups the active
material drops out of the grids, the only way to put the battery in a good
condition is to put in new positives, and new jars and case if necessary.
Make a careful estimate of
(a) Cost of new jars.
(b) Cost of new plates.
(c) Cost of new case if needed.
(d) Cost of labor required.
1. If one or more jars are cracked and leak, and positive plates have
been ruined by freezing, as shown in Fig. 203, and if upon drawing out the
separators, and separating the positive and negative groups the active
material drops out of the grids, the only way to put the battery in a good
condition is to put in new positives, and new jars and case if necessary.
Make a careful estimate of
(a) Cost of new jars.
(b) Cost of new plates.
(c) Cost of new case if needed.
(d) Cost of labor required.
Page 419
Try to have the owner present while you are opening his battery. If, however,
he could not wait, and has left, call him up and tell him what the total cost
will be, and if he has no objections, go ahead with the job. If he is not
entirely satisfied with your price, try to get him to come to your shop. Show
him the battery, explain its condition, tell him just what must be done with it,
and explain how you made your estimate of the cost of the whole job. If you
do this. there will never be any misunderstanding as to cost. Tell him the cost
of a new battery, and let him decide if lie wants one. If the cost of repairing
is almost as much as the price of a new battery. advise him to buy a new one,
but allow him to make the decision himself. He will then have no cause for
complaint.
he could not wait, and has left, call him up and tell him what the total cost
will be, and if he has no objections, go ahead with the job. If he is not
entirely satisfied with your price, try to get him to come to your shop. Show
him the battery, explain its condition, tell him just what must be done with it,
and explain how you made your estimate of the cost of the whole job. If you
do this. there will never be any misunderstanding as to cost. Tell him the cost
of a new battery, and let him decide if lie wants one. If the cost of repairing
is almost as much as the price of a new battery. advise him to buy a new one,
but allow him to make the decision himself. He will then have no cause for
complaint.
Page 420
Fig. 204 and 205, Show Diseased
Negatives. The Large Ones Only Eight
Months Old. Active Material,
Granulated and Blistered.
Negatives. The Large Ones Only Eight
Months Old. Active Material,
Granulated and Blistered.
Page 421
2. If the battery is more than two years old, and the active material on the
negative plates is granulated (grainy appearance), Figs. 204 and 205, and
somewhat disintegrated; if the plates are weak and brittle around the edges,
and several grids are cracked, Fig. 206, and the plates have lost a
considerable amount of active material; and if the case has been rotted by the
acid, the battery should be junked.
Call up the owner, and tell him he needs a new battery. If he does not seem
pleased, ask him to come to your shop. Then show him his battery, and
explain its condition. If you are courteous and patient, you will sell him a
new battery. Otherwise he will never return.
negative plates is granulated (grainy appearance), Figs. 204 and 205, and
somewhat disintegrated; if the plates are weak and brittle around the edges,
and several grids are cracked, Fig. 206, and the plates have lost a
considerable amount of active material; and if the case has been rotted by the
acid, the battery should be junked.
Call up the owner, and tell him he needs a new battery. If he does not seem
pleased, ask him to come to your shop. Then show him his battery, and
explain its condition. If you are courteous and patient, you will sell him a
new battery. Otherwise he will never return.
Page 422
3. If the positive plates are badly distorted from buckling, as in Figs. 207
and 208 discard them, for they will cut through new separators, if put into
commission again, ill from two to six months.
4. A battery which has has been dry and badly sulphated at some past
period of its life will have the dry portions covered with a white sulphate, the
acid line being clearly distinguishable by this white color, as shown at A and
B in Fig. 201. If the plates are otherwise in good shape and you wish to use
them, give them the "water cure" described on page 349.
and 208 discard them, for they will cut through new separators, if put into
commission again, ill from two to six months.
4. A battery which has has been dry and badly sulphated at some past
period of its life will have the dry portions covered with a white sulphate, the
acid line being clearly distinguishable by this white color, as shown at A and
B in Fig. 201. If the plates are otherwise in good shape and you wish to use
them, give them the "water cure" described on page 349.
Page 423
5. Rotten and disintegrated positive plates, Figs. 209 and 210, must be
replaced with new plates. The plates have fallen to pieces or break at the
slightest pressure. Disintegrated plates are an indication of impurities or
overcharging, providing the battery is not old enough to cause disintegration
normally,--say about two years. The lead grid is converted into peroxide of
lead and becomes soft. As a result, there is nothing to support the paste, and
it falls out. Better put in new negatives also.
replaced with new plates. The plates have fallen to pieces or break at the
slightest pressure. Disintegrated plates are an indication of impurities or
overcharging, providing the battery is not old enough to cause disintegration
normally,--say about two years. The lead grid is converted into peroxide of
lead and becomes soft. As a result, there is nothing to support the paste, and
it falls out. Better put in new negatives also.
Page 424
6. Batteries with high gravity or hot electrolyte have burned and
carbonized separators, turning them black and rotting them, the negative
paste becomes granulated and is kept in a soft condition, and gradually drops
from the grids on account of the jolting of the car on the road. Fig. 211
shows such a battery.
7. Dry, hard, and white, long discharged, and badly sulphated plates,
Figs. 201 and 209, are practically ruined, though if the trouble is not of long
standing, the plates may be revived somewhat by a long charge at a very low
rate, using distilled water in place of the electrolyte, and then discharging at
a current equal to about one-eight to one-tenth of the ampere hour capacity
of the battery at the discharge board. Charge and discharge a battery a
number or times, and you may be able to put a little "pep" into it. In charging
sulphated plates, use a low charging rate, and do not allow gassing before
the end of the charge, or a temperature of the electrolyte above 110°F.
8. If a battery case is not held down firmly, or if the elements are loose in
the jars, the plates will jump around when the car is in motion. This will
carbonized separators, turning them black and rotting them, the negative
paste becomes granulated and is kept in a soft condition, and gradually drops
from the grids on account of the jolting of the car on the road. Fig. 211
shows such a battery.
7. Dry, hard, and white, long discharged, and badly sulphated plates,
Figs. 201 and 209, are practically ruined, though if the trouble is not of long
standing, the plates may be revived somewhat by a long charge at a very low
rate, using distilled water in place of the electrolyte, and then discharging at
a current equal to about one-eight to one-tenth of the ampere hour capacity
of the battery at the discharge board. Charge and discharge a battery a
number or times, and you may be able to put a little "pep" into it. In charging
sulphated plates, use a low charging rate, and do not allow gassing before
the end of the charge, or a temperature of the electrolyte above 110°F.
8. If a battery case is not held down firmly, or if the elements are loose in
the jars, the plates will jump around when the car is in motion. This will
Page 425
break the sealing compound on top of the battery, and cause the battery to be
a slopper. The active materials will be shaken out of the grids, as shown in
Fig. 212, and the plates will wear through the separators. New plates are
required.
9. If Battery Has Been Reversed. Often the plates of such a battery
disintegrate and crumble under the slightest pressure. If the reversal is not
too far advanced, the plates may be restored (See page 81), but otherwise
they should be discarded. This condition is recognized by the original
negatives being brown, and the original positives gray.
From the foregoing explanations, you see that most of the trouble is with the
positives:
(a) Because the positive active material does not stick together well, but
drops off, or sheds easily.
(b) Because the positives warp or buckle, this causing most of the battery
troubles.
(c) Because the positive plate is weaker and is ruined by freezing.
When the Old Plates May be Used Again
1. If one or more plates are broken from the plate connecting straps, or
the joint between any strap and the plate is poorly made. If plates are in good
condition, reburn the plate lugs to the straps.
a slopper. The active materials will be shaken out of the grids, as shown in
Fig. 212, and the plates will wear through the separators. New plates are
required.
9. If Battery Has Been Reversed. Often the plates of such a battery
disintegrate and crumble under the slightest pressure. If the reversal is not
too far advanced, the plates may be restored (See page 81), but otherwise
they should be discarded. This condition is recognized by the original
negatives being brown, and the original positives gray.
From the foregoing explanations, you see that most of the trouble is with the
positives:
(a) Because the positive active material does not stick together well, but
drops off, or sheds easily.
(b) Because the positives warp or buckle, this causing most of the battery
troubles.
(c) Because the positive plate is weaker and is ruined by freezing.
When the Old Plates May be Used Again
1. If one or more plates are broken from the plate connecting straps, or
the joint between any strap and the plate is poorly made. If plates are in good
condition, reburn the plate lugs to the straps.
Page 426
Fig. 212. Element from a "Slopper."
Element was Loose in Jar and Jolting
of Car Caused Paste to Fall Out
2. Straight Rebuild. If the general condition of the battery is good, i.e., the
plates straight or only slightly buckled. only a slight amount of shedding of
active material, no white sulphate oil either plate, the grids not brittle. active
material adhering to and firmly touching the grids, the positive active
material of a dark chocolate brown color and fairly hard (as determined by
scratching with blade of a pocket knife), the negative active Material dark
gray in color and not blistered or granulated, and the plates not too thin,
Element was Loose in Jar and Jolting
of Car Caused Paste to Fall Out
2. Straight Rebuild. If the general condition of the battery is good, i.e., the
plates straight or only slightly buckled. only a slight amount of shedding of
active material, no white sulphate oil either plate, the grids not brittle. active
material adhering to and firmly touching the grids, the positive active
material of a dark chocolate brown color and fairly hard (as determined by
scratching with blade of a pocket knife), the negative active Material dark
gray in color and not blistered or granulated, and the plates not too thin,
Page 427
make a straight rebuild. To do this, charge the battery, remove any sediment
from the bottom of the jar, wash and press the negatives, wash the positives,
clean the parts, insert new separators, and reassemble as directed later. The
only trouble may be cracked sealing compound, or a broken jar. Broken jars
should, of course, be replaced.
3. Badly bulged negative plates, Fig. 213, cause lack of capacity because
the active material is loose, and does not make good contact with the grids.
If the active material is not badly granulated (having a grainy appearance)
the plates call be used again. Sulphated negatives have very hard active
material, and will feel as bard as stone when scratched with a knife. Hard
negatives from Which active material has been falling ill lumps Oil account
of being overdischarged after having been in in undercharged condition may
be nursed back to life, if too much of the active material has not been lost.
4. The formation of an excessive amount of sulphate may result in
cracking the grids, and the active materials falls out in lumps. Such plates
may be put in a serviceable condition by a long charge and several cycles of
charge and discharge if there is not too much cracking or too much loss of
active material.
5. Positives which are only slightly warped or buckled may be used again.
6. When the only trouble found is a slight amount of shedding. Positive
active material must be of a dark chocolate brown color and fairly hard.
from the bottom of the jar, wash and press the negatives, wash the positives,
clean the parts, insert new separators, and reassemble as directed later. The
only trouble may be cracked sealing compound, or a broken jar. Broken jars
should, of course, be replaced.
3. Badly bulged negative plates, Fig. 213, cause lack of capacity because
the active material is loose, and does not make good contact with the grids.
If the active material is not badly granulated (having a grainy appearance)
the plates call be used again. Sulphated negatives have very hard active
material, and will feel as bard as stone when scratched with a knife. Hard
negatives from Which active material has been falling ill lumps Oil account
of being overdischarged after having been in in undercharged condition may
be nursed back to life, if too much of the active material has not been lost.
4. The formation of an excessive amount of sulphate may result in
cracking the grids, and the active materials falls out in lumps. Such plates
may be put in a serviceable condition by a long charge and several cycles of
charge and discharge if there is not too much cracking or too much loss of
active material.
5. Positives which are only slightly warped or buckled may be used again.
6. When the only trouble found is a slight amount of shedding. Positive
active material must be of a dark chocolate brown color and fairly hard.
Page 428
Negatives must be a dark gray.
7. When the plates are in a good condition, but one or more separators
have been worn or out through, or a jar is cracked.
If the battery is one which will not hold its charge, and plates seem to be in a
good condition, the trouble is very likely caused by the separators
approaching the breaking down point, and the repair job consists of putting
in new separators or "reinsulating" the battery.
What To Do With the Separators
It is the safest plan to put in new separators whenever a battery is opened,
and the groups separated. Separators are the weakest part of the battery, and
it is absolutely essential that all their pores be fully opened so as to allow
free passing of electrolyte through them. Some of the conditions requiring
new separators are:
1. Whenever the pores are closed by any foreign matter whatsoever. Put in
new separators whether you can figure out the cause of the trouble or not.
The separator shown in Fig. 201 is sulphated clear through above the line B,
and is worthless. The separator shown in Fig. 203 should not be used again.
2. When the separators have been cut or "chiseled off" by the edge of a
buckled plate, Fig. 214.
3. When a buckling plate or plate with bulged active material breaks through
the separator, Fig. 214.
7. When the plates are in a good condition, but one or more separators
have been worn or out through, or a jar is cracked.
If the battery is one which will not hold its charge, and plates seem to be in a
good condition, the trouble is very likely caused by the separators
approaching the breaking down point, and the repair job consists of putting
in new separators or "reinsulating" the battery.
What To Do With the Separators
It is the safest plan to put in new separators whenever a battery is opened,
and the groups separated. Separators are the weakest part of the battery, and
it is absolutely essential that all their pores be fully opened so as to allow
free passing of electrolyte through them. Some of the conditions requiring
new separators are:
1. Whenever the pores are closed by any foreign matter whatsoever. Put in
new separators whether you can figure out the cause of the trouble or not.
The separator shown in Fig. 201 is sulphated clear through above the line B,
and is worthless. The separator shown in Fig. 203 should not be used again.
2. When the separators have been cut or "chiseled off" by the edge of a
buckled plate, Fig. 214.
3. When a buckling plate or plate with bulged active material breaks through
the separator, Fig. 214.
Page 429
Fig. 214. Separators Worn
Thin and Cut Through on
Edges by Buckled Plates.
Holes Worn Through by
Bulged Active Material,
Center One Shows Cell
Was Dry Two Thirds of
the Way Down.
4. When a battery has been used while the level of the Fig. 214. Separators
Worn Thin and Cut Through on Edges by Buckled Plates. Holes Worn
Through by Bulged Active Material. Center One Shows Cell Was Dry Two
Thirds of the Way Down electrolyte has been below the tops of the plates, or
the battery has been used in a discharged condition, and lead sulphate has
deposited on the separators, Fig. 201.
5. When a battery has been
over-heated by overcharging or
other causes, and the hot acid
has rotted, burned and
carbonized the separators, Fig.
215.
6. When a battery has been
damaged by the addition of
acid and the separators have
been rotted, Fig. 215.
7. Separators which are more
than a year old should be
replaced by new ones, whether
plates are defective or not.
When you have put in new
separators, and put the battery
on charge, the specific gravity
Thin and Cut Through on
Edges by Buckled Plates.
Holes Worn Through by
Bulged Active Material,
Center One Shows Cell
Was Dry Two Thirds of
the Way Down.
4. When a battery has been used while the level of the Fig. 214. Separators
Worn Thin and Cut Through on Edges by Buckled Plates. Holes Worn
Through by Bulged Active Material. Center One Shows Cell Was Dry Two
Thirds of the Way Down electrolyte has been below the tops of the plates, or
the battery has been used in a discharged condition, and lead sulphate has
deposited on the separators, Fig. 201.
5. When a battery has been
over-heated by overcharging or
other causes, and the hot acid
has rotted, burned and
carbonized the separators, Fig.
215.
6. When a battery has been
damaged by the addition of
acid and the separators have
been rotted, Fig. 215.
7. Separators which are more
than a year old should be
replaced by new ones, whether
plates are defective or not.
When you have put in new
separators, and put the battery
on charge, the specific gravity
Page 430
of the electrolyte may go down at first, instead of rising. This is because the
separators may absorb some of the acid. If the battery was discharged when
you put in the new separators, the lowering of the specific gravity might not
take place, but in most cases the specific gravity will go down, or not change
at all.
Find the Cause of Every Trouble
The foregoing rules must be studied carefully and be clearly tabulated in
your mind to be able to tell what to put into commission again and what to
discard as junk. It will take time to learn how to discriminate, but keep at it
persistently and persevere, and as you pass judgment on this battery and that
battery, ask yourself such questions as: What put this battery in this
condition? Why are the negative plates granulated? Why are the positive
plates buckled? What caused the positive plates to disintegrate? Why are the
separators black? Why is the case rotten when less than a year old? Why did
the sealing compound crack on top and cause the electrolyte to slop? Why
did one of the terminal connectors get loose and make a slopper? Who is to
blame for it, the car manufacturer, the manufacturer of the battery, or the
owner of the car? Why did this battery have to be taken off the car, opened
up and rebuilt at 5 months old, when the battery taken off a car just the day
before had been on for 30 months and never had been charged off the car but
once? There is a reason; find it. Locate the cause of the trouble if possible,
remove the cause; your customer will appreciate it and tell his friends about
it, and this will mean more business for you.
Eliminating "Shorts"
If you have decided that some or all of the plates may be used again, the next
thing to do is to separate any plates that are touching, and put the battery on
charge. It may be necessary to put in new separators in place of the defective
ones. Examine the separators carefully. Whenever you find the pores of the
separators stopped up from any cause whatsoever, put in new separators
before charging.
separators may absorb some of the acid. If the battery was discharged when
you put in the new separators, the lowering of the specific gravity might not
take place, but in most cases the specific gravity will go down, or not change
at all.
Find the Cause of Every Trouble
The foregoing rules must be studied carefully and be clearly tabulated in
your mind to be able to tell what to put into commission again and what to
discard as junk. It will take time to learn how to discriminate, but keep at it
persistently and persevere, and as you pass judgment on this battery and that
battery, ask yourself such questions as: What put this battery in this
condition? Why are the negative plates granulated? Why are the positive
plates buckled? What caused the positive plates to disintegrate? Why are the
separators black? Why is the case rotten when less than a year old? Why did
the sealing compound crack on top and cause the electrolyte to slop? Why
did one of the terminal connectors get loose and make a slopper? Who is to
blame for it, the car manufacturer, the manufacturer of the battery, or the
owner of the car? Why did this battery have to be taken off the car, opened
up and rebuilt at 5 months old, when the battery taken off a car just the day
before had been on for 30 months and never had been charged off the car but
once? There is a reason; find it. Locate the cause of the trouble if possible,
remove the cause; your customer will appreciate it and tell his friends about
it, and this will mean more business for you.
Eliminating "Shorts"
If you have decided that some or all of the plates may be used again, the next
thing to do is to separate any plates that are touching, and put the battery on
charge. It may be necessary to put in new separators in place of the defective
ones. Examine the separators carefully. Whenever you find the pores of the
separators stopped up from any cause whatsoever, put in new separators
before charging.
Page 431
1. Sometimes the negative plates are bulged or blistered badly and have
worn clear through the separators, Fig. 214, and touch the positives. In cases
of this kind, to save time and trouble, separate the groups, press the
negatives lightly, as described later, assemble the element with new
separators, and it is ready for charging.
2. There is another case where the groups must be separated and new
separators inserted before they will take charge, and that is where the battery
has suffered from lack of water and has sulphated clear through the
separators, Fig. 201. The separators will be covered with white sulphate.
Chemical action is very sluggish in such cases.
If you find that the separator pores are still open, leave the separators in
place and proceed to separate the plates that are touching. How? That
depends on what insulating material you have available that is thin enough.
If nothing else is available, take a piece of new dry separator about 3/8 inch
to 1/2 inch square, or a piece of pasteboard the same size. Use a screw driver
or putty knife to separate the plates far enough to insert the little piece of
insulation as in Fig. 216. Free all the shorts in this way, unless you have
some old rubber insulators. In this case, break off some narrow strips 3/4
inch wide or less, put two together and repeat the operation as above, using
the rubber strips instead of the pieces of separator. Insert down 1/2 inch or so
and bend over and break off. Occasionally the Lipper edges of the plates are
shorted, in which case they must be treated the same way.
worn clear through the separators, Fig. 214, and touch the positives. In cases
of this kind, to save time and trouble, separate the groups, press the
negatives lightly, as described later, assemble the element with new
separators, and it is ready for charging.
2. There is another case where the groups must be separated and new
separators inserted before they will take charge, and that is where the battery
has suffered from lack of water and has sulphated clear through the
separators, Fig. 201. The separators will be covered with white sulphate.
Chemical action is very sluggish in such cases.
If you find that the separator pores are still open, leave the separators in
place and proceed to separate the plates that are touching. How? That
depends on what insulating material you have available that is thin enough.
If nothing else is available, take a piece of new dry separator about 3/8 inch
to 1/2 inch square, or a piece of pasteboard the same size. Use a screw driver
or putty knife to separate the plates far enough to insert the little piece of
insulation as in Fig. 216. Free all the shorts in this way, unless you have
some old rubber insulators. In this case, break off some narrow strips 3/4
inch wide or less, put two together and repeat the operation as above, using
the rubber strips instead of the pieces of separator. Insert down 1/2 inch or so
and bend over and break off. Occasionally the Lipper edges of the plates are
shorted, in which case they must be treated the same way.
Page 432
Page 433
Charging
When you have in this way cleared all the "shorts" in the elements place the
elements back in the jars in the same position as they were when you opened
the battery, and add enough distilled water to the electrolyte to cover the
plates to a depth of one-half inch.
If the negatives are badly sulphated (active material very hard), they will
charge more quickly if all the old electrolyte is dumped out and the cells
filled with distilled water before putting the battery on charge. This "water
cure" is the best for sulphated negatives and will save many plates that could
otherwise not be used again. Make it a rule to replace the old electrolyte with
distilled water if negatives are sulphated.
When you have in this way cleared all the "shorts" in the elements place the
elements back in the jars in the same position as they were when you opened
the battery, and add enough distilled water to the electrolyte to cover the
plates to a depth of one-half inch.
If the negatives are badly sulphated (active material very hard), they will
charge more quickly if all the old electrolyte is dumped out and the cells
filled with distilled water before putting the battery on charge. This "water
cure" is the best for sulphated negatives and will save many plates that could
otherwise not be used again. Make it a rule to replace the old electrolyte with
distilled water if negatives are sulphated.
Page 434
The next operation is to put
the battery on charge.
Grasp each post in the jaws
of a pair of gas pliers and
work the pliers back and
forth, Fig. 217, so as to
remove the scale and allow
the connecting straps to
make good contact. Now
Fig. 218. Tapping Connectors in Place. take a knife and cut off the
Preparatory to Charging After Battery rough edges left in the
Has Been Opened and Shorts Removed connecting straps by the
drill. Taper the edge, if
necessary to go on post. Turn the connectors upside down and pound gently
in position, Fig. 218, to make a good connection. Temporary charging
connections may also be made by burning lead strips on the posts. This
being properly done, the battery is ready for charging. Check up the
connections to be sure they are correct.
Now put the battery on charge, and charge at a low rate. Do not allow the
temperature of any cell to rise above 110°F. Continue the charge until the
electrolyte clears up, and its specific gravity stops rising and the plates have
a normal color over their entire surface. Fully charged positive plates have a
chocolate brown color, and fully charged negative plates have a dark gray
color. By holding an electric light directly over a cell, and looking down, the
color of both negatives and positives may be determined. Do not take the
battery off charge until you have obtained these results, although it may be
necessary to continue the charge for two, three, four, or five days. In this
preliminary charge it is not necessary to bring the gravity up to 1.280,
because the electrolyte is not to be used again, and the plates will become
charged completely, regardless of what the gravity is. The essential thing is
to charge until the electrolyte becomes perfectly clear, the gravity stops
rising, and the plates have the right color. The Cadmium test may be used
here to determine when the plates are charged. If the gravity rises above
1.280 during the preliminary charge, adjust it to 1.280 by drawing out some
of the electrolyte and adding distilled water. The battery must stay on
charge until you have the desired conditions. If one cell does not charge,--
that is, if its specific gravity does not rise,--you have probably not freed all
the battery on charge.
Grasp each post in the jaws
of a pair of gas pliers and
work the pliers back and
forth, Fig. 217, so as to
remove the scale and allow
the connecting straps to
make good contact. Now
Fig. 218. Tapping Connectors in Place. take a knife and cut off the
Preparatory to Charging After Battery rough edges left in the
Has Been Opened and Shorts Removed connecting straps by the
drill. Taper the edge, if
necessary to go on post. Turn the connectors upside down and pound gently
in position, Fig. 218, to make a good connection. Temporary charging
connections may also be made by burning lead strips on the posts. This
being properly done, the battery is ready for charging. Check up the
connections to be sure they are correct.
Now put the battery on charge, and charge at a low rate. Do not allow the
temperature of any cell to rise above 110°F. Continue the charge until the
electrolyte clears up, and its specific gravity stops rising and the plates have
a normal color over their entire surface. Fully charged positive plates have a
chocolate brown color, and fully charged negative plates have a dark gray
color. By holding an electric light directly over a cell, and looking down, the
color of both negatives and positives may be determined. Do not take the
battery off charge until you have obtained these results, although it may be
necessary to continue the charge for two, three, four, or five days. In this
preliminary charge it is not necessary to bring the gravity up to 1.280,
because the electrolyte is not to be used again, and the plates will become
charged completely, regardless of what the gravity is. The essential thing is
to charge until the electrolyte becomes perfectly clear, the gravity stops
rising, and the plates have the right color. The Cadmium test may be used
here to determine when the plates are charged. If the gravity rises above
1.280 during the preliminary charge, adjust it to 1.280 by drawing out some
of the electrolyte and adding distilled water. The battery must stay on
charge until you have the desired conditions. If one cell does not charge,--
that is, if its specific gravity does not rise,--you have probably not freed all
Page 435
the shorts, and must take the element out of the jar again and carefully
inspect it for more shorts.
Right here is where one of the most important questions may be asked about
rebuilding batteries. Why must you free the shorts and put the battery on
charge? Why not save time by putting in all new separators, sealing the
battery, burning on the cell connectors, and then putting it on charge? If you
have ever treated a battery in this way, what results did you get? Why did
you have a badly unbalanced gravity of electrolyte? How could you know
what specific gravity electrolyte to put in each cell? Perhaps one was
charged, one only half charged, and the other dead. Suppose the dead cell
had impurities in it. How could you get rid of them? Suppose the battery
showed poor capacity on test, what would you do?
Washing and Pressing the Negatives
To continue the actual work on the battery. The battery being fully charged,
—the electrolyte clear, the plates of normal color, the specific gravity no
longer rising,— remove it from the charging bench and put it on the work
bench. Draw each element and let drain as in Fig. 197.
inspect it for more shorts.
Right here is where one of the most important questions may be asked about
rebuilding batteries. Why must you free the shorts and put the battery on
charge? Why not save time by putting in all new separators, sealing the
battery, burning on the cell connectors, and then putting it on charge? If you
have ever treated a battery in this way, what results did you get? Why did
you have a badly unbalanced gravity of electrolyte? How could you know
what specific gravity electrolyte to put in each cell? Perhaps one was
charged, one only half charged, and the other dead. Suppose the dead cell
had impurities in it. How could you get rid of them? Suppose the battery
showed poor capacity on test, what would you do?
Washing and Pressing the Negatives
To continue the actual work on the battery. The battery being fully charged,
—the electrolyte clear, the plates of normal color, the specific gravity no
longer rising,— remove it from the charging bench and put it on the work
bench. Draw each element and let drain as in Fig. 197.
Page 436
Here again the labeled boxes described on page 183 come in handy. Separate
one group, remove the separators, and put one group in each end of box to
keep clean. Separate another group, And nest the plates, Fig. 219, the
negative with the negative, and positive with positive. Separate the third
element and put groups in the boxes. Pour the old electrolyte out of the jars,
and wash out the jars as described on page 360. You now have the plates in
the best possible shape for handling. Take the boxes containing the plates to
the sink. Have the plate press and the plate press boards ready for use.
If, for any reason, you are called away from your work at this point to be
gone for five minutes, do not leave the fully charged negatives exposed to
the air, as they will become very hot. Cover them with water. A one-gallon
stone or earthenware jar will hold the negative plates of a 100 ampere hour
battery if you nest two of the groups. You may also put negatives back in jars
from which they were taken, and fill with water.
Now hold a negative group under the faucet, and let a strong stream of water
run down over each plate so as to wash it thoroughly, and to remove any
foreign matter from the plate surfaces. All negative groups must be handled
in exactly the same way so as to get the same results in each case.
After you have washed the first group, place it on edge on a clean board with
the post down and pointing away from you, and the bottom of the group
toward you. Now insert plate press boards which are slightly larger than the
plates, and of the exact thickness required to fill the spaces between plates,
Fig. 113. For the standard 1/8 inch plates, a 5-16 inch board, or two 1/8 inch
boards should be placed between plates.
The 1/8 inch boards are actually more than 1/8 inch thick, and will give the
proper spacing. For thin plates, use 1/4 inch boards. Do not push the plate
press boards more than 1/8 inch above the tops of the plates, and be sure that
the boards cover the entire plates. Put a board on the outside of each end
plate of the group. In this way insert the plate press boards in each of the
three negative groups.
Then place each negative group on the lower jaw of the plate press with the
post of each group pointing toward you. Three groups may be pressed at one
time. Bring the top edges of the transite boards flush with the front edge of
one group, remove the separators, and put one group in each end of box to
keep clean. Separate another group, And nest the plates, Fig. 219, the
negative with the negative, and positive with positive. Separate the third
element and put groups in the boxes. Pour the old electrolyte out of the jars,
and wash out the jars as described on page 360. You now have the plates in
the best possible shape for handling. Take the boxes containing the plates to
the sink. Have the plate press and the plate press boards ready for use.
If, for any reason, you are called away from your work at this point to be
gone for five minutes, do not leave the fully charged negatives exposed to
the air, as they will become very hot. Cover them with water. A one-gallon
stone or earthenware jar will hold the negative plates of a 100 ampere hour
battery if you nest two of the groups. You may also put negatives back in jars
from which they were taken, and fill with water.
Now hold a negative group under the faucet, and let a strong stream of water
run down over each plate so as to wash it thoroughly, and to remove any
foreign matter from the plate surfaces. All negative groups must be handled
in exactly the same way so as to get the same results in each case.
After you have washed the first group, place it on edge on a clean board with
the post down and pointing away from you, and the bottom of the group
toward you. Now insert plate press boards which are slightly larger than the
plates, and of the exact thickness required to fill the spaces between plates,
Fig. 113. For the standard 1/8 inch plates, a 5-16 inch board, or two 1/8 inch
boards should be placed between plates.
The 1/8 inch boards are actually more than 1/8 inch thick, and will give the
proper spacing. For thin plates, use 1/4 inch boards. Do not push the plate
press boards more than 1/8 inch above the tops of the plates, and be sure that
the boards cover the entire plates. Put a board on the outside of each end
plate of the group. In this way insert the plate press boards in each of the
three negative groups.
Then place each negative group on the lower jaw of the plate press with the
post of each group pointing toward you. Three groups may be pressed at one
time. Bring the top edges of the transite boards flush with the front edge of
Page 437
the lower jaw of the press, so that no pressure will be applied to the plate
lugs. See Fig. 114. Pressure applied to the plate lugs will break them off.
Now screw down the upper jaw of the press as tightly as you can with the
handwheel, so as to put as much pressure on the plates as possible. Leave the
plates in the press for about five minutes. Then remove them from the press,
take out the boards, and replace the plates in the battery jar from which they
were removed, and cover with water. They may also be placed in a stone or
earthernware jar and covered with water, especially if there is any work to be
done on the jars or case of the battery. If the spongy lead of the negatives is
firm, they may be reassembled in the battery as soon as they have been
pressed. If, however, the spongy lead is soft and mushy, keep the negatives
covered with water for 12 to 24 hours. This will make them hard and firm.
Then remove them from the water and dry them in the air. In drying, the
plates will become heated and will steam. As soon as you notice any
steaming, dip the plates in water until they are cool. Then remove them from
the water and continue the drying process. Each time the negatives begin to
steam as they dry in the air, dip them in the water until they are cool.
When the negatives are dry, they are ready to be reassembled in the battery
and prepared for service. Negatives treated in this way will give good
service for a much longer time than they would if not treated in this way.
The spongy lead has been made firm and elastic. If you have other negatives
in your shop which are not in use, treat them in the same way and put them
away for future use, to use as rental batteries. Always put them through the
same process:
1. Charge them fully.
2. Press them in the plate press to force the spongy lead back into the grids.
3. Soak them in water, if the spongy lead is soft and mushy, for 12 to 24
hours, or even longer until the spongy lead is firm. Dry them in the air,
dipping them in water whenever they begin to steam and become heated.
This will give you negatives that will give excellent service and have a long
life. Many negatives treated in this way will be good for fifteen months to
two years of additional service. The rental batteries should be assembled in
the same way as those you are rebuilding for the owners.
lugs. See Fig. 114. Pressure applied to the plate lugs will break them off.
Now screw down the upper jaw of the press as tightly as you can with the
handwheel, so as to put as much pressure on the plates as possible. Leave the
plates in the press for about five minutes. Then remove them from the press,
take out the boards, and replace the plates in the battery jar from which they
were removed, and cover with water. They may also be placed in a stone or
earthernware jar and covered with water, especially if there is any work to be
done on the jars or case of the battery. If the spongy lead of the negatives is
firm, they may be reassembled in the battery as soon as they have been
pressed. If, however, the spongy lead is soft and mushy, keep the negatives
covered with water for 12 to 24 hours. This will make them hard and firm.
Then remove them from the water and dry them in the air. In drying, the
plates will become heated and will steam. As soon as you notice any
steaming, dip the plates in water until they are cool. Then remove them from
the water and continue the drying process. Each time the negatives begin to
steam as they dry in the air, dip them in the water until they are cool.
When the negatives are dry, they are ready to be reassembled in the battery
and prepared for service. Negatives treated in this way will give good
service for a much longer time than they would if not treated in this way.
The spongy lead has been made firm and elastic. If you have other negatives
in your shop which are not in use, treat them in the same way and put them
away for future use, to use as rental batteries. Always put them through the
same process:
1. Charge them fully.
2. Press them in the plate press to force the spongy lead back into the grids.
3. Soak them in water, if the spongy lead is soft and mushy, for 12 to 24
hours, or even longer until the spongy lead is firm. Dry them in the air,
dipping them in water whenever they begin to steam and become heated.
This will give you negatives that will give excellent service and have a long
life. Many negatives treated in this way will be good for fifteen months to
two years of additional service. The rental batteries should be assembled in
the same way as those you are rebuilding for the owners.
Page 438
The importance of pressing negatives cannot be exaggerated. Always press
the negatives of the batteries which you rebuild. Do not do it to half, or
three-fourths of the negatives, but to all of them. The work takes but a few
minutes, and the time could not be put to better advantage. The spongy lead
of the negatives swells and bulges out and makes very poor contact with the
grids as a battery becomes discharged. This results in a loss of capacity,
gradual sulphation of the loose active material, corrosion of the grids, failure
of the gravity to rise high enough on charge, overheating of the battery on
charge, gassing before the sulphate is reduced to active material with
breaking off and roughening of the active material, and makes the battery
lazy and sluggish in action. The spongy lead must make good contact with
the grids if the battery is to have a long life and give good service.
No amount of charging will cure a negative with bulged, swollen active
material. Once this material becomes bulged nothing but pressing will put it
back where it belongs, and until it is pressed back into the grids the plates
are in a poor condition for service. Even if the bulging is but very slight, the
plates must be pressed.
Washing Positives
If you intend to use some of the positives, they should now be washed. If
you intend to use all new positives, throw away the old ones, of course. The
positives should not be held under the faucet as the negatives were, because
the stream of water will wash out much of the positive active material. Rinse
the positives a number of times in a jar of clean water by moving them up
and down in the water. This will remove impurities from the surfaces of the
plates and wash off any foreign or loose materials. After rinsing each
positive group, replace it in the box.
Never attempt to straighten badly buckled positives, as the bending cannot
be done successfully, and the active material will not have good contact with
the grids. Positives cannot be pressed as negatives can, because the positive
active material lacks the elasticity and toughness of the negative spongy
lead. Slightly buckled positives may sometimes be straightened by bending
them lightly all around the edges with a pair of thin, wide nosed pliers. This
should be done very carefully, however, and the straightening done
gradually. If the plates cannot be straightened in this way and the separators
the negatives of the batteries which you rebuild. Do not do it to half, or
three-fourths of the negatives, but to all of them. The work takes but a few
minutes, and the time could not be put to better advantage. The spongy lead
of the negatives swells and bulges out and makes very poor contact with the
grids as a battery becomes discharged. This results in a loss of capacity,
gradual sulphation of the loose active material, corrosion of the grids, failure
of the gravity to rise high enough on charge, overheating of the battery on
charge, gassing before the sulphate is reduced to active material with
breaking off and roughening of the active material, and makes the battery
lazy and sluggish in action. The spongy lead must make good contact with
the grids if the battery is to have a long life and give good service.
No amount of charging will cure a negative with bulged, swollen active
material. Once this material becomes bulged nothing but pressing will put it
back where it belongs, and until it is pressed back into the grids the plates
are in a poor condition for service. Even if the bulging is but very slight, the
plates must be pressed.
Washing Positives
If you intend to use some of the positives, they should now be washed. If
you intend to use all new positives, throw away the old ones, of course. The
positives should not be held under the faucet as the negatives were, because
the stream of water will wash out much of the positive active material. Rinse
the positives a number of times in a jar of clean water by moving them up
and down in the water. This will remove impurities from the surfaces of the
plates and wash off any foreign or loose materials. After rinsing each
positive group, replace it in the box.
Never attempt to straighten badly buckled positives, as the bending cannot
be done successfully, and the active material will not have good contact with
the grids. Positives cannot be pressed as negatives can, because the positive
active material lacks the elasticity and toughness of the negative spongy
lead. Slightly buckled positives may sometimes be straightened by bending
them lightly all around the edges with a pair of thin, wide nosed pliers. This
should be done very carefully, however, and the straightening done
gradually. If the plates cannot be straightened in this way and the separators
Page 439
do not lie perfectly flat against them without pinching at the corners, the
plates should be discarded, and new ones used in their place.
This is all the work to be done on the old plates, and those which are to be
used again are ready to be reassembled in the battery. The process of treating
the plates should be followed in every battery that you rebuild, and the same
steps should always be taken, and in the same order. With one Standard
method of rebuilding batteries you will do uniformly good work and satisfy
all your customers. The essential thing for the success of your battery
business is to learn the Standard method and use it. Do not rush a battery
through your shop, and leave out some of the steps of the process, even
though the owner may be in a hurry. If you have a good stock of rental
batteries you can put one on his car and keep it there until you have done as
good a job of rebuilding on his battery as you possibly can. Remember that
the Standard method which has been described has not simply been figured
out as being a good method. This method has been worked out in the actual
rebuilding of thousands and thousands of batteries of all makes and in all
conditions, and has produced batteries full of life and power, ready to give
one to two years more of good, reliable service.
Burning on Plates
When you put new plates into a battery, or find some of the plates broken
from the connecting strap, it will be necessary to burn the plates to the strap.
Frequently you will find plates which are otherwise in a good condition
broken from the connecting straps. This is most likely to happen when the
plates have been cast on to the connecting strap instead of being burned on.
These plates must be burned on.
New plates are frequently necessary. From pages 339 to 346 you see that
new plates are required under the following conditions:
(a) Positives. Ruined by freezing; weak and brittle from age, large part of
active material shed; badly buckled; rotten and disintegrated by impurities;
reversed. Positives in a reasonably good mechanical condition can be
restored to a good electrical condition by charging.
plates should be discarded, and new ones used in their place.
This is all the work to be done on the old plates, and those which are to be
used again are ready to be reassembled in the battery. The process of treating
the plates should be followed in every battery that you rebuild, and the same
steps should always be taken, and in the same order. With one Standard
method of rebuilding batteries you will do uniformly good work and satisfy
all your customers. The essential thing for the success of your battery
business is to learn the Standard method and use it. Do not rush a battery
through your shop, and leave out some of the steps of the process, even
though the owner may be in a hurry. If you have a good stock of rental
batteries you can put one on his car and keep it there until you have done as
good a job of rebuilding on his battery as you possibly can. Remember that
the Standard method which has been described has not simply been figured
out as being a good method. This method has been worked out in the actual
rebuilding of thousands and thousands of batteries of all makes and in all
conditions, and has produced batteries full of life and power, ready to give
one to two years more of good, reliable service.
Burning on Plates
When you put new plates into a battery, or find some of the plates broken
from the connecting strap, it will be necessary to burn the plates to the strap.
Frequently you will find plates which are otherwise in a good condition
broken from the connecting straps. This is most likely to happen when the
plates have been cast on to the connecting strap instead of being burned on.
These plates must be burned on.
New plates are frequently necessary. From pages 339 to 346 you see that
new plates are required under the following conditions:
(a) Positives. Ruined by freezing; weak and brittle from age, large part of
active material shed; badly buckled; rotten and disintegrated by impurities;
reversed. Positives in a reasonably good mechanical condition can be
restored to a good electrical condition by charging.
Page 440
(b) Negatives. Active material granulated, bulged and disintegrated; charged
while dry; positives disintegrated by impurities; ruined by overcharging;
badly sulphated because allowed to stand idle, or used while discharged;
much active material lost, and that which is left soft and mushy; negatives
reversed by charging battery backwards.
When making plate renewals, never install plates of different design in the
same group. Always use plates of the type intended for the battery. The
battery should first be fully charged, as already explained. If all the plates in
a group are to be discarded, clamp the post in a vise, being careful not to
crack the hard rubber shell if one is on it, or to damage the threads on Posts
such as the Exide or to draw up the vise so tightly as to crush the post. Then
saw off all the old plates with a new coarse toothed hacksaw, a sharp key
hole saw, or any good saw which has a wide set, close to the post. This
separates the entire group of plates from the post in one short operation. This
method is much better than the one of sawing the plates off below the
connecting strap, and sawing or punching the old plate ends out of the strap.
See page 217 for instructions for welding plates to the straps.
Work on the Jars
The work on the jars consists of removing any sediment which may have
collected, washing out all dirt, and replacing leaky jars. The removal of
sediment and washing should be done after the preliminary charge has been
given and the old electrolyte poured out unless the preliminary charge was
given with distilled water in the jars. The old electrolyte need not be poured
down the sewer, but may be kept in stone or earthenware jars and used later
in making electrical tests to locate leaky jars.
Testing Jars
Remove all sealing compound from the jar by means of a hot putty knife,
finishing by wiping with a gasoline soaked rag. Inspect each jar carefully
under a strong light for cracks and leaks. If you know which jar is leaky by
having filled each cell with water up to the correct level, when you made the
first examination of the battery, and then having it allowed to stand over
night to see if the electrolyte in any cell has dropped below the tops of the
while dry; positives disintegrated by impurities; ruined by overcharging;
badly sulphated because allowed to stand idle, or used while discharged;
much active material lost, and that which is left soft and mushy; negatives
reversed by charging battery backwards.
When making plate renewals, never install plates of different design in the
same group. Always use plates of the type intended for the battery. The
battery should first be fully charged, as already explained. If all the plates in
a group are to be discarded, clamp the post in a vise, being careful not to
crack the hard rubber shell if one is on it, or to damage the threads on Posts
such as the Exide or to draw up the vise so tightly as to crush the post. Then
saw off all the old plates with a new coarse toothed hacksaw, a sharp key
hole saw, or any good saw which has a wide set, close to the post. This
separates the entire group of plates from the post in one short operation. This
method is much better than the one of sawing the plates off below the
connecting strap, and sawing or punching the old plate ends out of the strap.
See page 217 for instructions for welding plates to the straps.
Work on the Jars
The work on the jars consists of removing any sediment which may have
collected, washing out all dirt, and replacing leaky jars. The removal of
sediment and washing should be done after the preliminary charge has been
given and the old electrolyte poured out unless the preliminary charge was
given with distilled water in the jars. The old electrolyte need not be poured
down the sewer, but may be kept in stone or earthenware jars and used later
in making electrical tests to locate leaky jars.
Testing Jars
Remove all sealing compound from the jar by means of a hot putty knife,
finishing by wiping with a gasoline soaked rag. Inspect each jar carefully
under a strong light for cracks and leaks. If you know which jar is leaky by
having filled each cell with water up to the correct level, when you made the
first examination of the battery, and then having it allowed to stand over
night to see if the electrolyte in any cell has dropped below the tops of the
Page 441
plates, no tests are necessary, but if you are in doubt as to which jar, if any, is
leaky, you must make tests to determine which jar is leaky. If you know that
there is no leaky jar, because of the bottom of the case not being acid eaten
and rotted, it is, of course, not necessary to test the jars.
One test consists in filling the jar within about an inch of the top with old or
weak electrolyte, partly immersing the jar in a tank which also contains
electrolyte, and applying a voltage of 110 or 220 between the electrolyte in
the jar and the electrolyte in the tank in which the jar is partly immersed. If
current Vows, this indicates that the jar is leaky.
Fig. 220 shows the principle of the test. A suitable box, — an old battery
case will do — is lined with sheet lead, and the lead lining is connected to
either side of the 110 or 220 volt line. The box is then partly filled with weak
electrolyte. The jar to be tested is filled to within about one inch of the top
with weak electrolyte. The jar is immersed to within about an inch of its top
in the box. The top part of the jar must be perfectly dry when the test is
made, or else the current will go through any electrolyte which may be
wetting the walls of the jar. A lead strip or rod, which is connected to the
other side of the 110 or 220 volt line, through a lamp as shown, is inserted in
the jar. If there is, a leak in the jar, the lamp will burn, and the jar must be
discarded. If the lamp does not light, the jar does not leak.
leaky, you must make tests to determine which jar is leaky. If you know that
there is no leaky jar, because of the bottom of the case not being acid eaten
and rotted, it is, of course, not necessary to test the jars.
One test consists in filling the jar within about an inch of the top with old or
weak electrolyte, partly immersing the jar in a tank which also contains
electrolyte, and applying a voltage of 110 or 220 between the electrolyte in
the jar and the electrolyte in the tank in which the jar is partly immersed. If
current Vows, this indicates that the jar is leaky.
Fig. 220 shows the principle of the test. A suitable box, — an old battery
case will do — is lined with sheet lead, and the lead lining is connected to
either side of the 110 or 220 volt line. The box is then partly filled with weak
electrolyte. The jar to be tested is filled to within about one inch of the top
with weak electrolyte. The jar is immersed to within about an inch of its top
in the box. The top part of the jar must be perfectly dry when the test is
made, or else the current will go through any electrolyte which may be
wetting the walls of the jar. A lead strip or rod, which is connected to the
other side of the 110 or 220 volt line, through a lamp as shown, is inserted in
the jar. If there is, a leak in the jar, the lamp will burn, and the jar must be
discarded. If the lamp does not light, the jar does not leak.
Page 442
Instead of using a lead lined box, a stone or earthenware jar may be used. A
sheet of lead should be placed in this jar, being bent into a circular shape to
fit the inside of the jar, and connected to one side of the line. The lead rod or
sheet which is inserted in the jar may be mounted on a handle for
convenience in making the test. The details of the testing outfit may, of
course, be varied according to what material is available for use. The lamps
should be suitably mounted on the wall above the tester.
This test may be made by using a voltmeter instead of lamps, as shown in
Fig. 221. If a voltmeter is used, be especially careful to have the part
projecting above the liquid perfectly dry. A leaky cell will be indicated by a
reading on the meter equal to the line voltage.
sheet of lead should be placed in this jar, being bent into a circular shape to
fit the inside of the jar, and connected to one side of the line. The lead rod or
sheet which is inserted in the jar may be mounted on a handle for
convenience in making the test. The details of the testing outfit may, of
course, be varied according to what material is available for use. The lamps
should be suitably mounted on the wall above the tester.
This test may be made by using a voltmeter instead of lamps, as shown in
Fig. 221. If a voltmeter is used, be especially careful to have the part
projecting above the liquid perfectly dry. A leaky cell will be indicated by a
reading on the meter equal to the line voltage.
Page 443
A third method uses a Ford ignition coil, as shown in Fig. 222. A leak will be
indicated by a spark, or by the vibrator making more noise than it ordinarily
does. Instead of using the Ford coil, as shown in Fig. 222, the test may be
made as shown in Fig. 223. Fill the jar to within an inch of the top with
electrolyte and immerse one of the high tension wires in the electrolyte.
Attach the other high tension wire to a wire brush, comb, or rod having a
wooden handle and rub it over the outside of the jar. A leak is shown by a
spark jumping to the jar.
indicated by a spark, or by the vibrator making more noise than it ordinarily
does. Instead of using the Ford coil, as shown in Fig. 222, the test may be
made as shown in Fig. 223. Fill the jar to within an inch of the top with
electrolyte and immerse one of the high tension wires in the electrolyte.
Attach the other high tension wire to a wire brush, comb, or rod having a
wooden handle and rub it over the outside of the jar. A leak is shown by a
spark jumping to the jar.
Page 444
The test may also be made without removing the jar. If the lead lined box be
made two feet long, the entire battery may be set in the box so that the
electrolyte in the box comes within an inch of the top of the battery case. Fill
each jar with weak electrolyte and make the test as before. If this is done,
however, remove the battery immediately after making the test and wipe the
case dry with a cloth. To make the test in this way the case must be
considerably acid eaten in order to have a circuit through it to the jar.
Removing Defective Jars
The method of removing the jars from the case depends on the battery. In
some batteries the jars are set in sealing compound. To remove a jar from
such a battery, put the steam hose from your steamer outfit into the jar, cover
up the top of the jar with rags, and steam the jar for about five minutes.
Another way is to fill the jar with boiling hot water and let it stand for fully
five minutes. Either of these methods will soften the sealing compound
made two feet long, the entire battery may be set in the box so that the
electrolyte in the box comes within an inch of the top of the battery case. Fill
each jar with weak electrolyte and make the test as before. If this is done,
however, remove the battery immediately after making the test and wipe the
case dry with a cloth. To make the test in this way the case must be
considerably acid eaten in order to have a circuit through it to the jar.
Removing Defective Jars
The method of removing the jars from the case depends on the battery. In
some batteries the jars are set in sealing compound. To remove a jar from
such a battery, put the steam hose from your steamer outfit into the jar, cover
up the top of the jar with rags, and steam the jar for about five minutes.
Another way is to fill the jar with boiling hot water and let it stand for fully
five minutes. Either of these methods will soften the sealing compound
Page 445
around the jar so that the jar may be pulled out. To remove the jar, grasp two
sides of the jar with two pairs of long, flat nosed pliers and pull straight up
with an even, steady pull. Have the new jar at hand and push it into the place
of the old one as soon as the latter is removed. The new jar should first be
steamed to soften it somewhat. Press down steadily on the new jar until its
top is flush with the tops of the other jars.
Some batteries do not use sealing compound around the jars, but simply use
thin wooden wedges to hold the jars in place, or have bolts running through
opposite faces of the case by means of which the sides are pressed against
the jars to hold them in place. The jars of such batteries may be removed
without heating, by removing the wedges or loosening the bolts, as the case
may be, and lifting out the jars with pliers, as before. New jars should be
steamed for several minutes before being put in the case. When you put jars
into such batteries, do not apply too much pressure to them, as they may be
cracked by the pressure, or the jar may be squeezed out of shape, and the
assembling process made difficult.
Repairing the Case
The case may be repaired with
all the jars in place, or it may be
necessary to remove the jars. If
the case is to be junked and the
jars used again, the case may
simply be broken off, especially
if there is much sealing
compound around the jars.
Empty the old acid from the
jars, take the case to the sink
and wash out all the sediment,
Fig. 224. With the pipe shown in
Fig. '14, you have both hands
free to hold the case, as the
water is controlled by' a foot
operated spring cock.
sides of the jar with two pairs of long, flat nosed pliers and pull straight up
with an even, steady pull. Have the new jar at hand and push it into the place
of the old one as soon as the latter is removed. The new jar should first be
steamed to soften it somewhat. Press down steadily on the new jar until its
top is flush with the tops of the other jars.
Some batteries do not use sealing compound around the jars, but simply use
thin wooden wedges to hold the jars in place, or have bolts running through
opposite faces of the case by means of which the sides are pressed against
the jars to hold them in place. The jars of such batteries may be removed
without heating, by removing the wedges or loosening the bolts, as the case
may be, and lifting out the jars with pliers, as before. New jars should be
steamed for several minutes before being put in the case. When you put jars
into such batteries, do not apply too much pressure to them, as they may be
cracked by the pressure, or the jar may be squeezed out of shape, and the
assembling process made difficult.
Repairing the Case
The case may be repaired with
all the jars in place, or it may be
necessary to remove the jars. If
the case is to be junked and the
jars used again, the case may
simply be broken off, especially
if there is much sealing
compound around the jars.
Empty the old acid from the
jars, take the case to the sink
and wash out all the sediment,
Fig. 224. With the pipe shown in
Fig. '14, you have both hands
free to hold the case, as the
water is controlled by' a foot
operated spring cock.
Page 446
If the case is rotten at top, patch it with good wood. If the top and bottom are
so rotten that considerable time will be required to repair it, advise the owner
to buy a new case. Sometimes the top of the case can be greatly improved by
straightening the side edges with a small smoothing plane, and sometimes a
1/2 inch strip or more fitted all along the edge is necessary for a good job.
Handles that have been pulled, rotted, or corroded off make disagreeable
repair jobs, but a satisfactory job can be done unless the end of the case has
been pulled off or rotted. Sometimes the handle will hold in place until the
battery is worn out by old age if three or four extra holes are bored and
countersunk in the handle where the wood is solid, and common wood
screws, size 12, 1/2 or 5/8 inch long used to fasten the handle in place.
Sometimes it will be necessary to put in one half of a new end, the handle
being fastened to the new piece with brass bolts and nuts before it is put into
place. Sometimes you can do a good job by using a plate of sheet iron 1-16
inch thick, and 4 inches wide, and as long as the end of the case is wide.
Rivet the handle to this plate with stovepipe, or copper rivets, and then
fasten the plate to the case with No. 12 wood screws, 1/2 inch long.
If the old case is good enough to use again, soak it for several hours in a
solution of baking soda in water to neutralize any acid which may have been
spilled on it, or which may be spilled on it later. After soaking the case, rinse
it in water, and allow it to dry thoroughly. Then paint the case carefully with
asphaltum paint.
REASSEMBLING THE BATTERY
Reassembling the Elements
Take a negative group and put it on edge on a board, with post away from
you, and lower edge toward you. Mesh a positive in the negative group. The
groups are now ready for the separators. Take six moist separators from your
stock. Slip one into position from the bottom in the middle of the group,
with the grooved side toward the positive plate, spreading the plates slightly
if necessary. Take another separator, slip it into position on the opposite side
of the positive against which your first separator was placed. In this way, put
in the six separators, with the grooved side toward the positives, working
outward in both directions from the center, Fig. 225. The grooves must, of
so rotten that considerable time will be required to repair it, advise the owner
to buy a new case. Sometimes the top of the case can be greatly improved by
straightening the side edges with a small smoothing plane, and sometimes a
1/2 inch strip or more fitted all along the edge is necessary for a good job.
Handles that have been pulled, rotted, or corroded off make disagreeable
repair jobs, but a satisfactory job can be done unless the end of the case has
been pulled off or rotted. Sometimes the handle will hold in place until the
battery is worn out by old age if three or four extra holes are bored and
countersunk in the handle where the wood is solid, and common wood
screws, size 12, 1/2 or 5/8 inch long used to fasten the handle in place.
Sometimes it will be necessary to put in one half of a new end, the handle
being fastened to the new piece with brass bolts and nuts before it is put into
place. Sometimes you can do a good job by using a plate of sheet iron 1-16
inch thick, and 4 inches wide, and as long as the end of the case is wide.
Rivet the handle to this plate with stovepipe, or copper rivets, and then
fasten the plate to the case with No. 12 wood screws, 1/2 inch long.
If the old case is good enough to use again, soak it for several hours in a
solution of baking soda in water to neutralize any acid which may have been
spilled on it, or which may be spilled on it later. After soaking the case, rinse
it in water, and allow it to dry thoroughly. Then paint the case carefully with
asphaltum paint.
REASSEMBLING THE BATTERY
Reassembling the Elements
Take a negative group and put it on edge on a board, with post away from
you, and lower edge toward you. Mesh a positive in the negative group. The
groups are now ready for the separators. Take six moist separators from your
stock. Slip one into position from the bottom in the middle of the group,
with the grooved side toward the positive plate, spreading the plates slightly
if necessary. Take another separator, slip it into position on the opposite side
of the positive against which your first separator was placed. In this way, put
in the six separators, with the grooved side toward the positives, working
outward in both directions from the center, Fig. 225. The grooves must, of
Page 447
course, extend from the top to the bottom of the plate. Now grasp the
element in both hands, and set it right side up on the block, giving it a slight
jar to bring the bottoms of the plates and separators on a level.
Now grasp the element in both hands, and set it right side up on the block,
giving it a slight jar to bring the bottoms of the plates and separators on a
level.
Next take a cover, and try it on the posts, Fig. 226. Pull the groups apart
slightly, if necessary, before inserting any more separators, so that the cover
fits exactly over the posts, Fig. 227. See that the separators extend the same
distance beyond each side of the plates. You may take a stick, about 10
inches long, 1 1/2 inches wide, and 7/8 inch thick, and tap the separators
gently to even them up. A small wood plane may be used to even up the side
edges of wood separators. If you put in too many separators before trying on
the cover, the plates may become so tight that you may not be able to shift
them to make the cover fit the posts or you may not be able to shift the
separators to their proper positions. It is therefore best to Put in only enough
separators to hold the groups together and so they can be handled and yet
element in both hands, and set it right side up on the block, giving it a slight
jar to bring the bottoms of the plates and separators on a level.
Now grasp the element in both hands, and set it right side up on the block,
giving it a slight jar to bring the bottoms of the plates and separators on a
level.
Next take a cover, and try it on the posts, Fig. 226. Pull the groups apart
slightly, if necessary, before inserting any more separators, so that the cover
fits exactly over the posts, Fig. 227. See that the separators extend the same
distance beyond each side of the plates. You may take a stick, about 10
inches long, 1 1/2 inches wide, and 7/8 inch thick, and tap the separators
gently to even them up. A small wood plane may be used to even up the side
edges of wood separators. If you put in too many separators before trying on
the cover, the plates may become so tight that you may not be able to shift
them to make the cover fit the posts or you may not be able to shift the
separators to their proper positions. It is therefore best to Put in only enough
separators to hold the groups together and so they can be handled and yet
Page 448
remain in their proper position when set up on the block. Without separators,
the posts will not remain in position.
With the element reassembled, and the remaining separators in their proper
positions, see that all the plates are level on bottom, and no foreign matter
sticking to them. Place the element in box shown in Fig. 219 to keep clean.
the posts will not remain in position.
With the element reassembled, and the remaining separators in their proper
positions, see that all the plates are level on bottom, and no foreign matter
sticking to them. Place the element in box shown in Fig. 219 to keep clean.
Page 449
Reassemble the other elements in exactly the same way, and put them in the
box. The elements are now ready to be put in the jars.
Putting Elements in Jars
Steam the jars in the steamer for about five minutes to soften them
somewhat, so that there will be no danger of breaking a jar when you put in
the elements.
With the case ready, look for the "+", "P" or "POS" mark on it. (Cases which
are not marked in this way at the factory should be marked by the repairman
before the battery is opened.) Place the case so that this mark is toward you.
Grip an element near the bottom in order to prevent the plates from
spreading, and put it in the jar nearest the mark, with the positive post
toward you, next to the mark. Put an element in the next jar so that the
negative post is toward you. Put an element in the third jar so that the
positive post is toward you, and so on. The elements are correctly placed
when each connecting strap connects a positive to a negative post. If the case
has no mark on it, reassemble exactly according to the diagram you made on
the tag before you opened the battery. Set the jars so that the posts are
exactly in line so that the cell connectors will fit.
box. The elements are now ready to be put in the jars.
Putting Elements in Jars
Steam the jars in the steamer for about five minutes to soften them
somewhat, so that there will be no danger of breaking a jar when you put in
the elements.
With the case ready, look for the "+", "P" or "POS" mark on it. (Cases which
are not marked in this way at the factory should be marked by the repairman
before the battery is opened.) Place the case so that this mark is toward you.
