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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The watchmakers' hand book
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
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the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
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this eBook.
Title: The watchmakers' hand book
intended as a workshop companion for those engaged in
watchmaking and allied mechanical arts
Author: Claudius Saunier
Editor: Henry G. Abbott
Release date: September 10, 2025 [eBook #76850]
Language: English
Original publication: Chicago: Geo. K. Hazlitt & Co., 1892
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/76850
Credits: Aaron Adrignola, Sharon Joiner, A Marshall and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
book was produced from images made available by the
HathiTrust Digital Library.)
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will
have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using
this eBook.
Title: The watchmakers' hand book
intended as a workshop companion for those engaged in
watchmaking and allied mechanical arts
Author: Claudius Saunier
Editor: Henry G. Abbott
Release date: September 10, 2025 [eBook #76850]
Language: English
Original publication: Chicago: Geo. K. Hazlitt & Co., 1892
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/76850
Credits: Aaron Adrignola, Sharon Joiner, A Marshall and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
book was produced from images made available by the
HathiTrust Digital Library.)
Page 4
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE
WATCHMAKERS' HAND BOOK ***
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been placed at the end
of the chapter.
Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.
This edition of the book did not include a Table of Contents. For the convenience of the
reader one has been created here:
Preface.
Index.
Part I. Arithmetic, Geometry, Drawing, Etc.
Arithmetic.
Some Signs Employed in Calculations.
Powers and Roots.
Proportion.
Elements of Practical Geometry.
Geometrical Drawing.
Drawing Instruments.
Geometrical Drawings.
The Micrometrical Dividing Table.
Other Methods of Dividing Into Equal Parts.
To Subdivide a Circle.
Time.
Part II. Materials Employed in Horology.
Iron.
Cast Iron.
Steel.
General Observations.
Special Observations.
Determination of the Qualities of Steel.
Preparations of Steel.
Hardening.
Tempering.
To Whiten and Blue Steel.
Case-hardening.
WATCHMAKERS' HAND BOOK ***
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been placed at the end
of the chapter.
Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.
This edition of the book did not include a Table of Contents. For the convenience of the
reader one has been created here:
Preface.
Index.
Part I. Arithmetic, Geometry, Drawing, Etc.
Arithmetic.
Some Signs Employed in Calculations.
Powers and Roots.
Proportion.
Elements of Practical Geometry.
Geometrical Drawing.
Drawing Instruments.
Geometrical Drawings.
The Micrometrical Dividing Table.
Other Methods of Dividing Into Equal Parts.
To Subdivide a Circle.
Time.
Part II. Materials Employed in Horology.
Iron.
Cast Iron.
Steel.
General Observations.
Special Observations.
Determination of the Qualities of Steel.
Preparations of Steel.
Hardening.
Tempering.
To Whiten and Blue Steel.
Case-hardening.
Page 5
Influence of Foreign Metals and Metalloids on the Qualities of Iron and Steel.
Copper.
Zinc.
Brass.
Hammer Hardening of Brass.
To Anneal Brass.
Cast Brass.
Tin.
Bronze.
Sterro.
Lead.
Nickel.
German Silver.
Gold.
Silver.
Aluminium and Aluminium Bronze.
Mercury.
Platinum.
Palladium.
Characteristic Properties of Alloys.
Soldering.
Methods of Soldering.
Bronzing.
Gilding.
Acids and Salts.
Oil.
Alcohol.
Benzine, Etc.
Polishing Materials.
Preparation of Polishing Materials.
Smoothing.
Smoothing of Brass.
Smoothing of Steel.
Polishing.
To Polish Steel.
Copper.
Zinc.
Brass.
Hammer Hardening of Brass.
To Anneal Brass.
Cast Brass.
Tin.
Bronze.
Sterro.
Lead.
Nickel.
German Silver.
Gold.
Silver.
Aluminium and Aluminium Bronze.
Mercury.
Platinum.
Palladium.
Characteristic Properties of Alloys.
Soldering.
Methods of Soldering.
Bronzing.
Gilding.
Acids and Salts.
Oil.
Alcohol.
Benzine, Etc.
Polishing Materials.
Preparation of Polishing Materials.
Smoothing.
Smoothing of Brass.
Smoothing of Steel.
Polishing.
To Polish Steel.
Page 6
Cement, Wax, Resin, Etc.
Enamel.
Precious Stones.
Working in Precious Stones.
Part III. Health and Manipulation.
Preservation of Health.
The Sight.
The Body in General.
Use of the File and Graver.
To File Flat and Square With Both Hands at Once.
To File Flat With One Hand.
To Turn Cylindrical Pivots, Etc., and Square Shoulders.
Part IV. Tools and Appliances.
Workshop Fittings.
The Lathe.
The Foot Wheel.
The Bench.
Idlers.
Chucks.
The Slide Rest.
Gravers and Other Hand-turning Tools.
Drills.
Lathe Attachments.
Miscellaneous Small Tools.
Accessories and Miscellaneous Operations to Be Performed in the Universal
Head.
To Center an Object.
Uprighting and Drilling.
Production of Screw Threads. Screw Plates and Taps.
Taps.
Methods of Tapping Holes.
Rapid Mode of Making a Screw.
Screw-head Tools.
Tools For Cutting and Rounding-up the Teeth of Wheels. Wheel-cutting
Engine.
Enamel.
Precious Stones.
Working in Precious Stones.
Part III. Health and Manipulation.
Preservation of Health.
The Sight.
The Body in General.
Use of the File and Graver.
To File Flat and Square With Both Hands at Once.
To File Flat With One Hand.
To Turn Cylindrical Pivots, Etc., and Square Shoulders.
Part IV. Tools and Appliances.
Workshop Fittings.
The Lathe.
The Foot Wheel.
The Bench.
Idlers.
Chucks.
The Slide Rest.
Gravers and Other Hand-turning Tools.
Drills.
Lathe Attachments.
Miscellaneous Small Tools.
Accessories and Miscellaneous Operations to Be Performed in the Universal
Head.
To Center an Object.
Uprighting and Drilling.
Production of Screw Threads. Screw Plates and Taps.
Taps.
Methods of Tapping Holes.
Rapid Mode of Making a Screw.
Screw-head Tools.
Tools For Cutting and Rounding-up the Teeth of Wheels. Wheel-cutting
Engine.
Page 7
Cutters For Forming the Teeth of Brass Wheels.
Mill Cutters For Steel.
Tool For Making Cutters.
Tools For Correcting the Form of Teeth.
To Test the Accuracy of Certain Tools.
Part V. Repairing and Examining Watches.
Method.
External Examination of the Watch.
To Examine a Geneva Movement.
Accessories For Beginners.
Cleaning the Watch.
Putting the Watch Together.
To Examine English Or American Movements.
To Rapidly Time a Watch Or Clock.
Timing in Positions. Horizontal and Vertical.
Note on the Proportions of Balances.
Demagnetizing.
Part VI. Practical Recipes.
The Plate.
The Barrel. Including Arbor, Stopwork, Mainspring, Etc.
The Mainspring.
The Fusee.
Chain.
Wheels.
Pinions.
Set-hands Square.
Pivots.
Bushing Pivot Holes, Etc.
Depths.
On the Application of the Geometrical Laws of Depths to Practice.
Pallets.
Cylinder.
Balance Spring.
Dial Plate.
Metal Dials.
Mill Cutters For Steel.
Tool For Making Cutters.
Tools For Correcting the Form of Teeth.
To Test the Accuracy of Certain Tools.
Part V. Repairing and Examining Watches.
Method.
External Examination of the Watch.
To Examine a Geneva Movement.
Accessories For Beginners.
Cleaning the Watch.
Putting the Watch Together.
To Examine English Or American Movements.
To Rapidly Time a Watch Or Clock.
Timing in Positions. Horizontal and Vertical.
Note on the Proportions of Balances.
Demagnetizing.
Part VI. Practical Recipes.
The Plate.
The Barrel. Including Arbor, Stopwork, Mainspring, Etc.
The Mainspring.
The Fusee.
Chain.
Wheels.
Pinions.
Set-hands Square.
Pivots.
Bushing Pivot Holes, Etc.
Depths.
On the Application of the Geometrical Laws of Depths to Practice.
Pallets.
Cylinder.
Balance Spring.
Dial Plate.
Metal Dials.
Page 8
Hands.
Glasses.
Broaching.
Solid and Hollow Squares.
To Straighten a Rod, Plate Or Wheel.
Glasses.
Broaching.
Solid and Hollow Squares.
To Straighten a Rod, Plate Or Wheel.
Page 9
Page 10
American Watch Tool Co.
S TO NE Y BAT T E R WO R KS ,
Ch y m i str y D istr i ct , WALT HAM, MAS S .
M A K E R S O F T H E C E L E B R AT E D
WEBSTER-WHITCOMB
LATHE
AND ATTACHMENTS.
Do not be deceived by an “IMITATION” when you can get the
Genuine Webster-Whitcomb for $36.00.
S TO NE Y BAT T E R WO R KS ,
Ch y m i str y D istr i ct , WALT HAM, MAS S .
M A K E R S O F T H E C E L E B R AT E D
WEBSTER-WHITCOMB
LATHE
AND ATTACHMENTS.
Do not be deceived by an “IMITATION” when you can get the
Genuine Webster-Whitcomb for $36.00.
Page 11
By the introduction of special and costly tools we have brought the price
of Lathes down from $80.00 in 1876, to $36.00 in 1894. Who has done
more for the craft than we?
SEND for Price List and NOTE reductions.
Remember our full address.
of Lathes down from $80.00 in 1876, to $36.00 in 1894. Who has done
more for the craft than we?
SEND for Price List and NOTE reductions.
Remember our full address.
Page 12
Benj. Allen & Co.
141-143 STATE ST., CHICAGO, ILL.
Watch Materials, Tools and
Jewelers’ Supplies.
the most complete stock .
LOWEST PRICES. BEST GOODS.
“Diamond” Brand Pin Tongues, put up in neat box, partitioned off, each
size separate, warranted the best and stiffest Pins in the market, per gross -
$1.00.
All Orders Filled Accurately and
Without Delay.
141-143 STATE ST., CHICAGO, ILL.
Watch Materials, Tools and
Jewelers’ Supplies.
the most complete stock .
LOWEST PRICES. BEST GOODS.
“Diamond” Brand Pin Tongues, put up in neat box, partitioned off, each
size separate, warranted the best and stiffest Pins in the market, per gross -
$1.00.
All Orders Filled Accurately and
Without Delay.
Page 13
SEND FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE.
Watches, Clocks, Diamonds,
Jewelry and Silverware.
Watches, Clocks, Diamonds,
Jewelry and Silverware.
Page 14
THE
Watchmakers’ Hand Book
intended as a workshop c o m pa n i o n for those engaged
in wat c h m a k i n g and allied mechanical a rt s
BY CLAUDIUS SAUNIER
I L L U S T R AT E D A M E R I C A N E D I T I O N
revised and enlarged by
HENRY G. ABBOTT
w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e wa n t s o f a m e r i c a n w o r k m e n
CHI CAGO:
GE O. K. HAZ L I T T & CO., P u b l i s h e r s .
1 89 4 .
Watchmakers’ Hand Book
intended as a workshop c o m pa n i o n for those engaged
in wat c h m a k i n g and allied mechanical a rt s
BY CLAUDIUS SAUNIER
I L L U S T R AT E D A M E R I C A N E D I T I O N
revised and enlarged by
HENRY G. ABBOTT
w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e wa n t s o f a m e r i c a n w o r k m e n
CHI CAGO:
GE O. K. HAZ L I T T & CO., P u b l i s h e r s .
1 89 4 .
Page 15
COPYRIGHTED 1892, BY GEO. K. HAZLITT & CO.
Page 16
PREFACE.
M. Saunier’s writings occupy an unique position in Europe, as works of
reference for all who are engaged in watchmaking, and it may not be out of
place to observe that the American edition of his treatise promises to take a
similar place among English-speaking communities.
A glance at the index will show that the information given is essentially
practical in its character, and such as will be of use to the watchmaker in his
daily work. The volume is thus in no sense an abridgment of the original
edition, but on the contrary, it contains much more matter than the original
work.
In recent years the work of the ordinary watch repairer has undergone
considerable change. The apprenticeship he serves, if indeed it can be called
a real apprenticeship, is shorter than formerly. The immense number of
badly constructed watches that he is called upon to put in going order for a
trifling remuneration, compels him to replace the older methods of
procedure by others, whenever by so doing time can be saved. From this
point of view, then, the value of the present Hand Book can hardly be over-
estimated, since it contains, in a readily accessible form, many details as to
the working of metals, and descriptions of various practical operations, new
and improved forms of tools, etc.
But the volume will be found of daily use to a wider circle of workers
than those above referred to. We believe that there is hardly a branch of the
watchmaking trade which may not benefit by the numerous practical details
that are given; indeed, although the work is specially designed for the use of
M. Saunier’s writings occupy an unique position in Europe, as works of
reference for all who are engaged in watchmaking, and it may not be out of
place to observe that the American edition of his treatise promises to take a
similar place among English-speaking communities.
A glance at the index will show that the information given is essentially
practical in its character, and such as will be of use to the watchmaker in his
daily work. The volume is thus in no sense an abridgment of the original
edition, but on the contrary, it contains much more matter than the original
work.
In recent years the work of the ordinary watch repairer has undergone
considerable change. The apprenticeship he serves, if indeed it can be called
a real apprenticeship, is shorter than formerly. The immense number of
badly constructed watches that he is called upon to put in going order for a
trifling remuneration, compels him to replace the older methods of
procedure by others, whenever by so doing time can be saved. From this
point of view, then, the value of the present Hand Book can hardly be over-
estimated, since it contains, in a readily accessible form, many details as to
the working of metals, and descriptions of various practical operations, new
and improved forms of tools, etc.
But the volume will be found of daily use to a wider circle of workers
than those above referred to. We believe that there is hardly a branch of the
watchmaking trade which may not benefit by the numerous practical details
that are given; indeed, although the work is specially designed for the use of
Page 17
watchmakers, a great portion of it will be seen to be no less applicable to
other mechanical arts.
M. Saunier’s original works, the Guide-Manuel de l’Horloger, and
Recueil des Procedes Pratiques, which appeared as separate volumes, have
been incorporated in this American edition, a large amount of additional
information being at the same time added. As the second contained many
details that more properly belonged to the first, and vice versa, it has been
thought desirable to remodel the whole, and, as will be seen from an
examination, the six parts that constitute the work are distinct in their
character.
With a view to further facilitate the use of this Hand Book as a work of
daily reference, an unusually full index has been added, which the reader is
recommended in all cases to consult, and no effort has been spared to make
the cross references in the body of the work as complete as possible.
It seems desirable here to give some explanation in regard to several of
the practical methods described. Every watchmaker will at once recognize
that recipes are included which are of the nature of makeshifts, and that it
would in many cases be better to replace a piece by a new one rather than to
repair it in the manner indicated. But, on the other hand, it has been felt that
the work will often be appealed to by those who, from various
circumstances, may be prevented from making or procuring a new part that
will suit the watch under repair, while those who are not so situated will
have no difficulty in deciding for themselves as to which method to adopt.
The original work of M. Saunier, and the English edition, both had the
illustrations in the back of the work, which necessitated considerable
inconvenience when consulting them. In this edition we have ventured to
insert the illustrations in the text that describes them. The antiquated tools,
like the bow, bow-lathe, the turns and mandril, have been omitted, and the
modern foot-wheel, lathe and accessories substituted.
Henry G. Abbott
other mechanical arts.
M. Saunier’s original works, the Guide-Manuel de l’Horloger, and
Recueil des Procedes Pratiques, which appeared as separate volumes, have
been incorporated in this American edition, a large amount of additional
information being at the same time added. As the second contained many
details that more properly belonged to the first, and vice versa, it has been
thought desirable to remodel the whole, and, as will be seen from an
examination, the six parts that constitute the work are distinct in their
character.
With a view to further facilitate the use of this Hand Book as a work of
daily reference, an unusually full index has been added, which the reader is
recommended in all cases to consult, and no effort has been spared to make
the cross references in the body of the work as complete as possible.
It seems desirable here to give some explanation in regard to several of
the practical methods described. Every watchmaker will at once recognize
that recipes are included which are of the nature of makeshifts, and that it
would in many cases be better to replace a piece by a new one rather than to
repair it in the manner indicated. But, on the other hand, it has been felt that
the work will often be appealed to by those who, from various
circumstances, may be prevented from making or procuring a new part that
will suit the watch under repair, while those who are not so situated will
have no difficulty in deciding for themselves as to which method to adopt.
The original work of M. Saunier, and the English edition, both had the
illustrations in the back of the work, which necessitated considerable
inconvenience when consulting them. In this edition we have ventured to
insert the illustrations in the text that describes them. The antiquated tools,
like the bow, bow-lathe, the turns and mandril, have been omitted, and the
modern foot-wheel, lathe and accessories substituted.
Henry G. Abbott
Page 18
INDEX.
NOTE—The references are in all cases to the pages, not to the paragraphs.
A
Accuracy of tools, to test, 366
” ” rules, to test, 33
Acids, 127
Adjusting rod, to use, 433
Agate, 164
Akerman on hardening, 77
Alcohol, 132
” and glycerine on oilstones, 192
Alloys, 57
” properties of, 108
” that melt at certain temperatures, 82
Alum, 128
Aluminium, 103, 110
” bronze, 104, 110
” solders, 113, 116
Amalgams, 105
NOTE—The references are in all cases to the pages, not to the paragraphs.
A
Accuracy of tools, to test, 366
” ” rules, to test, 33
Acids, 127
Adjusting rod, to use, 433
Agate, 164
Akerman on hardening, 77
Alcohol, 132
” and glycerine on oilstones, 192
Alloys, 57
” properties of, 108
” that melt at certain temperatures, 82
Alum, 128
Aluminium, 103, 110
” bronze, 104, 110
” solders, 113, 116
Amalgams, 105
Page 19
American chucks, 224
Ammonium, chloride of, 128
Angle of cutting edges, 235
Angles of escapement, to measure, 465
” measurement of, 26
” to construct equal, 44
” to subdivide, 44
Annealing brass, 96
” steel, 72
Anvil, to harden face of, 88
Appliances for watchmakers, 189
Aqua Regia, 127
Arbor, barrel, to make, 409, 420
” ” ” repair, 428
” ” ” true, 429
” chuck for wheel-cutting, 224, 337
” to straighten, 505
” nut, to drill, 425
” ” diameter of, 425
” set-hands, to adjust, 451
” ” ” tighten, 294
Area, measurement of, 25
Arithmetic, importance of, 17
Arithmetical ratio, 22
Automatic blow-pipe, 201
Ayr stone, 135
Ammonium, chloride of, 128
Angle of cutting edges, 235
Angles of escapement, to measure, 465
” measurement of, 26
” to construct equal, 44
” to subdivide, 44
Annealing brass, 96
” steel, 72
Anvil, to harden face of, 88
Appliances for watchmakers, 189
Aqua Regia, 127
Arbor, barrel, to make, 409, 420
” ” ” repair, 428
” ” ” true, 429
” chuck for wheel-cutting, 224, 337
” to straighten, 505
” nut, to drill, 425
” ” diameter of, 425
” set-hands, to adjust, 451
” ” ” tighten, 294
Area, measurement of, 25
Arithmetic, importance of, 17
Arithmetical ratio, 22
Automatic blow-pipe, 201
Ayr stone, 135
Page 20
Axis of crystallization, 166
B
Back rests, 253
Balance, pivots, form of, 400
” poise of, 401
” protector, 265
” spring stud index, 280
” to make plain, 436
” vibrations of, 460
Balances, proportions of, 401
Balance spring, action of, 473
” ” collet tool, 286, 474
” ” gauge, 475
” ” to center, 377
” ” ” clean, 384
” ” ” draw, 47
” ” ” flatten, 477
” ” ” select, 478
” ” ” weaken, 477
Balance-springs, palladium, 107
” ” platinum, 107
Balas ruby, 162
Bands, 219
Barrel-arbor, to make, 409, 420
” ” ” repair, 428
” ” ” true, 429
B
Back rests, 253
Balance, pivots, form of, 400
” poise of, 401
” protector, 265
” spring stud index, 280
” to make plain, 436
” vibrations of, 460
Balances, proportions of, 401
Balance spring, action of, 473
” ” collet tool, 286, 474
” ” gauge, 475
” ” to center, 377
” ” ” clean, 384
” ” ” draw, 47
” ” ” flatten, 477
” ” ” select, 478
” ” ” weaken, 477
Balance-springs, palladium, 107
” ” platinum, 107
Balas ruby, 162
Bands, 219
Barrel-arbor, to make, 409, 420
” ” ” repair, 428
” ” ” true, 429
Page 21
” cover, to make, 410
” going, to put together, 385
” hole to bush, 412
” hook, to fix, 411
” clock, to make, 420
” to examine, 379
” ” make, 409
” ” oil, 388
” ” repair, 379, 412
” ” true, 379, 413
” ” upright, 413
Bars, to make, 409
Baths for hardening, 78
Beaupuy burnishers and files, 195
Beat block, 266
Beginners, aids for, 381
Bell-metal, 98
Belts for lathes, 219
Bench, 189, 221
Bent pivot, to redress, 454
Benzine, 133, 384
Berlioz rounding-up cones, 362
Berzelius pastile, 498
Black polish on steel, 154
Bleaching silver dials, 487
Blow-pipes, 199
” going, to put together, 385
” hole to bush, 412
” hook, to fix, 411
” clock, to make, 420
” to examine, 379
” ” make, 409
” ” oil, 388
” ” repair, 379, 412
” ” true, 379, 413
” ” upright, 413
Bars, to make, 409
Baths for hardening, 78
Beaupuy burnishers and files, 195
Beat block, 266
Beginners, aids for, 381
Bell-metal, 98
Belts for lathes, 219
Bench, 189, 221
Bent pivot, to redress, 454
Benzine, 133, 384
Berlioz rounding-up cones, 362
Berzelius pastile, 498
Black polish on steel, 154
Bleaching silver dials, 487
Blow-pipes, 199
Page 22
Blow-pipe, gas, 201
” automatic, 201
Blue polishing stone, 135
Blueing steel, 86
Board, arrangements of, 177, 189
“Body” of steel, 70
Borax as flux for soldering, 128
Bouchons, movable, 456
” to make, 298, 456
” ” rivet, 456
Brass, 90, 110
” cast, 86, 110
” dials, to silver, 491
” etc., drill blade for, 241
” influence of impurities on, 91
” plates, to harden, 92
” rods, to harden, 95
” to anneal, 96
” ” bronze, 121
” ” polish, 149
” ” select, 91
” ” smooth, 139
” wheel teeth, observations on cutting, 346
” wheels, to polish, 149, 135
Brazing, 119
Breguet spring, to set, 476
” automatic, 201
Blue polishing stone, 135
Blueing steel, 86
Board, arrangements of, 177, 189
“Body” of steel, 70
Borax as flux for soldering, 128
Bouchons, movable, 456
” to make, 298, 456
” ” rivet, 456
Brass, 90, 110
” cast, 86, 110
” dials, to silver, 491
” etc., drill blade for, 241
” influence of impurities on, 91
” plates, to harden, 92
” rods, to harden, 95
” to anneal, 96
” ” bronze, 121
” ” polish, 149
” ” select, 91
” ” smooth, 139
” wheel teeth, observations on cutting, 346
” wheels, to polish, 149, 135
Brazing, 119
Breguet spring, to set, 476
Page 23
Broaches, 199
Broaching, 499
” a hole round, 499
Brocot method of hardening brass rods, 95
Broken screw extractor, 262
” ” to remove with alum, 128
Bronze, 98, 110
” aluminium, 103, 110
” to render malleable, 98
Bronzing, 120
Brush, to clean with, 383
Brushes, preparation of, 382
Buff leather, 133
Burnishers, 198
” Beaupuy, 195
” to re-face, 198
Burnishing brass wheels, 135, 149
Burnt iron, 58
Bushing barrel holes, 412
” pivot-holes, 456
C
Caliper, figure-of-8, 197
” for heights, etc., 197
” micrometer, 270
” pallet, 466
” rest, jeweling, 249
Broaching, 499
” a hole round, 499
Brocot method of hardening brass rods, 95
Broken screw extractor, 262
” ” to remove with alum, 128
Bronze, 98, 110
” aluminium, 103, 110
” to render malleable, 98
Bronzing, 120
Brush, to clean with, 383
Brushes, preparation of, 382
Buff leather, 133
Burnishers, 198
” Beaupuy, 195
” to re-face, 198
Burnishing brass wheels, 135, 149
Burnt iron, 58
Bushing barrel holes, 412
” pivot-holes, 456
C
Caliper, figure-of-8, 197
” for heights, etc., 197
” micrometer, 270
” pallet, 466
” rest, jeweling, 249
Page 24
” vernier, 278
Camphorated oil, 131
Cannon pinion, to tighten, 449
Carbon in cast iron and steel, 60
Carnelian, 164
Case hardening, 88
Case, to examine, 389
Cast brass, 90
” iron, 60
” steel, 61
Castings, malleable, 61
Catgut bands, to join, 219
Cement, application of, 156
” steel, 62
Center of circle, to find, 44
Centers, to test truth of, 366
” various, 266
Center wheel, 379
” ” to oil, 388
Centering attachments, 253
” from circumference, 307
” in wax, 157, 314
” methods of, 305
” rods, 285, 385
Chain, fusee, to ease, 434
Chain hook, to rivet, 434
Camphorated oil, 131
Cannon pinion, to tighten, 449
Carbon in cast iron and steel, 60
Carnelian, 164
Case hardening, 88
Case, to examine, 389
Cast brass, 90
” iron, 60
” steel, 61
Castings, malleable, 61
Catgut bands, to join, 219
Cement, application of, 156
” steel, 62
Center of circle, to find, 44
Centers, to test truth of, 366
” various, 266
Center wheel, 379
” ” to oil, 388
Centering attachments, 253
” from circumference, 307
” in wax, 157, 314
” methods of, 305
” rods, 285, 385
Chain, fusee, to ease, 434
Chain hook, to rivet, 434
Page 25
Chalk for cleaning, 382
Chamfering tools, 281, 283
Charcoal for polishing, 133
” used for smoothing, 133
Chinese bronzing, 121
Chloride of ammonium, 128
” of zinc as flux for soldering, 118
Chrysolite, 163
Chucks, 224
Circle, divisions of, 24
” sub-division of, 52
” to find center of, 44
Circular oil stones, 191
Circumference, ratio to diameter, 25
” to center from, 307
Cleaning brushes, 383
” files, 193
” gold or gilt objects, 125
” metal dials, 491
” nickel movements, 101
” rough steel, 75
” watches, 382
Clock barrel, to make, 420
” dials, to clean, 491
” hands, to blue, 86
” pinions, to polish, 443
Chamfering tools, 281, 283
Charcoal for polishing, 133
” used for smoothing, 133
Chinese bronzing, 121
Chloride of ammonium, 128
” of zinc as flux for soldering, 118
Chrysolite, 163
Chucks, 224
Circle, divisions of, 24
” sub-division of, 52
” to find center of, 44
Circular oil stones, 191
Circumference, ratio to diameter, 25
” to center from, 307
Cleaning brushes, 383
” files, 193
” gold or gilt objects, 125
” metal dials, 491
” nickel movements, 101
” rough steel, 75
” watches, 382
Clock barrel, to make, 420
” dials, to clean, 491
” hands, to blue, 86
” pinions, to polish, 443
Page 26
” to time rapidly, 394
Closing barrel holes, etc., 295
Cocks, to make, 409
Colcothar of vitriol, 135
Cold gilding without mercury, 122
” hammering, 74, 92
Collet, balance spring, tool, 286
Coloring gold dials, 493
Compass, proportional, 37
Compasses, 196
Conductivity, 110, 112
Copper, 89
” alloys with gold, 102
” to bronze, 120
Cord of lathe, 219
Countershaft, 220
Counting vibrations, 394
Cover of barrel, groove for, 410
” ” ” to make, 410
Crocus, 135
Crossing out a wheel, 435
Crossings of wheel, to mark, 298
” to renew broken, 440
Crystallization, axis of, 166
Cube root, 20
Curb, to adjust, 415
Closing barrel holes, etc., 295
Cocks, to make, 409
Colcothar of vitriol, 135
Cold gilding without mercury, 122
” hammering, 74, 92
Collet, balance spring, tool, 286
Coloring gold dials, 493
Compass, proportional, 37
Compasses, 196
Conductivity, 110, 112
Copper, 89
” alloys with gold, 102
” to bronze, 120
Cord of lathe, 219
Countershaft, 220
Counting vibrations, 394
Cover of barrel, groove for, 410
” ” ” to make, 410
Crocus, 135
Crossing out a wheel, 435
Crossings of wheel, to mark, 298
” to renew broken, 440
Crystallization, axis of, 166
Cube root, 20
Curb, to adjust, 415
Page 27
Cutters, to adjust form of, 353
” for jewels, 165
” ” making grooves, etc., 312
” ” slide rest, 286
” ” steel wheels, 347
” ” teeth, various kinds, 339
” rose and star, 349
” rounding up, to make, 331
” tool for making wheels, 353
” to sharpen slide rest, 287
” wheel, to make, 339
Cutting a file, 194
” edge, angles of, 235
” faces of gravers, forms of, 239
” glass, 498
” wheels, observations on, 310, 348
Cylinder escape wheel, to test, 290
” to oil, 388
” ” pivot a, 454
” ” polish mechanically, 468
D
Dead smoothing, 143
” surface of gold, to restore, 126
Decantation, 136
Definitions, geometrical, 23
Degrees of circle defined, 24
” for jewels, 165
” ” making grooves, etc., 312
” ” slide rest, 286
” ” steel wheels, 347
” ” teeth, various kinds, 339
” rose and star, 349
” rounding up, to make, 331
” tool for making wheels, 353
” to sharpen slide rest, 287
” wheel, to make, 339
Cutting a file, 194
” edge, angles of, 235
” faces of gravers, forms of, 239
” glass, 498
” wheels, observations on, 310, 348
Cylinder escape wheel, to test, 290
” to oil, 388
” ” pivot a, 454
” ” polish mechanically, 468
D
Dead smoothing, 143
” surface of gold, to restore, 126
Decantation, 136
Definitions, geometrical, 23
Degrees of circle defined, 24
Page 28
Demagnetizing watches, 403
Density, 108
Depth caliper, 197
Depths, application of laws of, 458, 460
” in stem-wind work, 462
” theoretical and practical, 458, 460
” to ease, 365
” ” secure good, 457
” visible and invisible, to test, 377
Depthing tool, to test accuracy of, 368
Design, to transfer, 30
Dial, enamel, to cut hole in, 484
” ” ” drill, 480
” ” ” reduce diameter of, 486
” ” ” remove figure from, 486
” plate, to cut, 479
” to file hole in, 481
” ” remove enamel from back of, 482
Dials, enamel for, 160
” fixed by feet, 483
” ” ” screws, 482
” gold, to restore, 493
” metal, to clean, 491
” silver, to restore, 487
” to paint hours on, 495
” ” repair, 161
Density, 108
Depth caliper, 197
Depths, application of laws of, 458, 460
” in stem-wind work, 462
” theoretical and practical, 458, 460
” to ease, 365
” ” secure good, 457
” visible and invisible, to test, 377
Depthing tool, to test accuracy of, 368
Design, to transfer, 30
Dial, enamel, to cut hole in, 484
” ” ” drill, 480
” ” ” reduce diameter of, 486
” ” ” remove figure from, 486
” plate, to cut, 479
” to file hole in, 481
” ” remove enamel from back of, 482
Dials, enamel for, 160
” fixed by feet, 483
” ” ” screws, 482
” gold, to restore, 493
” metal, to clean, 491
” silver, to restore, 487
” to paint hours on, 495
” ” repair, 161
Page 29
Diamond, 161
” drill, to use, 169
” ” and gravers, 162, 173
” for polishing, 162
” powder, drilling with, 168
” ” to prepare, 135
Diamantine for polishing, 134, 154
Diameter, ratio to circumference, 25
Dies for screw-making, 315
” ” wheel-making, 438
Dividing plate, 298
” scales, etc., 48
” table, micrometrical, 48
Dome, freedom of, 389
Douzieme gauge, 196
Draw-plate, 298
Drawing, geometrical, 28, 40
” instruments, 32
” scales, 33
” to reduce a, 40
Drawn steel, advantages of, 71
Drifting, 296, 415, 502
Drifts, to make, 296, 422
Drill, diamond, 162, 173
” rest, 267
Drilling a barrel-arbor, 423
” drill, to use, 169
” ” and gravers, 162, 173
” for polishing, 162
” powder, drilling with, 168
” ” to prepare, 135
Diamantine for polishing, 134, 154
Diameter, ratio to circumference, 25
Dies for screw-making, 315
” ” wheel-making, 438
Dividing plate, 298
” scales, etc., 48
” table, micrometrical, 48
Dome, freedom of, 389
Douzieme gauge, 196
Draw-plate, 298
Drawing, geometrical, 28, 40
” instruments, 32
” scales, 33
” to reduce a, 40
Drawn steel, advantages of, 71
Drifting, 296, 415, 502
Drifts, to make, 296, 422
Drill, diamond, 162, 173
” rest, 267
Drilling a barrel-arbor, 423
Page 30
” enamel dial, 480
” glass, 498
” in the lathe, 308
” lubricants for, 480
” precautions in, 242, 244
” tool, to test accuracy of, 366
” with diamond powder, 168
Drills for oil-cups, 281
” to make, 244
” ” mount diamond, 173
” various, 241
Duplex ruby-roller, to make, 173
E
Elasticity of steel, 70, 84
Electro-gilding, 124
Elements of practical geometry, 23
Elevation defined, 28
Ellipse, to draw, 46
Emery, 134
” paper, to make, 134
” wheels and sticks, 134
Enamel, 159
” false, 161
” to apply cold, 160
” ” remove from back of dial, 482
” dial, to cut hole in, 484
” glass, 498
” in the lathe, 308
” lubricants for, 480
” precautions in, 242, 244
” tool, to test accuracy of, 366
” with diamond powder, 168
Drills for oil-cups, 281
” to make, 244
” ” mount diamond, 173
” various, 241
Duplex ruby-roller, to make, 173
E
Elasticity of steel, 70, 84
Electro-gilding, 124
Elements of practical geometry, 23
Elevation defined, 28
Ellipse, to draw, 46
Emery, 134
” paper, to make, 134
” wheels and sticks, 134
Enamel, 159
” false, 161
” to apply cold, 160
” ” remove from back of dial, 482
” dial, to cut hole in, 484
Page 31
” ” ” drill, 480
” ” ” erase figure from, 486
” ” ” reduce diameter of, 486
” dials fixed by feet, 483
” ” ” by screws, 482
Endshake, 375
Endstone, to fix, 159
” ” make, 171
Engine, wheel-cutting, 330
English movement, to examine, 389
Engraved design, to transfer, 30
Epicycloidal depths, 459
Equaling file, to cut, 194
Erasing figure from enamel dial, 486
Escapements, action of, 376
” gauges for, 465
” play of pivots in, 452
” to examine, 391
” ” measure angles of, 465
” ” oil, 387
Escapewheel, clip for holding, 289
” to test, 290
” cock passage, to turn, 312
Essences for cleaning, 133, 384
Examining watches, 371, 389
Expansion, 109
” ” ” erase figure from, 486
” ” ” reduce diameter of, 486
” dials fixed by feet, 483
” ” ” by screws, 482
Endshake, 375
Endstone, to fix, 159
” ” make, 171
Engine, wheel-cutting, 330
English movement, to examine, 389
Engraved design, to transfer, 30
Epicycloidal depths, 459
Equaling file, to cut, 194
Erasing figure from enamel dial, 486
Escapements, action of, 376
” gauges for, 465
” play of pivots in, 452
” to examine, 391
” ” measure angles of, 465
” ” oil, 387
Escapewheel, clip for holding, 289
” to test, 290
” cock passage, to turn, 312
Essences for cleaning, 133, 384
Examining watches, 371, 389
Expansion, 109
Page 32
Extracting broken screws, 128, 262, 317
” square root of numbers, 21
Eyesight, to preserve, 175
F
Face-plate, 257
” universal, 257
False ruby, 163
Figure-of-8 calliper, 197
File, to cut equaling, 194
” ” round-up teeth with, 363
” use of, 178, 193
Files, Beaupuy, 195
” to clean, 193
” ” renew, 193
” ” set in handles, 193
Filing block, 269
” fixture, 268
” flat, 179
” rest, 269
” square by hand, 179, 182, 500
Finger-piece, to make, 418
Flat filing, 179
” ” device for, 182
” polishing, tool for, 302
Fletcher furnaces, 201
Fluxes for soldering, 117
” square root of numbers, 21
Eyesight, to preserve, 175
F
Face-plate, 257
” universal, 257
False ruby, 163
Figure-of-8 calliper, 197
File, to cut equaling, 194
” ” round-up teeth with, 363
” use of, 178, 193
Files, Beaupuy, 195
” to clean, 193
” ” renew, 193
” ” set in handles, 193
Filing block, 269
” fixture, 268
” flat, 179
” rest, 269
” square by hand, 179, 182, 500
Finger-piece, to make, 418
Flat filing, 179
” ” device for, 182
” polishing, tool for, 302
Fletcher furnaces, 201
Fluxes for soldering, 117
Page 33
Foot-wheel, 218
Fourth wheel, uprighting of, 379
Fraise, Ingold, 362
Freedom of various parts, 378, 375, 391
Frosted surface on steel, to produce, 144
Frosting silver dial, 487
Furnace temperatures, table of, 78
Furnaces, wind and muffle, 201
Fusee, advantages of, 432
” to adjust, 433
” ” snail, 145
” watch, to examine, 389
Fusion, points of, 110, 112
G
Gauges, 196
” for balance-springs, 475
” ” escapements, 465
” movement, table of, 462
” registering, 274
” staff, 275
Geneva movement, to examine, 374
Geometrical drawing, 28
” proportion, 22
” ratio, 20
Geometry, elements of practical, 23
” importance of, 17
Fourth wheel, uprighting of, 379
Fraise, Ingold, 362
Freedom of various parts, 378, 375, 391
Frosted surface on steel, to produce, 144
Frosting silver dial, 487
Furnace temperatures, table of, 78
Furnaces, wind and muffle, 201
Fusee, advantages of, 432
” to adjust, 433
” ” snail, 145
” watch, to examine, 389
Fusion, points of, 110, 112
G
Gauges, 196
” for balance-springs, 475
” ” escapements, 465
” movement, table of, 462
” registering, 274
” staff, 275
Geneva movement, to examine, 374
Geometrical drawing, 28
” proportion, 22
” ratio, 20
Geometry, elements of practical, 23
” importance of, 17
Page 34
German silver, 100, 110
Gilding, 122
” bath, to prepare, 124
Gilt objects, to clean, 125
Glass, to cement, 157
” ” cut, 498
” ” drill, 498
” use of, 175
Glue, application of, 156
Glycerine and alcohol on oilstones, 191
Gold, 101, 110
” to clean, 126
” ” deaden surface, 126
” ” prepare in powder, 128
” copper alloys, 102
” ” dials, to restore, 493
” solders, 114, 116
” springs, 102, 478
Graduations of scales, etc., 49
Grain of steel, 68
Graining prior to gilding, 125
” steel, 144
Grammaire, 298
Gravers, diamond, 162
” to mount diamond, 162
” use of, 178
Gilding, 122
” bath, to prepare, 124
Gilt objects, to clean, 125
Glass, to cement, 157
” ” cut, 498
” ” drill, 498
” use of, 175
Glue, application of, 156
Glycerine and alcohol on oilstones, 191
Gold, 101, 110
” to clean, 126
” ” deaden surface, 126
” ” prepare in powder, 128
” copper alloys, 102
” ” dials, to restore, 493
” solders, 114, 116
” springs, 102, 478
Graduations of scales, etc., 49
Grain of steel, 68
Graining prior to gilding, 125
” steel, 144
Grammaire, 298
Gravers, diamond, 162
” to mount diamond, 162
” use of, 178
Page 35
” various, 238
Grinder, traverse spindle, 258
Grindstone, 192
Groove, circular, to cut, 311
” for barrel-cover, to make, 410
” straight, to make, 312
” to turn, 312
H
Hairspring, see Balance spring.
