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Title: Design and tradition
a short account of the principles and historic development of
architecture and the applied arts

Author: Amor Fenn

Release date: December 31, 2016 [eBook #53850]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

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Contents.

Index.: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J,
K, L, M, N, O, P, R, S, T, U, V, W.
List of Illustrations
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DESIGN AND TRADITION
“They are the elect to whom beautiful things mean only Beauty.”—Oscar
Wilde.

Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by E. A. Rickards,
F.R.I.B.A.
This drawing is remarkable as an anticipation of
eventual appearance. Thoroughly impressionistic in
treatment, all irrelevant detail is omitted.

UNIVERSAL ART SERIES
EDITED BY FREDERICK MARRIOTT

DESIGN AND
TRADITION
A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE
PRINCIPLES AND HISTORIC
DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHI-
TECTURE AND THE APPLIED
ARTS
BY
AMOR FENN

LONDON

CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD.
1920

THE WESTMINSTER PRESS
HARROW ROAD
LONDON

AUTHOR’S PREFACE

I
T may be urged with some reasonable basis of truth that much of the
modern art work fails to attain the level of that of the past. It must be
conceded, however, that demand and appreciation is more general and
widely diffused. As social conditions have developed, interest in
environment has been stimulated. Improved processes resulting in more
economic production have rendered possible an indulgence by those of
moderate means, attainable only at earlier periods by the wealthier class.
As a result of this more general appreciation the professional services of
the artist are necessarily in greater request, thus affording a sphere of work
not only lucrative but temperamentally attractive.
At the present time the facilities available to the prospective artist are
considerably greater than at any previous period. In every district and
important centre, there are schools specialising in the Arts and Crafts,
giving opportunities for training at fees that are purely nominal. Most of
these deal with the various phases of artistic expression on logical and
sound lines, but the knowledge and experience essential to a successful
artistic career is invariably acquired in professional work to which the art
school training is preparatory.
To those specialising in design, the study of Historic Style is of
paramount importance. Intelligent investigation will show that in all the
varying phases, the underlying factors are much the same, and appreciation
of these will be found invaluable in personal work.
Necessarily brief, this book has been prompted by the memory of early
bewilderment and difficulties, when a guiding hand would have saved much
valuable time and mis-directed energy.
A considerable amount of the available space is devoted to Architectural
features, with the conviction that a knowledge of these will be found helpful
in the formation of methods, logical and constructive.
Attention is directed to the frontispiece, a typical example of the
extraordinary genius of E. A. Rickards, F.R.I.B.A., the original of which is
in the possession of Philip Connard, A.R.A., to whom indebtedness for its
use is acknowledged.

The author’s thanks are also due to Miss Dora Bard and Mr. C. E.
Bernard for the reproduction of drawings made by them during their tenure
in successive years of the “Travelling Studentship” of the Society of British
Decorators.
For the use of the following photographs the author desires to make
acknowledgment to the Authorities of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
South Kensington, as holders of the Crown copyright:
Nos. 257. 272.
258. 273.
259. 274.
265. 275.
271. 281A.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE

I Introductory 1
Human Limitations, p. 1—Inspiration—
Process and Material, p. 2—Early Training, p.
4—Art and Existence, p. 5—Natural Taste—
Commercial Production, p. 6—“Ornaments,”
p. 7—Modern Development—Public Apathy,
p. 8—Elementary Pattern, p. 9—Early
Impressionism—Personal Production, p. 10—
Early Social Conditions, p. 11—Influence—
Commercial Intercourse, p. 12—Effect on
Design, p. 13—Ethical side of Art, p. 14—
Desire for Novelty, p. 15.
II Historic Review 16
Style, p. 16—Intercommunication—Climate
and Material, p. 17—Phases in Style, p. 18—
The Lintel, p. 19—The Arch, p. 20—Egyptian
Art, p. 22—Chaldean Art, p. 25—Greek Art,
p. 28—Roman Art, p. 35—Vaulting, p. 36—
Greek Influence, p. 37—Roman Development
of Ornament, p. 38—Græco-Roman Painted
Decoration, p. 39—Byzantine Dome, p. 43—
Early Christian Art, p. 46—Byzantine Metal
Work, and Enamel, p. 47—Roman Influence
Abroad—Romanesque Style, p. 49—Church
Development, p. 50—Dark Ages, p. 53—
Crusades, p. 56—Origin of the Pointed Arch,
p. 58—Gothic Style, p. 59—Phases of Gothic
—Early Pointed, p. 60—Decorated Gothic, p.
64—Perpendicular Gothic—Glass Windows,
p. 67—Civic Influences, p. 70—Effect of

Commerce—Classic Tradition in Italy, p. 71
—Foreign Influence in England—The
Dwelling House, p. 72—The Reformation, p.
74—The Renaissance, p. 75—Early
Florentine Exponents, p. 76—Rome, p. 78—
Venice, p. 80—Venetian Influence, p. 81—
Painted Decoration, p. 82—Græco-Roman
Influence, p. 83—Early French Renaissance,
p. 85—Native Exploitation, p. 87—English
Renaissance, p. 88—Italians in England, p. 89
—Study of Classic Style—Thomas Thorpe, p.
91—Flemish Influence, p. 92—Jacobean
Work, p. 93—Development in Dwellings, p.
98—Evolution of Professional Designer, p.
101—Inigo Jones, p. 102—Louis XIII, p. 103
—Louis XIV, p. 106—“Boule” Work—
Mirrors, p. 109—Louis XV, p. 110—Régence
—Rococo, p. 111—Lacquer “Vernis
Martin”—Later English Renaissance, p. 113
—Sir Christopher Wren, p. 114—Classic
Treatment of the Spire, p. 116—Dutch and
French Influences, p. 118—Queen Anne
Period—Early Georgian, p. 120—Furniture
Design, Chippendale, p. 121—Mayhew—
Robert Adam, p. 123—Hepplewhite, p. 126—
Sheraton—Louis XVI, p. 127—Riesener and
Gouthière, p. 133—Empire—Empire in
England—Later English Architecture, p. 135
—French Influence on Europe, p. 136.
III Mouldings 138
Purpose—The Fillet—Sheltering Mouldings
—The Cavetto, p. 139—Cyma Recta—
Bracketing Mouldings—The Ovolo, p. 140—
Cyma Reversa—Binding Mouldings, p. 141
—The Torus—The Scotia—The Facia, p. 142
—Decoration of Mouldings, p. 143—

Orthodox Details—Angle Leaf, p. 145—
Dentils, p. 146—Employment of Mouldings,
p. 147—Attitude, p. 148—Panel Mouldings—
Woodwork, p. 149—Applied Mouldings, p.
151—Bolection Moulding, p. 152—
Mouldings in Plaster Work—Wood Turning,
p. 153—Metal Turning—Pottery, p. 154—
Mechanically produced Metal Mouldings—
Wrought Iron, p. 155—Silver Work, p. 156—
Sheet Metal, Spinning, and Repoussé, p. 157.
IV Architectural Proportions 158
Introduction, p. 158—System of Proportion,
p. 159—The Order, p. 160—Doric Order, p.
161—Ionic Order—Corinthian Order, p. 163
—Doric Entablatures—Mutules, p. 164—
Ionic Entablature, p. 169—Corinthian
Entablature, p. 171—The Column, p. 172—
The Capital—Doric Capital, p. 173—Ionic
Capital—Ionic Volute, p. 175—Corinthian
Capital, p. 178—The Base, p. 180—Doric
Base, p. 181—Ionic Base, p. 182—Corinthian
Base—The Arch, p. 184—Doric Impost, p.
185—Doric Archivolt—Ionic Impost, p. 186
—Ionic Archivolt—Corinthian Impost—
Corinthian Archivolt—The Keystone, p. 187
—The Pedestal, p. 188—Doric Pedestal, p.
189—Ionic Pedestal—Corinthian Pedestal, p.
190—The Baluster, p. 191—Spacing of
Balusters—Balustrading, p. 193—Use of
Columns, p. 194—Disposition and Spacing in
Colonnades, p. 195—Orders above Orders, p.
197—The Pilaster, p. 199—Arcades, p. 200—
The Subsidiary Order, p. 202—Treatment of
Superimposed Orders, p. 204—Rustication, p.
205—The Basement, p. 207—The Attic, p.

208—The Pediment, p. 209—Doors, p. 211—
Windows, p. 213.
V Division of Surface 216
Wall Treatment, p. 216—Ceilings, p. 218—
Jacobean—Carolean and Georgian, p. 221—
Adam Ceilings, p. 222—Vaults and Domes, p.
224—The Cove, p. 225—The Frieze, p. 226
—Borders, p. 227—Geometric Elements—
The Undulate Line, p. 230—Repetition and
Alternation, p. 233—Treatment of Angles, p.
234—Pilaster Treatment—Panelled Pilasters,
p. 235—Capitals and Bases—Treatment of
Panels, p. 236—Juxtaposition, p. 238—The
Growth Line in Composition, p. 241—
Grouping and Massing of Detail—Division of
Area, p. 242—Human and Animal Life in
Composition, p. 244—Forms in the Round, p.
245 Supports and Balusters—Standards, p.
246—Proportion, p. 247—Vase Forms and
Treatment, p. 248—Working Drawings, p.
249—The Segment or Stretch out, p. 250.
VI Development of Conventional

Ornament 254
Outline Drawing, p. 254—Undesirable
Realism, p. 255—Craft Restrictions, p. 256—
Materialistic Influence, p. 258—Early
Renderings, p. 261—The Anthemion, p. 262
—Greek Sculptured Ornament, p. 263—The
Acanthus Leaf, p. 264—Roman Development
—The Scroll, p. 266—Græco-Roman—
Byzantine, p. 267—Romanesque—Gothic—
Italian Renaissance, p. 268—The Husk Leaf,
p. 269—The Rosette, p. 270—Tendrils, p. 271
—Nature Influence—Inconsistent

employment of Symbolic Elements, p. 272—
Consistency in Growth—Branching, p. 273—
Treatment and Employment of Leaves, p. 275
—The start in Ornament, p. 276—Italian
Renaissance Influence—Jacobean, p. 280—
French Renaissance—Henry II, p. 281—
Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Régence—Louis XV,
p. 283—Rococo—Louis XVI, p. 284—
Grinling Gibbons School of Carving—Adam
Style, p. 285—Empire—System of the
Acanthus Leaf, p. 286.
VII Treatment in Design 288
Natural Attraction, p. 288—Decorative
Materials, p. 289—Justification of Treatment,
p. 290—Undesirable Imitation, p. 291—
Technical Considerations—Methods of
Expression, p. 292—Treatment of Leaves, p.
293—Surface Interest—Painted Decoration,
p. 294—Stencilled Work, p. 295—Mechanical
Production—Printed and Woven Fabrics—
Needlework—Appliqué, p. 296—Lace-Wood
Inlay—Intarsia, p. 297—Veneer—Marquetry
—“Boule” Work, p. 298—Mosaic, p. 299—
Byzantine use of Marble—Book Decoration,
p. 300—Bindings—Relief Work—Economic
Result of Method—Desirable Treatment in
Carving, p. 301—Backgrounds, p. 303—
Reproduction Processes—Metal Repoussé, p.
304—Cast Metal, p. 306—Character of Cast
Work, p. 307.
VIII Mythology and Symbolism 310
Early Symbolic Ornament, p. 310—Customs,
p. 311—Origin of Mythology—Nature
Myths, p. 312—Light and Darkness—
Melanesian Legend, p. 313—Darkness as a

Devouring Monster—Season Myths, p. 314—
Sun Myths—Belief in Natural Phenomena, p.
315—Greek and Roman Deities, p. 316—
Scandinavian Mythology, p. 317—Rising and
Setting Symbolised, p. 318—Winds
Personified—Predestination, p. 319—The
Fates—Propitiation and Sacrifice, p. 320—
Early Burial Customs—Taboo—Roman
Lares, p. 322—Mediæval Legend—Early
Spiritual Belief, p. 323—Prehistoric
Treatment of Epileptics—Prohibition, p. 324
—Belief in Magical Qualities, p. 325—The
Shirt of Nessus—Swords, p. 326—
Invulnerability, p. 327—Belief in Numbers—
The Muses, p. 328—Sacred Trees and
Flowers, p. 329—Sacred Animals—
Evangelist Symbols, p. 331—The Serpent—
The Dragon, p. 332—Poetic License in
Tradition, p. 333—Animals in Christian Art,
p. 334—Association of Human and Animal
Qualities—Totemism—Cannibalism, p. 336
—The Sphinx—Assyrian Winged Monsters,
p. 337—Pegasus—The Harpy—Sirens, p. 338
—Pan—The Nymphs—The Centaur, p. 339
—Symbolism of the Circle, p. 340—Symbols
of the Trinity—The Wand, a Symbol of
Authority—The Hand, p. 341—The Caduceus
—The Thyrsus, p. 342—The Trident—The
Cross, p. 343—The Pastoral Staff, p. 344—
Symbols of Martyrdom—Symbolism of Gems
and Colours, p. 345—Masks—Symbols of
Time, p. 346—Secular Symbols—Trophies, p.
347—Heraldry—Interest and Meaning in
Modern Art, p. 348.
IX Ways and Means 350

Perception, p. 350—Accepted Conventions, p.
351—Influence of Fashion—Harmonious
Consistency, p. 352—Natural Suggestion—
Colour Scheme, p. 353—Early Training—
Nature Study, p. 355—Aspect and Attitude, p.
356—Treatment of Studies, p. 358—
Drawings for Reproduction, p. 359—Opaque
Colour—Method of Enlarging or Reducing
Drawings, p. 360—Textile Designs, p. 361—
Wall Papers, p. 362—Architectural Drawings
—Structural Design, p. 363—Lucid
Arrangement of Details, p. 364—
Mathematical Equipment, p. 365—Use of the
Ruling Pen—Proportional Compasses, p. 367
—Tracings—Conclusion, p. 368.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Sketch Design for Equestrian Statue, by E. A. Rickards,
Frontispiece
F.R.I.B.A.

ARCHITECTURE, HISTORIC No. Page
Egyptian Temple, Section and Plan of 10 23
Temple, Entrance Façade 11 24
Capital from Philæ 12 24
Persian Capitals from Persepolis 16 27
Greek Doric Temple, The Parthenon 21 30
Ionic, The Erectheum 22 31
Corinthian, The Choragic Monument 23 32
Vase paintings of Doric and Ionic Orders 19 29
House about 100 A.D. Bas-relief in British Museum 20 29
Roman, The Pantheon, Rome 26 36
The Coliseum, Rome 27 37
The Arch of Titus, Rome 28 38
Byzantine St. Vitali Ravenna, Section and Plan 35 44
Capitals 36 (Plate)
Interior, Ravenna 39 (Plate)
Romanesque Capitals 42 50
Tower 43 50
Plan, Cathedral at Worms 44 51
Bay of Cathedral at Worms 45 52
Window, St. Alban’s Abbey 46 52
Church Interior with Triforium 47 52
Doorway, Kilpeck Church 49 54
Gothic Buttresses 53 58
Early Pointed Pier 54 60
Early Pointed Bay of Church 55 61
Early Lancet Windows 56 62
Early Pointed Windows, Plate Tracery 57 62

Early Pointed Arch Mouldings 58 62
Early Pointed Capital 59 63
Early Pointed Tracery Windows 60 63
Early Pointed Spire 61 64
Decorated, Tracery Windows 62 64
Decorated, Carving 63 65
Decorated, Arch Mouldings 64 65
Decorated, Capital 65 66
Decorated, Capital 66 66
Decorated, Spire 67 66
Perpendicular, Bay of Church showing Development of
67 67
Clerestory
Perpendicular, Windows 69 68
Perpendicular, Fan Vaulting 70 69
Perpendicular, Tower 71 69
Domestic Tudor, Window 75 74
Renaissance, Italian, Strozzi Palace 76 76
Italian, Pandolfini Palace 77 77
Italian, St. Peter’s, Rome 78 79
Italian, Farnese Palace 79 80
Italian, Vendramini Palace 80 81
Italian, Library of St. Mark 81 82
English, Banqueting House, Whitehall 105 103
French, Louis XIII. Luxembourg 106 104
French, Louis XIII. Barocco Detail, Ste. Marie, Nevers 107 105
French, Louis XIV. Louvre 109 106
French, Louis XV. Pantheon 112 110
English, St. Paul’s Cathedral 118 115
English, Spire, St. Mary le Strand 119 116
Tomb of Tantalus in Lydia 5 19
Tomb of Beni Hassan 17 28
Tomb at Kyanea-Jaghu 18 28

ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES

Arch, The Principle of the 6 20
Balusters, Details of 170 192
Cornice, Treatment where Order is not employed 180 209
Doors, General Proportion of 182 211
Treatment of 183 212
Frieze, Roman 198 226
Frieze, Roman 199 227
Gothic Vault, Section of 7 20
Vaulting 9 21
Cross Vaulting 48 53
Lintel, The 4 19
Lintel, The, Joggled Joints 8 21
Orders, General Proportions of the 154 162
Order, The Doric 153 160
The Doric Entablature, Vignola 155 165
The Doric Entablature, Mutular 156 166
Order, The Doric Capital 159 173
The Doric Base 165 181
The Doric Pedestal 169 189
The Doric Archivolt 168 186
The Doric Impost 168 186
The Doric Arcading 174 201
The Doric Arcading with Pedestal 175 202
The Doric Column and Pilaster 173 200
The Ionic Entablature 157 168
The Ionic Capital 160 174
The Ionic Capital (Angular Volutes) 161 176
The Ionic, Detail of Angular Volute 162 177
The Ionic Base 166 182
The Ionic Pedestal 169 189
The Ionic Archivolt 168 186
The Ionic Impost 168 186
The Corinthian Entablature 158 170
The Corinthian Capital 163 179

The Corinthian Capital 164 180
The Corinthian Base 167 183
The Corinthian Pedestal 169 189
The Corinthian Archivolt 168 186
The Corinthian Impost 168 186
The Superimposed 172 198
The Subsidiary 176 203
The Subsidiary, Detail of Entablature 180 209
Pediment, The 181 210
Pilaster The, Capital 209 236
The, French Renaissance 208 236
Rustication, Types of 178 206
In Arcades 179 207
Spacing of Columns 171 196
Windows 184 214
Three-Light 185 215

DECORATIVE FEATURES
Acanthus Leaf, Brush Work 235 264
Development 251 281
Development 252 282
Construction of 253 287
Anthemion, Greek, Relief Treatment 232 262
Greek, Vase Painting 231 261
Border, The Geometric, Key or Labyrinth 200 228
Border, The Geometric, Interlacing 201 229
The Scroll 204 232
The Evolute Scroll 207 234
The Vertebrate 244 274
Branching, Types of 243 274
Inlay, Wood, Geometric 260 297
Wood Borders 261 297
Wood Panel 262 297
Wood Panel 263 298

Wood, Italian Intarsia 264 298
Metal “Boule” Work 266 299
Metal “Boule” Work 267 299
Inlaid Floor, Italian Renaissance 188 219
Lace 259 (Plate)
Marquetry 265 (Plate)
Mosaic Work, Spandril, Byzantine 40 (Plate)
Borders 268 (Plate)
Border, Roman 269 (Plate)
Border, Roman 270 (Plate)
Panel, Roman 271 (Plate)
Needlework 257 (Plate)
Appliqué 258 (Plate)
Relief Ornament, Prehistoric 2 (Plate)
Greek Stone Carving 218 (Plate)
Roman Stone Carving 237 (Plate)
Roman Stone Carving 29 39
Byzantine Stone Carving 37 46
Byzantine Stone Carving 38 47
Byzantine Stone Carving 216 244
Romanesque Stone Carving 217 244
Gothic Stone Carving 238 268
Gothic Stone Carving 239 269
Gothic Stone Carving 219 (Plate)
Renaissance, Italian 248 278
Renaissance, Italian 249 279
Renaissance, French 88 86
Renaissance, French 250 280
Renaissance, French 90 88
Jacobean Gouge Work 276 302
Jacobean Wood Carving 277 303
Jacobean Wood Carving 95 94
Louis XIV. Wood Carving 275 (Plate)
English Wood Carving 274 (Plate)

Relief Ornament, French Wood Carving 113 111
French Wood Carving 279 306
French Wood Carving 212 239
French Wood Carving 211 238
French, Part of Ceiling 210 237
French Wood Carving 133 134
Icelandic Wood Carving 280 306
English 18th Century 273 (Plate)
English, Modern 213 240
Analysis of Composing Lines 214 241
Rosettes, Types of 241 270
Scroll, The, Greek Stone Carving 233 262
The Evolute, Archaic 229 259
The Evolute, Savage Art 230 260
Scroll, The, Wrought Iron 234 263
Brush Work 236 265
As a Growth Line 202 230
Italian Renaissance 240 270
Start, The, Nest or Cup Leaf 246 277
Half Figure 247 277
Tendril, Roman 242 272
Terminals, Branch and Scroll 245 275
Textiles, 14th Century Woven Fabric 3 13
14th Century Woven Fabric 51 56
Sicilian Tapestry 52 57
14th Century Tapestry 205 232
Turkish Brocade 203 231
French Brocade 206 233
Details of Inhabited Pattern 256 295
Tooled Book Binding 272 (Plate)

FURNITURE
Egyptian 13 25
Egyptian 14 26

Assyrian Seat 15 27
Greek 24 33
Roman Couch 30 39
Roman Sella or Seat 31 39
Romanesque Chair 50 55
Gothic Chair 72 70
Gothic Bedstead 73 71
Italian Renaissance 86 84
Italian Renaissance 87 85
Italian Renaissance 92 89
French Renaissance 91 88
English 17th Century 99 98
English 17th Century 100 99
English 17th Century 101 100
English 17th Century 102 100
English 17th Century. Baluster 221 246
French Louis XIII 108 105
French Louis XIV 111 108
French Louis XV 265 (Plate)
English late 17th Century 116 113
English late 17th Century 117 114
Dutch and Queen Anne Chairs 121 119
English 18th Century 122 122
French Louis XVI 132 133

INTERIOR FEATURES
Ceilings, Italian Renaissance 187 218
Italian, General Plan 189 220
Italian Renaissance, Painted, 83 (Plate)
Italian Renaissance, Painted, 85 (Plate)
Tudor 190 221
Jacobean 191 222
Jacobean 192 223
Carolean 193 224

Robert Adam 194 225
Chimney Pieces, Gothic 13th Century 74 71
Italian Renaissance 93 90
French Renaissance 89 87
Jacobean 96 95
Domes and Vaults, Italian Renaissance:
St. Peter’s, Rome 197 (Plate)
Villa Madama 196 (Plate)
Ducal Palace, Venice 195 (Plate)
Doors, Jacobean 97 96
Jacobean 98 97
French Renaissance 278 305
French Renaissance, Louis XV 114 112
English Renaissance 120 117
French Renaissance, Louis XVI 130 132
Frieze, The Jacobean, Carved Wood 94 93
French, Louis XVI 131 133
Interior Decoration, Græco-Roman 32 40
Interior Decoration, Wall Division 186 217
Italian Renaissance 84 (Plate)
French Renaissance, Louis XIV 110 107
English “Adam” 123 124
English “Adam” 124 125
French Louis XVI 126 128
French Louis XVI 127 129
French Louis XVI 128 130
French Louis XVI 129 131

METAL WORK
Græco-Roman 33 41
Græco-Roman 34 42
Byzantine Tradition 41 48
Wrought Iron 282 307
Wrought Iron, Venetian 283 307

Repoussé 103 101
Repoussé 281 (Plate)
Cast 104 102
Cast, Louis XV 115 113
Sheffield Plate 125 126
Filagree Jewellery 228 257
Cast Iron (Modern) 222 247
Surface Decoration of 284 308

METHOD
Of Enlarging and Reducing Drawings 286 361

MOULDINGS
Profiles of 134 138
Enrichment of 135 144
Detail of the Dentil 136 147
Aspect of 137 148
Stone, Panel Effect 138 149
Wood Panels 139 150
Wood Panels, Applied 140 151
Wood Panels, Applied 141 152
The Bolection 142 152
Table Top 143 153
Turned Wood 144 153
Pottery 145 154
Pottery 146 154
Rolled Metal 147 155
Drawn Metal 148 155
Wrought Iron, Swaged 149 156
Wrought Iron, Built up 150 156
Wrought Iron, Built up 151 156
Spun Metal 152 157

VASE FORMS
Primitive Pottery 1 (Plate)

Greek Pottery 25 34
Greek Pottery, Painted Details 19 29
Effect of Perspective 220 245
Segments of Contoured Surfaces 226 251
Segments of Contoured Surfaces 227 252
Stretch-out of the Cylinder 224 249
Stretch-out of the Cone 225 250
Types of Vase Decoration 223 248

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY

I
T is an article of faith that to design entails the possession of the
creative faculty, which may be taken for granted with the proviso, that
the creative faculty is concerned rather with the association of elements
common to all than with invention pure and simple.
Human Limitations
To be more explicit, the human imagination is limited to personal or
acquired experience. At no period has any form been created that is not
traceable to some process of production, or natural suggestion; for instance,
the artistic conception of an angel is merely a combination of human and
bird form, and is in no sense an original creation.
The term originality is indeed generally misunderstood, and for the
reasons already advanced it is impossible to be original. The real interest in
artistic production of any kind is the expression of personality, in other
words, the individual point of view of the artist; which is more or less
interesting, as it is more or less personal in idea and expression.
In the training of the designer it is essential that the imagination be
carefully cultivated and trained to accept suggestion from any possible
source.
Design is distinct from any phase of realistic expression inasmuch as the
subject does not exist in any concrete form, but has to be mentally
visualised.
“Inspiration”
Too much importance is attached to what is believed to be inspiration,
but obviously if inspired, design is rather in the nature of an accident than
of the deliberate intention it should be and cannot be credited to the
individual exponent. What at first sight suggests inspired thought may be
accounted for by sub-consciousness, which is really responsible for the
evolution of an idea or the solution of some problem.

It would be beneficial to reject once and for all the idea of inspiration
with its tendency to encourage the “artistic temperament” in the belief that
it “does not feel like it.”
The designer must be ready to respond at any time, and this implies a
logical and balanced mind, capable of grasping essentials, and conditions,
and of evolving some desirable solution.
Another superstition is that a design is a drawing, and it only requires a
facility in this form of expression to produce a design. This is a fallacy, as
though many designs are for convenience expressed through this medium,
any such drawing must be made with a knowledge of the technical details
of the final method of production, to be a practical design.
Process and Material
Design is therefore inseparable from consideration of material and
process, with which the designer must be acquainted; without this technical
knowledge it is impossible to take full advantage of the method of
production either in the direction of economy or effect.
Other considerations are utilitarian and æsthetic, the former having
regard to purpose, the latter to appearance.
That mere utility is not in itself sufficient is evident; the common
enamelled saucepan and the medicine bottle are certainly utilitarian, but no
one would assert that they are satisfying from the æsthetic point of view.
An important consideration in design is the “market” which is governed
by popular or individual demand.
Those who pay the piper call the tune, and the designer has often to work
to prescribed conditions.
This apparently implies restriction of individuality, but the designer who
refuses to conform will probably find the market even more restricted.
It also implies that he must be well versed in the various styles or
historic tradition, so that his work, if desirable, may be in harmony with
existing environment; but in these circumstances it is quite possible to
produce work that is individual and distinctive.
Designers, craftsmen and manufacturers are all dependent upon public
demand, which must be taken into account, and their business is as far as
possible to raise the general standard of taste, by producing of their best.

Any attempt on their part to insist on what shall or shall not be done would
undoubtedly result in failure.
To sum up, the designer must not only be an accomplished draughtsman
well versed in traditional ornament and style, but it is necessary that he
should cultivate the imaginative and perceptive faculties; and, in addition,
the commercial qualities of promptness and business insight.
Early Training
The question is often raised, can design be taught? If by this it is
understood, can the designing faculty be created in the ordinary student, the
answer is distinctly in the negative; but undoubtedly students can be
directed through a course of training that will enable them to produce at
least work that is good, though it may not be personally distinctive.
An intelligent study of the elements and basis of pattern and of
traditional styles should result in the ability to produce work on safe
traditional lines that will be in harmony with environment. Such work it
may be claimed would only attain the level of mediocrity; how much
farther the student will go depends largely upon application and natural
faculty.
Natural faculty is fairly common, while genius is rare and can look after
itself. The teacher is concerned with the rank and file, and the training and
development of the natural faculty should be the aim.
Where this exists it should be carefully nursed, involving great
responsibility in the choice and direction of the courses of study.
The able exponent does not always make the best teacher, as students are
apt to be influenced by a strong personality and to be imitative.
Influence in the early stages is quite natural, and to some extent
beneficial, but if permanent, the student becomes one of the crowd in
failing to develop the personality, which is the sole interest, and is the
teacher’s responsibility to preserve as far as possible.
Negative criticism is not teaching, and in any suggested modifications
reasons should be given, so that the teaching be constructive; to which end
it is desirable that the teacher be capable of analysis and possessed of
method.
Popular taste as a factor that has to be considered has already been
suggested, but it is evident that the average member of the public has little

knowledge of Art, and still less of design.
Art and Existence
That Art is necessary to existence may be questioned, as life would be
possible—if not very interesting—if regulated only by considerations of
utility. In a less cultivated state we are satisfied with the gratification of
merely physical wants; so in a more cultivated state Art becomes one of the
mind’s necessities.
The dictionary definition of Art is “practical skill guided by rules,” and
that of an artist as “one who practises an Art.”
Possibly the former might be better expressed by the statement that “Art
is an appeal to the emotions by colour, form, rhythm and sound.”
Art exists not only in that which appeals to the vision, but also in that
which is transmitted to the aural sense, as in declamation, oratory and
music.
The dictionary particularises the fine arts of Painting, Sculpture and
Architecture, but to what extent is the possession of examples of these
possible to the public at large except in the most general sense?
What is invariably lost sight of is that the personal environment, the
furniture and domestic surroundings of the individual constitute the actual
field for artistic expression.
It is questionable whether our present system of Art instruction is
sufficiently far-reaching, devoted to the training of would-be artistic
exponents rather than in the cultivation of the public at large.
“Natural Taste”
There is still a superstitious belief in “natural taste,” and whereas the
individual member of the public would immediately, in the ordinary affairs
of life, consult a specialist, yet in a matter of artistic selection there is
profound confidence in personal exercise of judgment.
It is not contended that taste may not be inherited, but taste may be good
or bad.
Good taste is invariably our own; bad, the selection of others, but it is
surely irrational to assume that we all naturally possess a knowledge which
indisputably takes many years to acquire and cultivate.
Commercial Production

It is often stated that the common inartistic environment is the result of
commercial output, and it is true that the ordinary member of the public is
restricted in choice to what is on the market; but it can be urged that the
object of the manufacturer is to sell, and that he makes it his business to
study and supply existing demand. The manufacturer’s standard is therefore
regulated by the evidence of public taste, and as this is improved so will the
artistic quality of production be raised.
The buying public is influenced by what it believes to be the fashion of
the moment rather than any conscious appreciation of fitness and purpose,
or perception based on artistic education.
“Ornaments”
This is evidenced by a casual survey of the contents of shop windows in
any neighbourhood, and it will be noticed that preponderance is given to the
class of objects generally known as ornaments; objects that have no
possible utility and intended solely for display.
It is conceded that many objects fall into this category, and the display of
old brass candlesticks and Italian drug pots, for instance, may be excused as
examples of a period when such utensils, strictly utilitarian, were
incidentally made beautiful.
Modern furniture frequently offends—being too often constructed with
less regard to utility than to external effect.
The present tendency is to hide in cupboards and remote regions the
actual things we use, and to display objects that are only moved at the
perennial spring-cleaning; one honest piece of furniture remains in the
modern house—the kitchen dresser, of which we are apparently ashamed,
as also of the dinner service with which it is occupied. To some extent the
reason may be found in short tenancies, and the three years’ lease may have
much to answer for. It is usually felt to be more convenient to move than to
put up with the nuisance of re-decorating; and consequent on frequent
change of environment, is a lack of interest in furniture and other personal
belongings.
Modern Development
The advent of the motor car is also to some extent a factor, resulting in
the town flat and country cottage, which means the abandonment of the
large house and its interests and responsibilities; bringing about a change in

domestic life, with the growing tendency to entertain at hotels and
restaurants.
This tendency to more public life naturally results in even less interest in
personal possession and environment; still further fostered by the hire-
furnish system which enables its patrons to indulge in frequent change of
style and locality.
Public Apathy
Lamentable as it may seem from the artistic point of view, it certainly
appears that the general public are at least apathetic, and that Art appeals
less to them than the facilities for change and personal indulgence; still
there is plenty of scope for the designer and producer if they adapt
themselves to the everchanging conditions and requirements.
The earliest design was probably due to materialistic causes, imperfect
implements and difficulties and accidents turned to account.
It is conceivable that primitive man in his early essays in pottery found
extreme difficulty in obtaining a smooth surface, which, notwithstanding all
endeavours, would be, in the unbaked state, sensitive to scratches and other
damage. This difficulty may have suggested intentionally covering the
surface with such scratches, etc., more or less arranged, thus making a
virtue of necessity.
Elementary Pattern
Examination of early pottery will reveal simple patterns scratched or
incised, consisting mainly of straight lines arranged in zigzag or
herringbone form; in some instances the pattern is apparently the result of
pressure of some simple implement, resembling what is known in plastering
as trowel point.
Such details are simply those that could be produced by means of some
form of point, stone, stick or finger nail, and are not representative of any
known form; and it is not till a much later period that any indication occurs
suggestive of a growth line or natural type.
Curves seldom occur, certainly not in the scroll form, though rings
singly or concentric are among the early details; but these could easily be
the result of pressure by the ends of hollow reeds.

The evolute wave and scroll that figures so largely in later ornament was
presumably in imitation of wire-work, forms which the material would
readily suggest, particularly the continuous line of the evolute.
Development in the direction of relief ornament in primitive pottery is
indicated in the decoration consisting of incrusted pellets and slithers of
clay.
There is ample evidence that human appreciation and desire for
expression in art is natural and instinctive, as is demonstrated by the
marvellous work of the Paleolithic etchers and bone carvers, who may well
be considered the first impressionists.
Early Impressionism
They could have only studied many of their subjects at a respectful
distance, and this adds to the merit of the successful embodiment of
characteristics.
The work is invariably realistic, that is, imitative of natural form, and is
evidence of insight and appreciation that for the time and working condition
is quite extraordinary, and is in distinct contrast with the earlier ornament,
which is not in any way imitative of, or traceable to, any natural suggestion.
On investigation it will be found that artistic expression has generally
three phases; the first where purely inorganic details are employed such as
directly arise from the process and material involved.
The second phase is realistic or imitative of natural form, and the third—
conventional, where the details are probably derived from natural
suggestion but are treated with restraint; the last being the result of cultured
appreciation of process and æsthetic considerations.
Personal Production
It is essential to assume that originally it was customary to personally
produce whatever was considered necessary in the way of pottery or
weapons, but that eventually certain workers would devote themselves
more or less exclusively to producing for the community, being
compensated by immunity from other labour, and that this developed in
course of time into patronage, and the producer being entirely supported by
his craft.
Appreciation from would-be possessors stimulated

No. 1.
A. Cup, Barrow, Denzell, Cornwall. E. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. India.
B. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Stanlake, F. Early English puzzle jug.
Oxon. G. Cinerary Urn, Barrow, Bloxworth Down, Dorset.
C. Sepulchral remains, Nilgiri Hills, Sth. H. Food Vessel, sepulchral mounds, earliest Bronze
India. Age, Ireland.
D. Jug, German sepulchral mounds,
Bronze Age.

No. 2. A. B. Palaeolithic Bone Carvings.
C. " Etching on Bone.

the primitive craftsmen who, in proportion to their individual skill, would
be rewarded, and this naturally led to the establishment of the professional
worker and artist.
To appreciate the evolution of art it is necessary to consider the early
social conditions.
The primitive life was insular and nomadic, the family or tribe staying in
any locality only so long as food was available for themselves and herds;
such communities were necessarily pastoral and predatory.
The simple requirements under these conditions would be vessels for
storage, conveyance, or cooking, probably pottery; weapons, and doubtless
jewellery or objects of personal adornment.
Later by necessity and under favourable conditions they would develop
agriculture, which would result in fixity of abode; and this would entail
precautionary measures for protection from predatory tribes.

The original camp or stockade for this purpose in time led to the fortress
or castle for the protection of the town, and the more substantial nature of
these gave rise to architecture.
With comparative security more pacific conditions would prevail, and
the simple communal life develop into more complex social distinctions.
Early Social Conditions
The military class established for protective reasons would be dependent
upon the general community for their upkeep, thus imposing taxation on the
various workers, and necessitating a system of government and of officials
for effective collection and distribution. Social distinctions would be drawn
between the various classes, governing, administrative, military, and non-
combatant; the latter would furnish the bulk of the workers and be further
divided into craftsmen, agriculturists and traders.
In process of time from the executive class would develop the nobility,
priestly and legal classes.
Influence
Art was originally local, that is, confined to the community, but later was
subjected to various influences—Political, Religious, and Commercial.
Political, by treaty or intermarriage, when imported taste or interchange
would result, or by conquest.
Judging by the past, the conquered have invariably imposed their taste
on their conquerors, as instanced in the Greek conquest of Persia; that of the
Romans of the Greeks, and later the perpetuation of the Roman influence
after their subjugation at the hands of the Goths.
The Crusades resulted in the importation of fabrics of Eastern and
Sicilian origin, and may be classed as a religious influence; an earlier
example of which may be cited in the edict of Pope Leo III in A.D. 726 in
response to the iconoclastic movement, by reason of which the Byzantine
art workers, deprived of their living, emigrated to the Rhine district.
Commercial Intercourse.
The establishment of commercial intercourse had great influence on the
arts, and did much to modify local character, as it was found necessary to
study market conditions in order to secure sales; and goods were therefore

made to suit foreign requirements and taste,
thereby resulting in confusion and difficulty in
defining the original source.
Notable, for instance, were the Sicilian
weavers, who, contrary to their local traditions,
introduced heraldry into the patterns of their
fabrics, so as to conform to the taste of the
crusaders.
The Phœnicians were the early merchant
adventurers, and traded in work of Tyrian and
Sidonian production with remote parts of
Europe, taking back local produce in exchange.
Later on, through the medium of the Hanseatic
league, brass work from Flanders and cast-iron No. 3. 14th Century Textile
fire-backs from Sussex were distributed showing Heraldic influence.
through-out the area of their operations; of
which surviving examples demonstrate that local taste and requirement
were considered and embodied.
Effect on Design
Apart from this cause of loss in local character, Art production was
further influenced by the rise in social position of the worker.
When the craftsman remained the sole factor, his design and work was
invariably true to materialistic conditions; but with increasing emolument
incidental to appreciation and patronage, the designer emerged as a
professional.
In the early times the craftsman was independent to a great extent of
architectural influence, but later he was compelled to study the architectural
environment and adapt his designs in accordance.
Even then he was true to his craft conditions until the designing was
taken out of his hands by the newly evolved professional who, in many
instances had little knowledge of, or was indifferent to the technical side of
the craft.
Possibly the greatest offender in this respect was the French designer of
the Rococo period, whose woodwork design is regardless of constructive
detail, and it is to the everlasting credit of the workmen that they overcame

the difficulties thrown in their way, and that so much of this work is still in
existence.
Ethical Side of Art
Art is also reflective of the ethics and morals of the time; compare, for
instance, the robust character of Gothic work with the lack of meaning and
insincerity of the later Renaissance, degenerating into the license of the
Rococo.
Much that is commonly regarded as ornament in traditional work was
originally invested with symbolic meaning, in later times lost sight of, with
resultant loss of character and interest.
The study of traditional work is essential to the designer, not merely for
reproduction but on account of its value as reflective of the experience and
point of view of past exploiters.
Desire for Novelty
The present is marked by a feverish anxiety to be new, but the old
worker had a more humble spirit and was content to carry on a tradition a
little further if possible.
Much that appears to be new will on investigation prove to be an old
friend in disguise, and in venturing on what is apparently a new idea it may
be well to reflect as to whether it may not have occurred to others, and
whether it is worth doing.
“Novelty,” a detestable word, should have no place in artistic
considerations. That which is really good should be good for all time; but
the sporadic outbreaks that occur from time to time in so-called new phases,
have their little day and relapse into the limbo of the forgotten. In the
meantime tradition still goes on, sometimes progressing, now and then
retrogressing, but at all times unbroken.
History as written is misleading, dealing as it does with personalities and
conquests; the real history of the world can be read in its artistic
development.