Grip an element near the bottom in order to prevent the plates from
spreading, and put it in the jar nearest the mark, with the positive post
toward you, next to the mark. Put an element in the next jar so that the
negative post is toward you. Put an element in the third jar so that the
positive post is toward you, and so on. The elements are correctly placed
when each connecting strap connects a positive to a negative post. If the case
has no mark on it, reassemble exactly according to the diagram you made on
the tag before you opened the battery. Set the jars so that the posts are
exactly in line so that the cell connectors will fit.
Page 450
If an element fits loosely in the jar, it must be tightened. The best way to do
this is to put one or more separators on one or both sides of the elements
before putting it in the jar, Fig. 228. If you leave the elements loose in the
jars, the jolting of the car will soon crack the sealing compound, and you
will have a "slopper" on your hands.
If element fits very tight, be sure that the corners of the plate straps have
been rounded off and trimmed flush with outside negatives. Be sure also that
there is no compound sticking to the inside of jars. Take care not to break the
jar by forcing in a tight fitting element when the jar is cold and stiff.
Filling Jars with Electrolyte or Putting on the Covers
With all the elements in place in the jars, one of two things may be. done.
First, the jars may be filled with electrolyte and the covers then sealed on, or
the covers may first be sealed on and the jars then filled with electrolyte.
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. If the jars are first filled
with electrolyte, acid may be splashed on the tipper parts of the jars and
sealing made very difficult.
On the other hand, if the electrolyte is first poured in, the charged negatives
will not become hot, and sealing compound which runs into the jar will be
chilled as soon as it strikes the electrolyte and will float on top and do no
harm. If the covers are sealed before any electrolyte is added, it will be
easier to do a good sealing job, but the negatives will heat up. Furthermore,
any sealing compound which runs into the jar will run down between the
plates and reduce the plate area.
If care is taken to thoroughly dry the upper parts of the jars, add the
electrolyte before sealing on the covers.
Use 1.400 Acid
If you have followed the directions carefully, and have therefore freed all the
shorts, have thoroughly charged the plates, have washed and pressed the
negative groups, have washed the positives, have then added any new plates
which were needed, and have put in new separators, use 1.400 specific
gravity electrolyte. This is necessary because washing the plates removed
this is to put one or more separators on one or both sides of the elements
before putting it in the jar, Fig. 228. If you leave the elements loose in the
jars, the jolting of the car will soon crack the sealing compound, and you
will have a "slopper" on your hands.
If element fits very tight, be sure that the corners of the plate straps have
been rounded off and trimmed flush with outside negatives. Be sure also that
there is no compound sticking to the inside of jars. Take care not to break the
jar by forcing in a tight fitting element when the jar is cold and stiff.
Filling Jars with Electrolyte or Putting on the Covers
With all the elements in place in the jars, one of two things may be. done.
First, the jars may be filled with electrolyte and the covers then sealed on, or
the covers may first be sealed on and the jars then filled with electrolyte.
Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. If the jars are first filled
with electrolyte, acid may be splashed on the tipper parts of the jars and
sealing made very difficult.
On the other hand, if the electrolyte is first poured in, the charged negatives
will not become hot, and sealing compound which runs into the jar will be
chilled as soon as it strikes the electrolyte and will float on top and do no
harm. If the covers are sealed before any electrolyte is added, it will be
easier to do a good sealing job, but the negatives will heat up. Furthermore,
any sealing compound which runs into the jar will run down between the
plates and reduce the plate area.
If care is taken to thoroughly dry the upper parts of the jars, add the
electrolyte before sealing on the covers.
Use 1.400 Acid
If you have followed the directions carefully, and have therefore freed all the
shorts, have thoroughly charged the plates, have washed and pressed the
negative groups, have washed the positives, have then added any new plates
which were needed, and have put in new separators, use 1.400 specific
gravity electrolyte. This is necessary because washing the plates removed
Page 451
some of the acid, and the new separators will absorb enough acid so that the
specific gravity after charging will be about 1.280.
The final specific gravity must be between 1.280 and 1.300. In measuring
the specific gravity the temperature must be about 70°F., or else corrections
must be made. For every three degrees above 70°, add one point (.001) to the
reading you obtain on the hydrometer. For every three degrees under 70°,
subtract one point (.001) from the reading you obtain on the hydrometer. For
instance, if you read a specific gravity of 1.275 and find that the temperature
of the electrolyte is 82°F., add ((82-70)/3 = 4)
four points (1.275 + .004), which gives 1.279, which is what the specific
gravity of the electrolyte would be if its temperature were lowered to 70°.
The reason this is done is that when Ave speak of an electrolyte of a certain
specific gravity, say 1.280, we mean that this is its specific gravity when its
temperature is 70°F. We must therefore make the temperature correction if
the temperature of the electrolyte is much higher or lower than 70°F.
Putting on The Covers
This operation is a particular one, and must be done properly, or you will
come to grief. Get the box containing the covers and connectors for the
battery you are working on; take the covers, and clean them thoroughly.
There are several ways to clean them. If you have gasoline at hand, dip a
brush in it and scrub off the compound. The covers may also be cleaned off
with boiling water, but even after you have used the hot water, it will be
necessary to wipe off the covers with gasoline. Another way to soften any
compound which may be sticking to them, is to put the covers in the Battery
Steamer and steam them for about ten minutes. This will also heat the covers
and make them limp so that they may be handled without breaking.
If the covers fit snugly all around the inside of the jars so that there is no
crack which will allow the compound to run down on the elements, all is
well and good. If, however, there are cracks large enough to put a small, thin
putty knife in, you must close them. If the cracks are due to the tops of the
specific gravity after charging will be about 1.280.
The final specific gravity must be between 1.280 and 1.300. In measuring
the specific gravity the temperature must be about 70°F., or else corrections
must be made. For every three degrees above 70°, add one point (.001) to the
reading you obtain on the hydrometer. For every three degrees under 70°,
subtract one point (.001) from the reading you obtain on the hydrometer. For
instance, if you read a specific gravity of 1.275 and find that the temperature
of the electrolyte is 82°F., add ((82-70)/3 = 4)
four points (1.275 + .004), which gives 1.279, which is what the specific
gravity of the electrolyte would be if its temperature were lowered to 70°.
The reason this is done is that when Ave speak of an electrolyte of a certain
specific gravity, say 1.280, we mean that this is its specific gravity when its
temperature is 70°F. We must therefore make the temperature correction if
the temperature of the electrolyte is much higher or lower than 70°F.
Putting on The Covers
This operation is a particular one, and must be done properly, or you will
come to grief. Get the box containing the covers and connectors for the
battery you are working on; take the covers, and clean them thoroughly.
There are several ways to clean them. If you have gasoline at hand, dip a
brush in it and scrub off the compound. The covers may also be cleaned off
with boiling water, but even after you have used the hot water, it will be
necessary to wipe off the covers with gasoline. Another way to soften any
compound which may be sticking to them, is to put the covers in the Battery
Steamer and steam them for about ten minutes. This will also heat the covers
and make them limp so that they may be handled without breaking.
If the covers fit snugly all around the inside of the jars so that there is no
crack which will allow the compound to run down on the elements, all is
well and good. If, however, there are cracks large enough to put a small, thin
putty knife in, you must close them. If the cracks are due to the tops of the
Page 452
jars being bent out of shape, heat the tops with a soft flame until they are
limp, (be careful not to burn them). Now, with short, thin wedges of wood,
(new dry separators generally answer the purpose), crowd down on the
outside edges of the jar, until you have the upper edge of jars straight and
even all around. If the jars are set in compound, take a hot screwdriver and
remove the compound from between the jar and case near the top. If the
cracks between cover and jar still remain, calk them with asbestos packing,
tow, or ordinary wrapping string. Do not use too much packing;--just enough
to close the cracks is sufficient. When this is done, see that the top of the
case is perfectly level, so that when the compound is poured in, it will settle
level all around the upper edge of the case.
Sealing Compounds
There are many grades of compounds (see page 149), and the kind to use
must be determined by the type of battery to be sealed. There is no question
but that a poor grade used as carefully as possible will soon crack and
produce a slopper. A battery carelessly sealed with the best compound is no
better.
The three imperative conditions for a permanent lasting job are:
1. Use the best quality of the proper kind of compound for sealing the
battery on hand.
2. All surfaces that the compound comes in contact with must be free from
acid and absolutely clean and dry.
3. The sealing must be done conscientiously and all details properly attended
to step by step, and all work done in a workmanlike manner.
With respect to sealing, batteries may be divided into two general classes.
First, the old type battery with a considerable amount of sealing compound.
This type of battery generally has a lower and an upper cover, the vent tube
being attached or removable, depending on the design. The compound is
poured on top of the lower cover and around the vent tube, and the top
covers are then put on. Most of the batteries of this type have a thin hard
rubber sleeve shrunk on the post where the compound comes in contact with
limp, (be careful not to burn them). Now, with short, thin wedges of wood,
(new dry separators generally answer the purpose), crowd down on the
outside edges of the jar, until you have the upper edge of jars straight and
even all around. If the jars are set in compound, take a hot screwdriver and
remove the compound from between the jar and case near the top. If the
cracks between cover and jar still remain, calk them with asbestos packing,
tow, or ordinary wrapping string. Do not use too much packing;--just enough
to close the cracks is sufficient. When this is done, see that the top of the
case is perfectly level, so that when the compound is poured in, it will settle
level all around the upper edge of the case.
Sealing Compounds
There are many grades of compounds (see page 149), and the kind to use
must be determined by the type of battery to be sealed. There is no question
but that a poor grade used as carefully as possible will soon crack and
produce a slopper. A battery carelessly sealed with the best compound is no
better.
The three imperative conditions for a permanent lasting job are:
1. Use the best quality of the proper kind of compound for sealing the
battery on hand.
2. All surfaces that the compound comes in contact with must be free from
acid and absolutely clean and dry.
3. The sealing must be done conscientiously and all details properly attended
to step by step, and all work done in a workmanlike manner.
With respect to sealing, batteries may be divided into two general classes.
First, the old type battery with a considerable amount of sealing compound.
This type of battery generally has a lower and an upper cover, the vent tube
being attached or removable, depending on the design. The compound is
poured on top of the lower cover and around the vent tube, and the top
covers are then put on. Most of the batteries of this type have a thin hard
rubber sleeve shrunk on the post where the compound comes in contact with
Page 453
it; this hard rubber sleeve usually has several shallow grooves around it
which increase its holding power. This is good construction, provided
everything else is normal and the work properly done with a good stick-,
compound. There are a few single cover batteries with connecting straps
close to top of covers, and the compound is poured over the top of the straps.
See Fig. 262.
The second general type consists of single one-piece cover batteries that
have small channels or spaces around the covers next to the jars into which
the sealing compound is poured. This type of battery is the most common
type.
Compound in bulk or in thin iron barrels
can be cut into small pieces with a
hatchet or hand ax. To cut off a piece in
hot weather, strike it a quick hard blow
in the same place once or twice, and a
piece will crack off. Directions for
properly beating sealing compound will
be found on page 150.
Sealing Double Cover Batteries
The following instructions apply to
batteries having double covers. These
are more difficult to seal than the single
cover batteries. If you can seal the
double cover batteries well, the single
cover batteries will give you no trouble.
Always start the fire under the
compound before you are ready to use it, and turn the fire lower after it has
melted, so as not to have it too hot at the time of pouring. If you have a
special long nosed pouring ladle, fill it with compound by dipping in the pot,
or by pouring compound from a closed vessel. If you heat the compound in
an iron kettle, pour it directly into pouring ladle, using just about enough for
the first pouring. The compound should not be too hot, as a poor sealing job
battery will result from its use. See page 150.
which increase its holding power. This is good construction, provided
everything else is normal and the work properly done with a good stick-,
compound. There are a few single cover batteries with connecting straps
close to top of covers, and the compound is poured over the top of the straps.
See Fig. 262.
The second general type consists of single one-piece cover batteries that
have small channels or spaces around the covers next to the jars into which
the sealing compound is poured. This type of battery is the most common
type.
Compound in bulk or in thin iron barrels
can be cut into small pieces with a
hatchet or hand ax. To cut off a piece in
hot weather, strike it a quick hard blow
in the same place once or twice, and a
piece will crack off. Directions for
properly beating sealing compound will
be found on page 150.
Sealing Double Cover Batteries
The following instructions apply to
batteries having double covers. These
are more difficult to seal than the single
cover batteries. If you can seal the
double cover batteries well, the single
cover batteries will give you no trouble.
Always start the fire under the
compound before you are ready to use it, and turn the fire lower after it has
melted, so as not to have it too hot at the time of pouring. If you have a
special long nosed pouring ladle, fill it with compound by dipping in the pot,
or by pouring compound from a closed vessel. If you heat the compound in
an iron kettle, pour it directly into pouring ladle, using just about enough for
the first pouring. The compound should not be too hot, as a poor sealing job
battery will result from its use. See page 150.
Page 454
Before sealing, always wipe the surfaces to be sealed with a rag wet with
ammonia or soda solution, rinsed with water, and wiped dry with a rag or
waste. If you fail to do this the compound will not stick well, and a top leak
may develop. Then run a soft lead burning flame over the surfaces to be
sealed, in order to have perfectly dry surfaces. Remember that sealing
compound will not stick to a wet surface.
Pour compound on the lower
covers, as in Fig. 229. Use enough
to fill the case just over the tops of
the jars, Fig. 230. Then pour the
rest of the compound back in
compound vessel or kettle. To
complete the job, and make as
good a job as possible, take a small
hot lead burning flame and run it
around the edges of case, tops of
jars, and around the posts until the
compound runs and makes a good
contact all around. If you have an
electric fan, let it blow on the
ammonia or soda solution, rinsed with water, and wiped dry with a rag or
waste. If you fail to do this the compound will not stick well, and a top leak
may develop. Then run a soft lead burning flame over the surfaces to be
sealed, in order to have perfectly dry surfaces. Remember that sealing
compound will not stick to a wet surface.
Pour compound on the lower
covers, as in Fig. 229. Use enough
to fill the case just over the tops of
the jars, Fig. 230. Then pour the
rest of the compound back in
compound vessel or kettle. To
complete the job, and make as
good a job as possible, take a small
hot lead burning flame and run it
around the edges of case, tops of
jars, and around the posts until the
compound runs and makes a good
contact all around. If you have an
electric fan, let it blow on the
Page 455
compound a few minutes to cool it, as in Fig. 231. Then the compound used
for the second pouring may be hotter and thinner than the first.
Fill the pouring ladle with compound, which is thinner than that used in the
first pouring, and pour within 1/16 inch of the top of the case, being careful
to get in just enough, so that-after it has cooled, the covers will press down
exactly even with the top of the case, Fig. 232. It will require some
experience to do this, but you will soon learn just how much to use.
As soon as you have finished pouring, run the flame all around the edges of
the case and around the post, being very careful not to injure any of the vent
tubes. A small, hot-pointed flame should be used. Now turn on the fan again
to cool the compound.
While the compound is cooling, get the cell connectors and terminal
connectors, put them in a two-quart granite stew pan, just barely cover with
water, and sprinkle a tablespoon of baking soda over them. Set the stew pan
over the fire and bring water to boiling point. Then pour the water on some
spot on a bench or floor where the acid has been spilled. This helps to
neutralize the acid and keep it from injuring the wood or cement. Rinse off
the connectors and wipe them dry with a cloth, or heat them to dry them.
for the second pouring may be hotter and thinner than the first.
Fill the pouring ladle with compound, which is thinner than that used in the
first pouring, and pour within 1/16 inch of the top of the case, being careful
to get in just enough, so that-after it has cooled, the covers will press down
exactly even with the top of the case, Fig. 232. It will require some
experience to do this, but you will soon learn just how much to use.
As soon as you have finished pouring, run the flame all around the edges of
the case and around the post, being very careful not to injure any of the vent
tubes. A small, hot-pointed flame should be used. Now turn on the fan again
to cool the compound.
While the compound is cooling, get the cell connectors and terminal
connectors, put them in a two-quart granite stew pan, just barely cover with
water, and sprinkle a tablespoon of baking soda over them. Set the stew pan
over the fire and bring water to boiling point. Then pour the water on some
spot on a bench or floor where the acid has been spilled. This helps to
neutralize the acid and keep it from injuring the wood or cement. Rinse off
the connectors and wipe them dry with a cloth, or heat them to dry them.
Page 456
Now take the top covers, which must be absolutely clean and dry, and spread
a thin coat of vaseline over the top only, wiping off any vaseline from the
beveled edges. Place these covers right side up on a clean board and heat
perfectly limp with a large, spreading blow torch flame. Never apply this
flame to the under side of the top covers. The purpose is to get the covers on
top of the battery absolutely level, and exactly even with the top of the case
all around it, and to have them sticking firmly to the compound. There is not
an operation in repairing and rebuilding batteries that requires greater care
than this one, that will show as clearly just what kind of a workman you are,
or will count as much in appearance for a finished job. If you are careless
with any of the detail, if just one bump appears on top, if one top is warped,
if one cover sticks above top of case, try as you may, you never can cover it
up, and show you are a first-class workman. See that you have these four
conditions, and you should not have any difficulty after a little experience:
1. You must have just enough compound on top to allow the top covers to be
pressed down exactly even with upper edge of case.
2. The top covers must be absolutely clean and have a thin coat of vaseline
over their top, but none on the bevel edge.
a thin coat of vaseline over the top only, wiping off any vaseline from the
beveled edges. Place these covers right side up on a clean board and heat
perfectly limp with a large, spreading blow torch flame. Never apply this
flame to the under side of the top covers. The purpose is to get the covers on
top of the battery absolutely level, and exactly even with the top of the case
all around it, and to have them sticking firmly to the compound. There is not
an operation in repairing and rebuilding batteries that requires greater care
than this one, that will show as clearly just what kind of a workman you are,
or will count as much in appearance for a finished job. If you are careless
with any of the detail, if just one bump appears on top, if one top is warped,
if one cover sticks above top of case, try as you may, you never can cover it
up, and show you are a first-class workman. See that you have these four
conditions, and you should not have any difficulty after a little experience:
1. You must have just enough compound on top to allow the top covers to be
pressed down exactly even with upper edge of case.
2. The top covers must be absolutely clean and have a thin coat of vaseline
over their top, but none on the bevel edge.
Page 457
3. A good sized spreading
flame to heat quickly and
evenly the tops to a perfectly
limp condition without
burning or scorching them.
4. Procure a piece of 7/8-inch
board 1-1/2 inches wide and
just long enough to go
between handles of battery
you are working on. Spread a
thin film of oil or vaseline all
over it.
Having heated the covers and
also the top surface of the
compound until it is sticky so
that the covers may be put
down far enough and adhere
firmly to it, place the covers
in position. Then press the
covers down firmly with a
piece of oiled wood, as in Fig.
233, applying the wood sidewise and lengthwise of case until the top of
cover is exactly even with the top of the case. It may be necessary to use the
wood on end around the vent tubes and posts as in Fig. 234, to get that part
of the cover level. If the compound comes up between covers and around the
edges of the case, and interferes with the use of the wood, clean it out with a
screwdriver. You can then finish without smearing any compound on the
covers.
flame to heat quickly and
evenly the tops to a perfectly
limp condition without
burning or scorching them.
4. Procure a piece of 7/8-inch
board 1-1/2 inches wide and
just long enough to go
between handles of battery
you are working on. Spread a
thin film of oil or vaseline all
over it.
Having heated the covers and
also the top surface of the
compound until it is sticky so
that the covers may be put
down far enough and adhere
firmly to it, place the covers
in position. Then press the
covers down firmly with a
piece of oiled wood, as in Fig.
233, applying the wood sidewise and lengthwise of case until the top of
cover is exactly even with the top of the case. It may be necessary to use the
wood on end around the vent tubes and posts as in Fig. 234, to get that part
of the cover level. If the compound comes up between covers and around the
edges of the case, and interferes with the use of the wood, clean it out with a
screwdriver. You can then finish without smearing any compound on the
covers.
Page 458
Page 459
When you have removed the excess compound from the cracks around the
edges of the covers with the screwdriver, take a large iron spoon which has
the end bent into a pouring lip, and dip up from 1/2 to 2/3 of a spoonful of
melted compound (not too hot). Wipe off the bottom of the spoon, Fig. 235,
and pour a small stream of compound evenly in all the cracks around the
edges of the covers until they are full, as in Fig. 236. Do not hold the spoon
too high, and do not smear or drop any compound on top of battery or on the
posts. No harm is done if a little runs over the outside of the case, except that
it requires a little time to clean it off. A small teapot may be used instead of
the spoon. If you have the compound at the right temperature, and do not put
in too much at a time, you will obtain good results, but you should take care
not to spill the compound over covers or case.
After the last compound has cooled, — this requires only a few minutes, —
take a putty knife, and scrape off all the surplus compound, making it even
with the top of the covers and case, Fig. .237. Be careful not to dig into a
soft place in the compound with the putty knife. If you have done your work
edges of the covers with the screwdriver, take a large iron spoon which has
the end bent into a pouring lip, and dip up from 1/2 to 2/3 of a spoonful of
melted compound (not too hot). Wipe off the bottom of the spoon, Fig. 235,
and pour a small stream of compound evenly in all the cracks around the
edges of the covers until they are full, as in Fig. 236. Do not hold the spoon
too high, and do not smear or drop any compound on top of battery or on the
posts. No harm is done if a little runs over the outside of the case, except that
it requires a little time to clean it off. A small teapot may be used instead of
the spoon. If you have the compound at the right temperature, and do not put
in too much at a time, you will obtain good results, but you should take care
not to spill the compound over covers or case.
After the last compound has cooled, — this requires only a few minutes, —
take a putty knife, and scrape off all the surplus compound, making it even
with the top of the covers and case, Fig. .237. Be careful not to dig into a
soft place in the compound with the putty knife. If you have done your work
Page 460
right, and have followed directions
explicitly, you have scraped off the
compound with one sweep of the
putty knife over each crack,
leaving the compound smooth and
level. You will be surprised to see
how finished the battery looks.
Some workmen pour hot
compound clear to the top of the
case and then hurry to put on a
cold, dirty top. What happens? The
underside of the cover, coming in
contact with the hot compound,
expands and lengthens out, curling
the top surface beyond
redemption. As you push down one corner, another goes up, and it is
impossible to make the covers level.
Sealing Single Cover Batteries
Single cover batteries are scaled in a similar manner. The covers are put in
place before any compound is poured in. Covers should first be steamed to
make them soft and pliable. The surfaces which come in contact with the
sealing compound must be perfectly dry and free from acid. Before pouring
in any compound, run a soft flame over the surfaces which are to be sealed ,
so as to dry them and warm them. Close up all cracks between Jars and
covers as already directed. Then pour the cover channels half full of sealing
compound, which must not be too thin. Now run a soft flame over the
compound until it flows freely and unites with the covers and jars. Allow the
compound to cool.
For the second pouring, somewhat hotter compound may be used. Fill the
cover channels flush with the top of the case, and again run a soft flame over
the compound to make it flow freely and unite with the covers, and to give it
a glossy finish. If any compound has run over on the covers or case, remove
it with a hot putty knife.
explicitly, you have scraped off the
compound with one sweep of the
putty knife over each crack,
leaving the compound smooth and
level. You will be surprised to see
how finished the battery looks.
Some workmen pour hot
compound clear to the top of the
case and then hurry to put on a
cold, dirty top. What happens? The
underside of the cover, coming in
contact with the hot compound,
expands and lengthens out, curling
the top surface beyond
redemption. As you push down one corner, another goes up, and it is
impossible to make the covers level.
Sealing Single Cover Batteries
Single cover batteries are scaled in a similar manner. The covers are put in
place before any compound is poured in. Covers should first be steamed to
make them soft and pliable. The surfaces which come in contact with the
sealing compound must be perfectly dry and free from acid. Before pouring
in any compound, run a soft flame over the surfaces which are to be sealed ,
so as to dry them and warm them. Close up all cracks between Jars and
covers as already directed. Then pour the cover channels half full of sealing
compound, which must not be too thin. Now run a soft flame over the
compound until it flows freely and unites with the covers and jars. Allow the
compound to cool.
For the second pouring, somewhat hotter compound may be used. Fill the
cover channels flush with the top of the case, and again run a soft flame over
the compound to make it flow freely and unite with the covers, and to give it
a glossy finish. If any compound has run over on the covers or case, remove
it with a hot putty knife.
Page 461
Burning-on the Cell Connectors
With the covers in place, the next operation is to burn in the cell connectors.
Directions for doing this are given on page 213. If you did not fill the jars
with electrolyte before sealing the covers, do so now. See page 364.
Marking the Battery
You should have a set of stencil letters and mark every battery you rebuild or
repair. Stamp "POS," "P," or "+" on positive terminal and "NEG," "N," or on
negative terminal. Then stamp your initials, the date that you finished
rebuilding the battery, and the date that battery left the factory, on the top of
the connectors. Record the factory date, and type of battery in a book, also
your date mark and what was done to the battery. By doing this, you will
always be able to settle disputes that may arise, as you will know when you
repaired the battery, and what was done.
To go one step farther, keep a record of condition of plates, and number of
new plates, if you have used any. Grade the plates in three divisions, good,
medium and doubtful. The "doubtful" division will grow smaller as you
become experienced and learn by their appearance the ones to be discarded
and not used in a rebuilt battery. There is no question that even the most
experienced man will occasionally make a mistake in judgment, as there is
no way of knowing what a battery has been subjected to during its life before
it is brought to you.
Cleaning and Painting the Case
The next operation is to thoroughly clean the case; scrape off all compound
that has been spilled on it, and also any grease or dirt. If any grease is on the
case, wipe off with rag soaked in gasoline. Unless the case is clean, the paint
will not dry. Brush the sides and end with a wire brush; also brighten the
name plate. Then coat the case with good asphaltum paint. Any good
turpentine asphaltum is excellent for this purpose. If it is too thick, thin it
with turpentine, but be sure to mix well before using, as it does not mix
readily. Use a rather narrow brush, but of good quality. Paint all around the
upper edge, first drawing the brush straight along the edges, just to the outer
With the covers in place, the next operation is to burn in the cell connectors.
Directions for doing this are given on page 213. If you did not fill the jars
with electrolyte before sealing the covers, do so now. See page 364.
Marking the Battery
You should have a set of stencil letters and mark every battery you rebuild or
repair. Stamp "POS," "P," or "+" on positive terminal and "NEG," "N," or on
negative terminal. Then stamp your initials, the date that you finished
rebuilding the battery, and the date that battery left the factory, on the top of
the connectors. Record the factory date, and type of battery in a book, also
your date mark and what was done to the battery. By doing this, you will
always be able to settle disputes that may arise, as you will know when you
repaired the battery, and what was done.
To go one step farther, keep a record of condition of plates, and number of
new plates, if you have used any. Grade the plates in three divisions, good,
medium and doubtful. The "doubtful" division will grow smaller as you
become experienced and learn by their appearance the ones to be discarded
and not used in a rebuilt battery. There is no question that even the most
experienced man will occasionally make a mistake in judgment, as there is
no way of knowing what a battery has been subjected to during its life before
it is brought to you.
Cleaning and Painting the Case
The next operation is to thoroughly clean the case; scrape off all compound
that has been spilled on it, and also any grease or dirt. If any grease is on the
case, wipe off with rag soaked in gasoline. Unless the case is clean, the paint
will not dry. Brush the sides and end with a wire brush; also brighten the
name plate. Then coat the case with good asphaltum paint. Any good
turpentine asphaltum is excellent for this purpose. If it is too thick, thin it
with turpentine, but be sure to mix well before using, as it does not mix
readily. Use a rather narrow brush, but of good quality. Paint all around the
upper edge, first drawing the brush straight along the edges, just to the outer
Page 462
edges of rubber tops. Now paint the sides, ends and handles, but be careful
not to cover the nameplate. To finish, put a second, and thick coat all around
top edge to protect edge of case. Paint will soak in around the edge on top of
an old case more easily than on the body of the case as it is more porous.
Charging the Rebuilt Battery
With the battery completely assembled, the next step is to charge it at about
one-third of the starting or normal charge rate. For batteries having a
capacity of 80 ampere hours or more, use a current of 5 amperes. Do not
start the charge until at least 12 hours after filling with electrolyte. This
allows the electrolyte to cool. Then add water to bring electrolyte up to
correct level if necessary. The specific gravity will probably at first drop to
1.220-1.240, and will then begin to rise.
Continue the charge until the specific gravity and voltage do not rise during
the last 5 hours of the charge. The cell voltage at the end of the charge
should be 2.5 to 2.7, measured while the battery is still on charge. Make
Cadmium tests on both positive and negatives. The positives should give a
Cadmium reading of 2.4 or more. The negatives should give a reversed
reading of 0.175. The tests should be made near the end of the charge, with
the cell voltages at about 2.7. The Cadmium readings will tell the condition
of the plates better than specific gravity readings. The Cadmium readings are
especially valuable when new plates have been installed, to determine
whether the new plates are, fully charged. When Cadmium readings indicate
that the plates are fully charged, and specific gravity readings have not
changed for five hours, the battery is fully charged. If you have put in new
plates, charge for at least 96 hours.
Measure the temperature of the electrolyte occasionally, and if it should go
above 110°F., either cut down the charging current, or take the battery off
charge long enough to allow the electrolyte to cool below 90°F.
Adjusting the Electrolyte
If the specific gravity of the electrolyte is 1.280 to 1.300 at the end of the
charge, the battery is ready for testing. If the specific gravity is below or
above these figures, draw off as much electrolyte as you can with the
not to cover the nameplate. To finish, put a second, and thick coat all around
top edge to protect edge of case. Paint will soak in around the edge on top of
an old case more easily than on the body of the case as it is more porous.
Charging the Rebuilt Battery
With the battery completely assembled, the next step is to charge it at about
one-third of the starting or normal charge rate. For batteries having a
capacity of 80 ampere hours or more, use a current of 5 amperes. Do not
start the charge until at least 12 hours after filling with electrolyte. This
allows the electrolyte to cool. Then add water to bring electrolyte up to
correct level if necessary. The specific gravity will probably at first drop to
1.220-1.240, and will then begin to rise.
Continue the charge until the specific gravity and voltage do not rise during
the last 5 hours of the charge. The cell voltage at the end of the charge
should be 2.5 to 2.7, measured while the battery is still on charge. Make
Cadmium tests on both positive and negatives. The positives should give a
Cadmium reading of 2.4 or more. The negatives should give a reversed
reading of 0.175. The tests should be made near the end of the charge, with
the cell voltages at about 2.7. The Cadmium readings will tell the condition
of the plates better than specific gravity readings. The Cadmium readings are
especially valuable when new plates have been installed, to determine
whether the new plates are, fully charged. When Cadmium readings indicate
that the plates are fully charged, and specific gravity readings have not
changed for five hours, the battery is fully charged. If you have put in new
plates, charge for at least 96 hours.
Measure the temperature of the electrolyte occasionally, and if it should go
above 110°F., either cut down the charging current, or take the battery off
charge long enough to allow the electrolyte to cool below 90°F.
Adjusting the Electrolyte
If the specific gravity of the electrolyte is 1.280 to 1.300 at the end of the
charge, the battery is ready for testing. If the specific gravity is below or
above these figures, draw off as much electrolyte as you can with the
Page 463
hydrometer. If the specific gravity is below 1.280, add enough 1.400 specific
gravity electrolyte with the hydrometer to bring the level up to the correct
height (about 1/2 inch above tops of plates). If the specific gravity is above
1.300, add a-similar amount of distilled water instead of electrolyte. If the
specific gravity is not more than 15 points (.015) too low or too high, adjust
as directed above. If the variation is greater than this, pour out all the
electrolyte and add fresh 1.280 specific gravity electrolyte.
After adjusting the electrolyte, continue the charge until the gravity of all
cells is 1.280-1.300, and there is no further change in gravity for at least two
hours. Then take the battery off charge and make a final measurement of the
specific gravity. Measure the temperature at the same time, and if it varies
more than 10° above or below 70°, correct the hydrometer readings by
adding one point (.001 sp. gr.) for each 3 degrees above 70°, and subtracting
one point (.001 sp. gr.) for each 3 degrees below 70°. Be sure to wipe off any
electrolyte which you spilled on the battery in adjusting the electrolyte or
measuring the specific gravity. Use a rag dipped in ammonia, or baking soda
solution.
High Rate Discharge
Whenever you have time to do so, make a 20-minute high rate discharge test
on the rebuilt battery, as described on page 266. This test will show up any
defect in the battery, such as a poorly burned joint, or a missing separator,
and will show if battery is low in capacity. If the test gives satisfactory
results, the battery is in good condition, and ready to be put into service,
after being charged again to replace the energy used by the test.
gravity electrolyte with the hydrometer to bring the level up to the correct
height (about 1/2 inch above tops of plates). If the specific gravity is above
1.300, add a-similar amount of distilled water instead of electrolyte. If the
specific gravity is not more than 15 points (.015) too low or too high, adjust
as directed above. If the variation is greater than this, pour out all the
electrolyte and add fresh 1.280 specific gravity electrolyte.
After adjusting the electrolyte, continue the charge until the gravity of all
cells is 1.280-1.300, and there is no further change in gravity for at least two
hours. Then take the battery off charge and make a final measurement of the
specific gravity. Measure the temperature at the same time, and if it varies
more than 10° above or below 70°, correct the hydrometer readings by
adding one point (.001 sp. gr.) for each 3 degrees above 70°, and subtracting
one point (.001 sp. gr.) for each 3 degrees below 70°. Be sure to wipe off any
electrolyte which you spilled on the battery in adjusting the electrolyte or
measuring the specific gravity. Use a rag dipped in ammonia, or baking soda
solution.
High Rate Discharge
Whenever you have time to do so, make a 20-minute high rate discharge test
on the rebuilt battery, as described on page 266. This test will show up any
defect in the battery, such as a poorly burned joint, or a missing separator,
and will show if battery is low in capacity. If the test gives satisfactory
results, the battery is in good condition, and ready to be put into service,
after being charged again to replace the energy used by the test.
Page 464
CHAPTER 16
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS
EXIDE BATTERIES
Exide batteries may be classified according to their cover constructions as
follows:
1. Batteries with single flange covers, as shown in Figs. 15 and 238. This
class includes types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV.
SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS
EXIDE BATTERIES
Exide batteries may be classified according to their cover constructions as
follows:
1. Batteries with single flange covers, as shown in Figs. 15 and 238. This
class includes types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV.
Page 465
2. Batteries with double flange covers, as shown in Fig. 242. This class
includes types MHA, KZ, KXD, LXRE, and XE. The cover constructions
are-described in Chapter 3.
All Exide batteries, except types KXD, LXRE, and XE, have burned-in lead
top connectors. All types have a removable sealing nut around each post to
make a tight joint between the post and cell cover, as described on page 19.
Formerly some Exide batteries had cell connectors which were bolted to the
cell posts, but this construction is now obsolete. Types KXD, LXRE, and XE
have cell connectors made of flexible, lead coated copper strips.
Types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, MHA, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV have been
designed and built to meet the requirements of starting, lighting and ignition
service* for passenger automobiles and power boats.
includes types MHA, KZ, KXD, LXRE, and XE. The cover constructions
are-described in Chapter 3.
All Exide batteries, except types KXD, LXRE, and XE, have burned-in lead
top connectors. All types have a removable sealing nut around each post to
make a tight joint between the post and cell cover, as described on page 19.
Formerly some Exide batteries had cell connectors which were bolted to the
cell posts, but this construction is now obsolete. Types KXD, LXRE, and XE
have cell connectors made of flexible, lead coated copper strips.
Types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, MHA, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV have been
designed and built to meet the requirements of starting, lighting and ignition
service* for passenger automobiles and power boats.
Page 466
Types KXD, LXRE, and XE have been especially developed to meet the
requirements of the starting, lighting and ignition service on motor trucks
and tractors.
Type KZ has been produced particularly for motorcycle lighting and ignition
service.
Type Numbers
The type of an Exide battery is stamped on the battery name plate. Thus, on
one of the most popular Exide batteries is marked Type 3-XC-13-1. Other
Exide batteries have different numerals and letters in their type numbers, but
requirements of the starting, lighting and ignition service on motor trucks
and tractors.
Type KZ has been produced particularly for motorcycle lighting and ignition
service.
Type Numbers
The type of an Exide battery is stamped on the battery name plate. Thus, on
one of the most popular Exide batteries is marked Type 3-XC-13-1. Other
Exide batteries have different numerals and letters in their type numbers, but
Page 467
the numerals., and letters are always arranged in the same order as given
above. The first numeral gives the number of cells. The letters give the type
of cell. The numerals following the letters give the number of plates per cell.
The last numeral indicates the manner of arranging the cells in the battery
case. Thus, in the example given above, 3-XC-13-1 indicates that there are
three cells in the battery, that the type of cell is XC, that each cell has 13
plates, and that the cells are arranged according to method No. 1, this being a
side to side assembly.
Methods of Holding Jars in Case
Two methods of holding Exide jars in the battery case are used:
1. Types MHA, KXD, LXRE, and XE have the jars separated by horizontal
wooden spacers, there being two spacers between adjoining jars. Running
horizontally between these two spacers are tie bolts which pass through the
case. These bolts are tightened after the jars are placed in the case, thus
pressing the sides of the case against the jars and holding them in, place.
Types KXD, LXRE, and XE, in addition to the tie bolts, are secured in the
case by sealing compound beneath and around the jars. Each cell is provided
with two soft rubber buffers which are V shaped, and are placed over the
ridges in the bottom of the jars, thereby minimizing the effect of shocks on
the plates and separators which rest on the buffers.
2. In types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV, there are no
spacers between adjoining jars, and the jars simply fit tight in the case.
Should they not fit tight enough to hold them in place securely, thin boards
are inserted between the jars and the case to pack them in.
Type KZ has the three sets of plates in one jar, having three compartments,
with a three compartment cover.
Opening Exide Batteries
1. Drilling Off the Top Connectors. Do this as described on page 329. For
type KZ batteries use a 3/8 inch drill. For all other types use a 5/8 inch drill.
above. The first numeral gives the number of cells. The letters give the type
of cell. The numerals following the letters give the number of plates per cell.
The last numeral indicates the manner of arranging the cells in the battery
case. Thus, in the example given above, 3-XC-13-1 indicates that there are
three cells in the battery, that the type of cell is XC, that each cell has 13
plates, and that the cells are arranged according to method No. 1, this being a
side to side assembly.
Methods of Holding Jars in Case
Two methods of holding Exide jars in the battery case are used:
1. Types MHA, KXD, LXRE, and XE have the jars separated by horizontal
wooden spacers, there being two spacers between adjoining jars. Running
horizontally between these two spacers are tie bolts which pass through the
case. These bolts are tightened after the jars are placed in the case, thus
pressing the sides of the case against the jars and holding them in, place.
Types KXD, LXRE, and XE, in addition to the tie bolts, are secured in the
case by sealing compound beneath and around the jars. Each cell is provided
with two soft rubber buffers which are V shaped, and are placed over the
ridges in the bottom of the jars, thereby minimizing the effect of shocks on
the plates and separators which rest on the buffers.
2. In types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV, there are no
spacers between adjoining jars, and the jars simply fit tight in the case.
Should they not fit tight enough to hold them in place securely, thin boards
are inserted between the jars and the case to pack them in.
Type KZ has the three sets of plates in one jar, having three compartments,
with a three compartment cover.
Opening Exide Batteries
1. Drilling Off the Top Connectors. Do this as described on page 329. For
type KZ batteries use a 3/8 inch drill. For all other types use a 5/8 inch drill.
Page 468
2. Removing Plates from Jars. Follow the general instructions on page 333.
Types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV. In opening these
batteries, all of which have the single flange cover, you may remove each
cell complete from the case, and then draw out the plates; or you may draw
out the plates without taking out the jars. To remove the complete cell, heat a
thin bladed putty knife and work it down all around the outside of the jar.
Then lift out the complete cell by pulling steadily on the cell posts with two
pairs of gas pliers. The battery should be placed on the floor when you do
this, and you should stand with one foot pressed against the side of the case.
If you do not wish to remove the complete cells, or should the jars fit too
tight in the case, unseal the covers and remove the plates according to the
instructions given on page 333.
Types KZ and MHA. These batteries have the double flanged cover.
Several methods may be used in removing the plates from the jars. In each
case, the top of the cell is cleaned, gas blown out of the vent holes, and the
sealing nuts removed before opening the cells.
First, a flame may be used to soften the sealing compound which is placed in
the slot formed by the two flanges of the cover. If you wish to use a flame,
first remove each complete cell from the case, loosening the tie bolts that
pass through the case to release the jars. Then hit out each complete cell.
Now get two strong boards which are about one fourth inch longer than the
height of the jar. See Fig. 240. Support the jar on these boards by resting the
lower edge of the sides of the cover on the top edge of the boards. Then run
a moderate flame around the outside of the flange until the cover is soft, and
the compound melting. Then press down on the cell posts with your thumbs,
and the jar. and plates will drop free of the cover. The plates are then drawn
out and rested on the top of the jars to drain, as usual.
Another method is to remove the cells from the case and put them in the
battery steamer for ten minutes as described on page 332. Instead of first
taking the complete cells out of the case and then steaming them separately,
you may steam the entire battery for about ten minutes, and then draw out
Types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, PHC, XC, XX, and XXV. In opening these
batteries, all of which have the single flange cover, you may remove each
cell complete from the case, and then draw out the plates; or you may draw
out the plates without taking out the jars. To remove the complete cell, heat a
thin bladed putty knife and work it down all around the outside of the jar.
Then lift out the complete cell by pulling steadily on the cell posts with two
pairs of gas pliers. The battery should be placed on the floor when you do
this, and you should stand with one foot pressed against the side of the case.
If you do not wish to remove the complete cells, or should the jars fit too
tight in the case, unseal the covers and remove the plates according to the
instructions given on page 333.
Types KZ and MHA. These batteries have the double flanged cover.
Several methods may be used in removing the plates from the jars. In each
case, the top of the cell is cleaned, gas blown out of the vent holes, and the
sealing nuts removed before opening the cells.
First, a flame may be used to soften the sealing compound which is placed in
the slot formed by the two flanges of the cover. If you wish to use a flame,
first remove each complete cell from the case, loosening the tie bolts that
pass through the case to release the jars. Then hit out each complete cell.
Now get two strong boards which are about one fourth inch longer than the
height of the jar. See Fig. 240. Support the jar on these boards by resting the
lower edge of the sides of the cover on the top edge of the boards. Then run
a moderate flame around the outside of the flange until the cover is soft, and
the compound melting. Then press down on the cell posts with your thumbs,
and the jar. and plates will drop free of the cover. The plates are then drawn
out and rested on the top of the jars to drain, as usual.
Another method is to remove the cells from the case and put them in the
battery steamer for ten minutes as described on page 332. Instead of first
taking the complete cells out of the case and then steaming them separately,
you may steam the entire battery for about ten minutes, and then draw out
Page 469
the plates and cover of each
cell with gas pliers without
removing the jars. This
method must be used in
opening types KXD, LXRE,
and XE, which have sealing
compound under the jars.
Work on Plates, Separators, Jars, and Case
Having opened the battery, follow the instructions given on pages 335 to 361
for examination of plates and separators, and all work on plates, jars,
separators, and case.
Reassembling Plates
First slip the positive and negative groups together without separators.
Then wipe the posts with a rag moistened with ammonia, rinse them with
water, and dry thoroughly with a clean rag. Next slip the soft rubber
washers over the posts and place the cover in position. Lubricate the lead
sealing nuts with graphite that has been mixed to a paste with water. Do
not use grease or vaseline to lubricate these nuts. Then put on the sealing
nuts and tighten them partly with your fingers.
cell with gas pliers without
removing the jars. This
method must be used in
opening types KXD, LXRE,
and XE, which have sealing
compound under the jars.
Work on Plates, Separators, Jars, and Case
Having opened the battery, follow the instructions given on pages 335 to 361
for examination of plates and separators, and all work on plates, jars,
separators, and case.
Reassembling Plates
First slip the positive and negative groups together without separators.
Then wipe the posts with a rag moistened with ammonia, rinse them with
water, and dry thoroughly with a clean rag. Next slip the soft rubber
washers over the posts and place the cover in position. Lubricate the lead
sealing nuts with graphite that has been mixed to a paste with water. Do
not use grease or vaseline to lubricate these nuts. Then put on the sealing
nuts and tighten them partly with your fingers.
Page 470
You are now ready to
insert the separators as
directed on page 361.
Types MHA, PHC, KXD,
KZ, LXR, LXRE, LXRV,
XX, and XXV have, in
addition to the usual
wooden separators,
perforated rubber sheets,
which should be placed
against the grooved side of
each wooden separator
before inserting, and insert
with rubber sheet against
the positives.
Make a careful
examination to see that
you have not left out any
separators.
When the separators are all
in place, even them up on
each side. Then tighten the sealing nuts with the special Exide wrench.
When you have turned the nuts down tight, lock them in place by driving
a center punch on the threads on the post just above the nut, Fig. 241.
This will damage the thread and prevent the nut from turning loose.
Putting Plates In Jars
The next step is to lower the plates into the jars, as described on page 362. In
types KXD, LXRE, and XE be sure to first replace the two soft rubber
buffers in the bottom of the jar, one over each ridge.
Filling Jars With Electrolyte
As soon as you have an element in place in the jar, fill the jar with
electrolyte of the proper strength, as described on page 364, to prevent the
insert the separators as
directed on page 361.
Types MHA, PHC, KXD,
KZ, LXR, LXRE, LXRV,
XX, and XXV have, in
addition to the usual
wooden separators,
perforated rubber sheets,
which should be placed
against the grooved side of
each wooden separator
before inserting, and insert
with rubber sheet against
the positives.
Make a careful
examination to see that
you have not left out any
separators.
When the separators are all
in place, even them up on
each side. Then tighten the sealing nuts with the special Exide wrench.
When you have turned the nuts down tight, lock them in place by driving
a center punch on the threads on the post just above the nut, Fig. 241.
This will damage the thread and prevent the nut from turning loose.
Putting Plates In Jars
The next step is to lower the plates into the jars, as described on page 362. In
types KXD, LXRE, and XE be sure to first replace the two soft rubber
buffers in the bottom of the jar, one over each ridge.
Filling Jars With Electrolyte
As soon as you have an element in place in the jar, fill the jar with
electrolyte of the proper strength, as described on page 364, to prevent the
Page 471
separators and plates from drying. The negatives, especially, must be
covered with electrolyte to prevent them from heating and drying.
Sealing Exide Battery Covers
For Types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV,
PHC, XC, XX, and XXV, which
have the single flange type of
cover, slowly heat the sealing
compound until it runs, but do not
get it so thin that it will run down
into the cell between the cover and
jar. Then pour it into the channel
between cover and jar walls. Allow
it to cool and finish it off flush
with a hot knife. When pouring, be
sure the compound is liquid and
not lumpy, as in such a case a poor
seal will result. A glossy, finished
appearance may be given to the
compound by passing a flame over
it after the job is finished.
For Types KXD, KZ, LXRE, MHA, and XE, which have the double
flange type of cover, have ready a string or worm of sealing compound about
3-16 inch in diameter, made by rolling between boards some of the special
compound furnished for the purpose. The cover may or may not have been
attached to the element, depending on how repairs have been made. In either
case the procedure is the same as far as sealing is concerned. Assuming the
element is attached, stand it upside down, with the cover resting upon two
strips, Fig. 242. Lay the string of compound all around the cover channel.
Now turn right side up and insert in the jar, taking care that the jar walls
enter the cover channels at all points. Apply heat carefully to the edges of the
cover and gently force cover clown. If too much compound has been used,
so that it squeezes out around the cover, scrape off the excess with a hot
knife while forcing cover down.
covered with electrolyte to prevent them from heating and drying.
Sealing Exide Battery Covers
For Types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV,
PHC, XC, XX, and XXV, which
have the single flange type of
cover, slowly heat the sealing
compound until it runs, but do not
get it so thin that it will run down
into the cell between the cover and
jar. Then pour it into the channel
between cover and jar walls. Allow
it to cool and finish it off flush
with a hot knife. When pouring, be
sure the compound is liquid and
not lumpy, as in such a case a poor
seal will result. A glossy, finished
appearance may be given to the
compound by passing a flame over
it after the job is finished.
For Types KXD, KZ, LXRE, MHA, and XE, which have the double
flange type of cover, have ready a string or worm of sealing compound about
3-16 inch in diameter, made by rolling between boards some of the special
compound furnished for the purpose. The cover may or may not have been
attached to the element, depending on how repairs have been made. In either
case the procedure is the same as far as sealing is concerned. Assuming the
element is attached, stand it upside down, with the cover resting upon two
strips, Fig. 242. Lay the string of compound all around the cover channel.
Now turn right side up and insert in the jar, taking care that the jar walls
enter the cover channels at all points. Apply heat carefully to the edges of the
cover and gently force cover clown. If too much compound has been used,
so that it squeezes out around the cover, scrape off the excess with a hot
knife while forcing cover down.
Page 472
Putting Cells In Case
When the covers have all been sealed, put the cells in the case, taking care to
put the negative and positive posts in their proper positions, so that each cell
connector will connect a positive to a negative post.
In Types MHA, KXD, LXRE, and XE, which have wooden spacers
between the cells, take care that the spacers are in position and then, after
cells are in place, tighten the tie bolts with a screw driver to clamp the jars.
In Types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, SX, XC, XX, and XXV the cells should fit
tight in the case; pack them in with thin boards if necessary.
Burning on the Cell Connectors
See instructions on pages 213 to 216.
Charging After Repairing
See also instructions on page 373.
When the covers have all been sealed, put the cells in the case, taking care to
put the negative and positive posts in their proper positions, so that each cell
connector will connect a positive to a negative post.
In Types MHA, KXD, LXRE, and XE, which have wooden spacers
between the cells, take care that the spacers are in position and then, after
cells are in place, tighten the tie bolts with a screw driver to clamp the jars.
In Types DX, LX, LXR, LXRV, SX, XC, XX, and XXV the cells should fit
tight in the case; pack them in with thin boards if necessary.
Burning on the Cell Connectors
See instructions on pages 213 to 216.
Charging After Repairing
See also instructions on page 373.
Page 473
Not sooner than ten to fifteen hours after filling battery with electrolyte, add
electrolyte to restore level if it has fallen.
U. S. L. BATTERIES
The instructions for rebuilding batteries which have already been given,
pages 328 to 374, apply also to all U. S. L. batteries. In working on the old
U. S. L. batteries, illustrated in Fig. 243, draw out the electrolyte down to the
tops of the plates so that the electrolyte is below the lower end of the vent
tube. Then blow out any gas which may have collected under the cover with
compressed air or bellows. Never fail to do this, as there is only a small vent
hole in the cover through which the gas can escape, the vent tubes extending
down into the electrolyte when the cells are properly filled.
electrolyte to restore level if it has fallen.
U. S. L. BATTERIES
The instructions for rebuilding batteries which have already been given,
pages 328 to 374, apply also to all U. S. L. batteries. In working on the old
U. S. L. batteries, illustrated in Fig. 243, draw out the electrolyte down to the
tops of the plates so that the electrolyte is below the lower end of the vent
tube. Then blow out any gas which may have collected under the cover with
compressed air or bellows. Never fail to do this, as there is only a small vent
hole in the cover through which the gas can escape, the vent tubes extending
down into the electrolyte when the cells are properly filled.
Page 474
Fig. 244 shows the new U. S. L. cover construction. Note that the special
cell filling device is no longer used. U. S. L. batteries have lead bushings
moulded into the cover. These bushings fit around the posts, and are burned
to the posts and top connectors, Figs. 243 and 244, thus giving leak proof
joints between the cover and the posts. In burning on the connectors, melt
bottom edge of hole first, then top of post and cover bushing, and melt in
your burning lead slowly.
cell filling device is no longer used. U. S. L. batteries have lead bushings
moulded into the cover. These bushings fit around the posts, and are burned
to the posts and top connectors, Figs. 243 and 244, thus giving leak proof
joints between the cover and the posts. In burning on the connectors, melt
bottom edge of hole first, then top of post and cover bushing, and melt in
your burning lead slowly.
Page 475
PREST-O-LITE BATTERIES
Page 476
Some of the old Prest-O-Lite batteries have a lead bushing around the post,
Fig. 245, similar to the U. S. L. batteries. This will make a perfectly tight
seal, provided that you screw the bushing up tight. The new types of Prest-
O-Lite batteries have a "Peened" post seal, special instructions for which
follow.
The general instructions for rebuilding batteries given on pages 328 to 374
apply to Prest-O-Lite batteries in every respect. The "Peened" post seal is,
however, a special construction, and directions for working on this seal are
as follows:
All Prest-O-Lite batteries designated as Types WHN, RIJN, BHN, JFN,
KPN, and SHC, have a single moulded cover which is locked directly on to
the posts of the element. This feature is the result of forcing a solid ring of
lead from a portion of the post, projecting above the cover, down into a deep
chamfer in the top of the cover. Figs. 246 and 247 show this construction.
Fig. 245, similar to the U. S. L. batteries. This will make a perfectly tight
seal, provided that you screw the bushing up tight. The new types of Prest-
O-Lite batteries have a "Peened" post seal, special instructions for which
follow.
The general instructions for rebuilding batteries given on pages 328 to 374
apply to Prest-O-Lite batteries in every respect. The "Peened" post seal is,
however, a special construction, and directions for working on this seal are
as follows:
All Prest-O-Lite batteries designated as Types WHN, RIJN, BHN, JFN,
KPN, and SHC, have a single moulded cover which is locked directly on to
the posts of the element. This feature is the result of forcing a solid ring of
lead from a portion of the post, projecting above the cover, down into a deep
chamfer in the top of the cover. Figs. 246 and 247 show this construction.
Page 477
This construction makes a
solid unit of the cover and
element, which does away
with the sealing
compound, washers, nuts,
etc., for making the acid
tight seal around the posts.
The locking operation
requires some special
instructions and shop
equipment for assembly
and all repairs which
involve removal from and
replacement of the cover
on the element.
The majority of battery
repairs such as renewal of
jars, separators,
straightening of plates, and
removal of sediment, can
be made without
separating the cover and
element. In such cases the connectors are drilled off, compound is softened
and removed from around the covers and the complete unit is removed from
the cell. It may be handled throughout the repair as a unit, and the cover
serves as a bridge to hold the plates of both groups in line just as they remain
in the jar.
solid unit of the cover and
element, which does away
with the sealing
compound, washers, nuts,
etc., for making the acid
tight seal around the posts.
The locking operation
requires some special
instructions and shop
equipment for assembly
and all repairs which
involve removal from and
replacement of the cover
on the element.
The majority of battery
repairs such as renewal of
jars, separators,
straightening of plates, and
removal of sediment, can
be made without
separating the cover and
element. In such cases the connectors are drilled off, compound is softened
and removed from around the covers and the complete unit is removed from
the cell. It may be handled throughout the repair as a unit, and the cover
serves as a bridge to hold the plates of both groups in line just as they remain
in the jar.
Page 478
However, where the cover is broken or must be replaced for other reasons,
when plates have to be renewed, or the posts have been broken off below the
cover, the element and cover must be separated.
All the apparatus and special tools which are used in connection with the
locking, as well as the building-up, unlocking (freeing), and rebuilding, of
when plates have to be renewed, or the posts have been broken off below the
cover, the element and cover must be separated.
All the apparatus and special tools which are used in connection with the
locking, as well as the building-up, unlocking (freeing), and rebuilding, of
Page 479
the posts in all Prest-O-Lite battery types are grouped together and
collectively termed the type "N" Post Locking Outfit.
This outfit, complete, is carried in stock at all Prest-O-Lite warehouses under
the part number 27116. Each of the individual parts or tools also has a
separate part number and may be bought separately.
Prest-O-Lite Type "N" Post Locking Outfit
collectively termed the type "N" Post Locking Outfit.
This outfit, complete, is carried in stock at all Prest-O-Lite warehouses under
the part number 27116. Each of the individual parts or tools also has a
separate part number and may be bought separately.
Prest-O-Lite Type "N" Post Locking Outfit
Page 480
Arbor Press (complete with following 12 parts) 27115
Main Casting 27114
Latch 27107
Bed Plate 27113
Lever 27108
Rack 27211
Washer 27112
Pinion Shaft 27110
Pinion 27109
Latch Pin 27111
*Special CLN & KPN Spacer 27233
*Special CLN & KPN Latch 27232
*Special CLN & KPN Bed Plate 27234
Large Peening Tool (9-21 RHN, WHN, BHN, SHC, KPN,
27101
CLN; 11-17 JFN)
Small Peening Tool (7-WHN, RHN, SHC; 9-JFN) 27100
Peening Tool for small terminal posts in which are east
27105
threaded brass inserts (Columbia)
Large Post Freeing Tool 27103
Small Post Freeing Tool 27102
No. 8 Post Freeing Tool (13/16" diameter straight post) 27123
1
Large Post Re-Builder (9-21 RHN, WHN, BHN, SHC, KPN,
27005
CLN; 11-17 JFN)
1 27004
Small Post Re-Builder (7-WHN, RHN, SHC; 9-JFN)
2 27006
Ford Positive Post Builder
2 27224
Ford Negative Post Builder
2 No. 8 Post Builder (13/16" diameter straight post) 27225
A-
Style "B" Prest-O-Lite Torch, with six feet of red gum tubing
3116
Automatic Reducing Valve A-427
COMPLETE TYPE "N" OUTFIT including all parts above 27116
Main Casting 27114
Latch 27107
Bed Plate 27113
Lever 27108
Rack 27211
Washer 27112
Pinion Shaft 27110
Pinion 27109
Latch Pin 27111
*Special CLN & KPN Spacer 27233
*Special CLN & KPN Latch 27232
*Special CLN & KPN Bed Plate 27234
Large Peening Tool (9-21 RHN, WHN, BHN, SHC, KPN,
27101
CLN; 11-17 JFN)
Small Peening Tool (7-WHN, RHN, SHC; 9-JFN) 27100
Peening Tool for small terminal posts in which are east
27105
threaded brass inserts (Columbia)
Large Post Freeing Tool 27103
Small Post Freeing Tool 27102
No. 8 Post Freeing Tool (13/16" diameter straight post) 27123
1
Large Post Re-Builder (9-21 RHN, WHN, BHN, SHC, KPN,
27005
CLN; 11-17 JFN)
1 27004
Small Post Re-Builder (7-WHN, RHN, SHC; 9-JFN)
2 27006
Ford Positive Post Builder
2 27224
Ford Negative Post Builder
2 No. 8 Post Builder (13/16" diameter straight post) 27225
A-
Style "B" Prest-O-Lite Torch, with six feet of red gum tubing
3116
Automatic Reducing Valve A-427
COMPLETE TYPE "N" OUTFIT including all parts above 27116
Page 481
* The CLN and KPN Spacer block, bent Latch and Bed
Plate are special parts used only in the Arbor Press when
it is especially assembled to lock CLN or KPN posts.
1
The Re-Builder is used to build up posts before
attempting to lock on the cover. The replacing of the
metal cut away from the original diameter of the post
when the jar cover was removed is necessary to the
correct operation of the Peening Tool.
2
The Builder is used to build up posts, after they have
been locked and shaped by the Peening Tool, to a size
large enough to take some special terminal. For example,
the Ford Positive Post Builder is used in building up
posts, locked by the Large Peening Tool, to the proper
size to take the Ford positive terminal.
The Automatic Reducing Valve delivers the gas from the P-O-L tank at a
uniform pressure of 3 pounds per square inch, whether the tank is full, half
empty, or nearly empty, and regardless of the volume of gas used. The
volume or flow of gas is regulated by the key.
The style "B" torch mixes the pure acetylene from the gas tank with the
proper amount of air necessary to an efficient heating flame.
The heating flame is conducted or delivered to the Peening Tool by the short
length of brass tubing known as the Torch-Holder, over which the "B" Torch
is pressed by hand in completing the assembly.
Both the "B" Torch and the Automatic Reducing Valve are absolutely
essential to the use of the Prest-O-Lite gas tank for heating the Peening Tool.