” stud index, 280
Hairspringing collet tool, 286
Hammer hardening, 68, 74, 92
Hand fitting pliers, 288
” holder, 287
” to enlarge hole in, 287
” ” set in position, 497
” turning tools, 238
Hands, freedom of, 373
” to blue, 86
” ” to redden, 497
” ” tighten, 287
Handles, to set tools in, 198
Hard steel, to drill, 243
” ” ” turn, 185
Hardening brass, 92
” gold spring, 478
Grinder, traverse spindle, 258
Grindstone, 192
Groove, circular, to cut, 311
” for barrel-cover, to make, 410
” straight, to make, 312
” to turn, 312
H
Hairspring, see Balance spring.
” stud index, 280
Hairspringing collet tool, 286
Hammer hardening, 68, 74, 92
Hand fitting pliers, 288
” holder, 287
” to enlarge hole in, 287
” ” set in position, 497
” turning tools, 238
Hands, freedom of, 373
” to blue, 86
” ” to redden, 497
” ” tighten, 287
Handles, to set tools in, 198
Hard steel, to drill, 243
” ” ” turn, 185
Hardening brass, 92
” gold spring, 478
Page 36
” solutions, 77
” steel, methods of, 77
” ” precautions in, 79
” ” temperature for, 68, 81
Hardness of jewels, to test, 166
” ” steel, 82
” scale of, 111
Health, preservation of, 175
Heat, mode of applying, to temper, 84
” of furnaces, table of, 78
Homogeneity of steel, 68
Hone slates, 134
Holder, escape wheel, 289
” for watch-hand, 287
Holes, methods of tapping, 323
Hook, chain, to rivet, 484
” to fix in barrel, 411
Hooks for catgut bands, 219
Hooked gravers, 288
Hours, to paint on dials, 495
” wheel, freedom of, 374
Hydrochloric acid, 127
” ” flux for soldering, 118
Hydrofluoric acid, 127
Hydrogen in palladium, 107
I
” steel, methods of, 77
” ” precautions in, 79
” ” temperature for, 68, 81
Hardness of jewels, to test, 166
” ” steel, 82
” scale of, 111
Health, preservation of, 175
Heat, mode of applying, to temper, 84
” of furnaces, table of, 78
Homogeneity of steel, 68
Hone slates, 134
Holder, escape wheel, 289
” for watch-hand, 287
Holes, methods of tapping, 323
Hook, chain, to rivet, 484
” to fix in barrel, 411
Hooks for catgut bands, 219
Hooked gravers, 288
Hours, to paint on dials, 495
” wheel, freedom of, 374
Hydrochloric acid, 127
” ” flux for soldering, 118
Hydrofluoric acid, 127
Hydrogen in palladium, 107
I
Page 37
Idlers, 222
Impurities in brass, their influence, 90
” ” steel ” ” , 88
Index, to ease, 478
Ingold fraise, 362
Inks for painting dials, 496
Instruments, drawing, 82
Involute depths, 458
Iridium, alloy with platinum, 107
Iron, cast, 60, 110
” for soldering, 118
” its properties and uses, 57
” oxides of, for polishing, 185
” to case harden, 88
” ” distinguish from steel, 57
” ” restore, 59
” wrought, 57, 110
J
Jewel in pallet, to advance, 463
” resetting tool, 299
” setting, cutters for, 137
” to find axis of, 166
” holes, thickness of, 400
” ” to make, 168
” ” ” set, 171, 298
” ” ” smooth and polish, 169
Impurities in brass, their influence, 90
” ” steel ” ” , 88
Index, to ease, 478
Ingold fraise, 362
Inks for painting dials, 496
Instruments, drawing, 82
Involute depths, 458
Iridium, alloy with platinum, 107
Iron, cast, 60, 110
” for soldering, 118
” its properties and uses, 57
” oxides of, for polishing, 185
” to case harden, 88
” ” distinguish from steel, 57
” ” restore, 59
” wrought, 57, 110
J
Jewel in pallet, to advance, 463
” resetting tool, 299
” setting, cutters for, 137
” to find axis of, 166
” holes, thickness of, 400
” ” to make, 168
” ” ” set, 171, 298
” ” ” smooth and polish, 169
Page 38
Jeweling caliper rest, 249
Jewelry, alloys used for, 102
” to clean after soldering, 126
Jewels, 161
” to select, 166
” working in, 165
K
Keyless pinion, to drift, 503
” winding depths, 392, 462
” ” wheel, to make, 441
” work, need of oil, 383
” ” to examine, 392
L
Lamps, 190
Laps for jewelers, 165
Lathe, 210
” attachments, 247
” belts, 219
” care of, 213
” simple form of, 211
” for jewel making, 165
” large size, 216
” to center rods in, 285, 305
” band, 219
Lead, 99, 110
Jewelry, alloys used for, 102
” to clean after soldering, 126
Jewels, 161
” to select, 166
” working in, 165
K
Keyless pinion, to drift, 503
” winding depths, 392, 462
” ” wheel, to make, 441
” work, need of oil, 383
” ” to examine, 392
L
Lamps, 190
Laps for jewelers, 165
Lathe, 210
” attachments, 247
” belts, 219
” care of, 213
” simple form of, 211
” for jewel making, 165
” large size, 216
” to center rods in, 285, 305
” band, 219
Lead, 99, 110
Page 39
” use of, in brass, 90
Leaves of pinions, to polish, 445
Leclerre’s vibration counter, 395
Left-handed screws, to make, 320
Lever escapement, to examine, 391
Lift, to measure, 465
Lines, to connect up, 45
” ” draw parallel, 43
” ” subdivide, 43
Liquation, 92
Local time, 54
Locking stones, to make, 172
Longitude, value in time, 55
Lubrication of whetstones, 191
M
Magnetism, to remove, 403
Mainspring, setting up, 385
” to blue, 86
” ” make eye, 431
” ” reduce height of, 432
” ” select, 432
Malleability, etc., of steel, 70
Malleable bronze, 98
” castings, 61
” nickel, 100
Materials used in horology, 57
Leaves of pinions, to polish, 445
Leclerre’s vibration counter, 395
Left-handed screws, to make, 320
Lever escapement, to examine, 391
Lift, to measure, 465
Lines, to connect up, 45
” ” draw parallel, 43
” ” subdivide, 43
Liquation, 92
Local time, 54
Locking stones, to make, 172
Longitude, value in time, 55
Lubrication of whetstones, 191
M
Magnetism, to remove, 403
Mainspring, setting up, 385
” to blue, 86
” ” make eye, 431
” ” reduce height of, 432
” ” select, 432
Malleability, etc., of steel, 70
Malleable bronze, 98
” castings, 61
” nickel, 100
Materials used in horology, 57
Page 40
Measurement, exact, 38
” of angles, 26
” ” triangles, squares, etc., 26
” ” various solid bodies 28
Melting points, 110, 112
Mercury, 105, 110
” to purify, 106
Metals, 57
” to cement, 156
Methylated spirit, 132
Micrometers, 196, 270
Micrometer screw, 39, 48
Micrometrical dividing table, 48
Mill cutters for steel teeth, 347
Milling fixture, 258
Minute wheel, freedom of, 374
” ” to cut, 310
Mixed oils, 131
Mortar for making diamond powder 138
Motion work, to examine, 374
Motive force, effect of variations in, 402
Movement, to examine English and American, 389
Movement, to examine Geneva, 374
Muffle furnace, 201
N
Natural steel, 62, 65
” of angles, 26
” ” triangles, squares, etc., 26
” ” various solid bodies 28
Melting points, 110, 112
Mercury, 105, 110
” to purify, 106
Metals, 57
” to cement, 156
Methylated spirit, 132
Micrometers, 196, 270
Micrometer screw, 39, 48
Micrometrical dividing table, 48
Mill cutters for steel teeth, 347
Milling fixture, 258
Minute wheel, freedom of, 374
” ” to cut, 310
Mixed oils, 131
Mortar for making diamond powder 138
Motion work, to examine, 374
Motive force, effect of variations in, 402
Movement, to examine English and American, 389
Movement, to examine Geneva, 374
Muffle furnace, 201
N
Natural steel, 62, 65
Page 41
Nickel, 99, 110
” movements, 100
” to surface, 147
” ” render malleable, 100
” silver, 100, 110
Nitric acid, 127
O
Oil, 128
” application of, 387
” necessary in keyless work, 393
” retention of, at center pivots, 378, 386
” ” ” on acting surfaces, 132
” tests of quality of, 129
” to secure permanency in, 130
Oil-cup chamferers, 281
Oil-cups, observations on, 282
” to polish, 153
Oilsinks, 131
Oilstone, 135, 190
Oilstones, circular, 191
Oilstone dust, to prepare, 137
Oriental chrysolite, 163
” ruby, 162
” sapphire, 163
Oxides of iron for polishing, 135
” movements, 100
” to surface, 147
” ” render malleable, 100
” silver, 100, 110
Nitric acid, 127
O
Oil, 128
” application of, 387
” necessary in keyless work, 393
” retention of, at center pivots, 378, 386
” ” ” on acting surfaces, 132
” tests of quality of, 129
” to secure permanency in, 130
Oil-cup chamferers, 281
Oil-cups, observations on, 282
” to polish, 153
Oilsinks, 131
Oilstone, 135, 190
Oilstones, circular, 191
Oilstone dust, to prepare, 137
Oriental chrysolite, 163
” ruby, 162
” sapphire, 163
Oxides of iron for polishing, 135
Page 42
P
Paillard’s balance-springs, 108
Painting dials, 495
Palladium, 107
” balance-springs, 108
Pallets, 463
Pallet-opening calliper, 466
” stone, to alter, 464
” ” ” cement, 159
” ” ” make, 172
” ” ” move, 463
Pallets, verge, to open or close, 467
” ” ” measure, 466
Paper used in cleaning watches, 385
Parallel lines, to draw, 42
Parallelogram, 27
Pendulum, counting vibrations of, 394
” spring, see Balance-spring.
” vibrations of, 460
Permanency in oil, to secure, 130
Perpendicular, to erect, 41
Petroleum, use for cleaning, 384
Pewter, composition of, 99
Physical properties of alloys, 108
Pickling dials, 488
Pinion, cannon, to tighten, 449
Paillard’s balance-springs, 108
Painting dials, 495
Palladium, 107
” balance-springs, 108
Pallets, 463
Pallet-opening calliper, 466
” stone, to alter, 464
” ” ” cement, 159
” ” ” make, 172
” ” ” move, 463
Pallets, verge, to open or close, 467
” ” ” measure, 466
Paper used in cleaning watches, 385
Parallel lines, to draw, 42
Parallelogram, 27
Pendulum, counting vibrations of, 394
” spring, see Balance-spring.
” vibrations of, 460
Permanency in oil, to secure, 130
Perpendicular, to erect, 41
Petroleum, use for cleaning, 384
Pewter, composition of, 99
Physical properties of alloys, 108
Pickling dials, 488
Pinion, cannon, to tighten, 449
Page 43
” hollow, to replace pivot of, 453
” leaves, to polish, 445
” riveting tool, 294
” to drift keyless, 297
” ” increase or decrease, 444
Pinions, etc., cutters for, 349
” high and low numbered, 460
” sizes of, 443
” to make, 442
Pivot-holes, cleaning, 382
Pivot polisher, 250
” to bush, 456
Pivots, balance, length of, 377
” ” form of, 400
” center, 378
” play of, 378, 452
” replacing broken, 453
” to polish mechanically, 454
” ” redress bent, 454
” ” turn, 183
Pivoting a cylinder, 454
Plate, watch, to make, 407
Plates, brass, to harden, 92
” for screw-making, 315
” to straighten, 504
Plating, gold, 124
” leaves, to polish, 445
” riveting tool, 294
” to drift keyless, 297
” ” increase or decrease, 444
Pinions, etc., cutters for, 349
” high and low numbered, 460
” sizes of, 443
” to make, 442
Pivot-holes, cleaning, 382
Pivot polisher, 250
” to bush, 456
Pivots, balance, length of, 377
” ” form of, 400
” center, 378
” play of, 378, 452
” replacing broken, 453
” to polish mechanically, 454
” ” redress bent, 454
” ” turn, 183
Pivoting a cylinder, 454
Plate, watch, to make, 407
Plates, brass, to harden, 92
” for screw-making, 315
” to straighten, 504
Plating, gold, 124
Page 44
” silver dials, 491
Platinum, 106
” balance-springs, 108
” to solder, 131
Pliers, 196
” hand-fitting, 288
Poise of balance, 401
Polish, black, on steel, 154
Polisher, form of, 155
Polishing brass, 149
” circular grooves, 428
” cylinder lips, tool for, 468
” escape-wheel teeth, 153
” flat objects, 302
” jewel-holes, 168
” machine for pinions, 445
” materials, 133
” pivots in lathe, 454
” powders, to prepare, 136
” ratchet teeth, 427
” sinks and oil-cups, 153
” steel, 153
” stones, Cadot’s, 136
Positions, timing in, 399
Post, to adjust, 415
Powers of numbers, 20
Platinum, 106
” balance-springs, 108
” to solder, 131
Pliers, 196
” hand-fitting, 288
Poise of balance, 401
Polish, black, on steel, 154
Polisher, form of, 155
Polishing brass, 149
” circular grooves, 428
” cylinder lips, tool for, 468
” escape-wheel teeth, 153
” flat objects, 302
” jewel-holes, 168
” machine for pinions, 445
” materials, 133
” pivots in lathe, 454
” powders, to prepare, 136
” ratchet teeth, 427
” sinks and oil-cups, 153
” steel, 153
” stones, Cadot’s, 136
Positions, timing in, 399
Post, to adjust, 415
Powers of numbers, 20
Page 45
Precious stones, 161
” ” working in, 164
Preservation of health, 175
Prime numbers, 18
Proportion of numbers, 22
” ” balances, 401
Proportional compass, 37
Protractor, 33
Puddled steel, 62
Pulleys, 222
Pumice-stone, 135
Punch, centering, 285
” riveting, 198
Putty powder, 135
R
Radius defined, 24
Railway time, 55
Ratchet, to renew barrel-arbor, 425
” ” smooth, 140
” ” snail, 141
” teeth, to cut in lathe, 310
” to polish, 427
Ratio, 25
Receipts for watchmakers, 407
Red-stuff, 135
Re-facing burnishers, 198
” ” working in, 164
Preservation of health, 175
Prime numbers, 18
Proportion of numbers, 22
” ” balances, 401
Proportional compass, 37
Protractor, 33
Puddled steel, 62
Pulleys, 222
Pumice-stone, 135
Punch, centering, 285
” riveting, 198
Putty powder, 135
R
Radius defined, 24
Railway time, 55
Ratchet, to renew barrel-arbor, 425
” ” smooth, 140
” ” snail, 141
” teeth, to cut in lathe, 310
” to polish, 427
Ratio, 25
Receipts for watchmakers, 407
Red-stuff, 135
Re-facing burnishers, 198
Page 46
Registering gauge, 273
Regulating a clock, 398
” ” watch, 396
Renewing files, 193
Repairing watches, 371
Resetting jewels, 300
Resin as flux for soldering, 117
Resist for use in gilding, 125
Retention of oil on acting surfaces, 132
Riveting stake and punch, 198
Rods, brass, to harden, 95
” to straighten, 504
Roller remover, 264
” to make duplex, 173
Roots of numbers, 20
Rose cutters, 349, 357
Rottenstone, 135
Rouge, 135
Rough steel, to clean, 75
Roughing files, 193
Round hole, to broach, 499
Rounding-up attachment, 259
” ” cones, 362
” ” cutters, to make, 331
” ” teeth by hand, 363
” ” tools, 330, 359
Regulating a clock, 398
” ” watch, 396
Renewing files, 193
Repairing watches, 371
Resetting jewels, 300
Resin as flux for soldering, 117
Resist for use in gilding, 125
Retention of oil on acting surfaces, 132
Riveting stake and punch, 198
Rods, brass, to harden, 95
” to straighten, 504
Roller remover, 264
” to make duplex, 173
Roots of numbers, 20
Rose cutters, 349, 357
Rottenstone, 135
Rouge, 135
Rough steel, to clean, 75
Roughing files, 193
Round hole, to broach, 499
Rounding-up attachment, 259
” ” cones, 362
” ” cutters, to make, 331
” ” teeth by hand, 363
” ” tools, 330, 359
Page 47
Rubitine, 134
Ruby, 162
” false, 163
” roller, to make duplex, 173
Rust, to remove and to prevent, 58
S
Sal-amoniac as flux for soldering, 128
Salts, 128
Sapphire, 163
Sapphirine, 134
Scale, to remove, from steel, 75
Scales used in drawing, 33
Scratch-brushing, 125
Screw dies, 315
” head sinking tools, 260
” ” to smooth, polish and slit, 143, 301
” micrometer, 39
” plates, to make, 316
” ” and taps, 315
” rapid mode of making, 326
Screws, double and treble threaded, 381
” left-handed, 320
” to blue, 86
” ” make internal and external, 315
” ” extract broken, 128, 262, 317
” tray for, 381
Ruby, 162
” false, 163
” roller, to make duplex, 173
Rust, to remove and to prevent, 58
S
Sal-amoniac as flux for soldering, 128
Salts, 128
Sapphire, 163
Sapphirine, 134
Scale, to remove, from steel, 75
Scales used in drawing, 33
Scratch-brushing, 125
Screw dies, 315
” head sinking tools, 260
” ” to smooth, polish and slit, 143, 301
” micrometer, 39
” plates, to make, 316
” ” and taps, 315
” rapid mode of making, 326
Screws, double and treble threaded, 381
” left-handed, 320
” to blue, 86
” ” make internal and external, 315
” ” extract broken, 128, 262, 317
” tray for, 381
Page 48
Sealing-wax as cement, 155
Seconds circle, to fix, 484
” ” ” make hole for, 484
Sector, 36
Semi-cylindrical drill, 245
Series of holes, to drill, 309
Set-hands arbor, to adjust, 451, 294
” nut, to make, 449
” square, to make, 422, 449, 500
Setting jewel-holes, 171
” ” cutters for, 236
Set-square, to center with, 286
Sharpening cutters, 237
Shear steel, 62, 66
Shellac as cement, 155
Shoulders, cutters for making, 236
” gravers for turning, 239
” to polish square, 155
” ” turn square, 183
Sight, to preserve, 175
Signs used in calculations, 19
Silver, 103, 110
” dial, to restore, 487
” German or nickel, 100, 110
” solders, 114
” solution for dials, 490
Seconds circle, to fix, 484
” ” ” make hole for, 484
Sector, 36
Semi-cylindrical drill, 245
Series of holes, to drill, 309
Set-hands arbor, to adjust, 451, 294
” nut, to make, 449
” square, to make, 422, 449, 500
Setting jewel-holes, 171
” ” cutters for, 236
Set-square, to center with, 286
Sharpening cutters, 237
Shear steel, 62, 66
Shellac as cement, 155
Shoulders, cutters for making, 236
” gravers for turning, 239
” to polish square, 155
” ” turn square, 183
Sight, to preserve, 175
Signs used in calculations, 19
Silver, 103, 110
” dial, to restore, 487
” German or nickel, 100, 110
” solders, 114
” solution for dials, 490
Page 49
” for plating, to apply, 492
” ” ” ” prepare, 491
Sinks in watch plate, 131, 281
” to polish, 153
Sinking tools, 281
Slates, hone, 134
Slide rest, 233
” cutters, 236
” ” to sharpen, 237
” turning with, 234
Sliding tongs, 196
Smoothing brass wheels, 149
” metallic surfaces, 139
Snailing, circular, 141
” steel, 145
” tool for, 146
Soap, application of, 383
Solders for various metals, 113
” hard and soft, 113
Soldering, 112
” fluid, 118
” fluxes used in, 117
” iron, 118
” methods of, 115
” to clean jewelry after, 126
Solid content, measurement of, 28
” ” ” ” prepare, 491
Sinks in watch plate, 131, 281
” to polish, 153
Sinking tools, 281
Slates, hone, 134
Slide rest, 233
” cutters, 236
” ” to sharpen, 237
” turning with, 234
Sliding tongs, 196
Smoothing brass wheels, 149
” metallic surfaces, 139
Snailing, circular, 141
” steel, 145
” tool for, 146
Soap, application of, 383
Solders for various metals, 113
” hard and soft, 113
Soldering, 112
” fluid, 118
” fluxes used in, 117
” iron, 118
” methods of, 115
” to clean jewelry after, 126
Solid content, measurement of, 28
Page 50
” geometry, 23
” squares, 500
Specific gravity, 110, 111
” heat, 110, 111
Spelter solders, 114
Spinel ruby, 162
Spiral, to draw, 47
Split chucks, 224
Spotting, circular, 141
” machine, 141
Spring, balance, 473
Springs, to blue, 86
Square hole, to drift a, 502
” measurement of, 26
” root, 21
” set hands, to make, 422, 449, 500
” shoulders, to turn, 183
” to file by hand, 500
” winding, to renew, 430
Squares, solid and hollow, 500
” to make, 422, 449, 500
Staff gauge, 275, 277
” to straighten, 505
Stake, riveting, 198
Staking tool, 293
Star cutters, 348, 357
” squares, 500
Specific gravity, 110, 111
” heat, 110, 111
Spelter solders, 114
Spinel ruby, 162
Spiral, to draw, 47
Split chucks, 224
Spotting, circular, 141
” machine, 141
Spring, balance, 473
Springs, to blue, 86
Square hole, to drift a, 502
” measurement of, 26
” root, 21
” set hands, to make, 422, 449, 500
” shoulders, to turn, 183
” to file by hand, 500
” winding, to renew, 430
Squares, solid and hollow, 500
” to make, 422, 449, 500
Staff gauge, 275, 277
” to straighten, 505
Stake, riveting, 198
Staking tool, 293
Star cutters, 348, 357
Page 51
” wheel, to true, 417
” ” sink, to make, 410
Steel, 61, 110
” characteristics of good, 63
” drawn, 70
” drill blade for, 242
” influence of impurities on, 88
” maximum elasticity of, 82
” precautions in hardening, 79
” preparation of, 72
” to anneal, 72
” ” braze, 119
” ” clean rough, 75
” ” determine qualities of, experimentally, 66
” ” distinguish from iron, 58
” ” polish, 153
” ” restore, 59
” ” snail, 145
” ” smooth, 143
” ” temper, 81
” ” turn hard, 185
” ” whiten, 84
” wheels, cutters for, 347
Stem wind pinion, to drift, 503
” ” wheels, to make, 441
Stepping device, 227
” ” sink, to make, 410
Steel, 61, 110
” characteristics of good, 63
” drawn, 70
” drill blade for, 242
” influence of impurities on, 88
” maximum elasticity of, 82
” precautions in hardening, 79
” preparation of, 72
” to anneal, 72
” ” braze, 119
” ” clean rough, 75
” ” determine qualities of, experimentally, 66
” ” distinguish from iron, 58
” ” polish, 153
” ” restore, 59
” ” snail, 145
” ” smooth, 143
” ” temper, 81
” ” turn hard, 185
” ” whiten, 84
” wheels, cutters for, 347
Stem wind pinion, to drift, 503
” ” wheels, to make, 441
Stepping device, 227
Page 52
Sterro, 99, 110
Stone, pallet, to cement, 159
Stones for polishing, Cadot’s, 136
” precious, 161
” to make pallet, 172
Stool, 190
Stopping barrel holes, 412
” pivot-holes, 456
Stopwork, proportions of Geneva, 416
” to examine English, 389
” ” examine Geneva, 374
Straight groove, to make, 312
Straightening rods, etc, 504
Stud index, hairspring, 280
Studs, to remove, 291
Subdivision of angles, 44
” ” circle, 52
” ” lines, 43
Sulphuric acid, 127
Surfaces, smoothing of metallic, 139
Surfacing nickel movements, 147
Synchrometer, Guilmet’s, 398
T
Tailstock, 247
Tap, to increase diameter of, 323
Tapping holes, various methods of, 323
Stone, pallet, to cement, 159
Stones for polishing, Cadot’s, 136
” precious, 161
” to make pallet, 172
Stool, 190
Stopping barrel holes, 412
” pivot-holes, 456
Stopwork, proportions of Geneva, 416
” to examine English, 389
” ” examine Geneva, 374
Straight groove, to make, 312
Straightening rods, etc, 504
Stud index, hairspring, 280
Studs, to remove, 291
Subdivision of angles, 44
” ” circle, 52
” ” lines, 43
Sulphuric acid, 127
Surfaces, smoothing of metallic, 139
Surfacing nickel movements, 147
Synchrometer, Guilmet’s, 398
T
Tailstock, 247
Tap, to increase diameter of, 323
Tapping holes, various methods of, 323
Page 53
Taps for screw-making, 317
” left-handed screw, 320
Teeth, forms of, 365
” of escape wheels, to test, 290
” ” lever escape wheel, to polish, 153
” ” to cut, 330
” precautions in cutting, 341, 346
” steel, to polish, 427
” to renew in wheel, 439
” ” round up, 363
” ” true, 440
Temper, as indicated by blueing, 87
Temperatures, determined by melting alloys, 82
” determination of furnace, 82
” of furnace, approximate, 73
” of temper colors, 82
Tempering steel, 82
Tightening cannon pinions, 293, 449
” hands, 294
” set hands arbor, 294
Time, 54
” standard, 55
” to ascertain true, 54
Timing in positions, 399
” watches and clocks, 394
Tin, 97, 110
” left-handed screw, 320
Teeth, forms of, 365
” of escape wheels, to test, 290
” ” lever escape wheel, to polish, 153
” ” to cut, 330
” precautions in cutting, 341, 346
” steel, to polish, 427
” to renew in wheel, 439
” ” round up, 363
” ” true, 440
Temper, as indicated by blueing, 87
Temperatures, determined by melting alloys, 82
” determination of furnace, 82
” of furnace, approximate, 73
” of temper colors, 82
Tempering steel, 82
Tightening cannon pinions, 293, 449
” hands, 294
” set hands arbor, 294
Time, 54
” standard, 55
” to ascertain true, 54
Timing in positions, 399
” watches and clocks, 394
Tin, 97, 110
Page 54
” solders, 114, 115
” use of, in brass, 90
Tinning surfaces, 119
Tool, form of, for turning, 238
” for balance spring collet, 286, 474
” ” closing barrel holes, etc., 293
” ” drifting, 296
” ” flat polishing, 301
” ” measuring verge pallets, 466
” ” polishing cylinder lips, 468
” ” ” pinion leaves, 445
” ” ” pivots, 454
” ” resetting jewels, 299
” ” riveting pinions, 293
” ” snailing, 146
” ” spotting, 141
” ” tightening cannon pinions, 293
” ” ” hands, 293
” ” ” set hands arbor, 293
Tools, ordinary small, 260
” need of good assortment, 187
” screw head, 329
” for hand-turning, 238
” ” making jewels, 165
” ” rounding up teeth, 359
” ” sinking screw heads, 260
” use of, in brass, 90
Tinning surfaces, 119
Tool, form of, for turning, 238
” for balance spring collet, 286, 474
” ” closing barrel holes, etc., 293
” ” drifting, 296
” ” flat polishing, 301
” ” measuring verge pallets, 466
” ” polishing cylinder lips, 468
” ” ” pinion leaves, 445
” ” ” pivots, 454
” ” resetting jewels, 299
” ” riveting pinions, 293
” ” snailing, 146
” ” spotting, 141
” ” tightening cannon pinions, 293
” ” ” hands, 293
” ” ” set hands arbor, 293
Tools, ordinary small, 260
” need of good assortment, 187
” screw head, 329
” for hand-turning, 238
” ” making jewels, 165
” ” rounding up teeth, 359
” ” sinking screw heads, 260
Page 55
” ” watchmakers, 189
” to set in handles, 193
” ” sharpen turning, 237
” ” test accuracy of, 366
” ” ” escape wheels, 290
Tool set, 237
Tongs, sliding, 196
Topaz, 164
Tourmaline plates, 167
Tracing, 30
” from dial, 495
Train, play of pivots of, 378
Trains of watches, usual, 394
Transferring, 30
Traverse spindle grinder, 258
Triangles, 26
Tripoli, 135
Trueing a barrel, 412
” ” ” arbor, 429
” ” star-wheel, 417
” ” wheel, 440
Truth of tools, to test, 366
Turning sphere, tool for, 241
” by hand, 238
” tools, forms of, 238
” ” to grind, 237
” to set in handles, 193
” ” sharpen turning, 237
” ” test accuracy of, 366
” ” ” escape wheels, 290
Tool set, 237
Tongs, sliding, 196
Topaz, 164
Tourmaline plates, 167
Tracing, 30
” from dial, 495
Train, play of pivots of, 378
Trains of watches, usual, 394
Transferring, 30
Traverse spindle grinder, 258
Triangles, 26
Tripoli, 135
Trueing a barrel, 412
” ” ” arbor, 429
” ” star-wheel, 417
” ” wheel, 440
Truth of tools, to test, 366
Turning sphere, tool for, 241
” by hand, 238
” tools, forms of, 238
” ” to grind, 237
Page 56
” velocity in, 235
” with either hand, 186
” ” slide-rest, 233
Turpentine, use of, in drilling, 480
” Venice, as flux for soldering, 117
Tweezers, 196
” for removing studs, 292
U
Universal face-plate, 256
” head, 256,303
Unlocking pallets, to make, 172
Uprighting a barrel, 413
” of center wheel, 378
” tool, to test accuracy of, 367
V
Velocity in turning, 235
Verge pallets, to measure, 466
” ” ” open or close, 467
” to straighten, 505
Vernier, 37
” caliper, 278
” gauge, 278
Vibrations of balance or pendulum, 460
” to count, 394
W
” with either hand, 186
” ” slide-rest, 233
Turpentine, use of, in drilling, 480
” Venice, as flux for soldering, 117
Tweezers, 196
” for removing studs, 292
U
Universal face-plate, 256
” head, 256,303
Unlocking pallets, to make, 172
Uprighting a barrel, 413
” of center wheel, 378
” tool, to test accuracy of, 367
V
Velocity in turning, 235
Verge pallets, to measure, 466
” ” ” open or close, 467
” to straighten, 505
Vernier, 37
” caliper, 278
” gauge, 278
Vibrations of balance or pendulum, 460
” to count, 394
W
Page 57
Watch-glass, to reduce, 499
” hand holder, 287
” ” to blue, 86
” ” ” tighten, 293
” plate, to make, 407
” to de-magnetize, 403
” ” time rapidly, 394
Watches, to clean, 382
” ” put together, 385
” ” repair and examine, 371, 389
” usual trains of, 394
Watchmakers’ bench, 221
” receipts, 407
Water, annealing steel in, 73
” of Ayr stone, 135
Watered surfaces on nickel, 147
” surfaces, to produce, 139
Wavy surfaces, to produce, 139