CHAPTER II

HISTORIC REVIEW

S
OME of the factors in the evolution of Art have already been briefly
suggested, but to thoroughly appreciate artistic production a passing
acquaintance, at least, with the various phases of historic
developments is essential. The scope of the present work obviously
renders it impossible to deal with the subject in detail, but libraries
are accessible to those who are desirous of extending their knowledge.
It has already been stated that the earlier crafts were independent of any
influence other than that of material and process, and this has continued in
some of the crafts to the present time; but those more closely allied to
building, particularly those associated with furniture and decoration,
eventually became subject to the architectural phase or style of the period,
which dominated form and detail.
Style.
Style may be described as manner of expression, either individual or
local, and for convenience is defined by nationality and period. It is usual to
speak of Greek, Roman, Gothic, etc., of such a century; in the case of the
Renaissance, it is customary to particularise the variants, as Italian, French,
English, etc., also with the period or century.
The development of style, intimately involved as it is in the social,
religious and political history of nations, must ever be powerful in its
interest and far-reaching in its appeal.
The first idea in the mind of man is undoubtedly that of utility, but in
succeeding stages of culture there comes a natural craving for something
more than this. And so with the progress of a race we can trace the progress
of its decorative art.
Inter-Communication
Then there is the consideration of the effect that one race or community
inevitably has on another with which it comes in contact—either through
conquest or through the establishment of commercial relations. Naturally

the market is captured by the workmanship displaying the finest qualities,
æsthetic and practical, and these qualities advance with the development of
society and with progress in mechanical skill. As a result of conquest the
civilisation of either conqueror or conquered must become the dominant
influence, and the possible fusion and interchange of ideas may modify
style to a considerable extent.
Climate and Material
Locality has always been a determining factor, particularly in
architecture where the material available is of necessity utilised, and in
most cases is the one best suited to the climatic conditions; for instance,
where wood abounds we find it successfully employed.
Climate is also largely responsible for architectural form. In the North,
owing to heavy snows, the roofs are high-pitched. The early Egyptian
buildings were of mud and wattle, the readiest material to hand, and form
ample protection from the sun in a practically rainless district. It is
interesting to note that the character of these structures was imparted to
their later work in stone. This was used in the most important buildings, and
was readily obtainable from the Nubian quarries and transported down the
Nile on rafts.
Phases in Style
It must be remembered that although broad classifications can be made
in styles, yet there are intermediate stages which are transitional, and which
are usually due to the importation of some foreign influence. The phases of
a transitional period can usually be defined; at first the new style is
slavishly imitated or else executed by the foreign worker exploiting it. This
is followed by its being used in conjunction with the native construction,
and lastly, the native interpretation of the foreign style is possibly grafted on
to older forms.
It should be understood that at no time was there any great immediate
change in style, but that there are phases which can be described as typical,
connected by periods of gradual change or transition; due, doubtless, to
individual expression of taste, either on the part of exponent or patron, or as
previously suggested, by influences political, religious or commercial.
Careful study will show that the change in the majority of instances was
due to reaction from a florid to a more severe treatment, which in its turn

became redundant in character and detail. Apart from the artistic point of
view, these changes are interesting as reflective of the character of the
times.
From the constructive point of view there are two distinct principles to
be appreciated, the Lintel and the Arch. The Lintel, which is the earlier, may
be described as a large stone style, and consists of the bridging of apertures
by means of horizontal slabs, supported by vertical columns or piers. This is
a method of construction with distinct limitations, as it was impossible to
bridge large areas or spaces without frequent support.
The Lintel
The joints of the Lintel necessarily occur over the centres
of the supporting columns, and the space between was
controlled by the size of the obtainable material and the
imposed weight it could bear; the result being, as in the great
hall at Karnak, a forest of closely spaced columns. It was not
until the principle of the Arch was developed into vaulting
that interiors of any considerable dimension with clear floor
No. 4. The
Lintel. spaces were possible.
Lintel construction was employed in the Egyptian,
Chaldean and Greek styles.
The Arch, as a constructive form, did not appear until a later period, and
possibly was due to some extent to the employment of brick and stones of
small size.
Form or shape is not involved, as it is quite possible to
so shape the Lintel as to give the appearance of the Arch
by cutting the underside to the required curve. In the
early Greek architecture examples have been found of
both Arch and vault appearance, but these are the result
of horizontal courses, successively projecting; that is,
built in the form of inverted steps, the underside being No. 5. Tomb of
cut to the arch curve, and is a form of construction Tantalus in Lydia.
Vault form, but not
restricted to bridging relatively small areas. vault construction.

The Arch

The principle of the Arch depends upon the
separate pieces of material being formed to a
wedge shape, the joints corresponding to radial
lines drawn through the centre from which the
No. 6. A. Structural Arch. B.
Arch curve is struck.
Arch appearance, result of The weak part of the Lintel is the centre of
cutting away.
the span which may have a tendency to give
way under pressure, but the wedged
construction of the Arch renders the centre strong enough to bear the
imposed weight.
In contrast with the Lintel, material of small size could be employed, not
only stone, but brick being used in Arch construction.
The Lintel, in relatively small spans, is
sometimes composed of separate small stones,
shaped to fit each other in the form of Joggled
joints.

No. 7. Section of Gothic
Vault showing courses of
stone and centering.

No. 8.
A. Lintel in one piece.
B. C. D. Various forms of Joggled joints.

The outward and manifest appearance
suggests to the lay observer a striking
divergence in the style known as Gothic
from the Roman manner of building; but the
main difference is in proportion and
treatment of detail, the underlying principle
being much the same. The use of the Arch
and vaulting was common to both, but in the
Gothic development greater strength was
obtained, with even greater economy of
material. The archivolts and intersecting ribs
of vaults, with their supports, literally
formed the bones of the building,
constituting a framework to which the bays
of walls and roofing were only a matter of
filling in.
In the words of Mr. C. H. Moore, in his
No. 9. Gothic Vaulting showing
work on “Development and Character of intersecting ribs forming
Gothic Architecture”—“the Gothic style framework of structure.
developed into a system where stability
depends not upon any inert massiveness except in the outermost abutments,
but upon a logical adjustment of active parts whose opposing forces
produce a perfect equilibrium. It is thus a system of balanced thrusts, as
opposed to the former system of inert stability.”
Egyptian
The Egyptian buildings, in common with those of Palestine, were
frequently of mud, strengthened by wattle or reeds interwoven, evidence of
which is apparent in later incised decoration. Buildings were also of sun-
baked bricks, those of an important character being faced with stone; the
exteriors of these latter were simple and severe, the walls being slightly
tapered and surmounted by a simple cove cornice, with gateways and
entrances of massive form.
The internal effect was of mystery, doubtless due to the comparative
absence of light, and to the many columns necessary to carry the roofings.
The columns which were mostly employed in the interiors, were squat and
stunted in proportion, being from four to seven diameters in height, with

capitals of the Lotus, Papyrus or Hathor variety. Mouldings were of the
simplest character and sparsely used, and the decoration included
renderings of the Lotus and Papyrus plants, either painted or incised in
stone with the addition of colour.

No. 10. Longitudinal section and half plan
of Egyptian Temple.

Egyptian architecture may be generally described as monumental, while
the ornament was apparently inspired by religious feeling and desire for
symbolic expression, rather than by more æsthetic considerations.
In Egyptian Art ornament is subordinated to the architecture, and the
employment of wall pictures and of inscriptions in the hieroglyphic
character, added considerably to the decorative effect. In the wall pictures
the figures were depicted in silhouette, in conventional attitudes, the head
and limbs being displayed in severe profile, while the torso is represented in
full front view. The methods of expression were painting, or incised in
outline on stone, invariably filled in with colour, the effect in both being of
flatness, with little suggestion of modelling or rotundity, the various
features being defined by local colour.

No. 11. Entrance Façade of Egyptian
Temple.

Though much of the Egyptian work was in the round, and evident of
great sculptural ability and appreciation of form, yet generally their
decorative work may be described as a colour style, rather than one in
which light and shade were important factors.
With regard to the domestic life, the examples of
furniture in the British Museum convey some idea, and
these bear a remarkable similarity to forms with which
we are familiar at the present day, both in detail and
construction, which is simple and direct, with mortise
and tenon joints. Turning was frequently employed, and,
in the decoration of furniture, inlays of ivory, ebony and
glass, the Egyptians being expert workers in both glass
No. 12. Egyptian and enamels.
Capital from Philae.

No. 13. Egyptian Furniture.
A. Stand Inlaid.
B. Ebony seat inlaid with ivory.
C. Folding stool.
D. Ebony box inlaid with porcelain and ivory.

Illustrations taken from bas reliefs and wall painting give a good idea of
the furniture, which is often depicted as gilded.
The Egyptian couch was straight like an ottoman. Sometimes the couch
took the form of an animal with the head and tail at either end, and the legs
and feet carved to complete the effect.
Chaldean
Chaldean art in character had much in common with that of Egypt, the
difference being more that of expression than in idea, probably due to
intercourse and mutual influence. The buildings, which were mostly in
brick, often faced with a form of terra-cotta, stamped with relief or
ornament, were pyramidal in general form, raised on terraces forming a
succession of platforms, approached by steps or inclined planes. Columns
were employed, but the capitals were distinctive in the use of volutes
culminating in the Persian renderings at Persepolis.

No. 14. Egyptian Chairs.
A. Wall painting in British Museum, B.C.
1500-1400.
B. at Thebes.

Compound animal and human forms, analagous to the Egyptian sphinx,
were employed, such as the winged lion and bull with human heads,
generally to flank the gateways. Wall pictures in low relief formed part of
the interior decoration, these being arranged in successive rows and

representing historic episodes were, like the Egyptian decoration, probably
coloured. A prominent detail in the decoration is that of the date palm
which, symbolical in meaning, was the prototype of the Greek anthemion;
the volute also occurs in much of the decoration in the form of the evolute
scroll.
Our conclusions regarding Assyrian woodwork are drawn from the
sculptured bas-reliefs of stone or alabaster with which the Assyrians faced
their brick structures internally and externally. The examples in the British
Museum are about 888 B.C.
Furniture, such as tables, thrones and couches, was evidently made of
wood, and was probably inlaid with ivory and other precious materials.
On the monuments of Khorsabad representations have
been discovered of chairs, supported by animals and human
figures. The intention in the use of figures was probably to
depict prisoners taken in war.
Chairs, thrones, stools and tables were square in shape.
No. 15. The ends of the rails and legs were carved, and the
Assyrian Seat.
ornamentation employed for these and similar positions
included the heads of lions, bulls and rams, the sacred palm
and pine cone.
The seats of chairs and thrones were much higher
than is now customary, and necessitated the use of foot-
stools. In some cases both chairs and tables were made
to fold on a central pivot.
In some cases metal was used either for part or for
the complete structure.
Exact chronology is a matter of surmise, but at an
early period, about 4000 B.C., in the valley of the Nile
and in Mesopotamia, civilization had attained a very
high level, extremely favourable to the development of
architecture and the artistic crafts.
The early Greeks, as a result of the peculiar No. 16. Capitals
from Persepolis.
formation of their coast line, like the later
Scandinavians, were adventurers on the sea, piratical
and trading, and were thus brought into communication with, and
influenced by, the arts of Egypt and Chaldea.

Greek
Though, in their architecture, the Greeks
progressed no further than the Lintel, yet they must
be credited with the development of the system of the
orders, which formed the basis of subsequent styles.
The two prominent orders were the Doric and the
Ionic; the former has its prototype in the tomb of
Beni Hasan, the date of which is 1740 B.C., while the
No. 17. Early latter is evidently derived as to the voluted form of
Treatment of Doric
Order. Tomb of Beni the capital, from Assyrian and Persian originals.
Hassan. The capital of the
Corinthian order may be
considered to be a development of the Egyptian
Papyrus form, the earliest features of both consisting
of an inverted bell-shape decorated with leaf-like
detail.

No. 18. Early
anticipation of Ionic
Order. Tomb at Kyanea-
Jaghu.

No. 19. Greek Vase Paintings. A. Doric columns. B. Wall fountain. C. Ionic columns with
pediment.

Characteristic Greek details, such as the Anthemion and wave scroll, are
traceable to the same sources.

Their architectural work, which was monumental in character, was
mostly manifested in the temples, the domestic buildings being relatively
unimportant.
Some idea as to these may be gathered from
the vase paintings in the British Museum, on
which they appear simple in form, mostly Doric
in character, and probably of wood construction,
the metopes in the frieze being open spaces for
purpose of interior lighting.
No. 20. Greek house about
Though the Greeks invested many of their 100 A.D. Bas-relief in British
creations with Epic and Symbolic meaning, much Museum, Bacchus visiting
Icarius.
of their ornament was purely æsthetic.
The sculptured metopes of the Parthenon,
representing the conflict between the Lapithae and the Centaurs, are an
example of the Epic treatment.
The Sphinx, borrowed from Egyptian art, was, however, invested with a
different meaning, and is an example of the Symbolic class, which formed
so large a part in Greek art.
Greek architecture differs from preceding styles in the development of
mouldings, and the exterior columnar effect. The mouldings in the Ionic
and Corinthian phases were enriched with carved details, probably
developed from or suggested by earlier painted decoration.

No. 21. Front elevation and plan of Parthenon, Athens

No. 22. Greek Ionic Erectheum, Athens.

The Doric style was presumably so decorated, with painted details on the
ovolo and abacus of the capital, and the corona and other members of the
cornice.
Colour was employed on the backgrounds of the metopes, mostly blue
and red, resulting in an alternation of colour with plain stone areas; the
colour decoration forming horizontal bands.
One important development, due to climatic conditions, was the pitched
roof, which entailed the end walls being carried up in triangular form
(literally gables), which were framed by the upper members of the
entablature.
This feature, technically known as the Pediment, was in buildings of
importance invariably filled by sculpture, Mythological or Epic in subject,
designed to occupy the shape.
The styles mostly employed were the Doric and Ionic, and these were
exploited contemporaneously, the Parthenon, 430 B.C., representing the
culmination of the former.
Of the Corinthian style—comparatively little used by the Greeks, though
much employed and developed later—the Choragic monument at Athens,
330 B.C., is the most complete example, though the leaf capital was
anticipated in a simpler form in the earlier Tower of the Winds.

The earliest representations of Greek furniture are to be found in the
Syrian Room at the British Museum. These are the chairs dated about 6 B.C.,
in which the antique figures are seated. The backs are perpendicular, and
the frame pieces of the seats are mortised into the legs.
The Greek couch was not unlike the modern sofa. It
was used for sleeping and resting. Chairs and stools
were sometimes made of metal, and were often of a
folding type.
Tables were constructed in various shapes—
sometimes the supports were fashioned as heads and
legs of lions and leopards, and sometimes as sphinxes
with lifted wings. In common with other pieces of
furniture, they were made in wood, metal and marble.

No. 23. Greek
Corinthian, Choragic
Monument, Athens.

No. 24. Greek Furniture.

A. Couch or bed, Archaic Etruscan.
B. “ “ Vase painting.
C. Archaic chair, 580-520 B.C.
D. Chair from Hydria.
E. Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.C
F. Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.C.

The vase rooms of the British Museum provide considerable matter for
study with regard to the details of Greek furniture, couches especially are
frequently depicted.
The Greeks were expert workers in cast bronze, as is evidenced, not only
by their statuary, but in many utensils of domestic life, notably the oil
lamps, which were also in many instances modelled in terra cotta.

No. 25. Greek Pottery.

A. Kelebe (mixing bowl), 6th century B.C.
B. Lekythos (oil bottle), Athenian (about) 450 B.C.
C. Mastos, coloured black, red and white.
D. Hydria (pitcher), 350-250 B.C.
E. Kylix (goblet), 520 B.C.

Soon after the sack of Corinth in 140 B.C., Greece became a Roman
province, and the Greek art workers eventually found more encouragement
from Roman patronage than in local requirement.
They therefore went where their work was appreciated and rewarded,
thereby effecting a potential influence in the art and work of their
conquerors.
Roman
Originally there were no special native characteristics by which Roman
work could be distinguished, as the Romans absorbed various influences
from the races that they conquered. Their conquests extended East and
West, and from these widely differing outside influences the Roman style
developed.
The Romans, who by temperament, were great soldiers, organisers and
engineers, rather than artistic, in their early essays in architecture were
influenced by Etruscan work.
Etruria (now Tuscany) is presumed to have been a Greek colony, and the
local style, a form of debased Doric, was adopted by the first Tarquin (who
was of Etruscan origin) and introduced to Rome about 610 B.C.
With the growth of the Roman Empire, and its consequent wealth and
development of luxury, great impetus was given to building and the arts
generally.
The orders based on the Greek originals were developed in detail and
proportion, particularly in the latter respect. Whereas in the Greek Doric the
height of the column varied from about four, to six and a half diameters, the
Roman version became more slender, being about eight diameters in height.
The Corinthian order, perhaps, underwent the greatest change, a change
that has practically remained unaltered to the present day.
Vaulting
The most significant development in building was the Arch and
subsequent vaulting, by means of which extensive covered areas were

rendered possible. The Pantheon at Rome is covered with a hemispherical
vault or dome 139 feet in diameter.

No. 26. Section and interior elevation of
Pantheon, Rome.

The dome, which is interiorally occupied by radiating and horizontal
ribs, resulting in five horizontal rows of cassons, or coffers, is really a
casting in cement; and in principle is identical with the present method of
building, in which concrete or cement forms a considerable part in
construction.
Apart from other reasons, the Arch was necessitated by small material,
which, in the case of the Lintel, could not be employed without the device
of joggelled joints. In the absence of suitable material to cover spans, it
became necessary to devise some means to the desired result. This was
achieved by bridging the span with separate pieces of material cut to the
necessary wedge form.
The Arch was first applied to such useful and necessary buildings as the
Cloaca Maxima, to aqueducts, bridges, and viaducts, from which its firm
construction and power of resistance were found to be applicable to
buildings of many storeys.

No. 27. Coliseum, Rome. Section and
part elevation showing arch and vault
construction.

Greek Influence
Apart from the early employment and development of the Arch, the
Romans were content to borrow their architecture from outside sources, and
also were indebted to the Greeks for their ideal expressions in poetry, art,
even to religion, whose gods they invested with different names.
Notwithstanding, the Roman development in architecture was
undoubtedly dignified and grand in manner, particularly in their treatment
of the Corinthian order.
With regard to detail, much of the delicacy and refinement of the Greek
character was lost, yet this was compensated by greater variety and freedom
of treatment, especially in the development of the Acanthus type of foliage.

No. 28. Arch of Titus, Rome.

Development of Ornament
Decoration was more generally used, pilaster and other panels being
occupied with ornament arranged on growth lines, mostly composed of
undulate stems, with scrolling branches, clothed with conventional leaves
and flowers.
There was also a tendency to employ occasionally natural types in
foliage, and further variety was obtained by the introduction of human and
animal form, which, though originally significant, were used for their
æsthetic value.
The Roman domestic life was materially different from the Greek, and
while they had their Temples, they also had their palaces, public halls and
baths, besides the amphitheatre and the circus.
Excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii
have thrown considerable light on the domestic
life of the Romans—their dwellings,
decorations and furniture.

No. 29. Typical Roman
Ornament.

No. 30. Roman couch. Sepulchral urn, British Museum. No. 31. Roman Sella.

Græco-Roman Painted Decoration
In the luxurious life of the Romans colour

No. 32. Graeco-Roman Hall in house of Sallust,
Pompeii.

decoration played a conspicuous part, as is evidenced in the painted work of
Herculaneum and Pompeii. In this, which is generally known as the Græco-
Roman period, the interiors were decorated with paintings, the general
scheme being based on an architectural setting, the wall areas being divided
into bays by slender columns, sometimes by pilaster panels, with plinth, or
dado, frieze, and cornice, the prevailing colours being red, buff and black.

No. 33.

The decoration of the frieze in many instances suggested openings,
through which distant vistas could be seen. The bays or spaces between the
apparent dividing supports were further decorated with small panel pictures
with frames; generally the supports were united by festoons or scrolling
detail, the whole expressed by painting in colour without actual relief.
The use of glass for glazing windows was employed in the later period;
that the Romans were expert workers in glass can be verified by the
examples in the National collections.

No. 34.

For artificial lighting of interiors oil lamps were customary, which were
boat shape in form, sometimes used in groups or clusters suspended from
branching stems or supported on tripod standards. These were invariably in
cast bronze, though terra-cotta was also used, but in either material were
extremely beautiful in form and detail.
In any attempt to review the past, it is difficult to visualise the actual life
at the back of the pageantry, with which we are naturally prone to be
obsessed, in history as written; but the exhibits of the various domestic
appliances of the Roman period at the British Museum are of considerable
interest, and a scrutiny of these cannot fail to bring the individual to a closer
understanding of the times and people.
At Byzantium or Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman
Empire, a distinct style developed out of a curious mingling of the
characteristics of East and West; and it was marked particularly by a
grafting of earlier Greek detail on to simplified Roman forms.
The establishment in 330 A.D. of Byzantium or Constantinople as the
Eastern capital of the Roman Empire and the recognition by the state of
Christianity resulted in a great change in architecture and the associated
crafts. Prior to this the early Christians had been compelled to hold their

meetings secretly, and when this was no longer necessary they at first
utilised for their public worship the existing Basilicas or public halls. Later
on churches were built, the plan being arranged in the form of a Greek cross
(e.g., with equal arms), surmounted by a central dome.
Domes
The dome was supported on four piers, united by arches, and the change
in plan from these piers to the dome necessitated vaultings from the inner
angles to reconcile the diagonal dimension to the diameter of the imposed
circle. These vaultings spreading from the angles are technically known as
Pendentives. The

No. 35. Byzantine. Section and plan of St.
Vitali, Ravenna.

No. 36. Byzantine Capitals from Ravenna.

four arms of the cross constituting transepts, nave and chancel were also
surmounted by either complete or semi-domes.
The Byzantine dome differs from the Roman type in matters of detail,
thus the interior surface is plain instead of the intersecting ribs with
resulting coffers as in that of the Pantheon. In this latter the lighting of the
interior is accomplished by a central opening or eye, but in some Byzantine
examples, notably St. Sophia (built for Justinian by Anthemius) the lighting
is the result of windows ranged round the base, constituting what is known
as the ariel type of dome.
The dome of St. Sophia is segmental instead of hemispherical as in the
Pantheon, being only one-sixth of the diameter in height, the diameter being
106 ft. 7½ ins.
The architectural features generally were considerably modified,
particularly with regard to mouldings, which were almost eliminated. The

entablature was also at times dispensed with, and arches springing direct
from the capitals of supporting columns were general; a feature which is
characteristic of the later Romanesque. The capitals became simple in form,
being mostly inverted pyramidal or cushion shapes, in which the abacus is
considerably enlarged and as a rule unmoulded.
The carved details reveal simplicity of execution, being merely cut back
from the surface, the relief being uniform and greatly in contrast to the
plastic feeling of the Roman work. Though the leaves employed were of the
acanthus type, they were quite devoid of modelling, being merely
channelled with V-shaped grooves; the eyes between the lobes being round
and suggestive of the use of the drill, the execution being a reversion to the
archaic Greek.

No. 37. Byzantine Panels. St. Appollinare, Nuovo,
Ravenna.

Early Christian Art
A notable feature in the Byzantine detail is the prevalence of the circle,
frequently grouped in three, four and five, with the respective significance
of the Trinity, the Evangelists and the Cross, or Five Wounds. The
grotesques of the Pagan detail are conspicuously absent, giving place to
forms more in keeping with the new religion, such, for instance, as the cross
and the vine.
It is questionable if the polytheism of the average cultured Roman was
taken very seriously, but incidental to the religious observances were certain
rites and symbolic forms, with which the Christians were familiar, and the
early preachers evidently found it a matter of policy to invest some of these
with a new meaning. During the period of intolerance and persecution,
signs and symbols grew in importance as a

No. 39. Byzantine Interior, Ravenna.

No. 40. 5th Century Mosaic Work in the Baptistery at
Ravenna.
From a Drawing by Miss Dora Bard.

means of secret communication; and in the later period when secrecy was
no longer necessary, these became a corporate part of the ornament and
decoration.

No. 38. Byzantine Panel from the
sarcophagus of St. Theodore. St.
Appollinare in Classe, Ravenna.

In contrast to the Roman ornament, in which the effect depended mostly
on light and shade, the Byzantine was a colour style, and it became
customary to line the walls of the principal buildings with marble slabs
quartered and placed reciprocally, so that the figurings formed symmetrical
patterns. Mosaic work, either of marble or glass, constituted the decoration
in such suitable positions as the floors, spandrils, lunettes and domes, gold
being largely employed in the backgrounds. Windows, at times large in
area, were glazed as in Roman times with cast slabs of glass, set in metal
frames, usually bronze; and thin slabs of translucent marble and onyx were
also used for glazing purposes.
Metal Work and Enamel
The Byzantines were also expert carvers of ivory and workers in metal,
decorated in repoussé and with wire filigree; the metal work was invariably
set with jewels and precious stones, in conjunction with champleve enamel,
the whole being gilt.
As a result of the Iconoclastic movement, and the decree of Pope Leo III
in 726 A.D., the art workers, deprived of local patronage and compelled to
pursue their crafts elsewhere, migrated to the Rhine district, where for some
centuries the Byzantine traditions were preserved and largely influenced
Western art, particularly with regard to the working in metal and enamels.
The attraction of the centre of the Eastern Empire for northern adventurers
had its effect in the introduction of the Byzantine style into the detail of the
different phases of the Romanesque.

No. 41. Champleve enamel Byzantine
tradition.

The tradition thus becoming widely known was finally absorbed by local
craftsmen and modified according to local conditions, with the result that
both in expression and in execution, the style tended to become more and
more crude, until the original forms and details were almost entirely lost.
But in spite of changes the classic feeling never completely died out.
Roman Influence Abroad
Under the Roman system, in colonizing, their architecture, customs and
laws were imposed on the conquered population. When later, under stress of
events, the governing bodies and military forces had to be withdrawn, these
left behind them universal traces of their occupation and influence. The
inhabitants of the provinces thus abandoned and thrown on their own
resources, were immediately menaced by invasions, which had been
hitherto kept in check by the armies of occupation, and for some protracted
period ensued a condition of unrest and conflict, under which the arts
naturally suffered. Eventually, from the chaos emerged a native manner of
building, which, though rude and coarse in execution, was based on the
Roman tradition.
Romanesque Style
The transition thus brought about is known for convenience as
Romanesque. Its most typical exponents were possibly the Scandinavians,
whose Christianised descendants, the Normans, preserved the same
tradition. The work of the Saxons in England, although stimulated by the
same influences, was much cruder in execution.

This period was not remarkable for great artistic development, and
luxury in any form was practically non-existent.
Notwithstanding local character, the prevailing features are similar, in
that the round arch is employed, supported by columns or piers, from which
the arches spring direct, the entablature being eliminated.
The columns are squat in proportion, and surmounted by capitals of
truncated cone or cushion shape, the abacus being deep and square in plan.
Mouldings were little used, and the archivolts were formed in a series of
recessed bands, either plain or decorated. Distinct from the Byzantine style,
the Romanesque depended for effect upon contrast of light and shade.
Details were carved, and rude in execution,
preserving to some extent the Byzantine feeling,
the prevailing ornament being the undulate stem,
with scroll branches, clothed with leafage, simply
channelled or grooved, but less spikey in form.

No. 42. Romanesque
Capitals from Cloister, St.
Guillem du Desert, Herault.
Reminiscent of Roman
Corinthian.

Church Development
Of the buildings of importance of this period the churches form the most
interesting examples of development. The usual plan consisted of an oblong
nave with side aisles half its width and height.
At the end of the nave, projecting transepts separated it from the chancel
(which is generally raised in level), continuing the line of nave, the whole
taking the shape of the Latin cross in contrast to the Byzantine plan; the
chancel end facing East, the nave West, and the transepts respectively North
and South.
A feature of this period is the Apse, a semi-circular extension of the
choir or chancel; when the side aisles were extended to the latter they
formed what is known as an ambulatory, or passage way, round the choir,
within which was the altar, and the stalls for monks and clergy.
The Narthex or atrium, of the basilicas, utilised by the early Christians
for their public worship (to which were admitted those outside the

community) was abandoned, its place being taken by
the West entrance or porch, enclosed between two
towers.
The upper walls of the nave were carried on
arches supported by columns, which constituted the
division of the side aisles; these latter being formed
by vaultings from the nave columns to the outer
walls, the vaulting being roofed over.
The upper part of the nave was pierced by
windows, small and comparatively narrow, with
semi-circular heads forming the Clerestory. Similar
windows in some instances occur in the aisles, the
jambs of these windows being bevelled both inside
and out for the freer admission of light.
The nave was roofed in with timber, but as the
No. 43. Romanesque
result of frequent destruction by fire, the roof was Tower, Thaon,
eventually vaulted; in early examples by the barrel Normandy.
or tunnel vault, but later this developed into cross-
vaulting, which was also introduced into the side aisles.
In the early churches of this period the walls of the
nave were unbroken except for the upper windows. With
the development of vaulting, the space above the aisle
vaults and the covering roof was used as a gallery known
as the Triforium. This was not lighted from without, and
was a distinguishing characteristic of the Romanesque
and early Gothic styles.
The introduction of vaulting in the roof of the nave
entailed supports for the arch bands or vaulting ribs,
which were carried on pilasters or half columns, dividing
the interior façade into bays.

No. 44.
Romanesque plan

of Cathedral,
Worms.

No. 45. Romanesque,
bay of interior, Worms
Cathedral.

No. 47. Romanesque
Church interior with
Triforium.

No. 46.
Romanesque
Window, St.
Alban’s Abbey.

No. 48. Construction of
intersecting vaults.

Dark Ages
The unsettled condition of Europe, both before and after the final
subjugation of the Roman Empire by Charlemagne in 774 A.D., was
necessarily detrimental to artistic progress, and the period to the fifteenth
century may be truly described as the dark ages as regards the arts and
culture in general.
Such literary knowledge as survived was mostly confined to the priests,
and under the monastic and feudal systems that prevailed the bulk of the
people were kept in ignorance and subjection.
Building was devoted almost exclusively to fortresses and churches, the
domestic conditions being extremely crude as compared with earlier
periods, though Eastern luxury must have been known and experienced by
the alien adventurers to the Byzantine courts.
This was a period of reversion to comparative barbaric taste by people
indifferent to refinement and luxurious environment, to whom, however,
personal adornment would appeal in the form of jewellery and sumptuous
attire.

No. 49. Romanesque, south door
Kilpeck Church, Herefordshire.

Domestic arrangements were simple in the extreme. The dwellings of the
well-to-do in England, similarly to those of the Scandinavians, consisted
principally of a barn-like hall. The centre of the hall was occupied by a long
table, and at one end raised on a platform or dais another table was placed
in the opposite direction. At the latter sat the most important members of
the household, while the lower part was reserved for retainers and servants.
Heavy chairs and settles were used at the upper table, and benches or forms
at the lower.
Walls, when covered at all, were adorned with hangings, but then only at
the dais end of the hall. Fireplaces in the modern sense were not known.
The fire was built on the floor, and the smoke allowed to escape as best it
might.
Arrangements for sleeping were no more complex than those for dining.
Beds were provided only for persons of distinction, and were placed in
recesses screened off from the hall by curtains or shutters. They were, in
fact, little more than wooden boxes, with sacks of straw to serve as
mattresses.
Later, bedsteads were used of massive construction, which on occasions
of journeying were placed on wheels, forming a sort of coach or carriage

ironically termed whirlicots, in which the aged and infirm were transported.
For some time after the Norman Conquest the
unsettled state of the country rendered it necessary
that household effects and valuables should be few
in number and of such a nature as to be easily
transportable. Thus chests in which belongings
could be stored came into general use. They were
simple in construction, and without carving, but
were strengthened and decorated by hinges and
scroll strappings in iron. Such chests served a
double purpose, as they could be used as tables and No. 50. Chair of
Dagobert, French 7th
seats. century, bronze.
For convenience of
transport, chairs and stools were made with
projecting tenons secured by pins or wedges so
as to be easily taken apart.

No. 51. 14th Century Textile
Sicilian tradition.

Crusades
That the Crusades were incidental to the importation of examples of
Eastern art, is evidenced by the celebrated cup of Eden Hall, on the safe
preservation of which depended the worldly welfare of the owners,
according to the couplet:
“If that cup either break or fall,
Farewell the luck of Eden Hall.”

This cup is of Saracenic origin, and is of glass, painted in enamels,
similar in character to the mosque lamps in the British Museum.
Tapestries of Sicilian manufacture were also introduced through the
medium of the Crusades, and led to the employment of painted wall
decoration, evidently in imitation, even in some instances to indicating the
folds of the material.
A precept exists in the twentieth year of
the reign of Henry III directing “that the
King’s great chamber at Westminster be
painted a good green colour like a curtain,”
and “that the King’s little wardrobe should
also be painted of a green colour to imitate
a curtain.”
This was undoubtedly suggested by the
custom abroad of draping the walls with
tapestries, though carpets were unknown.
Probably the first time these were seen in
England was in the apartments in the
Temple occupied by the suite of the infant
Don Sancho, archbishop elect of Toledo,
who with Don Garcias Madinez, officiated
as avant-courriers to Eleanor of Castile in
No. 52. Sicilian Textile.
the autumn of 1255.
Pointed Arch

No. 53. Types of Buttress.

The origin of the pointed Arch, which is the chief characteristic of the
Gothic style, is much disputed, but there is ample evidence that the new
departure appeared almost simultaneously in different parts of Europe soon
after the First Crusade. It is reasonable to assume that this particular form
was suggested by examples in Syria, where arches elliptic and even ogival
in shape were employed.
Though not common in Roman work, the pointed Arch was employed in
the Aqueduct built to supply Constantinople with water, completed under
Valens, 364-378 A.D., by which it is probable that the Saracenic work was
inspired.
Whatever the origin, the innovation was found to be economic, and more
sound in construction than the older prevailing method. It was also more
flexible in design, as apertures of varying dimensions could be spanned
with arches equal in height, which is not possible with the semi-circular
form, except by the expedient of stepping.

Further strength was imparted by the employment of buttresses on the
outer walls, as well as at the angles of the building.
Gothic Style
In France, England and Germany the Gothic style superseded the
Romanesque with varying phases of transition, and with local development
of character. In Spain the Moors had established a system of architecture
thoroughly Eastern that was but little affected by the Gothic style, the
influence of which is apparent in the later Spanish rendering of the
Renaissance.
In Italy the Gothic attained but slight development in comparison with
more northern and western treatments, at least from a structural point of
view. The Italian phase known as Lombardic is conspicuous for the
evidence of Eastern and Byzantine traditions.
Phases of Gothic
The phases and dates of the Gothic style in England are as follow, and
lasted well into the sixteenth century, with periods of transition:
Early English or Pointed, 1189 to 1272. Transition 1272 to 1307.
Middle period or Decorated, 1307 to 1377. Transition 1377 to 1407.
Late or ... Perpendicular, 1407 to 1547.
In church architecture the general plan and essential features of the
Romanesque style were preserved; but there was a complete change in the
details, as well as a general lightening of the whole structure.
The heavy columns or piers gave place to clusters of slender shafts,
which supported the archivolts and vaulting ribs, these shafts being bound
together at bases and capitals.
The Triforium was retained, the openings being arched and similar in
detail to the windows.

No. 54. Early pointed
Gothic Pier, elevation
and plan.

Early Pointed
In the early variety of the Pointed Gothic the arches were acutely
pointed, technically known as “lancet,” but later became more equilateral.
The windows were narrow in proportion, and were single, or in groups.
Later they were divided into compartments, and the triangular head filled
in with stonework, pierced with simple geometrical openings, known as
plate tracery, thus forming a transition between the simple open lancet and
the intersecting ribs, which constituted the true tracery of the later periods.
Commonly shafts of circular section, with caps and bases, were
employed in the windows, both internally and externally.
Roofs were high pitched, and the ceilings vaulted, the vaulting ribs being
moulded and decorated at the intersections with carved bosses.
Mouldings were rich in effect, being composed of a succession of
hollows or flutings, contrasted and divided by rounded ribs in relief.

No. 55. Early pointed bay
with Triforium. Window of
Aisle is of later date.

No. 56. Early Lancet Windows. A. Canterbury
Cathedral. B. Lincoln Cathedral. C. Salisbury Cathedral.

No. 57. Early pointed Gothic Windows.
Plate tracery.

Carved detail occurs in the capitals of shafts, sometimes in leaf-like
forms in the bases and in the mouldings, also in the crockets, and finials of
the gables, and pinnacles of the buttresses.
The ornament was extremely conventional,
that on capitals, crockets and other free
positions consisting of crisply curling trefoil or
cinquefoil groups of lobes having little
resemblance to natural type.
The later windows became more elaborate
No. 58. Early pointed Arch in the tracery, which was essentially
Mouldings. geometric, and further elaborated by cusping.
Triforium arches and canopy heads being
similar in design.

No. 59. Early pointed Gothic
Capital.

No. 60. Pointed Gothic tracery Windows. A. Ely Cathedral. B. Meophan Church, Kent.