Prest-O-Lite gas tanks, style A, B, C, or E, may be used in connection with
the Automatic Reducing Valve, as shown in Fig. 248. To use a welding size
gas tank it is necessary to insert a "W to A" Adapter between the tank and
Plate are special parts used only in the Arbor Press when
it is especially assembled to lock CLN or KPN posts.
1
The Re-Builder is used to build up posts before
attempting to lock on the cover. The replacing of the
metal cut away from the original diameter of the post
when the jar cover was removed is necessary to the
correct operation of the Peening Tool.
2
The Builder is used to build up posts, after they have
been locked and shaped by the Peening Tool, to a size
large enough to take some special terminal. For example,
the Ford Positive Post Builder is used in building up
posts, locked by the Large Peening Tool, to the proper
size to take the Ford positive terminal.
The Automatic Reducing Valve delivers the gas from the P-O-L tank at a
uniform pressure of 3 pounds per square inch, whether the tank is full, half
empty, or nearly empty, and regardless of the volume of gas used. The
volume or flow of gas is regulated by the key.
The style "B" torch mixes the pure acetylene from the gas tank with the
proper amount of air necessary to an efficient heating flame.
The heating flame is conducted or delivered to the Peening Tool by the short
length of brass tubing known as the Torch-Holder, over which the "B" Torch
is pressed by hand in completing the assembly.
Both the "B" Torch and the Automatic Reducing Valve are absolutely
essential to the use of the Prest-O-Lite gas tank for heating the Peening Tool.
Prest-O-Lite gas tanks, style A, B, C, or E, may be used in connection with
the Automatic Reducing Valve, as shown in Fig. 248. To use a welding size
gas tank it is necessary to insert a "W to A" Adapter between the tank and
Page 482
Reducing Valve. This
Adapter can be purchased
from the Prest-O-Lite Co.,
Inc.
The Arbor Press when
received by the Service
Station is fully assembled,
ready for mounting and
operation with all P-O-L
locked post types except
CLN and KPN.
Mount the Press in a
vertical position (Fig. 248)
in a convenient place and
at an accessible height on
a wall or post. Holes are
provided in the Press for
mounting by lag screws or
bolts. The position of the
Peening Tool should be
well below the level of the
eyes, to prevent serious
injury from a possible
spattering of overheated
lead.
Screw the proper size Peening Tool into the bottom of the Press rack, as
shown in Fig. 248. The Torch-Holder must be removed from the Peening
Tool to do this; it should be immediately replaced.
In using the Press to lock CLN or KPN posts it is necessary to remove the
Bed Plate and the Latch, and replace these parts with the Special Bed Plate
and Special Latch provided for this purpose, using the spacing block or
Spacer (also provided) between the Special Bed Plate and the bottom of the
Press.
Adapter can be purchased
from the Prest-O-Lite Co.,
Inc.
The Arbor Press when
received by the Service
Station is fully assembled,
ready for mounting and
operation with all P-O-L
locked post types except
CLN and KPN.
Mount the Press in a
vertical position (Fig. 248)
in a convenient place and
at an accessible height on
a wall or post. Holes are
provided in the Press for
mounting by lag screws or
bolts. The position of the
Peening Tool should be
well below the level of the
eyes, to prevent serious
injury from a possible
spattering of overheated
lead.
Screw the proper size Peening Tool into the bottom of the Press rack, as
shown in Fig. 248. The Torch-Holder must be removed from the Peening
Tool to do this; it should be immediately replaced.
In using the Press to lock CLN or KPN posts it is necessary to remove the
Bed Plate and the Latch, and replace these parts with the Special Bed Plate
and Special Latch provided for this purpose, using the spacing block or
Spacer (also provided) between the Special Bed Plate and the bottom of the
Press.
Page 483
Connect the
"B" Torch
to the
Peening
Tool. The
Torch is
merely
pressed by
the hand
over the
Torch-
Holder.
Connect the
Torch with
the
Automatic
Reducing
Valve on
the gas tank
by the
rubber
tubing, and
turn on the
gas and
light. The
flame
should be
blue and
hot.
Allow the Peening Tool to become just hot enough to melt the end of a piece
of 50-50 solder. Do not allow it to get any hotter than this. The tool is then
ready for use. The flame may be left on while the Tool is in use. In case the
Tool becomes too hot turn the flame off and allow it to cool to the proper
temperature before using.
"B" Torch
to the
Peening
Tool. The
Torch is
merely
pressed by
the hand
over the
Torch-
Holder.
Connect the
Torch with
the
Automatic
Reducing
Valve on
the gas tank
by the
rubber
tubing, and
turn on the
gas and
light. The
flame
should be
blue and
hot.
Allow the Peening Tool to become just hot enough to melt the end of a piece
of 50-50 solder. Do not allow it to get any hotter than this. The tool is then
ready for use. The flame may be left on while the Tool is in use. In case the
Tool becomes too hot turn the flame off and allow it to cool to the proper
temperature before using.
Page 484
To Remove Cell Covers from Elements
Drill off cell connectors and terminals as usual. Insert the proper size
Freeing Tool (or reamer), furnished with the outfit, in an ordinary hand-
power drill press or bit-and-brace. With this reamer remove the ring of metal
or flange on the post, thereby releasing the cell cover. Fig. 249. The Freeing
Tool should not be used in a power-driven press, as slow speed is essential to
prevent breaking cell covers. To get the best results, center the Freeing Tool
over the post, gradually forcing it down, at the same time keep it turning
slowly until the ring of metal which locks the post in the cover has been
removed. A little machine oil should be put on the metal directly under the
tool for this operation. After the metal ring has been removed, the cover can
be easily lifted off the posts, Fig. 250.
Drill off cell connectors and terminals as usual. Insert the proper size
Freeing Tool (or reamer), furnished with the outfit, in an ordinary hand-
power drill press or bit-and-brace. With this reamer remove the ring of metal
or flange on the post, thereby releasing the cell cover. Fig. 249. The Freeing
Tool should not be used in a power-driven press, as slow speed is essential to
prevent breaking cell covers. To get the best results, center the Freeing Tool
over the post, gradually forcing it down, at the same time keep it turning
slowly until the ring of metal which locks the post in the cover has been
removed. A little machine oil should be put on the metal directly under the
tool for this operation. After the metal ring has been removed, the cover can
be easily lifted off the posts, Fig. 250.
Page 485
The use of the Freeing Tool in removing the cell cover cuts away a certain
amount of metal from the diameter of the posts. Before these posts can be
relocked by the Peening Tool in replacing the cell cover they must be built
up in size or diameter again so that there will be enough lead to insure a tight
joint.
To Rebuild Posts
Thoroughly clean the post. Place the proper Post Re-Builder so that it rests
on the shoulder of the post, and run in enough new lead to fill the Re-
Builder. Fig. 251. Be sure and bring the lead surface of the post into fusion
before the new lead is run in, to insure a strong post.
To build a smooth, solid post, be sure that the post is thoroughly clean; then
use a hot flame.
amount of metal from the diameter of the posts. Before these posts can be
relocked by the Peening Tool in replacing the cell cover they must be built
up in size or diameter again so that there will be enough lead to insure a tight
joint.
To Rebuild Posts
Thoroughly clean the post. Place the proper Post Re-Builder so that it rests
on the shoulder of the post, and run in enough new lead to fill the Re-
Builder. Fig. 251. Be sure and bring the lead surface of the post into fusion
before the new lead is run in, to insure a strong post.
To build a smooth, solid post, be sure that the post is thoroughly clean; then
use a hot flame.
Page 486
To Lock or Peen Posts
(1) Assemble positive and negative groups without separators, and paint the
posts (just above the shoulder) with hot sealing compound.
(2) Prepare the cell covers by immersing them in hot water until they are
flexible.
(3) Place a warmed cover over the posts of the two assembled groups (the
elements). Fig. 252.
(4) Slide the element over the Bed Plate directly under Peening Tool, with
the bottom of the plate connectors resting on the Bed Plate. (See Fig. 253).
(1) Assemble positive and negative groups without separators, and paint the
posts (just above the shoulder) with hot sealing compound.
(2) Prepare the cell covers by immersing them in hot water until they are
flexible.
(3) Place a warmed cover over the posts of the two assembled groups (the
elements). Fig. 252.
(4) Slide the element over the Bed Plate directly under Peening Tool, with
the bottom of the plate connectors resting on the Bed Plate. (See Fig. 253).
Page 487
(5) Pull down the Latch to hold the Bed Plate in alignment.
(6) Center the post with Peening Tool. Then force the Peening Tool down
slowly until it has covered about two-thirds of the distance to the cover.
Pause in this operation to allow the metal of the post to become heated; then
force tool the rest of the distance. Raise the Peening Tool slightly and force
down again.
(7) Release the Latch, withdraw and reverse the element, and repeat
operations 4, 5 and 6 on the other post.
(8) The assembled groups are now ready to receive separators.
(6) Center the post with Peening Tool. Then force the Peening Tool down
slowly until it has covered about two-thirds of the distance to the cover.
Pause in this operation to allow the metal of the post to become heated; then
force tool the rest of the distance. Raise the Peening Tool slightly and force
down again.
(7) Release the Latch, withdraw and reverse the element, and repeat
operations 4, 5 and 6 on the other post.
(8) The assembled groups are now ready to receive separators.
Page 488
Precautions in Post Locking Operations
1—Be sure all covers are warmed until they are flexible before attempting to
assemble.
2—Be sure that the Peening Tool is not too hot. If it is, the post will melt
away and be ruined. A very hot tool sometimes causes dangerous spattering
1—Be sure all covers are warmed until they are flexible before attempting to
assemble.
2—Be sure that the Peening Tool is not too hot. If it is, the post will melt
away and be ruined. A very hot tool sometimes causes dangerous spattering
Page 489
of hot lead.
3—Be sure that the post is centered with the Peening Tool before forcing the
Tool down on the post.
4—Be sure the cover has been forced down, so that it rests on the shoulder
of the post, before releasing.
General Instructions
In breaking in a new Peening Tool it is advisable to squirt several drops of
machine oil inside the Tool, as well as putting some oil on the top of the
post, before forcing the hot Tool down over the post. This will prevent the
Tool from sticking to the post.
If the Peening Tool should stick to the post, force the Tool down again, being
certain that the cover is slightly compressed. Sticking of the Peening Tool
indicates either that the Tool has not yet been broken in, or that there is not
sufficient compression in the cover to free the Tool on releasing the pressure
on the lever of the Press.
To repair the 13/16" diameter straight terminal post, the Ford positive
terminal post, the Ford negative terminal post, it is good practice to remove
the cover in the usual manner, then cut the upper portion of the posts off and
rebuild them with the large Post Re-Builder. Reassemble the element and
cover in the recommended manner and then use the proper Post Builder to
burn the post to its original size.
3—Be sure that the post is centered with the Peening Tool before forcing the
Tool down on the post.
4—Be sure the cover has been forced down, so that it rests on the shoulder
of the post, before releasing.
General Instructions
In breaking in a new Peening Tool it is advisable to squirt several drops of
machine oil inside the Tool, as well as putting some oil on the top of the
post, before forcing the hot Tool down over the post. This will prevent the
Tool from sticking to the post.
If the Peening Tool should stick to the post, force the Tool down again, being
certain that the cover is slightly compressed. Sticking of the Peening Tool
indicates either that the Tool has not yet been broken in, or that there is not
sufficient compression in the cover to free the Tool on releasing the pressure
on the lever of the Press.
To repair the 13/16" diameter straight terminal post, the Ford positive
terminal post, the Ford negative terminal post, it is good practice to remove
the cover in the usual manner, then cut the upper portion of the posts off and
rebuild them with the large Post Re-Builder. Reassemble the element and
cover in the recommended manner and then use the proper Post Builder to
burn the post to its original size.
Page 490
Page 491
Page 492
THE PHILADELPHIA DIAMOND GRID BATTERY
Old Type
Old Type
Page 493
Figs. 254 and 255 show the construction of the old type Philadelphia
Diamond Grid. Battery. Figs. 254 and 256 show the diamond shaped grid
from which the battery derives its name. It is claimed that this construction
gives a very strong grid, holding the active materials firmly in place, and
giving a large amount of contact surface between the grid and the active
material.
Figs. 254 and 255 show the old type battery, and give the details of the
cover, terminal posts, vent plug, and so on. The post seal is made tight by
pouring the compound into the cover well so that it flows in around all of the
petticoats on the post.
Diamond Grid. Battery. Figs. 254 and 256 show the diamond shaped grid
from which the battery derives its name. It is claimed that this construction
gives a very strong grid, holding the active materials firmly in place, and
giving a large amount of contact surface between the grid and the active
material.
Figs. 254 and 255 show the old type battery, and give the details of the
cover, terminal posts, vent plug, and so on. The post seal is made tight by
pouring the compound into the cover well so that it flows in around all of the
petticoats on the post.
Page 494
This construction increases the distance that the acid must travel along the
post, in order to cause a leak, about two and one-half times the vertical
distance on a smooth post. The hard rubber washer which fits around the
post acts as a lock to prevent the post from turning. This applies especially to
the two terminal posts to which the cables are attached. The washer is
intended to prevent any strain in the cable from turning the post and
breaking the seal between the post and the compound.
New Development in the Philadelphia Battery
post, in order to cause a leak, about two and one-half times the vertical
distance on a smooth post. The hard rubber washer which fits around the
post acts as a lock to prevent the post from turning. This applies especially to
the two terminal posts to which the cables are attached. The washer is
intended to prevent any strain in the cable from turning the post and
breaking the seal between the post and the compound.
New Development in the Philadelphia Battery
Page 495
Page 496
Rubber Lockt Seal Covers. During the last few years there has been a
marked tendency in the battery industry to do away with the use of sealing
compound for making a joint between the cell cover and the terminal posts
and to substitute a mechanical seal of some kind at this joint. The
Philadelphia Storage Battery Co. has developed the "Rubber Lockt". cover
seal, the construction of which is shown in detail in Figs. 256 and 257. On
the cell posts there is a. flange which supports the cover, and above this there
is a recessed portion into which is slipped a soft rubber sleeve or bushing.
This portion of the post is made with a ridge extending around the post and
with the rubber sleeve forming a high point over which a corresponding
locking edge in the terminal hole of the cover is snapped. This construction
makes a joint which is flexible and at the same time acid tight. Vibration
tends to push the cover down on the supporting flanges, as the post diameter
is smaller below the locking edge. The design is simple, both from the
assembly and the repair standpoint, as no tools are required for either
operation. In the assembly operation the groups are lined up so that the post
centers are correct and, after wetting the soft rubber sleeves, the cover is
snapped in place with a quick downward push. See Fig. 258. In removing the
covers, catch under each end with the fingers and pull upward, at the same
time pressing with the thumbs on the top of the posts. See Fig. 259.
marked tendency in the battery industry to do away with the use of sealing
compound for making a joint between the cell cover and the terminal posts
and to substitute a mechanical seal of some kind at this joint. The
Philadelphia Storage Battery Co. has developed the "Rubber Lockt". cover
seal, the construction of which is shown in detail in Figs. 256 and 257. On
the cell posts there is a. flange which supports the cover, and above this there
is a recessed portion into which is slipped a soft rubber sleeve or bushing.
This portion of the post is made with a ridge extending around the post and
with the rubber sleeve forming a high point over which a corresponding
locking edge in the terminal hole of the cover is snapped. This construction
makes a joint which is flexible and at the same time acid tight. Vibration
tends to push the cover down on the supporting flanges, as the post diameter
is smaller below the locking edge. The design is simple, both from the
assembly and the repair standpoint, as no tools are required for either
operation. In the assembly operation the groups are lined up so that the post
centers are correct and, after wetting the soft rubber sleeves, the cover is
snapped in place with a quick downward push. See Fig. 258. In removing the
covers, catch under each end with the fingers and pull upward, at the same
time pressing with the thumbs on the top of the posts. See Fig. 259.
Page 497
Rubber Case Batteries. Another development of recent years consists of
the replacing of the wood case and rubber jars by a one-piece container of
the replacing of the wood case and rubber jars by a one-piece container of
Page 498
hard rubber with compartments for the elements The Philadelphia Storage
Battery Co. has developed the Diamond Rubber case, which combines
strength and lightness with an attractive appearance. See Fig. 260. One of
the troubles experienced with the earlier designs of the rubber case was the
bulging of the end, due to the pull of the battery hold down rod on a small
handle attached to the center of the end. In the Philadelphia battery this has
been overcome by the use of a wide handle which snaps into openings in the
end of the case in such a way that the pull on the handle is transferred to the
sides. Another feature of this type handle is that it is a separate piece
snapped into the case without the use of any metal insert in the rubber case,
and if the handle should break, it can be replaced at small expense without
the use of any tools.
The Philadelphia vent plug is of the bayonet type, and is tightened by a
quarter turn. The plug simply has a small vent hole in the top, and may either
be taken out or left on while battery is charging.
The Philadelphia Separator
Battery Co. has developed the Diamond Rubber case, which combines
strength and lightness with an attractive appearance. See Fig. 260. One of
the troubles experienced with the earlier designs of the rubber case was the
bulging of the end, due to the pull of the battery hold down rod on a small
handle attached to the center of the end. In the Philadelphia battery this has
been overcome by the use of a wide handle which snaps into openings in the
end of the case in such a way that the pull on the handle is transferred to the
sides. Another feature of this type handle is that it is a separate piece
snapped into the case without the use of any metal insert in the rubber case,
and if the handle should break, it can be replaced at small expense without
the use of any tools.
The Philadelphia vent plug is of the bayonet type, and is tightened by a
quarter turn. The plug simply has a small vent hole in the top, and may either
be taken out or left on while battery is charging.
The Philadelphia Separator
Page 499
The Philadelphia separator is made of quarter sawed hardwood. It has a hard
resinous wood in which the hard and soft portions occur in regular
alternating vertical layers. The soft layers are porous, and permit the
diffusion of the acid from plate to plate. The hard layers give the separator
stiffness and long life. The alternating hard and soft layers are at right angles
to the surface of the separator, so that the electrolyte has a direct path
between plates.
The methods of repairing Philadelphia Diamond Grid batteries are no
different from those already given, on pages 328 to 374.
When the elements of the old type batteries have been assembled and
returned to the jars, put the covers in place, and pour the compound around
the edges of the cover, and in the post wells. The old compound must be
removed from the petticoats on the posts before new compound is poured in.
The compound must be warm and thin enough to flow around and fill up the
petticoat spaces on the posts in order to get a good seal. When the post wells
are full of compound, and while compound is still warm, put on the square
sealing washers and press them down so that the holes in the washers fit
closely around the octagonal part of the posts.
THE EVEREADY STORAGE BATTERY
It is claimed by the manufacturers that the sulphate which forms in the
Eveready battery during discharge always remains in the porous, convertible
form, and never crystallizes and becomes injurious, even though the battery
is allowed to stand idle on open circuit for a considerable length of time.
Due to this fact, the Eveready battery is called a "Non-Sulphating Battery."
The manufacturers state that Eveready batteries which have stood idle or in a
discharged condition for months do not suffer the damages which usually
result from such treatment, namely: buckling, and injurious sulphation. The
plates do become sulphated, but the sulphate remains in the porous, non-
crystalline state in which it forms. Charging such a battery at its normal rate
is all that is necessary to bring it back to its normal, healthy condition. Due
to the excessive amount of sulphate which forms when the battery stands
idle or discharged for a long time, it is necessary to give the battery 50
percent overcharge to remove all the sulphate and bring the battery back to a
resinous wood in which the hard and soft portions occur in regular
alternating vertical layers. The soft layers are porous, and permit the
diffusion of the acid from plate to plate. The hard layers give the separator
stiffness and long life. The alternating hard and soft layers are at right angles
to the surface of the separator, so that the electrolyte has a direct path
between plates.
The methods of repairing Philadelphia Diamond Grid batteries are no
different from those already given, on pages 328 to 374.
When the elements of the old type batteries have been assembled and
returned to the jars, put the covers in place, and pour the compound around
the edges of the cover, and in the post wells. The old compound must be
removed from the petticoats on the posts before new compound is poured in.
The compound must be warm and thin enough to flow around and fill up the
petticoat spaces on the posts in order to get a good seal. When the post wells
are full of compound, and while compound is still warm, put on the square
sealing washers and press them down so that the holes in the washers fit
closely around the octagonal part of the posts.
THE EVEREADY STORAGE BATTERY
It is claimed by the manufacturers that the sulphate which forms in the
Eveready battery during discharge always remains in the porous, convertible
form, and never crystallizes and becomes injurious, even though the battery
is allowed to stand idle on open circuit for a considerable length of time.
Due to this fact, the Eveready battery is called a "Non-Sulphating Battery."
The manufacturers state that Eveready batteries which have stood idle or in a
discharged condition for months do not suffer the damages which usually
result from such treatment, namely: buckling, and injurious sulphation. The
plates do become sulphated, but the sulphate remains in the porous, non-
crystalline state in which it forms. Charging such a battery at its normal rate
is all that is necessary to bring it back to its normal, healthy condition. Due
to the excessive amount of sulphate which forms when the battery stands
idle or discharged for a long time, it is necessary to give the battery 50
percent overcharge to remove all the sulphate and bring the battery back to a
Page 500
healthy working condition. The colors of the plates are good guides as to
their condition at the end of the charge. The positives should be free from
blotches of white sulphate, and should have a dark brown or chocolate color.
The negatives should have a bright gray or slate color.
Description of Parts
Eveready plates are of two general types. Plates of the R type are each
provided with two feet on lower ends, the positive set and the negative set
resting on two separate pairs of bridges in the jars, thereby preventing the
sediment which accumulates on top of bridges from short circuiting a cell.
Plates of the M type, instead of having feet, are cut away where they pass
over the bridges of the opposite group. See Fig. 261. This construction
secures a greater capacity for a given space, and gives the same protection
against short circuit from sediment as the foot construction does, since the
same amount of sediment must accumulate with either type of plate to cause
a short circuit.
their condition at the end of the charge. The positives should be free from
blotches of white sulphate, and should have a dark brown or chocolate color.
The negatives should have a bright gray or slate color.
Description of Parts
Eveready plates are of two general types. Plates of the R type are each
provided with two feet on lower ends, the positive set and the negative set
resting on two separate pairs of bridges in the jars, thereby preventing the
sediment which accumulates on top of bridges from short circuiting a cell.
Plates of the M type, instead of having feet, are cut away where they pass
over the bridges of the opposite group. See Fig. 261. This construction
secures a greater capacity for a given space, and gives the same protection
against short circuit from sediment as the foot construction does, since the
same amount of sediment must accumulate with either type of plate to cause
a short circuit.
Page 501
The separators used in Eveready batteries are made of cherry wood because
it is a hard wood which will resist wear, is of uniform texture, even porosity,
and has a long life in a given degree and condition of acid.
Eveready cherry wood separators go to the repair man in a dry condition, as
they do not require chemical treatment. Separators when received should be
soaked in 1.250 specific gravity acid for four days or longer in order to
it is a hard wood which will resist wear, is of uniform texture, even porosity,
and has a long life in a given degree and condition of acid.
Eveready cherry wood separators go to the repair man in a dry condition, as
they do not require chemical treatment. Separators when received should be
soaked in 1.250 specific gravity acid for four days or longer in order to
Page 502
expand them to proper size and remove natural impurities from the wood.
After being fully expanded they should be stored moist as previously
described. Stock separators may be kept indefinitely in this solution and can
be used as required. Fig. 262 shows the top construction in the Eveready
battery.
After being fully expanded they should be stored moist as previously
described. Stock separators may be kept indefinitely in this solution and can
be used as required. Fig. 262 shows the top construction in the Eveready
battery.
Page 503
Cell connectors are heavily constructed and are sealed over solidly with a
flexible sealing compound, Fig. 262. Two types of cell connectors are used-
the crescent and the heavy or "three way" type.
Repairing Eveready Batteries
To properly open and re-assemble an Eveready battery, proceed as follows:
1. Take a hot putty knife and cut the compound from the top of each of the
inter-cell connectors until the entire top of the connector is exposed.
2. Center punch tops of cell connectors and terminal posts.
3. Drill off cell connectors. In drilling off crescent cell connector use 1/2
inch drill, and for heavy type connector use 5/8 inch drill.
Drill deep enough, usually 3/8 to 1/2 inch, until a seam between connector
and post is visible around lower edge of hole. Having drilled holes in both
ends of connector, heat connector with soft flame until compound adhering
to it becomes soft. Then take a 1/2 inch or 5/8 inch round iron or bolt,
depending on connector to be removed, insert in one of the holes, and pry
connector off with a side to side motion, being careful not to carry this
motion so far as to jam connector into top of jar.
4. After connectors have been removed, steam and open the battery, as
described on pages 332 to 335.
5. Examine plates, and handle them as described on pages 335 to 355.
Remember, however, that Eveready plates which show the presence of large
amounts of sulphate, even to the extent of being entirely covered with white
sulphate, should not be discarded. A battery with such plates should be
charged at the normal rate, and given a 50 percent overcharge.
6. Before re-assembling plate groups preparatory to assembling the battery,
take negative and positive plate groups and build up the posts with the aid of
a post builder to their original height.
flexible sealing compound, Fig. 262. Two types of cell connectors are used-
the crescent and the heavy or "three way" type.
Repairing Eveready Batteries
To properly open and re-assemble an Eveready battery, proceed as follows:
1. Take a hot putty knife and cut the compound from the top of each of the
inter-cell connectors until the entire top of the connector is exposed.
2. Center punch tops of cell connectors and terminal posts.
3. Drill off cell connectors. In drilling off crescent cell connector use 1/2
inch drill, and for heavy type connector use 5/8 inch drill.
Drill deep enough, usually 3/8 to 1/2 inch, until a seam between connector
and post is visible around lower edge of hole. Having drilled holes in both
ends of connector, heat connector with soft flame until compound adhering
to it becomes soft. Then take a 1/2 inch or 5/8 inch round iron or bolt,
depending on connector to be removed, insert in one of the holes, and pry
connector off with a side to side motion, being careful not to carry this
motion so far as to jam connector into top of jar.
4. After connectors have been removed, steam and open the battery, as
described on pages 332 to 335.
5. Examine plates, and handle them as described on pages 335 to 355.
Remember, however, that Eveready plates which show the presence of large
amounts of sulphate, even to the extent of being entirely covered with white
sulphate, should not be discarded. A battery with such plates should be
charged at the normal rate, and given a 50 percent overcharge.
6. Before re-assembling plate groups preparatory to assembling the battery,
take negative and positive plate groups and build up the posts with the aid of
a post builder to their original height.
Page 504
Assemble groups in usual manner, taking care that posts on straps are in
proper position relative to group in adjoining cell, so that cell connectors
will span properly. Eveready batteries use a right and left hand strap for both
positive and negatives, making it necessary to use only one length of cell
connector.
7. After inserting assembled plate groups into battery in their proper relation
as to polarity, heat rubber covers to make them fairly pliable and fit them
over posts and into top of jar, pressing them down until they rest firmly on
top of plate straps. See that covers are perfectly level and that vent tubes are
perpendicular and all at same height above the plates.
8. Heat compound just hot enough so that it will flow. Pour first layer about
one quarter inch thick, being careful to cover entire jar cover. Take a soft
flame and seal compound around edges of jar and onto posts.
9. Now proceed to burn on top connectors. Cell connectors need only be
cleaned in hole left by post, and top of each end.
10. While burning in cell connectors the first layer of compound will have
cooled sufficiently to permit the second layer to be applied. This should be
done immediately after burning on connectors and while they are still hot.
Also heat the terminal posts, as compound will adhere to hot lead more
readily than to cold.
Start second layer of compound by pouring it over cell connectors and
terminal posts, first filling in with sufficient compound to bring level just
above the tops of jars. Apply flame, sealing around edges of wood case,
being particularly careful to properly seal terminal posts. Let this layer cool
thoroughly before applying third layer.
11. The third layer of compound should be applied in the same way as
second layer, pouring on connectors and terminal posts first, and filling in to
the level of top of wood ease. The spaces between bars of cell connectors
will fill and flow over properly if second layer has been allowed to cool and
if cell connectors have not been burned up too high. In sealing last layer with
flame, care should be taken not to play flame on compound too long as this
hardens and burns the compound. Burned compound has no flexibility and
proper position relative to group in adjoining cell, so that cell connectors
will span properly. Eveready batteries use a right and left hand strap for both
positive and negatives, making it necessary to use only one length of cell
connector.
7. After inserting assembled plate groups into battery in their proper relation
as to polarity, heat rubber covers to make them fairly pliable and fit them
over posts and into top of jar, pressing them down until they rest firmly on
top of plate straps. See that covers are perfectly level and that vent tubes are
perpendicular and all at same height above the plates.
8. Heat compound just hot enough so that it will flow. Pour first layer about
one quarter inch thick, being careful to cover entire jar cover. Take a soft
flame and seal compound around edges of jar and onto posts.
9. Now proceed to burn on top connectors. Cell connectors need only be
cleaned in hole left by post, and top of each end.
10. While burning in cell connectors the first layer of compound will have
cooled sufficiently to permit the second layer to be applied. This should be
done immediately after burning on connectors and while they are still hot.
Also heat the terminal posts, as compound will adhere to hot lead more
readily than to cold.
Start second layer of compound by pouring it over cell connectors and
terminal posts, first filling in with sufficient compound to bring level just
above the tops of jars. Apply flame, sealing around edges of wood case,
being particularly careful to properly seal terminal posts. Let this layer cool
thoroughly before applying third layer.
11. The third layer of compound should be applied in the same way as
second layer, pouring on connectors and terminal posts first, and filling in to
the level of top of wood ease. The spaces between bars of cell connectors
will fill and flow over properly if second layer has been allowed to cool and
if cell connectors have not been burned up too high. In sealing last layer with
flame, care should be taken not to play flame on compound too long as this
hardens and burns the compound. Burned compound has no flexibility and
Page 505
will crack readily in service, thus causing the battery to become a "slopper."
In pouring compound be sure to have battery setting level so that compound
will come up even on all edges of case. Do not move battery after pouring
last layer until thoroughly cool.
Before installing battery on car be sure that no compound, etc., has been
allowed to get onto taper of terminal post, as this will make a poor
connection. If this has happened, clean with medium grade sandpaper.
VESTA BATTERIES
Vesta Isolators. The Vesta plate embodies in its design devices which are
intended to hold the plates straight and thus eliminate the buckling and short-
circuiting which form a large percentage of battery trouble. Fig. 263 shows
clearly the construction of the old type of plate. Each isolator used in the old
type of plate consists of two notched strips of celluloid, with a plain celluloid
strip between them. The notches are as wide as the plates are thick, the teeth
between the notches fitting into the spaces between plates, thus holding the
plates at the correct distances apart. The plain celluloid strip holds the
notched strips in place. At each corner of the Vesta plate is a slot into which
the isolator fits, as shown in Fig. 263. Since the teeth on the two notched
pieces of each isolator hold the plates apart, they cannot "cut-out" or "short-
out" by pinching through the wooden separators, or "impregnated mats" as
they are called by the Vesta Company.
The celluloid of which the isolators are made are not attacked by the
electrolyte at ordinary temperatures. At higher temperatures, however, the
electrolyte slowly dissolves the isolators. The condition of the isolator,
therefore, may be used to determine whether the temperature of the
electrolyte has been allowed to rise above 100° Fahrenheit.
In pouring compound be sure to have battery setting level so that compound
will come up even on all edges of case. Do not move battery after pouring
last layer until thoroughly cool.
Before installing battery on car be sure that no compound, etc., has been
allowed to get onto taper of terminal post, as this will make a poor
connection. If this has happened, clean with medium grade sandpaper.
VESTA BATTERIES
Vesta Isolators. The Vesta plate embodies in its design devices which are
intended to hold the plates straight and thus eliminate the buckling and short-
circuiting which form a large percentage of battery trouble. Fig. 263 shows
clearly the construction of the old type of plate. Each isolator used in the old
type of plate consists of two notched strips of celluloid, with a plain celluloid
strip between them. The notches are as wide as the plates are thick, the teeth
between the notches fitting into the spaces between plates, thus holding the
plates at the correct distances apart. The plain celluloid strip holds the
notched strips in place. At each corner of the Vesta plate is a slot into which
the isolator fits, as shown in Fig. 263. Since the teeth on the two notched
pieces of each isolator hold the plates apart, they cannot "cut-out" or "short-
out" by pinching through the wooden separators, or "impregnated mats" as
they are called by the Vesta Company.
The celluloid of which the isolators are made are not attacked by the
electrolyte at ordinary temperatures. At higher temperatures, however, the
electrolyte slowly dissolves the isolators. The condition of the isolator,
therefore, may be used to determine whether the temperature of the
electrolyte has been allowed to rise above 100° Fahrenheit.
Page 506
The Vesta Type "D" Battery
The appearance of a group of the new Type "D" construction is shown in
Fig. 265, where Type "C" and Type "D" groups are illustrated side by side
for purposes of comparison. It will be seen that the "D" isolator is of one
piece only (shown separately in Fig. 266). The material is a heavy hard
rubber stock which will be no more affected by acid or by electrical
conditions in the cell than the hard rubber battery jar itself. The indentations
The appearance of a group of the new Type "D" construction is shown in
Fig. 265, where Type "C" and Type "D" groups are illustrated side by side
for purposes of comparison. It will be seen that the "D" isolator is of one
piece only (shown separately in Fig. 266). The material is a heavy hard
rubber stock which will be no more affected by acid or by electrical
conditions in the cell than the hard rubber battery jar itself. The indentations
Page 507
on the two edges of isolator engage in hook shaped lugs on plate edges (Fig.
267 shows these clearly) and lock the plates apart fully as efficiently as the
three-piece construction.
There are a number of important advantages which have been gained by the
new method of isolation. The illustration (Fig. 265) shows how the "D"
isolator permits the separators to completely cover and project slightly
beyond the edges of the plates, whereas in the old construction there is an
edge just above the isolators where the plates are not covered. This
improvement means protection against shorts due to flaking, always so
likely to occur during the summer "overcharging" season. Overcharging is,
of course, a form of abuse, and Type "D" batteries are designed to meet this
267 shows these clearly) and lock the plates apart fully as efficiently as the
three-piece construction.
There are a number of important advantages which have been gained by the
new method of isolation. The illustration (Fig. 265) shows how the "D"
isolator permits the separators to completely cover and project slightly
beyond the edges of the plates, whereas in the old construction there is an
edge just above the isolators where the plates are not covered. This
improvement means protection against shorts due to flaking, always so
likely to occur during the summer "overcharging" season. Overcharging is,
of course, a form of abuse, and Type "D" batteries are designed to meet this
Page 508
sort of service. Another great advantage gained is in the arrangement of lugs,
It will be noted that the positive isolator hooks are in alignment, as are the
negative hooks, but that these two rows, of opposite polarity, are separated
from each other by the full width of the isolator; whereas in the Type "C"
construction the outer edges of the plates, of opposite polarity, were
separated only by the usual distance between plates.
It will be noted that the positive isolator hooks are in alignment, as are the
negative hooks, but that these two rows, of opposite polarity, are separated
from each other by the full width of the isolator; whereas in the Type "C"
construction the outer edges of the plates, of opposite polarity, were
separated only by the usual distance between plates.
Page 509
Page 510
The new isolator is simple to insert and remove. Being made of hard rubber,
it will soften and become pliable if a sufficient degree of heat is applied. The
heat required is approximately 150° to 160°F., a temperature far above that
reached by any battery cell, even under the most extravagant condition of
abuse, but readily attained in the shop by means of a small flame of any
kind-even a match will do in an emergency. The flame (which should be of
the yellow or luminous variety, as the blue flame tends to scorch the rubber)
is played lightly over the isolator a few seconds. The rubber becomes soft
and is then removed by inserting under the end of the isolator any narrow
tool, such as a small screw driver, a wedge point, chisel, etc., and prying
gently. In replacing isolators, a small hot plate is convenient but not at all
necessary. The isolators are placed on the hot plate, or held in a luminous
flame, until soft enough to bend. They are then bent into an arched shape, as
shown in Fig. 268, and quickly fitted into place under the proper lugs. The
regular isolator spacing tool is convenient and helpful in maintaining the
plates at uniform intervals while this operation is carried out. The job is
completed by pressing down the still warm isolator with any handy piece of
metal having a flat edge that will fit the distance between the lugs (Fig. 269).
The shank of a screw driver does splendidly for this work. The pressure
causes the isolator to straighten out, and the indentations fit snugly under the
respective hooks on the plates. At the same time the contact with the cold
metal chills the rubber to its normal hard condition. It is especially to be
noted that the entire operation of isolator removal and replacement can be
carried out with none but the commonest of shop tools.
it will soften and become pliable if a sufficient degree of heat is applied. The
heat required is approximately 150° to 160°F., a temperature far above that
reached by any battery cell, even under the most extravagant condition of
abuse, but readily attained in the shop by means of a small flame of any
kind-even a match will do in an emergency. The flame (which should be of
the yellow or luminous variety, as the blue flame tends to scorch the rubber)
is played lightly over the isolator a few seconds. The rubber becomes soft
and is then removed by inserting under the end of the isolator any narrow
tool, such as a small screw driver, a wedge point, chisel, etc., and prying
gently. In replacing isolators, a small hot plate is convenient but not at all
necessary. The isolators are placed on the hot plate, or held in a luminous
flame, until soft enough to bend. They are then bent into an arched shape, as
shown in Fig. 268, and quickly fitted into place under the proper lugs. The
regular isolator spacing tool is convenient and helpful in maintaining the
plates at uniform intervals while this operation is carried out. The job is
completed by pressing down the still warm isolator with any handy piece of
metal having a flat edge that will fit the distance between the lugs (Fig. 269).
The shank of a screw driver does splendidly for this work. The pressure
causes the isolator to straighten out, and the indentations fit snugly under the
respective hooks on the plates. At the same time the contact with the cold
metal chills the rubber to its normal hard condition. It is especially to be
noted that the entire operation of isolator removal and replacement can be
carried out with none but the commonest of shop tools.
Page 511
Page 512
All of the "U" size batteries have been changed to Type "D," so that all "CU"
types are superseded by corresponding "DU's." Type "D" will not be used on
cells of sizes "L," "H," or "A", all of which remain of the "C" or three-piece
isolator construction. Type "S" remains old style as before.
Type "DJ"
The Vesta Company has added a new plate size, produced in the "D" style
(one-piece) isolator only, and known as "DJ."
This plate is one-half inch higher than the "U," as shown in Fig. 267. It has
10 per cent more capacity. "DJ" batteries are available in all forms
corresponding with "CU" types, and can be obtained by merely changing the
type form name in ordering, as for example, to replace form 150, 6-DJ11-Y-
150. The overall height of the completed battery is, of course, one-half inch
more, and the "DJ" should therefore be ordered only when this additional
height space is available in the battery compartment of the car.
Vesta Separators
The Vesta separators, or "mats," are treated by a special process. The Vesta
Company considers its "mats" a very important feature of the battery. See
page 15.
Vesta Post Seal
A lead collar fits over each post to hold the cover tight against the soft
rubber gasket underneath. This collar is not screwed or burned on the post,
but is simply pressed down over the post, depending for its holding power
upon the fact that two lead surfaces rubbing against each other tend to
"freeze," and unite so as to become a unit. The connector rests upon the
upper race of the collar, and also helps to hold it down in its proper position.
Fig. 270 shows the complete battery with the lead collar, and the large vent
plug.
In rebuilding Vesta batteries having the lead collars, the cover should be left
in place when working on the plates, if possible. If, however, it is necessary
types are superseded by corresponding "DU's." Type "D" will not be used on
cells of sizes "L," "H," or "A", all of which remain of the "C" or three-piece
isolator construction. Type "S" remains old style as before.
Type "DJ"
The Vesta Company has added a new plate size, produced in the "D" style
(one-piece) isolator only, and known as "DJ."
This plate is one-half inch higher than the "U," as shown in Fig. 267. It has
10 per cent more capacity. "DJ" batteries are available in all forms
corresponding with "CU" types, and can be obtained by merely changing the
type form name in ordering, as for example, to replace form 150, 6-DJ11-Y-
150. The overall height of the completed battery is, of course, one-half inch
more, and the "DJ" should therefore be ordered only when this additional
height space is available in the battery compartment of the car.
Vesta Separators
The Vesta separators, or "mats," are treated by a special process. The Vesta
Company considers its "mats" a very important feature of the battery. See
page 15.
Vesta Post Seal
A lead collar fits over each post to hold the cover tight against the soft
rubber gasket underneath. This collar is not screwed or burned on the post,
but is simply pressed down over the post, depending for its holding power
upon the fact that two lead surfaces rubbing against each other tend to
"freeze," and unite so as to become a unit. The connector rests upon the
upper race of the collar, and also helps to hold it down in its proper position.
Fig. 270 shows the complete battery with the lead collar, and the large vent
plug.
In rebuilding Vesta batteries having the lead collars, the cover should be left
in place when working on the plates, if possible. If, however, it is necessary
Page 513
to separate groups, and the lead collars must be removed, this is done as
shown in Fig. 271. A few blows on the side of the collar with a light, two
ounce hammer expands the lead collar several thousands of an inch so that
the collar may be removed.
shown in Fig. 271. A few blows on the side of the collar with a light, two
ounce hammer expands the lead collar several thousands of an inch so that
the collar may be removed.
Page 514
In replacing the covers, the lead collar must be forced down over the post,
and special pressure tongs are required for this purpose. Before driving on
the old collar, the post should be expanded slightly by driving the point-of a
center-punch into the shoulder on the post. Instead of expanding the shoulder
a new collar may be used.
Fig. 272 shows the soft rubber gasket being placed over the post, and shows
the construction of the cover with its recess to fit the gasket.
Fig. 273 shows the lead collar being placed over the post after the cover is in
place.
Fig. 274 shows the special long lipped tongs required to force the collar
down on the post shoulder. One lip of the tongs has a hole into which the
post fits. The necessary driving force may be obtained by applying pressure
to the ends of the lips of the tongs With an ordinary vise. This forces the
cover down on the rubber gasket to make the acid-tight seal.
and special pressure tongs are required for this purpose. Before driving on
the old collar, the post should be expanded slightly by driving the point-of a
center-punch into the shoulder on the post. Instead of expanding the shoulder
a new collar may be used.
Fig. 272 shows the soft rubber gasket being placed over the post, and shows
the construction of the cover with its recess to fit the gasket.
Fig. 273 shows the lead collar being placed over the post after the cover is in
place.
Fig. 274 shows the special long lipped tongs required to force the collar
down on the post shoulder. One lip of the tongs has a hole into which the
post fits. The necessary driving force may be obtained by applying pressure
to the ends of the lips of the tongs With an ordinary vise. This forces the
cover down on the rubber gasket to make the acid-tight seal.
Page 515
WESTINGHOUSE BATTERIES
Westinghouse batteries have a special seal between covers and posts, as
shown in Fig. 275. A lead foundation washer (J) is set around the post. A "U"
shaped rubber gasket, (K) is then forced between the cover and post, with
Westinghouse batteries have a special seal between covers and posts, as
shown in Fig. 275. A lead foundation washer (J) is set around the post. A "U"
shaped rubber gasket, (K) is then forced between the cover and post, with
Page 516
the open end up. The lips of this gasket are tapered, with the narrow edge up.
A tapered lead sleeve (L) is then forced between the lips of gasket (K),
thereby pressing the inner lip against the post and the outer lip against the
cover.
The lead sleeve is held in place by broaching or indenting the collar on taper
lead sleeve into the posts.
A tapered lead sleeve (L) is then forced between the lips of gasket (K),
thereby pressing the inner lip against the post and the outer lip against the
cover.
The lead sleeve is held in place by broaching or indenting the collar on taper
lead sleeve into the posts.
Page 517
To break the seal, a hollow reamer or facing tool, fitted into a drill press or
breast drill, is slipped over the post. A few turns will remove that part of the
sleeve which has been forced into the post. Remove sealing compound
around cover, remove group from cell. The cover can then be lifted off and if
any difficulty is experienced, it can easily be removed by prying up cover
with screwdriver. After removing the cover, the tapered lead sleeve and "U"
shaped gasket can be removed. If these instructions are followed, the "U"
shaped gasket and taper lead sleeves can be used when battery is
reassembled.
With the addition of the foregoing instructions on the post seal, the standard
directions for rebuilding batteries given on pages 328 to 374 apply to
Westinghouse batteries.
Westinghouse Plates
In any given size, the Westinghouse battery has two more plates per cell than
the usual 1/8 inch plate battery. It has the same number of plates as the 3/32
inch thin plate battery, but the thickness of the plates is about half-way
between the 1/8 inch and 3/32 inch plates.
The Westinghouse negative grids, Fig. 276, have very few and small bars,
just enough to hold the active material. It is slightly thinner than the positive
but has the same amount of active material, due to the design of the grids.
The condition of Westinghouse negatives should not be determined by
cadmium readings as these plates may be fully charged and yet not give
reversed cadmium readings.
breast drill, is slipped over the post. A few turns will remove that part of the
sleeve which has been forced into the post. Remove sealing compound
around cover, remove group from cell. The cover can then be lifted off and if
any difficulty is experienced, it can easily be removed by prying up cover
with screwdriver. After removing the cover, the tapered lead sleeve and "U"
shaped gasket can be removed. If these instructions are followed, the "U"
shaped gasket and taper lead sleeves can be used when battery is
reassembled.
With the addition of the foregoing instructions on the post seal, the standard
directions for rebuilding batteries given on pages 328 to 374 apply to
Westinghouse batteries.
Westinghouse Plates
In any given size, the Westinghouse battery has two more plates per cell than
the usual 1/8 inch plate battery. It has the same number of plates as the 3/32
inch thin plate battery, but the thickness of the plates is about half-way
between the 1/8 inch and 3/32 inch plates.
The Westinghouse negative grids, Fig. 276, have very few and small bars,
just enough to hold the active material. It is slightly thinner than the positive
but has the same amount of active material, due to the design of the grids.
The condition of Westinghouse negatives should not be determined by
cadmium readings as these plates may be fully charged and yet not give
reversed cadmium readings.
Page 518
Aside from the special instructions given for the Westinghouse Post Seal, the
Standard Instructions for Rebuilding Batteries, given on pages 328 to 374
may be used in rebuilding Westinghouse batteries.
TYPES OF WESTINGHOUSE BATTERIES
Type "A" Batteries
The type "A" series was designed to fit the battery compartment in certain
rather old models of cars. Owing to a lack of space this series is not of as
efficient design as the "C" and "B" series. It does have the Westinghouse
Post Seal, however.
Type "A" batteries are not recommended for use when "B" or "C" batteries
can be used.
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
Standard Instructions for Rebuilding Batteries, given on pages 328 to 374
may be used in rebuilding Westinghouse batteries.
TYPES OF WESTINGHOUSE BATTERIES
Type "A" Batteries
The type "A" series was designed to fit the battery compartment in certain
rather old models of cars. Owing to a lack of space this series is not of as
efficient design as the "C" and "B" series. It does have the Westinghouse
Post Seal, however.
Type "A" batteries are not recommended for use when "B" or "C" batteries
can be used.
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
Page 519
6-A-
100071 64 68 9.1 8 38
11
6-A-
100072 79 82 11.0 9-1/8 42
13
6-A-
100073 94 96 12.8 10-1/4 46
15
6-A-
100074 109 109 14.6 11-9/16 52
17
6-A-
100075 139 136 18.2 14-3/16 63
21
6-A-
100076 169 164 22.0 17 75
25
12-A-
100077 34 41 5.5 10-7/16 48
7
12-A- 14-
100078 64 68 9.1 70
11 15/16
12-A-
100079 109 109 14.6 22-1/16 102
17
Plates
Width Height Thickness
5-5/8 4-1/8 .098
Type "B" Batteries
The type "B" series of batteries has been designed for use on a number of
cars now in service that do not have a sufficient headroom in the battery
compartment for type "C."
Type "B" batteries carry all of the features of the type "C." Due to the fact
that the plates of necessity must be somewhat shorter than in the type "C"
batteries their efficiency from the point of ampere hours per pound of weight
is slightly less than the type "C" series.
100071 64 68 9.1 8 38
11
6-A-
100072 79 82 11.0 9-1/8 42
13
6-A-
100073 94 96 12.8 10-1/4 46
15
6-A-
100074 109 109 14.6 11-9/16 52
17
6-A-
100075 139 136 18.2 14-3/16 63
21
6-A-
100076 169 164 22.0 17 75
25
12-A-
100077 34 41 5.5 10-7/16 48
7
12-A- 14-
100078 64 68 9.1 70
11 15/16
12-A-
100079 109 109 14.6 22-1/16 102
17
Plates
Width Height Thickness
5-5/8 4-1/8 .098
Type "B" Batteries
The type "B" series of batteries has been designed for use on a number of
cars now in service that do not have a sufficient headroom in the battery
compartment for type "C."
Type "B" batteries carry all of the features of the type "C." Due to the fact
that the plates of necessity must be somewhat shorter than in the type "C"
batteries their efficiency from the point of ampere hours per pound of weight
is slightly less than the type "C" series.
Page 520
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
6-B-7 100031 41 44 6.6 5-3/4 30
6-B-9 100032 59 66 8.8 6.7/8 36
6-B-
100033 77 82 11.0 8 41
11
6-B-
100034 95 99 13.2 9-1/2 47
13
6-B-
100035 114 115 15.4 10-1/4 52
15
6-B-
100036 132 131 17.6 11-9/16 57
17
6-B-
100037 150 148 19.8 12-7/8 60
19
6-B-
100038 168 164 22.0 14-3/16 68
21
6-B-
100039 186 181 24.2 15-1/2 75
23
6-B-
100040 205 197 26.4 17 82
25
12-B-
100041 41 49 6.6 10-7/16 54
7
12-B- 12-
100042 59 66 8.8 66
9 11/16
12-B- 14-
100043 77 82 11.0 78
11 15/16
12-B-
100044 95 99 13.2 17-3/16 91
13
12-B-
100045 114 115 15.4 19-7/16 102
15
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
6-B-7 100031 41 44 6.6 5-3/4 30
6-B-9 100032 59 66 8.8 6.7/8 36
6-B-
100033 77 82 11.0 8 41
11
6-B-
100034 95 99 13.2 9-1/2 47
13
6-B-
100035 114 115 15.4 10-1/4 52
15
6-B-
100036 132 131 17.6 11-9/16 57
17
6-B-
100037 150 148 19.8 12-7/8 60
19
6-B-
100038 168 164 22.0 14-3/16 68
21
6-B-
100039 186 181 24.2 15-1/2 75
23
6-B-
100040 205 197 26.4 17 82
25
12-B-
100041 41 49 6.6 10-7/16 54
7
12-B- 12-
100042 59 66 8.8 66
9 11/16
12-B- 14-
100043 77 82 11.0 78
11 15/16
12-B-
100044 95 99 13.2 17-3/16 91
13
12-B-
100045 114 115 15.4 19-7/16 102
15
Page 521
12-B-
100046 132 131 17.6 22-1/16 113
17
Plates
Width Height Thickness
5-5/8 4-3/4 0.1
Type "C" Batteries
The type "C" series of batteries is the Westinghouse standard. The outside
dimensions and capacity are such that some one of this design may be used
in a majority of cars now in service. The Westinghouse design was built
around this type and it should be used for replacement or new equipment.
Type "C" batteries are provided with the Westinghouse Post Seal wherever
possible.
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
6-C-7 100001 45 54 7.3 5-7/8 34
6-C-9 100002 65 73 9.7 7 39
6-C-
100003 85 91 12.1 8-1/8 44
11
6-C-
100004 105 109 14.6 9-1/4 50
13
6-C-
100005 125 127 17.0 10-3/8 56
15
6-C- 11-
100006 145 145 19.4 63
17 11/16
6-C-
100007 165 163 21.8 13 70
19
100046 132 131 17.6 22-1/16 113
17
Plates
Width Height Thickness
5-5/8 4-3/4 0.1
Type "C" Batteries
The type "C" series of batteries is the Westinghouse standard. The outside
dimensions and capacity are such that some one of this design may be used
in a majority of cars now in service. The Westinghouse design was built
around this type and it should be used for replacement or new equipment.
Type "C" batteries are provided with the Westinghouse Post Seal wherever
possible.
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
6-C-7 100001 45 54 7.3 5-7/8 34
6-C-9 100002 65 73 9.7 7 39
6-C-
100003 85 91 12.1 8-1/8 44
11
6-C-
100004 105 109 14.6 9-1/4 50
13
6-C-
100005 125 127 17.0 10-3/8 56
15
6-C- 11-
100006 145 145 19.4 63
17 11/16
6-C-
100007 165 163 21.8 13 70
19
Page 522
6-C-
100008 185 181 24.3 14-5/16 77
21
6-C-
100009 205 199 26.7 15-5/8 85
23
6-C-
100010 225 218 29.2 17-1/8 93
25
12-C-
100011 45 54 7.3 10-9/16 59
7
12-C- 12-
100012 65 73 9.7 72
19 13/16
12-C-
100013 85 91 12.1 15-1/16 84
11
12-C-
100014 105 109 14.6 17-5/16 96
13
12--
100015 125 127 17.0 19-8/16 110
C-15
Plates
Width Height Thickness
5-5/8 4-1/4 0.1 inch
Type "E" Batteries
The type "E" series was designed for replacement work on a few old model
cars now in service where a narrow, high battery was necessary. The design
is not as efficient as the "B" and "C" lines, due to a lack of space and further,
it has been necessary to omit the Westinghouse Post Seal for the same
reason.
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
100008 185 181 24.3 14-5/16 77
21
6-C-
100009 205 199 26.7 15-5/8 85
23
6-C-
100010 225 218 29.2 17-1/8 93
25
12-C-
100011 45 54 7.3 10-9/16 59
7
12-C- 12-
100012 65 73 9.7 72
19 13/16
12-C-
100013 85 91 12.1 15-1/16 84
11
12-C-
100014 105 109 14.6 17-5/16 96
13
12--
100015 125 127 17.0 19-8/16 110
C-15
Plates
Width Height Thickness
5-5/8 4-1/4 0.1 inch
Type "E" Batteries
The type "E" series was designed for replacement work on a few old model
cars now in service where a narrow, high battery was necessary. The design
is not as efficient as the "B" and "C" lines, due to a lack of space and further,
it has been necessary to omit the Westinghouse Post Seal for the same
reason.
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
Page 523
6-E-
100058 79 82 11.0 9-1/8 40
13
6-E-
100062 94 96 12.8 10-1/4 44
15
6-E-
100065 109 109 14.6 11-9/16 50
17
6-E-
100067 139 136 18.2 14-3/16 62
21
12-E- 14-
100088 64 68 9.1 70
11 15/16
12-E-
100060 79 82 11.0 17-3/16 79
13
12-E-
100069 94 96 12.8 19-7/16 90
15
18-E-
100070 49 54 7.3 15-5/16 75
9
Plates
Width Height Thickness
4-1/8 5-5/8 .098
Type "H" Batteries
The type "H" battery is built with heavier plates than the type "C" and "B"
batteries for use in cars where the necessary increased space is available and
where the weight per ampere output is not a consideration. Under the same
use the battery will give a greater life than the type "C" or "B" battery having
the same positive area.
This battery has a greater space between the plates than the "C" or "B"
battery and will therefore have less internal discharge when standing on
open circuit, and is more desirable for miscellaneous use where open circuit
discharge is of consideration.
100058 79 82 11.0 9-1/8 40
13
6-E-
100062 94 96 12.8 10-1/4 44
15
6-E-
100065 109 109 14.6 11-9/16 50
17
6-E-
100067 139 136 18.2 14-3/16 62
21
12-E- 14-
100088 64 68 9.1 70
11 15/16
12-E-
100060 79 82 11.0 17-3/16 79
13
12-E-
100069 94 96 12.8 19-7/16 90
15
18-E-
100070 49 54 7.3 15-5/16 75
9
Plates
Width Height Thickness
4-1/8 5-5/8 .098
Type "H" Batteries
The type "H" battery is built with heavier plates than the type "C" and "B"
batteries for use in cars where the necessary increased space is available and
where the weight per ampere output is not a consideration. Under the same
use the battery will give a greater life than the type "C" or "B" battery having
the same positive area.
This battery has a greater space between the plates than the "C" or "B"
battery and will therefore have less internal discharge when standing on
open circuit, and is more desirable for miscellaneous use where open circuit
discharge is of consideration.
Page 524
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
6-H-
100089 61 74 9.9 7-3/4 35
17
6-H-
100090 88 89 13.2 9-1/4 43
9
6-H-
100091 115 124 16.5 11-1/2 55
11
6-H-
100092 143 149 19.8 12-5/8 36
13
6-H-
100093 170 173 23.2 14-5/16 70
15
6-H-
100094 197 109 26.5 16 79
17
Plates
Width Height Thickness
5-5/8 5 .19
Type "J" Batteries
The type "J" battery is an extremely heavy construction battery with thick
plates, and it was designed primarily for use on trucks and other vehicles of
this type where there is excessive vibration and other possibility of
mechanical abuse. This battery will give a greater life than either the "H",
"C" or "B" battery with the same plate area. It is provided with wood
separators and rubber sheets.
This battery has a greater space between the plates than the "C" or "B"
battery and will therefore have less internal discharge when standing on
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
6-H-
100089 61 74 9.9 7-3/4 35
17
6-H-
100090 88 89 13.2 9-1/4 43
9
6-H-
100091 115 124 16.5 11-1/2 55
11
6-H-
100092 143 149 19.8 12-5/8 36
13
6-H-
100093 170 173 23.2 14-5/16 70
15
6-H-
100094 197 109 26.5 16 79
17
Plates
Width Height Thickness
5-5/8 5 .19
Type "J" Batteries
The type "J" battery is an extremely heavy construction battery with thick
plates, and it was designed primarily for use on trucks and other vehicles of
this type where there is excessive vibration and other possibility of
mechanical abuse. This battery will give a greater life than either the "H",
"C" or "B" battery with the same plate area. It is provided with wood
separators and rubber sheets.
This battery has a greater space between the plates than the "C" or "B"
battery and will therefore have less internal discharge when standing on
Page 525
open circuit, and is more desirable for miscellaneous use where open circuit
discharge is of consideration.
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
6-J-5 100095 38 55 7.35 6-7/16 38
6-J-7 100096 68 82 11.0 8-1/8 40
6-J-9 100097 98 110 14.7 10-3/8 50
6-J-
100098 128 137 18.4 11-7/8 60
11
6-J-
100099 159 165 22.1 13-3/4 69
13
6-J-
100100 189 192 25.7 15-5/8 84
15
6-J-
100101 220 220 29.4 17-1/2 96
17
Plates
Width Height Thickness
5-5/8 5 .19
Type "0" Batteries
The "0" type battery sacrifices some capacity in obtaining a rugged strength.
It is a special battery made only with nineteen plates per cell where the
percentage of sacrificed capacity is not great as compared with the twenty-
one plate "C" type. It fills the same space as does a 6-C-21. It has greater life
and strength. It has less capacity but it is built for conditions requiring less
capacity than a twenty-one plate cell.
discharge is of consideration.
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
6-J-5 100095 38 55 7.35 6-7/16 38
6-J-7 100096 68 82 11.0 8-1/8 40
6-J-9 100097 98 110 14.7 10-3/8 50
6-J-
100098 128 137 18.4 11-7/8 60
11
6-J-
100099 159 165 22.1 13-3/4 69
13
6-J-
100100 189 192 25.7 15-5/8 84
15
6-J-
100101 220 220 29.4 17-1/2 96
17
Plates
Width Height Thickness
5-5/8 5 .19
Type "0" Batteries
The "0" type battery sacrifices some capacity in obtaining a rugged strength.
It is a special battery made only with nineteen plates per cell where the
percentage of sacrificed capacity is not great as compared with the twenty-
one plate "C" type. It fills the same space as does a 6-C-21. It has greater life
and strength. It has less capacity but it is built for conditions requiring less
capacity than a twenty-one plate cell.