Wax chucks, 157, 230
” to set objects in, 157
Weight of balance, 401
Wheel, cutters, 258
” ” or punch, 438
” ” tool for making, 354
” ” to make, 340
” cutting engine, 330
” hand holder, 287
” ” to blue, 86
” ” ” tighten, 293
” plate, to make, 407
” to de-magnetize, 403
” ” time rapidly, 394
Watches, to clean, 382
” ” put together, 385
” ” repair and examine, 371, 389
” usual trains of, 394
Watchmakers’ bench, 221
” receipts, 407
Water, annealing steel in, 73
” of Ayr stone, 135
Watered surfaces on nickel, 147
” surfaces, to produce, 139
Wavy surfaces, to produce, 139
Wax chucks, 157, 230
” to set objects in, 157
Weight of balance, 401
Wheel, cutters, 258
” ” or punch, 438
” ” tool for making, 354
” ” to make, 340
” cutting engine, 330
Page 58
” ” ” to divide a rule on, 50
” ” ” to polish in, 427
” foot, 218
” mode of holding in cutting, 337
” teeth, to cut in lathe, 336
” tooth, to renew, 439
” to divide, 333
” ” make steel, 441
” ” mark crossings of, 298
” ” rough out, 435
” ” straighten, 504
” ” true, 440
Wheels, arbors for cutting, 337
” identical, 438
” observations on cutting, 346
” steel, cutters for, 347
” to ease depths of, 365
” ” polish brass, 149
” ” repair, 439
Whetstones, 190
White smoothing, 143
Whiting, 136
Wind furnace, 201
Winding square, to make, 422
” ” ” renew, 430
Wire-drawing plate, 298
” ” ” to polish in, 427
” foot, 218
” mode of holding in cutting, 337
” teeth, to cut in lathe, 336
” tooth, to renew, 439
” to divide, 333
” ” make steel, 441
” ” mark crossings of, 298
” ” rough out, 435
” ” straighten, 504
” ” true, 440
Wheels, arbors for cutting, 337
” identical, 438
” observations on cutting, 346
” steel, cutters for, 347
” to ease depths of, 365
” ” polish brass, 149
” ” repair, 439
Whetstones, 190
White smoothing, 143
Whiting, 136
Wind furnace, 201
Winding square, to make, 422
” ” ” renew, 430
Wire-drawing plate, 298
Page 59
” gauges, 272
Work-bench, arrangement of, 189
Y
Yellow copper or brass, 90
Z
Zinc, 89
Work-bench, arrangement of, 189
Y
Yellow copper or brass, 90
Z
Zinc, 89
Page 60
THE
Watchmakers’ Hand Book.
Watchmakers’ Hand Book.
Page 61
PART I.
ARITHMETIC, GEOMETRY, DRAWING, ETC.
ARI T H MET IC .
1. We often hear the theory advanced that in this country, at the present
day, it is not necessary to have a knowledge of arithmetic, geometry,
drawing, etc., because our interchangeable system of manufacturing
watches, makes all knowledge in these lines superfluous, and that without
any knowledge of arithmetic or geometry a man may become a thorough
master of watchmaking. This is a mistake that too many of our young men
make. The fact that the leading watch factories of the United States have
adopted the interchangeable system, of course lessens the number of parts
which the repairer will have to make and fit, but it by no means alters the
situation as regards the repairing of foreign-made watches, nor even the
changing of American watches from key to stem-winders. Without a
thorough knowledge of arithmetic and, at least, an insight into the principles
of geometry, no young man can hope to become a first-class watchmaker in
the true sense of the word. Without these accomplishments he will be
deprived of the pleasure of reading understandingly the best literature of the
day, the works of those who are best fitted to impart knowledge to the
members of the trade.
With a knowledge of geometry he will be able to comprehend the works
of the best authors, to ascertain the dimensions of solid bodies, and be in a
position to apply the rules that form the basis of linear drawing. Every
watchmaker, worthy of the name, should be able to make and understand
ARITHMETIC, GEOMETRY, DRAWING, ETC.
ARI T H MET IC .
1. We often hear the theory advanced that in this country, at the present
day, it is not necessary to have a knowledge of arithmetic, geometry,
drawing, etc., because our interchangeable system of manufacturing
watches, makes all knowledge in these lines superfluous, and that without
any knowledge of arithmetic or geometry a man may become a thorough
master of watchmaking. This is a mistake that too many of our young men
make. The fact that the leading watch factories of the United States have
adopted the interchangeable system, of course lessens the number of parts
which the repairer will have to make and fit, but it by no means alters the
situation as regards the repairing of foreign-made watches, nor even the
changing of American watches from key to stem-winders. Without a
thorough knowledge of arithmetic and, at least, an insight into the principles
of geometry, no young man can hope to become a first-class watchmaker in
the true sense of the word. Without these accomplishments he will be
deprived of the pleasure of reading understandingly the best literature of the
day, the works of those who are best fitted to impart knowledge to the
members of the trade.
With a knowledge of geometry he will be able to comprehend the works
of the best authors, to ascertain the dimensions of solid bodies, and be in a
position to apply the rules that form the basis of linear drawing. Every
watchmaker, worthy of the name, should be able to make and understand
Page 62
the drawing of any machine, or of any horological instrument. Many
inventors, and even ordinary workmen, would avoid a large amount of hard
work, often useless, and occupying much time, if, instead of at once putting
an idea into practice with brass and steel, they were able as a preliminary, to
make for themselves a correct design drawn to scale.
2. It is taken for granted that the reader is familiar with the rules of
arithmetic at least, and we will touch upon some points in algebra and
geometry that it will be well to mention. Should the reader have no
knowledge of arithmetic, algebra and geometry, we would advise him to
take up these studies during his leisure hours, using some of the standard
text books for that purpose.[1] Besides possessing a knowledge of prime
numbers, numbers which have no divisors but unity and themselves, the
watchmaker should be able to determine the greatest common measure of
several numbers, a rule which is of great importance in calculating a train of
wheels that is complicated.
We shall confine our attention to the methods of extracting square roots
and proportions, the rules for which may have been forgotten, owing to
their being less frequently employed than the more common rules of
arithmetic; they are of frequent use in horology.
S O ME SI G NS E MP L O Y ED IN CAL C UL AT IO NS.
3. The sign of addition is an erect cross, +, called plus, and when placed
between two quantities it indicates that the second is to be added to the first.
Thus, 5 + 3 equals 8.
The sign of subtraction is a short horizontal line, -, called minus, and
when placed between two quantities it indicates that the second is to be
subtracted from the first. Thus, 8 - 3 equals 5.
The double sign, ±, is sometimes written before a quantity to indicate that
in certain cases it is to be added and in others it is to be subtracted. Thus
5 ± 3 is read 5 plus or minus 3.
The sign of multiplication, ×, when placed between two quantities
indicates that the first is to be multiplied by the second. Thus, 3 × 5 equals
15.
inventors, and even ordinary workmen, would avoid a large amount of hard
work, often useless, and occupying much time, if, instead of at once putting
an idea into practice with brass and steel, they were able as a preliminary, to
make for themselves a correct design drawn to scale.
2. It is taken for granted that the reader is familiar with the rules of
arithmetic at least, and we will touch upon some points in algebra and
geometry that it will be well to mention. Should the reader have no
knowledge of arithmetic, algebra and geometry, we would advise him to
take up these studies during his leisure hours, using some of the standard
text books for that purpose.[1] Besides possessing a knowledge of prime
numbers, numbers which have no divisors but unity and themselves, the
watchmaker should be able to determine the greatest common measure of
several numbers, a rule which is of great importance in calculating a train of
wheels that is complicated.
We shall confine our attention to the methods of extracting square roots
and proportions, the rules for which may have been forgotten, owing to
their being less frequently employed than the more common rules of
arithmetic; they are of frequent use in horology.
S O ME SI G NS E MP L O Y ED IN CAL C UL AT IO NS.
3. The sign of addition is an erect cross, +, called plus, and when placed
between two quantities it indicates that the second is to be added to the first.
Thus, 5 + 3 equals 8.
The sign of subtraction is a short horizontal line, -, called minus, and
when placed between two quantities it indicates that the second is to be
subtracted from the first. Thus, 8 - 3 equals 5.
The double sign, ±, is sometimes written before a quantity to indicate that
in certain cases it is to be added and in others it is to be subtracted. Thus
5 ± 3 is read 5 plus or minus 3.
The sign of multiplication, ×, when placed between two quantities
indicates that the first is to be multiplied by the second. Thus, 3 × 5 equals
15.
Page 63
The sign of division is a short horizontal line with a point above and one
below, ÷, and when placed between two numbers or quantities it indicates
that the first is to be divided by the second. Thus, 6 ÷ 2 equals 3.
The sign of equality is two short, horizontal, parallel lines, =,
representing the words equal to. Thus, 6 ÷ 2 = 3.
Inequality is denoted by the angle >, the opening always being toward the
larger number or quantity; thus, in 12 + 7 > 14, the sign >, indicates that the
sum of 12 and 7 is greater than 14, and the whole expression is read, 12
plus 7 is greater than 14. The expression 9 < 4 + 7 is read, 9 is less than 4
plus 7.
A parenthesis, (), denotes that the several numbers or quantities included
within it are to be considered together, and subjected to the same operation.
Thus, (10 + 4) × 3 indicates that both 10 and 4, or their sum, are to be
multiplied by 3.
A horizontal vinculum, ———, placed over the numbers or quantities, is
frequently used instead of the parenthesis. Thus, 2 + 4 + 6 × 7 is equivalent
to (2 + 4 + 6) × 7.
Division is more usually indicated by a line between the two figures, the
dividend being written above and the divisor below the line. Thus, ¹⁶⁄₈
indicates division, the same as 16 ÷ 8.
Algebra is that branch of mathematics in which the operations are
indicated by signs or symbols, and the quantities are represented by letters.
The sign of ratio consists of two points like the colon, :, placed between
the quantities compared. Thus, the ratio of a to b is written a : b.
The sign of proportion consists of a combination of the signs of ratio.
Thus, : :: : . The first two and last two dots are read is to, while the four in
the middle are read as. Thus, if a, b, c, and d, are four quantities which are
proportional to each other, we say a is to b as c is to d, and this is expressed
by writing them thus:
a : b :: c : d.
P O WE RS AN D RO O T S .
below, ÷, and when placed between two numbers or quantities it indicates
that the first is to be divided by the second. Thus, 6 ÷ 2 equals 3.
The sign of equality is two short, horizontal, parallel lines, =,
representing the words equal to. Thus, 6 ÷ 2 = 3.
Inequality is denoted by the angle >, the opening always being toward the
larger number or quantity; thus, in 12 + 7 > 14, the sign >, indicates that the
sum of 12 and 7 is greater than 14, and the whole expression is read, 12
plus 7 is greater than 14. The expression 9 < 4 + 7 is read, 9 is less than 4
plus 7.
A parenthesis, (), denotes that the several numbers or quantities included
within it are to be considered together, and subjected to the same operation.
Thus, (10 + 4) × 3 indicates that both 10 and 4, or their sum, are to be
multiplied by 3.
A horizontal vinculum, ———, placed over the numbers or quantities, is
frequently used instead of the parenthesis. Thus, 2 + 4 + 6 × 7 is equivalent
to (2 + 4 + 6) × 7.
Division is more usually indicated by a line between the two figures, the
dividend being written above and the divisor below the line. Thus, ¹⁶⁄₈
indicates division, the same as 16 ÷ 8.
Algebra is that branch of mathematics in which the operations are
indicated by signs or symbols, and the quantities are represented by letters.
The sign of ratio consists of two points like the colon, :, placed between
the quantities compared. Thus, the ratio of a to b is written a : b.
The sign of proportion consists of a combination of the signs of ratio.
Thus, : :: : . The first two and last two dots are read is to, while the four in
the middle are read as. Thus, if a, b, c, and d, are four quantities which are
proportional to each other, we say a is to b as c is to d, and this is expressed
by writing them thus:
a : b :: c : d.
P O WE RS AN D RO O T S .
Page 64
4. The power of a number is the product formed by successive
multiplication of the same number by itself. Thus,
2 × 2 = 4, the second power or square of 2.
2 × 2 × 2 = 8, the third power or cube of 2.
2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16, the fourth power of 2, etc.
An exponent is a number written above a quantity, at the right-hand, to
indicate how many times the quantity is to be taken as a factor, as
63 = 6 × 6 × 6.
The root of a quantity is a factor which, multiplied by itself a certain
number of times, will produce the given quantity. Thus, in the above
examples 2 is the square root of 4 and the cube root of 8.
The radical sign, √, indicates that the root of the quantity placed under it
is to be taken, and the index of the root is expressed by a little figure placed
outside of the bend. If a square root the index figure is usually omitted.
√4 = 2 or ²√4 = 2 and ³√8 = 2.
5. Extracting the square root of whole numbers. [2]I. Point the given
number off into periods of two figures each, counting from the units place
to the left. For example, we wish to find the square root of 399424, we
point it off thus: 39,94,24.
II. Find the greatest perfect square in the left-hand period, and write its
root for the first figure in the required root; subtract the square of this figure
from the first period, and to the remainder bring down the next period for a
dividend. Thus:
39,94,24(6
36
394
III. Double the root already found, and write the result on the left for a
divisor; find how many times this divisor is contained in the dividend,
exclusive of the right-hand figure, and place the result in the root and at the
right of the divisor. Thus:
39,94,24(63
36
123 394
multiplication of the same number by itself. Thus,
2 × 2 = 4, the second power or square of 2.
2 × 2 × 2 = 8, the third power or cube of 2.
2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16, the fourth power of 2, etc.
An exponent is a number written above a quantity, at the right-hand, to
indicate how many times the quantity is to be taken as a factor, as
63 = 6 × 6 × 6.
The root of a quantity is a factor which, multiplied by itself a certain
number of times, will produce the given quantity. Thus, in the above
examples 2 is the square root of 4 and the cube root of 8.
The radical sign, √, indicates that the root of the quantity placed under it
is to be taken, and the index of the root is expressed by a little figure placed
outside of the bend. If a square root the index figure is usually omitted.
√4 = 2 or ²√4 = 2 and ³√8 = 2.
5. Extracting the square root of whole numbers. [2]I. Point the given
number off into periods of two figures each, counting from the units place
to the left. For example, we wish to find the square root of 399424, we
point it off thus: 39,94,24.
II. Find the greatest perfect square in the left-hand period, and write its
root for the first figure in the required root; subtract the square of this figure
from the first period, and to the remainder bring down the next period for a
dividend. Thus:
39,94,24(6
36
394
III. Double the root already found, and write the result on the left for a
divisor; find how many times this divisor is contained in the dividend,
exclusive of the right-hand figure, and place the result in the root and at the
right of the divisor. Thus:
39,94,24(63
36
123 394
Page 65
IV. Multiply the divisor thus completed by the last figure of the root;
subtract the product from the dividend, and to the remainder bring down the
next period for a new dividend. Thus:
39,94,24(63
36
123 394
369
2524
V. Double the right-hand figure of the last complete divisor for a new
divisor, and continue the operation as before. Thus:
39,94,24(632
36
123 394
369
1262 2524
2524
P RO P O R T I O N.
6. It is often convenient to express the relations of qualities in the form of
a proportion and from the proportion derive an equation.
Ratio is the quotient of one number divided by another. Thus the ratio of
30 to 6 is ³⁰⁄₆.
7. Proportion is the equality of ratios: Thus if ³⁰⁄₆ = 5 and ⁴⁰⁄₈ = 5 then we
may state that ³⁰⁄₆ = ⁴⁰⁄₈ or the proportionality is usually expressed (3) thus:
30 : 6 :: 40 : 8
and this constitutes what is called a geometrical proportion, and 30 and 8
are called the extremes and 6 and 40 the means.
8. The product of the extremes is always equal to the product of the
means. Thus: 30 × 8 = 6 × 40 = 240. Hence it follows that if we only know
three terms we can always determine the fourth, or unknown term, which is
usually represented by the letter x. Thus in the proportion
subtract the product from the dividend, and to the remainder bring down the
next period for a new dividend. Thus:
39,94,24(63
36
123 394
369
2524
V. Double the right-hand figure of the last complete divisor for a new
divisor, and continue the operation as before. Thus:
39,94,24(632
36
123 394
369
1262 2524
2524
P RO P O R T I O N.
6. It is often convenient to express the relations of qualities in the form of
a proportion and from the proportion derive an equation.
Ratio is the quotient of one number divided by another. Thus the ratio of
30 to 6 is ³⁰⁄₆.
7. Proportion is the equality of ratios: Thus if ³⁰⁄₆ = 5 and ⁴⁰⁄₈ = 5 then we
may state that ³⁰⁄₆ = ⁴⁰⁄₈ or the proportionality is usually expressed (3) thus:
30 : 6 :: 40 : 8
and this constitutes what is called a geometrical proportion, and 30 and 8
are called the extremes and 6 and 40 the means.
8. The product of the extremes is always equal to the product of the
means. Thus: 30 × 8 = 6 × 40 = 240. Hence it follows that if we only know
three terms we can always determine the fourth, or unknown term, which is
usually represented by the letter x. Thus in the proportion
Page 66
12 : 3 :: 16 : x
we find the product of the means, or 3 × 16 = 48; this product divided by
12, the known extreme, gives us the value of x, or the unknown extreme, as
equalling 4.
9. If we know the two extremes and only one of the means the same rule
is applied. Thus in the proportion
20 : 5 :: x : 25,
we have: 20 × 25 = 500. ⁵⁰⁰⁄₅ = 100, the value of x.
E L EMEN T S O F P RACT ICA L G E O MET RY.
10. The object of geometry is to measure the extent of bodies. A body has
three dimensions, length, breadth and thickness, and one of these latter is
sometimes termed weight or depth.
Either dimension taken by itself is measured by a straight line.
When the extent of a body is expressed by combining any two
dimensions, it is termed area or surface, and when three are employed we
obtain the solid measure or volume.
Plane geometry only takes cognizance of figures situated in one plane or
surface, and therefore only possessing two dimensions; solid geometry,
however, regards bodies as having all three dimensions.
Two lines are parallel when their distance apart is the same at all points.
The same is also applicable to parallel planes.
Two lines or planes meeting each other will form an angle. The point at
which they meet or intersect is termed the apex or summit of the angle.
A straight line is perpendicular or at right angles to another straight line,
or to a plane, when all the angles which it makes with that line or plane are
equal.
A circumference of a circle is a curved line l c d f fig. 1,) such that all its
points are equally distant from an internal point, o, termed the center. The
circle is the space enclosed by the circumference.
we find the product of the means, or 3 × 16 = 48; this product divided by
12, the known extreme, gives us the value of x, or the unknown extreme, as
equalling 4.
9. If we know the two extremes and only one of the means the same rule
is applied. Thus in the proportion
20 : 5 :: x : 25,
we have: 20 × 25 = 500. ⁵⁰⁰⁄₅ = 100, the value of x.
E L EMEN T S O F P RACT ICA L G E O MET RY.
10. The object of geometry is to measure the extent of bodies. A body has
three dimensions, length, breadth and thickness, and one of these latter is
sometimes termed weight or depth.
Either dimension taken by itself is measured by a straight line.
When the extent of a body is expressed by combining any two
dimensions, it is termed area or surface, and when three are employed we
obtain the solid measure or volume.
Plane geometry only takes cognizance of figures situated in one plane or
surface, and therefore only possessing two dimensions; solid geometry,
however, regards bodies as having all three dimensions.
Two lines are parallel when their distance apart is the same at all points.
The same is also applicable to parallel planes.
Two lines or planes meeting each other will form an angle. The point at
which they meet or intersect is termed the apex or summit of the angle.
A straight line is perpendicular or at right angles to another straight line,
or to a plane, when all the angles which it makes with that line or plane are
equal.
A circumference of a circle is a curved line l c d f fig. 1,) such that all its
points are equally distant from an internal point, o, termed the center. The
circle is the space enclosed by the circumference.
Page 67
It will be noticed that in geometry these two words are distinguished,
although they are frequently referred to as identical. Thus, the rim of a
wheel or balance is generally termed a circle.
Two circles (l c d f and b r a, fig. 1,) described from the same center are
said to be concentric. When their centers do not coincide they are called
excentric with regard to one another.
Any portion of a circumference, such as f n d, is termed an arc of the
circumference, or, more commonly an arc of a circle.
A chord is a straight line, f d, which unites the two extremities of an arc.
When the chord passes through the center of a circle it is termed a diameter.
The radius of a circle or circumference is a straight line drawn from the
center to the circumference; and all the radii that can be thus drawn are
equal. A diameter is, then, always double the radius, and, conversely, the
radius, is always half the diameter.
A tangent is a straight line that only touches a circumference at one point,
as g l (fig. 1); whereas a secant cuts the circle, as i j.
A circumference is assumed to be divided into 360 equal parts, termed
degrees. The degree is subdivided into sixty equal parts, or minutes, and the
minute into 60 seconds. These are respectively symbolized by the marks ° ′
″ placed at the right-hand top corner of the figure.
Such an expression as 18° 30′ 15.5″ would, then, be read 18 degrees, 30
minutes, and 15.5 seconds.
11. Ratio of the circumference to the diameter. The diameter of a circle
is to the circumference as 7: 22; or, employing decimal fractions, as
1: 3.14159 (a number which, in algebra, is always represented by the Greek
letter π.)
Knowing a diameter (d), the circumference, x, can be ascertained from
the proportion:—
1: 3.14159:: d: x.
Knowing a circumference (c), the diameter, x, can be determined from
the proportion:—
3.14159: 1:: c: x.
although they are frequently referred to as identical. Thus, the rim of a
wheel or balance is generally termed a circle.
Two circles (l c d f and b r a, fig. 1,) described from the same center are
said to be concentric. When their centers do not coincide they are called
excentric with regard to one another.
Any portion of a circumference, such as f n d, is termed an arc of the
circumference, or, more commonly an arc of a circle.
A chord is a straight line, f d, which unites the two extremities of an arc.
When the chord passes through the center of a circle it is termed a diameter.
The radius of a circle or circumference is a straight line drawn from the
center to the circumference; and all the radii that can be thus drawn are
equal. A diameter is, then, always double the radius, and, conversely, the
radius, is always half the diameter.
A tangent is a straight line that only touches a circumference at one point,
as g l (fig. 1); whereas a secant cuts the circle, as i j.
A circumference is assumed to be divided into 360 equal parts, termed
degrees. The degree is subdivided into sixty equal parts, or minutes, and the
minute into 60 seconds. These are respectively symbolized by the marks ° ′
″ placed at the right-hand top corner of the figure.
Such an expression as 18° 30′ 15.5″ would, then, be read 18 degrees, 30
minutes, and 15.5 seconds.
11. Ratio of the circumference to the diameter. The diameter of a circle
is to the circumference as 7: 22; or, employing decimal fractions, as
1: 3.14159 (a number which, in algebra, is always represented by the Greek
letter π.)
Knowing a diameter (d), the circumference, x, can be ascertained from
the proportion:—
1: 3.14159:: d: x.
Knowing a circumference (c), the diameter, x, can be determined from
the proportion:—
3.14159: 1:: c: x.
Page 68
The latter proportion will also give the value of the
radius, which is half a diameter.
12. The superficial area of a circle is equal to the
circumference multiplied by half the radius, or to the
square of the radius multiplied by 3.14159.
A sector is the circle enclosed between an arc and
two radii bounding it, as b o r k (fig. 1.)