The central tower, which was common in the Romanesque, developed
into the spire, which was carried to a great height; the lower part
occasionally pierced with openings for purpose of interior lighting, forming
the lantern.
Decorated Gothic
The principal characteristics of the Decorated period are the form of the
Arch, the elimination of detached shafts and the enlarged clerestory with
increased lighting area.
The Arch, when used structurally, was still of the simple pointed form,
but in small windows, niches and canopies, the shape at the head became
ogival and the tracery displays considerable license as compared with that
of the preceding phase.

No. 61. Early pointed Gothic Spire,
Warmington.

No. 62. Decorated Gothic Windows. A. Merton College, Oxford. B. Cathedral, Oxford.

Mouldings were shallower as contrasted with the undercut hollows of
the earlier period; in many instances the arch mouldings were merely a
continuation of those of the supporting piers, which took the place of the
earlier detached shafts.
The greatest innovation occurs in the foliage, in which natural
suggestion is evident, adapted with considerable freedom, and skilful in
execution.
In the preceding style the foliage of the capitals invariably sprung from
the necking, in simple firm curves, revealing the underlying bell-shape. In
the Decorated period the foliage generally wreaths round the structural

form, the detail
being frequently
deeply pierced
and cut away at
the back till it
was almost
detached, giving
an extremely rich
effect.
Diaper detail
of pateræ, or
foliage arranged
in squares,
occurs in the
spandrils
between arches.
No. 63. Decorated Gothic Carving, Chancel screen, Southwell
Minster.

No. 64. Decorated Gothic
Mouldings.

Nos. 65 & 66. Decorated Gothic Capitals, leaves
deeply undercut and wreathed round bell.

A distinct feature of this period and of the succeeding Perpendicular
style, is the battlement, which was used in all suitable positions either as a
parapet or as a cresting. The Decorated variety differs from the later, in that
the moulded edges only appear horizontally, whereas in the Perpendicular
period the moulded edge is continuous, being carried round the angles of
the battlement.
Externally the spire gave place to the tower with culminating lantern.
During the period of the style known as Decorated Gothic, furniture was
framed and panelled, and the details closely resembled those used in
architectural decoration in stone.
The general effect of Decorated is a tendency to horizontal
banding, in contrast to the vertical effect of the earlier period, to
which eventually the later Perpendicular reverted.

No. 67.
Decorated
Gothic
Spire,
Whittlesea
.

Perpendicular Gothic
In the succeeding phase the Triforium which had gradually become less
important, entirely disappeared and the clerestory windows enlarged, to the
extent that this part of the structure became merely a frame for the increased
glass areas.
It will be apparent from the foregoing that whereas in the early churches
of the Romanesque period the interior effect was mysterious owing to

inadequate openings for light, the later and growing tendency was to
increase the lighting capacity by enlarging the windows of the clerestory.
Glass Windows
Doubtless the development in the size of windows was due to some
extent to the growing use of glass, which, though rare, was employed
during the later Romanesque through Byzantine tradition.
These early windows were geometric in design,
consisting of medallions, oval, circular or quatrefoil in
shape, containing figure subjects set in a diapered
background, the whole being executed in small pieces of
coloured glass united by lead framings.
While the windows were single openings, this form of
glazing necessarily restricted the size, though more adequate
lighting was achieved by grouping two or more windows
together.
With the development of tracery the technical difficulties
were to some extent overcome; a window divided into
comparatively small compartments could be more easily
glazed than single openings of large size; thus glazed
No. 68.
windows of greater dimensions were rendered possible. Perpendicular
In the Decorated windows the Gothic Bay
shewing
lower lights were devoted to the development of
subject, which in many instances Clerestory.
was carried through the area,
regardless of the dividing bars or mullions. In the
Perpendicular each light or opening had usually
its own subject or figure, surmounted by
canopies, the upper spaces formed by
intersection of the tracery bars were occupied by
various details suitable to the different shapes.
The Arch of the Perpendicular style is
materially different, being composed of elliptic
curves struck from four centres.
Mouldings became even more shallow in
No. 69. Perpendicular
Gothic Windows. section, and the tracery less florid than formerly,

A. Aylsham Church, though extremely rich in appearance when used
Norfolk.
B. King’s College Chapel,
in the profusion that developed in the fan
Cambridge. vaulting of this period.

No. 70. Perpendicular Gothic Fan
Vaulting. St. Mary, Aldermary.

The foliation reverted to a more conventional character, and became
lifeless and monotonous in comparison with the Decorated work.
It must not be assumed that examples in every instance will be found
complete in any of these phases; on the contrary, the various styles are to be
found side by side in the same building, the result of later additions or
rebuilding.
Painted decoration and sculpture were also employed during the various
periods; wood-work where necessary was used, and in detail was in
harmony with the architectural character of the period.

No. 71.
Perpendicular
Gothic Tower, All
Saints, Derby.

Civic Influences
The feudal period was not favourable to the development of domestic
conditions, though considerable advance had been made by the fourteenth
century, chiefly by the Italian states and in the principal cities. The
importance of the latter is evidenced particularly in the City of London,
with its merchant class and civic authorities, who, by reason of their wealth,
attained potential political influence, the prevailing contentious conditions
necessitating the continual raising of large sums of money.
Such conditions were favourable to the merchants, who, acting as
bankers, supplied the means, and thus a class was established and
apparently lived in profusion and some pretention to sumptuous
environment.

No. 72. Coronation
Chair, Westminster
Abbey, 13th century.

No. 73. Bedstead and
Cradle from M.S. in
Bodleian Library,
14th century.

Effect of Commerce
Similar conditions to those in England prevailed on the Continent with
certain local variations. A big stride was made with the development of
commerce, mainly through the agency of Venetian and Flemish merchants.
The effect of increasing opulence as signalised by the appearance in the
home of such comfort and refinement as had formerly been possible only
for princes and great nobles.

Among the luxuries imported were Oriental silks, carpets and pottery.

No. 74. Fireplace, 13th
century.

Italy
Whereas, throughout Europe generally, the Gothic character in furniture
and woodwork developed on similar lines, in Italy alone its appeal to the
national sympathies was not strong enough for it to become thoroughly
assimilated, and there the Byzantine style persisted.
The woods most in use were oak and chestnut. In Italy walnut and
cypress were used—the latter being considered especially valuable for
chests.
Early examples of Italian chests are decorated with closely spaced
incised ornament, filled in with colour.
The Venetians derived from Persia and India a form of marquetry or
inlay of ivory, metal and various woods, generally geometric in design. The
wood used was stained in order to vary the colour.
Foreign Influence in England
Through the policy of seeking foreign princesses as brides for the
English kings, foreign influences crept in, and had a marked effect on the
development of style. Moreover, increasing commercial intercourse with
the Continent paved the way for the introduction of the new ideas of the
Renaissance then beginning to dawn in Italy.
The Wars of the Roses checked progress in many ways, but this was but
the more rapid when peace was restored with the advent of Henry VII.

The House
There was a great change in the character of the dwelling-house, which
though still built on defensive lines, was also arranged with a view to
domestic comfort and convenience. The commonest form of plan was that
in which the buildings were grouped round a central court and surrounded
by a moat. These buildings consisted of hall, parlour, kitchen and domestic
offices. The hall itself was lofty, had an open-timbered roof, and was
usually lighted from both sides. One end of the hall was invariably screened
off, and as the screen did not reach to the roof the musicians’ gallery was
placed above it. The fireplace was set in one of the side walls. The
windows, as a rule, had few lights, and these had pointed and cusped heads.
The upper rooms were accessible by staircases.
A not uncommon feature on the upper floor was the long gallery, which
generally traversed the whole length of the building immediately under the
roof.
The rooms were panelled most often to about two-thirds the height of the
wall, while the remaining third was of plaster.
The ceiling also was of plaster, which was moulded into intersecting ribs
arranged geometrically, sometimes with stalactite pendants at the
intersections.
Fireplaces were made of stone, and chimney-pieces sometimes of wood.
Furniture was beginning to assume some of its modern forms, as shown
by the chairs, which were railed, and copied from Italian models.
Buffets or sideboards with closed cupboards were in use. Table legs were
carved or turned, and connected by stretchers.
Windows were now glazed with leaded panes, and when made to open
were of the casement type, with iron frames which were hinged and
furnished with turnbuckle fastenings.
Doors seldom had locks, but usually shut with latches of wrought iron.
The hinges also were of wrought iron, and though simple in form were
often quite ornamental.
Henry VII and his successor were responsible for various country
residences, an example which was followed by the nobility.
During the latter monarch’s reign it became the fashion to arrange the
plan of the mansion in the form of the letter H; that is, in two parallel wings

connected at a right angle. In the reign of Elizabeth this was modified into a
plan resembling the letter E, otherwise a façade, with wings bent at right
angles, with a central projection forming the main entrance.
In the domestic Tudor style the Arch was in vogue for window openings,
etc., but much flattened in form.
The windows were divided into a number of lights, by vertical mullions,
with arch headings, occasionally cusped. If of tall proportions, they were
further divided by horizontal bars or transoms, and were glazed with small
panes of glass set in lead frames, arranged in some cases to open in iron
casements.

No. 75. Tudor Window with
leaded lights.

The Reformation
An important factor in the development of this period was the
Reformation, with the resultant liberty of thought. Before this, architecture
and the associated arts were entirely dominated by the Church, at the
sacrifice of the individuality of the artist and craftsman, who after this
emancipation were enabled to exploit their work untrammelled by clerical
restriction.
In some respects this was not productive of the best results, as it
removed the various co-ordinated branches of work from the restraint of
architectural dominance, with some loss to the unities. It also opened the
way to the professional designer as distinct from the craftsman (who
hitherto had been responsible for his share of the work) resulting in
occasional loss of character.

Renaissance
The Renaissance, which had its origin it Italy, was the next factor in the
evolution of architecture and the arts. As early as 1422 there were
indications of the coming change, though the medieval system of
construction was still adhered to.
Impetus was given to this revival by the taking of Constantinople by the
Turks in 1453 A.D., resulting in the dispersion of the Greek scholars, who
found refuge in Italy.
Gothic, essentially a Northern style, scarcely affected Italy, where
Byzantine tradition persisted until the Revival of Learning in the latter half
of the fifteenth century brought a fresh impulse into all branches of Art and
Literature.
An awakened interest in classical remains was an integral part of the
vitality with which the great change known in its culmination as the
Renaissance was imbued; and the commercial prosperity of the times was
favourable to its encouragement and development.
Early Exponents
An active agent in this revival was Brunelleschi, a native of Florence,
who in company with Donatello, visited Rome to study the remains of
classical antiquity. His principal successor, Leo Battista Alberti, contributed
largely to the new style. Ultimately the Roman Orders and their details were
appropriated and adapted to local requirements.
The most prominent artists of the day turned their attention to the
designing and making of wood-work, and the decoration of rooms.

No. 76. Strozzi Palace, Florence.

The earlier work is severely architectural in character, being closely
based on the antique, with all the usual features of columns, pilasters,
cornices and pediments.
The greatest achievement of the architects of the Renaissance was
perhaps their adaptation of the antique Roman style to the modified needs
of secular buildings, of which the Palazzo Pitti at Florence by Brunelleschi
is an early and notable example. This creating a form of architecture which
perhaps reached its noblest expression in the Palazzo Strozzi, begun in 1489
A.D. by Benedetto da Majano.
As previously suggested, climate and local material are essential agents
in the formation of style, and from Tuscany stone of large size was easily
obtainable.

No. 77. Pandolfini Palace, Florence.

The contentious conditions existing in many of the Italian cities,
entailing necessity for defence, must also be taken into account, and in

connection with the foregoing were responsible for the massive and
fortress-like construction of the principal dwellings of this period.
In the best examples of these, though columns and pilasters were not
employed in the façade, the stories are proportioned as if the orders were
used. The crowning cornice, however, is proportioned to the whole, varying
in height between one fourteenth to one fifteenth.
From Florence the movement spread to Rome and other cities, but
Venetian Renaissance indicates undoubted evidence of Lombardic
influence.
Until the end of the fifteenth century the period was one of experiment,
but from 1500 to about 1560 the style may be said to have attained a phase
distinct and local.
At first the various features, structural and decorative, were frank
reproductions from the antique, which were studied and measured, and
from which systems of proportion were deduced by various exponents,
among whom the names of Vignola, Palladio and Serlio are conspicuous.
Rome
The Roman version of the Renaissance, as distinct from that of Florence,
was less massive, Rome being comparatively free from insurrectionary
troubles. Columns and pilasters were used to divide the façade into bays, or
in the inner courts, which were frequently arcaded, and the principal
entrance became a prominent feature.
The founder of the Roman school was Bramante, born in 1444 A.D.,
originally a painter, who was responsible for the original design of St.
Peter’s, at the instigation of Pope Julius II.
The partly executed work was found to be too weak to bear the
superstructure, and Bramante in the meanwhile dying, Raffaelle, Giocondo
and Giuliano di San Gallo, and afterwards Baldazzare Peruzzi and Antonio
San Gallo were engaged on the edifice.

No. 78. St. Peter’s, Rome.

Finally Michael Angelo was entrusted with the sole conduct, and St.
Peter’s in its present form must be credited to him, with the exception of the
nave, which was added by Carlo Maderno.
Of the secular buildings, the Farnese Palace, the work of San Gallo, is
typical of the Roman adaptation of the antique architecture to the altered
conditions.
To the above list of architects of the Roman Renaissance may be added
the names of Sansovino, Vignola and Bernini, the last-named being the
author of designs for the Louvre at Paris.

No. 79. Farnese Palace, Rome.

Venice

The Venetian States, since the twelfth century, had been growing in
power, and the Republic’s rise in importance was favourable to the arts,
particularly to architecture.
Local influence is evident in the comparatively restricted ground areas,
entailing the maximum accommodation possible.
The Venetian school is distinguished by the profuse use of columns and
arcading; also for the employment of circular-headed windows, frequently
subdivided by tracery of smaller arched and circular forms, and by general
lightness of effect.
The founder of the Venetian school was San Micheli, born in 1484 A.D.,
who spent many years studying the ancient Roman monuments, and who
was responsible for the Grimani Palace.
Jacopo Tatti, a Florentine, more usually known as Sansovino, though
mentioned in the Roman group of architects, was however more associated
with Venice, his adopted city.

No. 80. Vendramini Palace, Venice.

Prominent among his works is the Library of St. Mark, which consists of
two orders, an upper of the Ionic, supported by an arcade in which the
Doric is employed, the whole surmounted by a balustrade with statues on
the piers.
Venetian Influence
In the Venetian school must be included the name of Andrea Palladio,
who possibly had a greater influence on the architecture of the time than
any of his contemporaries; an influence that may be traced in the work of
Inigo Jones, and in that of Sir Christopher Wren and his immediate school.
Vincenzo Scamozzi, who died in 1616 A.D., like Palladio and others, was
influenced by the antique, and was perhaps the last architect of the Venetian
school to attain celebrity.

No. 81. Library of St. Mark by
Sansovino, Venice.

Painted Decoration
A conspicuous feature of the Italian Renaissance was the development of
painted decoration, which had in Italy succeeded the Byzantine mosaic.
As in this method of decoration, mouldings in relief were ineffective,
and were replaced by decorative bands or borders, so in the succeeding
painted work similar framings were adopted.

No. 82. Painted
Decoration. Palazzo
Publico, Sienna, from a
drawing by C. E. Bernard,
Goldsmiths’ College School
of Art.

No. 83. Painted Ceiling in the Castello San Angelo,
Rome, by Giulio Romano, from a drawing by Miss
Dora Bard, Goldsmiths’ College School of Art.

No. 84. Painted Decoration in the collonade of the
Villa Papa Giulio, Rome, showing Pompeian influence,
from a drawing by C. E. Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College
School of Art.
No. 84. Painted Decoration in the collonade of the
Villa Papa Giulio, Rome, showing Pompeian influence,
from a drawing by C. E. Bernard, Goldsmiths’ College
School of Art.

No. 85. Ceiling-Painting from the Castello San
Angelo, Rome, reminiscent of Graeco-Roman work,
from a drawing by C. E. Bernard, Goldsmiths’
College School of Art.

Mosaics were in vogue in Italy to the twelfth century, when painted
decoration came into favour, and notable in the exploitation of this latter
phase was the school of Giotto in the early part of the fourteenth century.
Vaultings and spandrils were covered with painted subjects, strongly
framed by ornamental borders, which served to strengthen the sense of
construction in reinforcing the dividing ribs.
With the advent of the Renaissance, these divisional bands became more
architectural in treatment, and large areas, such as ceilings, were
subdivided, the sub-divisions being based on a logical sense of
construction.
The name of Pinturrichio is associated with the Renaissance, among his
works being the decorations of the Appartamenti Borgia in the Vatican, the
Choir in Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome, and in Santa Maria Maggiore at
Spello; contemporaneous was Perugino; another celebrated name is that of
Gian Antonio Bazzi of Sienna, generally known as Sodoma.
Græco-Roman Influence
Later exploiters of painted decoration, Raffaelle at the Vatican, Giulio
Romano, Pierino del Vaga and Giovanni da Udine, were evidently
influenced by the then recent discovery of late Græco-Roman decorations
in the remains of the Baths of Titus.
The same influence is found also in minor details—in the decoration of
rooms and in the various pieces of furniture.

Walls were panelled, sometimes enriched with carving, with inlaid
patterns in intarsia, or with inlay of different woods in imitation of marble
mosaic. Hangings of Genoese velvet or stamped and gilded leather were
often used.
Chairs were at first simple in form, having straight backs and legs, with
broad, elaborately carved rails at the head of the back and between the front
legs.
Chests or cassone, called also marriage coffers, because it was
customary to give them as wedding presents, generally took the form of the
sarcophagus, supported on claw feet. In many instances they were
decorated with gilt gesso, or were covered with exuberant carving.
With the development of inlay, which degenerated into picture making,
some later examples show attempts at perspectives, in which arches, doors,
balustrades and paved floors were depicted. Cabinets were invariably raised
on open supports and furnished with doors enclosing compartments and sets
of drawers, the fronts of which were frequently decorated.
Tables were inlaid, carved and gilded. The
prevailing form was a rectangular top,
sometimes of marble, with wide, richly carved
supports consisting of human and animal
forms at either end; these were connected by a
central stretcher at the base, from which
sprang a series of arched forms reaching to the
No. 86. Venetian Table. underside of the top.
Walnut was commonly employed for
constructive purposes, and ebony and many
other woods were used both for veneers and inlay, as also were such
materials as ivory, tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl.
It is not easy to form an idea of the furniture in ordinary use, as the
examples which survive and which can generally be seen in museums are
misleading, being typical rather of that belonging to the nobility and
wealthy classes.
Probably owing to the rougher usage to which it was subjected, and
possibly also to its being but little esteemed by its owners, and consequently
no effort being made to preserve it, the domestic furniture of the middle
classes seems to have disappeared.

No. 87. Carved Walnut
Chair. Italian, 16th
century.

Early French Renaissance
France had been brought into contact with the new architecture through
the Italian wars under Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I.
The chief characteristic of the early French Renaissance is that the
details of the new school were imposed on structures which were Gothic in
general form.
Italian architects were employed by Francis I, and although in the many
important buildings erected for him he preferred native workmen, Italians
were retained to furnish designs and lead the new style. Leonardo da Vinci
and Andrea del Sarto were both employed in the decoration of
Fontainebleau.

No. 88. Wood Panelling. Early French
Renaissance.

Fontainebleau, Chateau de Chambord, Chenonceaux sur Loire, Chateau
de Madrid and the commencement of the Louvre were all due to Francis I,
and the Italian influence was strengthened by the marriage of Henry II with
Catharine di Medici.

No. 89. Stone Chimney-piece, Fontainbleau, Henry
II Salon.

Native Exploitation
Under the influence of Vignola and Serlio, the Italian style became more
popular, and finally extinguished the lingering Gothic tradition; and
eventually the assimilated style became local, the first prominent native
exploiter being Philibert Delorme, the architect of the Tuileries, for Queen
Catharine of Medicis.
Strapwork was a pronounced feature of this period, carved panels being
subdivided by framings of straight and curved forms interlaced with
cornucopæ and scroll work. Scrolling straps with I shaped incisions were
also used.
Masks are of frequent occurrence, and sometimes form scroll centres.
Medallions were often employed, and were occupied by profile heads,
and surrounded by foliated wreaths.
Pilasters were narrow, and had sunk and moulded panels, lozenge shaped
in the centre.
In England great impetus was given to building, consequent on the
suppression of the religious houses during the reign of Henry VIII, and
mansions were erected in various parts of the country with some pretension

to both external effect and domestic comfort, not merely
by the nobility, but also by the wealthy merchant class.

No. 90. Wood
Panel. Early
French
Renaissance.

English Renaissance
From the rise of the Italian Renaissance a century elapsed before the new
style began to affect English work.
In Italy classic tradition had never died, and
consequently Gothic gained no real hold there, the
best examples of Italian Gothic being inferior to
those of France and England. In the early days of
the Revival of Learning, when interest in
architecture was at its height, Italians set out to
emulate the style of building and decoration which
prevailed in ancient Rome. Gradually the same
spirit spread to other parts of Europe. Students were
attracted to the birth-place of the Revival, and
workers and designers from Italy were eagerly
welcomed by her neighbours.
No. 91. French Chair.
Naturally enough each country interpreted the Period Henry II.
new style in a different way, and as it reached
England chiefly through France and the
Netherlands, the French and Flemish interpretations in turn influenced the
development of the English style.

No. 92. Walnut Chair
upholstered in Appliqué.
Italian, about 1600.

Italians in England
Before either French or Flemish influence had been felt, however, there
were Italian workers settled in England carrying out designs purely Italian
in character. The earliest example is the tomb of Henry VII in Westminster
Abbey, by Torrigiano. Many tombs and monuments were made entirely by
Italians. Holbein, who was employed by Henry VIII, was distinctly a
Renaissance painter and designer and encouraged the new movement.
As the style became more widely disseminated it lost much of its
original purity, and classical details were used in conjunction with Gothic
forms and methods of construction, due, doubtless, to the apparent
difficulty with which the native workers grasped the essentials of the new
style; indeed, there is more intermixing of styles in England than in any
other part of Europe with the exception of Flanders.

No. 93. Stone Chimney-piece. Sala
Borgia, Rome. 16th Century.

The purely Italian phase was followed by a rendering which was largely
borrowed from French work, and this in turn was supplanted by the
influence of the Flemish interpretation. The delicately modelled foliage,
dolphins, candelabra, vases and cherubs, so characteristic of Italian and
French work, were replaced by such typically Flemish details as interlacing
strapwork with curved and scrolled ends, frequently cartouche-like in form,
festoons of fruit and foliage, and terminal figures used as pilasters.
Study of Classic Style
In the late Jacobean and succeeding phases the classic manner was more
thoroughly understood, and a more scholarly handling was the result, until
the culmination was reached in the work of Inigo Jones and Wren.
The Elizabethan phase indicates an imperfectly understood, and in many
instances meaningless, employment and adaptation of Italian forms to the
requirements of the times.
A notable example if this is the central feature of the Public Schools at
Oxford, the work of Thomas Holt, a native of York, in which the orders
appear ranged one above the other.

Thomas Thorpe
The most prominent name associated with the architecture of the period
is Thomas Thorpe, who was concerned in many of the principal edifices
erected during the reign of Elizabeth and of her successor, James I.
The general arrangement of woodwork consisted of architectural
façades, and the orders and pediments were utilised wherever possible.
Doorways and chimney-pieces offered the principal opportunities for
display in interior work.
Panelling was retained for the large halls and most of the rooms. The
walls were frequently divided into bays by means of pilasters and
surmounted by friezes and cornices more or less determined by traditional
forms.
Flemish Influence
The style degenerated in the same reign into a coarser rendering, and
was followed by a period of strong Flemish influence. There is, in fact, such
a marked similarity between the later Elizabethan and Flemish furniture and
wood-work that it is not easy to distinguish the nationality of examples of
this period. In cases where figure sculpture is employed, however, it is not
difficult to decide, as a considerably higher standard was attained by the
Flemish school of figure carvers than is found in English work.
Tapered pilaster-like supports, surmounted by half figures or Ionic caps,
were often employed in the framing of doors and chimney-pieces, and
sometimes on furniture. Table supports and newels of stairs increased in
size. The heavy acorn-shaped baluster is a feature. Inlay came into use for
panelling as well as for furniture.
Synchronously with the changes in detail, there was a more classical
tendency displayed in moulded features such as strings and cornices.
In the early seventeenth century the scale of the details of Flemish work
increased. Diamond-shaped panels were superimposed on square ones;
turned work was split and the two halves applied; drop ornaments were
used below tables and from the centres of panels under arches—all these
being additions to the general structure.
Jacobean

English work developed in much the same way as Flemish, probably
owing to the commerce in wood-work between England and Flanders at this
time.
In the earlier work, where the orders were employed, there was some
regard to proportion and detail, probably direct translation of Italian
designs, but in the later Jacobean work there was considerable falling-off,
presumably due to native exploitation and experiment.

No. 94. Jacobean Wood Carving. Palace
of Bromley-by-Bow.

Architectural feeling was prominent in the treatment of interiors, which
were invariably panelled as in the earlier period. The characteristic “linen
fold” variety of the late Tudor giving place to plain panelling, framed by
stiles and rails closely spaced.
Walls were occasionally divided into bays by means of pilasters, often
supported on pedestals.
The panels in the later development were invariably plain, but a
decorated frieze, carved in relief, was carried round immediately under the
cornice. Coats of arms at intervals sometimes supplied the decoration. The
carved frieze gave place to a simple form of patterning, which was
produced by sinking the ground to practically one level and leaving the
ornament which had little or no modelling, flush with the face of the panel.
This led to fretting out the pattern and applying it to the surface. The idea of
planting ornament evidently spread, and may be seen in such obviously
applied details as studs and half-balusters.
A typical room of the period would be treated with plain panelling,
perhaps divided into bays by pilasters, and all elaboration was confined to

the doorways and chimney-piece.
The chimney-piece might be in wood, stone or marble,
and while there were many varieties of treatment, the
designs readily fall under one general type. Columns or
pilasters flanked the opening,

No. 95. Jacobean
Wood Carving.
Palace of Bromley-
by-Bow.

No. 96. Jacobean Chimney-piece. Palace of Bromley-
by-Bow.

carrying an entablature consisting of architrave frieze and cornice, the latter
forming a shelf. Above this there was a similar arrangement, but on a
smaller scale and with finer proportions. The space between the columns
above the shelf was usually filled with carving, which sometimes took the
form of armorial bearings. In many examples the upper part is divided into
two panels, which were generally filled with carved ornament such as
strapwork or shields charged with heraldic devices.
Where the chimney-piece was of wood, the fireplace opening was
surrounded by a stone lining, which had moulded splays on the upright
jambs. In earlier examples the jambs were connected by a flattened arch
with carved spandrils. In later work a horizontal panel was employed or a
frieze of carved detail.
The opening itself was wide, and was lined with brick or stone. The
interior was occupied by a fire-back of cast-iron and a movable grate or
basket supported on dogs.

Doors were at first merely a part of the
panelling without hanging frames, but later they
were treated as important features of the rooms.
They were often framed with columns and
pilasters, surmounted by entablatures, with or
without pediments. Obelisks were sometimes
placed over the pilasters. The frieze was fluted or
carved. In many cases the tympanum of the
pediment or even one of the door panels bore the
owner’s coat of arms.
In the earlier phases the mouldings framing
the panels were simple in form, and worked on
the stiles and rails. But later they were applied,
being wider in display and more elaborate in
section. These applied mouldings, evidently the
result of mechanical appliances, later led to
extreme license in broken angles and panellings
of complicated form.
No. 97. Jacobean Door,
shewing absense of
architrave.

No. 98. Jacobean Doors.

Ceilings, and occasionally the frieze, were in plaster, decorated with
intersecting ribs, or bands dividing the surface into compartments geometric
in shape, and further enriched with stamped or modelled ornament.
Windows were relatively small as to individual openings, large lighting
areas being obtained by grouping a number of these side by side, and also in
tiers, the dividing bars or mullions being either in wood or stone.
Glazing took the form of small pieces of glass united by lead frames,
commonly arranged in trellis form, resulting in diamond-shaped pieces.
Occasionally painted or coloured glass was used, generally in heraldic
devices in the upper portions of the windows.
The windows themselves were frequently deeply embayed.
Development in Dwellings
The growing appreciation of domestic comfort, evident in the general
arrangement of the buildings of this period, is also apparent in the furniture,
which from this time approximates somewhat to the modern forms, though
still crude, and leaving much to be desired in the way of personal comfort.
Tables, which had hitherto been mere
portable boards laid on trestles, or, if fixed, were
on heavy legs with rails below, developed into
more useful forms. These were the draw-inge
table which could be extended by drawing out
two flaps worked on runners from beneath the
normal top, and the gate-leg table, which in
principle resembled the modern folding type.
No. 99. Oak Table, English.
Large tables were formed by putting a number
17th century. of gate-leg tables together, and when not so in
use they could be placed in different parts of the
room.

No. 100. English Chairs, early 17th century.

Legs and the under rails of chairs and tables were turned in the lathe, and
the carved details were invariably simple and direct in execution, similar in
character to much of the work in the early French Renaissance, in contrast
to the Italian carving, which was in high relief and plastic in character.
The majority of examples in our national collection of this period are of
Court furniture, and cannot be taken as typical of what was in common use.
The over-ornamented Italian work compares unfavourably with the English
Jacobean furniture, in which utility is obvious and the decoration
subordinate and to the purpose.
Oak was chiefly employed in England, but in Italy, and later in France,
walnut was much used.
Panelling was prevalent for interiors in the Italian and French
Renaissance. In Italy, where the art of weaving had been preserved at
Lucca, and other places, tapestry was also frequently employed as wall
hangings, also as coverings for upholstered work.
Compared with the earlier period, this was a time of luxury and display,
favourable to the arts generally.
Painting, freed from the restrictions of the church, broke away from the
Byzantine traditions, and revelling in realism, lost to some extent its
decorative character.

No. 102. Oak Chair,
English, 17th century.

No. 101. English Chair,
middle of 17th century,
influenced by Italian design.

No. 103.

Evolution of Professional Designer

Under patronage, the individual artist and craftsman was allowed to
develop on his own lines, and no longer worked under the dominance of the
architect. Demand, owing to growing appreciation of artistic production,
eventuated in the evolution of the professional designer.
Inigo Jones

No. 104.

Although the Renaissance had come to stay, the manner of its
interpretation in England by the native workers was very far removed from
the Italian school which had supplied the first impulse, until the advent of
Inigo Jones in the reign of James I. This artist, who had visited Italy and
studied principally the architecture of Palladio and his school, was
appointed King’s Surveyor of Works. Under his influence proportions and
details were used, which conformed more nearly to classic types.
Born about 1572 A.D., he studied in Italy, where he became acquainted
with the work of Palladio, and was a follower of the Venetian school.
Dying in 1652, he left a tradition which would have had a more
immediate effect but for the internecine troubles of the later period of his
life.

No. 105. Banqueting House, Whitehall.
Inigo Jones.

A typical example of his work in London is the Banqueting House in
Whitehall, the only part built of the projected palace for James I, now used
as a museum by the United Service Institution. Also the Church of St. Paul,
Covent Garden.
Louis XIII
By the time of Louis XIII the principles of the Renaissance had become
thoroughly assimilated in France, and a native school of architecture had
arisen of marked distinction. France from then onward took the initiative,
though strongly influenced by the Venetian school.
The orders were used consistently as to proportion and detail, but in the
decoration considerable development in character is manifest.
The general construction and details developed on

No. 106. Louis XIII. Luxembourg Pavilion Entrance,
by Salamon de Brose, 1615-24.

more architectural lines, and shew a better appreciation of the Italian
originals. Pilasters were used to divide the wall surfaces, these and the
entablatures closely following in detail the classic types. Panels were much
wider than in the preceding style, generally occupying the whole space
between the pilasters. The usual arrangement for these panels was to have
them in two tiers—the shallow ones confined to the lower portions of walls
and those of deeper proportions above. Fireplaces and doors were
surrounded by boldly moulded architraves, and surmounted by panels
occupied by carved details of scroll-work and foliage.
Ceilings were modelled in stucco and sub-divided into compartments,
which were richly moulded, and in some cases decorated with paintings.
During the reign of Louis XIII, chairs were made more comfortable by
being upholstered in velvet, tapestry or needlework, instead of being
smothered with carving. The frames were covered by velvet or other

material, leaving only the
legs and arms visible, and
these were but slightly
carved.

No. 107. Ste. Marie, Nevers.
No. 108. Upholstered Louis XIII. Example of
Chair. Louis XIII. Barocco (Flemish influence).

Louis XIV
In France the Renaissance reached its highest degree of splendour in the
reign of Louis XIV.

No. 109. Louis XIV. Louvre, Paris, by
Perrault.

The palace of Versailles, designed by Jules Hardouin Mansart, was
completed, and French designers were many and famous. Amongst the most
prominent were Lebrun, who was responsible for much of the interior work
at Versailles, Jean and Claude Berain, Lepautre, Daniel Marot and André
Charles Boule, the inventor of the particular class of inlay which bears his
name.
The style of Louis XIV is characteristic of its time. Love of display was
manifested in every direction, but nowhere did it give rise to greater
magnificence than in furniture and decoration.

The employment of architectural features, with a close approximation to
accepted proportions, had been the keynote of the preceding style, but the
work of this period broke away from all tradition. As a departure it was
quite original, and constituted a phase in the development of the
Renaissance that was purely and typically French, and this particularly in its
massiveness and grandeur.

No. 110. The King’s Bedchamber, Versailles. Louis
XIV.

Panelling became more varied in proportion, and heavily framed with
mouldings of the Bolection type. Glass was also used in panels as at
Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors, where the windows on one side of the
gallery are repeated in form by mirrors in reciprocal positions.
Important rooms were panelled and divided by pilasters, surmounted by
entablatures. The Corinthian order was the one most frequently used.
Panel mouldings were heavily and richly carved. Curved sections and
facias were fluted, or carved with guilloche or leaf detail. Figures and
amorini, heavy festoons, wreaths, cartouches and shields were among the

decorative motifs. Strapwork, a survival of the preceding styles, was
moulded and clothed with foliage of the acanthus variety.
Ceilings were modelled in stucco and were divided into bold geometrical
compartments by strongly moulded ribs. The compartments were
sometimes occupied by paintings. In some cases the cornice was not taken
up to the height of the ceiling, but the ceiling line was continued in form of
a curve to meet the top of the cornice, forming what is known as a cove.
Chairs were massive, the frames were carved and
gilt, and the seats and backs upholstered in tapestry.
In the latter part of the reign of Louis XIV metal was
used in the construction of furniture in the form of
mounts—as framing and protecting pieces to angles,
and was gilt by the mercury process. The
introduction of veneer probably led to this use of
metal.

No. 111. Upholstered
Chair. Louis XIV.

"Boule” Work
A method of decorating furniture with inlays of brass or tin and
tortoiseshell originated by André Charles Boule, came into vogue. The
sheets of metal and shell were placed together and cut simultaneously, with
the result that the patterns produced were interchangeable—thus the metal
pattern could be fitted with a tortoiseshell background and vice versa. There
was a tendency for this style of work to become more ornate and showy,
and later, instead of the transparent shell being used in its natural colour,
either vermilion or gold leaf was placed underneath.
Mirrors
Mirrors, in the sixteenth century, had been imported from Italy, and those
of considerable size were first made in Venice.
Later glass manufactories were established in England—near Battersea
—and in France, where larger mirrors and plates of glass were produced

than hitherto.
Rooms lined with mirrors became popular, in some cases even the
ceiling being made of glass.
Console tables, which were frequently gilt, were often placed under the
large wall mirrors.
Hanging bands of material were employed to drape the heads of
windows and the tops of bedsteads. Beds were important pieces of
furniture, and had elaborately carved head and foot boards. The
overhanging Tester was also ornamented, and besides the valances already
mentioned, was surmounted by groups of plumes.

No. 112. Pantheon, Paris. Soufflet. Louis XV.

Louis XV
Little advance was made in architecture during the reign of Louis XV, to
which period belongs the Pantheon at Paris, originally the Church of St.
Geneviéve, the work of Soufflet, born in 1713.
Régence
The style passed through two stages. The earlier, known as the Régence
—the principal exponents of which were Charles Cressent, Gilles Marie

Oppenord, and Nicholas Pineau—is distinguished by a certain reserve and
moderation which were entirely abandoned in the later Rococo period.
Rococo
The term “Rococo” is derived from a French word meaning rockwork,
and is applied to the style in which rock and shell forms are used as details.
Ornament became extravagant and
meaningless, and was wrongly used to serve the
purpose of construction, the actual constructive
elements being at times completely ignored. It
cannot be denied, however, that powerful
draughtsmanship and inventiveness were
displayed, but without the consideration of
practical execution, which is essential to all
good design.
Evidently the artist or designer dominated the
craftsman, who, however, grappled with
difficulties in an admirable manner, often No. 113. Detail of Wood-
achieving results which would appear from the carving, Regency Period.
constructional point of view almost impossible
of attainment.
The work of the latter part of the period expresses the enervated and
frivolous spirit of the time.
Walls were panelled and often divided by pilasters, which, however, lost
all structural significance.
Cornices and friezes were dispensed with, the frieze being replaced by a
cove curving into the ceiling.
Mouldings were broken at angles and intersections into curves, scrolls
and foliage.
Carved details of the curiously twisted leafage peculiar to the style were
employed wherever possible.
Painted panels were fashionable, and were used particularly over
doorheads. They were surrounded or framed by curved and enriched
mouldings.
Interiors of this later period were invariably painted white, and partly
gilt, the wall panels decorated with tapestry or paintings with which are

associated the names of Bouchier, Watteau, and
Fragonard.
Ceilings were also painted, wall mirrors were
employed and furniture (at this period at times
extremely costly) was veneered and decorated with
metal mounts in gilt ormolu.
Chair and table legs were of the cabriole type.
Bureaux fronts were swelled into curves both
horizontally and vertically.
Veneer and marqueterie were much used.
Chased and gilt brass was employed to protect
angles, as feet, handles, escutcheons and other
ornamental details.

No. 114. Carved Wood
Door. Louis XV.

No. 115.

No. 116. Chair with
cane back English, later
half 17th century.

Lacquer “Vernis Martin"
Furniture was also decorated in imitation of Chinese lacquer. The
principal worker in it was Robert Martin, who introduced a varnish of fine
transparent quality.
Later English Renaissances
Artistic progress was hindered in England by the disturbed conditions at
the time of the Civil War, and in consequence little change in style took
place in this and the Commonwealth period.
With the Restoration came the influence of the French Court, and foreign
furniture was imported, thus giving fresh models for the English workers.
One result of the Great Fire in 1666 was that a great impetus was given
to architecture and to the crafts associated with it, and the influence of Wren
and Grinling Gibbons produced a school of most efficient carvers and
craftsmen.
Sir Christopher Wren
Wren was a worthy successor to Inigo Jones, and the general destruction
wrought by the fire in the city gave him a fine field for his activity. He was
employed not only to rebuild the churches, eighty-nine of which had been
burnt, but also many of the city halls; and was commissioned by William
and Mary to build the state-rooms at Hampton Court Palace.
The style of Wren, which, like that of Inigo Jones, was based rather upon
the Venetian school, was perpetuated and found individual exponents in the
works of his pupils and immediate successors. Among whom may be
mentioned James Gibbs (1720 to 1754), architect of St. Martin’s in the
Fields (1726) and St. Mary le Strand, and Nicholas Hawksmoor, who was
responsible for the churches of St. George’s, Bloomsbury, and St. Mary,
Woolnoth, the latter commenced in 1716 was finished in 1718.