Page 526
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
6-O- 13-
100143 185 185 24.5 68
19 11/16
Plates
Width Height Thickness
5-5/8 5-1/4 .123
Type "F" Batteries
There is only one type "F" battery. It is of big heavy construction exactly the
same dimensions as the battery used for a number of years on the Cadillac
and certain other cars. This battery is heavier than type "C" of the same
capacity and it has a greater life.
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
6-F- 17-
100086 150 160 21.2 79
13 11/16
Plates
Width Height Thickness
4-3/4 5-1/4 .17
WILLARD BATTERIES
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
6-O- 13-
100143 185 185 24.5 68
19 11/16
Plates
Width Height Thickness
5-5/8 5-1/4 .123
Type "F" Batteries
There is only one type "F" battery. It is of big heavy construction exactly the
same dimensions as the battery used for a number of years on the Cadillac
and certain other cars. This battery is heavier than type "C" of the same
capacity and it has a greater life.
Ampere
Ampere Ampere Length
Hours Weight
Part Rate for Rate in
Type at Usual in
No. 20 for Inches
Lighting Pounds
Minutes 5 Hours L
Rate
6-F- 17-
100086 150 160 21.2 79
13 11/16
Plates
Width Height Thickness
4-3/4 5-1/4 .17
WILLARD BATTERIES
Page 527
Since 1912, when the Willard Storage Battery Co. began to manufacture
storage batteries for starting and lighting work, various types of Willard
batteries have been developed. The original Willard starting and lighting
batteries used two-piece, or "double" covers. These are shown in the cuts
used to illustrate the sealing of double-cover covers in the preceding chapter,
and no further description will be given here. The doublecover batteries are
no longer made, but the repairman will probably be called upon to repair
some of them. The instructions given in the preceding chapter should be
used in making such repairs.
Following the double cover batteries came the single cover battery, of which
a number of types have been made. One type used a rectangular post, and
was very difficult to repair. Fortunately, this type was not used extensively,
and the battery is obsolete.
Willard Batteries With Compound Sealed Posts
The oldest type single-cover Willard battery which the repairman will be
called upon to handle is the compound sealed post type, illustrated in-Fig.
277. This battery includes types SEW, SER, SJW, SL, SLR, SM, SMR, STR,
SXW, SXR, SP, SK, SQ, EM, and EMR. As shown in Fig. 277, there is a
well around each post which is filled with: sealing compound. On the under
side of the cover is a corresponding well which fits into the post well, the
sealing compound serving to make the seal between the cover and the post.
Aside from this post seal, no special instructions are required in
rebuilding this type of Willard battery. A 3/4 inch drill is needed for
drilling off the connectors. When the plates have been lifted out of the
jars, and are resting on the jar to drain, and while the compound and
cover are still hot, remove the cover by placing your fingers under it and
pressing down on the posts with your thumbs.
With a narrow screw driver or a knife, clean out all of the old compound
from the wells around the posts, and also remove the compound from the
under side of the cover which fits into the post wells.
storage batteries for starting and lighting work, various types of Willard
batteries have been developed. The original Willard starting and lighting
batteries used two-piece, or "double" covers. These are shown in the cuts
used to illustrate the sealing of double-cover covers in the preceding chapter,
and no further description will be given here. The doublecover batteries are
no longer made, but the repairman will probably be called upon to repair
some of them. The instructions given in the preceding chapter should be
used in making such repairs.
Following the double cover batteries came the single cover battery, of which
a number of types have been made. One type used a rectangular post, and
was very difficult to repair. Fortunately, this type was not used extensively,
and the battery is obsolete.
Willard Batteries With Compound Sealed Posts
The oldest type single-cover Willard battery which the repairman will be
called upon to handle is the compound sealed post type, illustrated in-Fig.
277. This battery includes types SEW, SER, SJW, SL, SLR, SM, SMR, STR,
SXW, SXR, SP, SK, SQ, EM, and EMR. As shown in Fig. 277, there is a
well around each post which is filled with: sealing compound. On the under
side of the cover is a corresponding well which fits into the post well, the
sealing compound serving to make the seal between the cover and the post.
Aside from this post seal, no special instructions are required in
rebuilding this type of Willard battery. A 3/4 inch drill is needed for
drilling off the connectors. When the plates have been lifted out of the
jars, and are resting on the jar to drain, and while the compound and
cover are still hot, remove the cover by placing your fingers under it and
pressing down on the posts with your thumbs.
With a narrow screw driver or a knife, clean out all of the old compound
from the wells around the posts, and also remove the compound from the
under side of the cover which fits into the post wells.
Page 528
In reassembling the battery first try on
the covers to see that they will fit in
the post wells. Then remove the
covers again and heat them with a
soft flame. Then heat the post wells
perfectly dry with a soft flame. Pour
the post wells nearly full of
compound, and quickly press the
cover into position.
Willard Batteries With Lead Inserts In Covers
The types SJWN and SJRN Willard batteries have lead inserts in the cover
post holes, as shown in Mg. 278, the inserts being welded to the posts. For
removing the connectors and for separating the post from the cover insert,
the Willard Company furnishes special jigs and forms. The work may also
be done without these jigs and forms, as will be described later.
When the special jigs and forms are used, the work is done, as follows:
1. Place Willard drill jig Z-72 (Fig. 279) over the connector, and with a
13/16 inch drill, bore down far enough to release the connector from the post
(Fig. 279).
the covers to see that they will fit in
the post wells. Then remove the
covers again and heat them with a
soft flame. Then heat the post wells
perfectly dry with a soft flame. Pour
the post wells nearly full of
compound, and quickly press the
cover into position.
Willard Batteries With Lead Inserts In Covers
The types SJWN and SJRN Willard batteries have lead inserts in the cover
post holes, as shown in Mg. 278, the inserts being welded to the posts. For
removing the connectors and for separating the post from the cover insert,
the Willard Company furnishes special jigs and forms. The work may also
be done without these jigs and forms, as will be described later.
When the special jigs and forms are used, the work is done, as follows:
1. Place Willard drill jig Z-72 (Fig. 279) over the connector, and with a
13/16 inch drill, bore down far enough to release the connector from the post
(Fig. 279).
Page 529
2. File off the post stub left by drilling. This will give a flat surface on top of
the cover insert and will make it easier to center the drill for the next
operation.
3. With a 57/64 inch drill, and Willard jig Z-94 (Fig. 280), drill down to
release the post from the cover insert.
the cover insert and will make it easier to center the drill for the next
operation.
3. With a 57/64 inch drill, and Willard jig Z-94 (Fig. 280), drill down to
release the post from the cover insert.
Page 530
4. In reassembling, build the post up to a height of 1-5/16 inches above the
top of the plate strap, using Willard post builder Z-93 (Fig. 281).
5. After removing the post builder, bevel the top edge of the post with a file,
as indicated at "A" (Fig. 281). Then replace plates in the jars.
6. File off tops of cover inserts at "A" (Fig. 282), to a height of 3/16 inch
above the cover. Also remove any roughness on surface "B" caused by pliers
when cover was removed.
top of the plate strap, using Willard post builder Z-93 (Fig. 281).
5. After removing the post builder, bevel the top edge of the post with a file,
as indicated at "A" (Fig. 281). Then replace plates in the jars.
6. File off tops of cover inserts at "A" (Fig. 282), to a height of 3/16 inch
above the cover. Also remove any roughness on surface "B" caused by pliers
when cover was removed.
Page 531
7. Put on the covers so that their tops will be 1/32 inch above the top edge of
the jars, tapping them lightly with a small hammer.
8. Place Willard burning form Z-87 (Fig. 283) over the post and cover insert
and burn the post to the insert.
9. Remove form Z-87 and thoroughly brush off the top of the post stub. Then
build up the stub post, using Willard burning form Z-88 on the positive posts
and form Z-89 on the negative posts (Fig. 284).
the jars, tapping them lightly with a small hammer.
8. Place Willard burning form Z-87 (Fig. 283) over the post and cover insert
and burn the post to the insert.
9. Remove form Z-87 and thoroughly brush off the top of the post stub. Then
build up the stub post, using Willard burning form Z-88 on the positive posts
and form Z-89 on the negative posts (Fig. 284).
Page 532
10. Now seal the covers with sealing compound as usual, and burn on the
connectors.
11. If the terminal posts are made for clamp terminals, build up the posts by
using Willard burning form Z-90, for the positive posts and Z-91 for the
negative posts (Fig. 285).
To work on the post seals of Willard types SJWN and SJRN without the
special Willard jigs and forms:
1. Remove the connectors and terminals as usual.
2. Saw off the posts close to the covers, taking care not to injure the covers;
This will separate the posts from the cover inserts, and the covers may be
removed.
connectors.
11. If the terminal posts are made for clamp terminals, build up the posts by
using Willard burning form Z-90, for the positive posts and Z-91 for the
negative posts (Fig. 285).
To work on the post seals of Willard types SJWN and SJRN without the
special Willard jigs and forms:
1. Remove the connectors and terminals as usual.
2. Saw off the posts close to the covers, taking care not to injure the covers;
This will separate the posts from the cover inserts, and the covers may be
removed.
Page 533
3. In reassembling, Ale off the top of the cover insert at "A" (Fig. 292).
4. Put covers on so that their tops will be 1/32 inch above the top edge of the
jars, tapping the covers lightly with a small hammer.
5. Brush the top of post and cover insert perfectly clean. Now make a
burning form consisting of a ring 1-1/8 inside diameter and 1-5/8 inch
outside diameter and 3/16 to 1/4 inch high. Set this over the stub post and
cover. With a hot lead burning flame melt the top of the post and cover insert
together. Then melt in lead up to the top of the special burning form (Fig.
286). Then remove the form.
6. Set post builders on the part of the posts which has been built up and build
up the posts as usual, Fig. 286. Then burn on the connectors and terminals.
Willard Gasket Type Batteries
Fig. 287 shows this type of construction, used on types SJRG and SLWG.
Fig. 288 shows the seal in detail. A soft rubber gasket is slipped over the
post, and the cover is pushed down over the gasket. For removing the covers,
have a cover removal frame made as shown in Fig. 289. Fasten the frame to
a solid wall or bench so that it will withstand a strong pull. In rebuilding this
type of battery proceed as follows:
4. Put covers on so that their tops will be 1/32 inch above the top edge of the
jars, tapping the covers lightly with a small hammer.
5. Brush the top of post and cover insert perfectly clean. Now make a
burning form consisting of a ring 1-1/8 inside diameter and 1-5/8 inch
outside diameter and 3/16 to 1/4 inch high. Set this over the stub post and
cover. With a hot lead burning flame melt the top of the post and cover insert
together. Then melt in lead up to the top of the special burning form (Fig.
286). Then remove the form.
6. Set post builders on the part of the posts which has been built up and build
up the posts as usual, Fig. 286. Then burn on the connectors and terminals.
Willard Gasket Type Batteries
Fig. 287 shows this type of construction, used on types SJRG and SLWG.
Fig. 288 shows the seal in detail. A soft rubber gasket is slipped over the
post, and the cover is pushed down over the gasket. For removing the covers,
have a cover removal frame made as shown in Fig. 289. Fasten the frame to
a solid wall or bench so that it will withstand a strong pull. In rebuilding this
type of battery proceed as follows:
Page 534
1. Drill off the connectors and terminals, leaving the post stubs, as high as
possible, since the only way of removing the plates is by grasping the post
stubs with pliers.
possible, since the only way of removing the plates is by grasping the post
stubs with pliers.
Page 535
2. Steam the battery to soften the sealing compound and lift out the plates as
usual.
3. To remove covers. Saw the post stubs off flush with the covers. Place the
element in the cover removal frame (Fig. 289) and pull steadily on the
element. A little swaying motion from side to side may help in loosening the
covers. If any of the gaskets remain on the posts when the covers are
removed, replace them in the cover and thoroughly dry the inside with a rag.
usual.
3. To remove covers. Saw the post stubs off flush with the covers. Place the
element in the cover removal frame (Fig. 289) and pull steadily on the
element. A little swaying motion from side to side may help in loosening the
covers. If any of the gaskets remain on the posts when the covers are
removed, replace them in the cover and thoroughly dry the inside with a rag.
Page 536
4. To replace covers. With a rag or tissue paper wipe off the posts and then
dry them thoroughly with a soft flame.
With a 3/4 inch bristle bottle brush apply a thin coating of rubber cement to
the inside surfaces of the gaskets. Do this to one cover at a time and apply
the cover quickly before the cement dries. The cement acts as a lubricant,
and without it, it will be impossible to replace the covers.
Willard Separators
Fig. 290 shows the Willard Threaded Rubber Separator which is made of a
rubber sheet pierced by thousands of threads which are designed to make the
separator porous. This separator is not injured by allowing it to become dry,
and makes it possible for the Willard Company to ship its batteries fully
assembled without electrolyte or moisture, the parts being "bone-dry."
UNIVERSAL BATTERIES
Types. The Universal Battery Co. manufactures batteries for (a) Starting and
Lighting, (b) Lighting, (c) Ignition, (d) Radio, (e) Electric Cars and Trucks,
(f) Isolated, or Farm Lighting Plants, and (g) General Stationary Work.
Construction Features. The Universal Starting and Lighting Batteries
embody no special or unique constructions. The boxes are made of hard
maple, lock cornered and glued. The jars have single rubber covers. The
dry them thoroughly with a soft flame.
With a 3/4 inch bristle bottle brush apply a thin coating of rubber cement to
the inside surfaces of the gaskets. Do this to one cover at a time and apply
the cover quickly before the cement dries. The cement acts as a lubricant,
and without it, it will be impossible to replace the covers.
Willard Separators
Fig. 290 shows the Willard Threaded Rubber Separator which is made of a
rubber sheet pierced by thousands of threads which are designed to make the
separator porous. This separator is not injured by allowing it to become dry,
and makes it possible for the Willard Company to ship its batteries fully
assembled without electrolyte or moisture, the parts being "bone-dry."
UNIVERSAL BATTERIES
Types. The Universal Battery Co. manufactures batteries for (a) Starting and
Lighting, (b) Lighting, (c) Ignition, (d) Radio, (e) Electric Cars and Trucks,
(f) Isolated, or Farm Lighting Plants, and (g) General Stationary Work.
Construction Features. The Universal Starting and Lighting Batteries
embody no special or unique constructions. The boxes are made of hard
maple, lock cornered and glued. The jars have single rubber covers. The
Page 537
separators are made of Port Orford white cedar wood, this wood being the
same as that used in some of the other standard makes of batteries. The
space between the covers and connectors is sufficient to permit lifting the
battery by grasping the connectors.
Fig. 291 shows the Universal Co. Post Seal construction. A soft rubber
washer (A) is first slipped over the post. The cover (B) is then put in place,
and rests on the washer (A) as shown. A second washer (C) is then slipped
over the post, resting on the upper surface of the shoulder of the cover. The
lead sleeve washer (D) is then forced down over the post, pressing washer
(C) down on the cover, and pressing the cover down on washer (A). The two
rubber washers serve to make a leak proof joint between post and cover. The
lead sleeve-washer (D) "freezes" to the post, and holds cover and washers in
position.
In rebuilding Universal batteries the cover need not be removed unless it is
desired to replace plate groups. To remove the cover, after the cell
connectors have been drilled off, drill down through the post-stub until the
drill has penetrated to the shoulder (E). This releases the seal and the cover
may be lifted off. To save time, the post-stub may be cut off flush with the
top of the cover with a hack saw after the cell connectors have been drilled
off. The drill is then used as before to release the grip of the washer. Using a
drill to release the grip of the washer makes it necessary to build up the posts
when the battery is reassembled. Instead of using an ordinary twist drill, a
same as that used in some of the other standard makes of batteries. The
space between the covers and connectors is sufficient to permit lifting the
battery by grasping the connectors.
Fig. 291 shows the Universal Co. Post Seal construction. A soft rubber
washer (A) is first slipped over the post. The cover (B) is then put in place,
and rests on the washer (A) as shown. A second washer (C) is then slipped
over the post, resting on the upper surface of the shoulder of the cover. The
lead sleeve washer (D) is then forced down over the post, pressing washer
(C) down on the cover, and pressing the cover down on washer (A). The two
rubber washers serve to make a leak proof joint between post and cover. The
lead sleeve-washer (D) "freezes" to the post, and holds cover and washers in
position.
In rebuilding Universal batteries the cover need not be removed unless it is
desired to replace plate groups. To remove the cover, after the cell
connectors have been drilled off, drill down through the post-stub until the
drill has penetrated to the shoulder (E). This releases the seal and the cover
may be lifted off. To save time, the post-stub may be cut off flush with the
top of the cover with a hack saw after the cell connectors have been drilled
off. The drill is then used as before to release the grip of the washer. Using a
drill to release the grip of the washer makes it necessary to build up the posts
when the battery is reassembled. Instead of using an ordinary twist drill, a
Page 538
special hollow drill may be obtained from the Universal Battery Co. This
drill cuts away the lead sleeve gasket without injuring the post. If an
ordinary drill is used, a 3/4 inch drill is required for the seven plate battery
and a 13/16 inch drill for all other sizes.
ONE-PIECE BATTERY CONTAINERS
The standard practice in battery assembly has always been to place the plates
of each cell in a separate, hard rubber jar, the jars being set in a wooden box
or case. Each six-volt battery thus has four containers. When a wooden case
is used, jars made of rubber, or some other nonporous, acid-resisting
material are necessary.
Wooden cases have been fairly
well standardized as to the
kinds of wood used,
dimensions, constructional
features, and to a certain extent,
the handles. The disadvantage
of both the wooden case and the
iron handles is that they are not
acid proof. Acid-proof paint
protects them from the action of
the acid to a certain extent, but
paint is easily scraped off,
exposing the wood and iron to
the action of the acid. It is
practically impossible to
prevent acid from reaching the case and handles, and corroded handles and
rotted cases are quite common.
A recent development is a one-piece container which takes the place of the
jars and wooden case. Such a container is made of hard rubber or a
composition of impregnated fibre which uses a small amount of rubber as a
binder. These cases are, of course, entirely acid proof, and eliminate the
possibility of having acid soaked and acid rotted cases. Painting of cases is
drill cuts away the lead sleeve gasket without injuring the post. If an
ordinary drill is used, a 3/4 inch drill is required for the seven plate battery
and a 13/16 inch drill for all other sizes.
ONE-PIECE BATTERY CONTAINERS
The standard practice in battery assembly has always been to place the plates
of each cell in a separate, hard rubber jar, the jars being set in a wooden box
or case. Each six-volt battery thus has four containers. When a wooden case
is used, jars made of rubber, or some other nonporous, acid-resisting
material are necessary.
Wooden cases have been fairly
well standardized as to the
kinds of wood used,
dimensions, constructional
features, and to a certain extent,
the handles. The disadvantage
of both the wooden case and the
iron handles is that they are not
acid proof. Acid-proof paint
protects them from the action of
the acid to a certain extent, but
paint is easily scraped off,
exposing the wood and iron to
the action of the acid. It is
practically impossible to
prevent acid from reaching the case and handles, and corroded handles and
rotted cases are quite common.
A recent development is a one-piece container which takes the place of the
jars and wooden case. Such a container is made of hard rubber or a
composition of impregnated fibre which uses a small amount of rubber as a
binder. These cases are, of course, entirely acid proof, and eliminate the
possibility of having acid soaked and acid rotted cases. Painting of cases is
Page 539
also eliminated. The handles are often integral parts of the case, as shown in
Fig. 292, being made of the same material as the case.
The repairman should not overlook the possibilities of the one-piece
containers. In making up rental batteries, or in replacing old cases, the one-
piece containers may be used to advantage. These containers are suitable for
Radio batteries, since they have a neater appearance than the wooden cases,
and are not as likely to damage floors or furnishings because the acid cannot
seep through them.
THE TITAN BATTERY
The Titan Battery is built along standard lines, as far as cases, plates,
separators, and jars are concerned. The ribs of the grids not arranged at right
angles but are arranged as shown in Fig. 293. Each pellet of active material
is supported by a diagonal rib on the opposite face of the grid.
Fig. 292, being made of the same material as the case.
The repairman should not overlook the possibilities of the one-piece
containers. In making up rental batteries, or in replacing old cases, the one-
piece containers may be used to advantage. These containers are suitable for
Radio batteries, since they have a neater appearance than the wooden cases,
and are not as likely to damage floors or furnishings because the acid cannot
seep through them.
THE TITAN BATTERY
The Titan Battery is built along standard lines, as far as cases, plates,
separators, and jars are concerned. The ribs of the grids not arranged at right
angles but are arranged as shown in Fig. 293. Each pellet of active material
is supported by a diagonal rib on the opposite face of the grid.
Page 540
The Titan Post Seal is shown in Fig. 293. A soft rubber gasket (G) is slipped
over the post, and rests on a shoulder (F) on the post. The cover has a
channel which fits over the gasket and prevents the gasket from being
squeezed out of place when the cover is forced down on the gasket. The post
has two projections (DD), as shown, the lower surface of each of which is
inclined at an angle to the horizontal. A lock nut (H), which has
corresponding projections (IJ) is slipped over the post as shown at (0), and is
given a quarter turn. The top surfaces of the projections on the lock-nut are
inclined and as the locknut is turned, the projections on the post and nut
engage, and the cover is forced down on the gasket (G). To lock the nut in
place, a lock washer (L) is then slipped over the post, the projections (MM)
fitting into spaces (KK) between the projections on the post and nut, thus
preventing the nut from turning. A special wrench is furnished for turning
over the post, and rests on a shoulder (F) on the post. The cover has a
channel which fits over the gasket and prevents the gasket from being
squeezed out of place when the cover is forced down on the gasket. The post
has two projections (DD), as shown, the lower surface of each of which is
inclined at an angle to the horizontal. A lock nut (H), which has
corresponding projections (IJ) is slipped over the post as shown at (0), and is
given a quarter turn. The top surfaces of the projections on the lock-nut are
inclined and as the locknut is turned, the projections on the post and nut
engage, and the cover is forced down on the gasket (G). To lock the nut in
place, a lock washer (L) is then slipped over the post, the projections (MM)
fitting into spaces (KK) between the projections on the post and nut, thus
preventing the nut from turning. A special wrench is furnished for turning
Page 541
the lock-nut. The cell connectors rest on the tops of the lock washers and
keep them in place.
The overhauling of Titan batteries should be done as described on pages 328
to 374.
(Table of) Contents
keep them in place.
The overhauling of Titan batteries should be done as described on pages 328
to 374.
(Table of) Contents
Page 542
SECTION 3.
Page 543
CHAPTER 17
FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES SPECIAL
INSTRUCTIONS
Although the large Central Station Companies are continually extending
their power lines, and are enlarging the territory served by them, yet there
are many places where such service is not available. To meet the demand for
electrical power in these places, small but complete generating plants have
been produced by a number of manufacturers. These plants consist of an
electrical generator, an engine, to drive the generator, and a storage battery to
supply power when the generator is not running. The complete plants are
called "House Lighting," "Farm Lighting," or "Isolated" plants.
The batteries used in these plants differ considerably from the starting
batteries used on automobiles. The starting battery is called upon to deliver
very heavy currents for short intervals. On the car the battery is always being
charged when the car is running at a moderate speed or over. The battery
must fit in the limited space provided for it on the car, and must not lose any
electrolyte as the car jolts along over the road. It is subjected to both high
and low temperatures; and is generally on a car whose owner often does not
know that his car has such a thing as a battery until his starting motor some
day fails to turn over the engine. All starting batteries have wooden cases
(some now use rubber cases), hard rubber jars, and sealed on covers. The
case contains all the cells of the battery. Automobile batteries have,
therefore, become highly standardized, and to the uninformed, one make
looks just like any other.
Farm lighting batteries, on the other hand, are not limited as to space they
occupy, are not subjected to irregular charging and discharging, do not need
leak proof covers, and are not called upon to delivery very heavy currents for
short periods. These facts are taken advantage of by the manufacturers, who
have designed their farm lighting batteries to give a much longer life than is
FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES SPECIAL
INSTRUCTIONS
Although the large Central Station Companies are continually extending
their power lines, and are enlarging the territory served by them, yet there
are many places where such service is not available. To meet the demand for
electrical power in these places, small but complete generating plants have
been produced by a number of manufacturers. These plants consist of an
electrical generator, an engine, to drive the generator, and a storage battery to
supply power when the generator is not running. The complete plants are
called "House Lighting," "Farm Lighting," or "Isolated" plants.
The batteries used in these plants differ considerably from the starting
batteries used on automobiles. The starting battery is called upon to deliver
very heavy currents for short intervals. On the car the battery is always being
charged when the car is running at a moderate speed or over. The battery
must fit in the limited space provided for it on the car, and must not lose any
electrolyte as the car jolts along over the road. It is subjected to both high
and low temperatures; and is generally on a car whose owner often does not
know that his car has such a thing as a battery until his starting motor some
day fails to turn over the engine. All starting batteries have wooden cases
(some now use rubber cases), hard rubber jars, and sealed on covers. The
case contains all the cells of the battery. Automobile batteries have,
therefore, become highly standardized, and to the uninformed, one make
looks just like any other.
Farm lighting batteries, on the other hand, are not limited as to space they
occupy, are not subjected to irregular charging and discharging, do not need
leak proof covers, and are not called upon to delivery very heavy currents for
short periods. These facts are taken advantage of by the manufacturers, who
have designed their farm lighting batteries to give a much longer life than is
Page 544
possible in the automobile battery. As a result the farm lighting battery
differs from the automobile battery in a number of respects.
Jars. Both glass and rubber are used for farm lighting battery jars, and they
may or may not have sealed-in covers. Fig. 294 shows a glass jar of an Exide
battery having a hard rubber cover, and Fig. 295 shows a Prest-O-Lite glass
jar cell having a cover made of lead and antimony. Unsealed glass jars, such
as the Exide type shown in Fig. 324, generally have a plate of glass placed
across the top to catch acid spray when the cell is gassing. Each jar with its
plates and electrolyte forms a complete and separate unit which may easily
be disconnected from the other cells of the battery by removing the bolts
which join them. In working on a farm lighting battery, the repairman,
therefore, works with individual cells instead of the battery as a whole, as is
done with automobile batteries.
differs from the automobile battery in a number of respects.
Jars. Both glass and rubber are used for farm lighting battery jars, and they
may or may not have sealed-in covers. Fig. 294 shows a glass jar of an Exide
battery having a hard rubber cover, and Fig. 295 shows a Prest-O-Lite glass
jar cell having a cover made of lead and antimony. Unsealed glass jars, such
as the Exide type shown in Fig. 324, generally have a plate of glass placed
across the top to catch acid spray when the cell is gassing. Each jar with its
plates and electrolyte forms a complete and separate unit which may easily
be disconnected from the other cells of the battery by removing the bolts
which join them. In working on a farm lighting battery, the repairman,
therefore, works with individual cells instead of the battery as a whole, as is
done with automobile batteries.
Page 545
Batteries with sealed jars are generally shipped completely assembled and
filled with electrolyte, and need only a freshening charge before being put
into service, just as automobile batteries which are shipped "wet" are in a
fully charged condition when they leave the factory and need only a charge
before being installed on the car.
Jars that are not sealed are set in separate glass trays filled with sand, or
sometimes the entire battery is set in a shallow wooden box or tray filled
with sand. This is necessary because the absence of a sealed cover allows
acid spray to run down the outside of the jar and this acid would, of course,
filled with electrolyte, and need only a freshening charge before being put
into service, just as automobile batteries which are shipped "wet" are in a
fully charged condition when they leave the factory and need only a charge
before being installed on the car.
Jars that are not sealed are set in separate glass trays filled with sand, or
sometimes the entire battery is set in a shallow wooden box or tray filled
with sand. This is necessary because the absence of a sealed cover allows
acid spray to run down the outside of the jar and this acid would, of course,
Page 546
attack the wooden
shelf and make a dirty,
sloppy battery.
Batteries using jars
without sealed covers
cannot be shipped
assembled and
charged, and hence
they require a
considerable amount
of work and along
initial charge to put
them in a serviceable
condition.
shelf and make a dirty,
sloppy battery.
Batteries using jars
without sealed covers
cannot be shipped
assembled and
charged, and hence
they require a
considerable amount
of work and along
initial charge to put
them in a serviceable
condition.
Page 547
Farm lighting battery jars are less liable to become cracked than those of
automobile batteries because they are set in one place and remain there, and
are not jolted about as automobile batteries are. Cracked jars in farm lighting
batteries are more easily detected as the jar will be wet on the outside and
the acid will wet the shelf or sand tray on which the jar rests.
Batteries with sealed rubber jars are normally assembled four cells in a case
or tray, with a nameplate on each tray which gives the type and size of cell.
The cells are connected together with lead links which are bolted to the cell
posts by means of lead covered bolt connectors.
automobile batteries because they are set in one place and remain there, and
are not jolted about as automobile batteries are. Cracked jars in farm lighting
batteries are more easily detected as the jar will be wet on the outside and
the acid will wet the shelf or sand tray on which the jar rests.
Batteries with sealed rubber jars are normally assembled four cells in a case
or tray, with a nameplate on each tray which gives the type and size of cell.
The cells are connected together with lead links which are bolted to the cell
posts by means of lead covered bolt connectors.
Page 548
Plates. Since farm
lighting batteries are
not required to deliver
very heavy currents at
any time, the plates
are made thicker than
in starting batteries,
this giving a stronger
plate which has a
longer life than the
starting battery plate.
All makes of starting
batteries use the
Fauré, or pasted plate.
This type of plate is
also used in many
farm lighting
batteries, but the Plante plate (see page 27) may also be used. The Exide
"Chloride Accumulator" cell, Fig. 323 uses a type of positive plate called the
"Manchester" positive as described on page 497.
Separators. Grooved wooden separators are used in some farm lighting
batteries, while others use rubber separators, or both rubber and wooden
separators. Some use wooden separators which are smooth on both sides, but
have dowels pinned to them.
Electrolyte. In a starting battery the specific gravity of the electrolyte of a
fully charged cell is 1.280-1.300, no matter what the make of the battery
may be. In farm lighting batteries, the different types have different values of
specific gravity when fully charged. The usual values are as follows:
(a) Batteries with sealed glass jars 1.210 to 1.250
(b) Batteries with open glass jars 1.200 to 1.250
lighting batteries are
not required to deliver
very heavy currents at
any time, the plates
are made thicker than
in starting batteries,
this giving a stronger
plate which has a
longer life than the
starting battery plate.
All makes of starting
batteries use the
Fauré, or pasted plate.
This type of plate is
also used in many
farm lighting
batteries, but the Plante plate (see page 27) may also be used. The Exide
"Chloride Accumulator" cell, Fig. 323 uses a type of positive plate called the
"Manchester" positive as described on page 497.
Separators. Grooved wooden separators are used in some farm lighting
batteries, while others use rubber separators, or both rubber and wooden
separators. Some use wooden separators which are smooth on both sides, but
have dowels pinned to them.
Electrolyte. In a starting battery the specific gravity of the electrolyte of a
fully charged cell is 1.280-1.300, no matter what the make of the battery
may be. In farm lighting batteries, the different types have different values of
specific gravity when fully charged. The usual values are as follows:
(a) Batteries with sealed glass jars 1.210 to 1.250
(b) Batteries with open glass jars 1.200 to 1.250
Page 549
(c) Batteries with sealed rubber jars 1.260 to 1.280
A brief discussion of specific gravity might be helpful at this point. In any
lead acid battery current is produced by a chemical action between the active
material in the plates and the water and sulphuric acid in the electrolyte. The
amount of energy which can be delivered by the battery depends on the
amount of active material, sulphuric acid, and water which enter into the
chemical actions of the cell. As these chemical actions take place, sulphuric
acid is used up, and hence there must be enough acid contained in the
electrolyte to enter into the chemical actions. The amount of water and acid
in the electrolyte may be varied, as long as there is enough of each present to
combine with the active material of the plates so as to enable the cell to
deliver its full capacity. Increasing the amount of acid will result in the plates
and separators being attacked and injured by the acid. Increasing the amount
of water dilutes the acid, giving a lower gravity, and preventing the Acid
from injuring plates and separators. This results in a longer life for the
battery, and is a desirable condition. In starter batteries, there is not enough
space in the jars for the increased amount of water. In farm lighting batteries,
where the space occupied by the battery is not so important, the jars are
made large enough to hold a greater amount of water, thus giving an
electrolyte which has a lower specific gravity than in starting batteries.
Take a fully charged cell of any starting battery. It contains a set of plates
and the electrolyte which is composed of a certain necessary amount of acid
and a certain amount of water. If we put the plates of this cell in a larger jar,
add the same amount of acid as before, but add a greater amount of water
than was contained in the smaller jar, we will still have a fully charged cell
of the same capacity as before, but the specific gravity of the electrolyte will
be lower.
Charging Equipment. Automobile batteries are being charged whenever
the car is running at more than about 10 miles per hour, regardless of what
their condition may be.
In farm lighting outfits, the charging is under the control of the operator, and
the battery is charged when a charge is necessary. There is, therefore, very
much less danger of starving or overcharging the battery. The operator must,
A brief discussion of specific gravity might be helpful at this point. In any
lead acid battery current is produced by a chemical action between the active
material in the plates and the water and sulphuric acid in the electrolyte. The
amount of energy which can be delivered by the battery depends on the
amount of active material, sulphuric acid, and water which enter into the
chemical actions of the cell. As these chemical actions take place, sulphuric
acid is used up, and hence there must be enough acid contained in the
electrolyte to enter into the chemical actions. The amount of water and acid
in the electrolyte may be varied, as long as there is enough of each present to
combine with the active material of the plates so as to enable the cell to
deliver its full capacity. Increasing the amount of acid will result in the plates
and separators being attacked and injured by the acid. Increasing the amount
of water dilutes the acid, giving a lower gravity, and preventing the Acid
from injuring plates and separators. This results in a longer life for the
battery, and is a desirable condition. In starter batteries, there is not enough
space in the jars for the increased amount of water. In farm lighting batteries,
where the space occupied by the battery is not so important, the jars are
made large enough to hold a greater amount of water, thus giving an
electrolyte which has a lower specific gravity than in starting batteries.
Take a fully charged cell of any starting battery. It contains a set of plates
and the electrolyte which is composed of a certain necessary amount of acid
and a certain amount of water. If we put the plates of this cell in a larger jar,
add the same amount of acid as before, but add a greater amount of water
than was contained in the smaller jar, we will still have a fully charged cell
of the same capacity as before, but the specific gravity of the electrolyte will
be lower.
Charging Equipment. Automobile batteries are being charged whenever
the car is running at more than about 10 miles per hour, regardless of what
their condition may be.
In farm lighting outfits, the charging is under the control of the operator, and
the battery is charged when a charge is necessary. There is, therefore, very
much less danger of starving or overcharging the battery. The operator must,
Page 550
however, watch his battery carefully, and charge it as often as may be
necessary, and not allow it to go without its regular charge.
The generator of a farm lighting outfit is usually driven by an internal
combustion engine furnished with the outfit. The engine may be connected
to the generator by a belt, or its shaft may be connected directly to the
generator shaft. A switchboard carrying the necessary instruments and
switches also goes with the outfit. The charging of farm lighting batteries is
very much like the charging of automobile batteries on the charging bench,
except that the batteries are at all times connected to switches, by means of
which they may be put on the charging line.
Some plants are so arranged that the battery and generator do not provide
current for the lights at the same time, lights being out while the battery is
charging. In others the generator and battery, in emergency, may both
provide current. In others the lights may burn while the battery is being
charged; in this case the battery is sometimes provided with counter-
electromotive force cells which permit high enough voltage across the
battery to charge it and yet limit the voltage across the lamps to* prevent
burning them out or shortening their life. In some cases the battery is divided
into two sets which are charged in parallel and discharged in series.
Relation of the Automobile Storage Battery Man to the Farm Lighting
Plant. Owners and prospective owners of farm lighting plants generally
know but little about the care or repair of electrical apparatus, especially
batteries, which are not as easily understood as lamps, motors or generators.
Prospective owners may quite likely call upon the automobile battery repair
man for advice as to the installation, operation, maintenance, and repair of
his battery and the automobile battery repairman should have little trouble in
learning how to take care of farm lighting batteries. The details in which
these batteries differ from starting batteries should be studied and mastered,
and a new source of business will be opened.
Farm lighting plants in the vicinity should be studied and observed while
they are in good working order, the details of construction and operation
studied, the layout of the various circuits to lamps, motors, heaters, etc.,
examined so as to become familiar with the plants. Then When anything
necessary, and not allow it to go without its regular charge.
The generator of a farm lighting outfit is usually driven by an internal
combustion engine furnished with the outfit. The engine may be connected
to the generator by a belt, or its shaft may be connected directly to the
generator shaft. A switchboard carrying the necessary instruments and
switches also goes with the outfit. The charging of farm lighting batteries is
very much like the charging of automobile batteries on the charging bench,
except that the batteries are at all times connected to switches, by means of
which they may be put on the charging line.
Some plants are so arranged that the battery and generator do not provide
current for the lights at the same time, lights being out while the battery is
charging. In others the generator and battery, in emergency, may both
provide current. In others the lights may burn while the battery is being
charged; in this case the battery is sometimes provided with counter-
electromotive force cells which permit high enough voltage across the
battery to charge it and yet limit the voltage across the lamps to* prevent
burning them out or shortening their life. In some cases the battery is divided
into two sets which are charged in parallel and discharged in series.
Relation of the Automobile Storage Battery Man to the Farm Lighting
Plant. Owners and prospective owners of farm lighting plants generally
know but little about the care or repair of electrical apparatus, especially
batteries, which are not as easily understood as lamps, motors or generators.
Prospective owners may quite likely call upon the automobile battery repair
man for advice as to the installation, operation, maintenance, and repair of
his battery and the automobile battery repairman should have little trouble in
learning how to take care of farm lighting batteries. The details in which
these batteries differ from starting batteries should be studied and mastered,
and a new source of business will be opened.
Farm lighting plants in the vicinity should be studied and observed while
they are in good working order, the details of construction and operation
studied, the layout of the various circuits to lamps, motors, heaters, etc.,
examined so as to become familiar with the plants. Then When anything
Page 551
goes wrong with the battery, or even the other parts of the plant, there will be
no difficulty in putting things back in running order.
Selection of Plant
"Farm Lighting Plant" is the name applied to the small electric plant to be
used where a central station supply is not available. Such a plant, of course,
may be used for driving motors and heating devices, as well as operating
electric lights, and the plant is really a "Farm Lighting and Power Plant."
Make. There are several very good lighting plants on the market and the
selection of the make of the plant must be left to the discretion of the owner,
or whomever the owner may ask for advice. The selection will depend on
cost, whether the plant will fill the particular requirements, what makes can
be obtained nearby, on the delivery that can be made, and the service policy
of the manufacturer.
Type. Plants are made which come complete with battery, generator, engine,
and switchboard mounted on one base. All such a plant requires is a suitable
floor space for its installation. Other plants have all parts separate, and
require more work to install. With some plants, the generator and engine
may be mounted as a unit on one base, with battery and switchboard
separate.
The type of jar used in the battery may influence the choice. Jars are made of
glass or rubber. The glass jars have sealed covers, or have no covers. The
rubber jars generally have a sealed cover. The glass jar has the advantage
that the interior may be seen at all times, and the height of the electrolyte and
sediment may be seen and the condition of the plates, etc., determined by a
simple inspection. This is an important feature and one that will be
appreciated by the one who takes care of the battery. Jars with sealed covers,
or covers which although not sealed, close up the top of the jar completely
have the advantage of keeping in acid spray, and keeping out dirt and
impurities. Open jars are generally set in trays of sand to catch electrolyte
which runs down the outside walls of the jars. The open jars have the
advantage that the plates are very easily removed, but have the disadvantage
that acid spray is not kept in effectually, although a plate of glass is generally
laid over part of the top of the jar, and that dirt and dust may fall into the jar.
no difficulty in putting things back in running order.
Selection of Plant
"Farm Lighting Plant" is the name applied to the small electric plant to be
used where a central station supply is not available. Such a plant, of course,
may be used for driving motors and heating devices, as well as operating
electric lights, and the plant is really a "Farm Lighting and Power Plant."
Make. There are several very good lighting plants on the market and the
selection of the make of the plant must be left to the discretion of the owner,
or whomever the owner may ask for advice. The selection will depend on
cost, whether the plant will fill the particular requirements, what makes can
be obtained nearby, on the delivery that can be made, and the service policy
of the manufacturer.
Type. Plants are made which come complete with battery, generator, engine,
and switchboard mounted on one base. All such a plant requires is a suitable
floor space for its installation. Other plants have all parts separate, and
require more work to install. With some plants, the generator and engine
may be mounted as a unit on one base, with battery and switchboard
separate.
The type of jar used in the battery may influence the choice. Jars are made of
glass or rubber. The glass jars have sealed covers, or have no covers. The
rubber jars generally have a sealed cover. The glass jar has the advantage
that the interior may be seen at all times, and the height of the electrolyte and
sediment may be seen and the condition of the plates, etc., determined by a
simple inspection. This is an important feature and one that will be
appreciated by the one who takes care of the battery. Jars with sealed covers,
or covers which although not sealed, close up the top of the jar completely
have the advantage of keeping in acid spray, and keeping out dirt and
impurities. Open jars are generally set in trays of sand to catch electrolyte
which runs down the outside walls of the jars. The open jars have the
advantage that the plates are very easily removed, but have the disadvantage
that acid spray is not kept in effectually, although a plate of glass is generally
laid over part of the top of the jar, and that dirt and dust may fall into the jar.
Page 552
Size. The capacity of storage battery cells is rated in ampere hours, while
power consumed by lights, motors, etc., is measured in watt hours, or
kilowatt hours. However, the ampere hour capacity of a battery can be
changed to watt hours since watt hours is equal to
Watt hours = ampere hours multiplied by the volts
If we have a 16 cell battery, each cell of which is an 80 ampere hour cell, the
ampere hour capacity of the entire battery will be 80, the same as that of one
of its cells, since the cells are all in series and the same current passes
through all cells. The watt hour capacity of the battery will be 32 times 80,
or 2560. The ampere hour capacity is computed for the 8 hour rate, that is,
the current is drawn from the battery continuously for 8 hours, and at the end
of that time the battery is discharged. If the current is not drawn from the
battery continuously for 8 hours, but is used for shorter intervals
intermittently, the ampere hour capacity of the battery will be somewhat
greater. It seldom occurs that in any installation the battery is used
continuously for eight hours at a rate which will discharge it in that time, and
hence a greater capacity is obtained from the battery. Some manufacturers do
not rate their batteries at the 8 hour continuous discharge rate but use the
intermittent rate, thus rating a battery 30 to 40 percent higher. Rated in this
way, a battery of 16 cells rated at 80 ampere hours at the 8 hour rate would
be rated at 112 ampere hours, or 3584 watt hours.
In determining the size of the battery required, estimate as nearly as possible
how .many lamps, motors, and heaters, etc., will be used. Compute the watts
(volts X amperes), required by each, Estimate how long each appliance will
be used each day, and thus obtain the total watt hours used per day. Multiply
this by 7 to get the watt hours per week. The total watt hours required in one
week should not be equal to more than twice the watt hour capacity of the
battery (ampere hours multiplied by the total battery voltage) at the eight
hour rate. This means that the battery should not require a charge oftener
than two times a week.
The capacity of a battery is often measured in the number of lamps it will
burn brightly for eight hours. The watts consumed by motors, heaters, etc.,
may be expressed in a certain number of lamps. The following table will be
of assistance in determining the size of the battery required:
power consumed by lights, motors, etc., is measured in watt hours, or
kilowatt hours. However, the ampere hour capacity of a battery can be
changed to watt hours since watt hours is equal to
Watt hours = ampere hours multiplied by the volts
If we have a 16 cell battery, each cell of which is an 80 ampere hour cell, the
ampere hour capacity of the entire battery will be 80, the same as that of one
of its cells, since the cells are all in series and the same current passes
through all cells. The watt hour capacity of the battery will be 32 times 80,
or 2560. The ampere hour capacity is computed for the 8 hour rate, that is,
the current is drawn from the battery continuously for 8 hours, and at the end
of that time the battery is discharged. If the current is not drawn from the
battery continuously for 8 hours, but is used for shorter intervals
intermittently, the ampere hour capacity of the battery will be somewhat
greater. It seldom occurs that in any installation the battery is used
continuously for eight hours at a rate which will discharge it in that time, and
hence a greater capacity is obtained from the battery. Some manufacturers do
not rate their batteries at the 8 hour continuous discharge rate but use the
intermittent rate, thus rating a battery 30 to 40 percent higher. Rated in this
way, a battery of 16 cells rated at 80 ampere hours at the 8 hour rate would
be rated at 112 ampere hours, or 3584 watt hours.
In determining the size of the battery required, estimate as nearly as possible
how .many lamps, motors, and heaters, etc., will be used. Compute the watts
(volts X amperes), required by each, Estimate how long each appliance will
be used each day, and thus obtain the total watt hours used per day. Multiply
this by 7 to get the watt hours per week. The total watt hours required in one
week should not be equal to more than twice the watt hour capacity of the
battery (ampere hours multiplied by the total battery voltage) at the eight
hour rate. This means that the battery should not require a charge oftener
than two times a week.
The capacity of a battery is often measured in the number of lamps it will
burn brightly for eight hours. The watts consumed by motors, heaters, etc.,
may be expressed in a certain number of lamps. The following table will be
of assistance in determining the size of the battery required:
Page 553
Equivalent
Watts Number of
No. Type of Appliance
Consumed 20 Watt
Lamps
1 16 candle power, Mazda lamp 20 1
2 12 candle power, Mazda lamp 115 3/4
3 Electric Fan, small size 75 4
4 Small Sewing machine motor 100 5
5 Vacuum cleaner 160 8
6 Washing machine 200 10
7 Churn, 1/6 h.p. 200 10
8 Cream Separator, 1/6 h.p. 200 10
9 Water pump 1/6 h.p. 200 10
10 Electric water heater, small 350 18
11 Electric toaster 525 26
12 Electric stove, small 600 30
13 Electric iron 600 30
14 Pump, 1/2 h.p. 600 30
From the foregoing table we can determine the current consumption of the
various appliances:
Amps at 32 Amps at 110
No. Watts
Volts Volts
1 20 0.625 0.18
2 15 0.47 0.14
3 75 2.34 6.80
4 100 3.125 0.90
5 160 5.00 1.44
6 200 6.25 1.80
7 200 6.25 1.80
8 200 6.25 1.80
9 200 6.25 1.80
Watts Number of
No. Type of Appliance
Consumed 20 Watt
Lamps
1 16 candle power, Mazda lamp 20 1
2 12 candle power, Mazda lamp 115 3/4
3 Electric Fan, small size 75 4
4 Small Sewing machine motor 100 5
5 Vacuum cleaner 160 8
6 Washing machine 200 10
7 Churn, 1/6 h.p. 200 10
8 Cream Separator, 1/6 h.p. 200 10
9 Water pump 1/6 h.p. 200 10
10 Electric water heater, small 350 18
11 Electric toaster 525 26
12 Electric stove, small 600 30
13 Electric iron 600 30
14 Pump, 1/2 h.p. 600 30
From the foregoing table we can determine the current consumption of the
various appliances:
Amps at 32 Amps at 110
No. Watts
Volts Volts
1 20 0.625 0.18
2 15 0.47 0.14
3 75 2.34 6.80
4 100 3.125 0.90
5 160 5.00 1.44
6 200 6.25 1.80
7 200 6.25 1.80
8 200 6.25 1.80
9 200 6.25 1.80
Page 554
10 350 11.00 3.20
11 525 16.4 4.77
12 600 18.75 5.40
13 600 18.75 5.40
14 600 18.75 5.40
The following tables show how long the battery will carry various currents
continuously:
11 525 16.4 4.77
12 600 18.75 5.40
13 600 18.75 5.40
14 600 18.75 5.40
The following tables show how long the battery will carry various currents
continuously:
Page 555
Location of Plant
Page 556
The various appliances should be placed as near to each other as possible.
The lights, of course, must be placed so as to illuminate the different rooms,
barns, etc., but the power devices should be placed as close as possible to
each other and to the plant. The purpose of this is to use as little wire as
possible between the plant and the various appliances so as to prevent
excessive voltage drop in the lines.
Wiring
The wires leading to the various appliances should be large enough so that
not more than one or two volts are lost in the wires. To obtain the resistance
of the wire leading to any appliance, use the following equation:
Knowing the resistance of the wire, and the total length of the two wires
leading from the plant to the appliance, the size of the wire may be obtained
from a wiring table.
Rubber insulated copper wire covered with a double braid should preferably
be used, and the duplex wire is often more convenient than the single wire,
especially in running from one building to another. Wiring on the inside of
buildings should be done neatly, running the wires on porcelain insulators,
and as directly to the appliance as possible. The standard rules for interior
wiring as to fuses, soldering joints, etc., should be followed.
Installation
(See also special instructions for the different makes, beginning page 460.)
The room in which the plant is installed should be clean, dry, and well
ventilated. It should be one which is not very cold in winter, as a cold battery
is very sluggish and seems to lack capacity. If possible, have the plant in a
separate room in order to keep out dirt and dust. If no separate room is
available, it is a good plan to build a small room in a corner of a large room.
Keep the room clean and free of miscellaneous tools and rubbish.
The lights, of course, must be placed so as to illuminate the different rooms,
barns, etc., but the power devices should be placed as close as possible to
each other and to the plant. The purpose of this is to use as little wire as
possible between the plant and the various appliances so as to prevent
excessive voltage drop in the lines.
Wiring
The wires leading to the various appliances should be large enough so that
not more than one or two volts are lost in the wires. To obtain the resistance
of the wire leading to any appliance, use the following equation:
Knowing the resistance of the wire, and the total length of the two wires
leading from the plant to the appliance, the size of the wire may be obtained
from a wiring table.
Rubber insulated copper wire covered with a double braid should preferably
be used, and the duplex wire is often more convenient than the single wire,
especially in running from one building to another. Wiring on the inside of
buildings should be done neatly, running the wires on porcelain insulators,
and as directly to the appliance as possible. The standard rules for interior
wiring as to fuses, soldering joints, etc., should be followed.
Installation
(See also special instructions for the different makes, beginning page 460.)
The room in which the plant is installed should be clean, dry, and well
ventilated. It should be one which is not very cold in winter, as a cold battery
is very sluggish and seems to lack capacity. If possible, have the plant in a
separate room in order to keep out dirt and dust. If no separate room is
available, it is a good plan to build a small room in a corner of a large room.
Keep the room clean and free of miscellaneous tools and rubbish.
Page 557
If the entire plant comes complete on one base, all that is necessary is to bolt
the base securely to the floor, which should be as nearly level as possible. If
the battery is to be installed separately, build a rack. Give the rack several
coats of asphaltum paint to make it acid proof. The location of the battery
rack should be such that the rack will be:
(a) Free from vibration.
(b) At least 3 feet from the exhaust pipe of engine.
(c) Far enough away from the wall to prevent dirt or loose mortar from
dropping on the cells.
Figs. 298 and 299 illustrate two types of battery racks recommended for use
with farm light batteries. The stair-step rack is most desirable where there is
sufficient room for its installation. Where the space is insufficient to make
this installation, use the two-tier shelf rack. The racks should be made from
1-1/2 or 2 inch boards.
the base securely to the floor, which should be as nearly level as possible. If
the battery is to be installed separately, build a rack. Give the rack several
coats of asphaltum paint to make it acid proof. The location of the battery
rack should be such that the rack will be:
(a) Free from vibration.
(b) At least 3 feet from the exhaust pipe of engine.
(c) Far enough away from the wall to prevent dirt or loose mortar from
dropping on the cells.
Figs. 298 and 299 illustrate two types of battery racks recommended for use
with farm light batteries. The stair-step rack is most desirable where there is
sufficient room for its installation. Where the space is insufficient to make
this installation, use the two-tier shelf rack. The racks should be made from
1-1/2 or 2 inch boards.
Page 558
The cells may be placed on the battery rack with either the face or the edges
of the plates facing out. The latter method requires a shorter battery rack and
is very desirable from the standpoint of future inspections. In very dark
places, it is more desirable to have the surface of the plates turned out to
enable the user to see when the cells are bubbling during the monthly
equalizing charge. Either method is satisfactory.
of the plates facing out. The latter method requires a shorter battery rack and
is very desirable from the standpoint of future inspections. In very dark
places, it is more desirable to have the surface of the plates turned out to
enable the user to see when the cells are bubbling during the monthly
equalizing charge. Either method is satisfactory.
Page 559
All metal parts such as pipes, bolt heads, etc., which are near the battery
should be given at least three coats of asphaltum paint. Care must be taken
not to have an open flame of any kind in the battery room, as the hydrogen
and oxygen gases, given off as a battery charges may explode and cause
injury to the person and possible severe damage to the battery. When making
an installation, it is always a good plan to carry the following material for
taking care of spillage and broken jars:
1 Thermometer
2 Series Cells
6 Battery Bolts and Nuts
1 Hydrometer Syringe
2 Gallons distilled water
1 Jar Vaseline
1 Gallon 1.220 specific gravity electrolyte
should be given at least three coats of asphaltum paint. Care must be taken
not to have an open flame of any kind in the battery room, as the hydrogen
and oxygen gases, given off as a battery charges may explode and cause
injury to the person and possible severe damage to the battery. When making
an installation, it is always a good plan to carry the following material for
taking care of spillage and broken jars:
1 Thermometer
2 Series Cells
6 Battery Bolts and Nuts
1 Hydrometer Syringe
2 Gallons distilled water
1 Jar Vaseline
1 Gallon 1.220 specific gravity electrolyte
Page 560
When a battery arrives at the shipping destination, the person lifting this
shipment should remove the slats from the top Of each crate and inspect
each cell for concealed damage, such as breakage: Should any damage be
discovered, it is important that a notation covering this damage be made and
signed by the freight agent on the freight bill. This will enable the customer
or dealer to make a claim against the railroad for the amount of damage. If a
notation of this kind is not made before the battery is lifted, the dealer will
be forced to stand the expense of repairing or replacing the damaged cells.
When removing cells from a crate, avoid lifting them by the terminal posts
as much as possible. This causes the weight of the electrolyte and jar to pull
on the sealing compound between the jar and cover, and if the sealing is not
absolutely tight, the jar and electrolyte may fall from the cover. A cell should
never be carried using the terminal posts as handles. The hand should be put
underneath the jar.
Sometimes a battery will arrive with electrolyte spilled from some of the
cells. If spillage is only about one-half to one inch down on the plates of
three or four cells, this spillage may be replaced by drawing a little
electrolyte out of each cell of the other full cells in the set. Oftentimes
several cells will have electrolyte extending above the water line, which will
aid greatly in making up any loss in other cells. After all cells have been
drawn on to fill up the ones that are spilled, the entire set may then have its
electrolyte brought up to the water line by adding distilled water.
Very carefully adjust spillage of pilot cells (Delco), as it is very important
that the specific gravity of the pilot cells be left as near 1.220 as possible.
In case the spillage is more than one inch below the top of plates or glass
broken, remove cell and install a new cell in its place. The spilled or broken
cell must not be used until given special treatment.
Connecting Cells
Before connecting up the cells the terminals should be scraped clean for
about 11/2 inches on both sides. An old knife or rough file is suitable for
doing this work. After the terminals are thoroughly brightened, they should
be covered with vaseline. The bolts and nuts used in making the connections
shipment should remove the slats from the top Of each crate and inspect
each cell for concealed damage, such as breakage: Should any damage be
discovered, it is important that a notation covering this damage be made and
signed by the freight agent on the freight bill. This will enable the customer
or dealer to make a claim against the railroad for the amount of damage. If a
notation of this kind is not made before the battery is lifted, the dealer will
be forced to stand the expense of repairing or replacing the damaged cells.
When removing cells from a crate, avoid lifting them by the terminal posts
as much as possible. This causes the weight of the electrolyte and jar to pull
on the sealing compound between the jar and cover, and if the sealing is not
absolutely tight, the jar and electrolyte may fall from the cover. A cell should
never be carried using the terminal posts as handles. The hand should be put
underneath the jar.
Sometimes a battery will arrive with electrolyte spilled from some of the
cells. If spillage is only about one-half to one inch down on the plates of
three or four cells, this spillage may be replaced by drawing a little
electrolyte out of each cell of the other full cells in the set. Oftentimes
several cells will have electrolyte extending above the water line, which will
aid greatly in making up any loss in other cells. After all cells have been
drawn on to fill up the ones that are spilled, the entire set may then have its
electrolyte brought up to the water line by adding distilled water.
Very carefully adjust spillage of pilot cells (Delco), as it is very important
that the specific gravity of the pilot cells be left as near 1.220 as possible.
In case the spillage is more than one inch below the top of plates or glass
broken, remove cell and install a new cell in its place. The spilled or broken
cell must not be used until given special treatment.
Connecting Cells
Before connecting up the cells the terminals should be scraped clean for
about 11/2 inches on both sides. An old knife or rough file is suitable for
doing this work. After the terminals are thoroughly brightened, they should
be covered with vaseline. The bolts and nuts used in making the connections
Page 561
on the battery should also be coated with vaseline. The vaseline prevents and
retards corrosion, which is harmful to efficient operation.
If a new battery is to be installed in parallel with one already in service,
connections should be made so that each series will consist of half new and
half old cells. The pilot cells for the new battery should be placed in one
series and that for the old battery in the other, unless local conditions may
make some other arrangement desirable.
A drop light must always be provided to enable the user to inspect his
battery, particularly when giving the monthly equalizing charge.
Initial Charge
When a battery is connected to the plant, it should be given a proper
INITIAL CHARGE before any power or lights are used.
Batteries shipped filled with electrolyte are fully charged before leaving the
factory. As soon as a storage battery cell of any type or make is taken off
charge and stands idle for a considerable length of time, some of the acid in
the electrolyte is absorbed by the plates, thereby lowering the gravity and
forming sulphate on the plates. This process is very gradual, but it is
continuous, and unless the acid is completely driven out of the plates by
charging before the battery is used, the battery will not give as good service
as the user has a right to expect. Due to the time required in shipment, the
above action has a chance to take place, which makes it necessary to give the
initial charge.
The initial charge consists of charging the battery, with the power and light
switch open, until each cell is bubbling freely from the top to bottom on the
surface of the outside negative plates and both pilot balls are up (Delco-
Light), and then CONTINUING THE CHARGE FOR FIVE HOURS
MORE. If the battery has no pilot cells, measure the specific gravity of the
electrolyte of each cell, and continue the charge until six consecutive
readings show no increase in gravity.
As an accurate check on giving the initial charge properly (Delco-Light), we
strongly recommend that hourly hydrometer readings of both pilot cells be
retards corrosion, which is harmful to efficient operation.
If a new battery is to be installed in parallel with one already in service,
connections should be made so that each series will consist of half new and
half old cells. The pilot cells for the new battery should be placed in one
series and that for the old battery in the other, unless local conditions may
make some other arrangement desirable.
A drop light must always be provided to enable the user to inspect his
battery, particularly when giving the monthly equalizing charge.
Initial Charge
When a battery is connected to the plant, it should be given a proper
INITIAL CHARGE before any power or lights are used.
Batteries shipped filled with electrolyte are fully charged before leaving the
factory. As soon as a storage battery cell of any type or make is taken off
charge and stands idle for a considerable length of time, some of the acid in
the electrolyte is absorbed by the plates, thereby lowering the gravity and
forming sulphate on the plates. This process is very gradual, but it is
continuous, and unless the acid is completely driven out of the plates by
charging before the battery is used, the battery will not give as good service
as the user has a right to expect. Due to the time required in shipment, the
above action has a chance to take place, which makes it necessary to give the
initial charge.
The initial charge consists of charging the battery, with the power and light
switch open, until each cell is bubbling freely from the top to bottom on the
surface of the outside negative plates and both pilot balls are up (Delco-
Light), and then CONTINUING THE CHARGE FOR FIVE HOURS
MORE. If the battery has no pilot cells, measure the specific gravity of the
electrolyte of each cell, and continue the charge until six consecutive
readings show no increase in gravity.
As an accurate check on giving the initial charge properly (Delco-Light), we
strongly recommend that hourly hydrometer readings of both pilot cells be
Page 562
taken after both balls are up, the charge to be continued until six consecutive
hourly readings show no RISE in gravity.