Fig. 1. The area or surface of a sector can be ascertained
by multiplying the length of the arc by half the radius.
A segment of a circle is the portion intercepted between an arc and its
chord, as f d n (fig. 1.)
The surface of a segment, as b k r s, can be obtained by subtracting from
the area of the sector o b k r, the area of the triangle, b r o (15).
13. Ring. To determine the surface of a flat ring, the area of the inner
circle must be subtracted from that of the outer circle; in other words, take
the difference between the areas of the two circles that fix the inner and
outer diameters of the ring.
The area of a flat ring can also be calculated by adding together the
internal and external diameters; then multiply the number so obtained by
their difference and by the decimal fraction 0.7854 (that is, 3.1415/4). The
product will be the required area.
14. Angles and their measurement. When two lines meet one another,
they form an angle, as we have already seen. If we take the apex as the
center of a circle, the number of degrees intercepted between the two
straight lines gives a measure of this angle.
The angle measured by a quarter of a circumference, or 90°, is termed a
right angle.
An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle, and an angle that is less is
termed an acute angle.
15. Triangles, squares, etc., and their measurement. The triangle or
plane area enclosed within three straight lines joined two and two together
(a, b, c, fig. 2,) is said to be rectangular when one of its angles is a right
radius, which is half a diameter.
12. The superficial area of a circle is equal to the
circumference multiplied by half the radius, or to the
square of the radius multiplied by 3.14159.
A sector is the circle enclosed between an arc and
two radii bounding it, as b o r k (fig. 1.)
Fig. 1. The area or surface of a sector can be ascertained
by multiplying the length of the arc by half the radius.
A segment of a circle is the portion intercepted between an arc and its
chord, as f d n (fig. 1.)
The surface of a segment, as b k r s, can be obtained by subtracting from
the area of the sector o b k r, the area of the triangle, b r o (15).
13. Ring. To determine the surface of a flat ring, the area of the inner
circle must be subtracted from that of the outer circle; in other words, take
the difference between the areas of the two circles that fix the inner and
outer diameters of the ring.
The area of a flat ring can also be calculated by adding together the
internal and external diameters; then multiply the number so obtained by
their difference and by the decimal fraction 0.7854 (that is, 3.1415/4). The
product will be the required area.
14. Angles and their measurement. When two lines meet one another,
they form an angle, as we have already seen. If we take the apex as the
center of a circle, the number of degrees intercepted between the two
straight lines gives a measure of this angle.
The angle measured by a quarter of a circumference, or 90°, is termed a
right angle.
An obtuse angle is greater than a right angle, and an angle that is less is
termed an acute angle.
15. Triangles, squares, etc., and their measurement. The triangle or
plane area enclosed within three straight lines joined two and two together
(a, b, c, fig. 2,) is said to be rectangular when one of its angles is a right
Page 69
angle; it is equilateral when the three sides are equal, under which
circumstances the three angles are also equal; and isosceles when only two
sides are of equal length.
The sum of the three angles of a triangle is always equal to two right
angles. If only two of the angles are known, it is thus easy to determine the
third.
Similar triangles are characterized by the fact that their homologous sides
(that is, the sides opposite to equal angles) are proportional.
Peculiarity of the right-angled triangle. The square described on the
longest side, termed the hypothenuse (B, fig. 2,) is equal to the sum of the
squares described on the two other sides. Hence, it follows that, if the
lengths of the two shorter sides are known, that of the hypothenuse can be
ascertained by extracting the square root of the number formed by adding
together the squares formed on these two sides (5).
If the hypothenuse is known and one of the shorter
sides, the third can be determined by extracting the
square root of the number formed by subtracting the
square of the known side from the square of the
hypothenuse.
The surface of a triangle is determined by
multiplying one of the sides by half the perpendicular
height of the angle opposite to this side.
Fig. 2. 16. The surface of a square or of an oblong or
rectangle (a b c d, fig. 3) is equal to the product of the
base multiplied by the height.
The sum of the squares described on the four sides is equal to twice the
square described on a diagonal. This diagonal divides the rectangle into two
equal rectangular triangles.
17. The surface of a parallelogram or lozenge, a plane figure with four
sides, opposite pairs of which are parallel (c f g d and c i j d, fig. 3,) is equal
to the product of one side multiplied by the perpendicular height of the
figure.
circumstances the three angles are also equal; and isosceles when only two
sides are of equal length.
The sum of the three angles of a triangle is always equal to two right
angles. If only two of the angles are known, it is thus easy to determine the
third.
Similar triangles are characterized by the fact that their homologous sides
(that is, the sides opposite to equal angles) are proportional.
Peculiarity of the right-angled triangle. The square described on the
longest side, termed the hypothenuse (B, fig. 2,) is equal to the sum of the
squares described on the two other sides. Hence, it follows that, if the
lengths of the two shorter sides are known, that of the hypothenuse can be
ascertained by extracting the square root of the number formed by adding
together the squares formed on these two sides (5).
If the hypothenuse is known and one of the shorter
sides, the third can be determined by extracting the
square root of the number formed by subtracting the
square of the known side from the square of the
hypothenuse.
The surface of a triangle is determined by
multiplying one of the sides by half the perpendicular
height of the angle opposite to this side.
Fig. 2. 16. The surface of a square or of an oblong or
rectangle (a b c d, fig. 3) is equal to the product of the
base multiplied by the height.
The sum of the squares described on the four sides is equal to twice the
square described on a diagonal. This diagonal divides the rectangle into two
equal rectangular triangles.
17. The surface of a parallelogram or lozenge, a plane figure with four
sides, opposite pairs of which are parallel (c f g d and c i j d, fig. 3,) is equal
to the product of one side multiplied by the perpendicular height of the
figure.
Page 70
The sum of the squares described on the four
sides of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of the
squares described on the two diagonals.
18. Measures of various solid bodies. The
Fig. 3. volume of a cube of parallelopiped (that is, a body
bounded by six four-sided figures, every opposite
two of which are parallel) is obtained by
multiplying the surface of the base by the height.
The volume of a straight cylinder is the product of the surface of the
circle which forms its base into the height of the cylinder.
The area of the curved surface of a cylinder is obtained by multiplying
the circumference of the circle forming its base by the height.
The volume of a tube or cylindrical ring of rectangular section, such as
the arbor-nut of a barrel, or the rim of a circular balance, etc., is equal to the
product of the plane surface of its base (13) into its height.
The volume of a right cone or of a regular pyramid is the product of the
base into a third of the height.
The surface of a sphere may be determined by multiplying the square of
the diameter by 3.1416 (11).
The volume of a sphere is equal to this surface multiplied by a third of the
radius.
G E O ME T RIC AL D RAWI NG .
19. An elementary knowledge of the art of drawing, an ability to
represent the outlines of objects by simple lines, is of the first importance to
the watchmaker.
Such a design is obtained by projecting on to one plane all the visible
points of the object represented.
Projection on a vertical plane gives an elevation; the object is looked at
from one side.
sides of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of the
squares described on the two diagonals.
18. Measures of various solid bodies. The
Fig. 3. volume of a cube of parallelopiped (that is, a body
bounded by six four-sided figures, every opposite
two of which are parallel) is obtained by
multiplying the surface of the base by the height.
The volume of a straight cylinder is the product of the surface of the
circle which forms its base into the height of the cylinder.
The area of the curved surface of a cylinder is obtained by multiplying
the circumference of the circle forming its base by the height.
The volume of a tube or cylindrical ring of rectangular section, such as
the arbor-nut of a barrel, or the rim of a circular balance, etc., is equal to the
product of the plane surface of its base (13) into its height.
The volume of a right cone or of a regular pyramid is the product of the
base into a third of the height.
The surface of a sphere may be determined by multiplying the square of
the diameter by 3.1416 (11).
The volume of a sphere is equal to this surface multiplied by a third of the
radius.
G E O ME T RIC AL D RAWI NG .
19. An elementary knowledge of the art of drawing, an ability to
represent the outlines of objects by simple lines, is of the first importance to
the watchmaker.
Such a design is obtained by projecting on to one plane all the visible
points of the object represented.
Projection on a vertical plane gives an elevation; the object is looked at
from one side.
Page 71
Projection on to a horizontal plane produces a plan; the object is
observed from above, thus giving a bird’s-eye view.
The projection of a point on a vertical or horizontal plane is the foot of
the perpendicular, from the given point on to the plane. Assume the line n m
(fig. 4), to be fixed in space; its horizontal projection will give c d, and its
vertical projection, r s.
Miscellaneous details. When one portion of the
object to be represented is found to pass behind other
pieces so that it cannot be seen, the continuation is
frequently indicated by dotted lines.
Surfaces that are situated in planes one behind the
other are shaded, the more deeply according as they
are farther back. This shading is produced by a
number of parallel lines which may be vertical or
horizontal.
Fig. 4. Parts that are in relief are indicated by projected
shadows, or by increasing the thickness of a line that
would cast a shadow.
In order to distinguish the several shadings or to emphasize the lines by
which they are separated, it is a very usual, though not invariable practice to
assume the light to be coming from the left-hand upper corner.
When drawing a square in relief, such as a b c d (fig. 3), the lines c d b d,
will be made darkest; but if it is a recess, the lines a b, a c should be
brought into prominence by means of dark lines.
These several directions will be found useful when
a hole, any cavity, a pin, a round object etc., has to be
depicted, as in fig. 5. As a general rule, the thick lines
should indicate the position at which a shadow would
form, the light being assumed to fall on the drawing in
the manner indicated above.
Fig. 5.
A section shows a body as it would appear if cut in
two, and one portion removed in order to expose the interior, as in fig. 6. A
section is indicated by a series of parallel lines drawn close together and at
an inclination of about 45° to the vertical.
observed from above, thus giving a bird’s-eye view.
The projection of a point on a vertical or horizontal plane is the foot of
the perpendicular, from the given point on to the plane. Assume the line n m
(fig. 4), to be fixed in space; its horizontal projection will give c d, and its
vertical projection, r s.
Miscellaneous details. When one portion of the
object to be represented is found to pass behind other
pieces so that it cannot be seen, the continuation is
frequently indicated by dotted lines.
Surfaces that are situated in planes one behind the
other are shaded, the more deeply according as they
are farther back. This shading is produced by a
number of parallel lines which may be vertical or
horizontal.
Fig. 4. Parts that are in relief are indicated by projected
shadows, or by increasing the thickness of a line that
would cast a shadow.
In order to distinguish the several shadings or to emphasize the lines by
which they are separated, it is a very usual, though not invariable practice to
assume the light to be coming from the left-hand upper corner.
When drawing a square in relief, such as a b c d (fig. 3), the lines c d b d,
will be made darkest; but if it is a recess, the lines a b, a c should be
brought into prominence by means of dark lines.
These several directions will be found useful when
a hole, any cavity, a pin, a round object etc., has to be
depicted, as in fig. 5. As a general rule, the thick lines
should indicate the position at which a shadow would
form, the light being assumed to fall on the drawing in
the manner indicated above.
Fig. 5.
A section shows a body as it would appear if cut in
two, and one portion removed in order to expose the interior, as in fig. 6. A
section is indicated by a series of parallel lines drawn close together and at
an inclination of about 45° to the vertical.
Page 72
In order to leave more room for
important details, or to show
objects that are situated behind, a
piece is often broken off by an
irregular line, as shown in that
Fig. 6. drawing.
Lines formed by a series of
detached points sometimes serve as a means of associating several figures
representing the same object looked as in different directions.
20. Tracing and transfering. These two operations are resorted to when
it is required to obtain one or more copies of a picture or design already
drawn.
Tracing consists in laying a piece of tissue or other translucent paper over
the drawing and copying it by following over the lines that are visible with
a pencil. Or ordinary paper can be used for the purpose, providing it is not
too thick, if the picture be placed against the pane of a window or, what is
more convenient, on a sheet of glass used as a desk and illuminated from
below. When either sheet of paper is too thick to allow sufficient light to
pass, one or other of the methods of transfering indicated below must be
resorted to.
21. This operation consists in reproducing a tracing on a separate sheet of
paper or on metal that is to be engraved. Either of the following methods
may be adopted:
1. The picture to be transferred is fixed to a table or drawing board if
tracing paper is to be used, or to a sheet of glass if only ordinary paper is
available. The lines are then traced with a black lead pencil that must not be
too hard. When this is finished it is laid, face downwards, on a sheet of
white paper, taking care that both sheets are so fixed that they shall not slip.
Apply pressure to the upper surface by tapping with a small pad made on
purpose and, at the same time, gently rubbing. Experience will very soon
show how hard the pad should be. Now remove the tracing, still taking care
to avoid any slipping, and a faint reproduction of the design will be found
on the lower sheet of paper. It is only necessary to follow over the lines
with India ink. The figures will be reversed but a transfer with it in the
important details, or to show
objects that are situated behind, a
piece is often broken off by an
irregular line, as shown in that
Fig. 6. drawing.
Lines formed by a series of
detached points sometimes serve as a means of associating several figures
representing the same object looked as in different directions.
20. Tracing and transfering. These two operations are resorted to when
it is required to obtain one or more copies of a picture or design already
drawn.
Tracing consists in laying a piece of tissue or other translucent paper over
the drawing and copying it by following over the lines that are visible with
a pencil. Or ordinary paper can be used for the purpose, providing it is not
too thick, if the picture be placed against the pane of a window or, what is
more convenient, on a sheet of glass used as a desk and illuminated from
below. When either sheet of paper is too thick to allow sufficient light to
pass, one or other of the methods of transfering indicated below must be
resorted to.
21. This operation consists in reproducing a tracing on a separate sheet of
paper or on metal that is to be engraved. Either of the following methods
may be adopted:
1. The picture to be transferred is fixed to a table or drawing board if
tracing paper is to be used, or to a sheet of glass if only ordinary paper is
available. The lines are then traced with a black lead pencil that must not be
too hard. When this is finished it is laid, face downwards, on a sheet of
white paper, taking care that both sheets are so fixed that they shall not slip.
Apply pressure to the upper surface by tapping with a small pad made on
purpose and, at the same time, gently rubbing. Experience will very soon
show how hard the pad should be. Now remove the tracing, still taking care
to avoid any slipping, and a faint reproduction of the design will be found
on the lower sheet of paper. It is only necessary to follow over the lines
with India ink. The figures will be reversed but a transfer with it in the
Page 73
original direction may be obtained by inverting the picture and laying it on
glass so as to make a reverse tracing.
2. Lay the picture on a desk or drawing board and trace it with ink on a
very transparent sheet of paper. When the ink is dry, invert the tracing and
blacken the back with a No. 2 pencil. Now lay the tracing, with the ink side
uppermost, on a sheet of clean paper, taking care to avoid slipping, and go
over the several lines with an agate or metal style, avoiding excessive
pressure on account of the risk of tearing the paper. On removing the upper
sheet an impression will be found not reversed. Go over all the lines with
India ink and clean the paper with India-rubber or stale bread.
Observations. The choice of paper and pencil is not a matter of
indifference. All kinds of paper do not receive an impression equally well,
neither do all pencils transfer with equal facility. The Faber pencil No. 3,
will generally be found best suited to such work.
In preparing drawings which you desire to preserve, as drawings of
escapements, etc., a good quality of light weight bristol board will be found
more desirable than the best drawing papers. White wedding bristol, about
two-ply in thickness, answers admirably, and India ink lines drawn upon it
will not spread as they often do on drawing papers. The prepared liquid
India inks now on the market are superior to any you can prepare by
grinding the sticks.
22. To transfer an engraved design. This method is available when it is
desired to obtain an impression, for example, of the engraved surface of a
watch case.
Procure some of the inks used by copper-plate engravers, or, in its
absence, ordinary stencil ink may be used. Taking a small quantity on the
end of the finger, tap it on the surface of a glass plate, in order that the ink
may be distributed, leaving only a small quantity evenly spread over the
finger: tap with the finger thus prepared over the watch case long enough to
make sure that all the surface in relief has received some ink; take a piece of
writing paper and, after slightly moistening it, spread it over this surface.
Lay above this a piece of paper folded in four and pass over it in all
directions any round body, such as a small tool handle, and with some
pressure; then raise the papers without allowing them to slide.
glass so as to make a reverse tracing.
2. Lay the picture on a desk or drawing board and trace it with ink on a
very transparent sheet of paper. When the ink is dry, invert the tracing and
blacken the back with a No. 2 pencil. Now lay the tracing, with the ink side
uppermost, on a sheet of clean paper, taking care to avoid slipping, and go
over the several lines with an agate or metal style, avoiding excessive
pressure on account of the risk of tearing the paper. On removing the upper
sheet an impression will be found not reversed. Go over all the lines with
India ink and clean the paper with India-rubber or stale bread.
Observations. The choice of paper and pencil is not a matter of
indifference. All kinds of paper do not receive an impression equally well,
neither do all pencils transfer with equal facility. The Faber pencil No. 3,
will generally be found best suited to such work.
In preparing drawings which you desire to preserve, as drawings of
escapements, etc., a good quality of light weight bristol board will be found
more desirable than the best drawing papers. White wedding bristol, about
two-ply in thickness, answers admirably, and India ink lines drawn upon it
will not spread as they often do on drawing papers. The prepared liquid
India inks now on the market are superior to any you can prepare by
grinding the sticks.
22. To transfer an engraved design. This method is available when it is
desired to obtain an impression, for example, of the engraved surface of a
watch case.
Procure some of the inks used by copper-plate engravers, or, in its
absence, ordinary stencil ink may be used. Taking a small quantity on the
end of the finger, tap it on the surface of a glass plate, in order that the ink
may be distributed, leaving only a small quantity evenly spread over the
finger: tap with the finger thus prepared over the watch case long enough to
make sure that all the surface in relief has received some ink; take a piece of
writing paper and, after slightly moistening it, spread it over this surface.
Lay above this a piece of paper folded in four and pass over it in all
directions any round body, such as a small tool handle, and with some
pressure; then raise the papers without allowing them to slide.
Page 74
If the operation has been carefully performed a very clear impression will
thus be obtained of the engraved surface. The relief will be black and the
hollows white, but, of course, the figure is reversed like that in a looking-
glass. If required in the right direction it must be traced through to the other
side of the paper.
DRAWI NG IN S T RUME NT S .
23. It is needless here to describe the rule, set-square, T-square, bow-
compass, etc., as every one knows them.
To verify the accuracy of a rule. On a perfectly flat smooth surface
carefully draw, with the rule in question, a fine straight line. Then turn the
rule over, hinging it as it were on the line just drawn; if quite straight the
edge of the rule will exactly coincide with the line, in this new position,
throughout its entire length. Each edge should be thus examined.
To verify the accuracy of a set-square. Having fixed an accurate rule on a
smooth surface, place one edge of the set-square against it, and draw a line
along the edge perpendicular to the rule; then, having turned the set-square,
hinging it on the line just drawn, bring it against the rule and along the line.
If the square is true the edge and line will coincide throughout their length.
24. The Protractor. Fig. 7 represents a common form of this instrument.
It is made of horn, or, if of metal, the inner portion is cut away, leaving only
a base and a semicircular arc, which is divided into 180 equal parts or
degrees; a complete circle would therefore consist of 360 such degree. The
point indicating the center of the arc, should be very small in order to
facilitate the exact setting of it at the apex of an angle.
When an angle has to be drawn with accuracy,
the protractor is unsuitable; it will be better to
adopt one of the methods described at paragraph
37, or trigonometrical methods.
25. Drawing scales. When an object is
represented by a drawing, if the dimensions are Fig. 7.
the same as those of the object itself, or, rather, as
they would project on to a horizontal or vertical
thus be obtained of the engraved surface. The relief will be black and the
hollows white, but, of course, the figure is reversed like that in a looking-
glass. If required in the right direction it must be traced through to the other
side of the paper.
DRAWI NG IN S T RUME NT S .
23. It is needless here to describe the rule, set-square, T-square, bow-
compass, etc., as every one knows them.
To verify the accuracy of a rule. On a perfectly flat smooth surface
carefully draw, with the rule in question, a fine straight line. Then turn the
rule over, hinging it as it were on the line just drawn; if quite straight the
edge of the rule will exactly coincide with the line, in this new position,
throughout its entire length. Each edge should be thus examined.
To verify the accuracy of a set-square. Having fixed an accurate rule on a
smooth surface, place one edge of the set-square against it, and draw a line
along the edge perpendicular to the rule; then, having turned the set-square,
hinging it on the line just drawn, bring it against the rule and along the line.
If the square is true the edge and line will coincide throughout their length.
24. The Protractor. Fig. 7 represents a common form of this instrument.
It is made of horn, or, if of metal, the inner portion is cut away, leaving only
a base and a semicircular arc, which is divided into 180 equal parts or
degrees; a complete circle would therefore consist of 360 such degree. The
point indicating the center of the arc, should be very small in order to
facilitate the exact setting of it at the apex of an angle.
When an angle has to be drawn with accuracy,
the protractor is unsuitable; it will be better to
adopt one of the methods described at paragraph
37, or trigonometrical methods.
25. Drawing scales. When an object is
represented by a drawing, if the dimensions are Fig. 7.
the same as those of the object itself, or, rather, as
they would project on to a horizontal or vertical
Page 75
plane, the drawing is said to be full size; but the object is generally
represented either on an increased or diminished scale, which is defined, the
proportions between all the parts being still, however, maintained the same.
With a view to avoid the many calculations that such a change would
involve, it is usual to employ drawing scales. The following notes will
sufficiently explain their construction and use.
Let it be required to reproduce a large drawing on a small scale, in such a
proportion that the dimensions are reduced in the ratio of 10 to 1.
Fig. 8.
Take a straight line of indefinite length, a b, fig. 8, and mark out on it
spaces equal to a 1, which represents any measurement taken on the
original object; at c, the 10th division, draw a perpendicular, and on it
measure c g equal to a 1, or one-tenth of a c and join a g.
Through the points indicating the divisions into tenths draw lines parallel
to c g, and you will thus have a series of triangles, d a 1, d′ a 2, d″ a 3, etc.,
similar to the triangle g a c. In virtue of a well-known property of such
triangles (15), d 1 will be one-tenth of a 1; d′ 2 one-tenth of a 2; and so on.
Thus, if a measurement taken on the object, or on a large drawing, is
equal to a x, it will only be needful to turn the compass on the point x as a
center, and to observe accurately the perpendicular height, x z, to ascertain
the corresponding measurement on the reduced scale.
Such a scale can be employed to measure meters and decimeters, or feet
and inches (but in this latter case, it would have been necessary to mark off
12 instead of 10 divisions from a). Since a 1 might be made to represent
one metre; a 2, two meters, etc., in virtue of the principle of the triangle
already referred to, d 1 will be the tenth of a 1, and will therefore represent
a decimeter; d′ 2 will represent 2 decimeters, etc. The length required to
represent, say 5.3 will be ascertained by taking the distance a 5, to which
the distance d″ 3 is added. Similarly 6 feet 2 inches would be given by a 6,
to which d′ 2 is added on a 12-division scale.
represented either on an increased or diminished scale, which is defined, the
proportions between all the parts being still, however, maintained the same.
With a view to avoid the many calculations that such a change would
involve, it is usual to employ drawing scales. The following notes will
sufficiently explain their construction and use.
Let it be required to reproduce a large drawing on a small scale, in such a
proportion that the dimensions are reduced in the ratio of 10 to 1.
Fig. 8.
Take a straight line of indefinite length, a b, fig. 8, and mark out on it
spaces equal to a 1, which represents any measurement taken on the
original object; at c, the 10th division, draw a perpendicular, and on it
measure c g equal to a 1, or one-tenth of a c and join a g.
Through the points indicating the divisions into tenths draw lines parallel
to c g, and you will thus have a series of triangles, d a 1, d′ a 2, d″ a 3, etc.,
similar to the triangle g a c. In virtue of a well-known property of such
triangles (15), d 1 will be one-tenth of a 1; d′ 2 one-tenth of a 2; and so on.
Thus, if a measurement taken on the object, or on a large drawing, is
equal to a x, it will only be needful to turn the compass on the point x as a
center, and to observe accurately the perpendicular height, x z, to ascertain
the corresponding measurement on the reduced scale.
Such a scale can be employed to measure meters and decimeters, or feet
and inches (but in this latter case, it would have been necessary to mark off
12 instead of 10 divisions from a). Since a 1 might be made to represent
one metre; a 2, two meters, etc., in virtue of the principle of the triangle
already referred to, d 1 will be the tenth of a 1, and will therefore represent
a decimeter; d′ 2 will represent 2 decimeters, etc. The length required to
represent, say 5.3 will be ascertained by taking the distance a 5, to which
the distance d″ 3 is added. Similarly 6 feet 2 inches would be given by a 6,
to which d′ 2 is added on a 12-division scale.
Page 76
26. The following description of one of these decimal scales, which is
engraved on metal or ivory, and often included in cases of drawing
instruments, will suffice to enable any one to construct a scale on this
principle, that goes to a still further degree of accuracy, measuring, for
example, meters, decimeters and millimeters, or yards, feet and inches.
Fig. 9.
Let a b, fig. 9, be a flat rectangular rule, divided throughout its length by
parallel equidistant lines into ten strips. At right angles to these are the lines
o o′, a a′, etc., separated from one another by a distance of one centimeter
(doubled in the drawing in order to make the details more clear.) The first
centimeter is subdivided along the two edges, a o, n′ o, into 10 equal parts
or millimeters, and the division, o, on the upper edge is joined by an oblique
line with the 1 on the lower edge, and the others by parallel oblique lines as
shown in the figure. Thus c i will be one-tenth of a millimeter, s j two-
tenths, and so on.
If the compass is opened so as to reach from x to z, it will be seen that it
covers a space of 16 millimeters and 2-10ths of a millimeter, for there are
one large division (or 10 mm.), 6 smaller divisions (or millimeters) plus a
fraction of a millimeter equal to s j or 2-10ths of a millimeter.
27. Sector. When it is required to reduce the scale of a drawing, subject
to the condition that the dimensions shall be all diminished in the ratio of
two given lines, we may state the problem thus:
The longer of the two given lines is to the shorter, as any given
dimensions of the old drawing is to x. The value of x thus determined will
be the corresponding dimension of the new figure.
Such a rule of three proposition would involve a considerable amount of
work, and the required result can be arrived at with greater facility by the
engraved on metal or ivory, and often included in cases of drawing
instruments, will suffice to enable any one to construct a scale on this
principle, that goes to a still further degree of accuracy, measuring, for
example, meters, decimeters and millimeters, or yards, feet and inches.
Fig. 9.
Let a b, fig. 9, be a flat rectangular rule, divided throughout its length by
parallel equidistant lines into ten strips. At right angles to these are the lines
o o′, a a′, etc., separated from one another by a distance of one centimeter
(doubled in the drawing in order to make the details more clear.) The first
centimeter is subdivided along the two edges, a o, n′ o, into 10 equal parts
or millimeters, and the division, o, on the upper edge is joined by an oblique
line with the 1 on the lower edge, and the others by parallel oblique lines as
shown in the figure. Thus c i will be one-tenth of a millimeter, s j two-
tenths, and so on.
If the compass is opened so as to reach from x to z, it will be seen that it
covers a space of 16 millimeters and 2-10ths of a millimeter, for there are
one large division (or 10 mm.), 6 smaller divisions (or millimeters) plus a
fraction of a millimeter equal to s j or 2-10ths of a millimeter.
27. Sector. When it is required to reduce the scale of a drawing, subject
to the condition that the dimensions shall be all diminished in the ratio of
two given lines, we may state the problem thus:
The longer of the two given lines is to the shorter, as any given
dimensions of the old drawing is to x. The value of x thus determined will
be the corresponding dimension of the new figure.
Such a rule of three proposition would involve a considerable amount of
work, and the required result can be arrived at with greater facility by the
Page 77
geometrical methods which forms the basis of the scale just described, or,
better still, by using the sector shown in fig. 10. It consists of two brass or
ivory legs hinged about a center m which is at the apex of the angle n m c
formed by two straight lines similarly divided into equal parts.
It is employed as follows: Let us assume that a
drawing has to be reduced in the ratio of the line a to
the line b; set off the length a along m n, and suppose
its extremity to be at s, where division number 5
occurs. Open a compass to a distance equal to b, and
placing one point on s, open the two legs of the scale
until the second point coincides exactly with the
corresponding division t, that is, with the 5 on the
other leg, m c. Maintaining the scale open to this
amount, it is only needful, after measuring a distance
on the original drawing or object, to set it off along m
n, and to measure the distance between its extremity
and the corresponding point on the other leg; this
Fig. 10. distance will be the dimension on the reduced scale.
28. Proportional compass. This consists of two
equal stems terminating with points, fig. 11. They are cut through for a
portion of their length, and provided with a slide forming a hinge, that can
be clamped by a screw a in any position. Graduations on the two slots and a
mark on the slide indicate in what position of the slide a, the length a b
(equal to a g) is equal to ½, ⅛, ¼, etc., of a d; and thus show what is the
ratio of g b to c d, a ratio which is independent of the extent to which the
arms are opened.
29. The vernier. The vernier consists of a small graduated slide which is
adapted to a graduated rule or circular arc with a view to ascertain the value
of small fractional parts of the divisions marked on the rule or arc.
Let a b, in fig. 12, be a rule divided into millimeters (the proportions are
enlarged in the drawing so as to avoid confusion among the lines), and let it
be required to determine a length to within the tenth of a millimeter.
As the measurement is required to the tenth, take ten less one or nine of
the divisions of the scale; they will extend from o to IX, and this represents
the acting length of the vernier.
better still, by using the sector shown in fig. 10. It consists of two brass or
ivory legs hinged about a center m which is at the apex of the angle n m c
formed by two straight lines similarly divided into equal parts.
It is employed as follows: Let us assume that a
drawing has to be reduced in the ratio of the line a to
the line b; set off the length a along m n, and suppose
its extremity to be at s, where division number 5
occurs. Open a compass to a distance equal to b, and
placing one point on s, open the two legs of the scale
until the second point coincides exactly with the
corresponding division t, that is, with the 5 on the
other leg, m c. Maintaining the scale open to this
amount, it is only needful, after measuring a distance
on the original drawing or object, to set it off along m
n, and to measure the distance between its extremity
and the corresponding point on the other leg; this
Fig. 10. distance will be the dimension on the reduced scale.
28. Proportional compass. This consists of two
equal stems terminating with points, fig. 11. They are cut through for a
portion of their length, and provided with a slide forming a hinge, that can
be clamped by a screw a in any position. Graduations on the two slots and a
mark on the slide indicate in what position of the slide a, the length a b
(equal to a g) is equal to ½, ⅛, ¼, etc., of a d; and thus show what is the
ratio of g b to c d, a ratio which is independent of the extent to which the
arms are opened.
29. The vernier. The vernier consists of a small graduated slide which is
adapted to a graduated rule or circular arc with a view to ascertain the value
of small fractional parts of the divisions marked on the rule or arc.
Let a b, in fig. 12, be a rule divided into millimeters (the proportions are
enlarged in the drawing so as to avoid confusion among the lines), and let it
be required to determine a length to within the tenth of a millimeter.
As the measurement is required to the tenth, take ten less one or nine of
the divisions of the scale; they will extend from o to IX, and this represents
the acting length of the vernier.