No. 117. English Chair,
period of Charles II.

No. 118. St. Paul’s Cathedral. Wren.

Notable among Wren’s churches is that of St. Stephen’s, Walbrook, in
the City of London; of his secular work an example may be cited in the
library of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Classic Spires
A characteristic of the period in the churches of Wren and his school is
the spire, which, though tapering like the Gothic variety, is invested with
features quite Renaissance in form, arranged in successive tiers.
The architecture of the period is in excellent proportion, and all the
details of mouldings, capitals, etc., were executed in a masterly manner.
Panelling was still employed, mostly in oak, and was now carried up to
the ceiling. The panels were very wide, frequently bevelled at the edges—
the stiles and rails forming the framings being much wider than hitherto.
The framing mouldings were sometimes carved.
Doorways and chimneypieces were surrounded by
well-designed architraves, with carved mouldings, and
were surmounted by pediments, above which it was not
unusual to have carved festoons and pendants of fruit and
foliage.

No. 119. Spire of
St. Mary le Strand.

No. 120. English Interior Wood-work. Late 17th and
early 18th century.

Pilasters were decorated with cherubs’ heads used as caps, and pendant
drops of the usual type.
Carving was profusely used, the details consisted mainly of interlacing
scrollwork of acanthus-like foliage, heavy fruit and flower festoons and
drops, trophies and cherubs’ heads. The relief was high, the work
occasionally being detached, and the manner of execution was sharp and
crisp, implying no hesitation on the part of the carver.
The high relief necessitated building up thicknesses of wood, and formed
a great contrast to the earlier work in which the ground was slightly set
back, leaving the original panel face as the highest part of the pattern.

The woods commonly used were oak for wainscotting and cedar for
doors. Where it was intended that the woodwork should be painted or gilt it
was made in deal. Some of the carving was in oak, but the favorite material
was limewood, and pear; cedar or lime was used when small fine detail was
required. Elm was employed for various articles such as dressers: ash,
beech, birch, poplar, sycamore, English and Italian walnut were also used.
Dutch and French Influences
With William III and his Dutch court the influence of the Netherlands
became once more apparent. It was coloured by the French style of the
Louis XIV period, probably through an immigration of French workmen
after the Edict of Nantes in 1685. This influence can be traced in some of
the furniture at Hampton Court, particularly in the carved and gilt tables of
French design and English workmanship.

No. 121. A. Walnut Chair, period of Queen Anne. B. Dutch
Chair, 17th century. C. Inlaid Chair, period of Queen Anne.
D. Carved Chair, period of Queen Anne.

The chairs and settees of the period have shaped backs, generally with
delicately carved central vertical panels of vase-like form; and cabriole legs
with a carved shell ornament on the knee.
Bureaux and corner cupboards were introduced. They were decorated
with marqueterie or with inlay of boxwood or holly on a walnut ground.
Queen Anne Period
Flemish or Dutch influence prevailed during the period known as Queen
Anne.

The typical Queen Anne chair in common with all the furniture of the
period was made of walnut. The seat was wide, the front legs cabriole
shaped, ending, as a rule, in club or claw-and-ball feet. The back was high
and curved at the top, and this was connected centrally with the seat by a
long vase or fiddle-shaped splat. Carving was not much used, but the splat
was sometimes ornamented with floral and other designs in marqueterie
after the Dutch fashion.
During this period an appreciation for Oriental china and lacquer work
had an important effect on furniture and decoration.
The later fashion of inlay and marquetry work of Sheraton was perhaps
as much the outcome of the Dutch practice of this form of decoration, as it
was due to the discovery of the possibilities of mahogany as a suitable
wood for furniture.
Early Georgian
The eighteenth century in England was the age of the connoisseur and
dilettante, and the struggling professional, literary or artistic, had little
opportunity except by the favour of a patron. As for instance, Lord
Burlington, who is reported to have practised architecture in conjunction
with his protégé Kent.
William Kent, born in 1685, died 1748, a painter as well as an architect,
was responsible for many designs, among which may be mentioned the
Horse Guards in Whitehall, and Holkham in Norfolk for the Earl of
Leicester.
Georgian work shows more evidence of French influence, but is
invariably stiff and heavy in feeling.
In panelling rooms a surbase or dado was employed. The bolection
moulding was universally used round panels.
Doorways and chimneypieces were made up of architraves, surmounted
by pediments, and were formal in design and detail. The Greek key was
often most unsatisfactorily used in their decoration.
Chippendale
Among others, Chippendale’s name is associated with the furniture of
this period, and his book of designs, published about the middle of the
eighteenth century, contained, besides furniture, suggestions for the

complete decoration of rooms. Chippendale was undoubtedly influenced by
the Louis XV style, and at one period he attempted to exploit Chinese forms
and details.
The chairs designed by him were based on the earlier Queen Anne type,
but the vase-shaped back was replaced by pierced and carved interlacing
bands and ribbons. For a time the cabriole leg was retained, but

No. 122. A. Transitional Chair, 18th century.
B. Mahogany “ “ “ Sheraton.
C. “ “ “ “ Chippendale.
D. Walnut “ “ “ Hepplewhite.

later examples have straight square legs. The chairs were fitted with loose
upholstered seats covered with morocco leather.
Furniture was generally in mahogany, which had been introduced a little
earlier from the West Indies, and had become popular on account of the
colour and figure developed by polishing. Mahogany lends itself to fine

mouldings and detail, and this was evidently appreciated, as relief
decoration on furniture in this wood received a more restrained treatment,
while plain surfaces were made more extensive.
Mayhew
Contemporary workers were Mainwaring and Mayhew. Mayhew was
responsible for a form of fretwork decoration which is often ascribed to
Chippendale.
Adam Style
Prominent among his contemporaries, more perhaps for his influence on
interior decoration, was Robert Adam, who died at the age of ninety-four in
1792.
A student of the later antique Roman work, and inspired by the remains
of Diocletian’s Palace at Spalatro, he evolved a style which bears his name,
that was personal and distinctive. A style that had many followers, and
which largely influenced the work of Sheraton.
Simple as to structural form, and delicate in detail, it carried on the
tradition of the later Graeco-Roman work on which it was founded,
avoiding absolute reproduction.

No. 123. Interior Decoration. “Adam.”

No. 124. Interior Decoration. “Adam.”

The Adam influence is evident also in the pottery of this period, and in
the details of Sheffield plate.
Examples of Robert Adam’s architectural design may be seen in London
at the Adelphi, which was built as a speculation, in the Admiralty screen in
Whitehall, and houses in Portland Place, W.

No. 125. Adam
influence.

Hepplewhite
Hepplewhite also was designing and manufacturing about this time, and
is noted principally for his japanned or painted furniture. In this process the
wood was first coated with a preparation after the manner of Chinese or
Japanese lacquer, and then decorated with fruit and flowers in gold on a
background. Subsequently, furniture of this character, instead of being
japanned, was merely painted white. Hepplewhite’s chair-backs differ in
form from Chippendale’s, being shield or oval shaped.
Satinwood came into use, and much of the work ascribed to Sheraton
was made of it.
Painted decoration of a delicate character, the details including ribbons,
borders and medallions, was applied to table-tops, harpsichord cases, chair-
backs and other objects. The names of Angelica Kauffmann and Cipriani
are associated with this form of decoration.
Hepplewhite and Sheraton were apparently influenced by the work of
the brothers Adam, which was a distinct departure from the earlier style.
The cabriole leg was rarely used, its place being taken by gracefully tapered
forms.
Sheraton

Although some of Sheraton’s furniture had painted detail, he more often
used marqueterie and inlay of fine design.
Panels were treated in marqueterie, with ovals or other simple shapes
surrounded by narrow bands or lines of contrasting colour.
Sheraton sideboards were usually without backs, and were sometimes
furnished with brass rails on top.
Bookcases had glass doors with well designed and finely worked sash
bars.
The general tendency was towards elegance and refinement, and led to
simplicity of treatment rather than over enrichment.
Indeed this may be taken as the culminating period for the finest
production of furniture, not only with regard to design and exquisite
workmanship, but in carefully studied utility. This consideration may be
seen in the dressing-tables and secretaires, which were full of ingenious
devices, and secret drawers and contrivances for hiding papers and
valuables were quite a feature of the work.
Louis XVI
Towards the end of the reign of Louis XV there was a distinct change in
taste, and consequently in style. This was manifested by a return to
simplicity of line,

No. 126. Painted Interior Decoration. Marie
Antoinette Boudoir. Louis XVI.

No. 127. Interior Treatment. Louis XVI.

No. 128. Chimney-piece with Mirror. Louis XVI.

No. 129. Library with fitted Book-cases. Louis XVI.

a more sparing use of enrichments and greater refinement of detail.

No. 130. Door Treatment. Louis XVI.

Probably the same influence that inspired Adam was at work in France,
when the license that marked the Rococo gave place to a more severe and
restrained expression in the succeeding Louis XVI style, in which the
curvilinear and plastic forms became once more structural in feeling and
refined in detail.
Associated with this change was Jacques Gondouin, who died at Paris in
1818 at the age of eighty-one, whose most celebrated work is the Ecole de
Médécine. He was also entrusted with the erection of the column in the
Place Vendôme.
Riesener and Gouthière
The most familiar names associated with the
wood-work at the Louis XVI period are Riesener
and Gouthière. Riesener is famous for his
furniture, and Gouthière for the highly finished
chased mounts with which this furniture was
decorated.
Interior woodwork was generally of oak,
painted white. Pilasters were used, and were

either carved or No. 131. Detail of Cornice.
Louis XVI.
painted in
colours.
Mouldings were frequently gilt.
Chairs and sofas were, in many
instances, painted white and partly gilt.
They were upholstered in silk or Beauvais
tapestry, the designs of which were in panel
form specially made for the purpose.
Cabinets, tables and other pieces of
furniture were often exquisitely inlaid with
various woods, tulip, rosewood, pear, holly
and ebony were the most common, and
Sèvres porcelain placques and gilt metal
mounts were also used to embellish them.
No. 132. Arm-chair covered with Furniture supports, such as table and
Beauvais Tapestry. Louis XVI.
chair legs, were straight, tapered and fluted,
with husks in the hollows of the flutes.
Among the decorative details were torches,
quivers and other emblems, trophies, musical
instruments, bouquets and festoons of flowers,
and ribbons with peculiarly square and crisp
folds. The laurel leaf was much used in borders,
festoons and wreaths.
The style of the Louis XVI period was more
severe than the preceding one, and was, in fact, a
reaction from the flippancy which characterised
the reign of Louis XV. There was a tendency to
return to more classic forms, which prepared the
way for the still more austere Empire phase
which was deliberately based on the Roman and
Greek styles.

No. 133. Carved Oak Panel.
Louis XVI.

Empire
Furniture was made in mahogany, rosewood and ebony, and was
decorated with brass mounts or with carved ornaments, which were gilded.
Furniture legs and supports were fashioned after Greek and Roman
forms, human figures and sphinxes being often employed.
Inlay was used of ivory and metal, and this class of work attained a very
high degree of excellence.
Metal-work was unquestionably good, except that the details were
somewhat hard in character.
The most striking decorative features were sphinxes, winged figures of
Liberty, masks, the thyrsus of Bacchus, laurel wreaths and festoons, which
were all severe in treatment and delicate in execution.
Empire in England
The Empire style spread to other parts of Europe, and was closely
imitated in England, where it was chiefly remarkable for the extreme nicety
and finish of the metal-work, metal being extensively used for the
enrichment of furniture, for clocks, vases, candlesticks, inkstands and other
objects.
Later English Architecture
Probably the most important name associated with English architecture
towards the end of the eighteenth century is that of Sir William Chambers,
who died in 1796.
Chambers, who at one time held the position of Surveyor General in the
Board of Works, was one of those concerned in the establishment of the
Royal Academy of Arts in 1768. During his professional career he executed
commissions in various parts of the country, his principal work being
Somerset House, which was commenced in 1776.
Another name associated with this period is that of George Dance, who
designed the Mansion House of the City of London, which was built during
the years 1739-53. Dance died in 1768, and was succeeded by his son, who
was the architect of Newgate Prison, the site of which is now occupied by a
modern building.

A pupil of Sir William Chambers, James Gandon, had the distinction of
carrying off the first gold medal given for architecture by the newly-
founded Royal Academy of Arts in 1768.
He designed, among other works, the Customs House, the Four Courts,
and the building which is now the Bank of Ireland, all at Dublin.
French Influence on Europe
Throughout this necessarily brief summary it will be noted that attention
is mainly given to the architectural development in France and England.
The rest of Europe was similarly affected more or less, both in the Gothic
period and in the revival known as the Renaissance, in which the initiative
was taken by France early in the seventeenth century. From which period
may be dated the decline in Italian taste.
French feeling, both as to form and detail, is apparent in not only Dutch
and Flemish work, but in the more southern parts of Europe, particularly the
phase known as Rococo.
Even in England, though the architectural traditions of Inigo Jones and
Sir Christopher Wren became national in character, French feeling is
evident in much of the decorative work, as in the designs of Chippendale
and his contemporaries; with the exception of the brilliant period of
Grinling Gibbons, whose distinctive manner and robust treatment survived,
and constituted a school of carving typically English and unique in its
artistry and craftsmanship.

CHAPTER III

MOULDINGS

I
N Architecture the edges of projecting courses are softened into curved
profiles, sometimes enriched with details, which are technically known
as mouldings. These are invariably a stumbling-block to the beginner,
presumably due to want of appreciation of their purpose, which properly
understood, is indicative of their desirable employment.
Mouldings are an important factor in effect, not
only in Architecture, but in structural form
generally. In flat decoration they have to some
extent their corollary in borders, the proportionate
widths of which are governed by similar rules.
Of mouldings with curved profiles there are
only six distinct forms, though the individual
character of these curves is subject to great
variation in treatment.

No. 134. Forms of
Mouldings.

Purpose
As suggested, mouldings have a distinct purpose, are, in fact, functional
features, and may be defined as Sheltering or Crowning, Bracketing or
Supporting, and Binding.
In any composition where they may be necessary these functions should
be taken into consideration.
The profiles should always be concise whether the character of the curve
be refined or robust.

In classic architecture the relative proportions of the mouldings to the
other features are defined, and these proportions will be found useful in
other than purely architectural design.
The Fillet
Mouldings are divided from each other by narrow vertical bands or
Fillets, the employment of which is universal.
The Fillet in projection is equal to its height, and though strictly
divisional in its employment, is shown in conjunction with the curved
profiles to indicate relative proportion.
Sheltering Mouldings
There are two mouldings of curved profile in each category, the
Sheltering being the Cavetto and the Cyma Recta.
The Cavetto
The Cavetto is the culminating moulding of the Italian Doric cornice,
and is a concave curve, which may be the result of a quarter circle.
The Cavetto profile is used in other positions, which would appear to
challenge the previous statement, but reflection will confirm the contention.
For instance, the vertical face of the Frieze in some instances terminates
with a cavetto curve which, though surmounted by the cornice, is yet at the
top of the frieze. The upper extremity of the column shaft is similarly
treated, and, it may be urged, so is the lower, but this, though an exception
to the rule, is at least an æsthetic necessity.
The projection of the Cavetto is equal to the height of the curve, and the
crowning Fillet may be from one-third to one-fourth the total height,
preferably the latter.
Cyma Recta
The other sheltering moulding, the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double
flexure with upper fillet. Its proper employment is as the crowning member
of the cornice, though, like the Cavetto, it is employed in other positions,
notably as a plinth moulding, when it appears in a reversed position.
The projection is about equal to the height of the curved profile, the
height of the crowning fillet being from one-fourth to one-fifth of the
whole.

Bracketing Mouldings
The supporting mouldings are the Ovolo and the Cyma Reversa.
The Ovolo
The Ovolo is composed of a full convex curve, either a quarter circle or
slightly elliptic, which in height is equal to projection; and a fillet at base
one-fifth the total height. Frequently this lower member is in the form of a
half round bead of the same dimension as the fillet.
As a Bracketing moulding the Ovolo occurs in the capital of the Doric
column, and in the Ionic and Corinthian cornices under the corona or facia,
and is employed in other positions, where the sense of support is justified.
Cyma Reversa
The Cyma Reversa, like the Cyma Recta, is a curve of double flexure,
and is headed with a fillet one-third to one-fourth the total height. The
projection is equal to the height of curved profile.
The Cyma Reversa is employed in the cornice of the Doric order as a
supporting moulding to the dentil course and below the culminating
Cavetto. It also occurs in the Capital of the column, where it forms the
upper member of the abacus. An apparent contradiction of the theory of
employment, which however is justified by the circumstance that the
column forms the support for the entablature.
It also occurs as a supporting moulding under the capping of the
pedestal, and is used in similar positions in the other orders.
Binding Mouldings
The Binding mouldings, the Torus and the Scotia, appear chiefly on
columns and pilasters, particularly the Scotia, which is essentially a base
moulding.
The Torus
The Torus is a convex curve composed of a full half circle, with upper
fillet one-fifth to one-sixth the total height. The projection is decided by the
curvature, which is based on a semi-circle with centre slightly in advance of
the vertical line of fillet.
The Torus varies in size according to position. For instance, in the base
of the Ionic column two are employed, the lower being the larger. It is also

invariably used on a smaller scale as a necking moulding beneath the
Capitals; in the small form it is commonly known as a bead or astragal.
This employment of the Torus is distinctly appropriate and suggestive in
the sense of imparting strength by binding. When used in other positions its
purpose should be equally evident.
The Scotia
The Scotia in section is a deeply recessed concave curve with upper
fillet, and is generally used between the upper and lower Torii of the base.
The upper fillet is of less projection than the lower extremity of curved
profile. The extreme projection being merely equal to the height of curve
and that of the upper fillet about one-half, the fillet being about one-fifth the
total height.
The Facia
The foregoing constitute the range of mouldings with curved profiles,
but there is another member, the Facia, that is an important feature in
composition.
The Facia, which is rectilinear in form with external face vertical or
slightly inclined, may be classed with the binding mouldings.
With regard to proportion, the height of the Facia should either exceed or
be less than that of the curved moulding with which it is invariably
surmounted. The projection being either considerably less or more than its
height.
When used in the cornice or in the capping of pedestals its under face is
generally recessed, this recess being equal to the height of the top fillet of
supporting moulding.
Only occasionally the Facia is furnished with an upper fillet (for
instance, when it occurs immediately below the Cyma Recta) to which it is
reconciled by a Cavetto curve.
The Facia is a divisional feature between the mouldings of curved profile
to which it is in valuable contrast.
Decoration of Mouldings
Mouldings may be plain or decorated, usually by carving, the details
probably being derived from the painted decoration of an early period.

When thus enriched the moulding is formed as to its profile, and the
details carved back from the face, leaving the highest parts in the original
surface. The carving being deeper and more sharply defined in the case of
mouldings that are in shadow. Such, for example, as the Ovolo, and in
lighter relief on those more exposed to direct light.
The decoration of mouldings ordinarily consists of the repetition of a
unit, composed on a central axis, in which curves are contrasted with
vertical features.

No. 135.

The principle involved is to base the detail on the sectional curvature or
profile line.

Orthodox Details
Thus the orthodox detail of the Ovolo, technically known as the “Egg
and Tongue,” consists of a framing curve, which is obtained by repeating
the profile on a centre line enclosing an ovoid shape. The angles between
the outer curves being occupied by a tongue or dart.
As previously stated, this moulding is deeply carved, the ovoid being
bold and well-rounded; the edges of the framing curves (in some instances
grooved or channelled) being left sharp and precise.
Frequently the “Bead and Reel” enrichment occurs at the base of the
Ovolo instead of the Fillet, this being the characteristic detail of the Bead or
Astragal.
The treatment of the Cyma Reversa is identical and results in the detail
known as the “Leaf and Dart”; but the carving is not so deep and the relief,
in consequence, comparatively slight.
Angle Leaf
When mouldings meet at mitral angles it is customary to employ a
covering leaf the midrib of which forms the angle.
The same principle is applicable to the Cyma Recta and the Cavetto,
though these mouldings are more often left plain; when decorated the relief
is comparatively slight.
The Scotia needs no decoration, the cast shadow resulting from its form
being sufficiently effective.
The Torus, though frequently left plain, can be decorated in various
ways.
The Guilloche is perhaps the most characteristic, but as suggestive of its
function, the Torus is at times carved in the form of a rope or cable. Leaves
suggestive of a wreath are used, also a reed band crossed at intervals with
ribbons, quite in keeping with the suggestion of binding.
The Facia is generally plain, but the decoration, if used should,
following the principle, be rectilinear in character; such as vertical flutings,
or the key detail, both of which are used.
Dentils
Dentils, which form a distinctive feature in cornices, are a series of
rectilinear blocks, attached to a Facia, and may be placed in the category of

supporting members.
In their formation they are carved back from a facia of the requisite
projection.
In proportion they should be from one and a half to one and three
quarters their width in height, the intervals between being about half the
width.
The first Dentil at the angle, lines flush with the return face of
supporting Facia leaving a right angular interval between the two end
Dentils. This space is sometimes occupied by a pendant knob, acorn-like in
shape. The heads of intervals are often sloped backwards and downwards,
or occupied by a narrow fillet set back from face. Below the Dentils the
supporting Facia is displayed to about the height of a fillet.
Considerable license prevailed in the later developments of the
Renaissance in the decoration of mouldings, license which is permissible
providing the general principle be borne in mind. The concensus of opinion
is in favour of repetition of a simple unit and absence of variety. The
vertical tendency resulting from the bi-symmetrical character of the unit is
desirable, and in happy contrast to the horizontal direction of the moulding,
while it also emphasises the sense of structural support.

DETAIL OF THE DENTIL
No. 136.

The profiles also are amenable to considerable variation, the curves
being the direct result of Geometry, or Freehand, either treatment being a
matter of attitude and discretion.
Employment

When employed in Architecture the forms and proportions given will be
found most suitable. In interior decoration and structural work, as in
furniture, considerable latitude is permissible.
It must be understood that the profiles of mouldings should not be
designed merely for the play of line, but for the effect resulting from light
and shade. In those close to the eye and in fair light, elliptic curves will be
more effective than more rounded sections, which are most suitable to
remote positions.
In composition, mouldings of curved profile should always be separated
by fillets or occasionally a facia, and the various members associated with
regard to their functional purpose. Obvious repetition of the same
dimension is to be avoided, and contrast should exist not only in the shapes
of profiles, but also in their respective heights.

MODIFIED PROPORTION DUE TO
PERSPECTIVE
No. 137.

Attitude
Attitude must be taken into account, as, for instance, in a cornice which
is above the eye level it is apparent that the mouldings will not appear in
elevation but in perspective; and not only the respective heights will be
visible, but also the projections.
When mouldings are decorated the details ranging above each other
should be so distributed as to fall in vertical alignment. This is particularly
necessary when the Ovolo enrichment occurs below dentils, or where it is
surmounted by Modillions as in the Corinthian cornice.

Panel mouldings cannot legitimately be considered as functional in the
foregoing sense, though in wood-work they are directly incidental to the
construction. Regarded as frames, their general purpose may be considered
as to bind or enclose.
In stone-work it may be at times desirable to introduce panel effects,
which may be obtained by boasting out or recessing parts, possible only on
a large scale. A comparatively simple and justifiable treatment is to sink
channels of moulded profiles framing the enclosed area, which is left in the
original plane. A treatment that is effective and comparatively economical.

CHANNELLED MOULDING
IN STONE
No. 138.

Wood Panelling
Panelling in wood-work is not only legitimate, but structurally necessary,
as it is not practical to cover large areas except by some method of building
up.
Therefore, not only panelling, but doors and structural wood-work
generally are constructed of stiles

No. 139. Panel Mouldings in Wood.
A. Late Linen-fold Panel, with scribed
mouldings on stiles and rails.
B. C. Panels of Settleback and Chest, with
framing with simple moulded edges.
D. Early Jacobean Panelling, with stopped
mouldings on stiles and rails.
E. Later Jacobean Panelling.
F. Later Jacobean Section of applied
mouldings of the Bolection type.

and rails, forming framings; the spaces enclosed being occupied by the
panels.
The edges of the stiles and rails are moulded. In the late Gothic and
Tudor periods the mouldings were often simply scribed; but later the
profiles became more distinct in contour.
These early mouldings were narrow and simple in form, arrived at
mainly by softening or rounding the square edges of the frame.

Applied Mouldings
Applied mouldings were apparently employed in the Jacobean period,
and the sections became more elaborate. Worked independently, they were
frequently higher in relief than the framings. The facility with which they
could be worked and applied resulted at this period in a fashion for
complicated mitreing hardly justifiable from a constructional point of view,
though effective if not overdone.
In the composition of such mouldings it is desirable
that the sizes and contours employed should be
contrasting, and that all curved sections be divided by
fillets.
As the width of the moulding throughout is uniform,
it is obvious that mitral angles must be perfect bi-
sections of the meeting lines.
With regard to proportion, the width of mouldings
may generally be one-fourth to one-eighth that of the
panel according to desired effect, robust or refined.

No. 140. Applied
Mouldings.

No. 141. Part of Dresser.
Applied mouldings on drawer fronts.

Bolection Moulding

When boldness in appearance is required the type known as the
Bolection Moulding may be used. This, in its orthodox form, is a species of
inner frame between the main framing of the stiles and rails, and the panels,
but was more commonly an applied moulding.
In any case, it is worked independently, and its outer edges lap
the framing, on which it is in relief, resulting in strong effect of
light and shade.
Panel mouldings may be decorated by carving with the
orthodox enrichments or variants based on them, but should
always be in contrast to the panels they enclose.
No. In furniture, mouldings play an important part, and in many
142. positions can be regulated by functional considerations. In
Bolectio
n horizontal positions, such as in tables and sideboards, where
Mouldi personal contact is possible, any moulded edges should be of
ng. softly rounded character for obvious reasons.

TABLE TOP
MOULDINGS
No. 143.

Plaster
In plaster-work mouldings may be cast in a mould or run by the strigil.
When decorated, the former only is possible, and as such work is originally
modelled, it is permissible to introduce details of a plastic nature, such as
interrupting the run by imposed and enveloping floral or other forms.
Mechanically produced mouldings cannot be undercut, though this is
practicable in plaster where the jelly mould is employed.
Mouldings are used for decorative and divisional purposes in various
materials, and to some extent their character is affected by the formative
process involved.

TURNED WOOD
No. 144.

Wood-turning
Thus in wood-turning the general profiles are kept fairly soft, taking
usually, as in the case of stair rails and furniture legs, the baluster form. As
a rule there is little variation between the maximum and minimum
diameters.
The baluster shafts have bases and capitals of curved profiles, with
intervening fillets, which latter may be fairly sharp, as they are by their
position protected from damage.
Metal Turning
Turning is also employed in metal work, the stems and bodies of Dutch
candelabra, both standard and hanging, being originally cast as to general
form and finished in the lathe.

No. 145.

The general treatment is similar to that of wood-turning, except that the
material being much harder, the mouldings can be more sharply defined and
delicate in detail.
Pottery
The throwing of pottery is analagous to turning, but by this method little
more can be accomplished than thickened edges. The Greek vases show
some precision of profile, the result of turning on a lathe after the vessel had
been formed on the wheel.
In moulded pottery more definition is possible than in
thrown variety, but the profiles are comparatively blunt and
never attain the precision due to turning.

No. 146.
Moulded Vase in
Terra-cotta.

Metal Mouldings
In metal, mouldings may be rolled or drawn. In the first they are formed
in the solid, but drawn mouldings are formed in plate or sheet metal and are
therefore hollow and of uniform thickness.

By either method mouldings of any required
section are obtainable provided they are not
undercut.
Both varieties are ordinarily obtainable in
various sections and sizes in iron, brass, bronze,
and silver.
Where special sections are required, the cost of
the tools necessary for their production would have
to be taken into account.
ROLLED METAL
MOULDINGS
No. 147.

DRAWN METAL
MOULDINGS
No. 148.

Wrought Iron
Though the employment of rolled or drawn mouldings is usual in
wrought iron-work, the effect is somewhat mechanical and lacking in
character. Preferably only such forms as are attained by either swaging or
building up should be employed as being more characteristic of the material
and method of working.

No. 149. Wrought Iron Swaged Moulding. No. 150. Wrought Iron Built-up
Mouldings.

No. 150. Wrought Iron Built-up
Mouldings.

Silver-work
In silver-work drawn mouldings are usually formed by hand, the
necessary draw plates being made by the workman.

No. 151. Wrought Iron Built-up Mouldings.

Spinning
Mouldings in metal are also formed by the process of spinning, in which
undercutting is not permissible.

SPUN METAL
No. 152.

Repoussé
They are also possible in Repoussé work, but are soft in character, and
lack the precision that marks the mechanical production.

CHAPTER IV

ARCHITECTURAL PROPORTIONS
Introduction
In architectural drawing concise draughtsmanship is essential, the
profiles of mouldings in particular should be well defined.
Architectural designs, which should always be drawn to scale, are
expressed geometrically, that is in plan, elevation and section. The actual
effect is therefore a matter of conjecture only to be grasped by those
familiar with the arbitrary form of expression. Perspectives are generally
made with a view to depicting the appearance to the uninitiated, but are
practically useless as working drawings.
The student is advised to take advantage of every opportunity of
studying existing examples in museums and elsewhere. This study should
not be confined to geometric drawings, but these should be supplemented
by sketches and careful observation. Attention should also be paid to the
profiles of mouldings.
A practice should be made also of making freehand sketches of the
various features, indicating broadly the effects of light and shade.
The study of architectural proportions should be methodical, and the
general divisions given here might advantageously be committed to
memory. When this is accomplished attention may be devoted to individual
features.
System of Proportion
It is customary, when any of the orders of Architecture are employed, to
adopt a system of proportions which has been evolved from the best
traditions of the past, and is generally accepted as the most satisfactory.
Naturally these proportions are subject to modification to suit special
conditions or personal treatment. According to the academic method, the
diameter of the column is divided into two parts, which are called Modules,
and each of these is again subdivided into thirty divisions called parts. This
gives a scale by means of which all dimensions of height and projection are

obtained. Since the diameter of the column forms the standard of
measurement, the proportions of the relative parts are constant and in no
way influenced by the size of the structure.
This method, although very complete, is—owing to its multiplicity of
dimensions—somewhat laborious in practice, and the method here
proposed in its stead, though not claimed to be exact, will yet be found to be
sufficiently accurate for ordinary requirements.
It is proposed to deal here with the orders commonly employed in
Renaissance architecture. These were based by the early exponents of the
style on Roman examples. The Doric selected is that of Vignola, and is a
refined version of the order used in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome. The
Ionic closely resembles the Roman Ionic order in the same building. The
Corinthian is the Roman example from the Pantheon.
The Order
An Order consists of a vertical column and a horizontal entablature,
while in some instances the column rests on a pedestal.
It is desirable before dealing with proportions to enumerate the various
parts of which an order is composed.
The column consists of a shaft, base and capital.
The shaft is circular on plan and invariably tapered.
The base is composed of mouldings, which are circular on plan, and a
rectangular block or plinth.
The capital is circular on plan, and in the Doric and Corinthian orders is
divided from the shaft by a necking moulding. The capital is surmounted by
a feature known as the abacus, which is rectangular on plan, but varies in
detail in the different orders.
Columns may be isolated or engaged, that is, built into walls so that they
form projections from the surface.

The pilaster is always engaged, and is rectangular on
plan, but otherwise it has the same general features and
proportions as the column.
The entablature is the superstructure supported by the
columns. It consists of an architrave, which is the lowest
part, a frieze, the intermediate part, and a series of
projecting mouldings known as the cornice.
The pedestal, which occasionally forms a support for
the columns, consists of a plinth, die and capping. The
lower part or plinth is separated from the die by
mouldings, and the capping is a projecting course of
mouldings forming a simple cornice.
To sum up a simple classification, which may be
termed the triology of the orders, will be found to assist
the memory.
The Orders commonly employed are three—the
Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. (There are two others which
are less used, and are really derived from the other three:
they are the Tuscan, which is a form of debased Doric,
and the Composite, which is made up of the Ionic and
Corinthian).
The Order may be divided into three parts:
No. 153. Doric Pedestal, Column and Entablature.
Order with Pedestal.
These may again be sub-divided.
The Pedestal into Plinth, Die and Capping.
The Column into Base, Shaft and Capital.
The Entablature into Architrave, Frieze and Cornice.
The method of arriving at the proportions of the order is as follows. In
this division the pedestal is not taken into account, but is reserved for later
consideration.
Doric Order
Divide the total height into five equal parts. Then the upper fifth will
give the height of the entablature and an eighth of the remaining four-fifths
the diameter of the column. From this it will be seen that the column is

eight diameters high and the entablature two diameters. In using the term
diameter it must be understood that it is always the lower diameter of the
column that is referred to.

No. 154. General Proportions of the Orders.

The capital is half a diameter high exclusive of the necking moulding,
and the base also is half a diameter. In all the orders the column is tapered;
the upper diameter is in each case five-sixths of the lower or major
diameter. The taper is not in a straight line, but a slight curve, which is
known as entasis. It is obtained by drawing the lower third of the shaft
vertical and from these lines springing a curve to the upper diameter, which
may readily be done by slightly altering the angle of the pencil in ruling
them.
The entablature is divided as follows: the architrave is half a diameter,
the frieze and cornice each three-quarters of a diameter.
Ionic Order
The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth
will be the entablature, and one ninth of the remainder the diameter of the
column, hence the column will be nine diameters high.

The capital is half a diameter high; the base also is half a diameter.
The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts, three of these
should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the frieze and
the remaining four that of the cornice.
Corinthian Order
The total height should be divided into six parts. Then the upper sixth is
the height of the entablature. A tenth of the remainder will be the diameter
of the column.
The capital is one diameter and one-sixth in height exclusive of the
necking moulding, and the base is half a diameter high, exclusive of the top
fillet.
The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic, and the
mouldings, although more elaborate, are similar in character. The architrave
and frieze are each three-tenths of the height and the cornice four-tenths.
It will be seen from the foregoing that the diameters of the three orders
are respectively one-eighth, one-ninth and one-tenth the heights of the
columns, and that the entablature is, in the Doric, two diameters high or one
fourth the height of the column; in the Corinthian also two diameters or
one-fifth the height of the column. The Ionic is intermediate between the
two.
Doric Entablatures
The Doric cornice is three-quarters of a diameter in height and one
diameter in projection from the face of the frieze, which should always be
in vertical alignment with the architrave.
It is convenient to divide the cornice height into three. The upper third
consists of a crowning cavetto moulding, supported by a cyma reversa,
under which is a facia or corona, in turn supported by a dentil course. The
lower third should be taken as the centre of the dentil course, and if the
height from the top of the cavetto to the underside of the corona be bisected,
the point of bisection should fall in the centre of the intervening reversa.
Mutules
In orthodox examples of the order the underside or soffit of the corona is
decorated with a series of sunk panels. Those immediately over the
triglyphs of the frieze are occupied by rows of conical drops. A variation of

this and a treatment frequently employed is a series of brackets known as
mutules. They consist of a facia and a reversa, which is carried round the
upper edge to support the corona. When mutules are used the dentil course
is omitted.

PLAN OF CORNICE
No. 155. Doric Entablature, Vignola.

The dentils are rectilinear blocks on a flat projecting band, and they are
supported by a cyma reversa moulding. A fillet beneath this moulding
completes the cornice. The reversa is about the same height as the fillet, and
the dentil course is about twice this height, but owing to the soffit of the
corona sloping slightly upward and inwards the full height of the dentil
facia is not apparent when drawn in elevation.

PLAN OF CORNICE
No. 156. Doric Entablature, with Mutules.

Above the dentil facia is a small cavetto moulding and a fillet. These are
directly beneath the corona, and are carried round to form the panels on its
soffit.
The Doric frieze is three-quarters of a diameter high. It is divided into
panels technically known as metopes, by projecting features half a diameter
in width which are called triglyphs.
The metopes should be square, and one of the triglyphs is always placed
immediately over each column, having the same central axis, hence the
spacing of the columns apart is regulated by the triglyphs and metopes.
Examples of various spacings of columns will be given later.
The frieze is bounded above and below by rectilinear projecting bands or
fillets; that at the top breaks round or follows the projection of the triglyphs.
The triglyphs are so named because they are channelled vertically with
grooves or glyphs, V shaped in section, with intervening spaces or inter-
glyphs. The width of the triglyph should be divided into twelve parts—then

the half glyphs which are placed at the angles will each be one of these
parts, and the remaining two glyphs and three inter-glyphs are each two of
them. The glyphs terminate at the base on the fillet band, but at the top are
cut off a little below the upper fillet, invariably in a straight line, thus
forming a triangular heading with the apex of the triangle sloping
backwards and downwards in conformity with the V shaped section of the
glyphs.
Under the lower fillet band, and immediately below the triglyph, is a
small fillet and six pendant drops of conical form known as guttae.

PLAN OF CORNICE
No. 157. Ionic Entablature.

The architrave is half a diameter high, inclusive of the fillet band, which
is roughly a sixth of this height. The small fillet and guttae are together

equal in height to the fillet band.
It may be taken as an invariable rule that whatever order is used, the face
of the architrave must be in vertical alignment with the upper part of the
shaft of the column.
Ionic Entablature
The total height of the entablature is divided into ten parts; three of these
should be taken as the height of the architrave, three that of the frieze, and
the remaining four that of the cornice.
To find the projection of the cornice a line should be drawn at an angle
of 45 degrees from the top of the frieze, and the profiles of the mouldings
composing the cornice will fall within this line.
The lowest member is a small reversa moulding, with a fillet supporting
a dentil course, above which is an ovolo; these occupy half the height of the
cornice. The remaining half is composed of the facia, surmounted by a
reversa and the crowning cyma moulding, rather more than half of the
height being allotted to these two.
The frieze of the Ionic order has no characteristic detail as the Doric, and
may be plain or decorated according to conditions, and should be in vertical
alignment with the lowest member of the architrave. In some of the later
Renaissance examples the profile of the Ionic frieze is a segmental curve of
about a third of a circle.
The architrave is usually formed of three facias, which may be either
vertical or slightly inclined.

No. 158. Corinthian Entablature.