Due to the fact that it is impossible to hold each cell in a battery to a definite
maximum gravity when fully charged, there is likely to be a variation of
from ten to fifteen points in the specific gravity readings of the various cells.
It should be understood, however, that the maximum gravity is the gravity
when the cells are fully charged and with the level of the solution at the
water line. For example, with each cell in a battery fully charged and
therefore at maximum gravity and with the level at the proper height, some
cells may read 1.230, one or two 1.235, several 1.215 and 1.210. All of these
cells will operate efficiently, and there should be no cause for alarm. An
exception to this is the pilot cell of the Delco-Light Battery.
If this check on the initial charge is properly made, it assures the service man
and dealer that the battery is in proper operating condition to be turned over
to the user. Negligence in giving the initial charge properly may result in
trouble to both user, service man and dealer.
The initial charge may require considerable running of the plant, depending
upon the state of charge of the cells when installed.
Instructing Users
During the time the initial charge is being given, the service man should
instruct the user on the care and operation of the plant and battery.
The best way to give instructions to the user is to tack the instruction cards
on the wall near the plant in a place where the user can read them easily.
Proceed to read over the plant operating card with the user. Read the first
item, go to the plant, explain this feature to the user and allow him to
perform the operation, if the instruction calls for actual performance.
Remember, the user is not familiar with the plant and battery, and the actual
performance of each operation aids him to retain the instructions.
hourly readings show no RISE in gravity.
Due to the fact that it is impossible to hold each cell in a battery to a definite
maximum gravity when fully charged, there is likely to be a variation of
from ten to fifteen points in the specific gravity readings of the various cells.
It should be understood, however, that the maximum gravity is the gravity
when the cells are fully charged and with the level of the solution at the
water line. For example, with each cell in a battery fully charged and
therefore at maximum gravity and with the level at the proper height, some
cells may read 1.230, one or two 1.235, several 1.215 and 1.210. All of these
cells will operate efficiently, and there should be no cause for alarm. An
exception to this is the pilot cell of the Delco-Light Battery.
If this check on the initial charge is properly made, it assures the service man
and dealer that the battery is in proper operating condition to be turned over
to the user. Negligence in giving the initial charge properly may result in
trouble to both user, service man and dealer.
The initial charge may require considerable running of the plant, depending
upon the state of charge of the cells when installed.
Instructing Users
During the time the initial charge is being given, the service man should
instruct the user on the care and operation of the plant and battery.
The best way to give instructions to the user is to tack the instruction cards
on the wall near the plant in a place where the user can read them easily.
Proceed to read over the plant operating card with the user. Read the first
item, go to the plant, explain this feature to the user and allow him to
perform the operation, if the instruction calls for actual performance.
Remember, the user is not familiar with the plant and battery, and the actual
performance of each operation aids him to retain the instructions.
Page 563
After the first item has been covered thoroughly, proceed to the second, etc.
During the course of instruction, the user will often interrupt with questions
not dealing directly with the point being explained. The service man should
keep the user's attention on the points he is explaining. When the service
man has finished explaining both plant and battery instruction cards, he
should answer any points in question which the user wants explained.
When the monthly equalizing charge is explained to the user, the service
man should always take the user to the battery and show him a cell bubbling
freely. This is necessary in order that the user may recognize when the cells
are bubbling freely at the time he gives the monthly equalizing charge.
Impress upon the user the importance of inspecting each cell when giving
the monthly equalizing charge to see that every cell bubbles freely. If a cell
fails to bubble freely at the end of the equalizing charge, the user should
inform the service man of this condition immediately.
Caution the user against the use of an open flame near the plant or battery at
any time. The gas which accumulates in a cell will explode sufficiently to
break the glass jar if this gas is ignited by a spark or open flame.
Care of the Plant in Operation
(See also special instructions for the different makes, beginning page 460.)
The battery repairman should be able not only to repair the batteries, but
should also be able to keep the entire plant in working order, and suggestions
will be given as to what must be done, although no detailed instructions for
work on the generator, engine, and switchboard will be given as this is
beyond the scope of this book.
Battery Room. The essential things about the battery room are that it must
be clean, dry, and well ventilated. This means, of course, that the battery and
battery rack must also be kept clean and dry. A good time to clean up is
when the battery is being charged. Clean out the room first, sweeping out
dirt and rubbish, dusting the walls, and so on. Both high and low
temperatures should be avoided. If the battery room is kept too hot, the
battery will become heated and the hot electrolyte will attack the plates and
During the course of instruction, the user will often interrupt with questions
not dealing directly with the point being explained. The service man should
keep the user's attention on the points he is explaining. When the service
man has finished explaining both plant and battery instruction cards, he
should answer any points in question which the user wants explained.
When the monthly equalizing charge is explained to the user, the service
man should always take the user to the battery and show him a cell bubbling
freely. This is necessary in order that the user may recognize when the cells
are bubbling freely at the time he gives the monthly equalizing charge.
Impress upon the user the importance of inspecting each cell when giving
the monthly equalizing charge to see that every cell bubbles freely. If a cell
fails to bubble freely at the end of the equalizing charge, the user should
inform the service man of this condition immediately.
Caution the user against the use of an open flame near the plant or battery at
any time. The gas which accumulates in a cell will explode sufficiently to
break the glass jar if this gas is ignited by a spark or open flame.
Care of the Plant in Operation
(See also special instructions for the different makes, beginning page 460.)
The battery repairman should be able not only to repair the batteries, but
should also be able to keep the entire plant in working order, and suggestions
will be given as to what must be done, although no detailed instructions for
work on the generator, engine, and switchboard will be given as this is
beyond the scope of this book.
Battery Room. The essential things about the battery room are that it must
be clean, dry, and well ventilated. This means, of course, that the battery and
battery rack must also be kept clean and dry. A good time to clean up is
when the battery is being charged. Clean out the room first, sweeping out
dirt and rubbish, dusting the walls, and so on. Both high and low
temperatures should be avoided. If the battery room is kept too hot, the
battery will become heated and the hot electrolyte will attack the plates and
Page 564
separators. Low temperatures do no actual harm to a charged battery except
to make the battery sluggish, and seem to lack capacity. A discharged battery
will, however, freeze above 0° Fahrenheit. The battery will give the best
service if the battery room temperature is kept between 60° and 80°
Fahrenheit.
Do not bring any open flame such as a lantern, candle or match near a
battery and do not go near the battery with a lighted cigar, cigarette or pipe,
especially while the battery is charging. Hydrogen and oxygen gases form a
highly explosive mixture. An explosion will not only injure the battery, but
will probably disfigure the one carrying the light, or even destroy his eyes.
It is a good plan to keep the windows of the battery room open as much as
possible.
Engine. The engine which drives the generator requires attention
occasionally. Wipe off all dirt, oil or grease. Keep the engine well lubricated
with a good oil. If grease cups are used, give these several turns whenever
the engine is run to charge the battery. Use clean fuel, straining it, if
necessary, through a clean cloth or chamois, if there is any dirt in it. The
cooling water should also be clean, and in winter a non-freezing preparation
should be added to it. Do not change the carburetor setting whenever the
engine does not act properly. First look over the ignition system and spark
plug for trouble, and also make sure that the carburetor is receiving fuel. If
possible, overhaul the engine once a year to clean out the carbon, tighten
bearings and flywheel, remove leaky gaskets, and so on.
Generator. Keep the outside of the generator clean by wiping it occasionally
with an oiled rag. See that there is enough lubricating oil in the bearings, but
that there is not too much oil, especially in the bearing at the commutator
end of the generator. Keep the commutator clean. If it is dirty, wipe it with a
rag moistened slightly with kerosene. The brushes should be lifted from the
commutator while this is being done. Finish with a dry cloth. If the
commutator is rough it may be made smooth with fine sandpaper held
against it while the generator is running, and the brushes are lifted.
The surfaces of the brushes that bear on the commutator should be inspected
to see that they are clean, and that the entire surfaces make contact with the
to make the battery sluggish, and seem to lack capacity. A discharged battery
will, however, freeze above 0° Fahrenheit. The battery will give the best
service if the battery room temperature is kept between 60° and 80°
Fahrenheit.
Do not bring any open flame such as a lantern, candle or match near a
battery and do not go near the battery with a lighted cigar, cigarette or pipe,
especially while the battery is charging. Hydrogen and oxygen gases form a
highly explosive mixture. An explosion will not only injure the battery, but
will probably disfigure the one carrying the light, or even destroy his eyes.
It is a good plan to keep the windows of the battery room open as much as
possible.
Engine. The engine which drives the generator requires attention
occasionally. Wipe off all dirt, oil or grease. Keep the engine well lubricated
with a good oil. If grease cups are used, give these several turns whenever
the engine is run to charge the battery. Use clean fuel, straining it, if
necessary, through a clean cloth or chamois, if there is any dirt in it. The
cooling water should also be clean, and in winter a non-freezing preparation
should be added to it. Do not change the carburetor setting whenever the
engine does not act properly. First look over the ignition system and spark
plug for trouble, and also make sure that the carburetor is receiving fuel. If
possible, overhaul the engine once a year to clean out the carbon, tighten
bearings and flywheel, remove leaky gaskets, and so on.
Generator. Keep the outside of the generator clean by wiping it occasionally
with an oiled rag. See that there is enough lubricating oil in the bearings, but
that there is not too much oil, especially in the bearing at the commutator
end of the generator. Keep the commutator clean. If it is dirty, wipe it with a
rag moistened slightly with kerosene. The brushes should be lifted from the
commutator while this is being done. Finish with a dry cloth. If the
commutator is rough it may be made smooth with fine sandpaper held
against it while the generator is running, and the brushes are lifted.
The surfaces of the brushes that bear on the commutator should be inspected
to see that they are clean, and that the entire surfaces make contact with the
Page 565
commutator. The parts that are making contact will look smooth and
polished, while other parts will have a dull, rough appearance. If the brush
contact surfaces are dirty or all parts do not touch the commutator, draw a
piece of fine sandpaper back and forth under the brushes, one at a time, with
the sanded side of the paper against the brush. This will clean the brushes
and shape the contact surfaces to fit the curve of the commutator. Brushes
should be discarded when they be come so short that they do not make good
contact with the commutator. See that the brush holders and brush wires are
all tight and clean. Watch for loose connections of wires, as these will cause
voltage loss when the generator is charging the battery. Watch for "high
mica," which means a condition in which the insulation between the
segments projects above the surface of the commutator, due to the
commutator wearing down faster than the insulation. If this condition arises,
the mica should be cut down until it is slightly below the surface of the
commutator. An old hack saw blade makes a good tool for this purpose. A
commutator may have grooves cut in by the brushes. These grooves do no
harm as long as the brushes have become worn to the exact shape of the
grooves. When the brushes are "dressed" with sandpaper, however, they will
not fit the grooves, and the commutator should be turned down in a lathe
until the grooves are removed.
A steady low hum will be heard when the generator is in operation. Loud or
unusual noises should be investigated, however, as a bearing may need oil,
the armature may be rubbing on the field pole faces, and so on.
Watch for overheating of the generator. If you can hold your hand on the
various parts of the generator, the temperature is safe. If the temperature is
so high that parts may be barely touched with the hand, or if an odor of
burned rubber is noticeable, the generator is being overheated, and the load
on the generator should be reduced.
Switchboard. Clean off dirt and grease occasionally. Keep switch contacts
clean and smooth. If a "cutout" is on the board, keep its contacts smooth and
clean. If the knife switch blades are hard to move, look for cutting at the
pivots. Something may be cutting into the blades. If this is found to be the
case, use a file to remove all roughness from the parts of the pivot. See that
no switches are bent or burned.
polished, while other parts will have a dull, rough appearance. If the brush
contact surfaces are dirty or all parts do not touch the commutator, draw a
piece of fine sandpaper back and forth under the brushes, one at a time, with
the sanded side of the paper against the brush. This will clean the brushes
and shape the contact surfaces to fit the curve of the commutator. Brushes
should be discarded when they be come so short that they do not make good
contact with the commutator. See that the brush holders and brush wires are
all tight and clean. Watch for loose connections of wires, as these will cause
voltage loss when the generator is charging the battery. Watch for "high
mica," which means a condition in which the insulation between the
segments projects above the surface of the commutator, due to the
commutator wearing down faster than the insulation. If this condition arises,
the mica should be cut down until it is slightly below the surface of the
commutator. An old hack saw blade makes a good tool for this purpose. A
commutator may have grooves cut in by the brushes. These grooves do no
harm as long as the brushes have become worn to the exact shape of the
grooves. When the brushes are "dressed" with sandpaper, however, they will
not fit the grooves, and the commutator should be turned down in a lathe
until the grooves are removed.
A steady low hum will be heard when the generator is in operation. Loud or
unusual noises should be investigated, however, as a bearing may need oil,
the armature may be rubbing on the field pole faces, and so on.
Watch for overheating of the generator. If you can hold your hand on the
various parts of the generator, the temperature is safe. If the temperature is
so high that parts may be barely touched with the hand, or if an odor of
burned rubber is noticeable, the generator is being overheated, and the load
on the generator should be reduced.
Switchboard. Clean off dirt and grease occasionally. Keep switch contacts
clean and smooth. If a "cutout" is on the board, keep its contacts smooth and
clean. If the knife switch blades are hard to move, look for cutting at the
pivots. Something may be cutting into the blades. If this is found to be the
case, use a file to remove all roughness from the parts of the pivot. See that
no switches are bent or burned.
Page 566
Keep the back of the board clean and dry as well as the front. See that all
connections are tight. Keep all wires, rheostats, etc., perfectly clean. A coat
of shellac on the wires, switch studs, etc., will be helpful in keeping these
parts clean.
Care of Battery
Cleanliness. Keep the battery and battery rack clean. After a charge is
completed, wipe off any electrolyte that may be running down the outsides
of the jars. Wipe all electrolyte and other moisture from the battery rack.
Occasionally go over the rack with a rag wet with ammonia or washing soda
solution. Then finish with a dry cloth. Paint the rack with asphaltum paint
once a year, or oftener if the paint is rubbed or scratched.
If sand trays are used, renew the sand whenever it becomes very wet with
electrolyte. Keep the terminals and connectors clean. Near the end of a
charge, feel each joint between cells for a poor connection. Watch also for
corrosion on the connections. Corrosion is caused by the electrolyte
attacking any exposed metals other than lead, near the battery, resulting in a
grayish deposit on the connectors or bolts at the joints. Such joints will
become hotter than other joints, and may thus be located by feeling the joints
after the battery has been charged for some time. Corrosion may be removed
by washing the part in a solution of baking soda.
Be very careful to keep out of the cells anything that does not belong there.
Impurities injure a cell and may even ruin it. Do not let anything, especially
metals, fall into a cell. If this is done accidentally, pour out the electrolyte
immediately, put in new separators, wash the plates in water, fill with
electrolyte having a gravity about 30 points higher than that which was
poured out, and charge. The cell may be connected in its proper place and
the entire battery charged. Vent plugs should be kept in place at all times,
except when water is added to the electrolyte.
Keep the Electrolyte Above the Tops of the Plates. If the battery has glass
jars, the height of the electrolyte can be seen easily. If the battery has sealed
rubber jars, the height of the electrolyte may be determined with a glass
tube, as described on page 55. In most batteries the electrolyte should stand
from three-fourths of an inch to an inch above the plates. Some jars have a
connections are tight. Keep all wires, rheostats, etc., perfectly clean. A coat
of shellac on the wires, switch studs, etc., will be helpful in keeping these
parts clean.
Care of Battery
Cleanliness. Keep the battery and battery rack clean. After a charge is
completed, wipe off any electrolyte that may be running down the outsides
of the jars. Wipe all electrolyte and other moisture from the battery rack.
Occasionally go over the rack with a rag wet with ammonia or washing soda
solution. Then finish with a dry cloth. Paint the rack with asphaltum paint
once a year, or oftener if the paint is rubbed or scratched.
If sand trays are used, renew the sand whenever it becomes very wet with
electrolyte. Keep the terminals and connectors clean. Near the end of a
charge, feel each joint between cells for a poor connection. Watch also for
corrosion on the connections. Corrosion is caused by the electrolyte
attacking any exposed metals other than lead, near the battery, resulting in a
grayish deposit on the connectors or bolts at the joints. Such joints will
become hotter than other joints, and may thus be located by feeling the joints
after the battery has been charged for some time. Corrosion may be removed
by washing the part in a solution of baking soda.
Be very careful to keep out of the cells anything that does not belong there.
Impurities injure a cell and may even ruin it. Do not let anything, especially
metals, fall into a cell. If this is done accidentally, pour out the electrolyte
immediately, put in new separators, wash the plates in water, fill with
electrolyte having a gravity about 30 points higher than that which was
poured out, and charge. The cell may be connected in its proper place and
the entire battery charged. Vent plugs should be kept in place at all times,
except when water is added to the electrolyte.
Keep the Electrolyte Above the Tops of the Plates. If the battery has glass
jars, the height of the electrolyte can be seen easily. If the battery has sealed
rubber jars, the height of the electrolyte may be determined with a glass
tube, as described on page 55. In most batteries the electrolyte should stand
from three-fourths of an inch to an inch above the plates. Some jars have a
Page 567
line or mark showing the proper height of the electrolyte. A good time to
inspect the height of the electrolyte is just before putting the battery on
charge. If the electrolyte is low, distilled water should be added to bring it up
to the proper level. Water should never be added at any other time, as the
charging current is required to mix the water thoroughly with the electrolyte.
Determining the Condition of the Cells. The specific gravity of the
electrolyte is the best indicator of the condition of the battery as to charge,
just as is the case in automobile batteries, and hence should be watched
closely. It is not convenient or necessary to take gravity readings on every
cell in the battery on every charge or discharge. Therefore, one cell called
the "Pilot" cell should be selected near the center of the battery and its
specific gravity readings taken to indicate the state of charge or discharge of
the entire battery. Delco-Light batteries each have two pilot cells with
special jars. Each of these has a pocket in one of its walls in which a ball
operates as a hydrometer or battery gauge. One pilot cell contains the pilot
ball for determining the end of the charge, and other pilot cell containing the
ball for determining the end of the discharge. See Fig. 294.
Hydrometer readings should be taken frequently, and a record of consecutive
readings kept. When the gravity drops to the lowest value allowable (1.150
to 1.180, depending on the make of battery) the battery should be charged.
Once every month voltage and gravity readings of every cell in the battery
should be taken and recorded for future guidance. These readings should be
taken after the monthly "overcharge" or "equalizing charge" which is
explained later. If the monthly readings of any cell are always lower than
that of other cells, it needs attention. The low readings may be due to
electrolyte having been spilled and replaced with water, but in a farm
lighting battery this is not very likely to happen. More probably the cell has
too much sediment, or bad separators, and needs cleaning. See special
instructions on Exide and Prest-O-Lite batteries which are given later.
There are several precautions that must be observed in taking gravity
readings in order to obtain dependable results. Do not take gravity readings
if:
(a) The cell is gassing violently.
inspect the height of the electrolyte is just before putting the battery on
charge. If the electrolyte is low, distilled water should be added to bring it up
to the proper level. Water should never be added at any other time, as the
charging current is required to mix the water thoroughly with the electrolyte.
Determining the Condition of the Cells. The specific gravity of the
electrolyte is the best indicator of the condition of the battery as to charge,
just as is the case in automobile batteries, and hence should be watched
closely. It is not convenient or necessary to take gravity readings on every
cell in the battery on every charge or discharge. Therefore, one cell called
the "Pilot" cell should be selected near the center of the battery and its
specific gravity readings taken to indicate the state of charge or discharge of
the entire battery. Delco-Light batteries each have two pilot cells with
special jars. Each of these has a pocket in one of its walls in which a ball
operates as a hydrometer or battery gauge. One pilot cell contains the pilot
ball for determining the end of the charge, and other pilot cell containing the
ball for determining the end of the discharge. See Fig. 294.
Hydrometer readings should be taken frequently, and a record of consecutive
readings kept. When the gravity drops to the lowest value allowable (1.150
to 1.180, depending on the make of battery) the battery should be charged.
Once every month voltage and gravity readings of every cell in the battery
should be taken and recorded for future guidance. These readings should be
taken after the monthly "overcharge" or "equalizing charge" which is
explained later. If the monthly readings of any cell are always lower than
that of other cells, it needs attention. The low readings may be due to
electrolyte having been spilled and replaced with water, but in a farm
lighting battery this is not very likely to happen. More probably the cell has
too much sediment, or bad separators, and needs cleaning. See special
instructions on Exide and Prest-O-Lite batteries which are given later.
There are several precautions that must be observed in taking gravity
readings in order to obtain dependable results. Do not take gravity readings
if:
(a) The cell is gassing violently.
Page 568
(b) The hydrometer float does not ride freely. If a syringe hydrometer is
used, the float must not be touching the walls of the tube, and the tube must
not be so full that the top of the float projects into the rubber bulb at the
upper end of the tube.
(c) Water has been added less than four hours before taking the readings. A
good time to take readings is just before water is added.
The hydrometer which is used should have the specific gravity readings
marked on it in figures, such as 1.180, 1.200, 1.220 and so on. Automobile
battery hydrometers which are marked "Full," "Empty," "Charged,"
"Discharged," must not be used, since the specific gravities corresponding to
these words are not the same in farm lighting batteries as in automobile
batteries and the readings would be incorrect and misleading. If the
manufacturer-of the battery furnishes a special hydrometer which is marked
"Full," "Half-Full," "Empty," or in some similar manner, this hydrometer
may, of course, be used.
Temperature corrections should be made in taking hydrometer readings, as
described on page 65. For Prest-O-Lite batteries, 80° is the standard
temperature, and gravity readings on these batteries should be corrected to
80° as described on page 461.
Gravity readings should, of course, be taken during charge as well as during
discharge. The readings taken during charge are described in the following
sections on charging.
Charging
(See also special instructions for the different makes, beginning page 460.)
Two kinds of charges should be given the battery, the "Regular" charge, and
the "Overcharge" or "Equalizing Charge." These will be spoken of as the
"Regular" charge and the "Overcharge." The Regular charge must be given
whenever it is necessary in order to enable the battery to meet the lighting or
other load demands made upon it. The overcharge, which is merely a
continuation of a regular charge, should be given once every month. The
used, the float must not be touching the walls of the tube, and the tube must
not be so full that the top of the float projects into the rubber bulb at the
upper end of the tube.
(c) Water has been added less than four hours before taking the readings. A
good time to take readings is just before water is added.
The hydrometer which is used should have the specific gravity readings
marked on it in figures, such as 1.180, 1.200, 1.220 and so on. Automobile
battery hydrometers which are marked "Full," "Empty," "Charged,"
"Discharged," must not be used, since the specific gravities corresponding to
these words are not the same in farm lighting batteries as in automobile
batteries and the readings would be incorrect and misleading. If the
manufacturer-of the battery furnishes a special hydrometer which is marked
"Full," "Half-Full," "Empty," or in some similar manner, this hydrometer
may, of course, be used.
Temperature corrections should be made in taking hydrometer readings, as
described on page 65. For Prest-O-Lite batteries, 80° is the standard
temperature, and gravity readings on these batteries should be corrected to
80° as described on page 461.
Gravity readings should, of course, be taken during charge as well as during
discharge. The readings taken during charge are described in the following
sections on charging.
Charging
(See also special instructions for the different makes, beginning page 460.)
Two kinds of charges should be given the battery, the "Regular" charge, and
the "Overcharge" or "Equalizing Charge." These will be spoken of as the
"Regular" charge and the "Overcharge." The Regular charge must be given
whenever it is necessary in order to enable the battery to meet the lighting or
other load demands made upon it. The overcharge, which is merely a
continuation of a regular charge, should be given once every month. The
Page 569
overcharge is given to keep the battery in good condition, and to prevent the
development of inequalities in condition of cells.
When to Charge. Experience will soon show how often you must give a
regular charge in order to keep the lights from becoming dim. When the
voltage reading, taken while all the lamps are on has dropped to 1.8 volts per
cell a Regular charge is necessary. When the specific gravity of the pilot cell
indicates that the battery is discharged, a Regular charge is necessary. It is
better to use the specific gravity readings as a guide, as described later.
A good plan, and the best one, is to give a battery a Regular charge once
every week, whether the battery becomes discharged in one week's time or
not. A regular charge may be required oftener than once a week. Every
fourth week give the Overcharge instead of the Regular charge.
If a battery is to be out of service, arrangements should be made to add the
necessary water and give an overcharge every month, the Regular charges
not being necessary when the battery stands absolutely idle.
Overcharge. Charge the battery as near as practicable at the rate prescribed
by the manufacturer. If the manufacturer's rate is not known, then charge at a
rate which will not allow the temperature of the electrolyte to rise above
110° Fahrenheit, and which will not cause gassing while the specific gravity
is still considerably below its maximum value. One ampere per plate in each
cell is a safe value of current to use. A battery having eleven plates in each
cell should, for example, be charged at about 11 to 12 amperes.
Watch the temperature of the pilot cell carefully. This cell should have an
accurate Fahrenheit thermometer suspended above it so that the bulb is
immersed in the electrolyte. If this thermometer should show a temperature
of 110°, stop the charge immediately, and do not start it again until the
temperature has dropped to at least 90'. Feel the other cells with your hand
occasionally, and if any cell is so hot that you cannot hold your hand on it
measure its temperature with the thermometer to see whether it is near 110'.
A good plan is to measure the temperature of the electrolyte in every cell
during the charge. If any cell shows a higher temperature than that of the
pilot cell, place the thermometer in the cell giving the higher reading, and be
guided by the temperature of that cell. You will then know that the
development of inequalities in condition of cells.
When to Charge. Experience will soon show how often you must give a
regular charge in order to keep the lights from becoming dim. When the
voltage reading, taken while all the lamps are on has dropped to 1.8 volts per
cell a Regular charge is necessary. When the specific gravity of the pilot cell
indicates that the battery is discharged, a Regular charge is necessary. It is
better to use the specific gravity readings as a guide, as described later.
A good plan, and the best one, is to give a battery a Regular charge once
every week, whether the battery becomes discharged in one week's time or
not. A regular charge may be required oftener than once a week. Every
fourth week give the Overcharge instead of the Regular charge.
If a battery is to be out of service, arrangements should be made to add the
necessary water and give an overcharge every month, the Regular charges
not being necessary when the battery stands absolutely idle.
Overcharge. Charge the battery as near as practicable at the rate prescribed
by the manufacturer. If the manufacturer's rate is not known, then charge at a
rate which will not allow the temperature of the electrolyte to rise above
110° Fahrenheit, and which will not cause gassing while the specific gravity
is still considerably below its maximum value. One ampere per plate in each
cell is a safe value of current to use. A battery having eleven plates in each
cell should, for example, be charged at about 11 to 12 amperes.
Watch the temperature of the pilot cell carefully. This cell should have an
accurate Fahrenheit thermometer suspended above it so that the bulb is
immersed in the electrolyte. If this thermometer should show a temperature
of 110°, stop the charge immediately, and do not start it again until the
temperature has dropped to at least 90'. Feel the other cells with your hand
occasionally, and if any cell is so hot that you cannot hold your hand on it
measure its temperature with the thermometer to see whether it is near 110'.
A good plan is to measure the temperature of the electrolyte in every cell
during the charge. If any cell shows a higher temperature than that of the
pilot cell, place the thermometer in the cell giving the higher reading, and be
guided by the temperature of that cell. You will then know that the
Page 570
thermometer indicates the highest temperature in the entire battery, and that
no other cell is dangerously hot when the thermometer does not read 100° or
over. Another point in the selection of a pilot cell is to determine if any
particular cell shows a gravity which is slightly less than that of the other
cells. If any such cell is found, use that cell as the pilot cell in taking gravity
readings while the battery is on discharge and also on charge. No cell will
then be discharged too far.
When all cells are gassing freely, continue the charge at the same current
until there is no rise in the specific gravity of the pilot cell for one to two
hours, and all cells are gassing freely throughout the hour. Then stop the
charge.
After the overcharge is completed, take gravity readings of all the cells. A
variation of about eight to ten points either above or below the fully charged
gravity after correction for temperature does not mean that a cell requires
any attention. If, however, one cell continually reads more than 10 points
lower then the others, the whole battery may be given an overcharge until
the gravity of the low cell comes up. If the cell then does not show any
tendency to charge up properly, disconnect it from the battery while the
battery is discharging and then connect it in again on the next charge. If this
fails to bring the gravity of the cell up to normal, the cells should be
examined for short circuits. Short circuits may be caused by broken
separators permitting the active material to bridge between the plates; the
sediment in the bottoms of the jars may have reached the plates, or
conducting substances may have fallen in the cells.
Broken separators should be replaced without loss of time, and the cells
cleaned if the sediment in the jars is high.
Regular Charge. A Regular Charge is made exactly like an Overcharge,
except that a Regular Charge is stopped when cells are gassing freely, when
the voltage per cell is about 2.6, and when the specific gravity of the pilot
cell rises to within 5 points of what it was on the previous Overcharge. That
is, if the gravity reading on the Overcharge rose to 1.210, the Regular
Charge should be stopped when the gravity reaches 1.205.
no other cell is dangerously hot when the thermometer does not read 100° or
over. Another point in the selection of a pilot cell is to determine if any
particular cell shows a gravity which is slightly less than that of the other
cells. If any such cell is found, use that cell as the pilot cell in taking gravity
readings while the battery is on discharge and also on charge. No cell will
then be discharged too far.
When all cells are gassing freely, continue the charge at the same current
until there is no rise in the specific gravity of the pilot cell for one to two
hours, and all cells are gassing freely throughout the hour. Then stop the
charge.
After the overcharge is completed, take gravity readings of all the cells. A
variation of about eight to ten points either above or below the fully charged
gravity after correction for temperature does not mean that a cell requires
any attention. If, however, one cell continually reads more than 10 points
lower then the others, the whole battery may be given an overcharge until
the gravity of the low cell comes up. If the cell then does not show any
tendency to charge up properly, disconnect it from the battery while the
battery is discharging and then connect it in again on the next charge. If this
fails to bring the gravity of the cell up to normal, the cells should be
examined for short circuits. Short circuits may be caused by broken
separators permitting the active material to bridge between the plates; the
sediment in the bottoms of the jars may have reached the plates, or
conducting substances may have fallen in the cells.
Broken separators should be replaced without loss of time, and the cells
cleaned if the sediment in the jars is high.
Regular Charge. A Regular Charge is made exactly like an Overcharge,
except that a Regular Charge is stopped when cells are gassing freely, when
the voltage per cell is about 2.6, and when the specific gravity of the pilot
cell rises to within 5 points of what it was on the previous Overcharge. That
is, if the gravity reading on the Overcharge rose to 1.210, the Regular
Charge should be stopped when the gravity reaches 1.205.
Page 571
Partial or Rapid Charge. If there is not enough time to give the battery a
full Regular Charge, double the normal charging rate and charge until all the
cells are gassing, and then reduce to the normal rate. Any current which does
not cause excessive temperature or premature gassing is permissible, as
previously mentioned. If a complete charge cannot be given, charge the
battery as long as the available time allows, and complete the charge at the
earliest possible opportunity.
Discharge
Do not allow the battery to discharge until the lights burn dim, or the voltage
drops below 1.8 per cell. The specific gravity is a better guide than the lamps
or voltage. The gravity falls as the battery discharges, and is therefore a good
indicator of the condition of the battery. Voltage readings are good guides,
but they must be taken while the battery is discharging at its normal rate. If
the load on the battery is heavy, the voltage per cell might fall below 1.8
before the battery was discharged. Lamps will be dim if the load on the
battery is heavy, especially if they are located far away from the battery. The
specific gravity readings are therefore the best means of indicating when a
battery is discharged.
Overdischarge. Be very careful not to discharge the battery beyond the safe
limits. Batteries discharging at low rates are liable to be overdischarged
before the voltage gives any indication of the discharged condition. This is
another reason why hydrometer readings should be used as a guide.
A battery must be charged as soon as it becomes discharged. It is, in fact, a
good plan, and one which will lengthen the life of the battery, to charge a
battery when it is only about three fourths discharged, as indicated by the
hydrometer. Suppose, for instance, that the specific gravity of the fully
charged battery is 1.250, and the specific gravity when the battery is
discharged is 1.180. This battery has a range of 1.250 minus 1.180, or 70
points between charge and discharge. This battery will give a longer life if its
discharge is stopped and the battery is put on charge when the gravity falls to
1.200, a drop of 50 points instead of the allowable 70.
Allowing discharged battery to stand without charge. A battery should
never be allowed to stand more than one day in a discharged condition. The
full Regular Charge, double the normal charging rate and charge until all the
cells are gassing, and then reduce to the normal rate. Any current which does
not cause excessive temperature or premature gassing is permissible, as
previously mentioned. If a complete charge cannot be given, charge the
battery as long as the available time allows, and complete the charge at the
earliest possible opportunity.
Discharge
Do not allow the battery to discharge until the lights burn dim, or the voltage
drops below 1.8 per cell. The specific gravity is a better guide than the lamps
or voltage. The gravity falls as the battery discharges, and is therefore a good
indicator of the condition of the battery. Voltage readings are good guides,
but they must be taken while the battery is discharging at its normal rate. If
the load on the battery is heavy, the voltage per cell might fall below 1.8
before the battery was discharged. Lamps will be dim if the load on the
battery is heavy, especially if they are located far away from the battery. The
specific gravity readings are therefore the best means of indicating when a
battery is discharged.
Overdischarge. Be very careful not to discharge the battery beyond the safe
limits. Batteries discharging at low rates are liable to be overdischarged
before the voltage gives any indication of the discharged condition. This is
another reason why hydrometer readings should be used as a guide.
A battery must be charged as soon as it becomes discharged. It is, in fact, a
good plan, and one which will lengthen the life of the battery, to charge a
battery when it is only about three fourths discharged, as indicated by the
hydrometer. Suppose, for instance, that the specific gravity of the fully
charged battery is 1.250, and the specific gravity when the battery is
discharged is 1.180. This battery has a range of 1.250 minus 1.180, or 70
points between charge and discharge. This battery will give a longer life if its
discharge is stopped and the battery is put on charge when the gravity falls to
1.200, a drop of 50 points instead of the allowable 70.
Allowing discharged battery to stand without charge. A battery should
never be allowed to stand more than one day in a discharged condition. The
Page 572
battery will continue to discharge although no current is drawn from it, just
as an automobile battery will. See page 89. The battery plates and separators
will gradually become badly sulphated and it will be a difficult matter to
charge the battery up to full capacity.
Battery Troubles
Farm lighting batteries are subject to the same general troubles that
automobile batteries are, although they are not as likely to occur because the
operating conditions are not as severe as is the case on the automobile. Being
in plain view at all times, and not being charged and discharged irregularly,
the farm lighting battery is not likely to give as much trouble as an
automobile battery. Neglect, such as failure to keep the electrolyte up to the
proper height, failure to charge as soon as the battery becomes discharged,
overdischarging, allowing battery to become too hot or too cold, allowing
impurities to get into the cells, will lead to the same troubles that the same
treatment will cause in an automobile battery, and the descriptions of, and
instructions for troubles in automobile batteries will apply in general to farm
lighting batteries also.
When a battery has been giving trouble, and you are called: upon to diagnose
and remedy that trouble, you should:
1. Get all the details as to the length of time the battery has been in service.
2. Find out what regular attention has been paid to its upkeep; whether it has
been charged regularly and given an overcharge once a month; whether
distilled water has been used in replacing evaporation of water from the
electrolyte; whether impurities such as small nails, pieces of wire, etc., have
ever fallen into any cell; whether battery has ever been allowed to stand in a
discharged condition for one day or more; whether temperature has been
allowed to rise above 110° F. at any time; whether electrolyte has ever been
frozen due to battery standing discharged in very cold weather.
3. Talk to the owner long enough to judge with what intelligence he has
taken care of the battery. Doing this may, save you both time and subsequent
embarrassment from a wrong diagnosis resulting from incomplete data.
as an automobile battery will. See page 89. The battery plates and separators
will gradually become badly sulphated and it will be a difficult matter to
charge the battery up to full capacity.
Battery Troubles
Farm lighting batteries are subject to the same general troubles that
automobile batteries are, although they are not as likely to occur because the
operating conditions are not as severe as is the case on the automobile. Being
in plain view at all times, and not being charged and discharged irregularly,
the farm lighting battery is not likely to give as much trouble as an
automobile battery. Neglect, such as failure to keep the electrolyte up to the
proper height, failure to charge as soon as the battery becomes discharged,
overdischarging, allowing battery to become too hot or too cold, allowing
impurities to get into the cells, will lead to the same troubles that the same
treatment will cause in an automobile battery, and the descriptions of, and
instructions for troubles in automobile batteries will apply in general to farm
lighting batteries also.
When a battery has been giving trouble, and you are called: upon to diagnose
and remedy that trouble, you should:
1. Get all the details as to the length of time the battery has been in service.
2. Find out what regular attention has been paid to its upkeep; whether it has
been charged regularly and given an overcharge once a month; whether
distilled water has been used in replacing evaporation of water from the
electrolyte; whether impurities such as small nails, pieces of wire, etc., have
ever fallen into any cell; whether battery has ever been allowed to stand in a
discharged condition for one day or more; whether temperature has been
allowed to rise above 110° F. at any time; whether electrolyte has ever been
frozen due to battery standing discharged in very cold weather.
3. Talk to the owner long enough to judge with what intelligence he has
taken care of the battery. Doing this may, save you both time and subsequent
embarrassment from a wrong diagnosis resulting from incomplete data.
Page 573
4. After getting all the details that the owner can supply, you will probably
know just about what the trouble is. Look over the cells carefully to
determine their condition. If the jars are made of glass note the following:
(a) Height of sediment in each jar.
(b) Color of electrolyte. This should be clear and colorless. A decided color
of any kind usually means that dirty or impure water has been added, or
impurities have fallen into the cell. For discussion of impurities see page 76.
(c) Condition of plates. The same troubles should be looked for as in
automobile batteries. See pages 339 to 346. An examination of the outside
negatives is usually sufficient. The condition of the positives may also be
determined if a flash light or other strong light is directed on the edges of the
plates. Look for growths or "treeing" between plates.
(d) Condition of separators. See page 346.
If cells have sealed rubber jars, proceed as follows:
(a) Measure height of electrolyte above plates with glass tube, as in Fig. 30.
If in any cell electrolyte is below tops of plates that cell is very likely the
defective one, and should be filled with distilled water. If a considerable
amount of water is required to fill the jar it is best to open the cell, as the
plates have probably become damaged. If the jar is wet or the rack is acid
eaten under the jar, the jar is cracked and must be replaced.
If you have not found the trouble, make the following tests, no matter
whether glass or rubber jars are used:
(a) Measure specific gravity of each cell. If any cell is badly discharged it is
probably short-circuited, or contains impurities and had better be opened for
inspection.
(b) Turn on all the lamps and measure the voltage of each cell. If any cell
shows a voltage much less than 1.8 it is short-circuited or contains
impurities, and should be opened for inspection.
know just about what the trouble is. Look over the cells carefully to
determine their condition. If the jars are made of glass note the following:
(a) Height of sediment in each jar.
(b) Color of electrolyte. This should be clear and colorless. A decided color
of any kind usually means that dirty or impure water has been added, or
impurities have fallen into the cell. For discussion of impurities see page 76.
(c) Condition of plates. The same troubles should be looked for as in
automobile batteries. See pages 339 to 346. An examination of the outside
negatives is usually sufficient. The condition of the positives may also be
determined if a flash light or other strong light is directed on the edges of the
plates. Look for growths or "treeing" between plates.
(d) Condition of separators. See page 346.
If cells have sealed rubber jars, proceed as follows:
(a) Measure height of electrolyte above plates with glass tube, as in Fig. 30.
If in any cell electrolyte is below tops of plates that cell is very likely the
defective one, and should be filled with distilled water. If a considerable
amount of water is required to fill the jar it is best to open the cell, as the
plates have probably become damaged. If the jar is wet or the rack is acid
eaten under the jar, the jar is cracked and must be replaced.
If you have not found the trouble, make the following tests, no matter
whether glass or rubber jars are used:
(a) Measure specific gravity of each cell. If any cell is badly discharged it is
probably short-circuited, or contains impurities and had better be opened for
inspection.
(b) Turn on all the lamps and measure the voltage of each cell. If any cell
shows a voltage much less than 1.8 it is short-circuited or contains
impurities, and should be opened for inspection.
Page 574
(c) Examine the connections between cells for looseness or corrosion; and
examine the connections between the battery and the generator, going over
cables, switches, rheostats, etc. Make sure that you have a complete and
closed charging circuit between the generator and the battery.
(d) If cutout is used on the switchboard, see that its contact points are
smooth and clean, and that they work freely.
(e) Run the generator to see if it builds up a voltage which is sufficient to
charge the battery, about 42 volts for a 16 cell battery. If the generator is not
working properly, examine it according to directions on page 451. Check up
the field circuit of the generator to be sure that it is closed. A circuit-tester
made of a buzzer and several dry cells, or a low voltage lamp and dry cells,
or a hand magneto is convenient for use in testing circuits. Test armature
windings and field coils for grounds.
By the foregoing methods you should be able to determine what is to be
done. The following rules should also help:
Cleaning and renewal of electrolyte is necessary when:
(a) Sediment has risen to within one-half inch of the bottom of the plates.
(b) Much foreign material is floating in the electrolyte, or electrolyte is of a
deep brown color.
Replacement of parts is necessary when
(a) Separators are cracked or warped. See page 346 for Separator troubles.
(b) Plates are defective. See rules on pages 339 to 346.
PREST-O-LITE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES
The Prest-O-Lite battery which is designed for use in connection with farm
lighting plants is known as the FPL type. Cells of 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 plates
examine the connections between the battery and the generator, going over
cables, switches, rheostats, etc. Make sure that you have a complete and
closed charging circuit between the generator and the battery.
(d) If cutout is used on the switchboard, see that its contact points are
smooth and clean, and that they work freely.
(e) Run the generator to see if it builds up a voltage which is sufficient to
charge the battery, about 42 volts for a 16 cell battery. If the generator is not
working properly, examine it according to directions on page 451. Check up
the field circuit of the generator to be sure that it is closed. A circuit-tester
made of a buzzer and several dry cells, or a low voltage lamp and dry cells,
or a hand magneto is convenient for use in testing circuits. Test armature
windings and field coils for grounds.
By the foregoing methods you should be able to determine what is to be
done. The following rules should also help:
Cleaning and renewal of electrolyte is necessary when:
(a) Sediment has risen to within one-half inch of the bottom of the plates.
(b) Much foreign material is floating in the electrolyte, or electrolyte is of a
deep brown color.
Replacement of parts is necessary when
(a) Separators are cracked or warped. See page 346 for Separator troubles.
(b) Plates are defective. See rules on pages 339 to 346.
PREST-O-LITE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES
The Prest-O-Lite battery which is designed for use in connection with farm
lighting plants is known as the FPL type. Cells of 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 plates
Page 575
are made, the number of plates
being indicated by putting the
figure in front of the type
letters. A seven plate cell is
thus designated as a 7 FPL
cell, which has an 80 ampere
hour capacity at the 8 hour
continuous discharge rate.
The FPL cell, the construction
of which is shown in Figs.
295, 300, 301, 302 and 303,
has a sealed glass jar with a
lead antimony cover. The
cover construction is shown in
detail in Figs. 301 and 302.
Insulation between the posts
and cover is provided by a
hard rubber bushing, a hard
rubber washer, and a soft
rubber washer. The bushing is
shaped like a "T" with a hole
drilled in the stem. The stem
of the bushing fits down into
the post hole in the cover, the
flange at the top testing on the
raised portion of the cover
around the post hole. The post
has a shoulder a little less than
halfway up from its lower end.
Upon this shoulder is placed the hard rubber washer, and upon the hard
rubber washer is placed the soft rubber washer. This assembly is fastened to
the cover by the "peening" process used in Prest-O-Lite automobile batteries
as described on page 386. This forces the soft rubber washer tightly against
the cover so as to make a leak proof joint-between the bushing and cover.
The ring of lead formed around the posts by the peening process supports the
posts, plates, and separators, which therefore are suspended from the cell
cover. The plate straps extend horizontally across the tops of the plates, and
being indicated by putting the
figure in front of the type
letters. A seven plate cell is
thus designated as a 7 FPL
cell, which has an 80 ampere
hour capacity at the 8 hour
continuous discharge rate.
The FPL cell, the construction
of which is shown in Figs.
295, 300, 301, 302 and 303,
has a sealed glass jar with a
lead antimony cover. The
cover construction is shown in
detail in Figs. 301 and 302.
Insulation between the posts
and cover is provided by a
hard rubber bushing, a hard
rubber washer, and a soft
rubber washer. The bushing is
shaped like a "T" with a hole
drilled in the stem. The stem
of the bushing fits down into
the post hole in the cover, the
flange at the top testing on the
raised portion of the cover
around the post hole. The post
has a shoulder a little less than
halfway up from its lower end.
Upon this shoulder is placed the hard rubber washer, and upon the hard
rubber washer is placed the soft rubber washer. This assembly is fastened to
the cover by the "peening" process used in Prest-O-Lite automobile batteries
as described on page 386. This forces the soft rubber washer tightly against
the cover so as to make a leak proof joint-between the bushing and cover.
The ring of lead formed around the posts by the peening process supports the
posts, plates, and separators, which therefore are suspended from the cell
cover. The plate straps extend horizontally across the tops of the plates, and
Page 576
thus also act as "hold-downs" for the separators. The separators are held up
by two rectangular rubber bridges which fit Mito slotted extension lugs cast
into the lower corners of the outside negative plates. An outside negative
having these extension lugs is shown in Fig. 303.
by two rectangular rubber bridges which fit Mito slotted extension lugs cast
into the lower corners of the outside negative plates. An outside negative
having these extension lugs is shown in Fig. 303.
Page 577
Page 578
Page 579
Specific Gravity of Electrolyte. The values of the specific gravity of Prest-
O-Lite farm lighting batteries are as follows:
Battery fully charged reads 1.250
Battery three-fourths charged reads 1.230
Battery one-half charged reads 1.215
Battery one-fourth charged reads 1.200
Battery discharged completely reads 1.180
These readings are to be taken with the electrolyte at a temperature of 80°
Fahrenheit. Readings taken at other temperatures should be converted to 80°.
To convert readings at a lower temperature to the values they would have at
80°, subtract one point for every two and one-half degrees temperature
difference. For example, suppose a cell reads 1.225 gravity at 60°. To find
what the gravity would be if the temperature of the electrolyte were 80°
divide the difference between 80° and 60° by 2-1/2, or 80° minus 60°
divided by 21/2 equals 8. The gravity at 80° would therefore be 1.225 minus
.008, or 1.217, which is the value of specific gravity to use. If the specific
gravity is read at a higher temperature than 80°, divide the difference
between 80° and the temperature at which the gravity reading was taken by
21/2, and add the result to the actual gravity reading obtained. If, for
O-Lite farm lighting batteries are as follows:
Battery fully charged reads 1.250
Battery three-fourths charged reads 1.230
Battery one-half charged reads 1.215
Battery one-fourth charged reads 1.200
Battery discharged completely reads 1.180
These readings are to be taken with the electrolyte at a temperature of 80°
Fahrenheit. Readings taken at other temperatures should be converted to 80°.
To convert readings at a lower temperature to the values they would have at
80°, subtract one point for every two and one-half degrees temperature
difference. For example, suppose a cell reads 1.225 gravity at 60°. To find
what the gravity would be if the temperature of the electrolyte were 80°
divide the difference between 80° and 60° by 2-1/2, or 80° minus 60°
divided by 21/2 equals 8. The gravity at 80° would therefore be 1.225 minus
.008, or 1.217, which is the value of specific gravity to use. If the specific
gravity is read at a higher temperature than 80°, divide the difference
between 80° and the temperature at which the gravity reading was taken by
21/2, and add the result to the actual gravity reading obtained. If, for
Page 580
example, the gravity were 1.225 at 100°, the gravity at 80° would be 1.225
plus .008, or 1.233.
Charging Rates. The normal charging rate to be used in giving Prest-O-Lite
batteries a regular charge or overcharge are as follows:
Battery Charging Rate
5 F.P.L. 5.0 amps.
7 F.P.L. 7.5 amps.
9 F.P.L. 10.0 amps.
11 F.P.L. 12.5 amps.
13 F.P.L. 15.0 amps.
15 F.P.L. 17.5 amps.
Rebuilding Prest-O-Lite Farm Lighting Batteries
Opening the Cell.
1. Make sure that the cell is as fully charged as possible. Since it is not very
convenient to charge a single cell, a good time to open a cell for cleaning
and repairing is immediately after the battery has been given an overcharge.
See page 455.
2. Disconnect the cell from the adjoining ones.
3. Heat a thin bladed putty knife and insert it under the edge of the lead-
antimony cover to melt the sealing compound. Run the knife all round the
cover, heating it again if it should become too cool to cut the compound
readily.
4. Grasp the lead posts above the cover and lift up gradually. This will bring
up the cover, plates, and separators.
5. Place the plates on a clean board for examination. Use the instructions
given on pages 339 to 346. Do not keep the plates out of the electrolyte long
enough to let them dry, and the negatives heat up. If you cannot examine the
plus .008, or 1.233.
Charging Rates. The normal charging rate to be used in giving Prest-O-Lite
batteries a regular charge or overcharge are as follows:
Battery Charging Rate
5 F.P.L. 5.0 amps.
7 F.P.L. 7.5 amps.
9 F.P.L. 10.0 amps.
11 F.P.L. 12.5 amps.
13 F.P.L. 15.0 amps.
15 F.P.L. 17.5 amps.
Rebuilding Prest-O-Lite Farm Lighting Batteries
Opening the Cell.
1. Make sure that the cell is as fully charged as possible. Since it is not very
convenient to charge a single cell, a good time to open a cell for cleaning
and repairing is immediately after the battery has been given an overcharge.
See page 455.
2. Disconnect the cell from the adjoining ones.
3. Heat a thin bladed putty knife and insert it under the edge of the lead-
antimony cover to melt the sealing compound. Run the knife all round the
cover, heating it again if it should become too cool to cut the compound
readily.
4. Grasp the lead posts above the cover and lift up gradually. This will bring
up the cover, plates, and separators.
5. Place the plates on a clean board for examination. Use the instructions
given on pages 339 to 346. Do not keep the plates out of the electrolyte long
enough to let them dry, and the negatives heat up. If you cannot examine the
Page 581
plates as soon as you have removed them immerse them in 1.250 acid
contained in a lead or non-metallic vessel until you can examine them.
6. In renewing the electrolyte, pour in as much new 1.250 acid as there was
old electrolyte in the jar. (It is assumed that the electrolyte was up to the
lower ridge of the glass jar before the cell was opened.) The new electrolyte
must not have a temperature above 100° when it is poured into the jar.
7. The separators can be pulled out easily when the plates are laid on their
sides. All that is necessary is to remove the small rubber bridge at the bottom
corners of the plates. The separators can then be pulled out. If the old
separators are to be used again brush off any material that may be adhering
to them, and keep them wet with 1.250 acid until they are replaced between
the plates. Any separators that show cracks or holes, or that split while being
replaced between the plates should be thrown away and new ones used.
8. It is not necessary to remove the sediment from the bottom of the jar
unless it is within one half inch of the bottom of the plates. If the sediment is
to be removed, carefully pour off the clear electrolyte into a lead, hard
rubber, or earthenware jar, if the electrolyte is to be used again.
9. If one or two of the plates in either positive or negative groups need to be
replaced it is best to burn a new plate to the strap without removing the
peened cover. This is done by blocking under the row of plate lugs with
metal blocks after cutting off old plate and cleaning the surface of strap.
Insert new plate, the lug of which has been cut about 1/4 inch short, to allow
for new metal. Choosing small oblong iron blocks of suitable size, build a
form about the plate lug which fits same well. Now with a torch and burning
lead fuse the new plate onto the old strap. When cool remove and test joint
by pulling and slightly twisting the plate at the same time.
Sometimes one group of a starting and lighting battery may be in sufficiently
good condition to pay to combine it with a new group, but this condition will
very rarely, if ever, be met in farm lighting cell service. We advise the
replacement of the complete cell element if either group is worn out, for the
cost of repairs and of new group will probably not be warranted by the short
additional life which the remaining old group will give.
contained in a lead or non-metallic vessel until you can examine them.
6. In renewing the electrolyte, pour in as much new 1.250 acid as there was
old electrolyte in the jar. (It is assumed that the electrolyte was up to the
lower ridge of the glass jar before the cell was opened.) The new electrolyte
must not have a temperature above 100° when it is poured into the jar.
7. The separators can be pulled out easily when the plates are laid on their
sides. All that is necessary is to remove the small rubber bridge at the bottom
corners of the plates. The separators can then be pulled out. If the old
separators are to be used again brush off any material that may be adhering
to them, and keep them wet with 1.250 acid until they are replaced between
the plates. Any separators that show cracks or holes, or that split while being
replaced between the plates should be thrown away and new ones used.
8. It is not necessary to remove the sediment from the bottom of the jar
unless it is within one half inch of the bottom of the plates. If the sediment is
to be removed, carefully pour off the clear electrolyte into a lead, hard
rubber, or earthenware jar, if the electrolyte is to be used again.
9. If one or two of the plates in either positive or negative groups need to be
replaced it is best to burn a new plate to the strap without removing the
peened cover. This is done by blocking under the row of plate lugs with
metal blocks after cutting off old plate and cleaning the surface of strap.
Insert new plate, the lug of which has been cut about 1/4 inch short, to allow
for new metal. Choosing small oblong iron blocks of suitable size, build a
form about the plate lug which fits same well. Now with a torch and burning
lead fuse the new plate onto the old strap. When cool remove and test joint
by pulling and slightly twisting the plate at the same time.
Sometimes one group of a starting and lighting battery may be in sufficiently
good condition to pay to combine it with a new group, but this condition will
very rarely, if ever, be met in farm lighting cell service. We advise the
replacement of the complete cell element if either group is worn out, for the
cost of repairs and of new group will probably not be warranted by the short
additional life which the remaining old group will give.
Page 582
10. Putting Repaired Cell Back into Service. After having finished all
necessary cleaning, replacement, or repairs, remove all old sealing material,
return the element with attached lead cover to the cell jar. It is not necessary
to reseal the cover to the jars this sealing is essential only for insurance
against breakage or leakage in shipment.
Add through the vent plug opening sufficient cool acid of 1.250 Sp. Gr. to
reestablish the proper electrolyte level, which means that the electrolyte is
brought up to the lower moulded glass ridge near the top of jar.
Connect the cell with any other repaired cells and charge at normal rate
already indicated under "charging rates" until dell voltage reads 2.5 or
above, at 80°. The positive to cadmium voltage should be at least 0.10 volts
less than cell voltage itself. When this condition is obtained cell may be
replaced in operating circuit with others and should give satisfactory service.
EXIDE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES.
Exide Farm lighting Batteries are made with sealed glass jars, open glass
jars, and sealed rubber jars, each of which will be described.
Batteries with Sealed Glass Jars.
Two types with sealed glass jars are made, these being the Delco Light Type,
and the Exide type.
1. Delco-Light Type. This type is shown in Fig. 294. The cell shown is a
pilot cell, there being two of these in each battery as explained below.
These cells are made in two sizes, the KXG-7, 7 plate, 80 ampere hour cell,
and the KXG-13, a 13 plate, 160 ampere hour cell. These cells are assembled
into a 32 volt, 16 cell battery, or a 110 volt, 56 cell battery.
The plate groups are supported from the cover, the weight being carried by
the wooden cover supports as shown in Fig. 294. The strap posts are
threaded, and are clamped to the cover and supports by means of alloy nuts,
just as is the case in Exide automobile batteries.
necessary cleaning, replacement, or repairs, remove all old sealing material,
return the element with attached lead cover to the cell jar. It is not necessary
to reseal the cover to the jars this sealing is essential only for insurance
against breakage or leakage in shipment.
Add through the vent plug opening sufficient cool acid of 1.250 Sp. Gr. to
reestablish the proper electrolyte level, which means that the electrolyte is
brought up to the lower moulded glass ridge near the top of jar.
Connect the cell with any other repaired cells and charge at normal rate
already indicated under "charging rates" until dell voltage reads 2.5 or
above, at 80°. The positive to cadmium voltage should be at least 0.10 volts
less than cell voltage itself. When this condition is obtained cell may be
replaced in operating circuit with others and should give satisfactory service.
EXIDE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES.
Exide Farm lighting Batteries are made with sealed glass jars, open glass
jars, and sealed rubber jars, each of which will be described.
Batteries with Sealed Glass Jars.
Two types with sealed glass jars are made, these being the Delco Light Type,
and the Exide type.
1. Delco-Light Type. This type is shown in Fig. 294. The cell shown is a
pilot cell, there being two of these in each battery as explained below.
These cells are made in two sizes, the KXG-7, 7 plate, 80 ampere hour cell,
and the KXG-13, a 13 plate, 160 ampere hour cell. These cells are assembled
into a 32 volt, 16 cell battery, or a 110 volt, 56 cell battery.
The plate groups are supported from the cover, the weight being carried by
the wooden cover supports as shown in Fig. 294. The strap posts are
threaded, and are clamped to the cover and supports by means of alloy nuts,
just as is the case in Exide automobile batteries.
Page 583
A hard rubber supporting rod or lock pin extending across the bottoms of the
plates holds the separators in position and prevents the plates from flaring
out at the bottom. A soft rubber bumper fastened on each end of the rod acts
as a cushion to prevent jar breakage in shipping.
The hard rubber cover overlaps the flanged top of the jar, to which it is
sealed with special compound.
Battery Gauges and Instruments for Testing.
Every set of Delco-Light batteries has either one or two cells equipped with
a pilot ball. Such a cell is known as a PILOT CELL. Fig. 294.
Pilot Cells are used to indicate to the USER the approximate state of charge
or discharge of the battery.
The pilot ball is a battery gauge which is UP or DOWN, depending upon the
state of charge of the battery.
Very high temperature affects the operation of the pilot ball. This accounts
for-the fact that occasionally a battery will be charged and the pilot ball will
be at the bottom of the pocket. A few hours later, after the electrolyte has
cooled, the pilot ball will rise to the top.
We urge that the user be made to feel that the pilot ball is an excellent gauge
and a good signal to watch in connection with the care and operation of his
Delco-Light plant and battery. (Further mention will be made of the pilot
ball in connection with the subject of proper operation.)
It is necessary that the maximum specific gravity of pilot cells be as near
1.220 as possible. Any great variation higher or lower will affect the
operation of the pilot balls. Therefore, every effort should be made to adjust
the maximum specific gravity of pilot cells to 1.220 when placed in service.
Batteries equipped with one pilot cell contain a white pilot ball which will be
up when the specific gravity of the electrolyte is approximately 1.185. This
ball will drop DOWN when the specific gravity falls a little below 1.185.
plates holds the separators in position and prevents the plates from flaring
out at the bottom. A soft rubber bumper fastened on each end of the rod acts
as a cushion to prevent jar breakage in shipping.
The hard rubber cover overlaps the flanged top of the jar, to which it is
sealed with special compound.
Battery Gauges and Instruments for Testing.
Every set of Delco-Light batteries has either one or two cells equipped with
a pilot ball. Such a cell is known as a PILOT CELL. Fig. 294.
Pilot Cells are used to indicate to the USER the approximate state of charge
or discharge of the battery.
The pilot ball is a battery gauge which is UP or DOWN, depending upon the
state of charge of the battery.
Very high temperature affects the operation of the pilot ball. This accounts
for-the fact that occasionally a battery will be charged and the pilot ball will
be at the bottom of the pocket. A few hours later, after the electrolyte has
cooled, the pilot ball will rise to the top.
We urge that the user be made to feel that the pilot ball is an excellent gauge
and a good signal to watch in connection with the care and operation of his
Delco-Light plant and battery. (Further mention will be made of the pilot
ball in connection with the subject of proper operation.)