Page 78
Subdivide the vernier into ten equal parts; it is manifest
that each graduation of the vernier differs from the
original subdivisions of the rule by 1-10th of a graduation
of the latter. In other words, unity on the vernier is equal
to 9-10ths of unity on the rule.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
When the rule and vernier are placed as shown in fig. 12, so that the o on
both scales coincide, the successive divisions on the rule (marked with
Roman numerals for distinction) will be progressively more and more in
advance of the corresponding divisions on the vernier in the following
proportion:—
The marks I and 1 are 1-10th apart; the marks II and 2, 2-10ths; III and 3,
3-10ths; and so on, the mark X being 10-10ths, or one complete division in
advance of 10, this division being a unit on the scale.
Thus if the vernier is caused to slide along the edge of the rule, when 1
coincides with I the vernier has advanced 1-10th; when 2 coincides with II,
it has advanced 2-10ths; and so on.
Let it be required to determine the distance p d, fig. 13. The division 6 on
the vernier coincides with a division of the scale; hence it follows that the
that each graduation of the vernier differs from the
original subdivisions of the rule by 1-10th of a graduation
of the latter. In other words, unity on the vernier is equal
to 9-10ths of unity on the rule.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
When the rule and vernier are placed as shown in fig. 12, so that the o on
both scales coincide, the successive divisions on the rule (marked with
Roman numerals for distinction) will be progressively more and more in
advance of the corresponding divisions on the vernier in the following
proportion:—
The marks I and 1 are 1-10th apart; the marks II and 2, 2-10ths; III and 3,
3-10ths; and so on, the mark X being 10-10ths, or one complete division in
advance of 10, this division being a unit on the scale.
Thus if the vernier is caused to slide along the edge of the rule, when 1
coincides with I the vernier has advanced 1-10th; when 2 coincides with II,
it has advanced 2-10ths; and so on.
Let it be required to determine the distance p d, fig. 13. The division 6 on
the vernier coincides with a division of the scale; hence it follows that the
Page 79
extremity d of the vernier is at a distance of 6-10ths millimeters from III,
the next division of the scale to the left. The distance between p and d is
thus 3.6 millimeters.
Fig. 13.
With a vernier showing tenths, if two consecutive divisions of the vernier
fall between two divisions on the rule, and there does not appear to be a
tendency towards one side more than towards another, even when observed
with a strong glass, it is possible to take an approximate reading to the
twentieth.
In measuring circular arcs a curved vernier is used in
place of a straight one, and its graduations are made to
correspond with those on the circle as shown in fig. 14.
30. Micrometer screw. By employing a micrometer
screw it is possible to measure infinitesimal amounts, but
Fig. 14. the screw must be perfectly accurate, and must work
without appreciable backlash or loss of time.
Fig. 15.
Assume V, fig. 15, to be such a screw, having a pitch of 1 millimeter. It
will advance by this amount with each complete rotation.
To the head of the screw is attached a disc of such a size that its rim can
be divided into a number of equal parts, say a hundred. These graduations
the next division of the scale to the left. The distance between p and d is
thus 3.6 millimeters.
Fig. 13.
With a vernier showing tenths, if two consecutive divisions of the vernier
fall between two divisions on the rule, and there does not appear to be a
tendency towards one side more than towards another, even when observed
with a strong glass, it is possible to take an approximate reading to the
twentieth.
In measuring circular arcs a curved vernier is used in
place of a straight one, and its graduations are made to
correspond with those on the circle as shown in fig. 14.
30. Micrometer screw. By employing a micrometer
screw it is possible to measure infinitesimal amounts, but
Fig. 14. the screw must be perfectly accurate, and must work
without appreciable backlash or loss of time.
Fig. 15.
Assume V, fig. 15, to be such a screw, having a pitch of 1 millimeter. It
will advance by this amount with each complete rotation.
To the head of the screw is attached a disc of such a size that its rim can
be divided into a number of equal parts, say a hundred. These graduations
Page 80
may be marks on the edge or notches cut in it when an index is required to
stop in them; but the index is less frequently met with than a simple divided
straight-edge almost in contact with the disc. The divisions round the disc
are numbered in ascending order as the points c and a separate, so that zero
comes under the index or rule when these points are in contact. Readings of
the numbers will thus afford a measure of the displacement of the point of
the screw.
When the disc is rotated the point a will move towards or from c by 1-
100th of a millimeter for each division passing under the straight-edge, and
one millimeter for each complete rotation. It is thus possible to obtain the
dimensions of an object when it enters without play between the two jaws
to within an error of about 1-100th of a millimeter if the instrument is
accurately made.
If, instead of passing the object between the two jaws, it is gripped by
them, the measurement will be less exact, as no account is taken of the
pressure exerted and of the elasticity. (44.)
G E O ME T RI CAL DRAWING S.
31. Sketches. It is advisable from an early age to accustom oneself to
make rapid freehand sketches of objects as they present themselves to the
eye. Such a sketch will help in the preparation of a more exact drawing,
which involves a knowledge of the several geometrical methods given
below.
A drawing may be transferred, reduced or enlarged as follows:
Draw across the original picture a number of equidistant vertical and
horizontal lines, forming perfect squares, and number the two sets of lines
in succession. Then draw a similar series of lines on a clean sheet of paper,
setting the lines at an equal, less or greater distance apart, and copy in
succession the parts of the figure that are enclosed within the several
squares.
As it is not always possible to draw lines across a figure, they may be
replaced by a frame carrying fine threads or wires stretched in the two
directions. The frame is laid over the original drawing, which can then be
stop in them; but the index is less frequently met with than a simple divided
straight-edge almost in contact with the disc. The divisions round the disc
are numbered in ascending order as the points c and a separate, so that zero
comes under the index or rule when these points are in contact. Readings of
the numbers will thus afford a measure of the displacement of the point of
the screw.
When the disc is rotated the point a will move towards or from c by 1-
100th of a millimeter for each division passing under the straight-edge, and
one millimeter for each complete rotation. It is thus possible to obtain the
dimensions of an object when it enters without play between the two jaws
to within an error of about 1-100th of a millimeter if the instrument is
accurately made.
If, instead of passing the object between the two jaws, it is gripped by
them, the measurement will be less exact, as no account is taken of the
pressure exerted and of the elasticity. (44.)
G E O ME T RI CAL DRAWING S.
31. Sketches. It is advisable from an early age to accustom oneself to
make rapid freehand sketches of objects as they present themselves to the
eye. Such a sketch will help in the preparation of a more exact drawing,
which involves a knowledge of the several geometrical methods given
below.
A drawing may be transferred, reduced or enlarged as follows:
Draw across the original picture a number of equidistant vertical and
horizontal lines, forming perfect squares, and number the two sets of lines
in succession. Then draw a similar series of lines on a clean sheet of paper,
setting the lines at an equal, less or greater distance apart, and copy in
succession the parts of the figure that are enclosed within the several
squares.
As it is not always possible to draw lines across a figure, they may be
replaced by a frame carrying fine threads or wires stretched in the two
directions. The frame is laid over the original drawing, which can then be
Page 81
copied, as above explained, on a sheet of paper divided into squares (fig.
16).
The frame may, moreover, afford assistance in the
drawing of solid objects. Having placed it above or in
front of the object and in contact with it, copy on to
the sectional paper the contents of each corresponding
Fig. 16. square, taking care to look at the object
perpendicularly. With a little practice, and by placing
the eye in the correct position and always at the same distance from the
frame (a distance which may be regulated by a glass), a sketch in fair
proportion may easily be obtained.
32. To erect a perpendicular on a straight line.
Either the compass or a set-square can be employed;
the use of the latter instrument is so simple that no
further reference need be made to it. Assume a, fig.
17, to be the point in the line n m at which a
perpendicular is to be drawn. On either side of a
measure off equal distances a n, a m; from n and m,
with a radius about equal to the distance n m, draw
Fig. 17.
two circular arcs cutting one another. If their point of
intersection b be joined to a, the line a b will be the
required perpendicular.
33. To erect a perpendicular at the extremity of a line.
From the extremity c, fig. 18, mark off four equal parts
towards s. From s, with a radius equal to five such parts,
describe a circular arc, and from c, with a radius of three such
parts, describe another arc cutting the first at d. The line
Fig. 18. joining c and d will be perpendicular to s c.
For the square of 5 is 25, and this is equal to the square of 4
or 16 plus the square of 3 or 9. Thus the triangle s c d must be right-angled
(15).
Or the following method may be adopted: With any center i and radius i
g (fig. 19), as large as possible, describe a circumference passing through g.
From the point p, where the circle cuts the line, draw the diameter p i h. If
16).
The frame may, moreover, afford assistance in the
drawing of solid objects. Having placed it above or in
front of the object and in contact with it, copy on to
the sectional paper the contents of each corresponding
Fig. 16. square, taking care to look at the object
perpendicularly. With a little practice, and by placing
the eye in the correct position and always at the same distance from the
frame (a distance which may be regulated by a glass), a sketch in fair
proportion may easily be obtained.
32. To erect a perpendicular on a straight line.
Either the compass or a set-square can be employed;
the use of the latter instrument is so simple that no
further reference need be made to it. Assume a, fig.
17, to be the point in the line n m at which a
perpendicular is to be drawn. On either side of a
measure off equal distances a n, a m; from n and m,
with a radius about equal to the distance n m, draw
Fig. 17.
two circular arcs cutting one another. If their point of
intersection b be joined to a, the line a b will be the
required perpendicular.
33. To erect a perpendicular at the extremity of a line.
From the extremity c, fig. 18, mark off four equal parts
towards s. From s, with a radius equal to five such parts,
describe a circular arc, and from c, with a radius of three such
parts, describe another arc cutting the first at d. The line
Fig. 18. joining c and d will be perpendicular to s c.
For the square of 5 is 25, and this is equal to the square of 4
or 16 plus the square of 3 or 9. Thus the triangle s c d must be right-angled
(15).
Or the following method may be adopted: With any center i and radius i
g (fig. 19), as large as possible, describe a circumference passing through g.
From the point p, where the circle cuts the line, draw the diameter p i h. If
Page 82
the point h be joined to g, it is the required perpendicular; for,
by a property of the semicircle, the angle h g p is a right
angle.
34. To let fall a perpendicular on a
straight line. In order to let fall a
Fig. 19. perpendicular from the point a on to the
line b c (fig. 20), describe from a as a
center, a circular arc sufficiently large, cutting the
straight line in two points, b and c. From these two
points, with the same opening of the compass, draw
on the under side of the line two arcs that intersect.
The point of intersection o joined to a gives the
required perpendicular. Fig. 20.
35. To draw parallel
straight lines. Having fixed a good straight-edge
over the drawing, as many parallel lines as are
required may be drawn with the aid of a set-square
Fig. 21. which is caused to slide along the rule. They will
be vertical, horizontal or inclined, according to the
position of the rule, which must be set exactly perpendicular to the direction
in which the parallel lines are to be drawn (fig. 21).
To draw, from a given point, a line parallel to a
given line. Let d be the given point, and a b the given
line (fig. 22). From d draw the circular arc a c, and
from a where it cuts a b, with the same radius describe
the arc d b. From a set off on a c, a distance equal to d
Fig. 22.
b. The line joining d and c is the required parallel.
36. To subdivide a line into equal parts. Let it be
required to divide the line p v (fig. 23), into five equal
parts. Draw a line p q inclined at any angle, and mark
off on this line five equal parts of any length; join q,
the extremity of the five lengths, and v, and through
the points a, b, c, d, draw lines parallel to q v. In virtue
Fig. 23. of a property of similar triangles these lines will
divide p v into equal parts. It is advisable that the lines
by a property of the semicircle, the angle h g p is a right
angle.
34. To let fall a perpendicular on a
straight line. In order to let fall a
Fig. 19. perpendicular from the point a on to the
line b c (fig. 20), describe from a as a
center, a circular arc sufficiently large, cutting the
straight line in two points, b and c. From these two
points, with the same opening of the compass, draw
on the under side of the line two arcs that intersect.
The point of intersection o joined to a gives the
required perpendicular. Fig. 20.
35. To draw parallel
straight lines. Having fixed a good straight-edge
over the drawing, as many parallel lines as are
required may be drawn with the aid of a set-square
Fig. 21. which is caused to slide along the rule. They will
be vertical, horizontal or inclined, according to the
position of the rule, which must be set exactly perpendicular to the direction
in which the parallel lines are to be drawn (fig. 21).
To draw, from a given point, a line parallel to a
given line. Let d be the given point, and a b the given
line (fig. 22). From d draw the circular arc a c, and
from a where it cuts a b, with the same radius describe
the arc d b. From a set off on a c, a distance equal to d
Fig. 22.
b. The line joining d and c is the required parallel.
36. To subdivide a line into equal parts. Let it be
required to divide the line p v (fig. 23), into five equal
parts. Draw a line p q inclined at any angle, and mark
off on this line five equal parts of any length; join q,
the extremity of the five lengths, and v, and through
the points a, b, c, d, draw lines parallel to q v. In virtue
Fig. 23. of a property of similar triangles these lines will
divide p v into equal parts. It is advisable that the lines
Page 83
p v and p q should not differ very considerably in length, as, otherwise the
inclination of the parallel lines to p q will render it difficult to observe the
exact point of intersection.
To divide a line into proportional parts. The
proposition can be solved in a similar manner. Let it
be required to divide a line t r (fig. 24), into two
sections that are to one another in the proportion of 5
to 3. On t s mark off a series of equal parts given by
Fig. 24. the addition of these numbers together, that is 8; and
join the last point s to r. Then draw through c, the fifth
division, a line parallel to s r. This line c d will cut t r
into two parts, which are to one another in the proportion of 5 to 3.
By an analogous construction a fourth proportional can be graphically
obtained, as already indicated in articles 25-27.
37. To construct an angle equal to a given angle. The angle may be
measured by means of the protractor (24), which then enables us to draw a
similar angle; but greater accuracy is obtainable by using the compass.
Let it be required to construct at m on the line m p
(fig. 25), an angle equal to b a d. With as large a
radius as possible, draw from the points a and m the
arcs b d and n p. Measure the distance d b and mark it
off with the compass from p on the arc p n. A line
drawn through m to the intersection of the two arcs
will give the required angle equal to b a d.
38. To subdivide an angle into 2, 4, or 8 equal
parts. In addition to the use of the protractor, the
Fig. 25. following graphic method is often given in works on
geometry.
An angle e f g being given (fig. 26), from its apex f as a center describe
the arc e g, and from its two points of intersection with the sides, with a
radius greater than half their distance apart, draw two short arcs cutting
each other at s. A line drawn from f through the intersection s will divide the
angle into two equal parts.
inclination of the parallel lines to p q will render it difficult to observe the
exact point of intersection.
To divide a line into proportional parts. The
proposition can be solved in a similar manner. Let it
be required to divide a line t r (fig. 24), into two
sections that are to one another in the proportion of 5
to 3. On t s mark off a series of equal parts given by
Fig. 24. the addition of these numbers together, that is 8; and
join the last point s to r. Then draw through c, the fifth
division, a line parallel to s r. This line c d will cut t r
into two parts, which are to one another in the proportion of 5 to 3.
By an analogous construction a fourth proportional can be graphically
obtained, as already indicated in articles 25-27.
37. To construct an angle equal to a given angle. The angle may be
measured by means of the protractor (24), which then enables us to draw a
similar angle; but greater accuracy is obtainable by using the compass.
Let it be required to construct at m on the line m p
(fig. 25), an angle equal to b a d. With as large a
radius as possible, draw from the points a and m the
arcs b d and n p. Measure the distance d b and mark it
off with the compass from p on the arc p n. A line
drawn through m to the intersection of the two arcs
will give the required angle equal to b a d.
38. To subdivide an angle into 2, 4, or 8 equal
parts. In addition to the use of the protractor, the
Fig. 25. following graphic method is often given in works on
geometry.
An angle e f g being given (fig. 26), from its apex f as a center describe
the arc e g, and from its two points of intersection with the sides, with a
radius greater than half their distance apart, draw two short arcs cutting
each other at s. A line drawn from f through the intersection s will divide the
angle into two equal parts.
Page 84
If four divisions are needed, repeat the process on the two
angles s f e, s f g, and so on for a further sub-division.
The line that divides the angle into two equal parts will also
bisect or divide into two equal parts the chord and the arc e g.
39. To find the center of a circle or
of a circular arc. Take on the
circumference, or on the arc, three Fig. 26.
points b c r (fig. 27). Join b to c and c to
r. At the middle point of each of these lines[3] erect a
perpendicular. The point of intersection of these
perpendiculars is the required center.
A similar method should be resorted to when it is
desired to describe a circle passing through three
Fig. 27. given points.
40. To connect up or
associate lines. In order to join up a straight line, such
as i j (fig. 28), with the curve l p, erect a perpendicular
at j, and through the middle point of a chord, l p, draw
a second perpendicular cutting the first in k. This point Fig. 28.
will be the center from which the curve uniting the
two lines should be struck.
To unite a curve a b (fig. 29), with another curve, c
x or c z, at the point c, first find o, the center of the
curve a b, draw the line a o, continuing it beyond the
center; join a and c, and erect a perpendicular at the
middle point of this chord. The intersection of this
perpendicular with a o, produced if necessary, should
be taken as the center for a curve uniting b a with c.
Fig. 29.
To join up two lines inclined
to each other or parallel lines of
unequal length, such as a r, b s, fig. 30, draw midway
between the two another line, z d; join the two
extremities r and s, and from these points let fall
perpendiculars r i and s c; then from d draw a line Fig. 30.
angles s f e, s f g, and so on for a further sub-division.
The line that divides the angle into two equal parts will also
bisect or divide into two equal parts the chord and the arc e g.
39. To find the center of a circle or
of a circular arc. Take on the
circumference, or on the arc, three Fig. 26.
points b c r (fig. 27). Join b to c and c to
r. At the middle point of each of these lines[3] erect a
perpendicular. The point of intersection of these
perpendiculars is the required center.
A similar method should be resorted to when it is
desired to describe a circle passing through three
Fig. 27. given points.
40. To connect up or
associate lines. In order to join up a straight line, such
as i j (fig. 28), with the curve l p, erect a perpendicular
at j, and through the middle point of a chord, l p, draw
a second perpendicular cutting the first in k. This point Fig. 28.
will be the center from which the curve uniting the
two lines should be struck.
To unite a curve a b (fig. 29), with another curve, c
x or c z, at the point c, first find o, the center of the
curve a b, draw the line a o, continuing it beyond the
center; join a and c, and erect a perpendicular at the
middle point of this chord. The intersection of this
perpendicular with a o, produced if necessary, should
be taken as the center for a curve uniting b a with c.
Fig. 29.
To join up two lines inclined
to each other or parallel lines of
unequal length, such as a r, b s, fig. 30, draw midway
between the two another line, z d; join the two
extremities r and s, and from these points let fall
perpendiculars r i and s c; then from d draw a line Fig. 30.
Page 85
perpendicular to s r. The point o thus obtained will be the center of the arc r
d, and c will be the center for d s.
41. To describe an ellipse. Let a b (fig. 31), be the major axis of the
ellipse; divide it into three equal parts, and from the two points, c and i, at
which it is divided, with a radius equal to i c, draw (in pencil) two circles,
intersecting in the points x and z. Through these points draw the lines x i g,
x c h, z i f, z c d.
With the center z describe the arc d f, and from x draw h g; the ellipse
will be completed by the two arcs, f b g, d a h, of the primitive circles.
If it be required to describe an ellipse that shall
have a shorter minor axis, divide the major axis into
four equal parts, thus obtaining three points of sub-
division. With each point as a center and with a radius
equal to one of the spaces describe circles. Those to
the right and left will determine the extremities of the
ellipse, and the central circle will intersect the minor Fig. 31.
axis in two points which must be taken as centers for
describing the top and bottom portions of the figure.
When the length of the long and short axes are
given, proceed as follows (fig. 32): From the center a,
where they intersect at right angles, mark off the
distances a n, a o, equal to the difference in the length
of two semi-axes. Join n o, and add one half of n o to
a o measured in the direction of a v, thus obtaining the
Fig. 32. point k; with the radius a k describe a circle. On this
circumference will lie the four centers; k for the arc r
u s, m for the arc p v q, t and i for the short arcs q j s, p e r.
The figures obtained by the methods here given closely resemble the
ellipse, but are not of the strict mathematical form. It is well to acquire
some facility in drawing ellipses, for the projection of a circle on a plane,
when the two are neither parallel nor perpendicular, is an ellipse, and one
often has occasion to describe it.
42. The following may be added as a mode of describing an ellipse:
d, and c will be the center for d s.
41. To describe an ellipse. Let a b (fig. 31), be the major axis of the
ellipse; divide it into three equal parts, and from the two points, c and i, at
which it is divided, with a radius equal to i c, draw (in pencil) two circles,
intersecting in the points x and z. Through these points draw the lines x i g,
x c h, z i f, z c d.
With the center z describe the arc d f, and from x draw h g; the ellipse
will be completed by the two arcs, f b g, d a h, of the primitive circles.
If it be required to describe an ellipse that shall
have a shorter minor axis, divide the major axis into
four equal parts, thus obtaining three points of sub-
division. With each point as a center and with a radius
equal to one of the spaces describe circles. Those to
the right and left will determine the extremities of the
ellipse, and the central circle will intersect the minor Fig. 31.
axis in two points which must be taken as centers for
describing the top and bottom portions of the figure.
When the length of the long and short axes are
given, proceed as follows (fig. 32): From the center a,
where they intersect at right angles, mark off the
distances a n, a o, equal to the difference in the length
of two semi-axes. Join n o, and add one half of n o to
a o measured in the direction of a v, thus obtaining the
Fig. 32. point k; with the radius a k describe a circle. On this
circumference will lie the four centers; k for the arc r
u s, m for the arc p v q, t and i for the short arcs q j s, p e r.
The figures obtained by the methods here given closely resemble the
ellipse, but are not of the strict mathematical form. It is well to acquire
some facility in drawing ellipses, for the projection of a circle on a plane,
when the two are neither parallel nor perpendicular, is an ellipse, and one
often has occasion to describe it.
42. The following may be added as a mode of describing an ellipse:
Page 86
The major axis and the two foci (points in this axis) being known, fix two
pins in these foci. Then tie a piece of string into a loop and place it over the
pins; stretch it with a pencil, the point of which is on the paper, and on
moving this around in a circular direction, the string being maintained
stretched, an ellipse will be described. When the string is so stretched that it
lies along the major axis, the length should be such that the pencil is exactly
at its end.
43. To draw a spiral curve. Draw four lines
forming a small square (fig. 33). The point o is taken
as the center of the first arc, i j; s is the center of j k; u
of k l; i of l n. Then, to continue the curve, o is again
taken as the center for n p, and so on. This method
produces a volute in which the coils are at a
considerable distance apart, such as has no special
applicability to horology.
Fig. 33.
As the balance-spring of a
watch is partially concealed by
other pieces, it is generally sufficient to represent the
parts that show themselves by concentric circular arcs,
or arcs described from two centers. If a more accurate
representation be required, the following method may
be resorted to: when working on a small scale it
involves the use of the eyeglass, for the figure (fig.
34,) here given is exaggerated in order to avoid
Fig. 34.
confusion in the lines, numbers, letters, etc.
A small circle having been described, it is divided into an even number of
equal parts, say four; a less number than this should never be adopted. From
the same center describe another circle as small as possible, which will be
cut by the two diameters drawn between opposite points of division
numbered 1, 2, 3, 4.
Assuming a to represent the starting-point of the curve, from the center 1
with radius 1 a draw the arc a b; from 2 with radius 2 b draw the arc b c;
from 3 with 3 c draw c d; from 4 with 4 d draw d s; then recommencing
with 1 and the radius 1 s draw s f, and so on.
pins in these foci. Then tie a piece of string into a loop and place it over the
pins; stretch it with a pencil, the point of which is on the paper, and on
moving this around in a circular direction, the string being maintained
stretched, an ellipse will be described. When the string is so stretched that it
lies along the major axis, the length should be such that the pencil is exactly
at its end.
43. To draw a spiral curve. Draw four lines
forming a small square (fig. 33). The point o is taken
as the center of the first arc, i j; s is the center of j k; u
of k l; i of l n. Then, to continue the curve, o is again
taken as the center for n p, and so on. This method
produces a volute in which the coils are at a
considerable distance apart, such as has no special
applicability to horology.
Fig. 33.
As the balance-spring of a
watch is partially concealed by
other pieces, it is generally sufficient to represent the
parts that show themselves by concentric circular arcs,
or arcs described from two centers. If a more accurate
representation be required, the following method may
be resorted to: when working on a small scale it
involves the use of the eyeglass, for the figure (fig.
34,) here given is exaggerated in order to avoid
Fig. 34.
confusion in the lines, numbers, letters, etc.
A small circle having been described, it is divided into an even number of
equal parts, say four; a less number than this should never be adopted. From
the same center describe another circle as small as possible, which will be
cut by the two diameters drawn between opposite points of division
numbered 1, 2, 3, 4.
Assuming a to represent the starting-point of the curve, from the center 1
with radius 1 a draw the arc a b; from 2 with radius 2 b draw the arc b c;
from 3 with 3 c draw c d; from 4 with 4 d draw d s; then recommencing
with 1 and the radius 1 s draw s f, and so on.
Page 87
The less the radius of the small circle and the greater its number of
divisions, the closer will the successive coils be together. To secure
accuracy when working on a small scale, it is advisable that the center and
the several points be in a thin brass or horn plate, which is maintained in
position by steady pins.
T HE MIC RO MET RI CA L DIV ID ING TA BL E.
44. This instrument is no more than a simple application of the screw to
dividing straight lines, but it will suffice to enable the reader to understand
the principles on which the more complicated instruments are based.
Fig. 35.
A plate, p, fig. 35, supports a bracket a, in which a screw, similar to the
one described in paragraph 30, is engaged by means of a collet; it rotates,
being supported between this bracket and the small bearing b, that receives
the pivot at the end of the screw.
The screw is fitted carefully into a nut n, which is rigidly attached to the
small plate h; this carries a fine marker, movable on an axis, and
terminating with a chisel edge or a fine diamond point, according as the
instrument is to be used for engraving metal or glass; or it may be provided
with a fine pencil if the object is merely to make subdivisions on a drawing.
This being understood, it will be evident that, if a rule or rod of any form
be fixed by screws or otherwise between f and g, it can be graduated by
means of the marker, the screw being made to advance; the millimeter
screw can be used for dividing into millimeters and fractions direct, or, with
a little calculation, into fractions of an inch. Each complete rotation of the
divisions, the closer will the successive coils be together. To secure
accuracy when working on a small scale, it is advisable that the center and
the several points be in a thin brass or horn plate, which is maintained in
position by steady pins.
T HE MIC RO MET RI CA L DIV ID ING TA BL E.
44. This instrument is no more than a simple application of the screw to
dividing straight lines, but it will suffice to enable the reader to understand
the principles on which the more complicated instruments are based.
Fig. 35.
A plate, p, fig. 35, supports a bracket a, in which a screw, similar to the
one described in paragraph 30, is engaged by means of a collet; it rotates,
being supported between this bracket and the small bearing b, that receives
the pivot at the end of the screw.
The screw is fitted carefully into a nut n, which is rigidly attached to the
small plate h; this carries a fine marker, movable on an axis, and
terminating with a chisel edge or a fine diamond point, according as the
instrument is to be used for engraving metal or glass; or it may be provided
with a fine pencil if the object is merely to make subdivisions on a drawing.
This being understood, it will be evident that, if a rule or rod of any form
be fixed by screws or otherwise between f and g, it can be graduated by
means of the marker, the screw being made to advance; the millimeter
screw can be used for dividing into millimeters and fractions direct, or, with
a little calculation, into fractions of an inch. Each complete rotation of the
Page 88
head means a displacement of the marker by a millimeter; a half turn will
be half a millimeter, etc.
O T H ER ME T H O DS O F DIV IDI NG IN TO E Q UAL PART S .
45. First method. Having fixed a sheet
of drawing paper on a smooth board, draw
the line m n, fig. 36, longer than the rule
which is required to be divided. Then, with
a compass or graduated scale, mark off a
series of equidistant points, commencing
at n, equal in number to the required series
on the rule, and let m be the last division.
Fig. 36. With the center n and radius n m describe
the circular arc p v, and with m as a center
and the same radius, describe a second arc r s, intersecting the first at o.
Join o with m and n. Assume a c to be the rule that is to be divided into
equal parts; slide it on the paper parallel to m n until the extremities, a and
c, coincide with the lines o m, o n, and are equidistant from o. This position
can be easily found by the aid of a compass with one of its centers at o.
Now fix the rule in position with sealing-wax, or by some other means, and,
with a firm upright pin, center the brass rule r at o, so that it can rotate
round this center on the pin as a pivot. It now only remains to trace a series
of lines o k, o b, o d, etc., with the rule, to the division points of the line m n.
The line a c is thus divided into as many equal parts as the line m n. The
graduations will be all the more exact according as the divisions of the line
m n are longer.
46. Second method. By the side of the chuck of a wheel-cutting engine,
arrange a horizontal slide y f fig. 37, that can travel easily in a direction
perpendicular to a t. A watch fusee-chain, or a very flexible spring, is fixed
by one end to the chuck, and by the other to the slide at d. The chain or
spring is kept stretched by a weight which tends to draw the slide from f
towards d.
The rule to be graduated, a, is now fixed on the slide, and an initial
division is marked on it with a pointed rotating cutter in the position usually
be half a millimeter, etc.
O T H ER ME T H O DS O F DIV IDI NG IN TO E Q UAL PART S .
45. First method. Having fixed a sheet
of drawing paper on a smooth board, draw
the line m n, fig. 36, longer than the rule
which is required to be divided. Then, with
a compass or graduated scale, mark off a
series of equidistant points, commencing
at n, equal in number to the required series
on the rule, and let m be the last division.
Fig. 36. With the center n and radius n m describe
the circular arc p v, and with m as a center
and the same radius, describe a second arc r s, intersecting the first at o.
Join o with m and n. Assume a c to be the rule that is to be divided into
equal parts; slide it on the paper parallel to m n until the extremities, a and
c, coincide with the lines o m, o n, and are equidistant from o. This position
can be easily found by the aid of a compass with one of its centers at o.
Now fix the rule in position with sealing-wax, or by some other means, and,
with a firm upright pin, center the brass rule r at o, so that it can rotate
round this center on the pin as a pivot. It now only remains to trace a series
of lines o k, o b, o d, etc., with the rule, to the division points of the line m n.
The line a c is thus divided into as many equal parts as the line m n. The
graduations will be all the more exact according as the divisions of the line
m n are longer.
46. Second method. By the side of the chuck of a wheel-cutting engine,
arrange a horizontal slide y f fig. 37, that can travel easily in a direction
perpendicular to a t. A watch fusee-chain, or a very flexible spring, is fixed
by one end to the chuck, and by the other to the slide at d. The chain or
spring is kept stretched by a weight which tends to draw the slide from f
towards d.
The rule to be graduated, a, is now fixed on the slide, and an initial
division is marked on it with a pointed rotating cutter in the position usually
Page 89
occupied by the wheel
cutter, or else by striking a
small pointed or flat-edged
chisel arranged for the
purpose, in such a manner
as not to be liable to
derangement.
Rotate the table through
a definite distance; the rule
a will advance through the
same distance; mark the
second division; then Fig. 37.
having moved the division-
plate through a distance equal to its first displacement, mark the third
graduation, and so on. Suppose, for example, that it be required to make 30
divisions on the rule between f and d; select on the plate the circle
corresponding to twice or thrice this amount, so that the radius of the chuck
may not be relatively too short, and that the chain or spring may not act at a
disadvantage; take the number 60 for example:
The two marks at d and g on the spring indicate the length that
corresponds to the straight line to be divided.