A fifth of the total height is taken for the upper moulding, which is a
reversa with its accompanying fillet.
A point bisecting the underside of the fillet and bottom of architrave will
give the line of the lower edge of the top facia. The other two facias should
be taken in a decreasing ratio, the lower being the shorter.
Corinthian Entablature
The division of the entablature is the same as that of the Ionic. The total
height is divided into ten. Three of these parts form the architrave, three the
frieze and four the cornice.
An angle of 45 degrees set off from the top of the frieze will determine
the general contour and projection of the cornice.

The cornice is more complex than in the other styles, but a division of
eleven will help to determine, three being the height to underside of bead
moulding and seven that of the main facia. The lowest moulding of the
cornice is a cyma reversa supporting a dentil course with a bead moulding
above it. Above the bead there is an ovolo, which forms the bed of a series
of brackets known as modillions. The height of the modillions is about one-
fifth including the reversa moulding, which, besides completing the
modillions, is carried round between them as a support for the upper facia.
The modillions have a profile of ogee form. They are about a sixth of a
diameter in width and project about twice their width, and are so spaced as
to leave squares between them on the soffit or underside of the corona. The
frieze, which may or may not be decorated, is in vertical alignment with the
lowest member of the architrave.
The architrave is made up of three facias with intervening mouldings. If
the height be divided into two, the upper half is devoted to the first facia
and reversa moulding, which latter occupies rather more than one-third; the
remaining half is taken up by the other two facias in a diminishing ratio.
The Column—The Shaft
The general proportions of the column have already been given. The
shaft is invariably tapered for two-thirds of its height, the lower third being
cylindrical, and the taper terminates at the necking moulding. In all three
orders the difference between the upper and lower diameters is the same,
that is, the upper is five-sixths of the lower, but although the amount of
taper is numerically the same, the different ratios of the diameters to the
heights produce naturally very different results.
The shaft of the Doric column may be plain or channelled with vertical
grooves called flutes. There are twenty of these flutes round the
circumference. On plan they are shallow, and may be formed of arcs of a
third of a circle. The curves meet without intervening fillets. The flutes are
finished off in segmental curves at the top and bottom, leaving a small plain
space below the necking and above the base.
The Ionic and Corinthian columns may have plain or decorated shafts. If
decorated they have twenty-four flutes round the circumference. These are
semi-circular on plan, and are spaced with fillets between them.
The Capital

The Capital is the culminating feature of the column in which horizontal
lines predominate in æsthetic contrast to the vertical lines of the shaft. In all
the orders there is some form of crowning block or moulding known as the
abacus.[A]
[A] Though the proportions given are approximately accurate for general division, it will be
found necessary in detailing to adopt a more intimate system of measurement. In the following
diagrams the diameter is divided into 36 parts, which are expressed in figures, giving heights,
etc., of the various features.

Doric Capital
The Doric abacus consists of a rectangular slab, square on plan, which in
detail consists of a fillet and reversa moulding surmounting a facia. Its
extreme width is one and a half times the upper diameter. The square abacus
is supported by an ovolo, which is circular on plan, and is connected with
the necking by three small fillets.
The capital is half a diameter in height,
exclusive of the mouldings between the
necking and the shaft, and the upper part to
the underside of the ovolo occupies rather
more than half.

No. 159. Doric Capital.

No. 160. Ionic Capital.

The necking is a vertical extension of the upper diameter of the column,
and is separated from the shaft by a boldly projecting moulding, which in
height should be about equal to the three small fillets below the ovolo. The
moulding consists of a torus and a fillet, and a cavetto curve is carried from
the underside of the fillet and dies into the line of the shaft of the column.
Sometimes the ovolo is decorated with its characteristic egg and tongue
detail, and occasionally the reversa of the abacus is also enriched. The
necking is sometimes ornamented with four rosettes, which are placed
centrally under the square faces of the abacus.
Ionic Capital
The Ionic capital is half a diameter high, and is readily distinguished by
its bolster-like form with voluted ends. This bolster is rectangular on plan,
and measures laterally rather more than one and a half diameters, while
from back to front it is slightly less than a diameter.
The shaft terminates in a cavetto curve, and is surmounted by a fillet, a
small torus and an ovolo moulding, which is invariably decorated with egg
and tongue detail. These mouldings all conform to the circular plan of the
shaft. On the ovolo rests the voluted bolster.
The abacus, which is square on plan, consists of a reversa moulding and
fillet.

From the top of the abacus to the base of the ovolo the height is about a
third of a diameter, and one-fourth of this height will give the height of the
abacus.
The centre or eye of the volute can readily be found by dropping a
perpendicular from the lower edge of the reversa to intersect the horizontal
line defining the base of the ovolo. This point of intersection is the required
centre.
To Draw the Volute
From this as centre and one part as radius describe a circle. Within this
circle draw a square, having for a diagonal the diameter of the circle. Bisect
the sides of the square and draw the diameters by joining the points of bi-
section. Divide these diameters of the square into six and these points will
be the centres for the segments of circles which form the volute. Vertical
and horizontal lines drawn from the centres will define the extent of each
segment.

No. 161. Ionic Capital, with angular
volutes.

For small scale drawings the volutes are drawn free-hand, but for larger
working drawings it is necessary to use some method such as that given
here.
The angle formed by the meeting of the ovolo and the volute is masked
by a detail of anthemion form.
The ends of the bolster between the volutes consist of concave or ogee
curves, which are symmetrically arranged from a centre line; moulded
ridges or conventional leaf detail decorate the centre.
The form of the Ionic capital, while suitable for a façade, requires some
modification if it is to be carried round the side of a building, owing to the
great dissimilarity in the front and side views. In this case the end volute of
the capital at the angle of the building is projected forward at an angle of 45
degrees, and the side is then treated in the same way as the front.
In late Renaissance buildings this difficulty was overcome by making all
the volutes project at angles of 45 degrees, so that the four faces of the
capital were uniform. This entails the bolster being dispensed with, and the
volutes, no longer connected laterally, spring directly from the top of the
ovolo moulding, and the space between the springing lines is occupied by a
husk.

No. 162. Ionic Capital. Detail of Angular
Volute.

As the volutes make equal angles they conform more or less to a square
plan. The plan of the abacus is composed of four concave curves with small
straight intervals at the meeting angles. The general proportions for this
form of capital are the same as for the bolster type.
Corinthian Capital
The Corinthian capital differs widely from those of the preceding orders
in proportion and detail.
Its general form may be described as a bell, which is circular on plan. It
springs from the upper extremity of the shaft, from which it is separated by
a necking moulding.
Under the abacus it terminates in a fillet.
The bell is one diameter high. The height of the abacus is one-sixth of a
diameter in addition; on plan the abacus falls within a square, having four
concave faces with short straight lines at the angles. The distance across the
diagonal is two diameters. The bell is clothed with leaves of acanthus type,
which are arranged in two tiers of eight leaves each. Between the upper
leaves are eight stems with husks and branching scrolls, which terminate in
volutes at the angles and centres.
The necking moulding consists of a small torus and fillet.
Although the arrangement of the principal features of the Corinthian
capital is horizontal, yet owing to the channelling of the leaves and the
firmly springing scrolls the vertical direction appears to predominate.
This verticality emphasises the function of the capital as a supporting
feature, and is æsthetically satisfactory, being in harmony with the flutings
of the shaft.

No. 163. Corinthian Capital.

The effect produced by the capitals of the other two orders is horizontal,
and suggests the idea of binding. They are equally satisfactory as giving
contrast of direction.

No. 164. Corinthian Capital.
Detail giving divisions of height,
and profiles.

The Base
In all the orders a square plinth is the lowest member of the base of the
column. On this plinth rests a series of mouldings which follow the circular
plan of the shaft. The shaft invariably terminates in a fillet, the diameter of
which exceeds that of the column, and on to which the line of the shaft is
carried by means of a curve.

No. 165. Doric Base.

Doric Base
The Doric base is extremely simple. It consists of the square plinth on
which rests a torus moulding surmounted by a smaller moulding of the
same section and a fillet above.
The width of the plinth is one and a third the diameter of the column,
and its height a quarter diameter or half the total height of the base. The
other half is made up of the large torus, the small torus and fillet. The torus
moulding should be bold in projection, practically semi-circular and at the
fullest part of its curvature in vertical alignment with the centres of the
horizontal faces of the plinth block. The small torus and fillet are about
equal in height.
Ionic Base
The Ionic base differs from the Doric in the introduction of a hollow or
scotia moulding between the two torus mouldings. Æsthetically it may be
considered more satisfactory in that the strong shadow obtained by the use

of the scotia produces an effect of binding
which adds to the impression of strength.
The type is technically known as the Attic
base.
The total width is one and a third
diameter.
The height of half a diameter may be
divided into three. One of these divisions
will give the height of the plinth, one the
large torus and the fillet above it, and the
other the scotia and small torus with the
fillets above and below. The fillets either
side of the upper torus may be in the same
vertical alignment.
The
smallest
diameter of
the base,
No. 166. Ionic Base. which will
be in the
hollow of
the scotia, should exceed the diameter of
the shaft, or an effect of weakness will be
imparted.
As in the Doric base a curve of a quarter
circle connects the shaft with the upper
fillet.

No. 167. Corinthian Base.

Corinthian Base

The orthodox base of the Corinthian order is similar to that of the Ionic,
with an additional scotia and small torus with its accompanying fillets.
The width of the plinth is one and a third diameter.
The height of half a diameter does not include the top fillet. The
proportions may be approximated by dividing the height into four. One of
these parts will be the height of the plinth, another that of the large torus
and its fillet, the third—the upper edge of fillet of top scotia, and the fourth
that of the upper scotia and torus with the intervening fillet. Vertically the
uppermost fillet is in alignment with that of the upper scotia, and the
extremity of the upper torus with the small bead mouldings dividing this
from the lower scotia.
Although this is the orthodox Corinthian base, it is not used as frequently
as the Ionic type, but when the order is on a large scale the more elaborate
version is justified.
The Arch
When the arch is used in conjunction with the column it is supported on
pilasters which are attached to the columns. The columns and pilasters thus
form piers.
In the Doric order the columns are placed five diameters apart from
centre to centre, in the Ionic five and a quarter, and in the Corinthian five
and a half.
The necking moulding of the capital is generally carried through above
the arch, the outer line of which is struck so as to nearly touch the
underside.
The projection of the pilasters which carry the arch is half a diameter
from the outer lines of the column, and is measured on the same level as the
springing point of the arch.
The centre from which the arch is struck is sometimes in the same
horizontal line as the springing points, but more frequently a little above the
line and thereby a rather better effect is produced.
The arch-band or archivolt is the same width as the pilaster supporting it,
and a series of mouldings known as the impost is placed at the top of the
pilaster. The base of the pilaster consists of a plain plinth of slight
projection equal in height to the base of the column.

From the spacing of the columns and the proportions here given it will
be seen that the height and width of the aperture made by the arch and
pilasters are arrived at automatically, but if measured, the height will be
found to be about twice the width and the top of the impost about two-thirds
the height of the column. These proportions may be accepted as giving
satisfactory results under ordinary conditions.
As a general rule, in all the orders the impost is half a diameter high, and
so is the same as the projection of the pilaster and the width of the archivolt.
This rule is not always adhered to, however, but in any case the width of
the archivolt should never be more than one-eighth or less than one-tenth of
the diameter of the arch, and should always be the same as the width of the
pilaster.
Doric Impost
The mouldings of the Doric Impost are as follows:
At the top there is a fillet and a bold ovolo, below which there is a bead-
moulding or small torus with fillet and two facias. The lower facia, which is
of slight projection is one-fourth of the total height. The upper facia and
fillet are half the remainder.

No. 168. Detail of Archivolts and Imposts.

Archivolt
The archivolt mouldings are in the Doric order, the same as those of the
impost.

Ionic Impost
The total height of half a diameter may be divided into two, and the
upper half sub-divided into three. Then the upper division will be the height
of the top fillet and a reversa moulding; the second the height of a facia and
the third an ovolo and small torus.
The lower half of the impost consists of two facias, the upper of which is
broader than the lower.
Ionic Archivolt
The archivolt, commencing at the outer rim, consists of a fillet and bold
reversa moulding which occupies rather less than a fourth of the total width,
and two facias of unequal widths. The width of the inner facia is nearly one-
third more than that of the reversa moulding.
Corinthian Impost
The Corinthian impost differs from those of the other two orders in
having a necking and necking moulding in place of the two unequal facias.
The total height should be divided into two, and the upper half divided
into four. Then the top fillet and reversa moulding will be one of these
divisions, the facia two, and the supporting ovolo will occupy the remaining
one.
The lower half of the impost consists of a small torus and fillet beneath
the ovolo, the necking, and the torus and fillet which form the necking
moulding.
Corinthian Archivolt
The archivolt, commencing at the outer rim, consists of a fillet and
reversa and three unequal facias.
If the total width is divided into two, the point of bisection will be the
centre of a small reversa moulding between the two outer facias. The outer
reversa and the inner facia are each about one-sixth of the total width and
the small reversa is about two-thirds of the inner facia.
The Keystone
A projecting block, or keystone, is sometimes used at the centre of the
arch. The face width of its lowest edge should not be less than the width of

the archivolt. Its height is not often less than one and a half times or more
than twice this width.
It may be decorated in various ways, and is frequently in the shape of a
console. This form is especially suitable when the keystone comes in
contact with the architrave of the entablature, in which case it is capped
with a moulded abacus.
The Pedestal
The height of the pedestal is a fourth that of the column and entablature
together, though this proportion may be varied to suit different conditions.
For instance, when the pedestal forms part of the structure of a balcony or
balustrading the height must be modified to suit the special requirements of
the position.
The pedestal is composed of plinth, die and capping.
The width of the die is the same as the plinth of the base of the column
above it, that is, one and one-third diameter. The projection of the capping,
which is the same for all three orders is obtained by drawing a line at an
angle of 30 degrees with the vertical from the top of the die.
The width of the plinth corresponds to the projection of the capping, and
is determined by dropping perpendiculars from the top fillet.
The height of the mouldings between the die and plinth is determined by
a line drawn from the bottom of the die at an angle of 45 degrees to
intersect the vertical face of the plinth. The angle is the same for all the
orders.
Doric Pedestal
In the Doric order the height of the capping is one-third diameter. The
face of the die is square, and this determines the height of the plinth.

No. 169. Detail of Pedestals.

The capping mouldings consist of a fillet, facia, ovolo, fillet and cavetto.
The facia is carried to the underside of the fillet in a curve, and its height is
half the total height of the capping. The facia is supported by the ovolo, and
a fillet and cavetto complete the capping.
The height of the course of mouldings at the top of the plinth should be
divided into three, then the upper third will contain a cavetto moulding and
fillet, and the remaining two-thirds an ogee and final fillet.
Ionic Pedestal
In the Ionic pedestal the plinth with its mouldings should occupy one-
third the height and the capping one-fifth the remainder.
The mouldings are similar to those of the Doric pedestal, but a little
more elaborate. In the capping a reversa is used under the top fillet and a
small torus or bead is placed between the ovolo and the cavetto. In the
mouldings of the plinth a similar bead is introduced above the ogee
moulding.
Corinthian Pedestal
The same general divisions as the Ionic will give the proportions of the
Corinthian pedestal, the difference being that of the scale and the detail of
the mouldings.

The capping may be divided into two. The top half consists of a fillet,
reversa and facia, and the lower half a supporting cyma recta, a bead and a
cavetto curve. The plinth mouldings are the same as those of the Ionic
pedestal with the addition of a torus beneath the ogee. The height of this
torus is one-fourth the total height and is about equal to that of the cavetto
and bead together.
When the pedestal is employed the arch becomes proportionately larger.
In the Doric order the columns are then spaced seven and a half diameters
apart; in the Ionic seven and three quarters, and in the Corinthian eight
diameters centre to centre.
The archivolt, the radius of which is determined by the above spacing, is
supported as before by an impost and pilaster. The base of the pilaster
consists of a slightly projecting block equal in height to the plinth block of
the pedestal.
The height of the arch varies slightly, inasmuch as the inner curve may
be about a diameter from the architrave, but in the Corinthian order should
not fall below the level of the necking moulding of the capital.
The Baluster
As already stated, the pedestal may be used as a part of a balustrading
associated with balusters, and must conform to the proportions necessitated
by the conditions. The usual height for balustradings, whether to steps,
balconies, or before windows, is three feet two inches, though in special
cases it may be slightly more.
The baluster is a species of small column. Its usual form is bulbous or
vase-shaped, and it is furnished with a capital and base. A series of balusters
is technically known as a balustrade.
The balusters are raised on a plinth, which corresponds to the plinth of
the pedestal, and surmounted by a rail of horizontal mouldings, which
correspond to the capping of the pedestal; hence the baluster is of the same
height as the die.
The height of the baluster should be divided into five, then one-fifth will
be the height of the base, and the capital exclusive of the necking will be
another fifth. The extreme diameter of the bulbous shaft is one-third the
total height of the baluster, and the diameter of the necking and the top of

the shaft is about one-sixth. The capital has a square abacus slightly less in
width than the plinth of the base. Below the abacus is

No. 170. Detail of Balusters.

an ovolo and fillet, which are circular on plan. The necking is separated
from the shaft by a small torus and fillet. The base has for its lowest
member a square plinth, which occupies rather less than half the height and
is equal in width to the extreme diameter of the bulbous shaft. Above the
plinth is a scotia and a necking moulding, which are circular on plan.
Spacing of Balusters
The balusters should be spaced with not more than half their diameters
or less than a third between their bases, except when employed on the rake
of steps, when they may be slightly closer.
Balustrading
In a balustrading an unequal number of balusters should always be used,
and not less than five in one group exclusive of the half balusters which are
attached to the flanking or dividing dies. Seven and nine form very
satisfactory groups, but if more than nine are necessary for the space to be

filled, intermediate dies must be interposed, and these may vary from two-
thirds to three-quarters the width of the principal dies.
In some cases, when a large number of balusters are to be grouped, the
dies are flanked by half dies, which are less in projection than the dies
themselves.
Balustrades are sometimes used above the cornice of a building, and
their height should not be more than four-fifths or less than two-thirds the
height of the entablature. This height would be exclusive of the plinth on
which the balusters are raised. The height of the plinth is determined by the
height of the building, and the projection of the cornice, as its purpose is to
raise the balusters so that they may be seen from the ordinary point of view.
The principal dies may be placed over columns or pilasters and should be
equal in width to the upper diameters of these, though flanking half dies
may be used in addition to avoid an appearance of thinness. The plinth and
capping mouldings always follow the plan of the principal dies, and are
carried in unbroken lines across each interval.
When the height of the balustrade does not conform to the orthodox
proportions the method of determining the relative proportions is as
follows:—The height is divided into seven parts; of these one part gives the
height of the capping, four the baluster and two the plinth.
The mouldings in character and detail are the same as those of the
pedestal, and should be in harmony with the order used.
When balustrading forms part of a stair, the height on landings should be
three feet two inches. On the rake two feet ten inches from the step at a line
vertical with the face of the riser. The plinth is invariably used as a string
enclosing the ends of the steps and following the rake or angle in a straight
line, and carried to the levels by means of curving ramps.
In interior work the bulbous shafts of balusters are often decorated with
carved detail, and the mouldings also may be enriched.
Use of Columns
Columns were originally used in the porticos and courts of temples and
other buildings, and sometimes to form supports for vaulted roofs.
Wherever employed their function was directly structural, but this was not
the case at the time of the Renaissance. The requirements demanded by

widely different social conditions led to their being used more as decorative
than structural features.
The use of engaged columns and pilasters in a façade can be justified to
some extent. Although such columns and pilasters may not be absolutely
essential for support, yet they act as buttresses and add to the strength of the
structure with a certain economy of material. Also they are æsthetically
satisfactory in their effect of light and shade.
Disposition and Spacing in Colonnades
The disposition of columns either in a façade or a colonnade is
controlled by proportions which have been found to be desirable or are
necessitated by special features of the order itself. The latter is the case with
the Doric order, the spacing being determined by the trigylphs and metopes.
If the triglyphs are placed centrally over the columns or pilasters the
spacing of these apart will be two and a half diameters centre to centre,
three and three-quarters, or five diameters, with two, three or four metopes
respectively between them in the frieze. With the wider spacing of five
diameters it is usual to employ coupled columns to add to the appearance of
strength. As the triglyphs are one and a quarter diameters apart centre to
centre, the coupled columns are brought very close together, entailing a
slight modification of the bases. Since the ordinary projection of the plinth
of a sixth of a diameter beyond the line of the shaft is not possible between
the two columns, the plinth-blocks are united, and the torus moulding made
slightly less in projection.

No. 171. Spacing of Columns.

The capitals being less in width are not affected, a small interval is left
between the crowning reversa mouldings.
In the Ionic order the columns are spaced three and a quarter, three and
three-quarters and four and a quarter diameters centre to centre. The
coupled columns used with the wide spacing are one and a half diameters
centre to centre or half a diameter apart at the lower extremity of the shafts.
The Corinthian spacing is slightly wider, three and a half diameters, four
diameters, or with coupled columns four and a half diameters centre to
centre. The coupled columns are placed as in the Ionic order one and a half
diameters centre to centre.
It is desirable that attention should be given to the vertical alignment of
the principal features. Dentils and modillions and indeed all strongly
marked features should centre with the columns, and be equally spaced in
the intervals.
Orders Above Orders
Occasionally in façades orders are used above one another. The
Colosseum is an antique Roman example of this, and it was a treatment
often adopted by the architects of the early Renaissance. It is desirable that

the simpler order should be the lower one. Ionic may be used over Doric, or
Corinthian over Ionic.
It is obvious that the central axes of the columns or pilasters of each
order used should be in vertical alignment, not only when seen from the
front, but in the case of detached columns, from the side view also.
When engaged columns or pilasters are employed, the upper tier may be
set back slightly from the face of the lower order which supports it; an
example of this is to be found in the Theatre of Marcellus at Rome.
The proportions of the upper order are obtained by making the lower
diameter of the upper tier of columns or pilasters equal to the upper
diameter of those

No. 172. Order above Order.

of the supporting order, and an effect of continuous tapering is produced.
It is usual to place above the entablature of the lower order a plinth on
which the bases of the upper columns rest. The height of the plinth is
regulated by the point of view, as its purpose is to display the bases of the
imposed order above the projecting cornice. Generally this height will be
about half a diameter.
In many historical examples the upper columns are placed on pedestals,
but this treatment, although useful when a balcony is desired, is not to be
recommended as the extra width and projection which the use of the
pedestal entails, gives an appearance of undue weight to be borne by the
supporting columns. If balconies are necessary they may terminate with
their own pedestals, which can be kept clear of the columns and should not
exceed them in projection.
The Pilaster
It may be as well to deal here with the treatment of pilasters, which may
be defined as columns in bas-relief. Their projection may vary from one-
half to about one-sixth their face width, though in antique examples it is
sometimes much less than this. In the pilasters of the Pantheon at Rome it is
one-tenth.
The projection is, however, partly determined by the order with which
the pilaster is used, as an appearance of mutilation might easily be produced
in the capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The Doric capital, being
composed of moulded profiles, is not in any way affected by the amount of
projection. Nor does the Ionic capital suffer when the volutes are in one
plane except when used on an angle. But if the later Renaissance type with
the volutes arranged at angles of 45 degrees is employed, the projection of
the pilaster must not be less than half its upper diameter, so that the volute
on the return face may be complete.
The Corinthian capital would be affected in the same way, and should
also be not less than half a diameter in projection in order to obtain a
satisfactory result.
The pilaster is usually tapered, and when associated with columns and
supporting the same entablature it is essential to preserve universal
alignment in the upper extremities and the architrave, but when used by

itself the pilaster is often not tapered. At the angle of buildings, where both
faces are displayed, it is an invariable rule that pilasters should be straight.
The details of capitals and bases are the same as those of the columns.
When fluting is employed an odd number of channels should be used,
usually seven on the front face.

No. 173. Doric
Order. Treatment of
coupled Column
and Pilaster.

Arcades
Arcades, as already suggested, may be composed of a series of arches,
supported on pilasters which flank the columns. The backs of the piers thus
formed may be treated with pilasters, which can be repeated on the opposite
wall, with the architrave frieze and cornice above.
There are several alternative treatments for the ceilings of arcades. They
may be flat and panelled by beams carried across in a line with the pilasters
and with a cornice moulding carried round the sides of the beams.
The interior can also be vaulted by means of archivolts springing from
the line of the imposts. The archivolts should be supported by pilasters at
the back of the piers and on the opposite wall, and a cornice may be carried

round between the vaults. Cross vaulting also
may be employed, and in this case the
entablature is no longer necessary.
The proportions already given determine
the width of piers when an order is used, but
when an order is not used some further
general rules for proportions are necessary.
The height of the opening formed by
arches, which may spring from piers—with or
without an impost—should be about twice the
width. The supporting piers should not be less
than a third or more than two-thirds the width
of the aperture. In any form of arcading, piers
must be employed at the angles, and these No. 174. Doric Arcading.
should be wider than the intermediate ones by
a half, a third, or a fourth.

No. 175. Doric Arch, with pedestal.

Subsidiary Order

A secondary or subsidiary order is sometimes used in an arcading. The
height of the arch should then be twice its width, and the height of the small
order two-thirds the height of the column of the principal order.
This height of two-thirds the column should be sub-divided into nine
parts, of which eight will give the height of the column and the remaining
one that of the entablature. The entablature consists of architrave and
cornice, the frieze being omitted, and a division into five will give the
relative proportions. Two-fifths may be taken as the height of the architrave
and three that of the cornice.

No. 176. Employment of the Subsidiary Order.

Pilasters are used with the columns of the subsidiary order with a space
of half a diameter between them and the columns.
The archivolt should be equal in width to the upper diameter of the
column, and the width of the lower edge of the keystone should also be of
the same dimension.
The subsidiary order may be the same as the principal order, but more
often the Ionic is used in conjunction with the Doric, or the Corinthian with
the Ionic.

As regards the treatment of the bases, the
horizontal alignment must be maintained. It is
obvious that if the height of the base of the large
column is adopted for the subsidiary one it will
be very much out of proportion. This can be
obviated by carrying through the plinth of the
larger column to form a step on which the base of
the smaller rests, and always the top line of the
smaller bases should agree with that of the larger.
No. 177. Subsidiary Order.
Division of Entablature.

Superimposed Orders
When arcades are used one above the other, the lower order is usually
mounted on a plinth, and the upper furnished with a pedestal. The height of
the pedestal is determined by the balustrading or balcony, the height of
which is governed by its use.
If the Doric is taken as the lower order the centres of the columns are six
and a quarter diameters apart, which gives a frieze of five metopes with
intervening triglyphs. The plinth on which the order stands is three-quarters
of a diameter high. The pilaster supporting the archivolt projects half a
diameter, and the height of the arch is determined by the impost, which is
two-thirds the height of the column inclusive of the plinth. The base of the
pilaster may be moulded, but the top line should coincide with the top of the
plinth.
Above the Doric an Ionic order might be placed, and the die and plinth
of the superimposed order should be kept as narrow as possible so as to
reduce the impression of weight. The pilasters carrying the arch rest on the
plinth of the pedestal, and the plinth mouldings are carried round the bases.
The plinth and rail of the balustrading should not project but be kept
between the pilasters.
The centres of the arches of both tiers are in a line with the tops of the
imposts, and the outer edges of the archivolts may nearly reach the lower
lines of the architraves.
When the Ionic is used as the lower order it may be surmounted by the
Corinthian. The distance between the centres of the lower columns should

then be six and a half diameters. The other proportions can be obtained in
the same way as the preceding.
If a subsidiary order is employed the columns of the principal order are
placed further apart. In the case of the Doric the distance is seven and a half
diameters, and the other orders are increased in proportion.
Rustication
The joints of the material used must necessarily be considered, and when
plain piers or plain wall surfaces occur the joints may readily be
accentuated and so turned to decorative account. The edges of the stones
forming the separate courses may be chamfered or moulded. The joints may
also be worked so as to form a square recess.

TYPES OF RUSTICATION
No. 178. Rustication.

The surface of the stone is sometimes roughly tooled or frosted, or
worked in an arbitrary pattern, which is termed “vermiculated.” This
treatment probably gave rise to the word rustication.
When rusticated work is used with an order the height of each course of
stone should not be less than half a diameter, and when square recessed
joints are used they can be one-eighth or one-tenth the height of the course.
Occasionally only the horizontal courses are thus marked, and this has
been objected to as producing a boarded appearance, though undoubtedly
the horizontal effect is at times agreeably in contrast to the vertical features.
A much more usual treatment in Renaissance examples was to emphasise
the vertical joints also.
The length of each stone should be from one and a half to three times the
height.
Rustication may be used in the formation of the arch, which frequently
has at its springing line a slightly projecting course, in which the vertical

joints are not emphasised.

No. 179. Rusticated Arcade.

Rustication is also used in columns, either square on plan or conforming
to the plan of the column.
Its most legitimate employment is in basements and to emphasise the
angles of buildings.
Basement
A basement is really a continuous pedestal on which an order rests. It
necessarily varies in height according to conditions, thus if its purpose is
merely to raise the ground floor it may be no more than three to six feet
high, but if it is required to form a storey, it should not exceed the height of
the order employed or be less than one half.
The joints of the work in basements are generally accentuated by some
form of rustication, and the heights of the horizontal courses should not be
less than half a diameter of the column of the order above.
When a high basement is used it is sometimes crowned with a cornice,
or more frequently with a slightly projecting facia technically known as a
plat-band. In either case, the height should be equal to that of the courses
exclusive of moulded edges or chamfers. Also a plinth is placed at the base
of the same height as the plat-band or a little more. When a cornice is used
the plinth should be moulded and may then exceed the height of the
courses.
Attic
An attic storey is sometimes used instead of a second order, and this may
vary from one-third to one-tenth the height of the order beneath it.

The attic may be quite plain, but it often has breakings or projections on
its face corresponding to the vertical features of the supporting order.
It usually forms a storey in a building, and then is of necessity pierced
with windows.
In architectural design the character and requirements of the building
must, of course, be the first consideration, but the basement may constitute
the ground floor, the height occupied by the order may contain two stories
and the attic may be an upper floor.
When an order is not employed the divisions and proportions already
stated may still be applied, the heights and widths should govern each other
as would be the case if the façade were divided into bays by columns or
pilasters.
In the absence of the order a cornice is substituted for the entablature,
and this, according to different authorities, may be from one-twelfth to one-
sixteenth the total height from the ground, but one-fourteenth or one-
fifteenth will be found a safe mean.
The Pediment
The pediment in its original and orthodox employment was a gable
conforming to the pitch of the roof. It is framed with mouldings, and the
enclosed space is technically known as the tympanum.
The use made of the pediment by the
architects of the Renaissance was not always
justified in the strictest sense. It was often used
to vary the sky line, and to form door and
window heads. Although the latter use can be to
some extent justified in exterior work, a similar
employment in interiors may be open to
question.
The sloping lines of the pediment are not
always straight, sometimes they are in the form
No. 180. Cornice where order
of a curve composed of a segment of a circle. is not employed.
The triangular and curved forms are often used
alternately in a row of windows with good
effect.

The lines of the pediment mouldings are not always continuous;
sometimes the sloping or the horizontal lines or both are broken. This is a
treatment that cannot readily be justified as the pediment is a feature that
implies shelter.
Sometimes ogee curves take the place of the straight sloping lines, and
these terminate towards the centre, with scroll ends, leaving an interval
between them.

DETAIL OF PEDIMENT
No. 181.

The mouldings of the pediment are the same as those of the cornice, the
crowning moulding of which is carried round and omitted in the horizontal
course forming the base of the pediment.
Beneath the cyma the mouldings of the cornice are repeated in their
proper order, detailing at the lower angles on the top of the horizontal
cornice, which terminates with the fillet above the facia.
When dentils and modillions are introduced in the cornice they are
invariably repeated in the mouldings of the pediment.
The tympanum or face of the pediment should be in vertical alignment
with the face of the frieze. When this space is small it is best left plain, but
on a large scale the tympanum affords a very suitable position in which to
place sculpture.
The height of the pediment varies according to the width. Thus where
the base is short, as in door and window heads, it will be comparatively
higher than when used in a façade. The height may vary from a fourth to a
fifth of the width of the base.

Doors
Obviously door openings should be of sufficient size to admit the free
passage of a tall person. The minimum height for ordinary doors in
domestic buildings should be six feet nine inches, and the width two feet
nine inches. For entrance doors under similar conditions the width may be
three feet six, but when it is more than this the door should be in two
halves.
The size of doors should be proportioned to the
building, and should be designed to meet probable
requirements, thus in public buildings door openings
should not be less than six feet wide.
Generally a satisfactory proportion may be obtained
by making the height twice the width, and the framing
architrave one-sixth the width of the opening.
If a frieze and cornice are carried over the door the
height inclusive of architrave should be half the width
of the opening. No. 182. General
proportions of doors
and windows.

No. 183. Door Treatment.
A. Architrave with simple pilasters and consoles. B.
Ionic order rusticated, with pediment. C. Doric order with
pediment. D. Doric order rusticated.

In addition to the framing architrave narrow pilasters bearing consoles
supporting the cornice are sometimes used. The total width of architrave
and pilaster may be about one-third the width, and the entire entablature
one-third the height of the opening.
The mouldings and decorations used should be in harmony with the
general structure and in character with the order if one is used.
Occasionally columns or pilasters are introduced, with or without the
arch, but the same general proportions apply, the aperture being two

squares.
When doors are placed under arches the top line of the entablature
should agree with that of the impost.
When a pediment is used, the height should be one-fourth the width of
the base.
Windows
The general proportions and treatments of doors apply also to windows,
and if doors and windows are placed in the same line the heads of the
openings should be in horizontal alignment. If this is not possible the top of
the cornice may agree with the inner line of the window openings.
Windows terminate below in a sill, or sometimes in a balcony, and as a
general rule those on the same level should be similar in treatment, but an
alternation such as already suggested with curved and straight lined
pediments is quite satisfactory.
The frieze and consoles of doors and windows are often decorated with
relief ornament.
When a façade is divided by columns or pilasters the bays are pierced
with windows ranged above each

No. 184. Windows.
A. Rusticated Architrave. B. Rusticated Ionic
Columns. C. & D. Rustication with Horizontal and
Vertical Joints Defined.

other, the heights varying with the different floors. Those on the first storey
are usually of full height, and those above less in height and simpler in
treatment. The width of apertures should be the same for the different
levels, except in the case of basements, where they may be narrower.
When an order is not employed in a façade variety may be obtained by
grouping the windows; or three-light windows may be introduced. The
centre light, which may be treated with an arched head, should be twice the
width of the side lights.

No. 185. Three-Light Window.

The number of windows in a façade should be odd, so that there may be
a centre one, and the end windows of a range should be kept well clear of
the angles of the building.

CHAPTER V

DIVISION OF SURFACE

I
N interior decoration surfaces such as walls and ceilings may be divided
into panels of various shapes by a system of framing. The form of the
framing may be rectangular, square, polygonal, circular or oval; and the
panel is generally recessed from the dividing stiles and rails or ribs,
while the latter are frequently supplemented by mouldings.
Wall Treatment
In dealing with walls the division can be planned in accordance with
architectural proportions, but the orthodox features are not necessarily
employed.
In some phases of traditional decoration much use has been made of
pilasters—the spacing and distribution of which, while conforming to the
conditions of the interior, are similar to the usual employment of pilasters in
exterior architecture, with the difference that the spaces between them are
occupied by panels or other features.
Except in apartments of unusual height, pilasters should not be mounted
on a pedestal; though a pedestal-like feature is often introduced in the form
of a Dado or surbase.
In such a scheme the entablature also should be used so that the cornice
forms a bed moulding for the ceiling.
Coupled pilasters may also be employed, and in

No. 186. Wall Division.
A. & B. Pilaster Treatment.
C. & D. Alternation of wide and narrow panels.

some well-known instances are placed wider apart than is ordinarily the
case, and the space between is then occupied by a narrow panel.

No. 187. Detail of Ceiling. Library of S. Lorenzo,
Florence. M. Angelo.

In smaller apartments the pilaster may be dispensed with, but the
division of the wall surface can conform to the same general plan both
vertically and horizontally. In the absence of pilasters the spaces may be
divided into panels alternately narrow and wide.
Ceilings
When the ceiling is divided the dividing ribs or beams should bear some
relation to the general construction, though in the past this rule has not
always been strictly adhered to. For example, the ceiling may very desirably
be divided into equal squares or rectangles by means of wooden or plaster
mouldings, leaving the enclosed spaces plain or decorated. When
mouldings are used these may be enriched, but contrast should be
maintained between the framing ribs and the panels.

No. 188. Detail of Inlaid Floor. Library of S. Lorenzo,
Florence. Repeating general pattern of ceiling.

The Late Tudor decorated ceiling often had narrow moulded ribs
geometrically arranged with pateræ in between and fleur-de-lys details on
the outer angles where the ribs met.

No. 189. Ceiling of Library of S. Lorenzo, Florence.
Plan of general arrangement.

No. 190. Late Tudor Ceiling. Littlecotes Hall, Wilts.

Jacobean

In the later Jacobean style the rib was replaced by floral bands projecting
comparatively slightly and enclosed by narrow borders. These bands were
disposed in various ways—sometimes intersecting at right angles and
enclosing rectangular or square panels, sometimes forming geometric
curves occasionally interrupted by straight lines.
If any of these methods of breaking up the surface be employed, it is
obvious that the general proportions must be taken into account.
Carolean and Georgian
In the Carolean and Georgian periods it was customary to decorate the
ceiling with a heavily modelled band of foliated detail, circular or oval in
form—the whole in harmony with the plan of the room. Sometimes the
angles were occupied by other detail, but the centre was invariably left
plain.
Adam Ceilings

No. 191. Jacobean Ceiling. Sizergh Hall,
Westmorland.

The ceilings of the Adam period were similarly treated. The oval or
circular band would sometimes consist of a series of festoons—an
arrangement which, though graceful enough in effect, cannot be defended

No. 192. Jacobean Ceiling. Reindeer Inn, Banbury.

as consistent. The angles of the Adam ceiling were generally decorated with
the characteristic fan detail.

No. 193. Carolean Ceiling.

Vaults and Domes
In vaulted ceilings or domes the division may be effected by horizontal
or vertical bands, in which case the spaces between diminish in size towards
the centre. If the division of the dome is vertical, or more properly
speaking, by radial lines, it is desirable to divide further the spaces thus
formed by introducing intermediate shapes, such as circles, unless the
diameter be relatively small.

No. 194. Adam Ceiling.