It is necessary that the maximum specific gravity of pilot cells be as near
1.220 as possible. Any great variation higher or lower will affect the
operation of the pilot balls. Therefore, every effort should be made to adjust
the maximum specific gravity of pilot cells to 1.220 when placed in service.
Batteries equipped with one pilot cell contain a white pilot ball which will be
up when the specific gravity of the electrolyte is approximately 1.185. This
ball will drop DOWN when the specific gravity falls a little below 1.185.
Page 584
In other words, the pilot ball will float at a specific gravity of 1:185 or
higher, and will sink at a specific gravity lower than 1.185.
Therefore, when the pilot ball is UP, the battery is more than half charged.
When the pilot ball is DOWN, the battery is more than half discharged.
Batteries equipped with two pilot cells have one cell which contains a white
ball and the other cell a white ball with a blue band.
The plain white ball will be UP when the specific gravity is approximately
1.175. The blue band ball will be UP when the specific gravity is
approximately 1.205.
When both balls are UP, the battery is charged. When DOWN, the battery is
discharged. The blue band ball will drop soon after the battery starts on
discharge, or, in other words, when the specific gravity falls below 1.205.
The white ball will remain UP until the specific gravity falls below 1.175.
The Ampere-Hour Meter
The ampere-hour meter, Fig. 304, is an instrument for indicating to the
user the state of charge of the battery at all times and serves to-stop the plant
automatically so equipped, when the battery is charged. (Further mention
will be made of the ampere hour meter on page 471.)
In order to check the speed of the ampere-hour meter, use the following rule:
On charge, the armature disc should give 16 revolutions in 30 seconds, with
a charging rate of 15 amperes; on discharge, the armature disc should give
20 revolutions in 30 seconds, with a discharging rate of 15 amperes.
higher, and will sink at a specific gravity lower than 1.185.
Therefore, when the pilot ball is UP, the battery is more than half charged.
When the pilot ball is DOWN, the battery is more than half discharged.
Batteries equipped with two pilot cells have one cell which contains a white
ball and the other cell a white ball with a blue band.
The plain white ball will be UP when the specific gravity is approximately
1.175. The blue band ball will be UP when the specific gravity is
approximately 1.205.
When both balls are UP, the battery is charged. When DOWN, the battery is
discharged. The blue band ball will drop soon after the battery starts on
discharge, or, in other words, when the specific gravity falls below 1.205.
The white ball will remain UP until the specific gravity falls below 1.175.
The Ampere-Hour Meter
The ampere-hour meter, Fig. 304, is an instrument for indicating to the
user the state of charge of the battery at all times and serves to-stop the plant
automatically so equipped, when the battery is charged. (Further mention
will be made of the ampere hour meter on page 471.)
In order to check the speed of the ampere-hour meter, use the following rule:
On charge, the armature disc should give 16 revolutions in 30 seconds, with
a charging rate of 15 amperes; on discharge, the armature disc should give
20 revolutions in 30 seconds, with a discharging rate of 15 amperes.
Page 585
Hydrometers
The standard hydrometer for service men is known as the Type V-2B.
A special type hydrometer showing three colored bands in place of numbers
has been designed for users.
The bands are red, green and black. When the hydrometer test shows the
bottom of the red band in the electrolyte, the battery, whether in glass or
rubber jar, is discharged. When the top of the green band is out of the
electrolyte, the glass jar battery is charged. The top of the black band out of
the electrolyte indicates the rubber jar battery is charged.
When and How to Charge Battery
Plants with Average Loads
Loads of legs than ten (10) amperes can be taken directly from the battery,
until:
1. The large hand on the ampere-hour meter reaches 12, or
2. Both pilot balls are down, or
The standard hydrometer for service men is known as the Type V-2B.
A special type hydrometer showing three colored bands in place of numbers
has been designed for users.
The bands are red, green and black. When the hydrometer test shows the
bottom of the red band in the electrolyte, the battery, whether in glass or
rubber jar, is discharged. When the top of the green band is out of the
electrolyte, the glass jar battery is charged. The top of the black band out of
the electrolyte indicates the rubber jar battery is charged.
When and How to Charge Battery
Plants with Average Loads
Loads of legs than ten (10) amperes can be taken directly from the battery,
until:
1. The large hand on the ampere-hour meter reaches 12, or
2. Both pilot balls are down, or
Page 586
3. Hydrometer test shows bottom of red band in the electrolyte.
If any or all of the three gauges listed above show the battery discharged, the
plant should be started and operated continuously until the battery is
charged, as indicated by:
1. Ampere-hour meter hand at FULL, or
2. Both pilot balls UP, or
3. Hydrometer test shows top of FULL band out of electrolyte.
(NOTE: Any one or all of the above three items may indicate battery
charged. Meter hand at FULL would necessitate both balls UP. If both balls
are not up, set hand back and charge to bring them up; then set hand at
FULL.)
Should the user be operating for two or three hours with a seven or eight-
ampere load, it would be more efficient to run the plant to carry this load.
This only applies for those cases where the battery is partly discharged.
Carry Heavy Loads Greater Than 10 Amperes.
If there is a constant load of 10 amperes or more, the plant should be started
up when the heavy load comes on. When the heavy load is off, the plant may
be stopped, but it would be entirely satisfactory to allow the plant to
continue to run until "Charged," as indicated by:
1. Ampere-hour meter hand reaches FULL, or
2. Both pilot balls are UP, or
3. Hydrometer test shows top of FULL band out of electrolyte.
In any case, plant should be run until battery is "Charged" at least once a
week.
Always Start Charging When Battery Gauges Indicate Battery
Discharged.
If any or all of the three gauges listed above show the battery discharged, the
plant should be started and operated continuously until the battery is
charged, as indicated by:
1. Ampere-hour meter hand at FULL, or
2. Both pilot balls UP, or
3. Hydrometer test shows top of FULL band out of electrolyte.
(NOTE: Any one or all of the above three items may indicate battery
charged. Meter hand at FULL would necessitate both balls UP. If both balls
are not up, set hand back and charge to bring them up; then set hand at
FULL.)
Should the user be operating for two or three hours with a seven or eight-
ampere load, it would be more efficient to run the plant to carry this load.
This only applies for those cases where the battery is partly discharged.
Carry Heavy Loads Greater Than 10 Amperes.
If there is a constant load of 10 amperes or more, the plant should be started
up when the heavy load comes on. When the heavy load is off, the plant may
be stopped, but it would be entirely satisfactory to allow the plant to
continue to run until "Charged," as indicated by:
1. Ampere-hour meter hand reaches FULL, or
2. Both pilot balls are UP, or
3. Hydrometer test shows top of FULL band out of electrolyte.
In any case, plant should be run until battery is "Charged" at least once a
week.
Always Start Charging When Battery Gauges Indicate Battery
Discharged.
Page 587
On ampere-hour meter plants, when the hand is at FULL, the plant cannot be
operated on account of the ignition circuit being broken.
In such cases allow load to be taken from the battery until the hand travels
back sufficiently to allow the plant to run.
Occasionally the plant and battery are used to carry continuous loads of from
10 to 15 amperes each night, with practically no day load. This condition
necessitates running the plant to carry the load, but at the same time the
battery is continually receiving from 10 to 15 amperes charge, with the result
that the battery may receive too much charging. This would be indicated by
the battery bubbling freely every time the plant is operated. To prevent this
condition, the user should be instructed to carry the load off the battery
frequently enough to prevent continual bubbling.
Where Small Load Is Used.
There are many installations where the battery capacity is sufficient to last
several weeks. On installations of this kind it is advisable to charge the
battery to FULL at least once a week.
The dealer or service man should use his own judgment on the preceding
instructions as to which is best suited for the different conditions
encountered.
Regularly on the first of each month, regardless of whether or not the battery
has been used, a special charge, called the Equalizing Charge, should be
given. This charge should be given as follows: The battery should be
charged until EACH cell is bubbling freely from top to bottom on surface of
the outside negative plates and then the charge should be continued for TWO
MORE HOURS.
The monthly equalizing charge is a NECESSARY precautionary measure to
insure that the user will bring each cell in the battery up to maximum gravity
at least once a month. It also provides a means on the ampere-hour meter
plants to set the ampere-hour meter hand at FULL when the battery is FULL.
operated on account of the ignition circuit being broken.
In such cases allow load to be taken from the battery until the hand travels
back sufficiently to allow the plant to run.
Occasionally the plant and battery are used to carry continuous loads of from
10 to 15 amperes each night, with practically no day load. This condition
necessitates running the plant to carry the load, but at the same time the
battery is continually receiving from 10 to 15 amperes charge, with the result
that the battery may receive too much charging. This would be indicated by
the battery bubbling freely every time the plant is operated. To prevent this
condition, the user should be instructed to carry the load off the battery
frequently enough to prevent continual bubbling.
Where Small Load Is Used.
There are many installations where the battery capacity is sufficient to last
several weeks. On installations of this kind it is advisable to charge the
battery to FULL at least once a week.
The dealer or service man should use his own judgment on the preceding
instructions as to which is best suited for the different conditions
encountered.
Regularly on the first of each month, regardless of whether or not the battery
has been used, a special charge, called the Equalizing Charge, should be
given. This charge should be given as follows: The battery should be
charged until EACH cell is bubbling freely from top to bottom on surface of
the outside negative plates and then the charge should be continued for TWO
MORE HOURS.
The monthly equalizing charge is a NECESSARY precautionary measure to
insure that the user will bring each cell in the battery up to maximum gravity
at least once a month. It also provides a means on the ampere-hour meter
plants to set the ampere-hour meter hand at FULL when the battery is FULL.
Page 588
The users should be cautioned to inform the service man or dealer
immediately if any cell fails to bubble at the end of an equalizing charge,
when all others are bubbling freely. This will enable the service man to
inspect such cells for trouble and remedy same before the trouble becomes
serious. (See further information under inspection and repairs.)
INSPECTION TRIPS
Undercharging or injurious sulphation is the most common trouble
encountered. Undercharging causes the plates to blister and bulge, and in
place of good gray edges on the negative plates and good brown color edges
on the positive plates, the edges will show a faded color, with very little
brown color showing on the edges of the positive plates.
Overcharging is not so evident on inspection, except that in such cases the
active material from the positive plates, which is brown in color, will be
thrown to the bottom as sediment more rapidly than the sediment would
accumulate due to normal wear.
Heavy usage on a battery will also cause considerable sediment in the
bottom of the cells, so that it is necessary to investigate carefully whether it
is overcharging or overwork. A few questions as to method of operation and
load requirements will aid in deciding the cause of excessive sediment. (See
When and How to Charge, page 468.)
Sediment Space Filled.
When the space below the plates is filled up with sediment and touching the
plates, the cell becomes short-circuited and will deteriorate very rapidly. It
will be noticed, however, that the sediment is heaped in the middle of the
cell. If the cells are unbolted and unshaken, it will level the sediment and
leave a space between the sediment and plates. It is very important that the
sediment be shaken down before the cell becomes short-circuited. This will
very often prolong the life of the battery a number of months. When the
sediment space is completely filled, approximately all the active material
will be out of the positive plates.
immediately if any cell fails to bubble at the end of an equalizing charge,
when all others are bubbling freely. This will enable the service man to
inspect such cells for trouble and remedy same before the trouble becomes
serious. (See further information under inspection and repairs.)
INSPECTION TRIPS
Undercharging or injurious sulphation is the most common trouble
encountered. Undercharging causes the plates to blister and bulge, and in
place of good gray edges on the negative plates and good brown color edges
on the positive plates, the edges will show a faded color, with very little
brown color showing on the edges of the positive plates.
Overcharging is not so evident on inspection, except that in such cases the
active material from the positive plates, which is brown in color, will be
thrown to the bottom as sediment more rapidly than the sediment would
accumulate due to normal wear.
Heavy usage on a battery will also cause considerable sediment in the
bottom of the cells, so that it is necessary to investigate carefully whether it
is overcharging or overwork. A few questions as to method of operation and
load requirements will aid in deciding the cause of excessive sediment. (See
When and How to Charge, page 468.)
Sediment Space Filled.
When the space below the plates is filled up with sediment and touching the
plates, the cell becomes short-circuited and will deteriorate very rapidly. It
will be noticed, however, that the sediment is heaped in the middle of the
cell. If the cells are unbolted and unshaken, it will level the sediment and
leave a space between the sediment and plates. It is very important that the
sediment be shaken down before the cell becomes short-circuited. This will
very often prolong the life of the battery a number of months. When the
sediment space is completely filled, approximately all the active material
will be out of the positive plates.
Page 589
A thorough study should be made as to the general condition of the battery
and method of operation before forming an opinion or suggesting any
change in method of operation.
Check Ampere-Hour Meters
On plants which have ampere-hour meters, the meter should be checked as
to its speed on discharge, and also check position of the meter hand at the
time of inspection, to see if it checks with the specific gravity and the pilot
balls. (See Ampere Hour Meter, page 467.)
It will generally be found that when a battery is sulphated, it is operating in
very low specific gravity, or, in other words, the charges have not been
carried far enough to drive all the acid out of the plates.
A battery that is not receiving quite enough charge may not as a whole
become "sulphated," but several cells might become considerably weaker
than the others and become "sulphated," causing trouble in these particular
cells. Such cells will not bubble freely, or possibly not at all, when the other
cells are bubbling freely. Therefore, a few questions to the user will
generally help in locating the low cells.
Cells that are in trouble, or which soon will be, can very easily be picked out
by making a few tests on the battery. Therefore, on all inspections, regardless
of the age of a battery, it is suggested that the following tests be made: Take
a specific gravity reading of all cells and note if there are any cells much
lower than the others. Amy cells having a specific gravity of 30 points lower
than the average will generally be found to be in trouble, unless these cells
happen to be low from having had spillage in shipment, replaced with water.
(This condition, however, should not exist in future installations if the
spillage is properly taken care of, as has been explained on page 482.)
Voltage Readings
After taking a specific gravity reading, a voltage reading of each cell should
be taken. Voltage readings taken on open circuit are of no value, so while
taking these readings the battery should be on discharge, having at least a
and method of operation before forming an opinion or suggesting any
change in method of operation.
Check Ampere-Hour Meters
On plants which have ampere-hour meters, the meter should be checked as
to its speed on discharge, and also check position of the meter hand at the
time of inspection, to see if it checks with the specific gravity and the pilot
balls. (See Ampere Hour Meter, page 467.)
It will generally be found that when a battery is sulphated, it is operating in
very low specific gravity, or, in other words, the charges have not been
carried far enough to drive all the acid out of the plates.
A battery that is not receiving quite enough charge may not as a whole
become "sulphated," but several cells might become considerably weaker
than the others and become "sulphated," causing trouble in these particular
cells. Such cells will not bubble freely, or possibly not at all, when the other
cells are bubbling freely. Therefore, a few questions to the user will
generally help in locating the low cells.
Cells that are in trouble, or which soon will be, can very easily be picked out
by making a few tests on the battery. Therefore, on all inspections, regardless
of the age of a battery, it is suggested that the following tests be made: Take
a specific gravity reading of all cells and note if there are any cells much
lower than the others. Amy cells having a specific gravity of 30 points lower
than the average will generally be found to be in trouble, unless these cells
happen to be low from having had spillage in shipment, replaced with water.
(This condition, however, should not exist in future installations if the
spillage is properly taken care of, as has been explained on page 482.)
Voltage Readings
After taking a specific gravity reading, a voltage reading of each cell should
be taken. Voltage readings taken on open circuit are of no value, so while
taking these readings the battery should be on discharge, having at least a
Page 590
discharge of 15 amperes. A good way to get this discharge is to hold the
starting switch in and set mixing valve lever at lean point or wide open.
A low or defective cell will show a voltage reading .10 to .20 volts lower
than the other cells on discharge, while a reversed cell will show a reading in
the reversed direction when on discharge, especially on heavy discharge.
The voltage readings are a sure check if taken in connection with the specific
gravity. When you have low specific gravity and low voltage on the same
cells, it is a sure indication of low cells. These cells should be inspected for
the probable cause of their being low. Shorting of the lugs at bottom of
plates and moss bridging across at bottom of the elements, or possibly a split
separator, will generally be the main trouble.
When any of these conditions exist, it is best to take the low cells back to
your shop for repairs.
When there is absolutely no indication why the cells are low, they can be cut
out of the battery on discharge and put in on charge, until they come up.
The following is a good example of readings taken on a battery with a 10-
ampere discharge and having four low cells, 4, 8, 11 and 16. The battery had
been giving poor service, due to insufficient charging:
Cell
Specific Gravity Volts
No.
1 1.200 1.98
2 1.180 1.95
3 1.205 1.98
4 1.150 1.75
5 1.190 1.95
6 1.195 1.98
7 1.200 1.98
8 1.130 1.70
9 1.200 1.95
10 1.205 1.98
starting switch in and set mixing valve lever at lean point or wide open.
A low or defective cell will show a voltage reading .10 to .20 volts lower
than the other cells on discharge, while a reversed cell will show a reading in
the reversed direction when on discharge, especially on heavy discharge.
The voltage readings are a sure check if taken in connection with the specific
gravity. When you have low specific gravity and low voltage on the same
cells, it is a sure indication of low cells. These cells should be inspected for
the probable cause of their being low. Shorting of the lugs at bottom of
plates and moss bridging across at bottom of the elements, or possibly a split
separator, will generally be the main trouble.
When any of these conditions exist, it is best to take the low cells back to
your shop for repairs.
When there is absolutely no indication why the cells are low, they can be cut
out of the battery on discharge and put in on charge, until they come up.
The following is a good example of readings taken on a battery with a 10-
ampere discharge and having four low cells, 4, 8, 11 and 16. The battery had
been giving poor service, due to insufficient charging:
Cell
Specific Gravity Volts
No.
1 1.200 1.98
2 1.180 1.95
3 1.205 1.98
4 1.150 1.75
5 1.190 1.95
6 1.195 1.98
7 1.200 1.98
8 1.130 1.70
9 1.200 1.95
10 1.205 1.98
Page 591
11 1.100 1.40
12 1.190 1.95
13 1.180 1.95
14 1.195 1.98
15 1.190 1.95
zero or
16 0.000
reversal
The main thing to consider in checking voltage readings is the variation from
the average. The average voltage readings will vary, depending on the state
of charge of the battery when the readings are taken.
REPAIRS
To repair, the following equipment is necessary:
1. Portable lead burning outfit.
2. A suitable blow torch.
3. Standard sealing nut wrench.
4. File (shoemaker's rasp).
5. Pair of pliers.
6. Putty knife.
7. Pair of tin snips.
8. Wooden blocks to support elements while being worked upon.
9. Good supply of battery parts consisting of:
KXG-13 Glass jars
KXG-13 Pilot jars
KXG-13 Positive groups
KXG-13 Negative groups
KXG-13 Round rods
KXG-13 Vent plugs
Sealing nuts
Rubber gaskets
Wood separators
12 1.190 1.95
13 1.180 1.95
14 1.195 1.98
15 1.190 1.95
zero or
16 0.000
reversal
The main thing to consider in checking voltage readings is the variation from
the average. The average voltage readings will vary, depending on the state
of charge of the battery when the readings are taken.
REPAIRS
To repair, the following equipment is necessary:
1. Portable lead burning outfit.
2. A suitable blow torch.
3. Standard sealing nut wrench.
4. File (shoemaker's rasp).
5. Pair of pliers.
6. Putty knife.
7. Pair of tin snips.
8. Wooden blocks to support elements while being worked upon.
9. Good supply of battery parts consisting of:
KXG-13 Glass jars
KXG-13 Pilot jars
KXG-13 Positive groups
KXG-13 Negative groups
KXG-13 Round rods
KXG-13 Vent plugs
Sealing nuts
Rubber gaskets
Wood separators
Page 592
KXG-13 Rubber covers
KXG-7 Round rods
Lead pins
Carboy electrolyte (including retainer).
KXG-7 Pilot jars
KXG-7 Glass jars
KXG-7 Positive groups
KXG-7 Negative groups
Outside negative plates
KXG-7 Rubber covers
Emergency repair straps
Disassembling a Cell
The glass jar battery covers are sealed to the jars by sealing compound,
which may be softened very easily with a blow-torch.
When a blow-torch or an open flame is used for softening the sealing
compound, the vent plug MUST be removed before applying a flame. It is
also important to blow into the vent after the plug has been removed in order
to expel any gas that may have collected in the space above the electrolyte in
the cell.
If the gas is held in place by leaving the vent plug in, it is apt to explode
when an open flame or intense heat is applied to the cover.,
Removing covers may be greatly facilitated by suspending the cell by the
terminals, as shown in Fig. 305. Care should be taken to make this
suspension so that the bottom of the jar will not be more than two inches
above the table. A pad of excelsior should be placed under it to avoid
breaking the glass jar when it drops.
KXG-7 Round rods
Lead pins
Carboy electrolyte (including retainer).
KXG-7 Pilot jars
KXG-7 Glass jars
KXG-7 Positive groups
KXG-7 Negative groups
Outside negative plates
KXG-7 Rubber covers
Emergency repair straps
Disassembling a Cell
The glass jar battery covers are sealed to the jars by sealing compound,
which may be softened very easily with a blow-torch.
When a blow-torch or an open flame is used for softening the sealing
compound, the vent plug MUST be removed before applying a flame. It is
also important to blow into the vent after the plug has been removed in order
to expel any gas that may have collected in the space above the electrolyte in
the cell.
If the gas is held in place by leaving the vent plug in, it is apt to explode
when an open flame or intense heat is applied to the cover.,
Removing covers may be greatly facilitated by suspending the cell by the
terminals, as shown in Fig. 305. Care should be taken to make this
suspension so that the bottom of the jar will not be more than two inches
above the table. A pad of excelsior should be placed under it to avoid
breaking the glass jar when it drops.
Page 593
After the sealing compound has been sufficiently softened, the cover may be
loosened by inserting a hot putty knife, as shown in Fig. 306, There is no
danger of breaking the cover by this operation if the cover has been
sufficiently warmed. After the jar of electrolyte has dropped, the element
should be removed from the jar and carefully placed across the top of it, so
that the solution upon the plates will drain back into the jar. (See Fig. 307.)
loosened by inserting a hot putty knife, as shown in Fig. 306, There is no
danger of breaking the cover by this operation if the cover has been
sufficiently warmed. After the jar of electrolyte has dropped, the element
should be removed from the jar and carefully placed across the top of it, so
that the solution upon the plates will drain back into the jar. (See Fig. 307.)
Page 594
Page 595
Page 596
Page 597
After element has drained, place on wooden blocks, as shown in Fig. 308,
and remove cover. Clean the sealing compound from the cover and jar
immediately with a putty knife. Turn element upside down with posts
through holes in bench and remove lead pin and rubber bumper and
withdraw, lock pin. (Fig. 309.) The separators may then be withdrawn from
the group. (Fig. 310.)
and remove cover. Clean the sealing compound from the cover and jar
immediately with a putty knife. Turn element upside down with posts
through holes in bench and remove lead pin and rubber bumper and
withdraw, lock pin. (Fig. 309.) The separators may then be withdrawn from
the group. (Fig. 310.)
Page 598
Page 599
Assembling
Place the positive and negative groups upside down with posts through holes
in bench and slide in separators. The wood and rubber separators are inserted
as follows: The rubber separator is placed against the grooved side of the
wood separator, and the two are then slipped between the negative and
positive plates with the rubber separator next to the positive plate. (See Fig.
311.)
Inserting Locking Pin
Place the positive and negative groups upside down with posts through holes
in bench and slide in separators. The wood and rubber separators are inserted
as follows: The rubber separator is placed against the grooved side of the
wood separator, and the two are then slipped between the negative and
positive plates with the rubber separator next to the positive plate. (See Fig.
311.)
Inserting Locking Pin
Page 600
A rubber bumper is pinned on one end of the lock pin by means of a lead
pin, and the lock pin is then slipped into place with the lock pin insulating
washer placed between the outside negative plates and the wood separators.
(See Fig. 312.)
A rubber bumper is then slipped over the other end of the lock pin and
secured by a lead pin.
Place element on wooden blocks and fasten cover, as shown in Fig. 313.
pin, and the lock pin is then slipped into place with the lock pin insulating
washer placed between the outside negative plates and the wood separators.
(See Fig. 312.)
A rubber bumper is then slipped over the other end of the lock pin and
secured by a lead pin.
Place element on wooden blocks and fasten cover, as shown in Fig. 313.
Page 601
Sealing Covers
Be sure all old sealing compound and traces of electrolyte are removed from
the cover. Heat sealing compound until it can be handled like putty, roll out
into a strip about 1/2 inch in diameter, place strip of compound around inside
edge of cover (Fig. 314) and heat to melting point with blow-torch. The top
of jar should also be heated to insure a tight seal. Compound can be melted
in a suitable vessel and a 1/2 inch strip poured around cover.
When sealing compound and jar have been heated sufficiently, turn jar
upside down (Fig. 315) and carefully place jar over element and press gently
into compound. (Do not press hard.) Immediately place jar and element
upright, and press cover firmly into place. (Press hard.) Finally, tighten
sealing nuts. The cell is now ready for the electrolyte.
Be sure all old sealing compound and traces of electrolyte are removed from
the cover. Heat sealing compound until it can be handled like putty, roll out
into a strip about 1/2 inch in diameter, place strip of compound around inside
edge of cover (Fig. 314) and heat to melting point with blow-torch. The top
of jar should also be heated to insure a tight seal. Compound can be melted
in a suitable vessel and a 1/2 inch strip poured around cover.
When sealing compound and jar have been heated sufficiently, turn jar
upside down (Fig. 315) and carefully place jar over element and press gently
into compound. (Do not press hard.) Immediately place jar and element
upright, and press cover firmly into place. (Press hard.) Finally, tighten
sealing nuts. The cell is now ready for the electrolyte.
Page 602
Filling Cell with Electrolyte
Repaired cells should be filled with electrolyte of 1.200 specific gravity, or
with water, as the case may require.
Standard Delco-Light electrolyte of 1.220 specific gravity may be purchased
from the Delco Light distributor. The 1.220 electrolyte should be reduced to
1.200 by adding a very small amount of distilled water. This should be
thoroughly mixed by pouring the solution from one battery jar into another.
Repaired cells should be filled with electrolyte of 1.200 specific gravity, or
with water, as the case may require.
Standard Delco-Light electrolyte of 1.220 specific gravity may be purchased
from the Delco Light distributor. The 1.220 electrolyte should be reduced to
1.200 by adding a very small amount of distilled water. This should be
thoroughly mixed by pouring the solution from one battery jar into another.
Page 603
The 1.200 specific gravity electrolyte may then be added to the newly
assembled cell until flush with the water line.
Charging
The completed KXG-13 cell should be placed on a 12-ampere charge and
kept on charge until maximum gravity has been reached. A KXG-7 cell
should be charged at a 6-ampere rate.
Adjusting Gravity of Electrolyte
If the maximum gravity is above 1.220, draw off some of the electrolyte and
refill to water line with distilled water. The charge should then be continued
for at least one hour to thoroughly mix the electrolyte before taking another
hydrometer reading. It may be necessary to repeat this operation.
If the maximum gravity is below 1.220, pour off the electrolyte into a glass
jar or a suitable receptacle, and then refill the cell with 1.220 electrolyte.
Charge for one hour to thoroughly mix the solution before checking
readings.
NOTE: Gravity readings in adjusting the electrolyte should always be taken
in connection with thermometer readings, making necessary temperature
corrections. This is particularly important in adjusting electrolyte in pilot
cells.
HOW TO REPAIR DELCO-LIGHT CELLS
Treating Broken Cells
Whenever a shipment of batteries is received in which any of the jars have
been broken, the first thing to do is to carefully remove the elements from
the broken jars to prevent damage to the plates or separators. These elements
should be placed in distilled water to prevent further drying. The plates will
not be damaged in any way and can be restored to a healthy condition by
charging in 1.200 specific gravity at a 12-ampere rate for the 13-plate cell or,
assembled cell until flush with the water line.
Charging
The completed KXG-13 cell should be placed on a 12-ampere charge and
kept on charge until maximum gravity has been reached. A KXG-7 cell
should be charged at a 6-ampere rate.
Adjusting Gravity of Electrolyte
If the maximum gravity is above 1.220, draw off some of the electrolyte and
refill to water line with distilled water. The charge should then be continued
for at least one hour to thoroughly mix the electrolyte before taking another
hydrometer reading. It may be necessary to repeat this operation.
If the maximum gravity is below 1.220, pour off the electrolyte into a glass
jar or a suitable receptacle, and then refill the cell with 1.220 electrolyte.
Charge for one hour to thoroughly mix the solution before checking
readings.
NOTE: Gravity readings in adjusting the electrolyte should always be taken
in connection with thermometer readings, making necessary temperature
corrections. This is particularly important in adjusting electrolyte in pilot
cells.
HOW TO REPAIR DELCO-LIGHT CELLS
Treating Broken Cells
Whenever a shipment of batteries is received in which any of the jars have
been broken, the first thing to do is to carefully remove the elements from
the broken jars to prevent damage to the plates or separators. These elements
should be placed in distilled water to prevent further drying. The plates will
not be damaged in any way and can be restored to a healthy condition by
charging in 1.200 specific gravity at a 12-ampere rate for the 13-plate cell or,
Page 604
6-ampere rate for the 7-plate cell, until maximum gravity is reached. (See
Charging and Adjustment of Electrolyte, explained on page 481.)
Treating Spilled Cells
If the spillage is more than one inch below the water level, it should be
replaced by electrolyte of 1.200 specific gravity and charged to maximum
gravity.
Treating Badly Sulphated Cells That Have Been in Service
When cells are removed from an installation to make repairs, they are
usually badly sulphated, which means that considerable acid is in the plates.
In charging such cells, use distilled water in place of electrolyte, as this will
allow the acid to come out of the plates more readily. The KXG-13 cells
should be charged at about 12 amperes and the KXG-7 cells at 6 amperes.
Cells badly sulphated when charged at the low rate will require from 50 to
100 hours to reach maximum gravity. Extreme cases will require even longer
charging.
In case it is impossible to read the gravity after the cells have been on charge
a sufficient length of time, pour out the solution and use 1.220 specific
gravity.
The charge should then be continued further to insure that maximum gravity
has been reached.
CAUTION: Should the temperature of the electrolyte approach 110° F., the
charging rate should be reduced or the charge stopped until the cell has
cooled.
Treating Reversed Cells
A complete battery may be reversed if the battery is completely discharged
and its voltage is not sufficient to overcome any residual magnetism the
generator might have. Under such conditions the negative plates will begin
Charging and Adjustment of Electrolyte, explained on page 481.)
Treating Spilled Cells
If the spillage is more than one inch below the water level, it should be
replaced by electrolyte of 1.200 specific gravity and charged to maximum
gravity.
Treating Badly Sulphated Cells That Have Been in Service
When cells are removed from an installation to make repairs, they are
usually badly sulphated, which means that considerable acid is in the plates.
In charging such cells, use distilled water in place of electrolyte, as this will
allow the acid to come out of the plates more readily. The KXG-13 cells
should be charged at about 12 amperes and the KXG-7 cells at 6 amperes.
Cells badly sulphated when charged at the low rate will require from 50 to
100 hours to reach maximum gravity. Extreme cases will require even longer
charging.
In case it is impossible to read the gravity after the cells have been on charge
a sufficient length of time, pour out the solution and use 1.220 specific
gravity.
The charge should then be continued further to insure that maximum gravity
has been reached.
CAUTION: Should the temperature of the electrolyte approach 110° F., the
charging rate should be reduced or the charge stopped until the cell has
cooled.
Treating Reversed Cells
A complete battery may be reversed if the battery is completely discharged
and its voltage is not sufficient to overcome any residual magnetism the
generator might have. Under such conditions the negative plates will begin
Page 605
to discolor brown and the positive turn gray. Such a case would be extremely
rare.
The remedy is to first completely discharge the cells to get rid of the charge
in the wrong direction. Then short-circuit them. (Connect a wire across the
terminals.) Then charge them in the right direction at a low rate. (12 amperes
for a KXG-13 cell, or 6 amperes for a KXG-7 cell.) Charge until the specific
gravity reaches a maximum. If the battery is operated reversed for any length
of time, the negatives will throw off their active material and become
useless.
A single cell may become reversed by gradually slipping behind the rest of
the cells in a set, due to insufficient charging, until it becomes so low that it
will reverse on each discharge. This condition cannot be corrected by giving
the regular charge, but it will be necessary to give an equalizing charge,
continuing the charge until the cell is in normal condition. (Be sure to make
temperature corrections when taking hydrometer readings.) If the cell
appears to require an excessive amount of charge to restore it to condition, it
should be removed and taken to the repair shop for a separate charge.
If the cell has been allowed to operate in a reversed condition to such an
extent that the entire material of the negative plates has turned brown, both
positive and negative groups should be discarded.
Removing Impurities
Impurities, such as iron, salt (chlorine) or oil, may accidentally get into a
cell, due to careless handling of distilled water.
Iron is dissolved by sulphuric acid and the positive plates become affected,
change color (dirty yellow) and wear rapidly. The cell becomes different
from the rest in gravity, voltage and bubbling. The remedy is to discard the
electrolyte as soon as possible, flush the plates and separators in several
changes of water, thoroughly wash the jar, use new electrolyte and then
proceed in same manner as explained for the treatment of badly sulphated
cells, page 482.
rare.
The remedy is to first completely discharge the cells to get rid of the charge
in the wrong direction. Then short-circuit them. (Connect a wire across the
terminals.) Then charge them in the right direction at a low rate. (12 amperes
for a KXG-13 cell, or 6 amperes for a KXG-7 cell.) Charge until the specific
gravity reaches a maximum. If the battery is operated reversed for any length
of time, the negatives will throw off their active material and become
useless.
A single cell may become reversed by gradually slipping behind the rest of
the cells in a set, due to insufficient charging, until it becomes so low that it
will reverse on each discharge. This condition cannot be corrected by giving
the regular charge, but it will be necessary to give an equalizing charge,
continuing the charge until the cell is in normal condition. (Be sure to make
temperature corrections when taking hydrometer readings.) If the cell
appears to require an excessive amount of charge to restore it to condition, it
should be removed and taken to the repair shop for a separate charge.
If the cell has been allowed to operate in a reversed condition to such an
extent that the entire material of the negative plates has turned brown, both
positive and negative groups should be discarded.
Removing Impurities
Impurities, such as iron, salt (chlorine) or oil, may accidentally get into a
cell, due to careless handling of distilled water.
Iron is dissolved by sulphuric acid and the positive plates become affected,
change color (dirty yellow) and wear rapidly. The cell becomes different
from the rest in gravity, voltage and bubbling. The remedy is to discard the
electrolyte as soon as possible, flush the plates and separators in several
changes of water, thoroughly wash the jar, use new electrolyte and then
proceed in same manner as explained for the treatment of badly sulphated
cells, page 482.
Page 606
Chlorine has an effect about as described for iron, and is evident by the odor
of chlorine gas. The remedy is the same as for iron.
Oil in the electrolyte, if allowed to get into the pores of the plates, will fill
them and lower the capacity very much. It affects negative plates much more
than positives. Probably the only remedy in this case is new plates.
Impurities of any nature should be removed as quickly as possible.
Clearing High Resistance Short Circuits
A high resistance short is caused by the sediment falling from the plates and
lodging between the positive and negative lugs. As a rule this condition will
occur only when severe sulphation is present in the plates.
A cell in this condition can be repaired by removing the element and clearing
the short circuit. The wood separators should then be withdrawn and
replaced by new ones. Lock pin insulating washers. should be installed land
the element reassembled in the jar and charged to maximum gravity.
Clearing Lug Shorts
Short-circuited lugs are caused by excessive sulphation. The outside
negative bulges and the bottom lug bends over and touches the adjacent
positive lug. This can be remedied by removing both outside negative plates
and burning on new plates which have already been charged and inserting
lock pin insulating washers.
Putting Repaired Cells Back in Service
When placing a new or repaired cell in a battery which is in service, connect
in the cell at the beginning of a charge. This will insure that the new or
repaired cell is started off in good condition, because this charge is of the
nature of an initial charge to these cells.
Charging Outside Negative Plates
of chlorine gas. The remedy is the same as for iron.
Oil in the electrolyte, if allowed to get into the pores of the plates, will fill
them and lower the capacity very much. It affects negative plates much more
than positives. Probably the only remedy in this case is new plates.
Impurities of any nature should be removed as quickly as possible.
Clearing High Resistance Short Circuits
A high resistance short is caused by the sediment falling from the plates and
lodging between the positive and negative lugs. As a rule this condition will
occur only when severe sulphation is present in the plates.
A cell in this condition can be repaired by removing the element and clearing
the short circuit. The wood separators should then be withdrawn and
replaced by new ones. Lock pin insulating washers. should be installed land
the element reassembled in the jar and charged to maximum gravity.
Clearing Lug Shorts
Short-circuited lugs are caused by excessive sulphation. The outside
negative bulges and the bottom lug bends over and touches the adjacent
positive lug. This can be remedied by removing both outside negative plates
and burning on new plates which have already been charged and inserting
lock pin insulating washers.
Putting Repaired Cells Back in Service
When placing a new or repaired cell in a battery which is in service, connect
in the cell at the beginning of a charge. This will insure that the new or
repaired cell is started off in good condition, because this charge is of the
nature of an initial charge to these cells.
Charging Outside Negative Plates
Page 607
Individual negative plates are always received dry, which makes it necessary
to charge them before using. The best way to charge such plates is as
follows: Set up 7 loose negative plates in a KXG-13 jar together with a good
positive group, using KXG separators to prevent the plates touching. Then
stretch a piece of wire solder across the lugs at the top of the negative plates
and solder the wire to the plates. Fig. 316. The jar may then be filled with
1200 specific gravity and the plates charged at a 12-ampere rate until
maximum gravity is obtained. Never use negative plates unless they have
been treated as described above. After the charge is completed, the negative
plates may be placed in distilled water and kept until ready for use. Always
be sure to give a charge to maximum gravity after burning on new negative
plates to an element.
to charge them before using. The best way to charge such plates is as
follows: Set up 7 loose negative plates in a KXG-13 jar together with a good
positive group, using KXG separators to prevent the plates touching. Then
stretch a piece of wire solder across the lugs at the top of the negative plates
and solder the wire to the plates. Fig. 316. The jar may then be filled with
1200 specific gravity and the plates charged at a 12-ampere rate until
maximum gravity is obtained. Never use negative plates unless they have
been treated as described above. After the charge is completed, the negative
plates may be placed in distilled water and kept until ready for use. Always
be sure to give a charge to maximum gravity after burning on new negative
plates to an element.
Page 608
Pressing Negative Plates
After badly sulphated cells are recharged, it is sometimes advisable to
remove the elements and, press the negative plates, as explained on page
351. Care should be taken to prevent the negative plates from drying out
while making repairs, in order to avoid the long charge necessary for dried
negative plates.
The battery should be charged to maximum gravity before attempting to
press the plates.
It is not necessary and will do no good to press the positive plates.
In some cases the active material may be nearly all out of the outside
negative plates and the inside negatives may be in good condition, in which
case new charged plates should be burned on. (Fig. 322.)
Salvaging Replaced Cells
When it has been necessary to replace cells which have been in service, the
elements can very often be saved and assembled again and used as
replacement cells in batteries which are several years old. In no case should
the cells be used as new cells.
The positive plates may be allowed to dry out, but the negatives should be
kept in distilled water and not allowed to dry out in the least. They should
not be kept this way indefinitely, but should be assembled and charged as
soon as possible.
Do not attempt to repair groups or plates which have lost as much as half of
the active material in wear, or which have the active material disintegrated
and falling out. Such plates should not be used. This does not apply to small
bits of active material knocked out mechanically and amounting to an
extremely small percentage of the whole. Abnormal color indicates possible
impurity, and such plates should be washed and used with caution. Badly
cracked or broken plates should be replaced with new plates or plates from
other groups.
After badly sulphated cells are recharged, it is sometimes advisable to
remove the elements and, press the negative plates, as explained on page
351. Care should be taken to prevent the negative plates from drying out
while making repairs, in order to avoid the long charge necessary for dried
negative plates.
The battery should be charged to maximum gravity before attempting to
press the plates.
It is not necessary and will do no good to press the positive plates.
In some cases the active material may be nearly all out of the outside
negative plates and the inside negatives may be in good condition, in which
case new charged plates should be burned on. (Fig. 322.)
Salvaging Replaced Cells
When it has been necessary to replace cells which have been in service, the
elements can very often be saved and assembled again and used as
replacement cells in batteries which are several years old. In no case should
the cells be used as new cells.
The positive plates may be allowed to dry out, but the negatives should be
kept in distilled water and not allowed to dry out in the least. They should
not be kept this way indefinitely, but should be assembled and charged as
soon as possible.
Do not attempt to repair groups or plates which have lost as much as half of
the active material in wear, or which have the active material disintegrated
and falling out. Such plates should not be used. This does not apply to small
bits of active material knocked out mechanically and amounting to an
extremely small percentage of the whole. Abnormal color indicates possible
impurity, and such plates should be washed and used with caution. Badly
cracked or broken plates should be replaced with new plates or plates from
other groups.
Page 609
Before new negative plates are used they should be fully charged. (See
Charging Negative Plates, page 484.)
Always use new wood separators when assembling repaired cells.
When cells have been operated reversed in polarity to such an extent that the
active material of the negative plates has turned brown, both positive and
negative groups may have to be replaced.
Repairing Lead Parts
The portable carbon burning outfit used for battery repairs is operated from
the battery itself, making it possible to make repairs at the user's residence
without using a gas flame.
This outfit can be secured from the Delco-Light Company, Dayton, Ohio,
and consists of a carbon holder with cable, clamp, and one-fourth inch
carbon rods. Six cells are usually required to properly heat the carbon. If it is
completely discharged an outside source must be used. For this purpose a
six-volt automobile battery is suitable, or a tray of demonstrating batteries,
one terminal being connected to the connection to be burned, the other to the
cable of the burning tool. A little experience will soon demonstrate the
number of cells necessary to give a satisfactory heat. The cable is connected
by means of the clamp to a cell in the battery, the required number of cells
away from the joint to be burned. Care should be taken that contact is made
by the clamp, the lead being scraped clean before the connection is made.
The carbon should be sharpened to a long point like a lead pencil and should
project not more than 2 inches from the holder. (Fig. 317.)
Charging Negative Plates, page 484.)
Always use new wood separators when assembling repaired cells.
When cells have been operated reversed in polarity to such an extent that the
active material of the negative plates has turned brown, both positive and
negative groups may have to be replaced.
Repairing Lead Parts
The portable carbon burning outfit used for battery repairs is operated from
the battery itself, making it possible to make repairs at the user's residence
without using a gas flame.
This outfit can be secured from the Delco-Light Company, Dayton, Ohio,
and consists of a carbon holder with cable, clamp, and one-fourth inch
carbon rods. Six cells are usually required to properly heat the carbon. If it is
completely discharged an outside source must be used. For this purpose a
six-volt automobile battery is suitable, or a tray of demonstrating batteries,
one terminal being connected to the connection to be burned, the other to the
cable of the burning tool. A little experience will soon demonstrate the
number of cells necessary to give a satisfactory heat. The cable is connected
by means of the clamp to a cell in the battery, the required number of cells
away from the joint to be burned. Care should be taken that contact is made
by the clamp, the lead being scraped clean before the connection is made.
The carbon should be sharpened to a long point like a lead pencil and should
project not more than 2 inches from the holder. (Fig. 317.)
Page 610
After being used a short time, the carbon will not heat properly, due to a film
of scale formed on the surface. This should be cleaned off with a file.
In case of lead burning, additional lead to make a flush joint should not be
added until the metal of the pieces to be joined has melted. The carbon
should be moved around to insure a solid joint at all points.
In case a post is broken off under the cover, proceed as follows: To make
repairs take an old group and cut off the post about one-half way down. Saw
off the post to be repaired to such a length that when the new post is burned
on the length of the post will be approximately the same length as the
original post.
Repairing Broken Posts.
Make a half circle mould out of a piece of tin or galvanized iron, as shown in
Fig. 317. Burn solid the side of the post facing up, file it around and then
turn the group over, place the form on the burned side and proceed to
complete the burning operation.
Caution:
1. Always use clean lead.
of scale formed on the surface. This should be cleaned off with a file.
In case of lead burning, additional lead to make a flush joint should not be
added until the metal of the pieces to be joined has melted. The carbon
should be moved around to insure a solid joint at all points.
In case a post is broken off under the cover, proceed as follows: To make
repairs take an old group and cut off the post about one-half way down. Saw
off the post to be repaired to such a length that when the new post is burned
on the length of the post will be approximately the same length as the
original post.
Repairing Broken Posts.
Make a half circle mould out of a piece of tin or galvanized iron, as shown in
Fig. 317. Burn solid the side of the post facing up, file it around and then
turn the group over, place the form on the burned side and proceed to
complete the burning operation.
Caution:
1. Always use clean lead.
Page 611
2. Do not clean the lead and let it stand for any length of time before starting
to burn. If it is allowed to stand it will oxidize and prevent a good burning
operation.
3. Burn with an are and not with a red hot carbon.
Burning on Straps
Place the strap to be burned in a vise and split the end through the center and
then bend the two halves over to form a foot, as shown in Fig. 318. Make a
mould out of a piece of tin or galvanized iron and place this mould around
the post to which this strap is to be burned. (Fig. 319.) Then proceed to burn
the post and strap together.
When a union is made between the strap and the post a small amount of new
clean lead should be burned on the top of the foot to reinforce this point.
to burn. If it is allowed to stand it will oxidize and prevent a good burning
operation.
3. Burn with an are and not with a red hot carbon.
Burning on Straps
Place the strap to be burned in a vise and split the end through the center and
then bend the two halves over to form a foot, as shown in Fig. 318. Make a
mould out of a piece of tin or galvanized iron and place this mould around
the post to which this strap is to be burned. (Fig. 319.) Then proceed to burn
the post and strap together.
When a union is made between the strap and the post a small amount of new
clean lead should be burned on the top of the foot to reinforce this point.
Page 612
Care should be taken not to get the mould too high, as this will cause trouble
in getting the carbon down to the foot and the post.
in getting the carbon down to the foot and the post.
Page 613
Page 614
How to Eliminate Burning on Straps by Use of an Auxiliary
Strap
A very good way to repair broken straps without the burning operation is to
use the auxiliary strap shown in Fig. 320. This strap is slipped over the post
of the terminal or strap which is broken and the sealing nut is then clamped
down on the strap, as shown in Fig. 321. These straps may be obtained from
the Delco-Light Distributors or from the Delco-Light factory at Dayton,
Ohio.
Burning on New Plates
Strap
A very good way to repair broken straps without the burning operation is to
use the auxiliary strap shown in Fig. 320. This strap is slipped over the post
of the terminal or strap which is broken and the sealing nut is then clamped
down on the strap, as shown in Fig. 321. These straps may be obtained from
the Delco-Light Distributors or from the Delco-Light factory at Dayton,
Ohio.
Burning on New Plates
Page 615
When it is
necessary to
burn on new
plates,
carefully
clean with a
file the lead
on both the
plate and the
common
strap to
which all
plates of the
group are
attached.
Block up the
plate with
thin boards
or wood
separators
until it is
spaced the proper distance from the adjacent plate. Care should be
taken to see that the side and bottom edge of the plate to be burned on
is in line with the other plates of the group. Proceed to burn on the
plate by drawing a small blaze or are and do not attempt to burn with
just a glowing carbon. (Fig. 322.)
If only a glowing carbon is used the result will be a smeary mass and
in the majority of cases will not hold, due to the fact that it is not
welded but simply attached in one or two points.
The principle of lead burning is to weld or burn two parts into one
solid mass and not merely attach one to the other.
Keeping Wood Separators In Stock
necessary to
burn on new
plates,
carefully
clean with a
file the lead
on both the
plate and the
common
strap to
which all
plates of the
group are
attached.
Block up the
plate with
thin boards
or wood
separators
until it is
spaced the proper distance from the adjacent plate. Care should be
taken to see that the side and bottom edge of the plate to be burned on
is in line with the other plates of the group. Proceed to burn on the
plate by drawing a small blaze or are and do not attempt to burn with
just a glowing carbon. (Fig. 322.)
If only a glowing carbon is used the result will be a smeary mass and
in the majority of cases will not hold, due to the fact that it is not
welded but simply attached in one or two points.
The principle of lead burning is to weld or burn two parts into one
solid mass and not merely attach one to the other.
Keeping Wood Separators In Stock
Page 616
No wood separators should be used except those furnished by the Delco-
Light Company. These should be kept in distilled water, to which has been
added 1.220 electrolyte in the proportion of one part to ten parts of water. It
is advisable whenever possible to use new separators when making repairs
on a cell. Separators which have been in service are liable to be damaged by
handling.
Freezing Temperature of Electrolyte
The freezing temperatures of electrolyte in the Delco-Light batteries depends
upon the specific gravity of the battery. The Delco-Light battery fully
charged, with a specific gravity of 1.220, should not freeze above a
temperature of 30 degrees below zero. Since, however, the freezing point
rises very rapidly with a decrease in specific gravity, special care should be
taken to keep batteries charged when temperatures below zero are
encountered. The following table shows freezing temperatures of several
different gravities of electrolyte.
Specific Gravity Freezing Point
1.100 19° F. above zero.
1.150 5° F. above zero.
1.175 6° F. below zero.
1.200 16° F. below zero.
1.220 31° F. below zero.
At the temperature given, the electrolyte does not freeze solid, but forms a
slushy mass of crystals, which does not always result in jar breakage.
Care of Cells in Stock
Frequently a Dealer or Distributor will have several sets of new batteries in
stock for five or six months. In this case, the cells should be given a
freshening charge before putting into service. This charge should consist of
charging the cells to maximum gravity.
Light Company. These should be kept in distilled water, to which has been
added 1.220 electrolyte in the proportion of one part to ten parts of water. It
is advisable whenever possible to use new separators when making repairs
on a cell. Separators which have been in service are liable to be damaged by
handling.
Freezing Temperature of Electrolyte
The freezing temperatures of electrolyte in the Delco-Light batteries depends
upon the specific gravity of the battery. The Delco-Light battery fully
charged, with a specific gravity of 1.220, should not freeze above a
temperature of 30 degrees below zero. Since, however, the freezing point
rises very rapidly with a decrease in specific gravity, special care should be
taken to keep batteries charged when temperatures below zero are
encountered. The following table shows freezing temperatures of several
different gravities of electrolyte.
Specific Gravity Freezing Point
1.100 19° F. above zero.
1.150 5° F. above zero.
1.175 6° F. below zero.
1.200 16° F. below zero.
1.220 31° F. below zero.
At the temperature given, the electrolyte does not freeze solid, but forms a
slushy mass of crystals, which does not always result in jar breakage.
Care of Cells in Stock
Frequently a Dealer or Distributor will have several sets of new batteries in
stock for five or six months. In this case, the cells should be given a
freshening charge before putting into service. This charge should consist of
charging the cells to maximum gravity.
Page 617
Cells received broken in transit or cells sent in for repairs should be repaired
and charged as soon as possible and put into service immediately. This
eliminates the possibility of the cells standing idle over a long period in
which they would need a freshening charge before they could be used.
However, if such cells must be kept in stock, they can be maintained in a
healthy condition by keeping on charge at a one fifth ampere rate for 13-
plate cells and one-tenth ampere rate for 7-plate cells.
Taking Batteries Out of Commission
If a battery is not to be used at all for a period not longer than about 9
months, it can be left idle if it is first treated as follows: Add sufficient water
to bring the electrolyte up to the water line in all cells and then give an
equalizing charge, continuing the charge until the specific gravity of each
cell is at a maximum, five consecutive hourly readings showing no rise in
gravity. As soon as this charge is completed, take out the battery fuse and
open up one or two of the connections between cells so that no current can
be taken from the battery. Have vent plugs in place to minimize evaporation.
If the battery is to be taken out of commission for a longer time than 9
months, the battery should be fully charged as above and the electrolyte
poured off into suitable glass or porcelain receptacles. The plates should
immediately be covered with water for a few hours to prevent the negatives
heating, after which the separators should be removed, the water poured out
of the jars, and the positive and negative groups placed back in the jar for
storage. Examine the separators. If they are cracked or split they should be
thrown away. If in good condition they should be stored for further use in a
non-metallic receptacle and covered with water, to which has been added
electrolyte of 1.220 specific gravity, in the proportion of one part electrolyte
to ten of water by volume.
Putting Batteries Into Commission After Being Out of Service
When putting batteries into commission again, if the electrolyte has not been
withdrawn, all that is necessary is to add water to the cells if needed, replace
connections, and give an equalizing charge.
and charged as soon as possible and put into service immediately. This
eliminates the possibility of the cells standing idle over a long period in
which they would need a freshening charge before they could be used.
However, if such cells must be kept in stock, they can be maintained in a
healthy condition by keeping on charge at a one fifth ampere rate for 13-
plate cells and one-tenth ampere rate for 7-plate cells.
Taking Batteries Out of Commission
If a battery is not to be used at all for a period not longer than about 9
months, it can be left idle if it is first treated as follows: Add sufficient water
to bring the electrolyte up to the water line in all cells and then give an
equalizing charge, continuing the charge until the specific gravity of each
cell is at a maximum, five consecutive hourly readings showing no rise in
gravity. As soon as this charge is completed, take out the battery fuse and
open up one or two of the connections between cells so that no current can
be taken from the battery. Have vent plugs in place to minimize evaporation.
If the battery is to be taken out of commission for a longer time than 9
months, the battery should be fully charged as above and the electrolyte
poured off into suitable glass or porcelain receptacles. The plates should
immediately be covered with water for a few hours to prevent the negatives
heating, after which the separators should be removed, the water poured out
of the jars, and the positive and negative groups placed back in the jar for
storage. Examine the separators. If they are cracked or split they should be
thrown away. If in good condition they should be stored for further use in a
non-metallic receptacle and covered with water, to which has been added
electrolyte of 1.220 specific gravity, in the proportion of one part electrolyte
to ten of water by volume.
Putting Batteries Into Commission After Being Out of Service
When putting batteries into commission again, if the electrolyte has not been
withdrawn, all that is necessary is to add water to the cells if needed, replace
connections, and give an equalizing charge.
Page 618
If the electrolyte has been withdrawn and battery disassembled, it should be
reassembled, taking care not to use cracked, split or dried-out separators, and
then the cells should be filled with the old electrolyte, which has been saved,
provided no impurity has entered the electrolyte. After filling, allow the
battery to stand for 12 hours and then charge, using 6 amperes for KXG-7
size and 12 amperes for the KXG-13 size. Charge at this rate until all cells
start gassing freely or temperature rises to 110° F. Then reduce the charging
rate one-half, and continue at this rate until the specific gravity is at a
maximum, five consecutive hourly readings showing no rise in gravity. At
least 40 hours will be required for this charge. To obtain these low rates with
the Delco-Light plant, lights or other current-consuming devices must be
turned on while charging.
General Complaints from Users and How to Handle Them.
1. Pilot balls do not come up.
This condition may be caused by
(a) Battery discharged.
(b) Weak electrolyte caused by spillage in shipment.
(c) Defective ball.
Question the user to determine whether the ball will not come up if the pilot
cell is bubbling freely. Weak electrolyte or a defective ball will require a
service trip to determine the one which is responsible for the ball not rising.
(See page 470.)
2. Lights dim-must charge daily.
This condition may be caused by
(a) Discharged battery.
(b) Loose dirty connections in battery or line.
(c) Low cells in battery.
The user should be questioned to determine whether the battery is being
charged sufficiently. In case the user is positive the battery is charged, the
reassembled, taking care not to use cracked, split or dried-out separators, and
then the cells should be filled with the old electrolyte, which has been saved,
provided no impurity has entered the electrolyte. After filling, allow the
battery to stand for 12 hours and then charge, using 6 amperes for KXG-7
size and 12 amperes for the KXG-13 size. Charge at this rate until all cells
start gassing freely or temperature rises to 110° F. Then reduce the charging
rate one-half, and continue at this rate until the specific gravity is at a
maximum, five consecutive hourly readings showing no rise in gravity. At
least 40 hours will be required for this charge. To obtain these low rates with
the Delco-Light plant, lights or other current-consuming devices must be
turned on while charging.
General Complaints from Users and How to Handle Them.
1. Pilot balls do not come up.
This condition may be caused by
(a) Battery discharged.
(b) Weak electrolyte caused by spillage in shipment.
(c) Defective ball.
Question the user to determine whether the ball will not come up if the pilot
cell is bubbling freely. Weak electrolyte or a defective ball will require a
service trip to determine the one which is responsible for the ball not rising.
(See page 470.)
2. Lights dim-must charge daily.
This condition may be caused by
(a) Discharged battery.
(b) Loose dirty connections in battery or line.
(c) Low cells in battery.
The user should be questioned to determine whether the battery is being
charged sufficiently. In case the user is positive the battery is charged, the
Page 619
next probable trouble would be that there were some loose or dirty
connections in either plant or battery. Have the user check for loose
connections. Should it be necessary to make an inspection trip, instruct the
user to give battery an equalizing charge so the battery will be fully charged
when the inspection is made.
Low cells can be checked by asking the user if all of the cells bubble freely
when equalizing charge is given. In case user claims several cells fail to
bubble, an inspection trip would be necessary to determine the trouble. (See
page 470.)
3. Cells bubbling when on discharge.
This complaint would indicate a reversed cell. (See page 483.)
4. Cells overflowing on charge.
This would mean that the cells were filled too high above water lines.
5. Engine cranks slowly but does not fire.
This would indicate over-discharged battery. Explain to user how to start
plant under this condition.
6. Plant will not crank.
This might be caused by
(a) Blown battery fuse.
(b) Battery over-discharged.
(c) Loose or broken connection on battery or switchboard.
OTHER EXIDE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES
The Exide type is shown in Figure 296. The plates are held in position both
by the cover and by soft rubber support pieces in the bottom of the jar. The
support pieces are provided with holes in which projections on the bottom of
the plates are inserted. The cover is of heavy moulded glass. The separators
are of grooved wood in combination with a slotted rubber sheet (Fig. 297).
connections in either plant or battery. Have the user check for loose
connections. Should it be necessary to make an inspection trip, instruct the
user to give battery an equalizing charge so the battery will be fully charged
when the inspection is made.
Low cells can be checked by asking the user if all of the cells bubble freely
when equalizing charge is given. In case user claims several cells fail to
bubble, an inspection trip would be necessary to determine the trouble. (See
page 470.)
3. Cells bubbling when on discharge.
This complaint would indicate a reversed cell. (See page 483.)
4. Cells overflowing on charge.
This would mean that the cells were filled too high above water lines.
5. Engine cranks slowly but does not fire.
This would indicate over-discharged battery. Explain to user how to start
plant under this condition.
6. Plant will not crank.
This might be caused by
(a) Blown battery fuse.
(b) Battery over-discharged.
(c) Loose or broken connection on battery or switchboard.
OTHER EXIDE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES
The Exide type is shown in Figure 296. The plates are held in position both
by the cover and by soft rubber support pieces in the bottom of the jar. The
support pieces are provided with holes in which projections on the bottom of
the plates are inserted. The cover is of heavy moulded glass. The separators
are of grooved wood in combination with a slotted rubber sheet (Fig. 297).
Page 620
The strap posts are threaded and are clamped to the cover by means of alloy
nuts. The cover overlaps the top of the jar to which it is sealed with sealing
compound. The method of sealing and unsealing is practically the same as in
the Exide Delco-Light Type.
Batteries with Open Glass Jars
Batteries with open glass jars, in addition to the conducting lug, have two
hanging lugs for each plate. The plates are hung from the jar walls by these
hanging lugs, as shown in Figs. 323 and 324. The plate straps, instead of
being horizontal are vertical and provided with a tail so that adjacent cells
may be bolted together by bolt connectors through the end of the tail.
1. The Exide Cell is shown in Fig. 324. It has a grooved wood separator
between each positive and negative plate. The separators are kept from
floating up by a glass "hold-down" laid across the top. The separators are
provided at the top with a pin which rests on the adjoining plates. The pins
together with the plate glass hold-downs keep the separators in Position.