The chuck is placed in the lathe and reduced in diameter until the half
circumference is exactly equal to the distance between these two marks on
the spring, which thus fall on a diameter, i g, of the chuck.
The spring having been fixed by its two extremities, the slide with the
rule attached is placed in position, so that the mark g is on the line a t; it
will be evident from the figure that each displacement of the division-plate
through one-sixtieth of its circumference will cause a to advance through
one-thirtieth of the space between f and d.
Remarks.—Knowing the relation of a diameter to the circumference (as
1 : 3.1416), we can determine the diameter of the chuck at once by
calculation.
Its form should be a true cylinder, and it is well to place guides that will
prevent the spring or chain from assuming a helical position.
cutter, or else by striking a
small pointed or flat-edged
chisel arranged for the
purpose, in such a manner
as not to be liable to
derangement.
Rotate the table through
a definite distance; the rule
a will advance through the
same distance; mark the
second division; then Fig. 37.
having moved the division-
plate through a distance equal to its first displacement, mark the third
graduation, and so on. Suppose, for example, that it be required to make 30
divisions on the rule between f and d; select on the plate the circle
corresponding to twice or thrice this amount, so that the radius of the chuck
may not be relatively too short, and that the chain or spring may not act at a
disadvantage; take the number 60 for example:
The two marks at d and g on the spring indicate the length that
corresponds to the straight line to be divided.
The chuck is placed in the lathe and reduced in diameter until the half
circumference is exactly equal to the distance between these two marks on
the spring, which thus fall on a diameter, i g, of the chuck.
The spring having been fixed by its two extremities, the slide with the
rule attached is placed in position, so that the mark g is on the line a t; it
will be evident from the figure that each displacement of the division-plate
through one-sixtieth of its circumference will cause a to advance through
one-thirtieth of the space between f and d.
Remarks.—Knowing the relation of a diameter to the circumference (as
1 : 3.1416), we can determine the diameter of the chuck at once by
calculation.
Its form should be a true cylinder, and it is well to place guides that will
prevent the spring or chain from assuming a helical position.
Page 90
The side that carries the rule should be strictly perpendicular to a t; and
the portion of the spring that is not coiled on the chuck should always be
parallel to this slide.
The chuck and spring must be quite clean and smooth, and the latter
should be very pliable. A greater weight will be needed to keep the spring
stretched than will suffice for a chain, and it must be increased as the
strength of springs is greater.
The slide, y f, may simply travel over a horizontal surface between pins
planted in two parallel lines. But it would be preferable to adopt some other
method, for instance, to make this piece (f, fig. 37), travel with a little
friction along a perfectly true cylindrical rod.
47. Third method. This is merely an application of the arrangement
mentioned in paragraph 44. The lathe can be employed for marking off a
series of equidistant points in a straight line. Knowing the pitch of the slide-
rest screw, determine the distance apart in, say, millimetres, of the required
divisions, and fix the rule perfectly flat on the face-plate, which must be
rendered immovable by any convenient means. Then mark the first point
with the drill-stock. Advance the screw by the amount previously
determined upon and mark the second point. After withdrawing the drill,
again advance by the same amount and mark the third point, etc. Always be
careful, before making the first mark, that the screw has already traveled
some distance in the direction it will continue to move, so as to avoid
backlash, or loss of time.
TO S UBDI V IDE A CI RCL E .
48. To divide the circumference into equal parts. After having drawn
the circle, a, fig. 38, draw two diameters, d a, b c, at right angles to each
other, dividing the circle into four equal parts. Join the points, c a, and
divide the line, c a, accurately into nine equal parts.
Draw a series of circles concentric with the first, at distances apart equal
to one of the divisions of c a, and to the number of one, two, three, etc.,
according as it is required to subdivide the circle, say for a pinion, into
seven, eight, nine, etc., equal parts.
the portion of the spring that is not coiled on the chuck should always be
parallel to this slide.
The chuck and spring must be quite clean and smooth, and the latter
should be very pliable. A greater weight will be needed to keep the spring
stretched than will suffice for a chain, and it must be increased as the
strength of springs is greater.
The slide, y f, may simply travel over a horizontal surface between pins
planted in two parallel lines. But it would be preferable to adopt some other
method, for instance, to make this piece (f, fig. 37), travel with a little
friction along a perfectly true cylindrical rod.
47. Third method. This is merely an application of the arrangement
mentioned in paragraph 44. The lathe can be employed for marking off a
series of equidistant points in a straight line. Knowing the pitch of the slide-
rest screw, determine the distance apart in, say, millimetres, of the required
divisions, and fix the rule perfectly flat on the face-plate, which must be
rendered immovable by any convenient means. Then mark the first point
with the drill-stock. Advance the screw by the amount previously
determined upon and mark the second point. After withdrawing the drill,
again advance by the same amount and mark the third point, etc. Always be
careful, before making the first mark, that the screw has already traveled
some distance in the direction it will continue to move, so as to avoid
backlash, or loss of time.
TO S UBDI V IDE A CI RCL E .
48. To divide the circumference into equal parts. After having drawn
the circle, a, fig. 38, draw two diameters, d a, b c, at right angles to each
other, dividing the circle into four equal parts. Join the points, c a, and
divide the line, c a, accurately into nine equal parts.
Draw a series of circles concentric with the first, at distances apart equal
to one of the divisions of c a, and to the number of one, two, three, etc.,
according as it is required to subdivide the circle, say for a pinion, into
seven, eight, nine, etc., equal parts.
Page 91
With a fine-pointed compass, measure
off the radius of the initial circle a. Placing
one point of the compass at c, the other
point will give the position of the next leaf,
and so on, all around the circumference. If
the innermost circle a be selected for sub-
division, six divisions will be obtained,
and there will be one more division for
each larger circle.
The operation will be facilitated by
selecting the first circle, so that the line a c
contains exactly nine divisions equal to
Fig. 38.
those of some scale that is accessible. Such
a circle can be easily found, by first
drawing the two diameters, laying the scale in the direction c a, and
determining by trial the radius for which the first and ninth divisions
correspond to a and c respectively.
49. To divide a surface into rings of equal or proportional superficial
area. The following solution is due to M. Brocot:
Let a d be the radius of a circle (fig. 39), that is required to be subdivided
into four rings of equal area by concentric circles. Taking a d as a diameter,
draw the semicircumference, a b d; accurately divide a d into four equal
parts, and at each point so obtained, erect a perpendicular. Through the
intersections of these perpendiculars with the semicircle, draw a series of
concentric circles; they will trace out rings, 1, 2, 3, 4, that have equal
superficial areas.
If it be required to divide the surface in a given proportion, divide the line
a d, according to that proportion.
The right-hand side of fig. 39 gives a special application of this method
to the division into two equal areas of the interior of a barrel exclusive of
the space occupied by the arbor-nut. If the mainspring accurately covers i c
when wound up, and i j when unwound, it will give the greatest possible
number of turns.
off the radius of the initial circle a. Placing
one point of the compass at c, the other
point will give the position of the next leaf,
and so on, all around the circumference. If
the innermost circle a be selected for sub-
division, six divisions will be obtained,
and there will be one more division for
each larger circle.
The operation will be facilitated by
selecting the first circle, so that the line a c
contains exactly nine divisions equal to
Fig. 38.
those of some scale that is accessible. Such
a circle can be easily found, by first
drawing the two diameters, laying the scale in the direction c a, and
determining by trial the radius for which the first and ninth divisions
correspond to a and c respectively.
49. To divide a surface into rings of equal or proportional superficial
area. The following solution is due to M. Brocot:
Let a d be the radius of a circle (fig. 39), that is required to be subdivided
into four rings of equal area by concentric circles. Taking a d as a diameter,
draw the semicircumference, a b d; accurately divide a d into four equal
parts, and at each point so obtained, erect a perpendicular. Through the
intersections of these perpendiculars with the semicircle, draw a series of
concentric circles; they will trace out rings, 1, 2, 3, 4, that have equal
superficial areas.
If it be required to divide the surface in a given proportion, divide the line
a d, according to that proportion.
The right-hand side of fig. 39 gives a special application of this method
to the division into two equal areas of the interior of a barrel exclusive of
the space occupied by the arbor-nut. If the mainspring accurately covers i c
when wound up, and i j when unwound, it will give the greatest possible
number of turns.
Page 92
Fig. 39.
T IME .
50. Solar time is taken from the revolutions of the earth, and the
watchmaker can easily get the exact solar time of any point at which he
may happen to be by a little calculation from known standards. These
standards are: 1. The zenith. 2. The longitude of the point of observation. 3.
The difference between noon at the point of observation and noon of a
known meridian either east or west of the point of observation. The zenith is
that point in the heavens where the rays of the sun are in a plane exactly
perpendicular to the surface of the earth at the point of observation, and
when the rays of sunlight are in this plane it is noon at that point. The
circumference of the earth is divided into 360 degrees or meridians of
longitude, so that as the earth revolves once every twenty-four hours, each
of these meridians will pass the zenith, or fixed point, in that time. In
twenty-four hours there are 24 × 60 = 1,440 minutes, so that the interval
between the passage of one meridian and the next will be 1,440 ÷ 360 = 4
minutes. A degree of longitude is divided like an hour, into minutes and
seconds, so that
1 degree of longitude equals 4 minutes of time.
1 minute ” ” ” 4 seconds ” ”
1 second ” ” ” ¹⁄₁₅ or .066 seconds of time.
T IME .
50. Solar time is taken from the revolutions of the earth, and the
watchmaker can easily get the exact solar time of any point at which he
may happen to be by a little calculation from known standards. These
standards are: 1. The zenith. 2. The longitude of the point of observation. 3.
The difference between noon at the point of observation and noon of a
known meridian either east or west of the point of observation. The zenith is
that point in the heavens where the rays of the sun are in a plane exactly
perpendicular to the surface of the earth at the point of observation, and
when the rays of sunlight are in this plane it is noon at that point. The
circumference of the earth is divided into 360 degrees or meridians of
longitude, so that as the earth revolves once every twenty-four hours, each
of these meridians will pass the zenith, or fixed point, in that time. In
twenty-four hours there are 24 × 60 = 1,440 minutes, so that the interval
between the passage of one meridian and the next will be 1,440 ÷ 360 = 4
minutes. A degree of longitude is divided like an hour, into minutes and
seconds, so that
1 degree of longitude equals 4 minutes of time.
1 minute ” ” ” 4 seconds ” ”
1 second ” ” ” ¹⁄₁₅ or .066 seconds of time.
Page 93
51. Thus it happens that, at a town one degree east of a given point the
sun will be visible four minutes sooner, and if to the west, four minutes later
than at that point. The “local,” or solar time, therefore, will be four minutes
earlier at the first town, and four minutes later at the second town, than it is
at the point of observation.
52. It will be readily seen that, having any two of the three factors given
above, the other can be readily found. Thus having the time of a given
meridian and the local noon or meridian time, the longitude can be readily
found; or, having the longitude (which can be readily obtained from a
surveyor) and the time of a given meridian, “noon,” can be calculated, etc.
The first method is followed in calculating distances at sea; the chronometer
keeping Greenwich time, and the local noon giving the longitude.
When great accuracy is necessary, however, a fixed star is used as a
means of observing the exact time when a revolution of the earth is
completed, as the revolution of the sun in its orbit causes a slight variation
during the year. For further information on this point the reader is referred
to works on astronomy.
To obviate the constantly varying time in running east or west, the
railroads use the time of a given meridian over each fifteen degrees of
longitude, and as each degree of longitude equals four minutes of time, it
follows that only the hour is changed in changing from one standard to
another. In Europe the zero of longitude, or the time of the meridian of
Greenwich is used. In the United States the time of the 75th degree, which
passes through Philadelphia, is used from the 67th to the 80th degree, which
comprises the territory from Princeton, Maine, to a line drawn north and
south, passing through Erie and Pittsburg, Pa., and is called Eastern time.
The time of the 90th meridian is used from the 80th to the 102d meridian,
and is called Central time. The time of the 105th meridian is used from the
102d to the 114th meridian, and is called Mountain time. The time of the
120th meridian is used from the 114th meridian to the coast (which ends at
about the 124th meridian) and is called Pacific time. The time of the various
standards is telegraphed through their various territories at noon each day,
and furnishes an accurate standard of comparison to all watchmakers.
53. In very many cities the actual or solar noon has been discarded and
the railway standard adopted, thus making but one standard and removing
sun will be visible four minutes sooner, and if to the west, four minutes later
than at that point. The “local,” or solar time, therefore, will be four minutes
earlier at the first town, and four minutes later at the second town, than it is
at the point of observation.
52. It will be readily seen that, having any two of the three factors given
above, the other can be readily found. Thus having the time of a given
meridian and the local noon or meridian time, the longitude can be readily
found; or, having the longitude (which can be readily obtained from a
surveyor) and the time of a given meridian, “noon,” can be calculated, etc.
The first method is followed in calculating distances at sea; the chronometer
keeping Greenwich time, and the local noon giving the longitude.
When great accuracy is necessary, however, a fixed star is used as a
means of observing the exact time when a revolution of the earth is
completed, as the revolution of the sun in its orbit causes a slight variation
during the year. For further information on this point the reader is referred
to works on astronomy.
To obviate the constantly varying time in running east or west, the
railroads use the time of a given meridian over each fifteen degrees of
longitude, and as each degree of longitude equals four minutes of time, it
follows that only the hour is changed in changing from one standard to
another. In Europe the zero of longitude, or the time of the meridian of
Greenwich is used. In the United States the time of the 75th degree, which
passes through Philadelphia, is used from the 67th to the 80th degree, which
comprises the territory from Princeton, Maine, to a line drawn north and
south, passing through Erie and Pittsburg, Pa., and is called Eastern time.
The time of the 90th meridian is used from the 80th to the 102d meridian,
and is called Central time. The time of the 105th meridian is used from the
102d to the 114th meridian, and is called Mountain time. The time of the
120th meridian is used from the 114th meridian to the coast (which ends at
about the 124th meridian) and is called Pacific time. The time of the various
standards is telegraphed through their various territories at noon each day,
and furnishes an accurate standard of comparison to all watchmakers.
53. In very many cities the actual or solar noon has been discarded and
the railway standard adopted, thus making but one standard and removing
Page 94
the source of confusion and annoyance to many people. In others, however,
the two standards are still used, and it becomes necessary for the
watchmaker to be able to calculate both standards, in case of accident or
irregularity in his regulator. Hence he should calculate his longitude within
one second by means of the difference between railroad and local noon, and
have the nearest surveyor correct his reckoning; then, by means of the
accurate longitude and the railroad time, correct the solar time; then by
means of the solar noon and the longitude calculate the railroad time. When
all these calculations check each other perfectly, he possesses all the time
data he needs for that place, and can correct his standard or regulator if at
any time it should become irregular. The calculations are very simple, and
can be easily performed from the data given above.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Loomis’ Treatise on Arithmetic.
Loomis’ Treatise on Algebra.
Loomis’ Elements of Geometry.
Robinson’s Algebra and Geometry.
[2] Adapted from Robinson’s Algebra.
[3] Determined in the manner explained for erecting a perpendicular in par. 32
except that intersecting arcs are described on both sides of the line (n m, fig. 17);
the perpendicular will be a line joining these points of intersection.
the two standards are still used, and it becomes necessary for the
watchmaker to be able to calculate both standards, in case of accident or
irregularity in his regulator. Hence he should calculate his longitude within
one second by means of the difference between railroad and local noon, and
have the nearest surveyor correct his reckoning; then, by means of the
accurate longitude and the railroad time, correct the solar time; then by
means of the solar noon and the longitude calculate the railroad time. When
all these calculations check each other perfectly, he possesses all the time
data he needs for that place, and can correct his standard or regulator if at
any time it should become irregular. The calculations are very simple, and
can be easily performed from the data given above.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Loomis’ Treatise on Arithmetic.
Loomis’ Treatise on Algebra.
Loomis’ Elements of Geometry.
Robinson’s Algebra and Geometry.
[2] Adapted from Robinson’s Algebra.
[3] Determined in the manner explained for erecting a perpendicular in par. 32
except that intersecting arcs are described on both sides of the line (n m, fig. 17);
the perpendicular will be a line joining these points of intersection.
Page 95
PART II.
MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN HOROLOGY.
I RO N.
54. Iron is an elementary body, that is to say it cannot be decomposed. It is the
most tenacious of the metals, having a breaking strain of about 75 kilo. per sq.
mm. (or 106,000 pounds per sq. inch) of section. Two pieces can be perfectly
welded together when raised to a white heat.
In the smaller horological appliances, the metal is not employed except after
conversion into steel. In common clocks it is used from motives of economy, for
forming pins, screws, etc. In turret clocks, however, considerable use is made of it,
many of the parts after they are formed being cemented, that is to say, having their
surface rendered hard in a manner subsequently indicated (65).
Such a mode of manufacture is particularly applicable to pieces that are subject
to a constant succession of impacts; their hardened, steelified surface resists wear,
while the iron core affords security against rupture.
It is important to carefully distinguish the cases in which iron is preferable from
those in which its substitution for steel serves merely to augment the profits of the
manufacturer.
The fracture of a good piece of iron is characterized by long twisted fibres of a
brilliant white color.
If heated frequently or carelessly, the quality of the metal is impaired—it ceases
to be fibrous and looses its tenacity: in this condition it is said to be burnt.
It is better to work with a charcoal or gas fire, as coal acts more rapidly in
rendering the metal brittle. Cold hammering, or “hammer-hardening,” also makes
MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN HOROLOGY.
I RO N.
54. Iron is an elementary body, that is to say it cannot be decomposed. It is the
most tenacious of the metals, having a breaking strain of about 75 kilo. per sq.
mm. (or 106,000 pounds per sq. inch) of section. Two pieces can be perfectly
welded together when raised to a white heat.
In the smaller horological appliances, the metal is not employed except after
conversion into steel. In common clocks it is used from motives of economy, for
forming pins, screws, etc. In turret clocks, however, considerable use is made of it,
many of the parts after they are formed being cemented, that is to say, having their
surface rendered hard in a manner subsequently indicated (65).
Such a mode of manufacture is particularly applicable to pieces that are subject
to a constant succession of impacts; their hardened, steelified surface resists wear,
while the iron core affords security against rupture.
It is important to carefully distinguish the cases in which iron is preferable from
those in which its substitution for steel serves merely to augment the profits of the
manufacturer.
The fracture of a good piece of iron is characterized by long twisted fibres of a
brilliant white color.
If heated frequently or carelessly, the quality of the metal is impaired—it ceases
to be fibrous and looses its tenacity: in this condition it is said to be burnt.
It is better to work with a charcoal or gas fire, as coal acts more rapidly in
rendering the metal brittle. Cold hammering, or “hammer-hardening,” also makes
Page 96
it brittle and diminishes its tenacity, but this is again restored by a suitable
annealing.
Iron dissolves slowly in dilute nitric acid; if not diluted, this acid rapidly
oxidizes it. Dilute sulphuric acid dissolves the metal easily, but if concentrated, it
has no action in the cold, whereas, on heating to ebullition, the iron is dissolved
with evolution of sulphurous acid gas. It is also dissolved by hydrochloric acid, or
aqua regia.
Iron is less magnetic than steel, especially hardened steel, which, owing to its
great coercive force, is magnetized with greater difficulty, but retains its
magnetism for a longer period. Indeed, soft iron, if properly prepared, can be
magnetized and demagnetized instantaneously.
Some workmen can distinguish iron from steel by the musical note emitted on
striking. A more certain method, however, consists in using dilute nitric, or
sulphuric acid. If the surface remains unaltered, or nearly so, when touched with a
drop of either acid, the metal is iron, but, in the case of steel, a black mark will be
left, owing to the liberation of carbon.
55. To Remove Rust. The usual mode is to rub the object with a piece of oiled
rag, or emery paper. It appears that more rapid and more satisfactory results are
secured by using very pure petroleum, and wiping with a hempen or woolen rag.
56. To Prevent Rust. Dip iron or steel articles in a mixture of equal parts of
carbolic acid and olive oil, rubbing the surface with a rag. Others rub the metal
with a mercurial ointment, leaving a thin layer over the entire surface. It is stated
that, if iron be dipped in a solution of carbonate of potash or soda in water, the
surface will be protected against rust for a long time, and objects can be protected
for any period by burying in quicklime. Rubbing the surface with plumbago has a
similar effect, and Barff has pointed out that, by exposing iron to the action of
steam, heated above the boiling point of water, a coating of magnetic oxide of iron
is formed, which is equally serviceable.
57. To restore iron and steel that has been burnt, or badly forged. When iron
is burnt, or carelessly forged, it becomes crystalline and brittle; in order to restore
it to its original condition, a fresh and very careful forging is generally needed.
This can be avoided by having recourse to the following method, suggested by
Caron: it consists in treating the metal somewhat after the manner adopted in
hardening steel.
He experimented with a bar of good iron, which was easily bent when cold,
without breaking or showing any cracks. It was then burnt and became brittle
when cold, the fractured surface showing brilliant shining facets.
annealing.
Iron dissolves slowly in dilute nitric acid; if not diluted, this acid rapidly
oxidizes it. Dilute sulphuric acid dissolves the metal easily, but if concentrated, it
has no action in the cold, whereas, on heating to ebullition, the iron is dissolved
with evolution of sulphurous acid gas. It is also dissolved by hydrochloric acid, or
aqua regia.
Iron is less magnetic than steel, especially hardened steel, which, owing to its
great coercive force, is magnetized with greater difficulty, but retains its
magnetism for a longer period. Indeed, soft iron, if properly prepared, can be
magnetized and demagnetized instantaneously.
Some workmen can distinguish iron from steel by the musical note emitted on
striking. A more certain method, however, consists in using dilute nitric, or
sulphuric acid. If the surface remains unaltered, or nearly so, when touched with a
drop of either acid, the metal is iron, but, in the case of steel, a black mark will be
left, owing to the liberation of carbon.
55. To Remove Rust. The usual mode is to rub the object with a piece of oiled
rag, or emery paper. It appears that more rapid and more satisfactory results are
secured by using very pure petroleum, and wiping with a hempen or woolen rag.
56. To Prevent Rust. Dip iron or steel articles in a mixture of equal parts of
carbolic acid and olive oil, rubbing the surface with a rag. Others rub the metal
with a mercurial ointment, leaving a thin layer over the entire surface. It is stated
that, if iron be dipped in a solution of carbonate of potash or soda in water, the
surface will be protected against rust for a long time, and objects can be protected
for any period by burying in quicklime. Rubbing the surface with plumbago has a
similar effect, and Barff has pointed out that, by exposing iron to the action of
steam, heated above the boiling point of water, a coating of magnetic oxide of iron
is formed, which is equally serviceable.
57. To restore iron and steel that has been burnt, or badly forged. When iron
is burnt, or carelessly forged, it becomes crystalline and brittle; in order to restore
it to its original condition, a fresh and very careful forging is generally needed.
This can be avoided by having recourse to the following method, suggested by
Caron: it consists in treating the metal somewhat after the manner adopted in
hardening steel.
He experimented with a bar of good iron, which was easily bent when cold,
without breaking or showing any cracks. It was then burnt and became brittle
when cold, the fractured surface showing brilliant shining facets.
Page 97
Prepare a boiling saturated solution of sea-salt, heat the piece of iron to a bright
redness, and plunge it into the bath until it is of the same temperature (about 110°
C. or 230° F.) After undergoing this operation, it is found that the metal can be
easily doubled in the cold, exactly as it did before being burnt.
Perret states that steel which has been deteriorated by frequent hardening can be
restored as follows: Heat it short of dull redness and quench in melted tallow,
repeating the operation, if necessary, when the steel may be again hardened in the
ordinary manner, and will be nearly, if not quite, restored to its original condition.
C AS T I RO N.
58. This is only used in the manufacture of tools and large clocks; the
employment of cast iron wheels in the striking train of such clocks has materially
reduced their price.
Like steel, it is a compound body, consisting mainly of iron and carbon. Cast
iron, however, differs from steel in the quantity of carbon present, for, whereas its
proportion in cast iron varies from 2 per cent. upwards, there is never, in steel, an
amount exceeding 1.5 per cent., and even .5 per cent. renders an iron hard,
converting it into “mild” steel.
Cheapness is not the only argument in favor of the use of cast iron. In virtue of
its molecular structure, this material offers a considerable resistance to a crushing
strain, so that the teeth of wheels, made of carefully selected cast iron, will work
for a long time without sensible wear; moreover, the founder’s art has made such
important advances that there is no difficulty in casting, to a constant pattern, a
wheel, together with the pinion that it carries, and any other projections, etc., that
may be required; this economizes labor to a very great extent.
The use of cast iron in the construction of certain classes of wheels, and parts of
tools, presents advantages which we cannot afford to ignore; but it must be
carefully observed that this material is not suitable in cases where great accuracy
in the acting parts is required, as it cannot, like brass and steel, be conveniently
worked by the turning tool or file. In recent years, however, this difficulty has
been overcome by the introduction of what are termed “malleable castings,”
produced as follows:
59. Malleable Castings. The object is first made of ordinary cast iron, and the
invention consists in rendering this malleable by the removal of the carbon that
has served the very important purpose of rendering the metal fusible. In large cast
iron pots, the castings are laid with alternating layers of powdered red hæmatite,
redness, and plunge it into the bath until it is of the same temperature (about 110°
C. or 230° F.) After undergoing this operation, it is found that the metal can be
easily doubled in the cold, exactly as it did before being burnt.
Perret states that steel which has been deteriorated by frequent hardening can be
restored as follows: Heat it short of dull redness and quench in melted tallow,
repeating the operation, if necessary, when the steel may be again hardened in the
ordinary manner, and will be nearly, if not quite, restored to its original condition.
C AS T I RO N.
58. This is only used in the manufacture of tools and large clocks; the
employment of cast iron wheels in the striking train of such clocks has materially
reduced their price.
Like steel, it is a compound body, consisting mainly of iron and carbon. Cast
iron, however, differs from steel in the quantity of carbon present, for, whereas its
proportion in cast iron varies from 2 per cent. upwards, there is never, in steel, an
amount exceeding 1.5 per cent., and even .5 per cent. renders an iron hard,
converting it into “mild” steel.
Cheapness is not the only argument in favor of the use of cast iron. In virtue of
its molecular structure, this material offers a considerable resistance to a crushing
strain, so that the teeth of wheels, made of carefully selected cast iron, will work
for a long time without sensible wear; moreover, the founder’s art has made such
important advances that there is no difficulty in casting, to a constant pattern, a
wheel, together with the pinion that it carries, and any other projections, etc., that
may be required; this economizes labor to a very great extent.
The use of cast iron in the construction of certain classes of wheels, and parts of
tools, presents advantages which we cannot afford to ignore; but it must be
carefully observed that this material is not suitable in cases where great accuracy
in the acting parts is required, as it cannot, like brass and steel, be conveniently
worked by the turning tool or file. In recent years, however, this difficulty has
been overcome by the introduction of what are termed “malleable castings,”
produced as follows:
59. Malleable Castings. The object is first made of ordinary cast iron, and the
invention consists in rendering this malleable by the removal of the carbon that
has served the very important purpose of rendering the metal fusible. In large cast
iron pots, the castings are laid with alternating layers of powdered red hæmatite,
Page 98
and the whole is kept at a temperature of about 900° C. (1,650° F.), or cherry-red
heat, for 72 hours. On cooling, the castings are found to consist of nearly pure
iron, and to be perfectly malleable, and, therefore, workable.
S T EE L .
60. The treatment of steel involves some of the most prolonged and delicate
operations in the entire range of horology. If the metal is badly selected and
prepared, the working of it will be laborious, difficult and unsatisfactory; the
resulting object will be distorted in the hardening, and will not harden uniformly;
in short, it will occasion much toil and loss of time, with very little success.
Let the young watchmaker accustom himself from the first to study the steel
that he uses, so that he may be thoroughly cognizant of both its advantages and
defects; he will, in the practice of his art, be amply repaid for the brief time spent
in making such an examination.
61. Steel is not an elementary body; it is usually regarded as a carbide of iron,
that is to say a combination of carbon and iron. Analysis, however, proves other
substances to be usually present in almost infinitesimal quantities; their
remarkable influence on the physical properties of the metal has not yet been fully
investigated, but much attention is being devoted to them at the present day.
The varieties of steel are very great. What are known as puddled and natural
steel are obtained by acting directly on cast iron. Cementation is a very old method
of converting bars of malleable or pure iron into steel by enclosing them in
charcoal and heating the whole for several days, until the carbon has worked itself
into the center of the bars in such quantity as to covert the iron into steel.
The steel obtained by the above method is very heterogeneous; in other words,
the composition is not uniform throughout a given block or bar. One part is highly
carbonized, whereas another part, especially towards the center, will not be
sufficiently so. The grain, although very fine in one part, will be more coarse in
another; hard particles of pure cast iron, termed “pins,” are to be met with that
resist the action of the graver or the file and give rise to cracks in the hardening,
hammering, etc., and portions or sometimes even entire layers that have taken up
no carbon whatever. The differences in the density, hardness, malleability, etc.,
that can be shown to exist at different points in the same bar arise from this cause.
Such faults can in part be corrected by shearing, an operation which consists in
binding together a number of bars in a bundle, raising them to a red heat and
beating them with sledge or steam hammers so as to weld them into one. The bar
heat, for 72 hours. On cooling, the castings are found to consist of nearly pure
iron, and to be perfectly malleable, and, therefore, workable.
S T EE L .
60. The treatment of steel involves some of the most prolonged and delicate
operations in the entire range of horology. If the metal is badly selected and
prepared, the working of it will be laborious, difficult and unsatisfactory; the
resulting object will be distorted in the hardening, and will not harden uniformly;
in short, it will occasion much toil and loss of time, with very little success.
Let the young watchmaker accustom himself from the first to study the steel
that he uses, so that he may be thoroughly cognizant of both its advantages and
defects; he will, in the practice of his art, be amply repaid for the brief time spent
in making such an examination.
61. Steel is not an elementary body; it is usually regarded as a carbide of iron,
that is to say a combination of carbon and iron. Analysis, however, proves other
substances to be usually present in almost infinitesimal quantities; their
remarkable influence on the physical properties of the metal has not yet been fully
investigated, but much attention is being devoted to them at the present day.
The varieties of steel are very great. What are known as puddled and natural
steel are obtained by acting directly on cast iron. Cementation is a very old method
of converting bars of malleable or pure iron into steel by enclosing them in
charcoal and heating the whole for several days, until the carbon has worked itself
into the center of the bars in such quantity as to covert the iron into steel.
The steel obtained by the above method is very heterogeneous; in other words,
the composition is not uniform throughout a given block or bar. One part is highly
carbonized, whereas another part, especially towards the center, will not be
sufficiently so. The grain, although very fine in one part, will be more coarse in
another; hard particles of pure cast iron, termed “pins,” are to be met with that
resist the action of the graver or the file and give rise to cracks in the hardening,
hammering, etc., and portions or sometimes even entire layers that have taken up
no carbon whatever. The differences in the density, hardness, malleability, etc.,
that can be shown to exist at different points in the same bar arise from this cause.
Such faults can in part be corrected by shearing, an operation which consists in
binding together a number of bars in a bundle, raising them to a red heat and
beating them with sledge or steam hammers so as to weld them into one. The bar
Page 99
thus obtained is again heated, folded several times on itself, again hammered,
rolled, etc., when it is termed shear steel. If these operations are performed
carefully and without a too great heat, the quality of the steel is much improved; it
is more homogeneous and can be worked with greater facility.