The Cove
In some cases the walls meet the ceiling in an arch, which is technically
known as a Cove. The arch generally springs from the top of the cornice
and forms a vaulted frieze, which may or may not be decorated.
When the ceiling is divided by means of heavy beams there should be
obvious support for these, such as brackets or consoles, which are
themselves to be supported by pilasters. The brackets in this case make a
break in the frieze or cove.
It may be objected that architectural features serve no purpose in interior
decoration, but on the other hand, in extenuation of their use it may be
urged that, though considerations of actual weight and structure are not
involved, yet the appearance of support has to be maintained, and it is
essential that the scheme as a whole should realise the effect of stability.
The Frieze

In considering the decoration of the various
parts, the two principal questions to be asked
are—what is the purpose? and, what is the
attitude? The purpose of the Frieze may be
said to be to bind, and the attitude of the
Frieze is certainly a horizontal one—therefore
the usual continuous treatment is justified.
This is not the only way in which the Frieze
No. 198. Festoon Frieze.
can be treated, however, for the continuous
Continuous treatment with horizontal treatment may be varied by vertical
vertical contrast. Temple of Vesta, effects such as occur in the Doric order. The
Tivoli
employment of Festoons with intermediate

No. 195. Vault Treatment. Ducal Palace, Venice,
Sansovino.

No. 196. Dome Treatment. Vertical and horizontal
division, resulting in panels. Villa Madama, Rome.

No. 197. Dome, St. Peter’s, Rome. Example of radial
division.

pendants is really a continuous horizontal treatment in which the vertical
direction is emphasised by way of contrast. The same principle is involved
in the decoration of mouldings. Vertical features should be in alignment
with adjacent and dominant details.
All kinds of elements can be employed in Frieze decoration, and as
much interest and liveliness imparted as is compatible with the necessary
repetition.

No. 199. Frieze. Temple of
Antoninus and Faustina, Rome.
Horizontal direction suggested
by Gryffons, with vertical
contrast by Candelabra.

Borders
Borders, with or without mouldings, may be considered as frames to the
spaces they separate or enclose; in the latter case they are invariably
uniform in width (except when used in Typography and illuminations,
where some license is permissible).
As borders are structural in suggestion, the elements employed should be
simple and without that interest which is desirable in other positions.
The detail to be used is largely determined by scale and position. When
on a small scale, borders may be mainly composed of a series of lines
spaced so as to suggest the various features of a moulded band, in which
case it is essential that the same width be maintained throughout the length,
while the lines are returned at the corners at mitral angles. This treatment
can be elaborated by the introduction of other lines between those most
widely spaced at right angles with the direction, and these can again be
broken at intervals by rosettes or other simple forms.

No. 200. Key-Pattern Borders.

No. 201. Interlacing Borders.

The well-known key-border is a continuous narrow band or line which
traces out a labyrinth pattern by bending inwards at right angles and then
returning to the original direction. This, in its simplest form, is an
elaboration of adjacent squares in which a top and bottom line is alternately
dispensed with.
Geometric Elements
The simplest elements in border decoration are geometric in character.
The border may be divided by straight lines intersecting at various angles,
or by curves struck from equidistant centres, or by a combination of straight
lines and curves.
The Undulate Line

No. 202. Growth Line based on Geometric
Curves.

Intersecting straight lines form the basis of the different chequered
patterns in conjunction with the simple device of alternating light and dark
masses. Interlacing patterns are also based on intersecting straight lines.
When segmental curves are employed either the chequered or interlacing
effect may be obtained. Such patterns are essentially geometric and
mechanical, but some idea of the growth line is suggested by the undulating
stems formed out of the arcs of circles struck from either side of the border.
This effect may be used with purely artificial detail, such as arises naturally
from the spaces left, or with the introduction of floral detail. It is evident
that the curve of the undulating stem will vary according to the position of
the centres from which the arcs are struck.

No. 203. Brocade composed of Undulate
Borders.

A fuller effect, giving more space for branching and other detail, will be
obtained by basing the stem upon

No. 204. Scroll Border based on Adjacent Circles.

No. 205. 14th Century Textile
composed of Undulate Borders
arranged obliquely.

a series of complete adjacent circles struck within the border. The latter
device is the basis of the wave line, which, after all, is only the key or
labyrinth with the square angles rounded.

No. 206. French Brocade, 18th Century,
composed of Borders.

Border decoration can also consist of leaves or other details
symmetrically arranged on a central axis, with perhaps occasional flowers
or rosettes to break the monotony.
Repetition and Alternation
Generally speaking, the detail should preferably be of a formal character,
and should consist of the repetition of units with no interest beyond that
imparted by alternation.
The detail must, moreover, be designed with due regard to the space to
be filled, and, in any border which encloses any space, a common divisor of
height and width should be found in accordance with which the unit can be
designed.
Treatment of Angles
The meeting angles or corners of
borders invariably require special
treatment, and in those positions the detail
should be compact and stronger in
appearance than the general pattern. The
simplest expedient is some form of patera
or rosette, but, whatever the detail, it should
always be in strong contrast to that of the
run of the border. The only forms that can
be continuous without any marked change
in the angles, are the undulating stem, the
wave, and its square form the key or
labyrinth; but even with these the
proportion of width to height at times needs
modification. If a common divisor is not
No. 207. The Evolute Scroll as a possible, the difficulty can to some extent
Border. be overcome by making the form reciprocal
A. Continuous. B. Reciprocal
and letting the two sides meet in the centre
of the border, so that any slight disparity in
treatment and dimensions will not be noticeable.
Pilaster Treatment
As the Pilaster is used structurally in order to give support, so its
treatment in interior decoration must conform to architectural requirements,

and the decoration should be symmetrical on a central axis and vertical in
direction.
When flutes are employed to decorate the pilasters, they should be
unequal in number—seven being a favourite number. The flutes may be
further decorated by cabling, though this should extend to only one-third of
the height. The cabling can be elaborated into a series of husks which may
arise from the base or be pendant from the top of the pilaster. In either case
the general rule must be observed that the cabling shall occupy only a third
of the total height.
Panelled Pilasters
Sunk panels are also used for decorating pilasters. They cover about half
the width, and are moulded at the edges. In some instances, notably in
pilasters of the Early French Renaissance, the panel is broken in the centre
by the introduction of a smaller circular or lozenge-shaped panel.
Sometimes the panel is adorned with floral or other detail, and this should
be symmetrically arranged on a central axis. For this purpose the undulate
stem should never be employed. Such detail requires a start at the base and
a definite finish at the top of the pilaster, but for the rest, it may consist of
the same unit repeated, or of two alternating units.
In order to emphasise the structural character of the pilaster it was
customary to introduce features in the form of mouldings, vases and labels.
Capitals and Bases
The capitals and bases of pilasters should be in harmony with the other
decorations used. The usual capital of the Italian Renaissance is a modified
Corinthian type, and this is quite suitable when the pilaster has plain or
decorated panels, but when flutes are employed on the pilaster a more
ornate capital is desirable. In the latter case a composite form in which the
Doric abacus and enriched ovolo figure together with a row of stiffly-
arranged vertical leaves, could fitly be used. The Ionic type would also be
suitable; when the base of the pilaster is decorated, the lowest detail of
reeds of the principal torus may be bound with cross ribbons.

No. 209. Treatment of
Pilaster Capital, with
Vertical Emphasis.

No. 208.
Pilaster
Treatme
nt.
French
Renaissa
nce.

Treatment of Panels
Panels and enclosed spaces have no structural significance, and therefore
in the treatment of them attitude alone has to be considered—that is to say,
the only question is, as to whether the surface to be decorated is in a vertical
or a horizontal plane. In the decoration of a panel in a horizontal plane,
since it is not desirable to mark any one direction, the detail may radiate
diagonally or diametrically from a centre. If, however, in the case of a
ceiling, details are employed in the angles formed by the walls, these should
grow towards the centre of the ceiling.

No. 210. Ceiling Decoration. Growth
from Angle.

When panels or enclosed spaces are used on walls or on furniture of any
height the vertical direction should be emphasised as a general rule; but if
the height is less than the width, the decoration, though it should remain
vertical in tendency, should also spread so as to conform to the width.
The design of a panel or enclosed space, whatever the shape or attitude,
should be complete in itself, having its proper start and appropriate
terminals. If the enclosing border were removed the detail should, by its
general disposition maintain the shape, even though the whole surface may
not be occupied.
Rich ornamentation is thoroughly in keeping with the nature of the panel
—certainly more interest should be centred on panel decoration than on
adornment in more subordinate positions.
The decoration may either completely fill the space or only partially do
so. In the latter case, the shapes of the unoccupied parts must be carefully
considered.

No. 211. Semi-Lunette Panel. Central
Feature based on Circle.

Whether the design is a unit repeated on a central axis or is a balanced
one, is largely a matter to be settled by individual taste and the position of
the panel. Both treatments are admissible in a range of panels; greater
variety can be obtained by symmetrically disposed designs being flanked on
either side by balanced designs.
Juxtaposition
When panels occur together, either side by side or ranged one above the
other, they may exert influence on one another. For example, vertical
features close to the framing stiles should be repeated in the adjacent panel
even though the width of each panel may differ. When the panels are one
above the other, central features should be avoided and the interest should
be kept close to the opposing margins; otherwise the effect will be spotty
and lacking in repose.

No. 212. Panels in Juxtaposition.

As panels present the best opportunity for display, on account of their
treatment being comparatively untrammelled by the considerations to which
the more structural features must submit, there is open to them

No. 213. Design for Panel based on
Treatment of Celery. By C. A. Sheehan,
Bristol.

a proportionately large field of possible decoration. In the first place, the
panel may be treated pictorially, with due regard to the requirements of
surface and reciprocal effect which must be insisted on in mural decoration.
If not treated pictorially, ornament of a traditional character, or designs
derived more directly from natural forms can be made use of. In either case
the ornament must complete itself within the given area.
The Growth Line

No. 214. Analysis of Composing Lines of
Panel.

In traditional ornament, composing or strongly marked lines are used,
but in types more nearly allied to natural forms, it is necessary for the lines
to bear some relation to the character of the selected growth. The
disposition of leaves and other elements must also be characteristic, and
natural terminals must be taken advantage of near enclosing lines so as to
avoid any appearance of mutilation. When such forms as branches or leaves
approach or cross, they should always do so at decided angles; their points
or extremities should never be directly opposed to other details or to
margins. The main growth should be clearly discernible, and the direction
of the stem lines evident even when clothed with foliage.
Grouping and Massing
It must be borne in mind when designs are based on natural forms that
the mere rendering of a natural attitude does not in itself constitute a design.
In the case of plant forms, flowers and leaves should be grouped and
massed, primarily with a view to the composition of a harmonious whole.

Sometimes interest may be added by introducing animal forms in keeping
with the general environment.
Interest in design depends on the massing and emphasis of detail,
because, if a plain or uniform surface be completely covered with detail
equally distributed, with no regard to mass or emphasis of parts, it is
obvious that the result will again be uniform—the only difference being that
a certain texture is imparted to the surface, and this, though not undesirable
in a wallpaper, is not consonant with the nature of a panel.
Division of Area
The massing of detail should be as simple as possible and to some extent
should be guided by the scale. One expedient in panel designing is to draw
within the area, whether it be square, rectangular or any other shape, a
circle or oval to control the predominant detail in contrast to that which is to
be less conspicuous.

No. 215. Phases of Elaboration of Simple
Shape.

Large areas may be sub-divided into several masses, but the grouping of
these must be controlled by the general shape. When dealing with borders a
suggestion was made that the undulate stem could follow the lines of
adjacent circles, and this device is the basis of most of the scrolling growth
lines that are characteristic of Renaissance ornament.

No. 216. Byzantine Panel. Composition
based on Circles.

No. 217. Romanesque Lunette Panel.
Composition based on Circular Shapes.

Human and Animal Life
Decoration, when the human figure or any form of animal life is
employed, is bounded with the same conditions with regard to composition,
inasmuch that they

No. 218. Figure Composition. Recognition of Framing
Lines.

No. 219. Figure Composition. Spandril Treatment.

must be so arranged as to occupy the area and be in harmony with the
boundaries or framing lines.
The license that is permissible in ornament, particularly of the purely
conventional type, when it may be compelled in any direction and fitted
into any space that is desirable from a decorative point of view, is not
possible where the human or animal form is concerned. This adds to the
consideration, as natural attitude and proportions are obligatory if
consistency has to be observed.
The problem in certain shaped areas affords little latitude, in particular
the triangular spandril where the invariable device of wings or floating
drapery is as insistent as the head of King Charles in the memorial of Mr.
Dick.
Forms in the Round

Forms in the round—such that can be seen from any point of view—
need special treatment. Height may appear normal, but the details round the
surface will be materially affected by the rotundity. Thus a vase of varying
contour might have its surface divided by a series of vertical lines, any one
of which, seen from a point of view exactly opposite, would appear straight,
whereas those approaching the profiles would appear curved
proportionately to the sectional curvature.
Perspective also affects the vertical appearance more
or less according to the profile curvature, and in
decoration, for bodies that are bulbous in form, the
foreshortening and its effect on details must be taken
into consideration so as to avoid undesirable distortion.
No. 220. Effect of
Perspective of
Vertical Division.

Supports and Balusters
Other forms in the round that may be considered are supports for
furniture, balusters and lamp-post standards. Furniture supports and
balusters are invariably in the form of tapered or vase-shaped shafts, and the
divisions may be in accordance with the proportions previously suggested.
Appropriate mouldings are used to decorate the shaft. When in wood, these
forms are either partly or wholly turned, and in this case may be further
decorated by carved work. In supports, the general tendency of the details
should be in the vertical direction so as to enhance the structural suggestion.

No. 221.
Jacobean
Baluster, Carved
Wood, showing
Vertical and
Horizontal
Contrast.

Standards
In the treatment of standards it is not so necessary to emphasise the
element of support, and the diameter or lateral dimensions can vary to a
greater degree. Whether the standards are fixtures or movable, as in interior
fittings, there must be a base that will not only be adequate but will convey
the idea of stability. In the case of portable standards the tripod form of base
is possibly the most suitable, but when the standard is small the base can be
circular, square or polygonal. The commonest form is a shaft, which is
frequently tapered. This is supported on a bulbous or vase-shaped form
arising out of the base. At the upper end of the shaft is a capital of some
kind. These different parts are held together by appropriate mouldings.
The decoration of a standard, which is largely dependent on its size,
should, generally speaking, be applied in the vertical direction with
occasional horizontal features by way of contrast. The treatment must also
vary according to material.

No. 222. Cast Iron Lamp
Standard.

Proportion
Apart from considerations of use and material, the design of this kind of
round form is based on inequalities of proportion in height and diameter.
Obvious repetitions of the same dimension are to be avoided. The profiles
should be carefully composed with a view to effecting harmony or contrast
—the curves either approaching one another in a flexible line or being
deliberately contrasting. Mouldings may be used at intervals to mark the
various stages.

No. 223. Types of Vase Decoration.
A. Horizontal Banding with vertical Contrast.
B. Oblique or Spiral Treatment. C. Panel Treatment.

Vase forms vary considerably. When the profile is formed by straight
lines they may be cylindrical or cone-shaped. Of course profiles may take
other forms—they may be ovoid or trace an ogee curve. When the diameter
varies the bulk should preponderate at some one point. When unity of line is
desired, the curves of the profile should flow easily into each other, even if
broken at intervals by mouldings. In contrasting curves the lines should
intersect at right angles in order to avoid indecision of form.
Positions for Decoration
The areas capable of being decorated on vase forms are those bounded
by mouldings. The nature and direction of the decoration will be determined
by the profile curves on the sectional form. The direction of the ornament
may be horizontal as in the form of a band, but to avoid distortion such
detail should only be applied to surfaces of uniform curvature.
If the vertical direction be chosen the decoration may take the form of
flutes, of leaves or of panels decorated with detail. A variation of the
vertical treatment is obtained by employing similar details in an oblique
direction, thus giving the appearance of ornament twisting or twining round
the shape.

No. 224. Stretch Out and Segments of the Cylinder.

In the vertical panel treatment, as in mouldings, the sectional or profile
curve may be used to determine the general framing lines, with contrasting
details between the panels. In order to give variety it may be desirable to
combine two treatments—for instance, the horizontal band may be
contrasted with vertical flutes and leaves.
Working Drawings
For a practical drawing the form must be shown in elevation and not in
perspective. All the horizontal divisions must be drawn in parallel lines. It is
obvious that except for profiles and general height, further details must be
given for a working drawing.
The Segment or Stretch Out
In designing for forms in the round it is
necessary to detail the ornament on a segment or
a stretching-out of the area. This is easily done in
the case of a cylinder of which the height is
evident, and the extreme width and
circumference easily obtainable. If the object is
not in existence for direct measurement the width
can be determined from the diameter as
expressed in the drawing. As this diameter is
about one-third of the circumference a
No. 225. Stretch Out of the parallelogram three times the width of the
Cone. diameter will provide, in the flat, the complete
area on which detail has to be drawn.
Should the shape of the object be that of a truncated cone—that is, with
straight inclined sides and a circular plan, the procedure must necessarily be
different. In this case the lines of the sides should be extended till they
intersect. This intersection forms a centre from which arcs may be struck
coinciding with the lines of top and base. The greatest diameter should be
set off on each side of the elevation on the larger radius and the points
joined up with the centres from which the arcs were struck. The result is a
fan-shaped figure bounded by these outer lines and the two arcs. This figure
gives the entire area of the surface of the truncated cone.
In either of the figures thus obtained for designing detail on, the surfaces
can be sub-divided. For instance, if the decoration consists of a unit

repeated three or six times round the form, it will not be necessary to
reproduce the whole area, provided always that the profiles are straight or
tapered.
As the diameter is about one-third of the
circumference the elevational drawing of the
cylinder gives one-third of the area and half a
diameter gives one-sixth.
In the truncated cone shape the widths are
similarly determined, but it will be found that
the height, when measured on the centre line, is
less than the lengths of the profile lines which No. 226. Method of obtaining
constitute the actual height. a Segment of one-sixth of Vase.

When the profiles are curved, the procedure
is more complicated. As in the case of the cone shape, there is naturally
some discrepancy between the height of the elevation and the profile, the
actual dimension of which is affected by perspective (as also in plan
curvature).
To obtain the actual height of the area the profile must be measured
vertically with some flexible material, such as thin lead wire, which will
readily embrace the curvature.
If a division of a third or a sixth is required the diameter or half diameter
can be taken, but the segment of the area should be set off on a fresh centre
line quite independent of the elevational drawing.
In order to obtain the true shape of the segment the elevation should be
divided by horizontal lines drawn at the points of marked change in
curvature, and these can be lettered or numbered for identification. The
distance between each of these lines should be measured and set off on the
new centre line, and then these can be used for drawing the parallels
through.
The various diameters can be determined from the corresponding lines
on the elevation. Lines drawn through the points thus obtained will give the
required segment or area on the flat.
If other divisions than those deducible from three or six are required, it
will be necessary to draw also the plan curves from which the division can
be obtained. Assuming that the elevation has been vertically divided as
before, and the plan to be circular, a circle should be struck which is to

represent the largest diameter and its
circumference divided into the required
number of parts. Lines are then drawn through
to the centre. On the same centre other circles
are struck with radii equal to the remaining
horizontals, and each identified with the
corresponding number or letter. The heights are
obtained as before, and the diameters of the
variations in the curvature can be ascertained
by measuring round each of the plan curves in
succession.
In the case of the plan being other than
No. 227. Method of obtaining a circular, the same rules apply, but the different
Segment of one-fifth of Vase. plans would have to be drawn in each
individual example.
Owing to the effect of perspective on rounded shapes, it is undesirable to
employ the human figure, unless in bold relief, and then only on straight or
slightly curved profiles.

CHAPTER VI

DEVELOPMENT OF CONVENTIONAL ORNAMENT

T
HE term Convention is applied to decoration in which there is
distinct evidence of artistic restraint, which may be purely æsthetic
or due to technical conditions.

Outline Drawing
The rendering of any form in outline is probably the simplest form of
convention, which is generally accepted through tradition as representation.
Though the objects so depicted really depend on light, shade, and local
colour for their appearance.
Such outline drawings may be in other respects realistic, but a further
degree of convention is the desirable elimination of perspective where it is
unsuitable to the effect desired. For instance, in silhouette, profile
renderings only are intelligible, and in delicate bas-relief modelling any
foreshortening should be avoided if confusing to the effect.
In direct personal work, such as drawing or painting, when craft
conditions other than that of the medium employed are not involved,
convention is purely a matter of discretion and consideration of the nature
and object of the work; but it is essential in design when the material and
method of production have to be considered. In painting the artist may
employ the full resources of his palette and be as realistic in his effect as is
in his power, but if the purpose be mural decoration restraint is at once
imposed.
Undesirable Realism
Under certain conditions realism would be out of place, and any attempt
at illusion would fail to convince. The one time fashion of painting ceilings
with sprawling deities of either sex, which cannot be seen without a painful
crick in the neck, or worse still to suggest sky with floating amorini,
occasionally framed by marble balustrading in wonderful perspective is
deplorable.

Such decoration, if it can be so termed, is not only stagey but is
foredoomed to failure in effect, as the ordinary interior lighting is not
adequate. Furthermore, it displays a lack of appreciation of fitness, and that
the purpose of a ceiling is to convey a sense of shelter.
Realism, though desirable in portraiture, either of individuals, places or
events, is not necessarily of the greatest interest except to those concerned.
In mural decoration realism should give place to convention, and the whole
considered as a design with regard to balance of form and colour, and
recognition of the surface to which the decoration is applied.
The first attempts at decoration were the direct results of material and
the manner of working, in which there was no attempt at representation.
This was succeeded when the early artists attained more skill by a phase of
realism, later still with acquired culture there was a deliberate return to
convention.
The dignified conception of the Egyptian rendering of the Lion, though
thoroughly conventional, reveals technical skill and anatomical knowledge
of a high order; also appreciation for desirable treatment, and may be
contrasted favourably with those by Sir Edwin Landseer round the pedestal
of the Nelson Column in Trafalgar Square, in which realism is not
subordinated to the decorative and symbolic conditions.
Craft Restrictions
When any craft process is involved the design is only a means to the end,
and convention is then imposed by the technical conditions of the craft in
question. The designer has to keep these conditions in view, the desirable
object being to make the greatest economic use of the process compatible
with a good result. It would be a waste of both time and energy to depict
effects that could not be realised.
In woven or printed fabrics it is impossible to produce natural effects;
even if that were possible the inevitable repetition of the unit would be not
merely unnatural but a gross absurdity. The great bulk of the public do not
understand convention, hence the popularity of textiles and wall-papers in
which the designs consist of flowers treated (however inconsistently) in
natural aspect as far as possible; in particular the Rose which, like the poor,
is ever with us.

Traditional ornament at its best has generally been conventional, the
various details of foliage being æsthetic creations, with at times, perhaps,
some suggestion derived from natural types. The scroll in the form of
volutes as employed in the Ionic capital may have been suggested by the
fossil known as the Ammonite

No. 228. Filagree Jewellery.
A. Hook for Jacket in Silver. Swedish, Mid. 18th
Century.
B. Pendant Cross. Gold set with Garnets. Modern
Italian.
C. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern French.
D. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.
E. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.
F. Pendant. Northern Portuguese. 17th or early 18th
Century.
G. Ear-ring. Gold. Modern Italian.

H. Pendant. Gold. As worn by peasants in Etruria.

shell, so called because it resembles the ram’s horn of Jupiter Ammon. Its
traditional employment in conjunction with the undulate stem, is certainly
far from any natural suggestion in the way of growth, while the variety
known as the evolute scroll is distinctly artificial.
Materialistic Influence
It is probable that it had its origin in the facility with which wire could
be bent, and in early jewellery such scroll forms are conspicuous.
A reasonable conjecture is that the similar forms in early repoussé work,
such as that of the gold ornaments found at Enkomi, Cyprus and the painted
decoration of the Greek vases, were inspired by the treatment which was the
outcome of the use of metal in the form of thin wire. Similar details occur
in Peruvian and New Guinea work, which is certainly coincidental as it is
difficult to imagine these people having any communication with the Old
World.
Scandinavian and Keltic art was to a certain extent influenced by Eastern
tradition through the medium of the Phœnician merchant adventurers; but
no such conjecture is feasible in the Maori incised work and tattooing in
which similar details occur.
The scrolling line alone may be used, generally in decoration of small
scale, as in the Greek vases. In this form it frequently occurs in pottery,
either incised or painted, and in filagree jewellery. Wrought iron partakes
largely of the scrolling character, but this, as in filagree, is the direct result
of the material employed.
Scandinavian and Keltic ornament consisted mainly

No. 229. The Evolute Scroll.
A. Pottery (painted) Archaic Greek.
B. Pottery (painted) Cyprus, 800 B.C.
C. D. F. Gold Ornaments from Tombs at Enkomi,
Cyprus.
E. Pottery (painted) Ancient Mexico.
G. Early Greek Stone Carving. Treasury of Minyas at
Orchomenos, Boeotia.
H. Assyrian Stone Carving. Sacred Hom or Palm.

No. 230. The Evolute Scroll in Savage Art.
A. B. C. Spatula Handles, Carved Wood, New Guinea.
D. Detail on Paddle, Carved Wood, New Guinea.
E. Maori Chief’s Staff Handle, Carved Wood.
F. Detail from Tattooed Maori Head.
G. Engraved Bamboo, Borneo.
H. Carved Wood Detail, New Guinea.

of a series of scrolling forms, as also did much of the ornament of the
illuminated Gothic work and mural decoration. The desire for variety and
mass lead eventually to the employment of diverse elements, arising in
many instances from different treatment of existing details; thus, during the
Renaissance, the side view of a poppy-like flower suggested and became a
profile mask, and the husk leaf was frequently elaborated into the form of a
dolphin.

No. 231. Scroll &
Anthemion
Ornament from
Greek Vase
Paintings.

Early Renderings
The evolute scroll which plays so conspicuous a part in Greek art, was
employed at earlier periods by the Egyptians and Chaldeans, and the
widespread appreciation and use of this form of detail is plainly indicative
that it was not disseminated from any one centre.
In the early employment of these curved forms there is no evidence of
natural suggestion, but later, leaves and floral details were added conveying
the idea of growth. In Egyptian and Assyrian art certain natural types occur,
such as the Lotus, Papyrus and the Palm, but these were utterly
denaturalised, all realism being eliminated.
These conventions, though incidentally decorative, were invested with
symbolic meaning with which their employment was concerned rather than
with the imitation of natural form.
The Anthemion

No. 232. Greek Anthemion. Relief
Treatment.

The Anthemion alone or in conjunction with the scroll or evolute line,
appears in a painted form in the Greek vase decoration. Examination of
these will reveal evidence of brush-work, the separate details being the
result of direct flexion. In sculptured form it appears in the Antefixe, also as
a cresting or finial to the stele heads, the separate radial features being
channelled with sunken grooves or with ridges in relief.

No. 233. Greek Scroll from Choragic
Monument of Lysikrates, Athens. Carved
Stone.

It is conceivable that the attenuated effect of the mere scrolling line
suggested the desirability of the occasional mass and variety that would be
obtained by employing leaves.
Greek Sculptured Ornament

No. 234. Wrought Iron Scroll. Detail
of Hinge, Notre Dame, Paris. Early
French Gothic.

Greek sculptural ornament is comparatively devoid of natural
suggestion, the branching scrolls with sheath leaves being æsthetic rather
than imitative. The leaves employed bear little resemblance to those of the
later Roman period, and consist generally of a succession of radial grooves
with undulating or prickly edges, and are obviously adapted from the
anthemion detail.
In the scrolls employed on the Choragic monument at Athens the desire
was evidently play of line and silhouette.
The flexible and open form, though possible in bent metal or in painted
work, is unsuitable to carving in stone. Adequate support being essential,
the scrolls had to be united by the leaves, which were necessarily massed in
form and decorated by channellings or grooves to give further detail and
interest.

A development of the leaf treatment was the division into lobes, each
lobe being channelled with a group of radial grooves ending in serrations.
The lobes were divided by holes, or, as they are generally termed, eyes,
more or less circular in shape, and these were connected with the base of
the leaf by pipes or Tines in relief, conforming with the general radial
distribution.
Acanthus Leaf
Leaves of this type are known as Acanthus, and it is a
tradition that the leaf in its original employment was
derived from a natural source. The anthemion, too, is
often mis-called the honeysuckle owing to the supposed
resemblance; but it is much more probable that both
were purely artistic creations developing as previously
suggested from the painted anthemion details.
Elaboration and relief expression were the natural
outcome of material, and desire for surface interest. The
honeysuckle origin is completely confuted by
comparison of the Greek anthemion with the Assyrian
treatment of the Palm, by which it was evidently
inspired.
No. 235. Acanthus In Greek ornament such flowers as occur are mostly
Leaf. Composed of of the rosette type, quite conventional in character,
groups of
Anthemions. Brush- though in the painted decoration such natural forms as
work. the ivy and vine are evident; but these were always
conventional in treatment and symbolic in interest.
The Greeks were not creative in art either in
their architecture or ornament, and were
evidently indebted to the earlier culture of
Mesopotamia for many of their details. As they
based the anthemion on the Assyrian treatment of
the Palm, so they borrowed the Ionic capital
from Persia and the Corinthian variety had its
prototype in the Egyptian Papyrus capital. Even
their architecture was no advance in principle on
that which previously existed.

Their treatment, however, was extremely No. 236. Acanthus Scroll.
Brush-work.
artistic, and they invested all their work with
great refinement and delicacy of detail. At a later
period under subjugation the Roman art development was practically in the
hands of Greek designers and craftsmen, and acquired great freedom of
expression marked by exquisite workmanship in the Græco-Roman period.
Roman Development
The details and treatment of ornament developed rapidly in the Roman
period, in the variety and forms of the elements employed. The principal
exponents were Greek, but the original austere character of expression
underwent considerable modification.
The Scroll
In Roman art the scroll, which constituted the chief decoration of the
friezes and panels, was greatly developed and rendered with more freedom
and variety of treatment; assuming the form of a growing or climbing stem,
bearing flowers and clothed with leaves. A treatment which is fairly
consistent with such types as the Vine and other climbing growths in nature.
The undulating stem with branching scrolls is prominent, both in friezes
and panels; the character of the foliage became more varied, the stiff and
formal acanthus leaf being only used in the capitals of columns and in
structural features.
The version employed in more decorative positions

No. 237. Detail of Roman Frieze, in Carved Stone.

exhibited greater freedom in form, attitude and section. Natural types for
the sake of variety were used, generally in subordinated positions, and there
is occasional evidence of the influence of these in the treatment of the
acanthus detail.
Græco-Roman
The development of art during this period cannot be attributed to native
talent, the Romans being content to borrow their art as they did their
religion. It was rather due to the opulence of the times, though the practical
character of the race resulted in a great advance in architecture.
The later Roman, generally termed Græco-Roman, varied from the more
robust treatment and reverted somewhat to the earlier Greek manner;
tending to delicacy and refinement, but retaining the variety of character
and detail.
Byzantine
The State recognition of Christianity had a great influence on art in that
there was a return to symbolism. Various pagan elements associated with
the earlier decoration that were unsuitable to the feeling of the time were
eliminated. Eastern influence is evident, in not only the architecture but in
the treatment which is known as Byzantine, of the foliage, which resembles
that of the archaic Greek, the leaves being more stiffly lobed, and severely
channelled with V-shaped grooves, in place of the subtle modelling of those
of the Roman period.
The stem or growth line is comparatively absent, and the prevalence of
the circle as a shape or in the arrangement of details is evident. Decoration
displays more regard to profile than to variety of relief, which was
practically uniform.

No. 238. Gothic Spandril. Carved Stone.
Geometric basis obvious in central circle

uniting angular shape with minor circular
forms occupying angles.

The Byzantine influence is evident in the succeeding Romanesque.
Romanesque
Early Gothic detail, the closely curled foliage of which is suggestive of
lobes though without serrations, is reminiscent of debased Roman tradition,
evident also in the general shape and disposition of leaves in the capitals of
columns. The floral ornament of the Middle or Decorated period, though
freely adapted from natural types, shows traces at times of the earlier
tradition in the treatment of lobed and serrated leaves.
Italian Renaissance
The Italian Renaissance was not merely a revival of Classic architecture
adapted to more modern conditions, but was in its earlier stages a frank
reproduction of the Roman ornament in design and rendering. In later
development in Italy and other parts of Europe it acquired local character
differing materially from the original. Fresh elements were adopted and
details originally significant were introduced for purely decorative reasons.

No. 239. Early Pointed Gothic
Stone Carving. Ely Cathedral.

The Husk Leaf

A feature of the foliated scroll is the Husk Leaf, either Acanthus, that is
—lobed and serrated, or compounded of water leaves with smooth and
undulating edges somewhat similar to the hart’s tongue fern.
The Husk either grows tangentially from the stem which it sometimes
envelopes in the sheath form, or has at its base a floral-like feature known
as the Bract; this, however, was seldom employed in Greek ornament, a
boss-like annulet being more general. The Husk is largely employed to
mask or cover branching, and either, as previously stated, grows
tangentially from the stem, or takes a bulbous form with a broad and
rounded base when it appears to be threaded on, rather than articulated to,
the stem.
The Rosette

No. 240. Italian Renaissance Scroll,
shewing Acanthus husks with bracts,
sheath leaves and floral terminals.

No. 241. Types of Rosettes.

Such flowers as were employed in the earlier ornament displayed little
regard to nature, being mostly of the rosette form with petals radiating from
the centre; as a rule these were composed of simple leaf-shaped petals in
one, two or more tiers arranged concentrically; in this form of rosette the
petals are symmetrical in shape. The number of petals is a matter of scale

and taste, but an unequal number will invariably be found more interesting.
Arrangements of five or seven in preference to four, six and eight.
Frequently the spaces between the outer tier are occupied by narrow leaves
suggestive of the sepals in natural flowers, and these serve the double
purpose of giving variety and preserving the circular shape.
Further variety can be imparted by the arrangements of the petals on a
revolving instead of a straight axis, either consistently in one direction or
symmetrically disposed from a centre in a palmate form.
The Rosette in ornament is useful as a pause point, giving repose, but
where it is desirable to continue the flow of line, other floral forms can be
employed, such as the tulip or the lily, which are displayed to the best
advantage in profile or perspective.
In conventional ornament the flower petals should be in contrast to the
leaves employed on the scrolling stem.
The Pistil in nature is reflected in the various sprouting forms which
emerge from the conventional flowers of the Renaissance, and at times
develop into further stem growth. On æsthetic grounds this may be excused
in cases where flow of line is of greater importance than consistency. The
Pistil takes many forms, being frequently composed of a series of
diminutive husks. Flower buds of similar husk form occur, the petals being
similar to those of the flowers employed.
Tendrils
Tendrils serve a useful purpose in giving unity to the design, for which
there is ample suggestion in such natural growths as the Vine, Pea, etc. Too
often in traditional ornament they are employed to merely occupy obviously
awkward spaces. In Roman ornament flowers articulated on tendril-like
stems were often used apparently to occupy the spandril-like spaces
resulting from the branching scrolls.

No. 242. Ornamental
Treatment of Tendril from
Roman Frieze.

Nature Influence
During the Roman development greater variety was introduced in the
treatment of leaves and flowers which in many instances display evidence
of natural suggestion. The main stems are sometimes twisted, a
characteristic of some strongly growing natural types, but this was only a
variant of the earlier treatment of decorating the scrolling stem with
channels or hollow flutes.
Birds and animals were also used in antique ornament—grotesque
combinations of foliage with human and animal forms, and such symbolic
monsters as the Gryphon and the Sphinx, were employed with little regard
to the original significance. Other symbolic elements, such as wreaths,
garlands, festoons, altars, tripods, and urns were also introduced merely for
their decorative value and to afford variety.
Symbolic Employment
The modern mind is naturally out of sympathy with forms that have no
direct appeal, but it should be considered that these elements were
originally not merely the expression of the art of the period, but were also
invested in many instances with symbolic meaning. The Roman citizen saw
nothing incongruous in decorating a triumphal arch with the chaplet of the
victor and trophies of arms.
The later misuse of symbolic elements can only be defended on æsthetic
grounds, and is probably undesirable. Without these there is still left
sufficient material for beautiful effects. Dull slavish reproduction is not

only without interest, but displays lack of inventiveness. It is possible in
good hands to utilise the past tradition so as to appeal to modern
appreciation.
Consistency in Growth
However arbitrary traditional ornament may appear, there is consistency
in the best examples, which display in many details some general
observance of the principle of natural growth. There may be no attempt to
exploit any known type, the creation being purely artificial; still the
association of stem, leaves and flowers is suggestive of natural growth.
The arrangement is generally progressive, as in nature a plant develops
outwards and onwards from the root, and the orthodox scroll ornament may
be considered as a stem of undulate form (constituting the growth line) with
branches, elaborated with leaves and flowers which are arranged
successively.
Branching
In traditional ornament the most general form of branching is tangential,
the scrolls and leaves emerging radially from the main stem, with slight
divergence; but in nature many varieties of branching may be observed and
applied with advantage in design.

No. 243. Types of Branching.
A. Tangential. B. Acute-angular. C. Right-
angular.

Generally natural branching may be classified into Tangential, typical of
grass growth and water-plants; Acute and Right-angular. The latter is
sometimes usefully employed in ornament, as it conveys a sense of strength
and vigour, though as a concession to the rhythmic flow of line it should
follow for a short distance the curve of the main stem.

Independent of the angle, branches may
occur opposite, that is, grow simultaneously
each side of the stem, Alternate, or spirally
round the stem. The distances between the
branches may be equal, or, as in some instances,
in alternate long and short distances. The
opposite arrangement of branches is most
suitable where rigidity of effect is required, but
No. 244. Formal Opposite the alternate branching is susceptible of greater
Branching suitable for Vertical freedom and license.
Borders & Pilasters.
The stem, as it throws out each branch, may
gradually diminish in diameter, each branch
being less than the parent stem; the length of each successive branch may
also diminish and the leaves on these be subordinate in size to those of the
main stem.

No. 245. Branch and Scroll
Terminations.

Leaves
The detail of these smaller leaves may be less complex as they approach
the terminals, a characteristic in natural growth where the necessary energy
to produce the flowers results in restricted development of the leaves on the
flower stalk.

Equally consistent from the nature point of view is the employment of
the large husk leaves which generally cover the points of branch emergence.
As already stated, these are not articulated, but either spring tangentially
from or are threaded on the main stem in contrast to the smaller leaves,
which are often provided with individual stems. Occasionally the scroll
terminals are not furnished with flowers but develop into sprays of small
leaves radially disposed.
The Start
An essential condition in panel ornament is the Start or commencement,
which should at least be consistent. The natural root is not in every case
sufficient, though at times it may be employed with effect.
The start point of the growth line or lines varies in position according to
attitude. In panels in a horizontal plane, the start is frequently central and
the traditional treatment is usually some form of rosette from which the
other details radiate.
In some positions, particularly pilaster panels, the ornament is
suspended, which is consistently rendered by the employment of knobs and
ribbons. Ribbons are not only logical, but interesting on account of the
variety afforded and are also of service in giving unity to a composition.
Extremely amenable to harmonious arrangement and susceptible of great
variation, the ribbon can be twisted, folded or arranged in groups of
pleatings, the ends being occasionally scrolled or split.
The start mostly in evidence in ornament is that known as the Cup or
Nest, which is composed of leaves arranged somewhat in the form of a
tulip, with generally an inverted cup leaf below. It is composed of leaves
either of the Acanthus or water type, but for the sake of variety one of these
may appear in the upper part of the cup and the contrasting form in the
lower. The proportion between the two parts as to height and width should
also be varied, and when the cup leaf is used in pilaster panels it generally
occupies the whole width of the base.