To remove an element it is simply necessary to unbolt the connectors,
remove the glass cover and hold-down and lift wit the element.
2. The Chloride Accumulator cell is shown in Fig. 323. It differs from the
Exide only in type of plates and separators. The positive plates are known as
Manchester positives and have the active material in the form of corrugated
buttons which are held in a thick grid, as shown in Fig. 325. The buttons are
brown in color, the same as all positive active material.
The separators, instead of being grooved wood, am each a sheet of wood
with six dowels pinned to it.
The element is removed the same as in the Exide type.
nuts. The cover overlaps the top of the jar to which it is sealed with sealing
compound. The method of sealing and unsealing is practically the same as in
the Exide Delco-Light Type.
Batteries with Open Glass Jars
Batteries with open glass jars, in addition to the conducting lug, have two
hanging lugs for each plate. The plates are hung from the jar walls by these
hanging lugs, as shown in Figs. 323 and 324. The plate straps, instead of
being horizontal are vertical and provided with a tail so that adjacent cells
may be bolted together by bolt connectors through the end of the tail.
1. The Exide Cell is shown in Fig. 324. It has a grooved wood separator
between each positive and negative plate. The separators are kept from
floating up by a glass "hold-down" laid across the top. The separators are
provided at the top with a pin which rests on the adjoining plates. The pins
together with the plate glass hold-downs keep the separators in Position.
To remove an element it is simply necessary to unbolt the connectors,
remove the glass cover and hold-down and lift wit the element.
2. The Chloride Accumulator cell is shown in Fig. 323. It differs from the
Exide only in type of plates and separators. The positive plates are known as
Manchester positives and have the active material in the form of corrugated
buttons which are held in a thick grid, as shown in Fig. 325. The buttons are
brown in color, the same as all positive active material.
The separators, instead of being grooved wood, am each a sheet of wood
with six dowels pinned to it.
The element is removed the same as in the Exide type.
Page 621
Batteries with Sealed Rubber Jars
1. The Exide cell is shown in Fig. 326. It is assembled similar to Exide
starting and lighting batteries, except that the plates are considerably thicker,
wood and rubber separators are used, and the terminal posts are shaped to
provide for bolted instead of burned-on connection. The method of sealing
and unsealing the cells is the same as in Exide starting and lighting batteries.
All instructions already given for glass for cells apply to rubber jar cells
except for a few differences in assembling and disassembling.
Care should be taken to keep the water level at least 1/2 inch above plates at
all times as the evaporation is very rapid in rubber jar cells.
1. The Exide cell is shown in Fig. 326. It is assembled similar to Exide
starting and lighting batteries, except that the plates are considerably thicker,
wood and rubber separators are used, and the terminal posts are shaped to
provide for bolted instead of burned-on connection. The method of sealing
and unsealing the cells is the same as in Exide starting and lighting batteries.
All instructions already given for glass for cells apply to rubber jar cells
except for a few differences in assembling and disassembling.
Care should be taken to keep the water level at least 1/2 inch above plates at
all times as the evaporation is very rapid in rubber jar cells.
Page 622
The temperature should be watched on charging to prevent overheating.
Never allow temperature to go above 110° F.
Unlike the glass jar cells the sediment space in the rubber jar is not sufficient
to take care of all the active material in the positive plates. On repairs,
therefore, always clean out the sediment and prevent premature short
circuits.
WESTINGHOUSE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES
Jars. Westinghouse Farm Lighting Battery jars are made of glass, with a
5/16 inch wall. The jars are pressed with the supporting ribs for the elements
an integral part from a mass of molten glass. A heavy flange is pressed
around the upper edge to strengthen the jar.
Never allow temperature to go above 110° F.
Unlike the glass jar cells the sediment space in the rubber jar is not sufficient
to take care of all the active material in the positive plates. On repairs,
therefore, always clean out the sediment and prevent premature short
circuits.
WESTINGHOUSE FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES
Jars. Westinghouse Farm Lighting Battery jars are made of glass, with a
5/16 inch wall. The jars are pressed with the supporting ribs for the elements
an integral part from a mass of molten glass. A heavy flange is pressed
around the upper edge to strengthen the jar.
Page 623
Top Construction. A sealed-in cover is used similar to that used in starting
and lighting batteries. The opening around the post hole is sealed with
compound.
Plates. Pasted plates are used. The positives are 1/4 inch thick, and the
negatives 3/16 inch. Posts are 13/16 inch in diameter.
Separators. A combination of wood and perforated rubber sheets is used.
Opening and Setting-Up Westinghouse Farm Lighting Batteries
and lighting batteries. The opening around the post hole is sealed with
compound.
Plates. Pasted plates are used. The positives are 1/4 inch thick, and the
negatives 3/16 inch. Posts are 13/16 inch in diameter.
Separators. A combination of wood and perforated rubber sheets is used.
Opening and Setting-Up Westinghouse Farm Lighting Batteries
Page 624
It is preferable that the temperature never exceed 100 deg. Fahrenheit nor
fall below 10 deg. in the place where the battery is set up. If the temperature
is liable to drop below 10 degrees the battery should be kept in a fully
charged condition.
1. Remove all excelsior and the other packing material from the top of the
cells. Take cells out carefully and set on the floor. Do not drop or handle
roughly. Be sure to remove the lead top connectors from each compartment.
2. Cells should be placed 1/4 inch apart. Also, cells should be placed
alternately so that positive post of one cell is adjacent to negative post of the
next cell. Positive post has "V" shape shoulder and the negative post has a
square shoulder.
3. Grease all posts, straps and nuts with vaseline.
4. Connect positive posts of each cell to negative post of adjacent cell, using
top connectors furnished. Top connectors are made so as to fit when
connection is made between positive post of one cell and negative post of
next cell. Use long connector between end cells of upper and lower shelves.
5. With all connections between cells in position, join the remaining positive
post with a connection marked "Positive" leading from the electric generator.
Do likewise with the remaining negative post.
6. If liquid level in any cell is 1 inch or more below the "Liquid Line" on
side of glass jar, some liquid has been spilled and must be replaced. This
should be done by an experienced person.
7. Immediately after installation operate electric generator and charge battery
until gas bubbles rise freely through the liquid in all cells. A reading with the
hydrometer syringe which is furnished with the battery should be taken,
When the hydrometer float reads between 1.240 and 1.250, the battery is
fully charged.
8. The time required to complete the charging operation mentioned above
may vary from one to several hours, depending upon the length of time the
battery has been in transit. During the charge the temperature of the cells
should not be permitted to rise above 110 deg. Fahrenheit. If this condition
fall below 10 deg. in the place where the battery is set up. If the temperature
is liable to drop below 10 degrees the battery should be kept in a fully
charged condition.
1. Remove all excelsior and the other packing material from the top of the
cells. Take cells out carefully and set on the floor. Do not drop or handle
roughly. Be sure to remove the lead top connectors from each compartment.
2. Cells should be placed 1/4 inch apart. Also, cells should be placed
alternately so that positive post of one cell is adjacent to negative post of the
next cell. Positive post has "V" shape shoulder and the negative post has a
square shoulder.
3. Grease all posts, straps and nuts with vaseline.
4. Connect positive posts of each cell to negative post of adjacent cell, using
top connectors furnished. Top connectors are made so as to fit when
connection is made between positive post of one cell and negative post of
next cell. Use long connector between end cells of upper and lower shelves.
5. With all connections between cells in position, join the remaining positive
post with a connection marked "Positive" leading from the electric generator.
Do likewise with the remaining negative post.
6. If liquid level in any cell is 1 inch or more below the "Liquid Line" on
side of glass jar, some liquid has been spilled and must be replaced. This
should be done by an experienced person.
7. Immediately after installation operate electric generator and charge battery
until gas bubbles rise freely through the liquid in all cells. A reading with the
hydrometer syringe which is furnished with the battery should be taken,
When the hydrometer float reads between 1.240 and 1.250, the battery is
fully charged.
8. The time required to complete the charging operation mentioned above
may vary from one to several hours, depending upon the length of time the
battery has been in transit. During the charge the temperature of the cells
should not be permitted to rise above 110 deg. Fahrenheit. If this condition
Page 625
occurs discontinue the charge or decrease the charge rate until cells have
cooled off.
9. When charge is complete replace vent plugs.
The Relation Between Various Sizes of Westinghouse Farm
Light Batteries and Work to be Done
The size of the battery furnished with complete farm lighting units vary
greatly. Sometimes the battery size is varied with the size of the engine and
generator, while again the same size of battery may be used for several sizes
of engines and generators. In making replacements, while it is always
necessary to retain the same number of cells, it is not necessary to retain the
same size of cells.
Usually increasing the cell size increases the convenience to the owner and
prolongs the life of the battery to an amount which warrants the higher cost.
With a larger battery, danger of injury through overcharging is lessened, the
load on the battery is more easily carried and the engine and generator
operate less frequently.
In order to give an idea of various battery capacities, below is a table
showing the number of 32 volt, 25-watt lamps which may be lighted for
various lengths of time from sixteen cells. The number of hours shows the
length of time that the lamps will operate.
Table A
Type 3 Hours 5 Hours 8 Hours
G-7 22 Lamps 14 Lamps 10 Lamps
G-9 28 Lamps 19 Lamps 13 Lamps
G-11 32 Lamps 24 Lamps 15 Lamps
G-13 41 Lamps 29 Lamps 19 Lamps
G-15 47 Lamps 33 Lamps 22 Lamps
G-17 54 Lamps 38 Lamps 25 Lamps
cooled off.
9. When charge is complete replace vent plugs.
The Relation Between Various Sizes of Westinghouse Farm
Light Batteries and Work to be Done
The size of the battery furnished with complete farm lighting units vary
greatly. Sometimes the battery size is varied with the size of the engine and
generator, while again the same size of battery may be used for several sizes
of engines and generators. In making replacements, while it is always
necessary to retain the same number of cells, it is not necessary to retain the
same size of cells.
Usually increasing the cell size increases the convenience to the owner and
prolongs the life of the battery to an amount which warrants the higher cost.
With a larger battery, danger of injury through overcharging is lessened, the
load on the battery is more easily carried and the engine and generator
operate less frequently.
In order to give an idea of various battery capacities, below is a table
showing the number of 32 volt, 25-watt lamps which may be lighted for
various lengths of time from sixteen cells. The number of hours shows the
length of time that the lamps will operate.
Table A
Type 3 Hours 5 Hours 8 Hours
G-7 22 Lamps 14 Lamps 10 Lamps
G-9 28 Lamps 19 Lamps 13 Lamps
G-11 32 Lamps 24 Lamps 15 Lamps
G-13 41 Lamps 29 Lamps 19 Lamps
G-15 47 Lamps 33 Lamps 22 Lamps
G-17 54 Lamps 38 Lamps 25 Lamps
Page 626
Note:—Based on 32-Volt 25-Watt Lamps.
For example — The table shows opposite G-7 that, with the battery fully
charged, twenty-two lamps may be lighted for three hours, fourteen lamps
for five hours and ten lamps for eight hours, by a sixteen cell G-7 battery,
without operating the engine and generator.
Motors for operating various household and farm appliances are usually
rated either in horsepower or watts. The following table will give a
comparison between horse-power and watts as well as the number of 25-watt
lamps to which these different sizes of motors and appliances correspond.
Table B
No. of Corresponding No. of
H.P. of Motor
Watts 25-Watt Lamps
1/8 93 4
1/4 185 7
1/2 373 15
3/4 559 22
1 H.P. 746 30
From table B it will be seen, for example, that a one horsepower motor
draws from the battery 373 watts or the same power as do fifteen 25-watt
lamps. Then referring to table A, it will be found that a G-11 battery could
operate 15 lamps or this motor alone for 8 hours.
Due to the fact that a motor or electric appliance may become overloaded
and therefore actually use many more watts than the name plate indicates, it
is not advisable to operate any motor of over 1/4 H. P. or even an appliance
of over 186 watts on the G-13 or smaller sizes unless the engine and
generator are running.
It is safe, however, to operate motors or other appliances up to 375 watts on
the G-15 or G-17 batteries without operating the engine and generator.
WILLARD FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES
For example — The table shows opposite G-7 that, with the battery fully
charged, twenty-two lamps may be lighted for three hours, fourteen lamps
for five hours and ten lamps for eight hours, by a sixteen cell G-7 battery,
without operating the engine and generator.
Motors for operating various household and farm appliances are usually
rated either in horsepower or watts. The following table will give a
comparison between horse-power and watts as well as the number of 25-watt
lamps to which these different sizes of motors and appliances correspond.
Table B
No. of Corresponding No. of
H.P. of Motor
Watts 25-Watt Lamps
1/8 93 4
1/4 185 7
1/2 373 15
3/4 559 22
1 H.P. 746 30
From table B it will be seen, for example, that a one horsepower motor
draws from the battery 373 watts or the same power as do fifteen 25-watt
lamps. Then referring to table A, it will be found that a G-11 battery could
operate 15 lamps or this motor alone for 8 hours.
Due to the fact that a motor or electric appliance may become overloaded
and therefore actually use many more watts than the name plate indicates, it
is not advisable to operate any motor of over 1/4 H. P. or even an appliance
of over 186 watts on the G-13 or smaller sizes unless the engine and
generator are running.
It is safe, however, to operate motors or other appliances up to 375 watts on
the G-15 or G-17 batteries without operating the engine and generator.
WILLARD FARM LIGHTING BATTERIES
Page 627
The Willard Storage Battery Co.
manufactures farm lighting batteries
which use sealed glass jars, or sealed
rubber jars. Those using the sealed
glass jars include types PH and PA.
The sealed rubber jar batteries include
types EM, EEW, IPR, SMW, and
SEW. Both types of batteries are
shipped fully charged and filled with
electrolyte, and also dry, without
electrolyte. The following instructions
cover the installation and preparation
for service of these batteries.
Glass Jar Batteries. Fully
Charged and Filled With
Electrolyte
Each sixteen cell set of batteries is
packed in two shipping crates.
One crate, which is stenciled "No. 1"
contains:
8 Cells.
18 Bolt Connectors.
1 Hydrometer Syringe.
1 Instruction Book.
The other crate which is stenciled "No. 2" contains: 8 Cells
(NOTE:--If the batteries are re-shipped by the manufacturer or distributor,
care must be exercised to see that they are sent out in sets.)
Unpacking
manufactures farm lighting batteries
which use sealed glass jars, or sealed
rubber jars. Those using the sealed
glass jars include types PH and PA.
The sealed rubber jar batteries include
types EM, EEW, IPR, SMW, and
SEW. Both types of batteries are
shipped fully charged and filled with
electrolyte, and also dry, without
electrolyte. The following instructions
cover the installation and preparation
for service of these batteries.
Glass Jar Batteries. Fully
Charged and Filled With
Electrolyte
Each sixteen cell set of batteries is
packed in two shipping crates.
One crate, which is stenciled "No. 1"
contains:
8 Cells.
18 Bolt Connectors.
1 Hydrometer Syringe.
1 Instruction Book.
The other crate which is stenciled "No. 2" contains: 8 Cells
(NOTE:--If the batteries are re-shipped by the manufacturer or distributor,
care must be exercised to see that they are sent out in sets.)
Unpacking
Page 628
Remove the boards from the tops of the shipping crates and the excelsior
which is above the cells.
To straighten the long top connector, grasp the strap firmly with the left hand
close to the pillar post and raise the outer end of the strap until it is in an
upright position. Do not make a short bend near the pillar post. Lift the cells
from the case by grasping the glass jars. Do not attempt to lift them by
means of the top connectors.
Clean the outside of the cells by wiping with a damp cloth.
Inspection of Cells.
Inspect each cell to see if the level of the electrolyte is at the proper height.
This is indicated on the jar by a line marked LIQUID LINE.
If the electrolyte is simply a little low and there is no evidence of any having
been spilled (examine packing material for discoloration) add distilled or
clean rain water to bring the level to the proper height.
If the liquid does not cover the plates and the packing material is discolored,
it indicates that some or all of the electrolyte has been lost from the cell
either on account of a cracked jar or overturning of the battery.
If only a small quantity of electrolyte is lost through spilling, the cell should
be filled to the proper height with electrolyte of the same specific gravity as
in the other cells. This cell should then be charged until the gravity has
ceased rising. If all the electrolyte is lost write to the Willard Storage Battery
Co., Cleveland, Ohio, for instructions.
Connecting the Cells
Each cell of the type PH battery is a complete unit, sealed in a glass jar. The
cells are to be placed side by side on the battery rack so that the positive
terminal of one cell (long connecting strap) can be connected to the negative
terminal (short strap) of the adjacent cell.
which is above the cells.
To straighten the long top connector, grasp the strap firmly with the left hand
close to the pillar post and raise the outer end of the strap until it is in an
upright position. Do not make a short bend near the pillar post. Lift the cells
from the case by grasping the glass jars. Do not attempt to lift them by
means of the top connectors.
Clean the outside of the cells by wiping with a damp cloth.
Inspection of Cells.
Inspect each cell to see if the level of the electrolyte is at the proper height.
This is indicated on the jar by a line marked LIQUID LINE.
If the electrolyte is simply a little low and there is no evidence of any having
been spilled (examine packing material for discoloration) add distilled or
clean rain water to bring the level to the proper height.
If the liquid does not cover the plates and the packing material is discolored,
it indicates that some or all of the electrolyte has been lost from the cell
either on account of a cracked jar or overturning of the battery.
If only a small quantity of electrolyte is lost through spilling, the cell should
be filled to the proper height with electrolyte of the same specific gravity as
in the other cells. This cell should then be charged until the gravity has
ceased rising. If all the electrolyte is lost write to the Willard Storage Battery
Co., Cleveland, Ohio, for instructions.
Connecting the Cells
Each cell of the type PH battery is a complete unit, sealed in a glass jar. The
cells are to be placed side by side on the battery rack so that the positive
terminal of one cell (long connecting strap) can be connected to the negative
terminal (short strap) of the adjacent cell.
Page 629
Join the positive terminal of one cell to the negative terminal of the adjacent
cell and continue this procedure until all the cells are connected together.
This will leave one positive and one negative terminal of the battery to be
connected respectively to the positive and negative wires from the
switchboard. The bend in the top connector should be made about one inch
above the pillar post to eliminate the danger of breakage at the post.
In tightening the bolts do not use excessive force, as there is liability of
stripping the threads.
Give the battery a freshening charge before it is put in service. Type PH cells
have a gravity of 1.250 when fully charged, and 1.185 when discharged.
Willard Glass Jar Batteries Shipped "Knock-Down."
Each sixteen cell set of Batteries consists of:
16 Glass Jars.
16 Positive Groups.
16 Negative Groups.
16 Covers.
16 Vent Plugs.
32 Lead Collars.
32 Lead Keys.
32 Soft Rubber Washers.
32 Hard Rubber Rods.
64 Hard Rubber Nuts.
18 Bolt Connectors.
cell and continue this procedure until all the cells are connected together.
This will leave one positive and one negative terminal of the battery to be
connected respectively to the positive and negative wires from the
switchboard. The bend in the top connector should be made about one inch
above the pillar post to eliminate the danger of breakage at the post.
In tightening the bolts do not use excessive force, as there is liability of
stripping the threads.
Give the battery a freshening charge before it is put in service. Type PH cells
have a gravity of 1.250 when fully charged, and 1.185 when discharged.
Willard Glass Jar Batteries Shipped "Knock-Down."
Each sixteen cell set of Batteries consists of:
16 Glass Jars.
16 Positive Groups.
16 Negative Groups.
16 Covers.
16 Vent Plugs.
32 Lead Collars.
32 Lead Keys.
32 Soft Rubber Washers.
32 Hard Rubber Rods.
64 Hard Rubber Nuts.
18 Bolt Connectors.
Page 630
Wood Insulators (the quantity depends upon the size of the cells).
Sealing Compound.
Hydrometer.
Instruction Books.
Electrolyte is not supplied with batteries shipped in a knockdown
condition.
Examine all packing material carefully and check the parts with the
above list.
Cleaning the Glass Jars
Wash the glass jars and wipe them dry.
Preparing the Covers
Wash the covers and scrub around the under edge to remove all dust. After
they are thoroughly dry place them upside down on a bench.
Melt the sealing compound and pour it around the outer edge to make a fillet
in the groove.
Assembling the Element and Separators
Place the plates of a positive group between the plates of a negative group
and lay the element thus formed on its edge, as shown in Fig. 329.
Sealing Compound.
Hydrometer.
Instruction Books.
Electrolyte is not supplied with batteries shipped in a knockdown
condition.
Examine all packing material carefully and check the parts with the
above list.
Cleaning the Glass Jars
Wash the glass jars and wipe them dry.
Preparing the Covers
Wash the covers and scrub around the under edge to remove all dust. After
they are thoroughly dry place them upside down on a bench.
Melt the sealing compound and pour it around the outer edge to make a fillet
in the groove.
Assembling the Element and Separators
Place the plates of a positive group between the plates of a negative group
and lay the element thus formed on its edge, as shown in Fig. 329.
Page 631
Next insert a wood separator between each of the positive and negative
plates.
Next insert the hard rubber rods through the holes in the lugs of the end
negative plates, and screw on the nuts. Do not screw the nuts so tight as to
make the plates bulge out at the center. The rod should project the same
amount on each side of the element.
Place the element in a vertical position.
The cover can now be placed over the posts. Slip a rubber washer and a lead
collar over each post. The two key holes in the lead collar are unequal in
size. The collar must be placed over the post so that the end which measures
3/16 inch from the bottom of the holes to the end of the collar will be next to
the rubber washer. Dip the lead key in water and then put it through the
holes, having the straight edge of the key on the bottom side. This operation
plates.
Next insert the hard rubber rods through the holes in the lugs of the end
negative plates, and screw on the nuts. Do not screw the nuts so tight as to
make the plates bulge out at the center. The rod should project the same
amount on each side of the element.
Place the element in a vertical position.
The cover can now be placed over the posts. Slip a rubber washer and a lead
collar over each post. The two key holes in the lead collar are unequal in
size. The collar must be placed over the post so that the end which measures
3/16 inch from the bottom of the holes to the end of the collar will be next to
the rubber washer. Dip the lead key in water and then put it through the
holes, having the straight edge of the key on the bottom side. This operation
Page 632
can easily be done by using a
pair of tongs (see Figs. 330
and 331) to compress the
washer. After the keys are
driven tight they can be cut
off with a pair of end cutters
and then smoothed with a file.
Sealing Element Assembly in Jar
Turn the element upside down and place over a block of wood so that
the weight is supported by the cover. (See Fig. 332.)
Heat the sealing compound by means of a flame (a blow torch will
answer the purpose), and place the jar over the element, as shown in Fig.
331. The jar should be firmly pressed down into the compound. With a
hot putty knife, clean off any compound which has oozed out of the
joint. The assembled cell can now be turned to an upright position.
In case it is necessary to remove a cover, heat a wide putty knife and run
it around the edge between the cover and the glass jar. This will soften
the compound so that the cover can be pried off.
If it is necessary to remove the cover from the posts, the keys must be
driven out by pounding on the small end, as the keys are tapered-and the
pair of tongs (see Figs. 330
and 331) to compress the
washer. After the keys are
driven tight they can be cut
off with a pair of end cutters
and then smoothed with a file.
Sealing Element Assembly in Jar
Turn the element upside down and place over a block of wood so that
the weight is supported by the cover. (See Fig. 332.)
Heat the sealing compound by means of a flame (a blow torch will
answer the purpose), and place the jar over the element, as shown in Fig.
331. The jar should be firmly pressed down into the compound. With a
hot putty knife, clean off any compound which has oozed out of the
joint. The assembled cell can now be turned to an upright position.
In case it is necessary to remove a cover, heat a wide putty knife and run
it around the edge between the cover and the glass jar. This will soften
the compound so that the cover can be pried off.
If it is necessary to remove the cover from the posts, the keys must be
driven out by pounding on the small end, as the keys are tapered-and the
Page 633
holes in
the lead
collars
are
unequal
in size.
Filling with Electrolyte
Fill the cells with 1.260 specific gravity electrolyte at 70° F. to the LIQUID
LINE marked on the glass jars. (About I inch above the top edge of
the lead
collars
are
unequal
in size.
Filling with Electrolyte
Fill the cells with 1.260 specific gravity electrolyte at 70° F. to the LIQUID
LINE marked on the glass jars. (About I inch above the top edge of
Page 634
separators.) Allow the cells to stand 12 hours, and if the level of the
electrolyte has lowered, add sufficient electrolyte to bring it to the proper
height.
Initial Charge
Connect the positive terminal (long strap) of one cell to the negative terminal
(short strap) of the adjacent cell and continue this procedure until all the
cells are connected together. This will leave one positive and one negative
terminal to be connected respectively to the positive and negative wires from
the charging source.
The bends in the top terminal connectors should be made about one inch
above the pillar posts to eliminate the danger of breakage at the post.
In tightening the bolts, do not use excessive force, as there is liability of
stripping the threads.
After the cells have stood for 12 hours with electrolyte in the jars, they
should be put on charge at the following rates:
Type Amperes
PH-7 4
PH-9 5
PH-11 6-1/4
PH-13 7-1/2
PH-15 9
PH-17 10
They should be left on charge continuously until the specific gravity of the
electrolyte reaches a maximum and remains constant for six hours. At this
point, each cell should be gassing freely and the voltage should read about
2.45 volts per cell, with the above current flowing.
electrolyte has lowered, add sufficient electrolyte to bring it to the proper
height.
Initial Charge
Connect the positive terminal (long strap) of one cell to the negative terminal
(short strap) of the adjacent cell and continue this procedure until all the
cells are connected together. This will leave one positive and one negative
terminal to be connected respectively to the positive and negative wires from
the charging source.
The bends in the top terminal connectors should be made about one inch
above the pillar posts to eliminate the danger of breakage at the post.
In tightening the bolts, do not use excessive force, as there is liability of
stripping the threads.
After the cells have stood for 12 hours with electrolyte in the jars, they
should be put on charge at the following rates:
Type Amperes
PH-7 4
PH-9 5
PH-11 6-1/4
PH-13 7-1/2
PH-15 9
PH-17 10
They should be left on charge continuously until the specific gravity of the
electrolyte reaches a maximum and remains constant for six hours. At this
point, each cell should be gassing freely and the voltage should read about
2.45 volts per cell, with the above current flowing.
Page 635
Under normal conditions it will require approximately 80 hours to complete
the initial charge. The final gravity will be approximately 1.250. If the
gravity is above this value, remove a little electrolyte and add the same
amount of distilled water.
If the gravity is too low, remove a little of the electrolyte and add the same
amount of 1.400 specific gravity acid and leave on charge as before.
After either water or acid has been added, charge the cells three hours longer
in order to thoroughly mix the solution, and if at the end of that time the
gravity is between 1.245 and 1.255, the cells are ready for service.
It is very important that the initial charge be continued until the specific
gravity reaches a maximum value, regardless of the length of time required.
The battery must not be discharged until the initial charge has been
completed.
If it is impossible to charge the battery continuously, the charge can be
stopped over night, but must be resumed the next day.
It is preferable to charge the battery at the ampere rate given above, but if
this cannot be done, the temperature must be carefully watched so that it
does not exceed 110° F.
Wilard Rubber Jar Batteries Shipped Completely Charged and
Filled with Electrolyte
Immediately upon receipt of battery, remove the soft rubber nipples and
unscrew the vent plugs.
The soft rubber nipples are to be discarded, as they are used only for
protection during shipment. Inspect each cell to see whether the electrolyte is
at the proper height.
If the electrolyte is simply a little low and there is no evidence of any having
been spilled (examine packing material for discoloration), add distilled water
to bring the level to the proper height.
the initial charge. The final gravity will be approximately 1.250. If the
gravity is above this value, remove a little electrolyte and add the same
amount of distilled water.
If the gravity is too low, remove a little of the electrolyte and add the same
amount of 1.400 specific gravity acid and leave on charge as before.
After either water or acid has been added, charge the cells three hours longer
in order to thoroughly mix the solution, and if at the end of that time the
gravity is between 1.245 and 1.255, the cells are ready for service.
It is very important that the initial charge be continued until the specific
gravity reaches a maximum value, regardless of the length of time required.
The battery must not be discharged until the initial charge has been
completed.
If it is impossible to charge the battery continuously, the charge can be
stopped over night, but must be resumed the next day.
It is preferable to charge the battery at the ampere rate given above, but if
this cannot be done, the temperature must be carefully watched so that it
does not exceed 110° F.
Wilard Rubber Jar Batteries Shipped Completely Charged and
Filled with Electrolyte
Immediately upon receipt of battery, remove the soft rubber nipples and
unscrew the vent plugs.
The soft rubber nipples are to be discarded, as they are used only for
protection during shipment. Inspect each cell to see whether the electrolyte is
at the proper height.
If the electrolyte is simply a little low and there is no evidence of any having
been spilled (examine packing material for discoloration), add distilled water
to bring the level to the proper height.
Page 636
If electrolyte does not cover the plates and the packing material is
discolored, it indicates that some or all of the electrolyte has been lost from
the cell, either on account of cracked jar or overturning of the battery.
If only a small quantity of electrolyte is lost through spilling, the cell should
be filled to the proper height with electrolyte of the same specific gravity as
in the other cells. This cell should then be charged until the gravity has
ceased rising, If all the electrolyte is lost, write to the Willard Storage
Battery Co., Cleveland, Ohio, for instructions.
Place batteries on rack and connect the positive terminal of one crate to the
negative terminal of the next crate, using the jumpers furnished.
The main battery wires from the switch board should be soldered to the
pigtail terminals, which can *then be bolted to the battery terminals. Be sure
to have the positive and negative battery terminals connected respectively to
the positive and negative generator terminals of switchboard.
Before using the battery, it should be given a freshening charge at the rate
given on page 510.
The specific gravity of the rubber jar batteries is 1.285-1.300 when fully
charged, and 1.160 when discharged.
Willard Rubber Jar Batteries Shipped Dry (Export Batteries)
Batteries which have been prepared for export must be given the following
treatment:
Upon receipt of battery by customer, the special soft rubber nipples, used on
the batteries for shipping purposes only, should be removed and discarded.
Types SMW and SEW batteries should at once be filled to bottom of vent
hole with 1.285 specific gravity electrolyte at 70° F.
In mixing electrolyte, the acid should be poured into the water and allowed
to cool below 90° F. before being put into the cells. If electrolyte is shipped
with the battery, it is of the proper gravity to put into the cells.
discolored, it indicates that some or all of the electrolyte has been lost from
the cell, either on account of cracked jar or overturning of the battery.
If only a small quantity of electrolyte is lost through spilling, the cell should
be filled to the proper height with electrolyte of the same specific gravity as
in the other cells. This cell should then be charged until the gravity has
ceased rising, If all the electrolyte is lost, write to the Willard Storage
Battery Co., Cleveland, Ohio, for instructions.
Place batteries on rack and connect the positive terminal of one crate to the
negative terminal of the next crate, using the jumpers furnished.
The main battery wires from the switch board should be soldered to the
pigtail terminals, which can *then be bolted to the battery terminals. Be sure
to have the positive and negative battery terminals connected respectively to
the positive and negative generator terminals of switchboard.
Before using the battery, it should be given a freshening charge at the rate
given on page 510.
The specific gravity of the rubber jar batteries is 1.285-1.300 when fully
charged, and 1.160 when discharged.
Willard Rubber Jar Batteries Shipped Dry (Export Batteries)
Batteries which have been prepared for export must be given the following
treatment:
Upon receipt of battery by customer, the special soft rubber nipples, used on
the batteries for shipping purposes only, should be removed and discarded.
Types SMW and SEW batteries should at once be filled to bottom of vent
hole with 1.285 specific gravity electrolyte at 70° F.
In mixing electrolyte, the acid should be poured into the water and allowed
to cool below 90° F. before being put into the cells. If electrolyte is shipped
with the battery, it is of the proper gravity to put into the cells.
Page 637
Immediately after the batteries are filled with electrolyte, they must be
placed on charge at one half the normal charging rate given on page 510, and
should be left on charge continuously until the specific gravity of the
electrolyte stops rising. At this point, each cell should be gassing freely and
the voltage should read at least 2.40 volts per cell with one-half the normal
charging current flowing.
If during the charge the temperature of the electrolyte in any one cell
exceeds 105° F., the current must be reduced until the temperature is below
90° F. This will necessitate a longer time to complete the charge, but must be
strictly adhered to.
Under normal conditions it will require approximately 80 hours to complete
the initial charge. The final gravity of the types SMW and SEW will be
approximately 1.285. If the gravity is above this value, remove a little
electrolyte and add same amount of distilled water while the battery is left
charging (in order to thoroughly mix the solution), and after three hours, if
the electrolyte is within the limits, the cell is ready for service. If the specific
gravity is below these values, remove a little electrolyte and add same
amount of 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte. Leave on charge as before. The
acid should be poured into the water and allowed to cool below 90° P. before
being used. The batteries are then ready for service.
Installing Counter Electromotive Force Cells
Counter EMF cells, if used with a battery, are installed in the same manner
as regular cells. They are connected positive to negative, the same as regular
cells, but the negative terminal of the CEMF group is to be connected to the
negative terminal of the regular cell group. The positive terminal of the
counter CEMF group is then to be connected to the switchboard.
placed on charge at one half the normal charging rate given on page 510, and
should be left on charge continuously until the specific gravity of the
electrolyte stops rising. At this point, each cell should be gassing freely and
the voltage should read at least 2.40 volts per cell with one-half the normal
charging current flowing.
If during the charge the temperature of the electrolyte in any one cell
exceeds 105° F., the current must be reduced until the temperature is below
90° F. This will necessitate a longer time to complete the charge, but must be
strictly adhered to.
Under normal conditions it will require approximately 80 hours to complete
the initial charge. The final gravity of the types SMW and SEW will be
approximately 1.285. If the gravity is above this value, remove a little
electrolyte and add same amount of distilled water while the battery is left
charging (in order to thoroughly mix the solution), and after three hours, if
the electrolyte is within the limits, the cell is ready for service. If the specific
gravity is below these values, remove a little electrolyte and add same
amount of 1.400 specific gravity electrolyte. Leave on charge as before. The
acid should be poured into the water and allowed to cool below 90° P. before
being used. The batteries are then ready for service.
Installing Counter Electromotive Force Cells
Counter EMF cells, if used with a battery, are installed in the same manner
as regular cells. They are connected positive to negative, the same as regular
cells, but the negative terminal of the CEMF group is to be connected to the
negative terminal of the regular cell group. The positive terminal of the
counter CEMF group is then to be connected to the switchboard.
Page 638
(Table of) Contents
Page 639
Definitions and Descriptions of
Terms and Parts
Acid. As used in this book refers to sulphuric acid (H2SO4), the
active component of the electrolyte, or a mixture of sulphuric acid
and water.
Active Material. The active portion of the battery plates; peroxide
of lead on the positives and spongy metallic lead on the negatives.
Alloy. As used in battery practice, a homogeneous combination of
lead and antimony.
Alternating Current. Electric current which does not flow in one
direction only, like direct current, but rapidly reverses its direction
or "alternates" in polarity so that it will not charge a battery.
Ampere. The unit of measure of the rate of flow of electric current.
Ampere Hour. The product resulting from multiplication of
amperes flowing by time of flow in hours, e.g., a battery supplying
10 amperes for 8 hours gives 80 ampere hours. See note under
"Volt?" for more complete explanation of current flow.
Battery. Two or more electrical cells, electrically connected so that
combination furnishes current as a unit.
Battery Terminals. Devices attached to the positive post of one end
cell and the negative of the other, by means of which the battery is
connected to the car circuit.
Bridge (or Rib). Wedge-shaped vertical projection from bottom of
rubber jar on which plates rest and by which they are supported.
Terms and Parts
Acid. As used in this book refers to sulphuric acid (H2SO4), the
active component of the electrolyte, or a mixture of sulphuric acid
and water.
Active Material. The active portion of the battery plates; peroxide
of lead on the positives and spongy metallic lead on the negatives.
Alloy. As used in battery practice, a homogeneous combination of
lead and antimony.
Alternating Current. Electric current which does not flow in one
direction only, like direct current, but rapidly reverses its direction
or "alternates" in polarity so that it will not charge a battery.
Ampere. The unit of measure of the rate of flow of electric current.
Ampere Hour. The product resulting from multiplication of
amperes flowing by time of flow in hours, e.g., a battery supplying
10 amperes for 8 hours gives 80 ampere hours. See note under
"Volt?" for more complete explanation of current flow.
Battery. Two or more electrical cells, electrically connected so that
combination furnishes current as a unit.
Battery Terminals. Devices attached to the positive post of one end
cell and the negative of the other, by means of which the battery is
connected to the car circuit.
Bridge (or Rib). Wedge-shaped vertical projection from bottom of
rubber jar on which plates rest and by which they are supported.
Page 640
Buckling. Warping or bending of the battery plates.
Burning. A term used to describe the operation of joining two
pieces of lead by melting them at practically the same instant so
they may run together as one continuous piece. Usually done with
mixture of oxygen and hydrogen or acetylene gases, hydrogen and
compressed air, or oxygen and illuminating gas.
Burning Strip. A convenient form of lead, in strips, for filling up
the joint in making burned connections.
Cadmium. A metal used in about the shape of a pencil for
obtaining voltage of positive or negative plates. It is dipped in the
electrolyte but not allowed to come in contact with plates.
Capacity. The number of ampere hours a battery can supply at a
given rate of current flow after being fully charged, e.g., a battery
may be capable of supplying 10 amperes of current for 8 hours
before it is exhausted. Its capacity is 80 ampere hours at the 8 hours
rate of current flow. It is necessary to state the rate of flow, since
same battery if discharged at 20 amperes would not last for 4 hours
but for a shorter period, say 3 hours. Hence, its capacity at the 3
hour rate would be 3x2O=60 ampere hours.
Case. The containing box which holds the battery cells.
Cell. The battery unit, consisting of an element complete with
electrolyte, in its jar with cover.
Charge. Passing direct current through a battery in the direction
opposite to that of discharge, in order to put back the energy used
on discharge.
Charge Rate. The proper rate of current to use in charging a battery
from an outside source. It is expressed in amperes and varies for
different sized cells.
Corrosion. The attack of metal parts by acid from the electrolyte; it
is the result of lack of cleanliness.
Burning. A term used to describe the operation of joining two
pieces of lead by melting them at practically the same instant so
they may run together as one continuous piece. Usually done with
mixture of oxygen and hydrogen or acetylene gases, hydrogen and
compressed air, or oxygen and illuminating gas.
Burning Strip. A convenient form of lead, in strips, for filling up
the joint in making burned connections.
Cadmium. A metal used in about the shape of a pencil for
obtaining voltage of positive or negative plates. It is dipped in the
electrolyte but not allowed to come in contact with plates.
Capacity. The number of ampere hours a battery can supply at a
given rate of current flow after being fully charged, e.g., a battery
may be capable of supplying 10 amperes of current for 8 hours
before it is exhausted. Its capacity is 80 ampere hours at the 8 hours
rate of current flow. It is necessary to state the rate of flow, since
same battery if discharged at 20 amperes would not last for 4 hours
but for a shorter period, say 3 hours. Hence, its capacity at the 3
hour rate would be 3x2O=60 ampere hours.
Case. The containing box which holds the battery cells.
Cell. The battery unit, consisting of an element complete with
electrolyte, in its jar with cover.
Charge. Passing direct current through a battery in the direction
opposite to that of discharge, in order to put back the energy used
on discharge.
Charge Rate. The proper rate of current to use in charging a battery
from an outside source. It is expressed in amperes and varies for
different sized cells.
Corrosion. The attack of metal parts by acid from the electrolyte; it
is the result of lack of cleanliness.
Page 641
Cover. The rubber cover which closes each individual cell; it is
flanged for sealing compound to insure an effective seal.
Cycle. One charge and discharge.
Density. Specific gravity.
Developing. The first cycle or cycles of a new or rebuilt battery to
bring about proper electrochemical conditions to give rated
capacity.
Diffusion. Pertaining to movement of acid within the pores of
plates. (See Equalization.)
Discharge. The flow of current from a battery through a circuit,
opposite of "charge."
Dry. Term frequently applied to cell containing insufficient
electrolyte. Also applied to certain conditions of shipment of
batteries.
Electrolyte. The conducting fluid of electro-chemical devices; for
lead-acid storage batteries it consists of about two parts of water to
one of chemically pure sulphuric acid, by weight.
Element. Positive group, negative group and separators.
Equalization. The result of circulation and diffusion within the cell
which accompanies charge and discharge. Difference in capacity at
various rates is caused by the time required for this feature.
Equalizing. Term used to describe the making uniform of varying
specific gravities in different cells of the same battery, by adding or
removing water or electrolyte.
Evaporation. Loss of water from electrolyte from heat or charging.
Filling Plug. The plug which fits in and closes the orifice of the
filling tube in the cell cover.
flanged for sealing compound to insure an effective seal.
Cycle. One charge and discharge.
Density. Specific gravity.
Developing. The first cycle or cycles of a new or rebuilt battery to
bring about proper electrochemical conditions to give rated
capacity.
Diffusion. Pertaining to movement of acid within the pores of
plates. (See Equalization.)
Discharge. The flow of current from a battery through a circuit,
opposite of "charge."
Dry. Term frequently applied to cell containing insufficient
electrolyte. Also applied to certain conditions of shipment of
batteries.
Electrolyte. The conducting fluid of electro-chemical devices; for
lead-acid storage batteries it consists of about two parts of water to
one of chemically pure sulphuric acid, by weight.
Element. Positive group, negative group and separators.
Equalization. The result of circulation and diffusion within the cell
which accompanies charge and discharge. Difference in capacity at
various rates is caused by the time required for this feature.
Equalizing. Term used to describe the making uniform of varying
specific gravities in different cells of the same battery, by adding or
removing water or electrolyte.
Evaporation. Loss of water from electrolyte from heat or charging.
Filling Plug. The plug which fits in and closes the orifice of the
filling tube in the cell cover.
Page 642
Finishing Rate. The current in amperes at which a battery may be
charged for twenty-four hours or more. Also the charging rate used
near the end of a charge when cells begin to gas.
Flooding. Overflowing through the filling tube.
Forming. Electro-chemical process of making pasted grid or other
plate, types into storage battery plates. (Often confused with
Developing.)
Foreign Material. Objectionable substances.
Freshening Charge. A charge given to a battery which has been
standing idle, to keep it fully charged.
Gassing. The giving off of oxygen gas at positive plates and
hydrogen at negatives, which begins when charge is something
more than half completed-depending on the rate.
Generator System. An equipment including a generator for
automatically recharging the battery, in contradistinction to a
straight storage system where the battery has to be removed to be
recharged.
Gravity. A contraction of the term "specific gravity," which means
the density compared to water as a standard.
Grid. The metal framework of a plate, supporting the active
material and provided with a lug for conducting the current and for
attachment to the strap.
Group. A set of plates, either positive or negative, joined to a strap.
Groups do not include separators.
Hold-Down. Device for keeping separators from floating or
working up.
Hold-Down Clips. Brackets for the attachment of bolts for holding
the battery securely in position on the car.
charged for twenty-four hours or more. Also the charging rate used
near the end of a charge when cells begin to gas.
Flooding. Overflowing through the filling tube.
Forming. Electro-chemical process of making pasted grid or other
plate, types into storage battery plates. (Often confused with
Developing.)
Foreign Material. Objectionable substances.
Freshening Charge. A charge given to a battery which has been
standing idle, to keep it fully charged.
Gassing. The giving off of oxygen gas at positive plates and
hydrogen at negatives, which begins when charge is something
more than half completed-depending on the rate.
Generator System. An equipment including a generator for
automatically recharging the battery, in contradistinction to a
straight storage system where the battery has to be removed to be
recharged.
Gravity. A contraction of the term "specific gravity," which means
the density compared to water as a standard.
Grid. The metal framework of a plate, supporting the active
material and provided with a lug for conducting the current and for
attachment to the strap.
Group. A set of plates, either positive or negative, joined to a strap.
Groups do not include separators.
Hold-Down. Device for keeping separators from floating or
working up.
Hold-Down Clips. Brackets for the attachment of bolts for holding
the battery securely in position on the car.
Page 643
Hydrogen Flame. A very hot and clean flame of hydrogen gas and
oxygen, acetylene, or compressed air used for making burned
connections.
Hydrogen Generator. An apparatus for generating hydrogen gas
for lead burning.
Hydrometer. An instrument for measuring the specific gravity of
the electrolyte.
Hydrometer Syringe. A glass barrel enclosing a hydrometer and
provided with a rubber bulb for drawing up electrolyte.
Jar. The hard rubber container holding the element and electrolyte.
Lead Burning. Making a joint by melting together the metal of the
parts to be joined.
Lug. The extension from the top frame of each plate, connecting the
plate to the strap.
Maximum Gravity. The highest specific gravity which the
electrolyte will reach by continued charging, indicating that no acid
remains in the plates.
Mud. (See Sediment.)
Negative. The terminal of a source of electrical energy as a cell,
battery or generator through which current returns to complete
circuit. Generally marked "Neg." or "-".
Ohm. The unit of electrical resistance. The smaller the wire
conductor the greater is the resistance. Six hundred and sixty-five
feet of No. 14 wire (size used in house lighting circuit) offers I ohm
resistance to current flow.
Oil of Vitriol. Commercial name for concentrated sulphuric acid
(1.835 specific gravity). This is never used in a battery and would
quickly ruin it.
oxygen, acetylene, or compressed air used for making burned
connections.
Hydrogen Generator. An apparatus for generating hydrogen gas
for lead burning.
Hydrometer. An instrument for measuring the specific gravity of
the electrolyte.
Hydrometer Syringe. A glass barrel enclosing a hydrometer and
provided with a rubber bulb for drawing up electrolyte.
Jar. The hard rubber container holding the element and electrolyte.
Lead Burning. Making a joint by melting together the metal of the
parts to be joined.
Lug. The extension from the top frame of each plate, connecting the
plate to the strap.
Maximum Gravity. The highest specific gravity which the
electrolyte will reach by continued charging, indicating that no acid
remains in the plates.
Mud. (See Sediment.)
Negative. The terminal of a source of electrical energy as a cell,
battery or generator through which current returns to complete
circuit. Generally marked "Neg." or "-".
Ohm. The unit of electrical resistance. The smaller the wire
conductor the greater is the resistance. Six hundred and sixty-five
feet of No. 14 wire (size used in house lighting circuit) offers I ohm
resistance to current flow.
Oil of Vitriol. Commercial name for concentrated sulphuric acid
(1.835 specific gravity). This is never used in a battery and would
quickly ruin it.
Page 644
Over-Discharge. The carrying of discharge beyond proper cell
voltage; shortens life if carried far enough and done frequently.
Paste. The mixture of lead oxide or spongy lead and other
substances which is put into grids.
Plate. The combination of grid and paste properly "formed."
Positive$ are reddish brown and negatives slate gray.
Polarity. An electrical condition. The positive terminal (or pole) of
a cell or battery or electrical circuit is said to have positive polarity;
the negative, negative polarity.
Positive. The terminal of a source of electrical energy as a cell,
battery or generator from which the current flows. Generally
marked "Pos." or "+".
Post. The portion of the strap extending through the cell cover, by
means of which connection is made to the adjoining cell or to the
car circuit.
Potential Difference. Abbreviated P. D. Found on test curves.
Synonymous with voltage.
Rate. Number of amperes for charge or discharge. Also used to
express time for either.
Rectifier. Apparatus for converting alternating current into direct
current.
Resistance. Material (usually lamps or wire) of low conductivity
inserted in a circuit to retard the flow of current. By varying the
resistance, the amount of current can be regulated. Also the property
of an electrical circuit whereby the flow of current is impeded.
Resistance is measured in ohms. Analogous to the impediment
offered by wall of a pipe to flow of water therein.
Rheostat. An electrical appliance used to raise or lower the
resistance of a circuit and correspondingly to decrease or increase
voltage; shortens life if carried far enough and done frequently.
Paste. The mixture of lead oxide or spongy lead and other
substances which is put into grids.
Plate. The combination of grid and paste properly "formed."
Positive$ are reddish brown and negatives slate gray.
Polarity. An electrical condition. The positive terminal (or pole) of
a cell or battery or electrical circuit is said to have positive polarity;
the negative, negative polarity.
Positive. The terminal of a source of electrical energy as a cell,
battery or generator from which the current flows. Generally
marked "Pos." or "+".
Post. The portion of the strap extending through the cell cover, by
means of which connection is made to the adjoining cell or to the
car circuit.
Potential Difference. Abbreviated P. D. Found on test curves.
Synonymous with voltage.
Rate. Number of amperes for charge or discharge. Also used to
express time for either.
Rectifier. Apparatus for converting alternating current into direct
current.
Resistance. Material (usually lamps or wire) of low conductivity
inserted in a circuit to retard the flow of current. By varying the
resistance, the amount of current can be regulated. Also the property
of an electrical circuit whereby the flow of current is impeded.
Resistance is measured in ohms. Analogous to the impediment
offered by wall of a pipe to flow of water therein.
Rheostat. An electrical appliance used to raise or lower the
resistance of a circuit and correspondingly to decrease or increase
Page 645
the current flowing.
Rib. (See Bridge.)
Ribbed. (See Separator.)
Reversal. Reversal of polarity of cell or battery, due to excessive
discharge, or charging in the wrong direction.
Rubber Sheets. Thin, perforated hard rubber sheets used in
combination with the wood separators in some types of batteries.
They are placed between the grooved side of the wood separators
and the positive plate.
Sealing. Making tight joints between jar and cover; usually with a
black, thick, acid-proof compound.
Sediment. Loosened or worn out particles of active material fallen
to the bottom of cells; frequently called "mud".
Sediment Space. That part of jar between bottom and top of bridge.
Separator. An insulator between plates of opposite polarity; usually
of wood, rubber or combination of both. Separators are generally
corrugated or ribbed to insure proper distance between plates and to
avoid too great displacement of electrolyte.
Short Circuit. A metallic connection between the positive and
negative plates within a cell. The plates may be in actual contact or
material may lodge and bridge across. If the separators are in good
condition, a short circuit is unlikely to occur.
Spacers. Wood strips used in some types to separate the cells in the
case, and divided to provide a space for the tie bolts.
Specific Gravity. The density of the electrolyte compared to water
as a standard. It indicates the strength and is measured by the
hydrometer.
Rib. (See Bridge.)
Ribbed. (See Separator.)
Reversal. Reversal of polarity of cell or battery, due to excessive
discharge, or charging in the wrong direction.
Rubber Sheets. Thin, perforated hard rubber sheets used in
combination with the wood separators in some types of batteries.
They are placed between the grooved side of the wood separators
and the positive plate.
Sealing. Making tight joints between jar and cover; usually with a
black, thick, acid-proof compound.
Sediment. Loosened or worn out particles of active material fallen
to the bottom of cells; frequently called "mud".
Sediment Space. That part of jar between bottom and top of bridge.
Separator. An insulator between plates of opposite polarity; usually
of wood, rubber or combination of both. Separators are generally
corrugated or ribbed to insure proper distance between plates and to
avoid too great displacement of electrolyte.
Short Circuit. A metallic connection between the positive and
negative plates within a cell. The plates may be in actual contact or
material may lodge and bridge across. If the separators are in good
condition, a short circuit is unlikely to occur.
Spacers. Wood strips used in some types to separate the cells in the
case, and divided to provide a space for the tie bolts.
Specific Gravity. The density of the electrolyte compared to water
as a standard. It indicates the strength and is measured by the
hydrometer.
Page 646
Spray. Fine particles of electrolyte carried up from the surface by
gas bubbles. (See Gassing.)
Starting Rate. A specified current in amperes at which a discharged
battery may be charged at the beginning of a charge. The starting
rate is reduced to the finishing rate when the cells begin to gas. It is
also reduced at any time during the charge if the temperature of the
electrolyte rises to or above 110° Fahrenheit.
Starvation. The result of giving insufficient charge in relation to
the amount of discharge, resulting in poor service and injury to the
battery.
Strap. The leaden casting to which the plates of a group are joined.
Sulphate. Common term for lead sulphate. (PbSO4.)
Sulphated. Term used to describe cells in an under-charged
condition, from either over-discharging without corresponding long
charges or from standing idle some time and being self discharged.
Sulphate Reading. A peculiarity of cell voltage when plates are
considerably sulphated, where charging voltage shows abnormally
high figures before dropping gradually to normal charging voltage.
Terminal. Part to which outside wires are connected.
Vent, Vent Plug or Vent-Cap. Hard or soft rubber part inserted in
cover to retain atmospheric pressure within the cell, while
preventing loss of electrolyte from spray. It allows gases formed in
the cell to escape, prevents electrolyte from spilling, and keeps dirt
out of the cell.
Volt. The commercial unit of pressure in an electric circuit. Voltage
is measured by a voltmeter. Analogous to pressure or head of water
flow through pipes. NOTE. — Just as increase of pressure causes
more volume of water to flow through a given pipe so increase of
voltage (by putting more cells in circuit) will cause more amperes
of current to flow in same circuit. Decreasing size of pipes is
gas bubbles. (See Gassing.)
Starting Rate. A specified current in amperes at which a discharged
battery may be charged at the beginning of a charge. The starting
rate is reduced to the finishing rate when the cells begin to gas. It is
also reduced at any time during the charge if the temperature of the
electrolyte rises to or above 110° Fahrenheit.
Starvation. The result of giving insufficient charge in relation to
the amount of discharge, resulting in poor service and injury to the
battery.
Strap. The leaden casting to which the plates of a group are joined.
Sulphate. Common term for lead sulphate. (PbSO4.)
Sulphated. Term used to describe cells in an under-charged
condition, from either over-discharging without corresponding long
charges or from standing idle some time and being self discharged.
Sulphate Reading. A peculiarity of cell voltage when plates are
considerably sulphated, where charging voltage shows abnormally
high figures before dropping gradually to normal charging voltage.
Terminal. Part to which outside wires are connected.
Vent, Vent Plug or Vent-Cap. Hard or soft rubber part inserted in
cover to retain atmospheric pressure within the cell, while
preventing loss of electrolyte from spray. It allows gases formed in
the cell to escape, prevents electrolyte from spilling, and keeps dirt
out of the cell.
Volt. The commercial unit of pressure in an electric circuit. Voltage
is measured by a voltmeter. Analogous to pressure or head of water
flow through pipes. NOTE. — Just as increase of pressure causes
more volume of water to flow through a given pipe so increase of
voltage (by putting more cells in circuit) will cause more amperes
of current to flow in same circuit. Decreasing size of pipes is
Page 647
increasing resistance and decreases flow of water, so also
introduction of resistance in an electrical circuit decreases current
flow with a given voltage or pressure.
Wall. Jar sides and ends.
Washing. Removal of sediment from cells after taking out
elements; usually accompanied by rinsing of groups, replacement of
wood separators and renewal of electrolyte.
Watt. The commercial unit of electrical power, and is the product of
voltage of circuit by amperes flowing. One ampere flowing under
pressure of one volt represents one watt of power.
Watt Hour. The unit of electrical work. It is the product of power
expended by time of expenditure, e.g., 10 amperes flowing under 32
volts pressure for 8 hours gives 2560 watt hours.
(Table of) Contents
introduction of resistance in an electrical circuit decreases current
flow with a given voltage or pressure.
Wall. Jar sides and ends.
Washing. Removal of sediment from cells after taking out
elements; usually accompanied by rinsing of groups, replacement of
wood separators and renewal of electrolyte.
Watt. The commercial unit of electrical power, and is the product of
voltage of circuit by amperes flowing. One ampere flowing under
pressure of one volt represents one watt of power.
Watt Hour. The unit of electrical work. It is the product of power
expended by time of expenditure, e.g., 10 amperes flowing under 32
volts pressure for 8 hours gives 2560 watt hours.
(Table of) Contents
Page 648
Index
Page 649
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW
XYZ
(Table of) Contents
A
Acetic acid from improperly treated separators 77
Acetylene and Compressed Air Lead-burning Outfit147
Acid Carboys 184
Acid. Handling and mixing 222
Acid. How lost while battery is on car 57
Acid. How to draw, from carboys 184
Acid should never be added to battery on car 57
Acid used instead of water 57
Active materials. Composition of 13
Active materials. Effect of quantity, porosity, and arrangement of,
on capacity 42
Active materials. Resistance of 49
Age codes 242
Age of battery. Determining 242
Age of battery. Effect of, on capacity 47
Alcohol torch lead-burning outfit 148
Applying pastes to grids 11
Arc lead-burning outfit 148
Audion bulb for radio receiving sets 253
B
XYZ
(Table of) Contents
A
Acetic acid from improperly treated separators 77
Acetylene and Compressed Air Lead-burning Outfit147
Acid Carboys 184
Acid. Handling and mixing 222
Acid. How lost while battery is on car 57
Acid. How to draw, from carboys 184
Acid should never be added to battery on car 57
Acid used instead of water 57
Active materials. Composition of 13
Active materials. Effect of quantity, porosity, and arrangement of,
on capacity 42
Active materials. Resistance of 49
Age codes 242
Age of battery. Determining 242
Age of battery. Effect of, on capacity 47
Alcohol torch lead-burning outfit 148
Applying pastes to grids 11
Arc lead-burning outfit 148
Audion bulb for radio receiving sets 253
B
Page 650
Battery box should be kept clean and dry 51
Battery carrier 173
Battery case (see Case).
Battery steamer 158
Battery truck 173
Battery turntable 170
Bench charge 198 to 210
Bench charge. Arrangement of batteries for 200
Bench charge. Charging rates for 201
Bench charge. Conditions preventing batteries from charging 206
Bench charge. Conditions preventing gravity from rising 207
Bench charge. If battery becomes too hot 205
Bench charge. If battery will not hold a charge 208
Bench charge. If battery will not take half a charge 205
Bench charge. If current cannot be passed through battery 206
Bench charge. If electrolyte has a milky appearance 206
Bench charge. If gravity rises above 1.300 205
Bench charge. If gravity rises long before voltage does 205
Bench charge. If new battery will not charge 205
Bench charge. If one cell will not charge 205
Bench charge. If vinegar-like odor is detected 205
Bench charge. Leave vent-plugs in when charging 209
Bench charge. Level of electrolyte at end of 203
Bench charge. Painting case after 203
Bench charge. Specific gravity at end of 203
Bench charge. Specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 204
Bench charge. Suggestions for 209
Bench charge. Temperatures of batteries during 202
Bench charge. Time required for 203
Bench charge. Troubles arising during 204
Bench charge. Voltage at end of 203
Bench charge. When necessary 198
Bins for stock parts 158
Book-keeping records 302
"Bone-dry" batteries. Putting into service 229
Boxes for battery parts 183
Buckling 72
Buckling. Caused by charging at high rates 73
Battery carrier 173
Battery case (see Case).
Battery steamer 158
Battery truck 173
Battery turntable 170
Bench charge 198 to 210
Bench charge. Arrangement of batteries for 200
Bench charge. Charging rates for 201
Bench charge. Conditions preventing batteries from charging 206
Bench charge. Conditions preventing gravity from rising 207
Bench charge. If battery becomes too hot 205
Bench charge. If battery will not hold a charge 208
Bench charge. If battery will not take half a charge 205
Bench charge. If current cannot be passed through battery 206
Bench charge. If electrolyte has a milky appearance 206
Bench charge. If gravity rises above 1.300 205
Bench charge. If gravity rises long before voltage does 205
Bench charge. If new battery will not charge 205
Bench charge. If one cell will not charge 205
Bench charge. If vinegar-like odor is detected 205
Bench charge. Leave vent-plugs in when charging 209
Bench charge. Level of electrolyte at end of 203
Bench charge. Painting case after 203
Bench charge. Specific gravity at end of 203
Bench charge. Specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 204
Bench charge. Suggestions for 209
Bench charge. Temperatures of batteries during 202
Bench charge. Time required for 203
Bench charge. Troubles arising during 204
Bench charge. Voltage at end of 203
Bench charge. When necessary 198
Bins for stock parts 158
Book-keeping records 302
"Bone-dry" batteries. Putting into service 229
Boxes for battery parts 183
Buckling 72
Buckling. Caused by charging at high rates 73
Page 651
Buckling. Caused by continued operation in discharged condition
73
Buckling. Caused by defective grid alloy 73
Buckling. Caused by non-uniform current distribution 73
Buckling. Caused by overdischarge 73
Buckling does not necessarily cause trouble 73
Burning. (See Lead-Burning.)