62. The discovery of the earliest method of producing cast steel, thoroughly
homogeneous, was made by a watchmaker, B. Huntsman, of York, and metal
produced by his method is very highly prized at the present day. Many other
methods have been since introduced, amongst which may be mention the
Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin processes, and steel is now produced from iron
of very varying quality, so that the mark cast steel is now far from being a
guarantee of quality. The fusion of shear or cement steel will only secure a marked
superiority in its quality under two principal conditions: (1) The metal must be
carefully selected, since certain qualities do not intermingle thoroughly. (2) Very
great care and skill must be devoted to all the operations, the successive heatings,
forging, rolling, etc.
In short, in the case of steel it is exceptionally true that we must never accept
the metal merely on its own recommendation. Whatever maker’s mark is selected,
the results obtained will never be satisfactory unless the degree of hardness, the
elasticity, cohesive force, etc., are such as will suit the metal to the special purpose
to which it is to be applied as well as to the working it will have to undergo.
Experiment can alone make us fully cognizant of the qualities of a steel.
G ENER AL O BS E RVAT I O N S .
63. All steels, if of good quality to begin with, will deteriorate if subjected too
often or too long (according to the character of the metal) to the action of either
the fire or the hammer. They will become brittle and incapable of hardening, in the
end even reverting to the condition of iron.
The quality of steel becomes worse as the number of flaws, blackish filaments,
more or less carbonaceous veins, and occasional particles of pure iron in its
substance are greater; as its surface is cindery, that is to say spotted with minute
black marks which become more prominent after polishing, etc.; as its fracture
presents an uneven grain, etc.
Such a metal is found to vary considerably as regards hardness, elasticity, etc.;
not being uniformly affected in the hardening, it becomes difficult to work with
the file and almost impossible to form into a perfect cylinder in the lathe.
rolled, etc., when it is termed shear steel. If these operations are performed
carefully and without a too great heat, the quality of the steel is much improved; it
is more homogeneous and can be worked with greater facility.
62. The discovery of the earliest method of producing cast steel, thoroughly
homogeneous, was made by a watchmaker, B. Huntsman, of York, and metal
produced by his method is very highly prized at the present day. Many other
methods have been since introduced, amongst which may be mention the
Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin processes, and steel is now produced from iron
of very varying quality, so that the mark cast steel is now far from being a
guarantee of quality. The fusion of shear or cement steel will only secure a marked
superiority in its quality under two principal conditions: (1) The metal must be
carefully selected, since certain qualities do not intermingle thoroughly. (2) Very
great care and skill must be devoted to all the operations, the successive heatings,
forging, rolling, etc.
In short, in the case of steel it is exceptionally true that we must never accept
the metal merely on its own recommendation. Whatever maker’s mark is selected,
the results obtained will never be satisfactory unless the degree of hardness, the
elasticity, cohesive force, etc., are such as will suit the metal to the special purpose
to which it is to be applied as well as to the working it will have to undergo.
Experiment can alone make us fully cognizant of the qualities of a steel.
G ENER AL O BS E RVAT I O N S .
63. All steels, if of good quality to begin with, will deteriorate if subjected too
often or too long (according to the character of the metal) to the action of either
the fire or the hammer. They will become brittle and incapable of hardening, in the
end even reverting to the condition of iron.
The quality of steel becomes worse as the number of flaws, blackish filaments,
more or less carbonaceous veins, and occasional particles of pure iron in its
substance are greater; as its surface is cindery, that is to say spotted with minute
black marks which become more prominent after polishing, etc.; as its fracture
presents an uneven grain, etc.
Such a metal is found to vary considerably as regards hardness, elasticity, etc.;
not being uniformly affected in the hardening, it becomes difficult to work with
the file and almost impossible to form into a perfect cylinder in the lathe.
Page 100
Other conditions being equal, these faults are characteristic of natural steel
rather than of the two other varieties. At the same time, if well sheared, it becomes
very elastic, and has the great advantages of not being deteriorated under the
hammer and of being less ready than the other varieties to be converted into iron.
Rolling, wire-drawing and hammering occasion a molecular re-arrangement; it
is necessary, therefore, to anneal the metal from time to time, as otherwise it
becomes brittle or cracks.
There is a certain temperature, corresponding to each variety of steel, which
cannot be exceeded without the metal being injuriously affected; this temperature
must, then, be previously determined.
The grain of a piece of steel that has been superheated or burnt is characterized
by brilliant diamond-like particles; the mass loses its beautiful color, and
resembles iron more or less according to the degree of heat applied.
Some few workmen are enabled, by long experience and a very delicate touch,
to judge approximately of the quality of a steel from its weight, feel, and
resonance. Metal that is of a good quality, homogeneous, and very dense, they
term full.
SPECI AL O BS E RVAT I O NS .
64. Natural Steel. In the case of natural steels of low quality, the fracture is
usually characterized by uneven grains, a somewhat fibrous nature and a bluish
tint. The grain becomes finer and more even and the surface presents more and
more the appearance of a piece of coke, as the quality of metal improves. In
addition to these distinctive features a natural steel of high quality can be
distinguished by the fact of its being more thoroughly hardened and less liable to
break when hard.
In hardening it must be raised to a higher temperature than cement steel; in
other words, steel of a low quality must be heated somewhat above bright redness,
while the better qualities should be heated to an orange-red, or nearly so (77).
65. Cement Steel. The cement steel ordinarily met with has a lamellar fracture,
the lamellæ varying in form and color from the center towards the circumference.
The grain is usually finer and more uniform than that of natural steel, there is
seldom any appearance of fibres, veins, or flaws. The color of the fracture is
greyish, tending towards blue in the ordinary qualities.
rather than of the two other varieties. At the same time, if well sheared, it becomes
very elastic, and has the great advantages of not being deteriorated under the
hammer and of being less ready than the other varieties to be converted into iron.
Rolling, wire-drawing and hammering occasion a molecular re-arrangement; it
is necessary, therefore, to anneal the metal from time to time, as otherwise it
becomes brittle or cracks.
There is a certain temperature, corresponding to each variety of steel, which
cannot be exceeded without the metal being injuriously affected; this temperature
must, then, be previously determined.
The grain of a piece of steel that has been superheated or burnt is characterized
by brilliant diamond-like particles; the mass loses its beautiful color, and
resembles iron more or less according to the degree of heat applied.
Some few workmen are enabled, by long experience and a very delicate touch,
to judge approximately of the quality of a steel from its weight, feel, and
resonance. Metal that is of a good quality, homogeneous, and very dense, they
term full.
SPECI AL O BS E RVAT I O NS .
64. Natural Steel. In the case of natural steels of low quality, the fracture is
usually characterized by uneven grains, a somewhat fibrous nature and a bluish
tint. The grain becomes finer and more even and the surface presents more and
more the appearance of a piece of coke, as the quality of metal improves. In
addition to these distinctive features a natural steel of high quality can be
distinguished by the fact of its being more thoroughly hardened and less liable to
break when hard.
In hardening it must be raised to a higher temperature than cement steel; in
other words, steel of a low quality must be heated somewhat above bright redness,
while the better qualities should be heated to an orange-red, or nearly so (77).
65. Cement Steel. The cement steel ordinarily met with has a lamellar fracture,
the lamellæ varying in form and color from the center towards the circumference.
The grain is usually finer and more uniform than that of natural steel, there is
seldom any appearance of fibres, veins, or flaws. The color of the fracture is
greyish, tending towards blue in the ordinary qualities.
Page 101
The better qualities are marked by a closer grain, a more uniform, dull, greyish-
white color, exhibiting neither streaks or black spots after hardening, and by the
further fact that hardening can be effected at a lower temperature. If of the very
best quality, it should not require heating beyond a clear cherry-red; often even a
still less degree of heat will suffice.
66. Cast Steel. Cast steel is the most homogeneous, full, and beautiful of the
three classes. Several varieties exist. The fracture of cast steel, as compared with
others, is smooth, compact, and of a white-grey color, resembling coke. The grain
is fine and very even. The metal must be hardened at a temperature much lower
than can be safely applied to other classes of steel, since it is rapidly deteriorated
by heat.
Cast steel is more fusible than ordinary steel, and will fracture with ease under
the hammer when heated to a blue tint, so that great care is essential in hammering
it.
The metal should never be heated beyond a dull or cherry-red heat, lest it be
burnt.
The tenacity will be increased by forging at a low temperature or even by cold
hammering.
The fineness in grain, together with its high density, afford an indication that the
metal can be rendered very uniformly hard; that very fine cutting edges and the
most minute rods can be made of it; and that, after hardening, it can be highly and
uniformly polished; in other words, that it does not exhibit spots or streaks
differing in color from the mass, as is always the case with natural and cement
steels. For most horological purposes (such as making pinions, staffs, pivots, etc.)
cast steel is preferable. It is the only kind that can with certainty be highly
polished, turned perfectly round, and that does not get distorted in the smoothing.
Moreover, when wear does occur it exhibits less irregularity.
Highly-carbonized shear steel exhibits a fine, close grain that would make it
easily mistaken for cast steel. They can be best distinguished by the application of
dilute sulphuric acid. The side of the bar when acted on by this means exhibits
lines that indicate the junctions of the several layers constituting shear steel.
D ET ER MINAT I O N O F T HE Q U A L I T I E S O F S T E EL .
67. It is unnecessary to observe that as we are writing mainly for the use of
practical watch and clockmakers, we shall make no reference to those elaborate
white color, exhibiting neither streaks or black spots after hardening, and by the
further fact that hardening can be effected at a lower temperature. If of the very
best quality, it should not require heating beyond a clear cherry-red; often even a
still less degree of heat will suffice.
66. Cast Steel. Cast steel is the most homogeneous, full, and beautiful of the
three classes. Several varieties exist. The fracture of cast steel, as compared with
others, is smooth, compact, and of a white-grey color, resembling coke. The grain
is fine and very even. The metal must be hardened at a temperature much lower
than can be safely applied to other classes of steel, since it is rapidly deteriorated
by heat.
Cast steel is more fusible than ordinary steel, and will fracture with ease under
the hammer when heated to a blue tint, so that great care is essential in hammering
it.
The metal should never be heated beyond a dull or cherry-red heat, lest it be
burnt.
The tenacity will be increased by forging at a low temperature or even by cold
hammering.
The fineness in grain, together with its high density, afford an indication that the
metal can be rendered very uniformly hard; that very fine cutting edges and the
most minute rods can be made of it; and that, after hardening, it can be highly and
uniformly polished; in other words, that it does not exhibit spots or streaks
differing in color from the mass, as is always the case with natural and cement
steels. For most horological purposes (such as making pinions, staffs, pivots, etc.)
cast steel is preferable. It is the only kind that can with certainty be highly
polished, turned perfectly round, and that does not get distorted in the smoothing.
Moreover, when wear does occur it exhibits less irregularity.
Highly-carbonized shear steel exhibits a fine, close grain that would make it
easily mistaken for cast steel. They can be best distinguished by the application of
dilute sulphuric acid. The side of the bar when acted on by this means exhibits
lines that indicate the junctions of the several layers constituting shear steel.
D ET ER MINAT I O N O F T HE Q U A L I T I E S O F S T E EL .
67. It is unnecessary to observe that as we are writing mainly for the use of
practical watch and clockmakers, we shall make no reference to those elaborate
Page 102
systems of testing that form a remarkable feature of the engineering of the present
day, but shall confine ourselves to the tests which workmen can apply for
themselves.
When the grain is fine, close and homogeneous, the fracture in even curved
lines and the surface of a uniform grey aspect, the metal is considered to be of
good quality. It is, nevertheless, unsafe to rely too much on such indications, for a
steel that has been hammered until cold will exhibit a fine close grain, whereas the
grain of the same metal will be coarse and open if it was still red hot when the
hammering or rolling was concluded. The grain of hardened steel, moreover,
depends on the degree of heat to which it has been subjected.
When of equal quality, even if from the same maker, the grain will be finer in
bars of small dimensions than in those that are larger.
Cast steel even, especially in large pieces, is not always perfectly homogeneous,
as can be easily perceived on applying the file, or still better, in the lathe; an object
can with difficulty be turned perfectly round, and loses its shape in the smoothing.
As a general rule it is impossible to form a reliable opinion on a specimen of steel
until after it has been worked, filed, turned, and tested according to the particular
use to which it is to be applied; for a steel that is excellent for making, say, a
spring or a cutter, may be quite unsuitable and give most unsatisfactory results if
used for making staffs or fine pivots, or the converse may be equally true.
As a preliminary test, break a piece of the metal; after having examined the
fracture, form a cutting edge, harden to what seems to be a convenient degree,
then sharpen and employ for cutting small pieces of iron. If the edge is in no way
damaged by the iron, this may be taken as a good indication that the metal
possesses body and tenacity, and that it can be hardened as much as is required for
such purposes.
The following are methods of obtaining more complete information as to the
homogeneity, the character of grain, the degree of hardness a given sample can
attain, as well as its malleability, body, elasticity, etc.
68. Homogeneity. Place drops of dilute sulphuric acid equidistant along the
surface of a bar. If the metal is homogeneous all the drops will impart the same
color.
Cold hammer or hammer-harden, and then fire-harden part of the bar. Break off
the extremity in order to study the fracture; if the result of this examination is
satisfactory, polish the hardened end carefully, and with the aid of a glass again
examine into the homogeneity of the metal. The polish will be the better and more
uniform according as the steel is more homogeneous.
day, but shall confine ourselves to the tests which workmen can apply for
themselves.
When the grain is fine, close and homogeneous, the fracture in even curved
lines and the surface of a uniform grey aspect, the metal is considered to be of
good quality. It is, nevertheless, unsafe to rely too much on such indications, for a
steel that has been hammered until cold will exhibit a fine close grain, whereas the
grain of the same metal will be coarse and open if it was still red hot when the
hammering or rolling was concluded. The grain of hardened steel, moreover,
depends on the degree of heat to which it has been subjected.
When of equal quality, even if from the same maker, the grain will be finer in
bars of small dimensions than in those that are larger.
Cast steel even, especially in large pieces, is not always perfectly homogeneous,
as can be easily perceived on applying the file, or still better, in the lathe; an object
can with difficulty be turned perfectly round, and loses its shape in the smoothing.
As a general rule it is impossible to form a reliable opinion on a specimen of steel
until after it has been worked, filed, turned, and tested according to the particular
use to which it is to be applied; for a steel that is excellent for making, say, a
spring or a cutter, may be quite unsuitable and give most unsatisfactory results if
used for making staffs or fine pivots, or the converse may be equally true.
As a preliminary test, break a piece of the metal; after having examined the
fracture, form a cutting edge, harden to what seems to be a convenient degree,
then sharpen and employ for cutting small pieces of iron. If the edge is in no way
damaged by the iron, this may be taken as a good indication that the metal
possesses body and tenacity, and that it can be hardened as much as is required for
such purposes.
The following are methods of obtaining more complete information as to the
homogeneity, the character of grain, the degree of hardness a given sample can
attain, as well as its malleability, body, elasticity, etc.
68. Homogeneity. Place drops of dilute sulphuric acid equidistant along the
surface of a bar. If the metal is homogeneous all the drops will impart the same
color.
Cold hammer or hammer-harden, and then fire-harden part of the bar. Break off
the extremity in order to study the fracture; if the result of this examination is
satisfactory, polish the hardened end carefully, and with the aid of a glass again
examine into the homogeneity of the metal. The polish will be the better and more
uniform according as the steel is more homogeneous.
Page 103
69. Grain, hardness and temperature of hardening. All varieties of steel do
not harden to the same degree, and each requires to be heated to its own particular
temperature for hardening; moreover, the character of the metal, its color, and the
size of its grains vary according to the degree of heat to which it is subjected. It
would be difficult to draw any exact conclusions as to the character of grain and
the hardness without the following practical method, which we owe to Reaumur:
At a temperature not exceeding a dull redness, forge a piece of the steel to be
tested into the form of a razor-blade, that is to say, leaving it thick on one edge and
thin on the other, in the direction of its length. Then heat the blade, holding it by
one end, and when the other end has reached a bright red heat, plunge the whole
into water. Part of the steel will then be hard hardened. Along the entire length of
the thinner edge carefully break off the metal with a hammer or otherwise, and
examine the character of grain at different points of the exposed thicker edge thus
left.
As the form, color, etc., of the grain depend on the degree of heat to which each
portion was subjected, it follows that we shall observe four types of grains: (1)
Large, white, sparkling grains; (2) Grains that are medium sized and intermixed,
some being white and sparkling, others white and dull; (3) Fine dull grains; and
(4) Grains that are medium sized, but dull and ill-defined.
According as the third class of grains is observed to be more numerous than the
second class, so is the fineness of the steel greater, and conversely.
This method of testing possesses, moreover, the advantage that the workman
can experiment on his blade of steel with a view to determine the temperature best
suited for hardening.
Grain No. 1 corresponds to a white-red heat for hardening.
Grain No. 2 corresponds to an orange-red heat for hardening.
Grain No. 3 corresponds to some shade of cherry-red heat for hardening.
Grain No. 4 corresponds to a dull red heat for hardening.
As there is some difficulty in remembering the exact points at which these
several temperatures are reached we will complete this account of the mode of
testing by the following:
70. On a thick plate of metal, maintained at an orange-red heat, place three
fragments of the steel under examination, previously marking them, so as to
observe the order in which they are immersed in water; and have three vessels of
water standing near. As soon as one of the pieces reaches a dull cherry-red heat,
allow it to slide into one of the vessels; heat the second to a medium cherry, and
not harden to the same degree, and each requires to be heated to its own particular
temperature for hardening; moreover, the character of the metal, its color, and the
size of its grains vary according to the degree of heat to which it is subjected. It
would be difficult to draw any exact conclusions as to the character of grain and
the hardness without the following practical method, which we owe to Reaumur:
At a temperature not exceeding a dull redness, forge a piece of the steel to be
tested into the form of a razor-blade, that is to say, leaving it thick on one edge and
thin on the other, in the direction of its length. Then heat the blade, holding it by
one end, and when the other end has reached a bright red heat, plunge the whole
into water. Part of the steel will then be hard hardened. Along the entire length of
the thinner edge carefully break off the metal with a hammer or otherwise, and
examine the character of grain at different points of the exposed thicker edge thus
left.
As the form, color, etc., of the grain depend on the degree of heat to which each
portion was subjected, it follows that we shall observe four types of grains: (1)
Large, white, sparkling grains; (2) Grains that are medium sized and intermixed,
some being white and sparkling, others white and dull; (3) Fine dull grains; and
(4) Grains that are medium sized, but dull and ill-defined.
According as the third class of grains is observed to be more numerous than the
second class, so is the fineness of the steel greater, and conversely.
This method of testing possesses, moreover, the advantage that the workman
can experiment on his blade of steel with a view to determine the temperature best
suited for hardening.
Grain No. 1 corresponds to a white-red heat for hardening.
Grain No. 2 corresponds to an orange-red heat for hardening.
Grain No. 3 corresponds to some shade of cherry-red heat for hardening.
Grain No. 4 corresponds to a dull red heat for hardening.
As there is some difficulty in remembering the exact points at which these
several temperatures are reached we will complete this account of the mode of
testing by the following:
70. On a thick plate of metal, maintained at an orange-red heat, place three
fragments of the steel under examination, previously marking them, so as to
observe the order in which they are immersed in water; and have three vessels of
water standing near. As soon as one of the pieces reaches a dull cherry-red heat,
allow it to slide into one of the vessels; heat the second to a medium cherry, and
Page 104
the third to a bright cherry-red, introducing them in succession into the water-
vessels. If these pieces be examined as to the resistance they offer to breaking, and
the fracture of each be compared with the fracture at different points of the razor-
blade, the file being used to test hardness, we shall have sufficient evidence as to
the most suitable temperature for the hardening of this particular variety of steel.
71. Body. A steel that possesses body is not brittle. This quality may be tested in
the following manner: Several bars of different kinds of steel, of equal dimensions
and hardened as uniformly as possible, are bent until the breaking point is reached.
If all the conditions of the trial are identical, those bars that stand the greatest
angular deflection without breaking have the most body.
Steel that possesses body does not break as easily as that which is wanting in
body. Its fracture will be, as it were, bevelled off like the mouth-piece of a whistle.
If soft and fibrous, it will be characterized by parts being torn asunder.
72. Elasticity. The elasticity may be tested in a similar manner. It is
proportional to the curvature or to the weight that a rod or blade of the metal under
examination can support without failing to return to its initial position as soon as
the weight or obstacle is removed. A sample of steel that is distorted by a weight
that another specimen resists, is evidently inferior in elasticity.
73. Malleability, tenacity, ductility. A cold hammering, if carefully managed,
will suffice to indicate the limits between which steel will support frequently
repeated percussion, without breaking, cracking or flying.
Forge a piece, introducing it a number of times into the fire in order to ascertain
whether it loses its distinctive characteristics rapidly, and whether it can be
successfully forged.
It is more difficult to forge, according as it is harder and more “steely.”
The degree of malleability is indicated by the manner in which it supports
hammering and rolling, and by the smallness of the dimensions to which it can be
brought by such operations.
Passing the metal through a draw-plate with smooth holes, or tapping it in a
screw-plate will give useful indications as to degree of ductility and tenacity.
A metal is said to be malleable when it can be easily spread out under the
hammer or in the laminating rolls. It is called ductile when it can be reduced to
very thin wire by passing through the draw-plate.
It would seem that these two properties, ductility and malleability, should
always exist together, to the same degree, in any given metal, but such is not the
case. Iron can be drawn into very fine wire, but cannot be reduced to sheets of
vessels. If these pieces be examined as to the resistance they offer to breaking, and
the fracture of each be compared with the fracture at different points of the razor-
blade, the file being used to test hardness, we shall have sufficient evidence as to
the most suitable temperature for the hardening of this particular variety of steel.
71. Body. A steel that possesses body is not brittle. This quality may be tested in
the following manner: Several bars of different kinds of steel, of equal dimensions
and hardened as uniformly as possible, are bent until the breaking point is reached.
If all the conditions of the trial are identical, those bars that stand the greatest
angular deflection without breaking have the most body.
Steel that possesses body does not break as easily as that which is wanting in
body. Its fracture will be, as it were, bevelled off like the mouth-piece of a whistle.
If soft and fibrous, it will be characterized by parts being torn asunder.
72. Elasticity. The elasticity may be tested in a similar manner. It is
proportional to the curvature or to the weight that a rod or blade of the metal under
examination can support without failing to return to its initial position as soon as
the weight or obstacle is removed. A sample of steel that is distorted by a weight
that another specimen resists, is evidently inferior in elasticity.
73. Malleability, tenacity, ductility. A cold hammering, if carefully managed,
will suffice to indicate the limits between which steel will support frequently
repeated percussion, without breaking, cracking or flying.
Forge a piece, introducing it a number of times into the fire in order to ascertain
whether it loses its distinctive characteristics rapidly, and whether it can be
successfully forged.
It is more difficult to forge, according as it is harder and more “steely.”
The degree of malleability is indicated by the manner in which it supports
hammering and rolling, and by the smallness of the dimensions to which it can be
brought by such operations.
Passing the metal through a draw-plate with smooth holes, or tapping it in a
screw-plate will give useful indications as to degree of ductility and tenacity.
A metal is said to be malleable when it can be easily spread out under the
hammer or in the laminating rolls. It is called ductile when it can be reduced to
very thin wire by passing through the draw-plate.
It would seem that these two properties, ductility and malleability, should
always exist together, to the same degree, in any given metal, but such is not the
case. Iron can be drawn into very fine wire, but cannot be reduced to sheets of
Page 105
relatively equal thinness; tin and lead give leaves of extreme thinness, but cannot
be drawn out into very fine wires; gold and silver are both very malleable and
ductile, and they rank highest as regards the possession of these properties.
Steel is more fusible and malleable than iron, but less ductile.
74. Observations. Formerly the makers of cylinder escapements preferred
forged steel, and their cylinders often cracked after the hardening: modern makers
employ drawn steel, and it is much preferable. At the same time they do not appear
to recognize the principal reason for the difference in the two varieties of steel. It
seems to us to be as follows: forged steel is malleable; drawn steel, which has
passed well through the draw-plate, is ductile, and, therefore, tenacious. But
tenacity in a metal is nothing else than an exceptional resistance, opposed by its
particles to a fracture or separation; it follows, then that drawn steel will crack
with less facility than the other.
PREPA RAT I O NS O F S T E EL .
75. When a variety of steel has been selected that possesses the requisite
properties: that is to say, fibre and elasticity for springs; body and tenacity for
circular cutters, gravers, etc., it must be prepared; in other words, it must be made
so that it can be worked with ease, for steel that is badly prepared will resist both
the file, the graver and the drill. It can never be turned perfectly round, and will
harden unevenly.
76. To anneal steel. The commonest, and at the same time best, method consists
in heating the metal to a dull, red heat, burying it in hot ashes and allowing it to
cool slowly.
Steel raised to a red heat in contact with air loses a portion of its carbon, so that
it is better to place the metal in a vessel of burnt clay; this is introduced into a fire
which must not be too bright at first, and when the vessel has attained a red heat
the fire is checked and left until the whole is quite cold.
In order to soften steel by annealing with a view to work it, engineers entirely
cover the metal with dry powdered wood charcoal or dry iron filings or turnings,
in a cast iron box or pot, or in a crucible, shutting up all the openings so as to
protect it from the direct action of the fire and from the air. The vessel is then put
in a dull fire, the heat being gradually raised until the whole has acquired the
requisite temperature, which is known by observing the color (see the following
table); this degree of heat is maintained for about ten minutes and the fire
quenched, after which it must be allowed to gradually die out. Frequently the
be drawn out into very fine wires; gold and silver are both very malleable and
ductile, and they rank highest as regards the possession of these properties.
Steel is more fusible and malleable than iron, but less ductile.
74. Observations. Formerly the makers of cylinder escapements preferred
forged steel, and their cylinders often cracked after the hardening: modern makers
employ drawn steel, and it is much preferable. At the same time they do not appear
to recognize the principal reason for the difference in the two varieties of steel. It
seems to us to be as follows: forged steel is malleable; drawn steel, which has
passed well through the draw-plate, is ductile, and, therefore, tenacious. But
tenacity in a metal is nothing else than an exceptional resistance, opposed by its
particles to a fracture or separation; it follows, then that drawn steel will crack
with less facility than the other.
PREPA RAT I O NS O F S T E EL .
75. When a variety of steel has been selected that possesses the requisite
properties: that is to say, fibre and elasticity for springs; body and tenacity for
circular cutters, gravers, etc., it must be prepared; in other words, it must be made
so that it can be worked with ease, for steel that is badly prepared will resist both
the file, the graver and the drill. It can never be turned perfectly round, and will
harden unevenly.
76. To anneal steel. The commonest, and at the same time best, method consists
in heating the metal to a dull, red heat, burying it in hot ashes and allowing it to
cool slowly.
Steel raised to a red heat in contact with air loses a portion of its carbon, so that
it is better to place the metal in a vessel of burnt clay; this is introduced into a fire
which must not be too bright at first, and when the vessel has attained a red heat
the fire is checked and left until the whole is quite cold.
In order to soften steel by annealing with a view to work it, engineers entirely
cover the metal with dry powdered wood charcoal or dry iron filings or turnings,
in a cast iron box or pot, or in a crucible, shutting up all the openings so as to
protect it from the direct action of the fire and from the air. The vessel is then put
in a dull fire, the heat being gradually raised until the whole has acquired the
requisite temperature, which is known by observing the color (see the following
table); this degree of heat is maintained for about ten minutes and the fire
quenched, after which it must be allowed to gradually die out. Frequently the
Page 106
cooling is not complete for a day or two, and even more when the crucible is of
large dimensions.
The metal will become softer, according as the cooling is more slowly effected.
It is generally heated to 800° or 900° C. (1500° or 1600° F.), a cherry-red heat.
When the steel is associated with brass, as in the case of a compensation balance,
it is not safe to exceed 600° C. (1000° F.)
77. It will be useful here to give the following table, compiled by Pouillet, of the
temperature, as indicated by the air-thermometer, corresponding to various colors
of a heated body:
Incipient red heat corresponds to 525° C. ( 980° F.)
Dull red ” ” ” 700° C. (1280° F.)
Incipient cherry-red ” ” ” 800° C. (1470° F.)
Cherry-red ” ” ” 900° C. (1650° F.)
Clear cherry-red ” ” ” 1000° C. (1830° F.)
Deep orange ” ” ” 1100° C. (2010° F.)
Clear orange ” ” ” 1200° C. (2190° F.)
White ” ” ” 1300° C. (2370° F.)
Bright white ” ” ” 1400° C. (2550° F.)
Dazzling white ” ” ” 1500-1600° C. (2730-2910° F.)
78. Annealing or softening in water. Instead of allowing a piece of steel to cool
slowly, it may be thrown into water when heated to a temperature just below that
at which it would harden. In this case the metal will not harden, but, on the
contrary, become very soft. A single operation suffices for certain varieties of steel,
but with others it must be repeated.
The only difficulty consists in fixing upon the precise moment at which the
metal has the requisite tint (a purplish yellow or dull red), and this is more
especially felt when dealing with small pieces; experience can alone guide the
workman in this matter.
A skilful workman recommends the employment of water containing one-fifth
of its weight of gum arabic. He also recommends that the metal be wiped over
with an oiled rag, then held in the fire, and, as soon as the oil is converted into a
thick smoke, and is on the point of igniting, to immerse in water.
large dimensions.
The metal will become softer, according as the cooling is more slowly effected.
It is generally heated to 800° or 900° C. (1500° or 1600° F.), a cherry-red heat.
When the steel is associated with brass, as in the case of a compensation balance,
it is not safe to exceed 600° C. (1000° F.)
77. It will be useful here to give the following table, compiled by Pouillet, of the
temperature, as indicated by the air-thermometer, corresponding to various colors
of a heated body:
Incipient red heat corresponds to 525° C. ( 980° F.)
Dull red ” ” ” 700° C. (1280° F.)
Incipient cherry-red ” ” ” 800° C. (1470° F.)
Cherry-red ” ” ” 900° C. (1650° F.)
Clear cherry-red ” ” ” 1000° C. (1830° F.)
Deep orange ” ” ” 1100° C. (2010° F.)
Clear orange ” ” ” 1200° C. (2190° F.)
White ” ” ” 1300° C. (2370° F.)
Bright white ” ” ” 1400° C. (2550° F.)
Dazzling white ” ” ” 1500-1600° C. (2730-2910° F.)
78. Annealing or softening in water. Instead of allowing a piece of steel to cool
slowly, it may be thrown into water when heated to a temperature just below that
at which it would harden. In this case the metal will not harden, but, on the
contrary, become very soft. A single operation suffices for certain varieties of steel,
but with others it must be repeated.
The only difficulty consists in fixing upon the precise moment at which the
metal has the requisite tint (a purplish yellow or dull red), and this is more
especially felt when dealing with small pieces; experience can alone guide the
workman in this matter.
A skilful workman recommends the employment of water containing one-fifth
of its weight of gum arabic. He also recommends that the metal be wiped over
with an oiled rag, then held in the fire, and, as soon as the oil is converted into a
thick smoke, and is on the point of igniting, to immerse in water.
Page 107
79. Hammering steel. Watchmakers who are called upon to manipulate
exceedingly small pieces of steel, can somewhat increase the body and
homogeneity of the metal by a cold hammering. After annealing, the object is
hammered with light, uniform blows, again annealed, and the same operation is
repeated one or more times, according to the degree of malleability already
acquired by the metal. Steel thus prepared has more body; the particles composing
it are more closely pressed together; it files and turns well, can be heated more
evenly, and is not distorted or only very slightly in hardening, providing the
requisite precautions are taken.