No. 246. The Nest or Cup-
leaf Start.

No. 247. Italian
Renaissance Foliated
Figure Start.

Such artificial objects as vases and baskets form fairly consistent base
starts for floral detail, others as Altars and Tripods are not quite so logical,
though useful in conveying a sense of support. Shields and Labels,
generally employed centrally in wide panels where the ornament is
displayed laterally, are effective in the contrast they afford to the floral
details.

No. 248. Italian Renaissance Panel,
Choir Stalls, St. Pietro, Perugia.
Stefano Martelli, 1535.

The employment of half figures as starts cannot be defended; the
illogical association of life, either human or animal, with foliage as
employed by the designers of the later Italian Renaissance, is too
incongruous to be excused on æsthetic grounds. Such were due to change in
taste and desire for variety, and probably were suggested by the much
earlier employment of compound animal forms as furniture supports.

No. 249. Italian Renaissance Panel,
Choir Stalls, St. Pietro, Perugia.
Stefano Martelli, 1535.

The Acanthus leaf prominent in Renaissance detail, was at first
deliberately reproduced from Roman examples, and its architectural
employment as in the capitals of the Corinthian order, has survived to
modern times as the most suitable rendering for such structural features. In
more decorative positions marked changes are evident in the later phases,
the Cinque Cento renderings being perhaps the high water mark of the
Italian designer. In these the lobes were angular in general outline, with
beautifully balanced minor lobations and the surface contours delicate and
subtle in modelling.
Renaissance Influence
The early examples of Italian Renaissance in France and England are
generally pure in style, being in most instances of Italian design and
execution. Later work by native exploiters in emulation of the style is
invariably quite different, until the new style was better understood and
assimilated; eventuating in versions that were distinctive and local.

No. 250. Early French Renaissance Carving. Francis I.

In the early French Renaissance the acanthus leaf was generally
displayed in profile, the lobe being elliptic and pointed in shape, with
clearly defined minor divisions; the sectional form was comparatively
simple. Similar treatment, without the precision and grace of line
characterised the Jacobean work in England; the relief work of which, being
rather in the category of flat carving, consisting mainly of incised lines and
grooves by which leaf form was expressed in profile or silhouette. These
were invariably archaic and crude, though in view of the direct and simple
execution not without individuality and interest.
Jacobean.
A characteristic feature of the Jacobean style is the ornamental
interlacing strapwork, with foliated or

No. 251. Development of the Acanthus Leaf.
A. Greek. B. Roman. C. Byzantine. D. Romanesque.
E. Decorated Gothic. F. G. Italian Renaissance. H.
French Renaissance, Period of Francis I.

scrolling ends. This doubtless was in emulation of the French work of the
period of Henry II, when strapping composed of straight and curved lines
entered largely into ornamental detail. In the period of Louis XIII

No. 252. Development of the Acanthus Leaf.
I. French, Louis XIV. J. English, Grinling Gibbons.
K. French, Louis XV. L. English, Adam. M. French,
Louis XVI. N. Louis XVI (Salombier). O. English, Late
18th Century.

shield and cartouche shapes were much in vogue, on account probably of
their mass value and the contrast afforded with the subordinate detail, which
developed into the foliated strap frame of the Louis XIV style.
The details of this latter period were expressed in bold relief, the
decorated areas being well filled, in contrast to the earlier Italian style in
which the background frequently predominated over the ornament. The
sectioning or modelling of the leaves, which by this time were typically
French, was elaborate but well considered as to harmonious play of line.
Shell forms were employed and were effective, both as mass shapes and for
the radial elaboration of their surfaces.

In conjunction with artificial details, natural foliage was employed in the
form of wreaths and festoons, composed of leaves and appropriate flowers;
the conventional stem was little used, the foliated strap being more often
evident.
Régence
The immediate successor of the style of the Grand Monarch was the
phase known as Régence, in which the strap frame was moulded in section,
and the whole detail became much lighter, resulting in more open or plain
spaces.
In the period of Louis XV restraint was thrown overboard, panels and
enclosed areas were framed with mouldings irresponsible in curvature, and
without regard to structural conditions. The growth line disappeared, the
leafage and other details being arbitrarily disposed on the framing
mouldings, which were generally in flattened and elongated curves opposed
to each other in flexured lines. In comparison with the preceding Louis XIV
style the ornament is thin and liney in character, the leaf, still of the
acanthus type, is greatly modified both in form and detail, the ends of the
lobes being curled and twisted spirally.
Rococo
In minor floral details natural types were employed, also such artificial
features as canopies or hammercloths; rock and shell forms, and stalactite
details suggestive of icicles are comprised in the later phase to which the
term Rococo is applied.
Louis XVI
As a natural revulsion from the license of this period in the succeeding
Louis XVI style there was a distinct reversion. The curved framings were
abandoned and panels and other areas were enclosed by mouldings with
regard both to structural and materialistic conditions. Great refinement is
evident, not only in the mouldings but in the details throughout.
In contrast to those of the Louis XIV period, panels were occupied rather
than filled, the dominant details being placed at the upper and lower
extremities and connected by vertical features either centrally or at the
sides, steadily arranged as to alignment both horizontal and vertical.
Familiar details thus employed are such amorous emblems as quivers,

torches, trophies of musical instruments and bouquets and festoons of
natural flowers.
The artificial leaf reverted somewhat to the earlier Italian type, and was
mostly displayed in profile with the lobes and serrations carefully
composed. The detail though comparatively low in relief, was boldly
modelled, and the direction and emphasis of the lobes and veinings of the
leaves considered with regard to the composing lines.
Grinling Gibbons School of Carving
In England the work of the school of Grinling Gibbons was productive
of a phase of ornamental expression distinctive for its artistry and technical
skill. Conventional details were combined with natural forms of all kinds,
the conspicuous arrangement being interlacing scrolls, and festoons and
pendant swags.
In the artificial leaf, with its boldly grooved surface and accentuated
lobes, the evidence of the tool is manifest throughout.
The tradition established by the Grinling Gibbons school had a lasting
effect upon the native carving, which endured throughout the Georgian
period, though largely influenced in detail by French taste—Rococo in
particular.
Adam Style
The designs of the brothers Adam, which were in vogue in the reign of
George III, though peculiarly individual and distinctive, were based upon
the study of Græco-Roman details. In the Adam style the ornament is
delicate in relief, and mostly displayed in profile. Panels and enclosed
spaces are occupied, the decorative elements being carefully disposed with
regard to balance and stability, with large areas of plain surface.
The characteristic and prevailing details are the fan and delicate festoons
of leaves or husks, at times of beads.
The anthemion is much used on friezes and borders, and compound
animal forms, such as the Sphinx, were borrowed from the antique, the
same source doubtless inspiring the employment of vases, altars, and
tripods.
Medallions occur occupied by figures after the manner of the Greek
vases. In some instances these were in pottery, the work of Wedgwood.

The general structural form was architectural, the mouldings slight in
projection and refined in their profiles being decorated by orthodox
enrichments.
The foliage is mostly artificial in character, the leaf lobes in those of the
acanthus type being orderly in arrangement with regard to profile and radial
display, with comparatively little modelling.
Empire
A similar revival of the Antique succeeded the Revolution in France, in
the Empire style, which, more literal in reproduction than the Adam work,
is characterised with, at times, undesirable severity and precision of detail,
particularly in the treatment of the human figure.
System of the Acanthus Leaf
The system of the acanthus leaf is based entirely on radiation, the tines
and veinings being arranged in consistently diverging directions from a
common base or start-point. Whether the whole leaf be displayed or merely
the half leaf used, the shape should be bounded by general lines controlling
the lobes and their serrations—the mass shape forming a satisfactory
silhouette.
The length of the lobes should be relative to the breadth of the leaf, the
maximum length agreeing with the maximum width, and the others in
proportion.
The edges or outlines of serrations and lobes should also be controlled
by radial lines from the base.
In turn-overs and curling or twisting lobes
the silhouette shape and composing line must
be considered.
The apex of leaf terminates with a central
lobe balanced by side lobes repeated
throughout. In treatment these may be
displayed clear of each other, or they may
overlap, but care must be taken to avoid
confusion in effect.

No. 253. Construction of the
Acanthus Leaf.

CHAPTER VII

TREATMENT IN DESIGN

A
PPRECIATION of design by the individual is largely a matter of
temperament, though it may be due to some extent to acquired
knowledge. Generally, few are conscious of any guiding principle,
and selection in their case is mostly the result of fashion or custom.
To others certain colours and forms have an appeal, though they
may be quite unconscious of, or unable to explain the attraction other than it
suits their taste.
In the last few years it has been recognised that colour may be employed
beneficially in curative treatment, but the normal healthy individual is often
indifferent to environment other than that of material gratification.
When any artistic work creates pleasurable emotion, it is purely a matter
of cause and effect. To design successfully involves some understanding of
the causes or factors which constitute the appeal.
Natural Attraction
The attraction of colour and form is undoubtedly universal, and may be
generally understood, though there are delicate degrees of proportion and
association in both that may only be appreciated by the cultivated eye. Early
essays in drawing generally exhibit an undesirable redundancy in curves,
and in many instances the student is slow to realise that those that
approximate to the elliptic form are proportionately of more interest than
those obviously composed of segments of circles. Undoubtedly this subtlety
of line is one of the predominant factors in appreciation of form.
A factor in pattern that is largely responsible for the charm is the
presence of small detail in juxtaposition with larger forms. This is entailed
in instances by technical conditions, such, for instance, as in some tapestries
where inhabited pattern is essential to the process of production.
Decorative Materials
Some materials are employed partly for their decorative effect, such as
naturally figured woods and certain varieties of stone; and design mainly

consists of judicious selection, use and treatment. Oak and walnut being
woods extremely suitable for structural work and furniture have always
been in request when obtainable.
Polishing is to some extent a preservative, but work in oak or walnut,
especially when carved, should be kept comparatively dull, otherwise
confusion between the relief and the natural figuring would result. In
mahogany or satinwood, where the chief interest exists in the figuring and
colour, carving is undesirable and the best effects are obtained by high
polish. It may be urged that in the Chippendale period the work was
invariably carved, but the detail was always in very low relief, and the
finishing dark in colour, in which the figuring was subdued. Mahogany in
its more general employment owes its chief beauty to the development of
figuring and colour.
Certain marbles are used for their decorative effect, and the natural
colour and figuring developed by polish. Statuary marble that is sometimes
employed, is more suitable for carved details, and appears at its best when
unpolished, though in this state it is extremely subject to discolouration
owing to its absorbent nature.
Granite, so popular in our cemeteries, is often polished, when the natural
figuring is unpleasantly aggressive. An extremely hard stone and laborious
to work, it is not suitable for carving, and is best left roughly tooled or
frosted, when the natural chrystaline formation appears to the best
advantage.
Justification of Treatment
The softer woods used in interior structural work are generally painted,
partly as a preservative and largely because they do not possess any figuring
of particular interest.
Graining in imitation of more precious woods is often condemned as
inartistic, but it may be urged in extenuation that it is the most economic
treatment, as it helps to minimise the effect of wear and incidental damage.
The use of pattern wall-papers and floor coverings can be justified on the
same grounds, as in those with plain surfaces any disfigurement is readily
seen. Wallpaper, however, is quite a legitimate form of decoration and not
necessarily imitative, though to some extent it is reminiscent of the early
custom of employing tapestries as wall coverings. A more durable and

artistic treatment of interiors is that of the wainscotting of the Georgian
period, but the initial cost is proportionately great, though probably when
maintenance is taken into consideration it would be cheaper in the long run.
Apart from the question of cost, the modern tendency is favourable to
change of effect and environment, due partly to the facility afforded by the
comparative cheapness of wall-paper, but even more to the prevalent short
tenancies.
Undesirable Imitation
Many excellent designs are produced in wall-papers, though there is a
tendency at times to reproduce textural effects which can only be justified
on æsthetic grounds. Those of the frankly imitative kind cannot be
condoned. It is still possible to have the hall and stairs papered and
varnished to resemble slabs of precious marble, or patterns in mosaic,
which were undreamt of in Byzantine times; and the orthodox design for
the bathroom is still that of tiles with the joints neatly printed. Similar
imitation is also apparent in linoleum, when the pattern simulates the
appearance of either wood parquet or mosaic, or even worse—that of a
Turkey or Axminster carpet.
There is an element of priggishness in such cheap art in which, as though
ashamed of poverty of material, there is an assumption of something better;
and it is lamentable that there is not merely a market for these shams and
imitations but curiously enough they also find appreciation.
There are phases of work where simulation may to some extent be
justified, for instance, silver is sometimes gilt. For this there is the excuse
that silver, although a beautiful metal, is subject to oxidation and requires
constant attention to keep bright. Gilding acts as a preservative, and is
therefore justified in certain forms of silver work, which it is not convenient
to clean in the ordinary way.
Technical Considerations
It has already been suggested that Design is not merely a question of
idea and draughtsmanship, but is also dependent upon materialistic
conditions, which, in practical work, must be understood and properly
considered.
Whether the intended design be for some form of flat pattern, such as
weaving, etc., or for any particular craft expression, it is essential that the

limitations of the process and material involved be clearly kept in view, and
that suitable elements for expression be chosen.
Convention, to a large extent, exists in the adaptation of forms, natural or
otherwise, to the exigencies of production, a proper understanding of which
will not only tend to economy in cost, but also to more effective results, if
full advantage be taken of the craft or mechanical conditions, which should
always be foreseen in design.
Methods of Expression
Methods of expression vary, according to position and material, and may
be Flat—either silhouette, or with appearance of relief, or in actual relief.

No. 254. A. B. C. Flat Treatment,
Silhouette important. D. Relief
Treatment of C.

No. 255. A. Flat Treatment. B.
Relief of Husk Leaf.

Contrast exists always, thus in the Flat with or without outline the
contrast is in Light and Dark, whether colour is involved or not.
In Relief the contrast is in Light and Shade. Contrast exists also in both
treatments in lines straight and curved—in the variety of the latter, in lines
with mass forms, and in dominant forms with smaller detail.
In the treatment of Flat Ornament the most important considerations are
play of line and silhouette, and forms should be displayed in interesting
profile; perspective and foreshortening being eliminated whenever they
would result in distorted or inharmonious shapes.
In Relief treatment the designer is concerned with the effect of Light and
Shade in harmonious arrangement of mass and line.
Perspective and foreshortening are permissible to some extent, but are
largely dependent upon the work, greater license being allowable in high
than in low relief.
Treatment of Leaves
In Flat ornament, leaves are invariably in profile, but in Relief
expression they may be folded, that is, wrapped round the stem. Greater
freedom is possible in the turn-overs.

Relief ornament should recognise ground by details being occasionally
displayed in lower relief.
Whether expressed in Flat or Relief, the composing lines should always
be emphatic, and their direction traceable through the details, floral or
otherwise.
Surface Interest
In addition to the foregoing, a further consideration is that of interest of
surface, which may consist of contrast in textures of rough surface with
smooth, of patterning on form, veining and striation of leaves and flowers,
and of the employment of trellis or imbricated pattern. The latter in
conjunction with other details, occur in the decorative work of the later
French Renaissance.
Painted Decoration
The technical means of obtaining the interest of surfaces is, of course,
incidental to the process involved. If the decoration be the result of
painting, the design is free and untrammelled by any other than purely
æsthetic conditions. Such, for instance, as the desirable recognition of
surface, and the pattern sense suggested by recurrence, if a decorative rather
than a pictorial effect is desired.
When the decorations consist of ornament, wholly or partly, they are
occasionally rendered in a conventional manner, based upon the appearance
of Relief, as in the Pompeian wall decorations and the painted work of the
Italian Renaissance. There is ample precedent for this treatment in
traditional painted decoration, but deliberate attempts at realistic effects are
not only undesirable but to be deplored.
The interest in Painted Decoration, apart from colour, design or subject,
would be that of the individual manifestation of the designer and painter.
Stencilled Work
Stencilled decoration is a compromise between painting and mechanical
printing, and is restricted by the unit. The repetition of this is practically
mechanical, though considerable license is possible in the treatment of
colour, which has to be personally applied and is therefore amenable to
controlled variation.

No. 256. Inhabited Details from Woven Fabrics.
Interest imparted by patterning on forms.

The design in stencilled work is not limited to one unit, and is not
subject to hard and fast rules, the plates being of a size convenient to
handle. Alternate units, or a series can be employed, the interest, apart from
colour and subject consisting mainly of contrast in detail, and in the
individualism expressed.
Mechanical Production, Printed and Woven
In textiles, where such mechanical processes as printing and weaving are
involved, the design is restricted to the unit, the repetition of which is
infallible both as to form and colour.
Apart from colour, the surface interest consists of suggested or actual
contrasts of texture, the result of veining and striating leaves and flowers or
of patterning forms or backgrounds with smaller details.
Needlework
Needlework, being a personal performance, has no such mechanical
restriction; the design can, and should be, complete within the area, and the
expression perfectly free. Beside Design and Colour, the surface interest is

that of contrast in the different textures resulting from the various stitches,
and the employment of darning, knots, laid-work, etc.
Appliqué
In Appliqué work, interest is imparted by the mass effects enriched by
embroidery, the large shapes entailing detail of the inhabited variety to keep
them from puckering. In all needlework the effect is due to some extent to
light and shade, particularly in Appliqué, where a corded edge is employed.

No. 257.
Needlewo
rk,
contrastin
g effect of
various
stitches.
(Photo: V
&A
Museum).

No. 258. Needlework Appliqué. Interest due
to contrast of material, effect of relief
imparted by corded edges, and to embroidery
on applied details.
(Photo: V & A Museum).

No. 259. Lace. Surface interest due to contrast of
various fillings. (Photo: V & A Museum).

Lace
In Lace, the interest consists solely of textural contrast, not only in the
treatment of the various details, but in the patterning of intervals due to the
necessary fillings. Design may be complete, or a repeated unit, according to
the purpose and variety of lace.
Wood Inlay
Design for Inlays in Wood-work may be free in expression,
or a unit, at discretion. The latter variety frequently takes the
form of lines spaced with regard to good proportion, forming
borders, chequers and geometric shapes of various kinds.
Floral or other forms simple in character and profile may be
used, the design being expressed in silhouette.

No. 260.
Wood Inlay.
Geometric
arrangement.

No. 261. Wood Inlay.

No. 262. Wood
Inlay. Simple
silhouette
depending on
natural colour.

Intarsia
In the Intarsia detail of the Italian Renaissance, the inlaid forms were
elaborated by surface markings and graduated effects were obtained by
means of hot sand; but the natural contrast in the varied colour and fibres of
the material employed probably form the more legitimate interest in all
inlaid work.

No. 263. Wood
Inlay. Simple
silhouette.

Veneer, Marquetry
In Veneer work and in Marquetry, where the work is quartered and
juxtaposed, the interest consists in the patterning of the figured woods,
particularly when these are arranged to form reciprocal shapes.
Boule Work
The interest of Buhl or Boule work, an inlay of metal employed in the
French Renaissance in the decoration of furniture, often in conjunction with
tortoiseshell, is that of contrast of texture.

No. 264. Italian Intarsia. Forms elaborated by incised
lines.

In the design, profile or silhouette is the primary consideration, being
used:

1. As a form of framing,
2. In angles or centres on table-tops,
3. In panels in furniture:

No. 265. Louis XV Cabinet with
Ormolu Mounts.
Marquetry, veneer quartered and inlaid
with floral detail. (Photo: V & A
Museum).

No. 266. Boule Work. Period of Louis
XVI.

The design can invariably be complete within the area. Coloured
grounds are employed as well as tortoiseshell.
Mosaic
Mosaic designs may be complete in themselves or be the result of
repetition, according to attitude and purpose, and with regard to variety and
colour, only restricted by æsthetic considerations.
Owing to technical limitations, modelling
can only be broadly suggested; therefore
forms should be generally in silhouette
except when on a large scale.
When employed on walls and vaults, gold
is frequently used in the backgrounds. This
not only serves to define detail, but affords
contrast to the general surface, the inevitable
joints in the tessaræ adding also to the
interest.

No. 267. Boule Work. Period of
Louis XVI.

Byzantine Use of Marble
Associated with Mosaic decoration in the Byzantine Period was the
employment of marble in shafts of columns and for lining walls by banding
or slabbing, frequently quartered, so as to display the markings in reciprocal
forms. Such marbles were chosen for figuring and colour, the former in its
variety being an important factor in the surface interest.
Similar employment of slabs occurs in the treatment of floors, where
contrast in colour is the chief consideration. It is sometimes associated with
Mosaic of small tesseræ, also in marble, whereas that used on walls and in
vaults was frequently of glass.
The foregoing is a broad summary of ornamental expression in the Flat,
with the exception of Book Decoration.

Book Decoration
In Black and White, which is chiefly employed, the designs may be in
tone or line with suggestion of rotundity or relief; or line decoratively
employed, according to subject, or purely decorative.
The same applies to renderings in colour. Designs for covers are
controlled by the processes involved, whether printed, stamped or tooled.

No. 268. Mosaic Borders.
A. From Carthage. B. & C.
Withington, Gloucester.

No. 269. Mosaic Border, Roman.

No. 270. Roman Mosaic. Woodchester, Gloucester.

No. 271. Roman Mosaic. Treatment in Light and
Shade suggestive of relief. (Photo: V & A Museum).

No. 272. Tooled Bookbinding in
Leather.

Repetition due to tools or stamps.
(Photo: V & A Museum).

No. 273. Modelled Plaster, shewing relatively large
ground area.
(Photo: V & A Museum).

No. 274. Wood Carving. Grinling Gibbons.
Attention devoted to detail with elimination of ground.
(Photo: V & A Museum).

No. 275. Wood Carving. French,
Louis XIV.
(Photo: V & A Museum).

Bindings
In the two latter the ornament should be in profile or silhouette. In tooled
bindings, repetition of unit or motif is essential, the design being the direct
result of available tools.
In such bindings further interest may be imparted by gilding either the
detail or by introducing gold as powdering on shapes or backgrounds, or by
the so-called inlaying of other colours.
Relief—Economic Result of Method
In Relief ornament, design and character should be the result of technical
expression. If considered from an economic point of view, the tendency
would naturally be to obtain the maximum effect with the minimum of
labour; and this would invariably result, when the decoration is built up or

applied to an existing ground as in modelled work, in slight occupation,
with comparatively large intervals.
In carving, where the original surface forms the highest relief, and has to
be cut back to form the ground, the result would be reversed, the individual
worker being more attracted to the treatment of detail than to clearing away
uninteresting spaces. Carving, whether in wood or stone, is employed in
various decorative positions, and except in the enrichment of friezes or
mouldings—when the repeating unit is desirable—the design should be
complete in itself.
Desirable Treatment in Carving
The treatment should evidence the direct employment of the tool, any
attempt to efface or soften will result in loss of character and suggest the
plastic effect incidental to modelling.
For convenience, and possibly in the absence of more desirable
examples, students are often allowed in their early attempts at carving to
reproduce casts of plastic origin. This is undoubtedly pernicious, as the
model is probably unsuitable, and the student is thereby biassed. Examples
should be selected in which the characteristic treatment is sufficiently
evident if a true and thorough appreciation of the craft is to be instilled.
In the design—which may occupy or fill the shape and can be
symmetrically arranged on a central axis, or balanced—the effect is due
mainly to Light and Shade. Further interest may be imparted by the
sectional form or modelling of the details, groovings, striations or other
textural suggestions.

No. 276. Simple Jacobean Wood
Carving. Direct gouge work.

Backgrounds
The employment of punched grounds in carved work is to be deprecated
as mechanical in effect. Sufficient interest is obtainable by the process of
cutting back, in the perfect levelling of which the carver need not be too
concerned. Suspiciously uniform grounds are suggestive of work fret-sawed
and applied.

No. 277. Wood Carving. English.
Late Elizabethan or Early Jacobean.

When carving in wood is in very high relief, it is occasionally, as in the
Grinling Gibbons work, built up. This may not be a matter of great
objection if properly attached, and the grain of fibre matched, but is,
however, better avoided.
Reproduction Processes
Modelled ornament is generally employed in reproduction processes,
such as moulding of Terra-cotta, plaster, etc. The design can be free in
expression, or a unit of repetition according to requirement.
The detail which is applied to an existing surface is invariably more
open, with a resulting display in the background.
The surface interest consists of contrasts in texture, the result of veining,
striating and patterning forms. The relief is not, as in carved work,
controlled by an original surface, but, being built up, is susceptible to
greater variation. Mouldings may be broken by lapping and overlapping
details, and though in some traditional work similar treatment occurs in
wood-carving, it must be remembered that such details are too suggestive
of, and more proper to, plastic renderings.
In economic moulded work undercutting of details should be avoided as
this is only possible in piece or elastic moulds. In wood-carving, however,
there is no restriction.

Metal Repoussé
Freedom and variety in detail are possible in Metal Repoussé, but as the
light and shade is considerably modified by the nature of the surface, the
design which is plastic in character incidental to method of working, should
have regard for silhouette or profile display, and not be dependent upon
surface modelling. The principal factor in effect is Light, both direct and
reflected. Surface interest is the result of imparting by chasing various
textures in striations or matt.

No. 278. Wood Carving from
Fontainbleau. Early French Renaissance.

Excellent effect can be obtained by outlining with the tracing tool,
leaving the surface of detail plain and uniform in height, and imparting
texture with the matt tools in the intervals for the sake of contrast.

The method of working is simple, entailing
manipulation from the face of the metal only, and
the detail is left in slight relief by the ground
being set back in the texturing. This treatment is
only suitable where the ornamented area is
enclosed. When the design is freely displayed on
a ground without enclosing lines, it should appear
in relief, the result of raising from the back; and
texturing should be employed only on the details
in contrast to the smooth ground. As in all applied
work, the economic result is slight occupation.
No. 279. Economic Wood
Carving.

No. 280. Oak Box decorated
with flat carving. Icelandic. 18th
Century.

Metal, Cast
Cast metal is produced in sand moulds, a model or pattern being
employed of which the casting is a reproduction. The

No. 281. Repoussé Work.
A. Pattern defined by tracing tool and interest imparted by different textures of
ground.
B. Pattern raised from back, and defined and enriched by tracing and matt tools
on face, affording textural contrast with plain ground.
(Photo of A. V & A Museum).

pattern may be originally modelled or carved, and this determines the
character of the metal result, though it is a matter of indifference when the
necessary finishing is by turning or filing.
Castings in iron are left as they leave the mould, but in bronze, except in
Cire Perdu casting, the surface has to be entirely worked down. In common
work, however, this is accomplished by means of small files or riffles and
by chasing the more elaborate details.

No. 282.
Wrought
Iron,

simple
form
enriched
by use of
punches.

Character of Cast Work

No. 283. Gondola Prow. Wrought Iron,
comparative flat surface enriched by
chiselled work.

As a matter of opinion it is consistent that the

No. 284. Surface Interest in Metal.
A. Blade of State Battle-axe, damascened with silver,
Indian.
B. Blade of Khyber Knife, engraved, Indian.
C. Hilt of Tulwar, damascened with gold, Indian.
D. Vase, Bidri Ware, pewter inlaid with silver, Indian.
E. Scabbard End, gold inlay, Indian.
F. Ornament on Gauntled Sword, damascened with gold,
Indian.

character of cast work should be plastic, and if the original pattern is the
result of carving, care should be taken to impart the desired feeling, the
pattern being merely a means to the end.
Much depends upon the final finish; if this is to be bright, surface
modelling should be a secondary consideration to surface interest resulting
from contrast of textures. It, however, becomes of proportionate importance

as the work is dull or toned, and therefore is subject to the ordinary
conditions of Light and Shade.

CHAPTER VIII

MYTHOLOGY AND SYMBOLISM

T
RADITIONAL ornament is replete with forms and details that were
originally invested with meaning, though in the later employment
this was disregarded, being used for the sake of variety and their
æsthetic value.
Such details as the festoons, wreaths, tripods and altars as appear in the
Renaissance ornament were originally associated with victory, sacrifice and
religious observance.
Early Symbolic Ornament
It has previously been suggested that the early employment of natural
types was symbolic in the Egyptian treatment of the Lotus and Papyrus,
which, providing material for woven fabrics and for manuscripts, were
therefore esteemed.
These details associated as they frequently are with the zigzag line, are
symbolic of the fertilizing of the land resulting from the periodical
inundation of the Nile.
The date-palm on account of its value as food was symbolised by the
Assyrians as the tree of life in the fronding Anthemion form, which
undoubtedly influenced the later ornament.
The Palm-tree was said to grow faster for being weighted down, hence it
was the symbol of Resolution overcoming Calamity. The oriental belief was
that it sprang from the residue clay from which Adam was formed.
Symbolism, universally understood as it undoubtedly was in early times,
implied a universal interest on the part of the individual and the general
community. The absence of this interest in more modern work is to be
deplored.
A common example of the employment of such symbols, which however
is fast disappearing, is the barber’s pole, the gilt knob of which represents
the basin, and the pole the staff held by the patients in the operation of
venesection. The painted spiral stripes are to indicate the respective

bandages, one for twisting round the arm previous to blood-letting, the
other for final bindings.
Customs
The modern custom in salutation of shaking hands or raising the hat is a
survival—the former of the ancient custom of adversaries in treating of a
truce taking hold of the weapon hand to ensure against treachery—the latter
of the removal of the helmet when no danger is nigh, to show that one can
stand unprotected.
The custom in Courts-martial of placing the sword hilt or point towards
the accused, according to judgment, is also a survival. In ancient times, if a
stranger on arrival held the point of a spear forward, it denoted a declaration
of war; but if carried with the point behind, he came in friendship and
peace.
There are opportunities where the decorative element could be such as
to, embody or vindicate local character or purpose, but with the decadence
of symbolism much of our modern ornament fails to interest, because it has
no meaning that is understood or can be appreciated.
Origin of Mythology
Mythology had its origin in the superstitions of primitive man, to whom
the gods were forces of Nature improperly understood, and to whom Light
and Darkness would appeal as beneficent or malignant forces according to
how they affected his personal comfort.
The uncontrollable nature and effects of these in the absence of more
modern conditions would naturally tend toward belief in Fatalism and
Destiny, which eventuated in mythological expression.
Nature Myths
Early myths had their origin in processes of Nature, or aspects of natural
phenomena which, to the primitive mind, appeared supernatural. Inducing a
belief in powers invisible, infinite and divine, and in future existence. With
this belief these aspects were eventually invested with personality.
An example is the Greek tradition of Kronos, a native myth accounting
for the separation of Heaven and Earth. Uranus (Heaven) husband to Gæa
(Earth) kept his progeny Oceanus (sea) Hyperion (Sun) and Kronos (Light

and Dark, or Time) in the hollows of the earth, in darkness. Kronos
revolted, and forcing Uranus away, kept him for ever at a distance.
A New Zealand parallel is the Maori Tree or Forest god Tani, who
effected a similar severance by lying down on the earth and pushing the
Heavens away with his feet. The native belief being that man was a tree
upside down, his hair forming the roots and his legs the branches.
Light and Darkness
Some myths appear in many forms, associated with rising and setting.
The Greek rendering is that Kronos (Time) married Rhea and devoured all
his children at birth except Zeus (Air), Poseidon (Water), and Hades (the
Grave), which three Time cannot consume.
An earlier tradition is that Kronos devoured all his progeny except Zeus,
for whom a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes was substituted and
promptly swallowed, the child Zeus being secreted.
On arriving at adult age, Zeus compelled Kronos to disgorge, first the
stone, then the other children in succession. The literal meaning being that
of night covering up or swallowing the world, the disgorging being the
sunrise.
Melanesian Myth
An interesting variant is the tradition of the Melanesian hero Qat and his
brothers, who lived in perpetual day. Qat heard of Night, and setting forth in
search, was successful in his quest. On his return he told his brothers to sit
quite still, and when they felt something in their eyes to take no notice but
keep quiet; thereon they fell asleep. When Night had lasted long enough,
Qat took a slab of red obsidian and cut the darkness and Dawn came out. A
tradition reminiscent of the “dustman” or the “sand-man” of the nursery,
though the slab of red obsidian is a touch both poetic and symbolic in its
suggestion.
Darkness as a Devouring Monster
In the early myths, Night or Darkness is invariably a malignant influence
or a devouring monster threatening the earth or the sun, e.g., the
Scandinavian Wolf Fenrir or Fenris, the Python slain by Apollo, and in
Oannes the Chaldean sea-god devoured or destroyed by darkness.

Oannes, who is represented in composite fish and man form, according
to tradition lived with mankind during the day to instruct them in the Arts
and Sciences; being immolated at night and re-incarnated at dawn.
Season Myths
In the Scandinavian tradition of Baldur, the god of Peace, which bears
some resemblance in respect to immolation and re-incarnation, the god was
killed by the blind Hoder at the instigation of Loki. By order of Odin,
everything that sprung from earth, air, fire and water was forbidden to
injure Baldur, but the mistletoe, not being included, was made into an arrow
and shot at random. It effected his death, but by general request of the gods,
he was restored to life.
Baldur is really a season myth, symbolizing the death of the sun at the
end of the year, with the resuscitation in the Spring. So also is the tradition
of Persephone abducted by Pluto, and allowed to revisit her mother,
Demeter, at the dawn of Summer. Another parallel is the story of Orpheus
and Eurydice.
Sun Myths
Of myths associated with the Dawn there is the tradition of Apollo and
Daphne, where the story of the nymph being chased by the god and
transformed into the tree symbolised the early dawn dispersed by the Sun,
or the effect of the growing power of the Sun on vegetation.
Similar in idea is the tradition of Wabun, son of Mudjekee-Wee, the
North American Indian Apollo, who chased Darkness with his arrows over
hill and valley, waking the villagers, calling the Thunder and bringing the
morning. He married Wabung Annung, whom he transplanted to the
Heavens, where she became the Morning Star.
Associated also with the sun is the myth of Clytie, a water nymph, who
for unrequited love of Apollo, was changed into a sun-flower, which
traditionally still turns towards the sun, following him through his daily
course.
Belief in Natural Phenomena
It has already been suggested that in primitive times intentional and
conscious life was ascribed to a host of natural objects and phenomena,
indications of which survive in the common speech of the present day. Thus

we speak of inanimate things as if they had consciousness and intelligence.
We say the Weather is good or bad, the Wind furious, the Sea treacherous,
the Seasons inconstant or the Earth thirsty. It is also customary to speak of
the “head” or “foot” of a mountain, and “arm” of the sea and the “mouth”
of a river or a cave.
Conscious action is suggested by such statement as the wind “whistles,”
“howls” or “moans”; the torrent or river “murmurs”; the fields “smile” or
the sky “threatens.”
These afford undoubted evidence of early belief in personality and
consciousness—a belief originally simple, but later becoming more
complex, monotheistic in the earlier form, developing into polytheism in
assigning different deities to the various elements.
Greek and Roman Deities
In Greek and Roman mythology there are twelve deities, six gods and
six goddesses.
Greek. Gods. Roman.
Zeus. The air or the living one (king) Jupiter.
Apōllon. The Sun God. Apollo.
Ares. The War God. Mars.
Hermes. The Messenger. Mercury.
Poseidon. The Sea God. Neptune.
Hephaistos. The Smith. Vulcan.
Goddesses.
Hera. Queen. Juno.
Demeter. Tillage. Ceres.
Artemis. Moon-Hunting. Diana.
Athenē. Wisdom. Minerva.
Aphrodite. Love and Beauty. Venus.
Hestĭa. Home life. Vesta.
These are the original twelve, but four others are referred to as follows:
Dionȳsus. The God of Wine. Bacchus.
Eros. The love lad. Cupid.

Plutōn. God of the Inferno. Pluto.
Kronos. Time. Saturn.
Scandinavian Mythology
In the Scandinavian mythology Ymir the personification of Chaos or
first created being, was produced by the antagonism of heat and cold,
nourished by the four milky streams from the cow Audhumla. While he
slept a man and woman grew out of his left arm, and sons from his feet,
from whom was formed the race of Frost Giants.
Odin and his two brothers slew Ymir and threw the carcase into the
Ginnungagap, or abyss of abysses. The blood formed the waters of the
Earth; the bones the Mountains, the skull the Heavens; the teeth, Rocks; the
brains, Clouds; the hair, plants of every kind; and the eyebrows, a wall of
defence against the Giants.
As in the Greek and Roman mythology, the Celestials or Æsir of the
Scandinavians were twelve in number, the chief being Odin. Each god
dwelt in his mansion in Asgard (God’s Ward), situated on the heavenly hills
between the Earth and the Rainbow.
The other gods or Asa were:
Thor. God of Thunder and War.
Tyr. God of Wisdom.
Baldur. God of Sun.
Bragi. God of Eloquence.
Vidar. God of Silence.
Hodar. The Blind.
Harnod. The Messenger (divine intelligence)
Odur.
Loki. God of Mischief.
All these were sons of Odin—the youngest being Vale. The mansion of
Odin was Gladsheim—that of Frigga, his wife Fensalir. Baldur’s was
Broadblink or “Vast Splendour.”
The Refectory, or Hall of the Æsir, was Valhalla, in which the spirits of
warriors were entertained by the twelve Valkyries (armed and mounted
nymphs), who in battle selected those destined for death.