Burning-lead mould 164
Burning rack 162
Business methods 299 to 312
C
Cadmium. What it is 176
Cadmium leads. Connection of, to voltmeter 179
Cadmium readings affected by improperly treated separators 181
Cadmium readings. Conditions necessary to obtain good negative-
cadmium readings 210
Cadmium readings do not indicate capacity of a cell 175
Cadmium readings on short-circuited cells 180
Cadmium readings. Troubles shown by, on charge 206
Cadmium readings. When they should be taken 176
Cadmium test 174
Cadmium test. How made 175
Cadmium test on charging battery 181
Cadmium test on discharging battery 180
Cadmium test set. What it consists of 177
Cadmium test voltmeter 178
Calling for repair batteries 314
Capacity. Effect of age of battery on 47 and 89
Capacity. Effect of plate surface area on 42
Capacity. Effect of clogged separators on 88
Capacity. Effect of incorrect proportions of acid and acid in
electrolyte on 88
Capacity. Effect of low level of electrolyte on 88
73
Buckling. Caused by defective grid alloy 73
Buckling. Caused by non-uniform current distribution 73
Buckling. Caused by overdischarge 73
Buckling does not necessarily cause trouble 73
Burning. (See Lead-Burning.)
Burning-lead mould 164
Burning rack 162
Business methods 299 to 312
C
Cadmium. What it is 176
Cadmium leads. Connection of, to voltmeter 179
Cadmium readings affected by improperly treated separators 181
Cadmium readings. Conditions necessary to obtain good negative-
cadmium readings 210
Cadmium readings do not indicate capacity of a cell 175
Cadmium readings on short-circuited cells 180
Cadmium readings. Troubles shown by, on charge 206
Cadmium readings. When they should be taken 176
Cadmium test 174
Cadmium test. How made 175
Cadmium test on charging battery 181
Cadmium test on discharging battery 180
Cadmium test set. What it consists of 177
Cadmium test voltmeter 178
Calling for repair batteries 314
Capacity. Effect of age of battery on 47 and 89
Capacity. Effect of plate surface area on 42
Capacity. Effect of clogged separators on 88
Capacity. Effect of incorrect proportions of acid and acid in
electrolyte on 88
Capacity. Effect of low level of electrolyte on 88
Page 652
Capacity. Effect of operating conditions on 44
Capacity. Effect of quantity and strength of electrolyte on 42
Capacity. Effect of quantity, arrangement, and porosity of active
materials on 42
Capacity. Effect of rate of discharge on 44
Capacity. Effect of reversal of plates on 89
Capacity. Effect of shedding on 88
Capacity. Effect of specific gravity on 43
Capacity. Effect of temperature on 46
Carbon-arc lead-burning outfit 148
Carboys 184
Care of battery on the car 51 to 68
Care of battery when not in service 67
Carrier for batteries 173
Case. Cleaning and painting, after repairs 372
Case manufacture 22
Case. Painting, after bench charge 203
Case. Repairing 360
Case. Troubles indicated by rotted 319
Case troubles 83
Cases. Equipment for work on 98 and 170
Casting plate grids 9
Cell connector mould 168
Cell connectors. Burning-on 213
Cell connectors. Equipment for work on 98
Cell connectors. How to remove 329
Changing pastes into active materials 12
Charge. (See Bench Charge.)
Charge. Changes at negative plates during 30 and 39
Charge. Changes at positive plates during 30 and 40
Charge. Changes in acid density during 39
Charge. Changes in voltage during 38
Charge. Loss of, in an idle battery 89
Charge. Preliminary, in rebuilding batteries 349
Charge. Trickle 239
Charging bench133 to 139
Charging bench. Arrangement of batteries on 200
Charging bench. Temperature of batteries on 202
Capacity. Effect of quantity and strength of electrolyte on 42
Capacity. Effect of quantity, arrangement, and porosity of active
materials on 42
Capacity. Effect of rate of discharge on 44
Capacity. Effect of reversal of plates on 89
Capacity. Effect of shedding on 88
Capacity. Effect of specific gravity on 43
Capacity. Effect of temperature on 46
Carbon-arc lead-burning outfit 148
Carboys 184
Care of battery on the car 51 to 68
Care of battery when not in service 67
Carrier for batteries 173
Case. Cleaning and painting, after repairs 372
Case manufacture 22
Case. Painting, after bench charge 203
Case. Repairing 360
Case. Troubles indicated by rotted 319
Case troubles 83
Cases. Equipment for work on 98 and 170
Casting plate grids 9
Cell connector mould 168
Cell connectors. Burning-on 213
Cell connectors. Equipment for work on 98
Cell connectors. How to remove 329
Changing pastes into active materials 12
Charge. (See Bench Charge.)
Charge. Changes at negative plates during 30 and 39
Charge. Changes at positive plates during 30 and 40
Charge. Changes in acid density during 39
Charge. Changes in voltage during 38
Charge. Loss of, in an idle battery 89
Charge. Preliminary, in rebuilding batteries 349
Charge. Trickle 239
Charging bench133 to 139
Charging bench. Arrangement of batteries on 200
Charging bench. Temperature of batteries on 202
Page 653
Charging bench. Working drawings of 134 to 139
Charging circuits. Drawings of 105
Charging connections. Making temporary 220
Charging. Constant potential 111
Charging equipment for farm lighting batteries 439
Charging equipment for starting batteries 100
Charging farm lighting batteries 455
Charging. Lamp-banks for 101
Charging. Motor-generators for 106
Charging rate. Adjusting 287
Charging rate. Checking 283
Charging rate. Governed by gassing 112 and 202
Charging rate. How and when to adjust 289
Charging rates for bench charge 112 and 201
Charging rates for new Exide batteries 226
Charging rates for new Philadelphia batteries 228
Charging rates for new Prest-O-Lite batteries 234
Charging rates on the car 283
Charging rebuilt batteries 373
Charging. Rheostats for 101
Chemical actions and electricity. Relations between 31
Chemical changes at the negatives during charge 30
Chemical changes at the positives during charge 30
Chemical changes at the negatives during discharge 29
Chemical changes at the positives during discharge 29
Chemical changes in the battery 27 to 31
Composition of jars 16
Composition of plate grids 9
Compound. Scraping, from covers and jars 334
Compressed air and hydrogen lead-burning outfit 147
Compressed air and illuminating gas lead-burning outfit 149
Condenser for making distilled water 160
Connections. Making temporary, for charging 220
Connectors. (See Cell Connectors.)
Connector troubles 84
Constant-potential charging 111
Construction of plate grids 10
Convenient method of adding water 56
Charging circuits. Drawings of 105
Charging connections. Making temporary 220
Charging. Constant potential 111
Charging equipment for farm lighting batteries 439
Charging equipment for starting batteries 100
Charging farm lighting batteries 455
Charging. Lamp-banks for 101
Charging. Motor-generators for 106
Charging rate. Adjusting 287
Charging rate. Checking 283
Charging rate. Governed by gassing 112 and 202
Charging rate. How and when to adjust 289
Charging rates for bench charge 112 and 201
Charging rates for new Exide batteries 226
Charging rates for new Philadelphia batteries 228
Charging rates for new Prest-O-Lite batteries 234
Charging rates on the car 283
Charging rebuilt batteries 373
Charging. Rheostats for 101
Chemical actions and electricity. Relations between 31
Chemical changes at the negatives during charge 30
Chemical changes at the positives during charge 30
Chemical changes at the negatives during discharge 29
Chemical changes at the positives during discharge 29
Chemical changes in the battery 27 to 31
Composition of jars 16
Composition of plate grids 9
Compound. Scraping, from covers and jars 334
Compressed air and hydrogen lead-burning outfit 147
Compressed air and illuminating gas lead-burning outfit 149
Condenser for making distilled water 160
Connections. Making temporary, for charging 220
Connectors. (See Cell Connectors.)
Connector troubles 84
Constant-potential charging 111
Construction of plate grids 10
Convenient method of adding water 56
Page 654
Corroded grids 77
Corroded grids. Caused by age 78
Corroded grids. Caused by high temperatures 78
Corroded grids. Caused by impurities 78
Corrosion 321
Covers. Eveready 17
Covers. Exide 19 and 21
Covers. Functions of 16
Covers. Gould 17
Covers. How to remove 331
Covers. Philadelphia diamond grid 16
Covers. Prest-O-Lite 18 and 19
Covers. Putting on the 365
Covers. Sealing 366
Covers. Single and double 16
Covers. Steaming 332
Covers. U.S.L. 18 and 20
Covers. Vesta 18
Covers. Westinghouse 417
Covers. Willard 19
Credit. Use and abuse of 301
Cutout. Checking action of 282
Cycling discharge tests 269
D
Dead cells. Causes of 87
Delco-Light batteries 466
Delco-Light batteries. Ampere-hour meter for 467 and 471
Delco-Light batteries. Burning-on new plates of 492
Delco-Light batteries. Burning-on new straps for 488
Delco-Light batteries. Care of cells of, in stock 493
Delco-Light batteries. Charging, after reassembling 481
Delco-Light batteries. Charging outside negatives of 484
Delco-Light batteries. Clearing high resistance shorts in 484
Corroded grids. Caused by age 78
Corroded grids. Caused by high temperatures 78
Corroded grids. Caused by impurities 78
Corrosion 321
Covers. Eveready 17
Covers. Exide 19 and 21
Covers. Functions of 16
Covers. Gould 17
Covers. How to remove 331
Covers. Philadelphia diamond grid 16
Covers. Prest-O-Lite 18 and 19
Covers. Putting on the 365
Covers. Sealing 366
Covers. Single and double 16
Covers. Steaming 332
Covers. U.S.L. 18 and 20
Covers. Vesta 18
Covers. Westinghouse 417
Covers. Willard 19
Credit. Use and abuse of 301
Cutout. Checking action of 282
Cycling discharge tests 269
D
Dead cells. Causes of 87
Delco-Light batteries 466
Delco-Light batteries. Ampere-hour meter for 467 and 471
Delco-Light batteries. Burning-on new plates of 492
Delco-Light batteries. Burning-on new straps for 488
Delco-Light batteries. Care of cells of, in stock 493
Delco-Light batteries. Charging, after reassembling 481
Delco-Light batteries. Charging outside negatives of 484
Delco-Light batteries. Clearing high resistance shorts in 484
Page 655
Delco-Light batteries. Clearing lug shorts in 484
Delco-Light batteries. Dis-assembling 474
Delco-Light batteries. Gauges and instruments for testing 466
Delco-Light batteries. General complaints from users of 495
Delco-Light batteries. Hydrometers for 468
Delco-Light batteries. Inspection trips 470
Delco-Light batteries. Pressing negatives of 485
Delco-Light batteries. Putting repaired cells into service 484
Delco-Light batteries. Re-assembling 477
Delco-Light batteries. Removing impurities from 483
Delco-Light batteries. Repairing broken posts of 487
Delco-Light batteries. Repairing lead parts of 486
Delco-Light batteries. Salvaging replaced cells of 486
Delco-Light batteries. Taking, out of commission 494
Delco-Light batteries. Treating broken cells of 482
Delco-Light batteries. Treating spilled cells of 482
Delco-Light batteries. Treating reversed cells of 483
Delco-Light batteries. Use of auxiliary straps with 492
Delco-Light batteries. When and how to charge 468
Discharge apparatus 270
Discharge. Changes at negative plates during 37
Discharge. Changes at positive plates during 37
Discharge. Changes in acid density during 35
Discharge. Chemical actions at negative plates during 29
Discharge. Chemical actions at positive plates during 29
Discharge. Effects of rates of, on capacity 44
Discharge. Voltage changes during 32
Discharge tests. Cycling 269
Discharge tests. Fifteen seconds 266
Discharge tests. Lighting ability 267
Discharge tests. Starting ability 267
Distilled water. Condenser for making 160
Dope electrolytes 59 and 199
Double covers. Sealing 366
Dry shipment of batteries 24
Dry storage 240
Dry storage batteries 265
Delco-Light batteries. Dis-assembling 474
Delco-Light batteries. Gauges and instruments for testing 466
Delco-Light batteries. General complaints from users of 495
Delco-Light batteries. Hydrometers for 468
Delco-Light batteries. Inspection trips 470
Delco-Light batteries. Pressing negatives of 485
Delco-Light batteries. Putting repaired cells into service 484
Delco-Light batteries. Re-assembling 477
Delco-Light batteries. Removing impurities from 483
Delco-Light batteries. Repairing broken posts of 487
Delco-Light batteries. Repairing lead parts of 486
Delco-Light batteries. Salvaging replaced cells of 486
Delco-Light batteries. Taking, out of commission 494
Delco-Light batteries. Treating broken cells of 482
Delco-Light batteries. Treating spilled cells of 482
Delco-Light batteries. Treating reversed cells of 483
Delco-Light batteries. Use of auxiliary straps with 492
Delco-Light batteries. When and how to charge 468
Discharge apparatus 270
Discharge. Changes at negative plates during 37
Discharge. Changes at positive plates during 37
Discharge. Changes in acid density during 35
Discharge. Chemical actions at negative plates during 29
Discharge. Chemical actions at positive plates during 29
Discharge. Effects of rates of, on capacity 44
Discharge. Voltage changes during 32
Discharge tests. Cycling 269
Discharge tests. Fifteen seconds 266
Discharge tests. Lighting ability 267
Discharge tests. Starting ability 267
Distilled water. Condenser for making 160
Dope electrolytes 59 and 199
Double covers. Sealing 366
Dry shipment of batteries 24
Dry storage 240
Dry storage batteries 265
Page 656
E
Earthenware jars 184
Electrical system. Normal course of operation of 277
Electrical system. Testing the 276
Electrical system. Tests on, to be made by the repairman 279
Electrical system. Troubles in the 284
Electricity and chemical actions. Relation between 31
Electrolyte. Adjusting the 373
Electrolyte below tops of plates. Causes and results of 319 and 323
Electrolyte. Causes of milky appearance of 206
Electrolyte. Composition of 199 and 222
Electrolyte. Correct height of, above plates 55
Electrolyte. Effect of circulation of, on capacity 44
Electrolyte. Effect of low 67
Electrolyte. Effect of quantity and strength of, on capacity 42
Electrolyte. Freezing points of 67
Electrolyte. Leaking of, at top of cells 324
Electrolyte. Level of, at end of bench charge 203
Electrolyte. Resistance of 43 and 48
Electrolyte troubles. High gravity 85
Electrolyte troubles. High level 85
Electrolyte troubles. Low gravity 85
Electrolyte troubles. Low level 85
Electrolyte troubles. Milky appearance 85
Element. Tightening loose 363
Elements. Re-assembling 361
Equipment for discharge tests 270
Equipment for general work 98
Equipment for general work on connectors and terminals 98
Equipment for handling sealing compound 149
Equipment for lead-burning 97
Equipment for work on cases 98 and 170
Equipment needed in opening batteries 97
Equipment which is absolutely necessary 96
Eveready batteries. Claimed to be non-sulphating 401
Earthenware jars 184
Electrical system. Normal course of operation of 277
Electrical system. Testing the 276
Electrical system. Tests on, to be made by the repairman 279
Electrical system. Troubles in the 284
Electricity and chemical actions. Relation between 31
Electrolyte. Adjusting the 373
Electrolyte below tops of plates. Causes and results of 319 and 323
Electrolyte. Causes of milky appearance of 206
Electrolyte. Composition of 199 and 222
Electrolyte. Correct height of, above plates 55
Electrolyte. Effect of circulation of, on capacity 44
Electrolyte. Effect of low 67
Electrolyte. Effect of quantity and strength of, on capacity 42
Electrolyte. Freezing points of 67
Electrolyte. Leaking of, at top of cells 324
Electrolyte. Level of, at end of bench charge 203
Electrolyte. Resistance of 43 and 48
Electrolyte troubles. High gravity 85
Electrolyte troubles. High level 85
Electrolyte troubles. Low gravity 85
Electrolyte troubles. Low level 85
Electrolyte troubles. Milky appearance 85
Element. Tightening loose 363
Elements. Re-assembling 361
Equipment for discharge tests 270
Equipment for general work 98
Equipment for general work on connectors and terminals 98
Equipment for handling sealing compound 149
Equipment for lead-burning 97
Equipment for work on cases 98 and 170
Equipment needed in opening batteries 97
Equipment which is absolutely necessary 96
Eveready batteries. Claimed to be non-sulphating 401
Page 657
Eveready batteries. Description of parts 404
Eveready batteries. Rebuilding 405
Examining and testing incoming batteries 317
Exide farm lighting batteries 466 to 498
Exide radio batteries 257
Exide starting batteries. Age code for 243
Exide starting batteries. Burning-on cell connectors of 382
Exide starting batteries. Capacities of 381
Exide starting batteries. Charging, after repairing 382
Exide starting batteries. Methods of holding jars of, in case 377
Exide starting batteries. Opening of 377
Exide starting batteries. Putting cells of, in case 382
Exide starting batteries. Putting jars of, in case 382
Exide starting batteries. Putting new, into service 225
Exide starting batteries. Re-assembling plates of 379
Exide starting batteries. Sealing single covers of 380
Exide starting batteries. Type numbers of 377
Exide starting batteries. Types of 375
Exide starting batteries. Work on plates, separators, jars, and cases
of 379
F
Farm lighting batteries 435 to 510
Farm lighting batteries. Care of, in operation 453
Farm lighting batteries. Care of plant of, in operation 450
Farm lighting batteries. Charging 453? or (455)
Farm lighting batteries. Charging equipment for 439
Farm lighting batteries. Determining condition of cells of 453
Farm lighting batteries. Difference between, and starting batteries
435
Farm lighting batteries. Discharge rules for 457
Farm lighting batteries. Exide 466
Farm lighting batteries. Initial charge of 448
Farm lighting batteries. Installation of plant 445
Eveready batteries. Rebuilding 405
Examining and testing incoming batteries 317
Exide farm lighting batteries 466 to 498
Exide radio batteries 257
Exide starting batteries. Age code for 243
Exide starting batteries. Burning-on cell connectors of 382
Exide starting batteries. Capacities of 381
Exide starting batteries. Charging, after repairing 382
Exide starting batteries. Methods of holding jars of, in case 377
Exide starting batteries. Opening of 377
Exide starting batteries. Putting cells of, in case 382
Exide starting batteries. Putting jars of, in case 382
Exide starting batteries. Putting new, into service 225
Exide starting batteries. Re-assembling plates of 379
Exide starting batteries. Sealing single covers of 380
Exide starting batteries. Type numbers of 377
Exide starting batteries. Types of 375
Exide starting batteries. Work on plates, separators, jars, and cases
of 379
F
Farm lighting batteries 435 to 510
Farm lighting batteries. Care of, in operation 453
Farm lighting batteries. Care of plant of, in operation 450
Farm lighting batteries. Charging 453? or (455)
Farm lighting batteries. Charging equipment for 439
Farm lighting batteries. Determining condition of cells of 453
Farm lighting batteries. Difference between, and starting batteries
435
Farm lighting batteries. Discharge rules for 457
Farm lighting batteries. Exide 466
Farm lighting batteries. Initial charge of 448
Farm lighting batteries. Installation of plant 445
Page 658
Farm lighting batteries. Instructing users of 449
Farm lighting batteries. Jars used in 436
Farm lighting batteries. Loads carried by 443
Farm lighting batteries. Location of plant 444
Farm lighting batteries. Overcharge of 455
Farm lighting batteries. Power consumed by appliances connected
to 442
Farm lighting batteries. Prest-O-Lite 460
Farm lighting batteries. Selection of plant 440
Farm lighting batteries. Separators for 438
Farm lighting batteries. Size of plant required 442
Farm lighting batteries. Specific gravity of electrolyte of 438
Farm lighting batteries. Troubles with 458
Farm lighting batteries. When to charge 455
Farm lighting batteries. Wiring of plant for 444
Filling and testing service 291
Flames for lead-burning 211
Floor. Care of 188
Floor grating for shop 188
Floor of shop 186
Forming plates 11
Freezing points of electrolyte 67
G
Gassing causes shedding 74
Gassing. Charging rate governed by 112 and 202
Gassing. Definition of 31
Gassing. Excessive, causes milky appearance of electrolyte 86
Gassing of sulphated plates 40 and 75
Gassing on charge 37? and 202
Granulated negatives 78
Granulated negatives. Caused by age 78
Granulated negatives. Caused by heat 78
Gravity. (See Specific Gravity).
Farm lighting batteries. Jars used in 436
Farm lighting batteries. Loads carried by 443
Farm lighting batteries. Location of plant 444
Farm lighting batteries. Overcharge of 455
Farm lighting batteries. Power consumed by appliances connected
to 442
Farm lighting batteries. Prest-O-Lite 460
Farm lighting batteries. Selection of plant 440
Farm lighting batteries. Separators for 438
Farm lighting batteries. Size of plant required 442
Farm lighting batteries. Specific gravity of electrolyte of 438
Farm lighting batteries. Troubles with 458
Farm lighting batteries. When to charge 455
Farm lighting batteries. Wiring of plant for 444
Filling and testing service 291
Flames for lead-burning 211
Floor. Care of 188
Floor grating for shop 188
Floor of shop 186
Forming plates 11
Freezing points of electrolyte 67
G
Gassing causes shedding 74
Gassing. Charging rate governed by 112 and 202
Gassing. Definition of 31
Gassing. Excessive, causes milky appearance of electrolyte 86
Gassing of sulphated plates 40 and 75
Gassing on charge 37? and 202
Granulated negatives 78
Granulated negatives. Caused by age 78
Granulated negatives. Caused by heat 78
Gravity. (See Specific Gravity).
Page 659
Grids. Casting 9
Grids. Composition of 9
Grids. Corroded 77
Grids. Effect of age on 78 and 80 and 342? (344)
Grids. Effect of defective grid alloy on 73
Grids. Effect of impurities on 77 and 78 and 80 and 342
Grids. Effect of overheating on 78 and 80 and 342?
Grids. Resistance of 48
Grids. Trimming 10
H
Handling and mixing acid 222
Heating of negatives exposed to the air 78
High rate discharge testers 181
High rate discharge tests 266 and 267 and 374
Home-made batteries 25
Hydrogen and compressed air lead-burning outfit 147
Hydrogen and oxygen lead-burning outfit 146
Hydrometer. What it consists of 60
Hydrometer readings. Effect of temperature on 65
Hydrometer readings. How to take 61
I
Idle battery. Care of 67
Idle battery. How it becomes discharged 89
Idle battery. How it sulphates 70
Illuminating gas and compressed air lead-burning outfit 149
Impurities 76
Impurities which attack the plates 77
Impurities which cause self-discharge 76
Grids. Composition of 9
Grids. Corroded 77
Grids. Effect of age on 78 and 80 and 342? (344)
Grids. Effect of defective grid alloy on 73
Grids. Effect of impurities on 77 and 78 and 80 and 342
Grids. Effect of overheating on 78 and 80 and 342?
Grids. Resistance of 48
Grids. Trimming 10
H
Handling and mixing acid 222
Heating of negatives exposed to the air 78
High rate discharge testers 181
High rate discharge tests 266 and 267 and 374
Home-made batteries 25
Hydrogen and compressed air lead-burning outfit 147
Hydrogen and oxygen lead-burning outfit 146
Hydrometer. What it consists of 60
Hydrometer readings. Effect of temperature on 65
Hydrometer readings. How to take 61
I
Idle battery. Care of 67
Idle battery. How it becomes discharged 89
Idle battery. How it sulphates 70
Illuminating gas and compressed air lead-burning outfit 149
Impurities 76
Impurities which attack the plates 77
Impurities which cause self-discharge 76
Page 660
Incoming batteries. Examining and testing 317
Incoming batteries. General inspection of 320
Incoming batteries. Operation tests on 320
Incoming batteries. When it is necessary to open 326
Incoming batteries. When it is necessary to remove from car 325
Incoming batteries. When it is unnecessary to open 325
Incoming batteries. When it is unnecessary to remove from car 324
Installing battery on the car 236
Internal resistance 48 to 50
Isolators 408
Inspection to determine height of electrolyte 55
J
Jars. Construction of 16
Jars. Filling with electrolyte 364
Jars for farm lighting batteries 436
Jars. Manufacture of 16
Jars. Materials used for 16
Jars. Removing defective 359
Jars. Testing, for leaks 356
Jars. Work on 356
Jar troubles caused by explosion in cell 83
Jar troubles caused by freezing 83
Jar troubles caused by improperly trimmed groups 83
Jar troubles caused by loose battery 82
Jar troubles caused by rough handling 82
Jar troubles caused by weights placed on top of battery 83
K
(No Entries)
Incoming batteries. General inspection of 320
Incoming batteries. Operation tests on 320
Incoming batteries. When it is necessary to open 326
Incoming batteries. When it is necessary to remove from car 325
Incoming batteries. When it is unnecessary to open 325
Incoming batteries. When it is unnecessary to remove from car 324
Installing battery on the car 236
Internal resistance 48 to 50
Isolators 408
Inspection to determine height of electrolyte 55
J
Jars. Construction of 16
Jars. Filling with electrolyte 364
Jars for farm lighting batteries 436
Jars. Manufacture of 16
Jars. Materials used for 16
Jars. Removing defective 359
Jars. Testing, for leaks 356
Jars. Work on 356
Jar troubles caused by explosion in cell 83
Jar troubles caused by freezing 83
Jar troubles caused by improperly trimmed groups 83
Jar troubles caused by loose battery 82
Jar troubles caused by rough handling 82
Jar troubles caused by weights placed on top of battery 83
K
(No Entries)
Page 661
L
Lead burning cell connectors 213
Lead burning. Classes of 211
Lead burning. Equipment for 97 and 143
Lead burning. General instructions for 210 to 220
Lead burning plates to straps 217
Lead burning terminals 213
Lead burning. Safety precautions for 213
Lead melting pots 220
Lead mould 164
Lead moulding instructions 220
Light for shop 187 and 190
Loose active material 75
Loose active material caused by buckling 76
Loose active material caused by overdischarge 75
Loss of capacity 88
Loss of charge in an idle battery 89
Lugs. Extending plate 219
M
Manufacture of batteries 9 to 26
Manufacture of batteries. Assembling and sealing 23
Manufacture of batteries. Auxiliary rubber separators 15
Manufacture of batteries. Cases 22
Manufacture of batteries. Casting the grid 9
Manufacture of batteries. Composition of the grid 9
Manufacture of batteries. Covers 16
Manufacture of batteries. Drying the pasted plates 12
Manufacture of batteries. Forming the plates 12
Manufacture of batteries. Home-made batteries 25
Manufacture of batteries. Jars 16
Lead burning cell connectors 213
Lead burning. Classes of 211
Lead burning. Equipment for 97 and 143
Lead burning. General instructions for 210 to 220
Lead burning plates to straps 217
Lead burning terminals 213
Lead burning. Safety precautions for 213
Lead melting pots 220
Lead mould 164
Lead moulding instructions 220
Light for shop 187 and 190
Loose active material 75
Loose active material caused by buckling 76
Loose active material caused by overdischarge 75
Loss of capacity 88
Loss of charge in an idle battery 89
Lugs. Extending plate 219
M
Manufacture of batteries 9 to 26
Manufacture of batteries. Assembling and sealing 23
Manufacture of batteries. Auxiliary rubber separators 15
Manufacture of batteries. Cases 22
Manufacture of batteries. Casting the grid 9
Manufacture of batteries. Composition of the grid 9
Manufacture of batteries. Covers 16
Manufacture of batteries. Drying the pasted plates 12
Manufacture of batteries. Forming the plates 12
Manufacture of batteries. Home-made batteries 25
Manufacture of batteries. Jars 16
Page 662
Manufacture of batteries. Materials used for separators 14
Manufacture of batteries. Mixing pastes 11
Manufacture of batteries. Paste formulas 11
Manufacture of batteries. Pasting plates 11
Manufacture of batteries. Philco slotted retainer 15
Manufacture of batteries. Post seal 16
Manufacture of batteries. Preparing batteries for dry shipment 24
Manufacture of batteries. Separators 14
Manufacture of batteries. Terminal connections 25
Manufacture of batteries. Treating separators 14
Manufacture of batteries. Trimming the grid 10
Manufacture of batteries. Vent plugs 22
Manufacture of batteries. Vesta impregnated mats 15
Mechanical rectifier 131
Melting pot for lead 220
Mercury-Arc rectifier 129
Milky electrolyte 206
Motor-generators 106 to 112
Motor-generators. Care of 110
Motor-generators. Operating charging circuits of 109
Motor-generators. Sizes for small and large shops 106
Motor-generators. Suggestions on 108
Moulding instructions 220
Moulding materials 220
Moulds. 164 to 170
Moulds for building up posts 165
Moulds for burning lead sticks 164
Moulds for cell connectors 168
Moulds for plate straps 167 and 169
Moulds for terminal screws 168
N
Negative plates. Changes at, during charge 39
Negative plates. Changes at, during discharge 37
Manufacture of batteries. Mixing pastes 11
Manufacture of batteries. Paste formulas 11
Manufacture of batteries. Pasting plates 11
Manufacture of batteries. Philco slotted retainer 15
Manufacture of batteries. Post seal 16
Manufacture of batteries. Preparing batteries for dry shipment 24
Manufacture of batteries. Separators 14
Manufacture of batteries. Terminal connections 25
Manufacture of batteries. Treating separators 14
Manufacture of batteries. Trimming the grid 10
Manufacture of batteries. Vent plugs 22
Manufacture of batteries. Vesta impregnated mats 15
Mechanical rectifier 131
Melting pot for lead 220
Mercury-Arc rectifier 129
Milky electrolyte 206
Motor-generators 106 to 112
Motor-generators. Care of 110
Motor-generators. Operating charging circuits of 109
Motor-generators. Sizes for small and large shops 106
Motor-generators. Suggestions on 108
Moulding instructions 220
Moulding materials 220
Moulds. 164 to 170
Moulds for building up posts 165
Moulds for burning lead sticks 164
Moulds for cell connectors 168
Moulds for plate straps 167 and 169
Moulds for terminal screws 168
N
Negative plates. Changes at, during charge 39
Negative plates. Changes at, during discharge 37
Page 663
Negatives. Bulged 79
Negatives. Granulated 78
Negatives. Heating of, when exposed to the air 78
Negatives with roughened surface 79
Negatives with softened active material 79
Negatives with hard active material 79
Negatives. Washing and pressing 351
New batteries. Putting, into service 224
Non-sulphating Eveready batteries 402
O
Open-circuits 86
Open-circuits. Caused by acid on soldered joints 86
Open-circuits. Caused by broken terminals 86
Open-circuits. Caused by poor lead burning 86
Opening batteries. Equipment needed in 97
Opening batteries. Heating sealing compound 332
Opening batteries. Instructions for 328
Opening batteries. Pulling elements out of jars 333
Opening batteries. Removing connectors and terminals 329
Opening batteries. Removing post-seal 331
Opening batteries. Scraping compound from covers 334
Opening batteries. When necessary 326
Opening batteries. When unnecessary 325
Operating conditions. Effect of, on capacity 44
Overdischarge causes sulphation 69
Oxides used for plate pastes 11
Oxygen and acetylene lead burning outfit 143
Oxygen and hydrogen lead burning outfit 146
Oxygen and illuminating gas lead burning outfit 146
P
Negatives. Granulated 78
Negatives. Heating of, when exposed to the air 78
Negatives with roughened surface 79
Negatives with softened active material 79
Negatives with hard active material 79
Negatives. Washing and pressing 351
New batteries. Putting, into service 224
Non-sulphating Eveready batteries 402
O
Open-circuits 86
Open-circuits. Caused by acid on soldered joints 86
Open-circuits. Caused by broken terminals 86
Open-circuits. Caused by poor lead burning 86
Opening batteries. Equipment needed in 97
Opening batteries. Heating sealing compound 332
Opening batteries. Instructions for 328
Opening batteries. Pulling elements out of jars 333
Opening batteries. Removing connectors and terminals 329
Opening batteries. Removing post-seal 331
Opening batteries. Scraping compound from covers 334
Opening batteries. When necessary 326
Opening batteries. When unnecessary 325
Operating conditions. Effect of, on capacity 44
Overdischarge causes sulphation 69
Oxides used for plate pastes 11
Oxygen and acetylene lead burning outfit 143
Oxygen and hydrogen lead burning outfit 146
Oxygen and illuminating gas lead burning outfit 146
P
Page 664
Packing batteries for shipping 271
Painting case after bench charge 203
Paraffine dip pot 182
Paste formulas 11
Pastes. Applying to grids 11
Patent electrolytes 59
Philadelphia radio batteries 260
Philadelphia starting batteries. Age codes for 243
Philadelphia starting batteries. Old type post seal for 398
Philadelphia starting batteries. Putting new, into service 228
Philadelphia starting batteries. Rubber cases for 401
Philadelphia starting batteries. Rubber-Lockt seal 399
Philadelphia starting batteries. Separators for 402
Plante plates 27
Plante's work on the storage battery 27
Plate burning-rack 162
Plate lugs. Extending 219
Plate press 171
Plate strap mould 167 and 169
Plate surface area. Effect of, on capacity 42
Plate troubles 69
Plates. Burning, to straps 217 and 355
Plates charged in wrong direction 81 and 343
Plates. Examining, after opening battery 337
Plates. Sulphated 342
Plates. When old, may be used again 344
Plates. When to put in new 339
Positives. Buckled 80 and 341
Positives. Changes at, during charge 40
Positives. Changes at, during discharge 37
Positives. Frozen 80 and 339
Positives. Rotted, and disintegrated 80 and 341
Positives. Washing 354
Positives which have lost considerable active material 80
Positives with hard active material 81
Positives with soft active material. 80
Post builders 165
Post building instructions 218
Painting case after bench charge 203
Paraffine dip pot 182
Paste formulas 11
Pastes. Applying to grids 11
Patent electrolytes 59
Philadelphia radio batteries 260
Philadelphia starting batteries. Age codes for 243
Philadelphia starting batteries. Old type post seal for 398
Philadelphia starting batteries. Putting new, into service 228
Philadelphia starting batteries. Rubber cases for 401
Philadelphia starting batteries. Rubber-Lockt seal 399
Philadelphia starting batteries. Separators for 402
Plante plates 27
Plante's work on the storage battery 27
Plate burning-rack 162
Plate lugs. Extending 219
Plate press 171
Plate strap mould 167 and 169
Plate surface area. Effect of, on capacity 42
Plate troubles 69
Plates. Burning, to straps 217 and 355
Plates charged in wrong direction 81 and 343
Plates. Examining, after opening battery 337
Plates. Sulphated 342
Plates. When old, may be used again 344
Plates. When to put in new 339
Positives. Buckled 80 and 341
Positives. Changes at, during charge 40
Positives. Changes at, during discharge 37
Positives. Frozen 80 and 339
Positives. Rotted, and disintegrated 80 and 341
Positives. Washing 354
Positives which have lost considerable active material 80
Positives with hard active material 81
Positives with soft active material. 80
Post builders 165
Post building instructions 218
Page 665
Post seal 17
Post seal. Exide 19
Post seal. Philadelphia 399
Post seal. Prest-O-Lite 386
Post seal. Titan 434
Post seal. Universal 430
Post seal. U.S.L. 18
Post seal. Vesta 413
Post seal. Westinghouse 417
Post seal. Willard 424 to 428
Posts. Burning, to plates 217
Pots for melting lead 220
Pressing plates 171
Piest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries 460
Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Descriptions 460
Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Opening cells 464
Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Putting repaired cell into
service 465
Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Rebuilding 464
Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Specific gravity of electrolyte
461
Prest-O-Lite radio batteries 262
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Age code for 396
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Peening instructions for 395
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Old style covers for 386
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Peened post seal for 386
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Peening posts of 391 and 394
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Peening press for 390
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Post locking outfit for 388
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Putting new into service 233
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Rebuilding posts of 393
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Removing covers from 392
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Tables of 396
Primary cell 5
Purchasing methods 299
Putting new batteries into service 224
Post seal. Exide 19
Post seal. Philadelphia 399
Post seal. Prest-O-Lite 386
Post seal. Titan 434
Post seal. Universal 430
Post seal. U.S.L. 18
Post seal. Vesta 413
Post seal. Westinghouse 417
Post seal. Willard 424 to 428
Posts. Burning, to plates 217
Pots for melting lead 220
Pressing plates 171
Piest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries 460
Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Descriptions 460
Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Opening cells 464
Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Putting repaired cell into
service 465
Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Rebuilding 464
Prest-O-Lite farm lighting batteries. Specific gravity of electrolyte
461
Prest-O-Lite radio batteries 262
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Age code for 396
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Peening instructions for 395
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Old style covers for 386
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Peened post seal for 386
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Peening posts of 391 and 394
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Peening press for 390
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Post locking outfit for 388
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Putting new into service 233
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Rebuilding posts of 393
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Removing covers from 392
Prest-O-Lite starting batteries. Tables of 396
Primary cell 5
Purchasing methods 299
Putting new batteries into service 224
Page 666
Q
(No entries)
R
Radio audion bulb 253
Radio batteries 252
Radio batteries. Exide 257
Radio batteries. General features of 255
Radio batteries. Philadelphia 260
Radio batteries. Prest-O-Lite 262
Radio batteries. Universal 263
Radio batteries. U. S. L. 261
Radio batteries. Vesta 256
Radio batteries. Westinghouse 259
Radio batteries. Willard 257
Radio receiving sets. Types of 252
Rebuilding batteries 328 (to rest of chapter 15)
Rebuilding batteries. Adjusting electrolyte 373
Rebuilding batteries. Burning-on cell connectors 371
Rebuilding batteries. Burning-on plates 355
Rebuilding batteries. Charging rebuilt batteries 373
Rebuilding batteries. Cleaning 329
Rebuilding batteries. Cleaning and painting the case 372
Rebuilding batteries. Determining repairs necessary 335
Rebuilding batteries. Eliminating short-circuits 348
Rebuilding batteries. Examining the plates 337
Rebuilding batteries. Filling jars with electrolyte 364
Rebuilding batteries. Heating sealing compound 332
Rebuilding batteries. High rate discharge test 374
Rebuilding batteries. Marking the repaired battery 372
Rebuilding batteries. Preliminary charge 349
(No entries)
R
Radio audion bulb 253
Radio batteries 252
Radio batteries. Exide 257
Radio batteries. General features of 255
Radio batteries. Philadelphia 260
Radio batteries. Prest-O-Lite 262
Radio batteries. Universal 263
Radio batteries. U. S. L. 261
Radio batteries. Vesta 256
Radio batteries. Westinghouse 259
Radio batteries. Willard 257
Radio receiving sets. Types of 252
Rebuilding batteries 328 (to rest of chapter 15)
Rebuilding batteries. Adjusting electrolyte 373
Rebuilding batteries. Burning-on cell connectors 371
Rebuilding batteries. Burning-on plates 355
Rebuilding batteries. Charging rebuilt batteries 373
Rebuilding batteries. Cleaning 329
Rebuilding batteries. Cleaning and painting the case 372
Rebuilding batteries. Determining repairs necessary 335
Rebuilding batteries. Eliminating short-circuits 348
Rebuilding batteries. Examining the plates 337
Rebuilding batteries. Filling jars with electrolyte 364
Rebuilding batteries. Heating sealing compound 332
Rebuilding batteries. High rate discharge test 374
Rebuilding batteries. Marking the repaired battery 372
Rebuilding batteries. Preliminary charge 349
Page 667
Rebuilding batteries. Pressing negatives 351
Rebuilding batteries. Pulling plates out of jars 333
Rebuilding batteries. Putting elements in jars 362
Rebuilding batteries. Putting on the covers 365
Rebuilding batteries. Reassembling the elements 361
Rebuilding batteries. Removing connectors and terminals 329
Rebuilding batteries. Removing defective jars 359
Rebuilding batteries. Removing post seal 331
Rebuilding batteries. Repairing the case 360
Rebuilding batteries. Scraping compound from covers and jars 334
Rebuilding batteries. Sealing double covers 366
Rebuilding batteries. Sealing single covers 371
Rebuilding batteries. Testing jars 356
Rebuilding batteries. Tightening loose elements 363
Rebuilding batteries. Using 1.400 acid 364
Rebuilding batteries. Washing negatives 351
Rebuilding batteries. Washing positives 354
Rebuilding batteries. When old plates may be used again 344
Rebuilding batteries, When to put in new plates 339
Rebuilding batteries. Work on jars 356
Rectifier. Mechanical 131
Rectifier. Mercury are 129
Rectifier. Stahl 132
Rectifier. Tungar 113
Reinsulation 274
Relations between chemical actions and electricity 31
Rental batteries. General policy for 251
Rental batteries. Marking 249 and 296
Rental batteries. Record of 251
Rental batteries. Stock card for 297
Rental batteries. Terminals for 248
Reversed plates 81 and 89
Reversed-series generator. Adjusting 290
S
Rebuilding batteries. Pulling plates out of jars 333
Rebuilding batteries. Putting elements in jars 362
Rebuilding batteries. Putting on the covers 365
Rebuilding batteries. Reassembling the elements 361
Rebuilding batteries. Removing connectors and terminals 329
Rebuilding batteries. Removing defective jars 359
Rebuilding batteries. Removing post seal 331
Rebuilding batteries. Repairing the case 360
Rebuilding batteries. Scraping compound from covers and jars 334
Rebuilding batteries. Sealing double covers 366
Rebuilding batteries. Sealing single covers 371
Rebuilding batteries. Testing jars 356
Rebuilding batteries. Tightening loose elements 363
Rebuilding batteries. Using 1.400 acid 364
Rebuilding batteries. Washing negatives 351
Rebuilding batteries. Washing positives 354
Rebuilding batteries. When old plates may be used again 344
Rebuilding batteries, When to put in new plates 339
Rebuilding batteries. Work on jars 356
Rectifier. Mechanical 131
Rectifier. Mercury are 129
Rectifier. Stahl 132
Rectifier. Tungar 113
Reinsulation 274
Relations between chemical actions and electricity 31
Rental batteries. General policy for 251
Rental batteries. Marking 249 and 296
Rental batteries. Record of 251
Rental batteries. Stock card for 297
Rental batteries. Terminals for 248
Reversed plates 81 and 89
Reversed-series generator. Adjusting 290
S
Page 668
S. A. E. ratings for batteries 45
Safety first rules 275
Safety precautions during lead-burning 213
Screw mould .... 168
Sealing around the posts 17
Sealing compound. Composition of 150
Sealing compound. Equipment for handling 149
Sealing compound. Heating with electricity 333
Sealing compound. Heating with gasoline torch 333
Sealing compound. Heating with hot water 332
Sealing compound. Heating with lead burning flame 333
Sealing compound. Heating with steam 332
Sealing compound. Instructions for heating properly 150
Sealing compound. Removing with hot putty knife 332
Secondary cell 5
Sediment. Effect of excessive 87
Separator cutter 171
Separator troubles 81 and 346
Separators for farm lighting batteries 438
Separators. Improperly treated, cause unsatisfactory negative-
cadmium readings 181
Separators. Putting in new 274
Separators. Storing 273
Separators. Threaded rubber 430
Service records 293
Shedding 74
Shedding caused by charging only a portion of the plate 75
Shedding caused by charging sulphated plate at too high a rate 74
Shedding caused by excessive charging rate 74
Shedding caused by freezing 75
Shedding caused by overcharging 74
Shedding. Normal 74
Shedding. Result of 74
Shelving and racks 152
Shipping batteries 271
Shop equipment 95
Shop equipment for charging 100
Shop equipment for general work 98
Safety first rules 275
Safety precautions during lead-burning 213
Screw mould .... 168
Sealing around the posts 17
Sealing compound. Composition of 150
Sealing compound. Equipment for handling 149
Sealing compound. Heating with electricity 333
Sealing compound. Heating with gasoline torch 333
Sealing compound. Heating with hot water 332
Sealing compound. Heating with lead burning flame 333
Sealing compound. Heating with steam 332
Sealing compound. Instructions for heating properly 150
Sealing compound. Removing with hot putty knife 332
Secondary cell 5
Sediment. Effect of excessive 87
Separator cutter 171
Separator troubles 81 and 346
Separators for farm lighting batteries 438
Separators. Improperly treated, cause unsatisfactory negative-
cadmium readings 181
Separators. Putting in new 274
Separators. Storing 273
Separators. Threaded rubber 430
Service records 293
Shedding 74
Shedding caused by charging only a portion of the plate 75
Shedding caused by charging sulphated plate at too high a rate 74
Shedding caused by excessive charging rate 74
Shedding caused by freezing 75
Shedding caused by overcharging 74
Shedding. Normal 74
Shedding. Result of 74
Shelving and racks 152
Shipping batteries 271
Shop equipment 95
Shop equipment for charging 100
Shop equipment for general work 98
Page 669
Shop equipment for lead-burning 97
Shop equipment for opening batteries 97
Shop equipment for work on cases 98
Shop equipment for work on connectors and terminals 98
Shop equipment which is absolutely necessary 96
Shop floor 186 187?
Shop layouts 187? 189 to 196
Shop light 190? 191
Short-circuits. Eliminating 348
Single covers. Scaling 371
Sink. Working drawings of 144 and 145
Specific gravity at end of bench charge 203
Specific gravity. Changes in, during charge 39
Specific gravity. Changes in, during discharge 35
Specific gravity. Definition of 60
Specific gravity. Effect of, on capacity 43
Specific gravity in farm lighting cells 438
Specific gravity. Limits of, during charge and discharge 43
Specific gravity rises above 1.300 205
Specific gravity rises long before voltage on charge 205
Specific gravity should be measured every two weeks 60
Specific gravity. What determines, of fully charged cell 438
Specific gravity. What different values of, indicate 60
Specific gravity. Why 1.280-1.300 indicates fully charged cell 43
Specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 204
Specific gravity readings. Effect of temperature on 65
Specific gravity readings. How to take 61
Specific gravity readings. If above 1.300 318 and 323
Specific gravity readings. If all above 1.200 318
Specific gravity readings. If below 1.150 in all cells 318 and 321?
Specific gravity readings. If between 1.150 and 1.200 in all cells
318 and 321?
Specific gravity readings. If unequal 318 and 322
Specific gravity readings. Troubles indicated by 63
Stahl rectifier 132
Starting ability discharge test 267
Steamer 158
Steps in the use of electricity on the automobile 1
Shop equipment for opening batteries 97
Shop equipment for work on cases 98
Shop equipment for work on connectors and terminals 98
Shop equipment which is absolutely necessary 96
Shop floor 186 187?
Shop layouts 187? 189 to 196
Shop light 190? 191
Short-circuits. Eliminating 348
Single covers. Scaling 371
Sink. Working drawings of 144 and 145
Specific gravity at end of bench charge 203
Specific gravity. Changes in, during charge 39
Specific gravity. Changes in, during discharge 35
Specific gravity. Definition of 60
Specific gravity. Effect of, on capacity 43
Specific gravity in farm lighting cells 438
Specific gravity. Limits of, during charge and discharge 43
Specific gravity rises above 1.300 205
Specific gravity rises long before voltage on charge 205
Specific gravity should be measured every two weeks 60
Specific gravity. What determines, of fully charged cell 438
Specific gravity. What different values of, indicate 60
Specific gravity. Why 1.280-1.300 indicates fully charged cell 43
Specific gravity will not rise to 1.280 204
Specific gravity readings. Effect of temperature on 65
Specific gravity readings. How to take 61
Specific gravity readings. If above 1.300 318 and 323
Specific gravity readings. If all above 1.200 318
Specific gravity readings. If below 1.150 in all cells 318 and 321?
Specific gravity readings. If between 1.150 and 1.200 in all cells
318 and 321?
Specific gravity readings. If unequal 318 and 322
Specific gravity readings. Troubles indicated by 63
Stahl rectifier 132
Starting ability discharge test 267
Steamer 158
Steps in the use of electricity on the automobile 1
Page 670
Storage battery does not "store" electricity 6
Storage cell 5
Storing batteries dry 240
Storing batteries wet 239
Strap. Burning plates to 217
Strap mould 167 and 169
Sulphate. Effect of, on voltage during discharge 32
Sulphation. Caused by adding acid 72
Sulphation. Caused by battery standing idle 70
Sulphation. Caused by impurities 72
Sulphation. Caused by low electrolyte 71
Sulphation. Caused by overdischarge 69
Sulphation. Caused by overheating 72
Sulphation. Caused by starvation 71
T
Temperature. Cause of high, on car 324
Temperature corrections in specific gravity readings 65
Temperature. Effect of, on battery operation 66
Temperature. Effect of, on capacity 46
Temperature of batteries on charging bench 202
Terminal connections 25
Terminals. Burning-on 213
Terminals for rental batteries 248
Testing and examining incoming batteries 317
Testing and filling service 291
Testing the electrical system 276
Third brush generator. Adjusting 289
Threaded rubber separators 430
Time required for bench charge 203
Titan batteries 432
Titan batteries. Age code for 245
Treating separators 14
Trickle charge 239
Storage cell 5
Storing batteries dry 240
Storing batteries wet 239
Strap. Burning plates to 217
Strap mould 167 and 169
Sulphate. Effect of, on voltage during discharge 32
Sulphation. Caused by adding acid 72
Sulphation. Caused by battery standing idle 70
Sulphation. Caused by impurities 72
Sulphation. Caused by low electrolyte 71
Sulphation. Caused by overdischarge 69
Sulphation. Caused by overheating 72
Sulphation. Caused by starvation 71
T
Temperature. Cause of high, on car 324
Temperature corrections in specific gravity readings 65
Temperature. Effect of, on battery operation 66
Temperature. Effect of, on capacity 46
Temperature of batteries on charging bench 202
Terminal connections 25
Terminals. Burning-on 213
Terminals for rental batteries 248
Testing and examining incoming batteries 317
Testing and filling service 291
Testing the electrical system 276
Third brush generator. Adjusting 289
Threaded rubber separators 430
Time required for bench charge 203
Titan batteries 432
Titan batteries. Age code for 245
Treating separators 14
Trickle charge 239
Page 671
Trimming plate grids 10
Trouble charts 321
Troubles arising during bench charge 204
Troubles. Battery 69
Trucks for batteries 173
Tungar rectifier. Battery connections of 127
Tungar rectifier. Four battery 119
Tungar rectifier. General instructions for 126
Tungar rectifier. Half-wave and full-wave 114 and 115
Tungar rectifier. Installation of 126
Tungar rectifier. Line connections of 127
Tungar rectifier. One battery 117
Tungar rectifier. Operation of 128
Tungar rectifier. Principle of 113
Tungar rectifier. Ten battery 120
Tungar rectifier. Troubles with 128
Tungar rectifier. Twenty battery 122
Tungar rectifier. Two ampere 116
Tungar rectifier. Two battery 118
Turntable for batteries 170
U
Universal radio batteries 263
Universal starting batteries 430
Universal starting batteries. Construction features of 430
Universal starting batteries. Putting new, into service 431
Universal starting batteries. Types 430
U. S. L. radio batteries. 261
U. S. L. starting batteries. Age code for 246
U. S. L. starting batteries. Special instructions for 382
U. S. L. starting batteries. Tables of 384
U. S. L. vent tube construction 20
Trouble charts 321
Troubles arising during bench charge 204
Troubles. Battery 69
Trucks for batteries 173
Tungar rectifier. Battery connections of 127
Tungar rectifier. Four battery 119
Tungar rectifier. General instructions for 126
Tungar rectifier. Half-wave and full-wave 114 and 115
Tungar rectifier. Installation of 126
Tungar rectifier. Line connections of 127
Tungar rectifier. One battery 117
Tungar rectifier. Operation of 128
Tungar rectifier. Principle of 113
Tungar rectifier. Ten battery 120
Tungar rectifier. Troubles with 128
Tungar rectifier. Twenty battery 122
Tungar rectifier. Two ampere 116
Tungar rectifier. Two battery 118
Turntable for batteries 170
U
Universal radio batteries 263
Universal starting batteries 430
Universal starting batteries. Construction features of 430
Universal starting batteries. Putting new, into service 431
Universal starting batteries. Types 430
U. S. L. radio batteries. 261
U. S. L. starting batteries. Age code for 246
U. S. L. starting batteries. Special instructions for 382
U. S. L. starting batteries. Tables of 384
U. S. L. vent tube construction 20
Page 672
V
Vent plugs should be left in place during charge 209
Vent tube construction 20
Vesta radio batteries 256
Vesta starting batteries 408
Vesta starting batteries. Age code for 246246
Vesta starting batteries. Isolators for 408
Vesta starting batteries. Post seal 413
Vesta starting batteries. Putting new, into service 227
Vesta starting batteries. Separators 413 and 415
Vesta starting batteries. Type D 409
Vesta starting batteries. Type DJ 412
Vibrating regulators. Adjusting 290
Vinegar-like odor. Cause of 205
Voltage. Causes of low 321
Voltage changes during charge 38
Voltage changes during discharge 32
Voltage, limiting value of, on discharge 34
Voltage of cell. Factors determining 34
Voltage of a fully charged cell 203
Voltage readings at end of bench charge 203
Voltage readings on open circuit worthless 177
Voltaic cell 4
W
Wash tank. Working drawings of 144
Water. Condenser for distilled 160
Westinghouse farm lighting batteries 498
Westinghouse radio batteries 259
Westinghouse starting batteries 417
Westinghouse starting batteries. Age code for 247247
Vent plugs should be left in place during charge 209
Vent tube construction 20
Vesta radio batteries 256
Vesta starting batteries 408
Vesta starting batteries. Age code for 246246
Vesta starting batteries. Isolators for 408
Vesta starting batteries. Post seal 413
Vesta starting batteries. Putting new, into service 227
Vesta starting batteries. Separators 413 and 415
Vesta starting batteries. Type D 409
Vesta starting batteries. Type DJ 412
Vibrating regulators. Adjusting 290
Vinegar-like odor. Cause of 205
Voltage. Causes of low 321
Voltage changes during charge 38
Voltage changes during discharge 32
Voltage, limiting value of, on discharge 34
Voltage of cell. Factors determining 34
Voltage of a fully charged cell 203
Voltage readings at end of bench charge 203
Voltage readings on open circuit worthless 177
Voltaic cell 4
W
Wash tank. Working drawings of 144
Water. Condenser for distilled 160
Westinghouse farm lighting batteries 498
Westinghouse radio batteries 259
Westinghouse starting batteries 417
Westinghouse starting batteries. Age code for 247247
Page 673
Westinghouse starting batteries. Plates for 418
Westinghouse starting batteries. Post seal for 417
Westinghouse starting batteries. Putting new, into service 231
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type A 418
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type B 419
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type C 420
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type E 420
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type F 423
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type H 421
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type J 422
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type 0 422
Wet batteries. Putting new, into service 225
Wet storage 239
What's wrong with the battery 313 to 327
When it is unnecessary to open battery 325
When may battery be left on car 324
When must battery be opened 326
When should battery be removed from car 325
Willard farm-lighting batteries 502
Willard radio batteries 257
Willard starting batteries. Age code for 247
Willard starting batteries. Bone-dry 24
Willard starting batteries. Putting new, into service 229
Willard starting batteries with compound sealed post 424
Willard starting batteries with gasket post seal 428
Willard starting batteries with lead cover-inserts 424
Willard threaded-rubber separators 430
Working drawings of bins for stock 158
Working drawings of charging bench 134 to 139
Working drawings of flash-back tank 147
Working drawings of shelving and racks 153 to 157
Working drawings of shop layouts 189 to 196
Working drawings of steamer bench 161
Working drawings of wash tank 144 and 145
Working drawings of work bench 140 and 141
Westinghouse starting batteries. Post seal for 417
Westinghouse starting batteries. Putting new, into service 231
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type A 418
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type B 419
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type C 420
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type E 420
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type F 423
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type H 421
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type J 422
Westinghouse starting batteries. Type 0 422
Wet batteries. Putting new, into service 225
Wet storage 239
What's wrong with the battery 313 to 327
When it is unnecessary to open battery 325
When may battery be left on car 324
When must battery be opened 326
When should battery be removed from car 325
Willard farm-lighting batteries 502
Willard radio batteries 257
Willard starting batteries. Age code for 247
Willard starting batteries. Bone-dry 24
Willard starting batteries. Putting new, into service 229
Willard starting batteries with compound sealed post 424
Willard starting batteries with gasket post seal 428
Willard starting batteries with lead cover-inserts 424
Willard threaded-rubber separators 430
Working drawings of bins for stock 158
Working drawings of charging bench 134 to 139
Working drawings of flash-back tank 147
Working drawings of shelving and racks 153 to 157
Working drawings of shop layouts 189 to 196
Working drawings of steamer bench 161
Working drawings of wash tank 144 and 145
Working drawings of work bench 140 and 141
Page 674
XYZ
(No entries under X, Y or Z)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W XYZ
(Table of) Contents
A VISIT TO THE FACTORY
(Table of) Contents
T HE following pages show
how Batteries are made at the
Factory. The illustrations will
be especially interesting to Battery
Service Station Owners who have
conceived the idea that they would
like to manufacture their own
batteries.
A completed battery is a simple
looking piece of apparatus, yet the
equipment needed to make it is
elaborate and expensive, as the
following illustrations will show.
Quantity production is necessary in
order to build a good battery at a
(No entries under X, Y or Z)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W XYZ
(Table of) Contents
A VISIT TO THE FACTORY
(Table of) Contents
T HE following pages show
how Batteries are made at the
Factory. The illustrations will
be especially interesting to Battery
Service Station Owners who have
conceived the idea that they would
like to manufacture their own
batteries.
A completed battery is a simple
looking piece of apparatus, yet the
equipment needed to make it is
elaborate and expensive, as the
following illustrations will show.
Quantity production is necessary in
order to build a good battery at a
Page 675
moderate cost to the car owner, and
quantity production means a large
factory, elaborate and expensive
equipment, and a large working
force. Furthermore, before any
batteries are put on the market,
extensive research and
experimentation is necessary to
develop a battery which will prove
a success in the field. This in itself
requires considerable time and
money. No manufacturer who has
developed formulas and designs at
a considerable expense will
disclose them to others who desire
to enter the manufacturing field as
competitors, nor can anyone expect
them to do so.
If the man who contemplates
entering the battery manufacturing
business can afford to develop his
own formulas and designs, build a
factory, and organize a working
force, it is, of course, perfectly.
proper for him to become a
manufacturer; but unless he can do
so, he should not attempt to make a
battery.
The following illustrations, will of
course, be of interest to the man
who repairs batteries. A knowledge
of the manufacturing processes will
give him a better understanding of
the batteries which he repairs. The
less mystery there is about the
quantity production means a large
factory, elaborate and expensive
equipment, and a large working
force. Furthermore, before any
batteries are put on the market,
extensive research and
experimentation is necessary to
develop a battery which will prove
a success in the field. This in itself
requires considerable time and
money. No manufacturer who has
developed formulas and designs at
a considerable expense will
disclose them to others who desire
to enter the manufacturing field as
competitors, nor can anyone expect
them to do so.
If the man who contemplates
entering the battery manufacturing
business can afford to develop his
own formulas and designs, build a
factory, and organize a working
force, it is, of course, perfectly.
proper for him to become a
manufacturer; but unless he can do
so, he should not attempt to make a
battery.
The following illustrations, will of
course, be of interest to the man
who repairs batteries. A knowledge
of the manufacturing processes will
give him a better understanding of
the batteries which he repairs. The
less mystery there is about the
Page 676
battery, the more efficiently can the
repairman do his work.
repairman do his work.
Page 677
Page 678
Page 679
Page 680
Page 681
Page 682
Page 683
Page 684
Page 685
Page 686
Page 687
Page 688
Page 689
Page 690
Page 691
Page 692
Page 693
Page 694
Page 695
Page 696
Page 697
Page 698
Page 699
Page 700
Page 701
Page 702
Page 703
Page 704
Page 705
(Table of) Contents
Page 706
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AUTOMOBILE STORAGE BATTERY: ITS CARE AND REPAIR ***
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