Supreme were the “Mysterious Three” called Har the Mighty, the Like
Mighty and the third person, who sat on the throne above the Rainbow.
The Scandinavian Fates or Nornir, representing the Past, Present and
Future, sat spinning the web of events of human life beneath the ash tree
Yggdrasil, whose roots ran in three directions, one to Asgard, one to the
Frost Giants, and the third to the underworld. Beneath each was a fountain
of wonderful virtue.
In the tree from which drops honey sit an eagle, a squirrel and four stags;
lying at and gnawing the root is the serpent Nithhöggr, while the squirrel
Ratatösker runs up and down endeavouring to cause strife between the
serpent and the eagle at the top.
Rising and Setting Symbolised
The Egyptian Horus, the hawk-headed son of Osiris and Isis, symbolised
the sun’s path, or the rising sun; Ra the noon-day and Osiris the setting.
Osiris, the husband of Isis, is represented by the moon, and by an eye at
the top of fourteen steps and symbolises any waning luminary, as the setting
sun or waning moon. Isis, to whose worship the sacred cow was dedicated,
symbolises rising, becoming visible, and is represented with two horns on a
stem rising from her head.
The ancient Egyptian indulged in the supposition that the swelling of the
Nile at the annual innundation occurred on the anniversary of the death of
Osiris, and was due to the tears of the lamenting Isis.
Endymion in the Greek tradition is the setting sun, with whom the moon
is in love. He was visited and kissed every night by Selene on the Latmian
Hills, where he was condemned to sleep, and eternal youth.
Winds Personified
That the Winds as natural forces should become personified is easy to
imagine, as in the Roman Æolus, father of Zephyr, the West wind. Aquilo or
Boreas, son of Astræus a Titan, and Eos (morning) was the North Wind, and
lived in a cave on Mount Hermus in Thrace. The other winds were Notus,
(South), Eurus (East), Corus (North-West), Argestës (North-East), Volturnus
(South-East), and Aferventus (South-West).
The natural phenomenon of the Echo is embodied in the poetic tradition
of a nymph, who, on account of unrequited love for Narcissus, pined away

till only her voice remained.
Predestination
To the primitive mind disaster or affliction from quite natural causes
would be attributed to the wrath of some deity, even though there was no
personal offence. This superstition would find expression in a belief in
predestination or fatalism, as is evidenced in the tragedies of Orestes and
Œdipus, and to a certain extent in the protracted return of Ulysses from
Troy.
The Fates
The Greeks and Romans believed that birth, events and death were
arbitrarily controlled by the Parcæ or Fates, of which there were three—
Clotho, who held the distaff—Lachesis, who spun the thread of life and
Atropos who bore the shears and cut the thread when life was ended.
Thus Clotho presided over birth and drew the thread of life from the
distaff, while Atropos presided over death, Lachesis spinning the thread
between life and death.
The Harpies and Furies were also responsible agents in disaster. The
former were vultures with female heads and breasts, living in an
atmosphere of filth and stench and contaminating everything they came
near. Their names Ocypeta (rapid), Celeno (blackness), and Aello (storm)
indicate that they were the personification of tumult and whirlwind. Equally
arbitrary were the reputed acts of the Furies, of whom there were likewise
three, their names being Tisiphone (avenger of blood), Alectro (implacable),
and Megæra (disputatious).
Propitiation and Sacrifice
Propitiation and sacrifice, to avoid such visitation would be the natural
outcome, and the various traditions are probably records of actual
occurrences, embroidered by poetic imagery and miraculous conditions.
In later tradition, cause or justification is indicated as in the story of
Iphigenia, daughter of Clytemnestra and Agamemnon. The latter having
offended Artemis by killing her favourite stag, vowed to sacrifice the most
beautiful thing that came into his possession during the next twelve months.
This was an infant daughter, but the sacrifice was deferred till she reached
womanhood, when the combined Greek fleet arrived at Aulis on its way to

Troy. Calchas declared this would be wind-bound as long as the vow
remained unfulfilled, but Artemis interposed at the last moment by spiriting
Iphigenia away from the altar and leaving a hind to suffer in her stead.
A similar story is that of Andromeda, rescued by Perseus from the sea
monster sent by Poseidon to devastate the land. The reputed cause was
Cassiopeia, mother of Andromeda, boasting of her daughter’s beauty, and
on appeal to the oracle the sacrifice was declared necessary to save the
country and to appease the offended deity.
Similar instances in Bible history are the vows of sacrifice made by
Abraham and Jephthah. The latter has a parallel in the Greek tradition of
Idomeneus, King of Crete, who vowed to sacrifice the first being he
encountered if the gods granted him a safe return after the burning of Troy.
The first person met on landing was his son, who was sacrificed, and in
consequence Idomeneus was banished as a murderer.
Early Burial Customs
The ancient burial customs are evidence of an early belief in future
existence, and that not only human beings but inanimate objects have souls.
It was considered necessary that the departed should be accompanied not
only by his weapons and personal belongings, but also by attendants or
slaves, who were immolated so that they could continue their ministrations
in the future life.
Taboo
The reverence with which burial places were regarded gave rise to the
belief in the spirits of the dead as guardians, and this survives at the present
day in the mysterious custom of “Taboo,” a Polynesian term which means
“consecrated” or “set apart.”
It really has a double meaning: to consecrate, and to insure penalty,
whereby dwellings are abandoned after the death of their owners in the
supposition that they are sacred to the spirits of the departed.
Roman Lares
The Lares of the Romans were domestic or public, the domestic Lares
were the souls of the virtuous ancestors exalted to the rank of protectors.
They took the form of images like dogs set behind the Entrance, or in the
Lararium or shrine.

There were also public Lares, whose province was the protection of
streets and roads.
This belief in the dead as guardian spirits accounts for a form of sacrifice
in which the victims were buried under foundations, a custom modified in
later times to the sacrifice of animals. It survives at the present day in
burying current coins at the ceremony of laying the foundation-stone in
public buildings.
Typical Legend
Many of the legends of the Middle Ages associated with Architecture are
reminiscent of the early customs of sacrifice in the oft-repeated traditions of
demoniacal aid. The story generally deals with some difficult problem in
design or construction for the solution of which the architect or builder
enters into the usual compact with the evil one, the terms being that the
latter party to the contract shall take possession of the first living being that
enters into or crosses the structure.
Invariably the enemy of mankind is outwitted, a dog or some other
animal being the first to enter, the builder’s sense of caution being in every
instance greater than his vanity.
Similar in idea was the Hebrew custom of the scapegoat, which also
anticipated and symbolised the Atonement.
With the Greeks the cock was not sacrificed, it being sacred to the Sun
and Moon, as it announced the hours.
The cock was also sacred to the Goddess of Wisdom and to Æsculapius.
Therefore it represented Time, Wisdom and Health, none of which should
be sacrificed.
Early Spiritual Belief
Experience due to the involuntary action of the brain in dreaming, when
the ordinary laws of time and space are modified could hardly fail to
impress the primitive imagination and suggest the duality of being—
physical and spiritual.
In some savage communities at the present day there is a belief that the
soul or spirit is absent during sleep and that it would be dangerous to wake
the sleeper, as, should he close his mouth, the soul would be unable to

return. This belief that the soul should be free to go and come is evidenced
in the aperture that has been found in Kist-vaens and other forms of tombs.
Prehistoric Treatment of Epileptics
Prehistoric skulls have been found bearing evidence of the operation of
trepanning, arising from the belief that the patient was possessed by devils
which would be released by making a hole in the head. This treatment was
apparently applied to epileptics. With the primitive instruments and
ignorance of anæsthetics in that remote period it could hardly have been a
pleasant experience.
The Greeks and Romans believed that the souls escaped with life
through the aperture of the death wound, and the Moslems had a
superstition that it was necessary in strangling a victim to relax the cord
before death occurred, so as to allow the soul to escape.
Even to modern times it is customary to open a window of a death
chamber.
Prohibition
A form of taboo in legend and tradition is prohibition either as to act or
question.
The Biblical instance of Lot’s wife has its parallel in Eurydice, wife of
Orpheus, who, killed on her wedding night, was redeemed on condition that
Orpheus should not look back till she had reached the upper world.
Forgetting the prohibition, he turned to see if she were following, and
Eurydice was instantly caught back into Hades.
The story is a poetical rendering of the capture of Eurydice by Aëdonius,
King of Thresprotia, called Pluto, on account of his cruelty. Orpheus
obtained her return on conditions that were not fulfilled; therefore he lost
her a second time.
The prohibition of Persephone to Psyche to look at the casket of Divine
beauty until she reached the upper world and the consequence, is similar in
idea, though the sequel is the result of feminine curiosity and devotion.
As examples of the forbidden question, the stories of Cupid and Psyche
and Lohengrin may be quoted; in both instances curiosity as to name and
origin was interdicted. Disregard of the command resulted in abandonment.

A more modern tradition is that of Melusina, who for her sins was
condemned to become every Saturday a serpent from her waist downwards.
She married Raymond, Count of Lusignan, and made him vow never to
visit her on that day.
Excited by jealousy, he hid himself on one of the prohibited days and
saw her in her transformed state, whereupon she was obliged to quit, and
wander about as a spirit till the day of doom.
Belief in Magical Qualities.
The ancient belief in the supernatural was not confined to the spiritual
world, but also extended to inanimate objects which were sometimes
invested with magical qualities, as for instance, the Helms of Perseus and
Pluto, which rendered their wearers invisible. The same virtue was
possessed by Albric’s cloak, Tarnkappe, which also invested the wearer
with the strength of twelve men; by means of which, and the invisibility
conferred, Siegfried was able to overcome Brunhild, the martial queen of
Iceland.
The Shirt of Nessus
More malignant in character was the Shirt of Nessus as the source of
misfortune from which there was no escape. According to tradition, Nessus
the Centaur, while conveying Dejanira across a river, was shot by Hercules
for his rudeness. The dying Centaur bequeathed his tunic to Dejanira,
assuring her that to whomsoever she gave it, they would love her
exclusively. Believing this, she presented it to Hercules, who on wearing it
was subjected to such torture that, being unable to remove the garment, he
immolated himself on a funeral pyre.
Similarly malignant was the poison-cloak sent as a present to Arthur by
Queen Morgan la Fay.
Swords
Swords at all times have been possessed of magical qualities, but the
belief possibly indicates stages of development. The description of the
sword of Perseus as a form of diamond, suggests that the story had its origin
in the Stone Age. It is reasonable to presume that the later improvements
were such an advance that they suggested supernatural origin; e.g., the

sword of Siegfried, the name of which was Balmung or Gram (literally
“grief”).
The sword was reputed to be made by Wieland Smith, the Vulcan of the
Scandinavians. To test the blade he tried it on Amilias, a brother smith,
cleaving him through helm and armour down to the waist, but the cut was
so fine that Amilias was not aware that he was wounded until he attempted
to move, when he fell in two pieces.
Arthur’s sword Excalibur (liberated from the stone) is a later
development, as the magical property was in the sheath, which rendered the
wearer immune from injury. Arthur’s undoing was the result of losing the
sheath, though he retained the sword.
Invulnerability
Associated with this is invulnerability, variously bestowed or acquired.
In the tradition of Achilles, he was immersed in the river Styx by his mother
Thetis, but the immersion did not extend to his heel, in which he received
his mortal wound from the arrow of Paris.
Jason was rendered invulnerable in his battle with the giants that sprang
from the sowing of the Cadmean teeth by being anointed by Medæa with
the Promethean unguent.
Siegfried, the horny, made himself similarly proof from injury by
bathing in the dragon’s blood, but one spot on his back, where a linden leaf
had stuck, escaped. Through this only vulnerable spot he met his death,
being killed by Hagan the Dane while drinking in a pool.
This probably is a poetic allusion to early employment of defensive
armour, in which the back, as compared to the front, would be unprotected.
Belief in Numbers
Certain numbers have at all times been invested with mystic
significance, e.g., “Three” the “perfect” number, expressive of Beginning,
Middle and End; also symbol of Deity. An earlier term of Trinity is Triad,
and almost every mythology has a three-fold deity.
That of the ancient Greeks consisted of Zeus, Apollo and Aphrodite, the
Egyptian being Osiris, Isis and Horus. The Romans believed the world to be
under the rule of three gods—Jupiter (Heaven), Neptune (Ocean), and Pluto

(Hades). The first has three thunderbolts—Neptune, the Trident, and Pluto,
Cerberus, the triple-headed dog.
Three in number also were the Fates, Furies, Graces, Harpies and
Sibylline Books. In the underworld the three judges of hell were
Rhadamanthos, Minos and Æacos.
Muses
The Muses were three times three as follows:
Calliope. Epic Poetry.
Clio. History.
Melpomene. Tragedy.
Euterpe. Lyric Poetry.
Urania. Astronomy.
Terpsichore. Dancing.
Polyhegmnia. Religious service.
Erato. Erotic Poetry—Geometry.
Thalia. Comedy.
The world is compounded of three elements—Earth, Water and Air.
Man also is three—Body, Soul and Spirit; and the kingdom of Nature—
Mineral, Animal and Vegetable.
There are three Christian Graces—Faith, Hope and Charity, and three
enemies of mankind, the World, Flesh and Devil.
The number “Four” symbolises the quarters of the World—the Winds—
the Gospels—the Evangelists and the four sacred Rivers.
“Five” signifies the Cross and the Five Wounds.
“Seven” has also been regarded as a mystic number, as in the Days of
Creation, the days of the week, the Spirits before the Throne, the Ages in
the life of man, the seven-armed candlesticks of the Hebrews; the sleepers
of Ephesus; the champions of Christendom and the Wonders of the world.
Sacred Trees and Flowers, etc.
Certain flowers and trees were in ancient times dedicated to the Deities.
The cornel cherry tree and the laurel were sacred to Apollo; the Cypress
and Maidenhair to Pluto; the Dittany to the Moon; the Lily to Juno; the

Myrtle to Venus; the Narcissus and Poppy to Ceres; the Oak to Jupiter; the
Olive to Minerva; and the Vine to Bacchus. The Laurel wreath was given to
the victor in the Pythian games. The victor in the Olympic games had a
wreath of wild olive—of green parsley in the Nemean games, and of dried
parsley or green pine in the Isthmian games.
The Ancients believed that the laurel communicated the spirit of
prophecy and poetry; hence the custom of crowning the Pythoness and
poets. In modern times the laurel is a symbol of Victory and Peace.
The Olive, sacred to Pallas Athenē, was anciently a symbol of peace, an
olive twig in the hands of kings, as represented on medals indicating a
peaceful reign. The Palm also symbolised Victory, and in Christian Art is
generally borne by the martyr—indicating victory over Death. The Lily—
which, according to tradition, sprang from the repentant tears of Eve as she
went forth from Paradise—is the emblem of Chastity, Innocence and Purity
and is associated with representations of the Virgin. The Daffodil or Lenten
Lily, which it was customary to plant on graves, was once white, the
tradition being that Persephone, daughter of Demeter, delighted to wander
about the flowering meads of Sicily. One springtime she tripped over the
meadows, wreathed her head with wild lilies and, throwing herself on the
leaves, fell asleep. Pluto, god of the infernal regions, fell in love with her
and carried her to the nether world. At his touch the white flowers changed
to a golden yellow.
In Christian Art the apple is symbolical of the fall of man, and represents
original sin; the rose symbolises Christian ecstacy, the Pomegranate
(generally burst open with the seeds displayed) is the symbol of the future
life and immortality. The vine and ears of corn are symbols of Christ, and
the Wine-press an emblem of the Passion.
The Passion-flower is emblematical of the Crucifixion—the leaf
symbolising the spear; the anthers, the five wounds; the tendrils, cords or
whips; the column or oviary, the hammer; the three styles, nails; the fleshy
threads within the flower the crown of thorns, and the calyx, the nimbus.
The white tint indicates “purity,” the blue “Heaven,” and the flower keeping
open three days symbolises the three years’ ministry.
Sacred Animals
Animals were also dedicated to special deities, the wolf, gryffon and
crow being sacred to Apollo; the dragon and panther to Bacchus; the stag to

Diana; the serpent to Æsculapius; the deer to Hercules; the heifer to Isis; the
eagle to Jupiter; the peacock and lamb to Juno; the dog to the Lares; the
horse and vulture to Mars; the cock to Mercury; the owl to Minerva; the
bull to Neptune; the dove, swan and sparrow to Venus; and the lion to
Vulcan.
The lion also is the emblem of the tribe of Judah and is symbolical of the
Resurrection. According to tradition the lion whelp is born dead, and so
remains for three days, when the father breathes on it and it receives life.
Evangelist Symbols
Mark, the Evangelist, is symbolised by a lion, because he begins his
gospel with the scene of John the Baptist and Jesus in the Wilderness.
Matthew, whose gospel commences with the humanity of Jesus as a
descendant of David, is the only one of the Evangelists represented as a
man.
Luke is symbolised by a bull or calf, and John by an eagle—the former
because his gospel opens with the priests sacrificing in the Temple, and the
latter because he soars high and begins his gospel with the divinity of the
Logos.
In Greek and Roman art the lion’s head is used particularly on fountains.
The Egyptians employed the lion, to symbolise the annual inundations of
the Nile, which happens when the sun is in Leo.
The Serpent
The serpent in ancient times was symbolical of wisdom and subtlety,
and, considered as a guardian spirit, is depicted on altars. It was also the
symbol of Hygeia, the goddess of Health, from the tradition that Æsculapius
assumed the form of a serpent during a pestilence in Rome.
In later art the serpent appears as a tempter. The Brazen Serpent of the
Hebrews that gave newness of life to those who, bitten by the fiery dragon,
raised their eyes to it, is an anticipation of the Crucifixion.
The Dragon
The mythical dragon is a Middle Age symbol of sin in general and
Paganism in particular. The Celtic use of the word for “a chief” is the
source of the legendary dragon slayer, as a knight killing a chief thereby
slew a dragon.

The dragon, which appears as a guardian, as in the garden of the
Hesperides, watching the tree bearing the golden apples of Hera, is also a
poetic allusion to flood or inundation.
The tradition of the Python and Apollo is an instance of poetic allusion
to the power of the sun drying up the overflow, as also the deliverance of
the city of Rouen by St. Romanus from the dragon Gargouille (waterspout)
which lived in the Seine.
Poetic License in Tradition
In Art and Literature traditions and legends dealing with probable
occurrences have been handed down—in many cases completely
transformed—by reason of this poetic license; e.g., the legend of Marsyas
the Phrygian flute-player, who, challenging Apollo to a contest of skill and
being beaten, was flayed alive for his presumption.
The story is not without its moral, as the flute on which he played was
one thrown away by Athenē, and, filled with the breath of that goddess, still
discoursed sweet music. The story is based upon the respective superiority
of the instruments—the Dorian mode in the worship of Apollo employing
the lute or lyre, and the Phrygian mode in the worship of Cebele the flute,
the reeds of which grew on the banks of the river Marsyas.
Another example is the tradition of the Danaides, daughters of Danaos,
King of Argos, who, fifty in number, married the fifty sons of Ægytos. All
but one murdered their husbands on the wedding night, and were punished
in the infernal regions by having to draw water everlastingly in sieves from
a deep well.
The literal explanation is that the followers of Danaos taught the Argives
to dig wells and irrigate the land in the Egyptian manner. The soil of Argos,
being dry and porous, resembling a sieve.
The extreme of poetic license is perhaps reached in the tradition of
Geryon, a human monster with three bodies and three heads, whose oxen
fed on human flesh and were guarded by a two-headed dog—both slain by
Hercules. This is a fanciful account of the defeat of Geryon, who reigned
over three kingdoms and had an ally who was at the head of two tribes.
Another fantastic tradition relates that Xerxes inflicted three hundred
lashes on the sea, and bound it in chains—a Greek myth based on the
peculiar construction of the second pontoon Xerxes employed to cross the

Dardanelles. This consisted of three hundred boats, secured by chains to
two ships which acted as supporters.
A more modern instance is Cleopatra’s pearl, which she is reputed to
have dissolved in wine at the banquet, the costliness of which excited the
wonder of Antony. It is probable that the pearl was sold either to defray the
cost or to provide a bribe for Antony.
Animals in Christian Art
The Dog in Mediæval Art symbolises Fidelity and appears on
monuments at the feet of women, signifying affection and faithfulness; and
at the feet of men, signifying courage and magnanimity. When the dog
appears on the tombs of Crusaders, it is to indicate that they followed the
standard of the Lord as a dog follows its master.
Other animals in Christian Art symbolise respectively:
The Ant. Prudence.
” Ape. Malice, lust and cunning.
” Ass. Sobriety.
” Asp. Christ, or Christian Faith.
” Bee. Industry.
” Camel. Submission.
” Cock. Vigilance.
” Fox. Fraud and cunning.
” Hog. Impurity.
” Lamb. Innocence.
” Leopard. Sin.
” Ox. Pride.
” Dragon, Serpent, Swine. Satan and his crew.
” Lamb.
” Pelican. -Symbols of Christ.
” Unicorn.
The Lamb, which is reminiscent of the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus,
appears on Church plate and decorations, and is usually depicted carrying a
banner bearing the Cross, sometimes with blood issuing from its breast
caught in a chalice.

The Pelican is the symbol of Charity and the emblem of the Atonement.
It is generally represented on the nest feeding its young from the flesh of its
breast.
The Phœnix, owing to its traditional rejuvenation every hundred years, is
the symbol of the Resurrection.
The Dove is an emblem of Peace, Fidelity and of the Holy Spirit.
The Fish was adopted by the early Christians as the symbol of Purity and
Faith. It conveys a comparison of the Christian passage through life with
the fish passing through salt water still remaining fresh, and is occasionally
suggested in the Vesica Piscis, which it resembles in general shape.
Association of Human and Animal Qualities
Such arbitrary creatures as the Sphinx, the Winged and Man-headed Bull
and Lion, and the Griffin, were invested with symbolic meaning in the
association of qualities—animal and human; and probably had their origin
in an early belief in Totemism.
Totemism
Most primitive communities have superstitious regard for certain
animals, as the mythical origin of personal or tribal descent, and
appreciation for animal qualities is evidenced, for example, in the belief that
to eat hare or any timorous animal would be disastrous, resulting in the
transference of timidity to the consumer.
Cannibalism
The underlying idea of Cannibalism is the belief that in consuming part
of an adversary his virtues will also be acquired.
The practice in, that sense is really a tribute to his superior courage or
mentality.
The Lion and Bull were associated with courage and strength, either for
protection or menace.
The Serpent, with wisdom, subtilty and cunning. The Eagle typifies
alertness and watchfulness as well as speed.
Wings may symbolise rapidity and mobility, or ever-present, as
hovering, the bat’s wing being potential in darkness. The human element
denotes Intelligence, and bird claws—Ferocity.

The Sphinx
The Sphinx in Egyptian Art, always represented in a crouching position,
is a combination of Lion body with human head and bust (generally female)
and symbolises Intelligence and Power.
The Greek Sphinx, borrowed from the Egyptian, is generally represented
in a seated attitude, and invested with wings. It had a different meaning, that
of Malignity and Mystery. Probably in allusion to the tradition of the
Theban sphinx that menaced the town, until her destruction was
accomplished by Œdipus, who solved the riddle that had resulted fatally for
his predecessors.
Assyrian Winged Monsters
The Assyrian combination of Winged Lion or Bull with human head, is
symbolic of association of strength with courage and intelligence, the wings
suggesting mobility or ever-present.
The Gryffon, a Greek creation, was composed of a lion body, with eagle
head and wings, typifying not only swiftness, strength and courage, but
alertness or watchfulness. It was employed on the Acroteria of the
pediments; alertness being indicated by the forward position of the ears.
The Chimeræ as an emblem of terror and devastation, is in the form of a
lion body, the tail being a serpent, the lion mouth belching forth flames.
From the centre of the back protrudes a goat’s head.
The whole is presumed to embody the idea of a volcanic mountain, the
head being the crater, the goat representing the mountain slopes, and the
snake tail the morass at the foot.
The Dragon, compounded of a lizard head and body, bat wings and
serpent tail, is a product of mediæval times, probably suggested by the
mythological Gryffon. Sometimes the dragon is invested with the legs of a
lion, and to testify to its potency for evil, flames are depicted issuing from
the mouth.
Pegasus
Pegasus, the winged horse on which Bellerophon rode against the
Chimeræ, also used by Perseus in the rescue of Andromeda, is typical of
poetic inspiration. Another form of horse is Hippocampus, associated with

the chariot of Poseidon or Neptune, in which the fore-legs develop into fins
and the hinder part into a fish-tail in harmony with its element.
The Harpy
In all such associations the character is indicated by the various parts
employed. The Harpy of the Greeks being a combination of female head,
with bird body, wings, and claws, was suggestive of swiftness and ferocity,
and was the personification of sudden events.
Sirens
Equally disastrous, but more alluring, were the Sirens (or entanglers) of
whom there were three, Parthenope, Ligea, and Leucosia. They symbolised
the dangers of treacherous coasts, and were reputed to lure their victims by
their beauty and wonderful singing. Failing to entrance Ulysses, they were
doomed to destroy themselves.
The siren is represented in the form of a beautiful woman, but the lower
limbs terminate with bird claws, typical of their ferocity. In allusion to their
musical attraction, they are occasionally depicted as bearing harps or lutes.
The representation of Triton, the son and trumpeter of Neptune (in which
capacity he bears the conch or shell trumpet) as a man with the lower
extremities terminating into fish tails, is to embody the idea of ocean. The
Dolphin has the same significance.
Pan
A similar combination of human and animal, that of Pan, depicted as a
man with the horns and legs of a goat, is the personification of Deity
displayed in creation and pervading all things.
Flocks and herds, being the chief property of the pastoral age, were
under his divine protection; therefore Pan was a rural or rustic god.
The Nymphs
To the pastoral age also belong the Hamadryads, the nymphs of the
forest trees, in which they lived, dying when the tree died. The leopard skin
with which they are often partly draped, is poetically suggestive of such
chequered sunlight as would penetrate woodland growth.
Centaur

The Centaur, a combination of male bust with Horse body and legs, was
an embodiment of the Thessalonian horsemen. The Epic sculptures of the
Metopes of the Parthenon are illustrative of the conflict between the
Centaurs, and the Lapithæ, caused by the rudeness of the former when
entertained as guests.
The Circle
The Circle, originally a sun sign, has been invested with symbolic
meaning from the earliest antiquity, the general significance being that of
Power, or Sovereignty; a significance which also applies to its employment
as the crown, orb and nimbus.
In Egyptian art, the circular disc, orb or globe, is accompanied by two
asps, and spread wings as a symbol of ever-present sovereignty with the
power of life and death. The same meaning being expressed in the Assyrian
version, which is similar in form, but with the bow-string substituted for the
asps.
The Nimbus, Aureole, or Halo originally symbolised Power and
Authority, not Sanctity, and its employment in Christian art was anticipated
in pagan times.
It was adopted by the early Christians to express Divinity, or as an
indication of holiness, and is usually in the form of a disc. That of the three
persons of the Deity has three rays issuing from the centre, and sometimes
is triangular in form.
The Nimbus of the Virgin Mary is circular, nearly always elaborated, but
not tri-radiated. Those of saints and apostles are circular, more or less
ornamented. The Aureole in the form of the Vesica Piscis is sometimes used
to envelop the whole figure.
Symbols of the Trinity
Three circles interlacing or in the form of a trefoil are employed as
emblems of the Trinity, as is also the equilateral triangle.
The circle is also the symbol of Eternity, as having neither beginning nor
end; in Scandinavian art it is represented as a serpent.
The orb as a symbol of power may possibly have its origin in the stone
or weight, which in ancient times was kept by the tribal chief. To lift this
was the test of the youth aspiring to manhood, a custom which is preserved

in the Highland games when “putting the stone” is one of the tests of
strength.
The Wand a Symbol of Authority
Another symbol of authority is the wand in its various forms of sceptre,
mace or baton. This probably had its origin in the strong man’s club, a form
which is still retained in the official mace.
The sceptre has various forms of terminals, as the Dove, and the open
hand, the significance of the latter being authority with power to reward or
punish.
The Hand
The hand was a symbol of fortitude in Egypt and of fidelity in Rome—
two joined hands signifying concord.
Previous to the twelfth century the supreme being was often represented
by a hand extended from the clouds, sometimes open with rays extending
from the fingers in token of divine Grace.
The red hand is generally connected with some traditional tale of
violence, and is so expressed on the shield of Ulster. An allusion to the
tradition that the adventurer O’Neile vowed to be the first to land in Ireland,
and finding his boat outstripped, cut off his hand and flung it ashore.
The Hand is also an emblem of handicraft, when generally an eye is
represented in the palm, as significant of eye and hand being in harmonious
accord.
The Caduceus
The Caduceus was originally an official wand, and, adorned by the
Egyptians with two serpents, became the symbol of eloquence. In Greek
mythology wings were added, and it became the attribute of Hermes or
Mercury. The tradition being that the god one day came upon two serpents
quarrelling, whereon he threw down the staff of authority, round which the
serpents twined in peaceful amity.
The symbolism of the caduceus is therefore power, associated with
wisdom, the wings meaning rapidity or dispatch, and, as such, is employed
as an emblem of commerce.
Thyrsus

A variant of the wand or staff is the Thyrsus of Bacchus, which takes
different forms, the early examples being a plain staff entwined with ivy
leaves, though later vine leaves were substituted. It also appears in the form
of a pine cone impaled on a spear, which may be in allusion to the Greek
custom of mixing the juice of the pine or fir (turpentine) with the new wine
to make it keep.
It has also been attributed to a strategy of war, when Bacchus made a
successful advance by the ruse of concealing his followers with branches,
as in the example of Shakespeare’s Macduff. The pine cone being
suggestive of a night attack or that the Bacchanalian festivities took place at
night.
The Trident
The Trident of Neptune, and the Paddle or Rudder of Triton are also
variants of the wand as symbols of authority, and in their separate use, are
sufficient to indicate Sea or Ocean.
The Cross
Though the Cross was adopted by the early Christians, like the nimbus it
was employed in more remote times. In Carthage it was used for
ornamental purposes, but with the Egyptians, it was regarded as a sacred
symbol. It also occurred in Greek sculpture on a circle, when it symbolised
the four cardinal points.
Surmounted by a circle in the form known as the Crux Ansata, it was
sacred to Isis, and stood as an emblem of immortality and life generally.
There are various forms of the cross in Christian art, the Greek cross
with four equal arms, signifies the blessing which the great Sacrifice
extends equally over the four quarters of the world.
The Latin cross, in which the shaft is longer than the upper arm,
sometimes has three steps which signify the triple foundations of Faith,
Hope and Charity; the last being the lowest as the foundation of all
Christian virtues.
The Latin cross is sometimes furnished with two transverse arms, when
it is known as the Ecclesiastical cross, used by Cardinals and Bishops at
Rome. The cross of the Pope has three transverse arms.

The Cross of St. Andrew, or cross saltire, is in the shape of the letter X,
and is used as a symbol of martyrdom.
The Tau Cross in the shape of the letter T—frequently used in Byzantine
representations of the Crucifixion, is that on which the Brazen Serpent was
uplifted; and was also the sign marked on the door-posts at the sacrifice of
the Paschal Lamb of the Exodus.
The Cross with the arms bearing leaves or blossom, is symbolical of the
triumph of Christianity over sin and persecution. Occasionally it takes the
form of a spreading tree. When five red marks or jewels are placed in the
centre and extremities they are emblematic of the five wounds.
In Christian art the cross is the symbol of Christ, either in the simple
form, or as a crucifix, which in the early renderings was more suggestive of
voluntary sacrifice. The realistic treatment of physical suffering belongs to
a later period.
It is also in its various forms an emblem of martyrdom that of St. Peter’s
being in a reversed position in reference to the manner of his execution.
The Pastoral Staff
The cross, invariably with foliated ends, mounted on a staff, is the
Crozier of an Archbishop. The staff of a Bishop terminates with a curving
head in the form of a shepherd’s crook which it symbolises; both being
indicative of authority.
Symbols of Martyrdom
Martyrdom is symbolised not only by the palm, and the crown, as
indicative of Victory over death and reward, but by the banner of Triumph
over death and persecution. Also by the sword, as a symbol of violent death,
or by other implements of execution. These are represented in conjunction
with the individual martyr or saint, as attributes and as a means of
identification.
As symbols personal to Christ, the emblems of the Passion and
Crucifixion are proper to the Cross and chalice. Such, for instance, as the
crown of thorns, the nails, scourge, whipping-post, ladder, spear, lantern,
thirty pieces of silver, etc.
Symbolism of Gems, etc.

In Christian art, gems, metals and colours are invested with symbolic
meaning. The amethyst signifies humility, the Diamond—Invulnerable
Faith, the Sardonyx—Power, the Sapphire—Hope, Gold represents Power
or Glory, and Silver—Purity.
Black represents Grief or Death, Blue—Hope and Divine
Contemplation, pale blue—Peace, Christian Prudence or a serene
conscience, Green—Faith, Gladness, pale green—Baptism, Grey—
Tribulation, Purple—Justice or Royalty, Red—Martyrdom for Faith, Scarlet
—Fervour, and glory of witnesses to the Church, Violet—Penitence, and
White—Purity, Temperance and Innocence.
Shells on tombstones are allusive to the earthly body left behind, a mere
shell of the immortal soul. They are also used to indicate a pilgrim, by
whom they were carried, probably as a drinking vessel or form of spoon.
Torches, either upright or inverted, symbolised respectively Life and
Death. When in the latter position the flame is represented as ascending, the
significance is Death with hope of the Resurrection. An earlier signification
in Pagan art is the bridal torch of Hymen.
Masks
Masks, which frequently appear in Renaissance ornament, are traceable
to the Greek employment to symbolise Comedy and Tragedy.
The Medusa head, which occurs on shields and on the Ægis of Athenē,
was the emblem of Terror. The tradition being that Medusa, one of the three
Gorgons, famous for her hair, set her beauty against that of Athenē. As a
punishment, her hair was converted into serpents, the aspect of which was
so terrible that any who looked thereon were changed to stone. A fate to
which the Gorgon herself succumbed on seeing her reflection in the
burnished shield of Perseus.
The Cornucopia, or horn of plenty, another instance of Pagan survival,
was given by the infant Zeus to Almathæ in gratitude, with the promise that
the possessor should always have abundance in everything desired. The
horn being that of a goat from whom the god was fed, invariably
accompanies the representations of Ceres.
Symbols of Time
Time is symbolised by the hour-glass and by the scythe. The latter
implement, though generally accepted is more strictly the emblem of Death,

which cuts down prematurely. Whereas Time only garners when ripe the
sickle would be more appropriate.

Secular Symbols
Besides those enumerated, emblems are used for the arts, sciences, and
crafts, and as devices for Guilds and Corporations.
The arts of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture are symbolised by the
various implements employed, as are the crafts. Music by the Lyre and
other instruments, Literature by the Lamp, Books, and the Owl as the Bird
of Wisdom.
Science and mechanics are similarly indicated. Means of transit, by a
winged wheel, suggestive of Speed and Progress; trade and commerce by
bales of goods and by the Caduceus, and Agriculture by implements,
sheaves of corn and fruit.
Trophies
Groups of weapons used in war and hunting have been employed in a
decorative manner. This can be traced to the Greek custom of hanging the
weapons abandoned by a fleeing enemy on trees, and to the spoils of
victory carried in the Roman triumphal processions.
Such trophies of arms and armour appear in sculptured form as
decoration to the Roman arches and military monuments. A custom which
was emulated in later times in arsenals, public buildings and tombs.
Heraldry
Heraldry, which probably had its origin in Totemism, was practised
chiefly for purposes of identification, and was essential in the period of
complete armour, which rendered recognition in the ordinary way difficult.
Originally expressed on shields, surcoats and banners, it was employed
later on tombs, and became a feature in decorative work. Indeed the display
of heraldic devices on gates and entrances, and in chimney-pieces, is quite
justified as indicative of ownership. Such details were eventually
introduced into ornament for the sake of mass effect and variety.
Heraldry in Design
A very early example of this decorative employment is that of the Lion
gate at Mycenæ. Heraldic designs also appear in the later Byzantine and
Sicilian tapestries and entered largely into Renaissance ornament. The

shield is particularly conspicuous, with its development into the strapwork
frame and cartouche forms of the Jacobean and French Renaissance.
It will be gathered from the foregoing that the latter day designers,
especially those of the Renaissance, borrowed freely from the past, to which
there could be little objection if the employment of such details were
justified by conditions.
Symbolism in Modern Art
Unintelligent reproduction is not only retrogressive but a confession of
incapacity, and it is desirable to create an interest in the present and to
invest modern art—wherever possible—with meaning.
Present Apathy
In this the co-operation of the general public is essential. In the past, as
is evident in the simplest utensils, beauty was universally appreciated, but at
the present time the large majority are apathetic to æsthetic environment;
regarding art vaguely as the production and display of pictures and
sculpture.
The present shows a considerable advance on the deplorable taste of the
mid-Victorian period, but we have still far to go. The incongruity of
domestic decoration and furniture which, unhappily, is too general, is the
result of individual selection which is invariably uneducated.
The manufacturer can do much, and the designer may be prepared to do
more, but until artistic appreciation is more generally diffused, any progress
must necessarily be very slow.

CHAPTER IX

WAYS AND MEANS

T
HROUGH the medium of sight, interest and emotion are excited by
phases of colour and form, varying in individuals according to
temperament. The artistic perception and appreciation of these are
invariably due to natural faculty, though much may be acquired by
intelligent study.
Perception
In most forms of artistic expression the hand is the auxiliary of the eye.
Though sensitiveness of touch and dexterous manipulation are essential,
these can be acquired by practice. Perception, is of paramount importance,
and it may be assumed that the artist’s vision is more sensitive to
appearance and subsequent suggestion than that of the layman.
The interest of the average individual in art is generally that of subject
and sentiment. This is probably a more natural and logical attitude than that
of the artist, to whom—as a craftsman—the interest is often merely that of
technique. These possibly represent the two extremes; the cultured
individual is capable of appreciation of the ideal without consideration of
schools and isms.
Many students in their early essays draw rather from an imagined
knowledge than from the actual visual aspect—are apt to take forms for
granted, to assume, for example, that an object is round when it is really
subtilely polygonal. Theoretically a curve has no existence, being really a
combination of straight lines varying in length and direction. Many
beginners are unable to approximate even so obvious a form as a right
angle, and until their vision and judgment is trained, it is improbable that
they can successfully render more subtile combinations. It is the business of
the teacher to train the vision so that the perceptive faculties are developed,
and instil in the mind of the student that art is only concerned with
appearance. Any fact not visually apparent should be ignored.
Accepted Conventions

The whole subject is complicated by convention; thus for convenience,
forms are drawn in outline, but these drawings are not representations, and
are only recognisable and accepted as such through education and tradition.
Drawing in outline is merely to sequestrate a portion of the surface by a line
or lines, and can only define at most two dimensions. When shade and
shadow are added there is some approximation to the solid in the suggestion
of the third dimension. Though these tend to a more lucid explanation, the
work remains a convention if colour and atmosphere are rendered in
monochrome.
It is generally assumed that appreciation for colour is inherent. That this
to some extent is true is evident in the attraction of bright colour to the child
and the savage. Subtle quantities and combinations are only appreciated by
comparatively few, the faculty for colour being extremely rare.
Influence of Fashion
The average individual is guided as a rule in colour selection by vogue
or fashion, though it is the polite custom to concede that the average woman
is naturally endowed with taste. This is delicate ground, but the awful and
impossible associations evident at times in feminine costume certainly do
not justify the courtesy. There are superstitions in colour selection evidently
the result of tradition, such, for instance, as red and yellow being suitable
for a sallow complexion. The actual effect of these colours being to excite
the complementaries, is hardly favourable to the misguided wearer.
The average man is generally more discreet in selection when sartorially
concerned. Not that he necessarily possesses more taste, but because he is
observant of custom, and moreover, has generally an instinctive dislike to
anything pronounced. At times, however, the women-folk take the
initiative, and two of the greatest inflictions that men suffer are the selection
of their ties and cigars by one of the opposite sex.
In domestic environment the selection is invariably imitative or guided
by fashion, and if the prevailing vogue prescribes brown paper as a lining
for walls, it is probably adopted. But the choice, however it may be
influenced, is made possibly without thought of the furniture and upholstery
that is associated.
Harmonious Consistency