80. The hammer and anvil. It is important that in these operations the surfaces
of the hammer and anvil employed be perfectly smooth and even polished. If they
are rough or cracked, if they are uneven or have a grained surface, a flaw will be
produced in the body of the steel or a crack on its surface.
81. To clean rough steel. The black coating known as “scale,” which covers the
surface of the metal after it has been in the fire, will rapidly spoil gravers and files,
and, in addition to this, it leaves behind in them excessively hard particles that will
become imbedded in the steel itself after a clean surface has been exposed. It is
then essential, in order to ensure good and rapid workmanship, to previously
remove this crust from the surface.
This can be done in two ways: by using a rapidly-revolving grindstone, which
instantaneously removes the oxide, at the same time smoothing the surface of the
steel; or by leaving it for a sufficient length of time in dilute acid, by which the
superficial oxide is dissolved.
Sulphuric acid is usually preferred; in addition to the cleaning, it is said to
produce an effect somewhat similar to annealing. On withdrawal from the acid, the
steel must be thoroughly washed with water and wiped dry with care.
82. Ordinary mode of preparing steel. When the metal has been annealed by
one of the methods indicated above, its preparation is completed by “pickling” in
acid, after which it is hammered cold between an anvil and hammer (79, 80).
When the metal has been worked, it is heated to a bluish tint, and after cooling
slowly is ready for the hardening.
83. M. Covillot’s mode. This author adopts a method whereby he obtains steel
that is very soft to work and perfectly free from hard grains or “pins” of cast iron,
which are so often to be met with in steel, causing it to crack in consequence of
their inability to spread under the hammer.
Take some garlic, the younger the better, mix it with sufficient good walnut-oil
to cover the garlic and form into a paste; then place it in an earthenware pot on the
exceedingly small pieces of steel, can somewhat increase the body and
homogeneity of the metal by a cold hammering. After annealing, the object is
hammered with light, uniform blows, again annealed, and the same operation is
repeated one or more times, according to the degree of malleability already
acquired by the metal. Steel thus prepared has more body; the particles composing
it are more closely pressed together; it files and turns well, can be heated more
evenly, and is not distorted or only very slightly in hardening, providing the
requisite precautions are taken.
80. The hammer and anvil. It is important that in these operations the surfaces
of the hammer and anvil employed be perfectly smooth and even polished. If they
are rough or cracked, if they are uneven or have a grained surface, a flaw will be
produced in the body of the steel or a crack on its surface.
81. To clean rough steel. The black coating known as “scale,” which covers the
surface of the metal after it has been in the fire, will rapidly spoil gravers and files,
and, in addition to this, it leaves behind in them excessively hard particles that will
become imbedded in the steel itself after a clean surface has been exposed. It is
then essential, in order to ensure good and rapid workmanship, to previously
remove this crust from the surface.
This can be done in two ways: by using a rapidly-revolving grindstone, which
instantaneously removes the oxide, at the same time smoothing the surface of the
steel; or by leaving it for a sufficient length of time in dilute acid, by which the
superficial oxide is dissolved.
Sulphuric acid is usually preferred; in addition to the cleaning, it is said to
produce an effect somewhat similar to annealing. On withdrawal from the acid, the
steel must be thoroughly washed with water and wiped dry with care.
82. Ordinary mode of preparing steel. When the metal has been annealed by
one of the methods indicated above, its preparation is completed by “pickling” in
acid, after which it is hammered cold between an anvil and hammer (79, 80).
When the metal has been worked, it is heated to a bluish tint, and after cooling
slowly is ready for the hardening.
83. M. Covillot’s mode. This author adopts a method whereby he obtains steel
that is very soft to work and perfectly free from hard grains or “pins” of cast iron,
which are so often to be met with in steel, causing it to crack in consequence of
their inability to spread under the hammer.
Take some garlic, the younger the better, mix it with sufficient good walnut-oil
to cover the garlic and form into a paste; then place it in an earthenware pot on the
Page 108
fire. When beginning to boil, heat the steel to dull redness and plunge it into the
boiling paste. Withdraw it with a quantity of oil and garlic adhering; again heat to
redness and plunge into the paste. This operation may be repeated two or three
times. Then heat the steel, while inclosed in an iron tube or box placed on the fire,
and allow the whole to cool. Finally, the steel may be finished by setting it to cook
(if we may use such an expression) for ten or twelve hours in the composition of
garlic and nut-oil.
The last operation may be performed by setting the boiling solution over an oil-
lamp, after depressing the wick in such a manner that the paste may be kept just
simmering.
M. Covillot employed the same mixture for hardening the objects; but then, of
course, it must be cold.
HAR DE NI NG .
84. It is well known that by the operation of hardening, which consists in
heating a piece of steel to a red heat and immediately chilling it, the hardness is
very materially increased.
Hardening increases the dimensions of the object. A steel collar adjusted to fit a
cylinder will slide on more easily after hardening.
Rolled steel is more liable to be distorted in the hardening than metal which has
been forged or hammer-hardened. As a general rule, when steel—especially cast
steel—has been carefully annealed, cold-hammered and, after working, heated to a
blue temper and slowly cooled, it will not be distorted in the hardening, providing
the heating is skillfully conducted, and if, at the moment of introducing the object
vertically into the bath, the heat is evenly distributed throughout. Some practical
men affirm that the mere presence of an oily layer on the surface of the water will
check the tendency to distortion.
A workman frequently pretends that he has some exceptionally good solution
for hardening, of which a great mystery is often made; but it is very generally
admitted by those who are well-informed that these so-called secrets are a delusion
and in no sense superior to pure water. There is a certain amount of truth on both
sides, and the former class are somewhat justified by experiments with the various
solutions enumerated below. We may, however, lay down the three following
conditions as essential to the successful conduct of the operation of hardening: (1)
The steel must previously be carefully prepared and worked; metal that has been
skillfully hammered cold or below a red heat, for instance, will harden better than
boiling paste. Withdraw it with a quantity of oil and garlic adhering; again heat to
redness and plunge into the paste. This operation may be repeated two or three
times. Then heat the steel, while inclosed in an iron tube or box placed on the fire,
and allow the whole to cool. Finally, the steel may be finished by setting it to cook
(if we may use such an expression) for ten or twelve hours in the composition of
garlic and nut-oil.
The last operation may be performed by setting the boiling solution over an oil-
lamp, after depressing the wick in such a manner that the paste may be kept just
simmering.
M. Covillot employed the same mixture for hardening the objects; but then, of
course, it must be cold.
HAR DE NI NG .
84. It is well known that by the operation of hardening, which consists in
heating a piece of steel to a red heat and immediately chilling it, the hardness is
very materially increased.
Hardening increases the dimensions of the object. A steel collar adjusted to fit a
cylinder will slide on more easily after hardening.
Rolled steel is more liable to be distorted in the hardening than metal which has
been forged or hammer-hardened. As a general rule, when steel—especially cast
steel—has been carefully annealed, cold-hammered and, after working, heated to a
blue temper and slowly cooled, it will not be distorted in the hardening, providing
the heating is skillfully conducted, and if, at the moment of introducing the object
vertically into the bath, the heat is evenly distributed throughout. Some practical
men affirm that the mere presence of an oily layer on the surface of the water will
check the tendency to distortion.
A workman frequently pretends that he has some exceptionally good solution
for hardening, of which a great mystery is often made; but it is very generally
admitted by those who are well-informed that these so-called secrets are a delusion
and in no sense superior to pure water. There is a certain amount of truth on both
sides, and the former class are somewhat justified by experiments with the various
solutions enumerated below. We may, however, lay down the three following
conditions as essential to the successful conduct of the operation of hardening: (1)
The steel must previously be carefully prepared and worked; metal that has been
skillfully hammered cold or below a red heat, for instance, will harden better than
Page 109
when not so treated; but if hammered too much or carelessly, it will crack; (2) The
method of heating should be such that the heat is evenly distributed throughout the
object; if, on immersion, its temperature is not uniform, the degree of hardness
will vary; (3) The skill of the workman must enable him to detect the exact degree
of heat the variety of steel can withstand, and this must on no account be
exceeded, for in that case the steel will lose tenacity, will be more or less burnt,
&c. In the case of irregular shaped articles, considerable skill is often needed to
ensure that the several parts of the mass shall be cooled at, approximately, the
same rate.
85. Methods of hardening. The baths used for hardening may be classed under
three heads: Tough, Hard, and Glass-hard. It must be understood, however, that
these classes may be made to merge more or less into one another, by varying the
degree of temper.
85a. The following receipts are drawn from various sources, and the reader is
recommended to select the one which he finds on trial to be best adapted to his
requirements, for, as Prof. Akerman has pointed out, there are very many
conditions exceedingly difficult of calculation that influence hardening, and hence
it follows that a workman accustomed to hardening often considers that only one
method, which he has been in the habit of employing, can be used for a certain
purpose, while another equally skillful workman can only attain the same result by
a method essentially different.
I. Tough. Tallow; tepid water; oil; resin; sealing-wax; lead; beeswax; a solution
of 3 to 4 parts (by weight) of gum arabic in 100 parts of water; 1 part of soft soap
in 100 parts of water; cold water with a layer of oil over it, the thickness of which
varies with the degree of hardness required; 10 parts mutton suet, 5 parts resin, 2
parts sal-ammoniac, and 35 parts olive oil.
II. Hard. Cold water; water containing various salts, such as sal-ammoniac and
sea-salt; a solution of 5 parts sea-salt and 1 part sal-ammoniac in 20 parts of water;
4 parts sulphuric acid, 50 parts sea-salt, 10 parts alcohol, and 1,000 parts water (all
by weight); 4 parts sulphuric acid, 1 part nitric acid, 1 part pyroligneous acid in
1,000 parts water (to be used very cold).
III. Glass-hard.—Mercury; nitric acid; opium; any cyanide.
86. As a rule it is well to employ tallow for the hardening of small objects in
which hardness without brittleness is needed. Oil renders the surface harder than
the interior, and soapy water has the same effect. Saline solutions generally give
great hardness. Very minute drills may be hardened by simply whisking them
about in the air after heating the blade to redness, and small objects may be
method of heating should be such that the heat is evenly distributed throughout the
object; if, on immersion, its temperature is not uniform, the degree of hardness
will vary; (3) The skill of the workman must enable him to detect the exact degree
of heat the variety of steel can withstand, and this must on no account be
exceeded, for in that case the steel will lose tenacity, will be more or less burnt,
&c. In the case of irregular shaped articles, considerable skill is often needed to
ensure that the several parts of the mass shall be cooled at, approximately, the
same rate.
85. Methods of hardening. The baths used for hardening may be classed under
three heads: Tough, Hard, and Glass-hard. It must be understood, however, that
these classes may be made to merge more or less into one another, by varying the
degree of temper.
85a. The following receipts are drawn from various sources, and the reader is
recommended to select the one which he finds on trial to be best adapted to his
requirements, for, as Prof. Akerman has pointed out, there are very many
conditions exceedingly difficult of calculation that influence hardening, and hence
it follows that a workman accustomed to hardening often considers that only one
method, which he has been in the habit of employing, can be used for a certain
purpose, while another equally skillful workman can only attain the same result by
a method essentially different.
I. Tough. Tallow; tepid water; oil; resin; sealing-wax; lead; beeswax; a solution
of 3 to 4 parts (by weight) of gum arabic in 100 parts of water; 1 part of soft soap
in 100 parts of water; cold water with a layer of oil over it, the thickness of which
varies with the degree of hardness required; 10 parts mutton suet, 5 parts resin, 2
parts sal-ammoniac, and 35 parts olive oil.
II. Hard. Cold water; water containing various salts, such as sal-ammoniac and
sea-salt; a solution of 5 parts sea-salt and 1 part sal-ammoniac in 20 parts of water;
4 parts sulphuric acid, 50 parts sea-salt, 10 parts alcohol, and 1,000 parts water (all
by weight); 4 parts sulphuric acid, 1 part nitric acid, 1 part pyroligneous acid in
1,000 parts water (to be used very cold).
III. Glass-hard.—Mercury; nitric acid; opium; any cyanide.
86. As a rule it is well to employ tallow for the hardening of small objects in
which hardness without brittleness is needed. Oil renders the surface harder than
the interior, and soapy water has the same effect. Saline solutions generally give
great hardness. Very minute drills may be hardened by simply whisking them
about in the air after heating the blade to redness, and small objects may be
Page 110
hardened by pressing between two cold surfaces, as those of the hammer and
anvil.
If hardened in nitric acid, opium, or mercury, the hardness of steel is so great
that it will easily cut glass. But such steel is brittle and all the more delicate
according as the precise temperature necessary (which is not very high) has been
exceeded. For it must always be borne in mind that steel which has been heated
too highly has deteriorated in quality and will remain brittle.
87. Precautions to be observed in hardening. In the case of delicate pieces it
is necessary to avoid the use of the blow-pipe, as the current of air causes the
surface to scale, and, as is well known, the metal being unevenly heated will be
distorted in the hardening, and will not be uniformly hardened.
It is better to enclose the article between two pieces of ignited charcoal, or in a
metal tube, or to bring it in contact with a sufficiently hot piece of metal, etc. An
excellent plan is to heat the article in a bath of hot lead, or of lead and tin in
proportions dependent on the temperature required. The heating is thus
exceedingly uniform, and, if operating in a dark room, the temperature can be
accurately judged.
When it is required to harden an object without discoloring the surface or
destroying the polish, it may be placed in a tube, and completely surrounded with
powdered wood charcoal, or, preferably, animal charcoal. The whole after being
heated is plunged in water without the steel being in any way exposed to the air.
The powder must be heaped up as a precaution against access of air. On being
taken from the water, the steel is at once placed in alcohol, and if at all dull it will
generally be only necessary to rub the surface with a little rouge.
It is essential that the animal charcoal be previously heated in order to expel
moisture, as otherwise it would adhere to the surface and produce marks and even
irregularity in the hardness.
As a rule the object must be immersed in the cooling liquid vertically in the
direction of its greatest length, and if of unequal thickness, the stout portion should
touch the surface first, so that the metal may cool more uniformly. In hardening
large masses of steel, various devices are resorted to in order to insure uniformity
in the cooling, but space prevents us from entering more fully into this interesting
question.
The vessel must be of such a depth that the object will not reach the bottom
until quite cold. It is liable to distortion if introduced sideways, or if the vessel is
too shallow.
anvil.
If hardened in nitric acid, opium, or mercury, the hardness of steel is so great
that it will easily cut glass. But such steel is brittle and all the more delicate
according as the precise temperature necessary (which is not very high) has been
exceeded. For it must always be borne in mind that steel which has been heated
too highly has deteriorated in quality and will remain brittle.
87. Precautions to be observed in hardening. In the case of delicate pieces it
is necessary to avoid the use of the blow-pipe, as the current of air causes the
surface to scale, and, as is well known, the metal being unevenly heated will be
distorted in the hardening, and will not be uniformly hardened.
It is better to enclose the article between two pieces of ignited charcoal, or in a
metal tube, or to bring it in contact with a sufficiently hot piece of metal, etc. An
excellent plan is to heat the article in a bath of hot lead, or of lead and tin in
proportions dependent on the temperature required. The heating is thus
exceedingly uniform, and, if operating in a dark room, the temperature can be
accurately judged.
When it is required to harden an object without discoloring the surface or
destroying the polish, it may be placed in a tube, and completely surrounded with
powdered wood charcoal, or, preferably, animal charcoal. The whole after being
heated is plunged in water without the steel being in any way exposed to the air.
The powder must be heaped up as a precaution against access of air. On being
taken from the water, the steel is at once placed in alcohol, and if at all dull it will
generally be only necessary to rub the surface with a little rouge.
It is essential that the animal charcoal be previously heated in order to expel
moisture, as otherwise it would adhere to the surface and produce marks and even
irregularity in the hardness.
As a rule the object must be immersed in the cooling liquid vertically in the
direction of its greatest length, and if of unequal thickness, the stout portion should
touch the surface first, so that the metal may cool more uniformly. In hardening
large masses of steel, various devices are resorted to in order to insure uniformity
in the cooling, but space prevents us from entering more fully into this interesting
question.
The vessel must be of such a depth that the object will not reach the bottom
until quite cold. It is liable to distortion if introduced sideways, or if the vessel is
too shallow.
Page 111
The method described above for protecting the surface from the action of the
fire should be adopted when hardening delicate or complicated articles; but in the
case of drills, for instance, a simple coating of one of the following preparations is
sufficient.
When an object is hardened in a saline solution, it is well to cover it with a paste
composed of water, salt and flour (some use yeast and salt for this purpose), or a
thin clay. This precaution prevents any blistering or oxidation of the surface. If it
be desired to avoid oxidation, and, at the same time, to restore to the steel the
carbon it has lost owing to the action of the fire, it must be rolled, while still wet,
in another paste, containing powdered horn or leather, or some such calcined
animal matter. Delicate parts can also be protected by a layer of beeswax and olive
oil made hot.
In hardening small drills, very good results are obtained by enclosing the blade
in a pellet formed of prussiate of potash, lard and Castile soap, and cooling in
beeswax, or the surface may be protected by a layer of soft soap.
Steel as forged, that is with the thin scale on, is less liable to break in hardening
than if previously brightened, for the scale causes it to cook, and, therefore,
contract more slowly. At the same time it should be borne in mind that when the
surface is bright the hardness will be somewhat greater.
It will be well to warn the beginner that, if an object is not entirely immersed in
the cooling liquid, it should never be held still, but rapidly moved up and down, as
otherwise there is a liability to crack at that part which was level with the surface.
As a watchmaker only uses steels of the best quality, he should, in hardening
never exceed a cherry-red heat, and cherry-red comprises three distinct tints (77);
incipient cherry-red, cherry-red, and clear cherry-red. The second of these should
not be exceeded in hardening cast steel, and the third should be taken as an
extreme limit in the case of shear steel.
Ice-cold water should never be employed, but the extreme chill should be first
taken off. Indeed, it is found that frosty weather interferes materially with the
operation of hardening.
Some workmen maintain that the hardening is done better if the water has been
long used for the purpose without renewal.
T E MP E RI NG .
fire should be adopted when hardening delicate or complicated articles; but in the
case of drills, for instance, a simple coating of one of the following preparations is
sufficient.
When an object is hardened in a saline solution, it is well to cover it with a paste
composed of water, salt and flour (some use yeast and salt for this purpose), or a
thin clay. This precaution prevents any blistering or oxidation of the surface. If it
be desired to avoid oxidation, and, at the same time, to restore to the steel the
carbon it has lost owing to the action of the fire, it must be rolled, while still wet,
in another paste, containing powdered horn or leather, or some such calcined
animal matter. Delicate parts can also be protected by a layer of beeswax and olive
oil made hot.
In hardening small drills, very good results are obtained by enclosing the blade
in a pellet formed of prussiate of potash, lard and Castile soap, and cooling in
beeswax, or the surface may be protected by a layer of soft soap.
Steel as forged, that is with the thin scale on, is less liable to break in hardening
than if previously brightened, for the scale causes it to cook, and, therefore,
contract more slowly. At the same time it should be borne in mind that when the
surface is bright the hardness will be somewhat greater.
It will be well to warn the beginner that, if an object is not entirely immersed in
the cooling liquid, it should never be held still, but rapidly moved up and down, as
otherwise there is a liability to crack at that part which was level with the surface.
As a watchmaker only uses steels of the best quality, he should, in hardening
never exceed a cherry-red heat, and cherry-red comprises three distinct tints (77);
incipient cherry-red, cherry-red, and clear cherry-red. The second of these should
not be exceeded in hardening cast steel, and the third should be taken as an
extreme limit in the case of shear steel.
Ice-cold water should never be employed, but the extreme chill should be first
taken off. Indeed, it is found that frosty weather interferes materially with the
operation of hardening.
Some workmen maintain that the hardening is done better if the water has been
long used for the purpose without renewal.
T E MP E RI NG .
Page 112
88. Hardened steel is extremely fragile, but its tenacity may be restored by
tempering, that is to say, by heating it to a degree dependent on the amount by
which its original softness has to be restored. The color of the metallic surface will
gradually change as the temperature rises, each tint corresponding approximately
to the degree of heat given in the following table (Stodart):
1. Very pale straw yellow 220° C. (430° F.) }
Tools for metal.
2. A shade darker yellow 235° C. (450° F.) }
3. Darker straw yellow 245° C. (470° F.) } Tools for wood and screws, taps,
4. Still darker straw yellow 255° C. (490° F.) } etc.
5. Brown yellow 260° C. (500° C. 500° F.) }
Hatchets, chipping chisels and
6. Yellow, tinged slightly with purple 270° C. (520° F.) }
other percussive tools, saws, etc.
7. Light purple 275° C. (530° F.) }
8. Dark purple 290° C. (550° F.) }
Springs.
9. Dark blue 300° C. (570° F.) }
10. Paler blue 310° C. (590° F.) }
11. Still paler blue 320° C. (610° F.) }
Too soft for the above purposes.
12. Still paler blue, with tinge of green 335° C. (630°
}
F.)
89. It will facilitate the precise determination of these points if it be remembered
that
An alloy of 1 part lead and 1 part tin (by weight) melts at 196° C. (385° F.)
Metallic tin ” ” ” 230° C. (446° F.)
An alloy of 2 parts lead and 1 part tin ” 240° C. (465° F.)
Metallic bismuth ” ” ” 270° C. (520° F.)
An alloy of 5 parts lead and 1 part tin ” 290° c. (550° F.)
Metallic cadmium ” ” ” 310° C. (590° F.)
Metallic lead ” ” ” 320° C. (608° F.)
90. Before proceeding to temper an object, at least one of its faces must be
smoothed with pumice-stone, oilstone dust, or emery paper, and the surface must
be left perfectly clean, care being taken to avoid contact with the fingers, as
otherwise it will be difficult to ensure the requisite tint being obtained.
Tempered to any shade between Nos. 1 and 6 the steel will, if previously well
hardened, be left too hard to be worked by a file or graver; heated beyond No. 10,
it can no longer be much bent without distortion.
When the quality and the degree of hardness of steel differ, the temper
corresponding to a given tint will also vary. As a rule, hardened cast steel,
tempering, that is to say, by heating it to a degree dependent on the amount by
which its original softness has to be restored. The color of the metallic surface will
gradually change as the temperature rises, each tint corresponding approximately
to the degree of heat given in the following table (Stodart):
1. Very pale straw yellow 220° C. (430° F.) }
Tools for metal.
2. A shade darker yellow 235° C. (450° F.) }
3. Darker straw yellow 245° C. (470° F.) } Tools for wood and screws, taps,
4. Still darker straw yellow 255° C. (490° F.) } etc.
5. Brown yellow 260° C. (500° C. 500° F.) }
Hatchets, chipping chisels and
6. Yellow, tinged slightly with purple 270° C. (520° F.) }
other percussive tools, saws, etc.
7. Light purple 275° C. (530° F.) }
8. Dark purple 290° C. (550° F.) }
Springs.
9. Dark blue 300° C. (570° F.) }
10. Paler blue 310° C. (590° F.) }
11. Still paler blue 320° C. (610° F.) }
Too soft for the above purposes.
12. Still paler blue, with tinge of green 335° C. (630°
}
F.)
89. It will facilitate the precise determination of these points if it be remembered
that
An alloy of 1 part lead and 1 part tin (by weight) melts at 196° C. (385° F.)
Metallic tin ” ” ” 230° C. (446° F.)
An alloy of 2 parts lead and 1 part tin ” 240° C. (465° F.)
Metallic bismuth ” ” ” 270° C. (520° F.)
An alloy of 5 parts lead and 1 part tin ” 290° c. (550° F.)
Metallic cadmium ” ” ” 310° C. (590° F.)
Metallic lead ” ” ” 320° C. (608° F.)
90. Before proceeding to temper an object, at least one of its faces must be
smoothed with pumice-stone, oilstone dust, or emery paper, and the surface must
be left perfectly clean, care being taken to avoid contact with the fingers, as
otherwise it will be difficult to ensure the requisite tint being obtained.
Tempered to any shade between Nos. 1 and 6 the steel will, if previously well
hardened, be left too hard to be worked by a file or graver; heated beyond No. 10,
it can no longer be much bent without distortion.
When the quality and the degree of hardness of steel differ, the temper
corresponding to a given tint will also vary. As a rule, hardened cast steel,
Page 113
tempered to No. 8, will be found as soft as natural steel which has been let down
to No. 9, or even to No. 10.
A piece of steel can be let down to the same tint several times in succession
without altering its properties.
If a good and uniform color is desired, the steel must be highly polished, as the
oxidation of rough parts will render the tint irregular. The rouge employed must
not be too dry, and, if the burnisher is used, care should be taken that it acts on the
entire surface. Metal of a bad quality, which will not take an even polish, can
rarely be nicely blued.
When the object is finely smoothed with a uniform white surface, very good
results may be obtained; but in such cases the cleaning must be carefully
conducted, as the presence of minute greasy particles will always render the color
irregular, and may even entirely prevent its appearance.
A uniform color can only be obtained by heating the object in such a manner
that its temperature is raised evenly throughout.
The tempering may be performed by placing an object on the bluing tray, a thin
metallic plate, often covered with a thick layer of fine brass filings, which should
be renewed for each operation; or on a thick piece of metal previously heated to a
sufficient degree; on ignited charcoal covered with a layer of white ash; in a bath
of molten metal, the temperature of which corresponds to the requisite degree of
heat, or the object may be laid on the surface of such a bath, etc. Some
watchmakers when letting down a piece of steel immerse it in water to check the
action; but by so doing they produce an exactly contrary effect. If a piece of steel
be cooled suddenly in water as soon as it assumes any given color it will be softer
than if left to cool in the open air (78).
At one of the blue tints, steel possesses its maximum elasticity. The exact shade
varies with the different qualities of steel.
If a hardened and tempered spring has lost its initial elasticity, this may be
restored or even improved upon by gently hammer-hardening, and after whitening
with emery, again tempering to the proper blue tint.
91. A very convenient way of tempering a large number of small articles at a
time, heating them with absolute uniformity, is to place them in a small vessel with
sufficient tallow or cold oil to cover them; the whole is then heated to the requisite
degree, which may be determined by a thermometer or by observing the smoke.
When smoke is first seen to rise, the temper corresponds to No. 2 in the table
(article 88). Smoke more abundant and darker corresponds to No. 5. Black smoke
still thicker, No. 7. Oil or tallow takes fire with lighted paper presented to it, No. 9.
to No. 9, or even to No. 10.
A piece of steel can be let down to the same tint several times in succession
without altering its properties.
If a good and uniform color is desired, the steel must be highly polished, as the
oxidation of rough parts will render the tint irregular. The rouge employed must
not be too dry, and, if the burnisher is used, care should be taken that it acts on the
entire surface. Metal of a bad quality, which will not take an even polish, can
rarely be nicely blued.
When the object is finely smoothed with a uniform white surface, very good
results may be obtained; but in such cases the cleaning must be carefully
conducted, as the presence of minute greasy particles will always render the color
irregular, and may even entirely prevent its appearance.
A uniform color can only be obtained by heating the object in such a manner
that its temperature is raised evenly throughout.
The tempering may be performed by placing an object on the bluing tray, a thin
metallic plate, often covered with a thick layer of fine brass filings, which should
be renewed for each operation; or on a thick piece of metal previously heated to a
sufficient degree; on ignited charcoal covered with a layer of white ash; in a bath
of molten metal, the temperature of which corresponds to the requisite degree of
heat, or the object may be laid on the surface of such a bath, etc. Some
watchmakers when letting down a piece of steel immerse it in water to check the
action; but by so doing they produce an exactly contrary effect. If a piece of steel
be cooled suddenly in water as soon as it assumes any given color it will be softer
than if left to cool in the open air (78).
At one of the blue tints, steel possesses its maximum elasticity. The exact shade
varies with the different qualities of steel.
If a hardened and tempered spring has lost its initial elasticity, this may be
restored or even improved upon by gently hammer-hardening, and after whitening
with emery, again tempering to the proper blue tint.
91. A very convenient way of tempering a large number of small articles at a
time, heating them with absolute uniformity, is to place them in a small vessel with
sufficient tallow or cold oil to cover them; the whole is then heated to the requisite
degree, which may be determined by a thermometer or by observing the smoke.
When smoke is first seen to rise, the temper corresponds to No. 2 in the table
(article 88). Smoke more abundant and darker corresponds to No. 5. Black smoke
still thicker, No. 7. Oil or tallow takes fire with lighted paper presented to it, No. 9.
Page 114
After this the oil takes fire of itself and continues to burn. If the whole of the oil is
allowed to burn away, the lowest temper in the table is reached.
It is often convenient to simply smear an article with oil or tallow, and hold it
over a flame or piece of hot iron. The temper can then be judged in the manner just
explained.
With a view to combine the two operations of hardening and tempering, M.
Caron suggested that the temperature of the water used for hardening be heated to
a pre-determined degree. Thus the requisite temper may be given to gun-lock
springs by heating the water in which they are hardened to 55° C. (130° F.).
TO WHI T E N A ND BL U E S T E EL .
92. Some makers of watch-hands and balance-springs, when they are not
satisfied with the color assumed by an object in tempering, immerse it in an acid
bath, which whitens it, after which the bluing operation is repeated.
We have seen watchmakers whiten small pieces of steel with a piece of pith
moistened with dilute sulphuric acid, but the method cannot be recommended.
Others fix fine steel work, a watch-hand for example, with wax on a plate, and
whiten it by means of pith and polishing rouge, or a small stiff brush charged with
the same material. It is then detached, by heating, and cleaned in hot alcohol.
These methods, if judiciously employed, are of great service, but it is important
to remember always to thoroughly wash after the use of acid, and then to allow the
object to remain for a few minutes in alcohol.
Sulphuric acid does not whiten well. It often leaves dark shades on the surface.
Hydrochloric acid gives better results.
93. To blue steel uniformly. In order to secure a uniform color in tempering or
bluing, it is essential that the smoothing and polishing should have been very
evenly done. The surface must be perfectly clean; for otherwise parts that are
greasy, or on which the rouge has remained too long, or has been too dry, will not
exhibit the same tint as the rest. The heat must be uniformly distributed. This is
why, when bluing screws in a perforated bluing pan, it is customary to lightly
strike the handle, for the vibration and the perpetual change in the contacts ensures
their receiving the heat more evenly. A similar purpose is served by placing the
pieces in brass filings. Steel must not be tempered while only in contact with
bodies that are bad conductors of heat, stone, either in powder or block, for
allowed to burn away, the lowest temper in the table is reached.
It is often convenient to simply smear an article with oil or tallow, and hold it
over a flame or piece of hot iron. The temper can then be judged in the manner just
explained.
With a view to combine the two operations of hardening and tempering, M.
Caron suggested that the temperature of the water used for hardening be heated to
a pre-determined degree. Thus the requisite temper may be given to gun-lock
springs by heating the water in which they are hardened to 55° C. (130° F.).
TO WHI T E N A ND BL U E S T E EL .
92. Some makers of watch-hands and balance-springs, when they are not
satisfied with the color assumed by an object in tempering, immerse it in an acid
bath, which whitens it, after which the bluing operation is repeated.
We have seen watchmakers whiten small pieces of steel with a piece of pith
moistened with dilute sulphuric acid, but the method cannot be recommended.
Others fix fine steel work, a watch-hand for example, with wax on a plate, and
whiten it by means of pith and polishing rouge, or a small stiff brush charged with
the same material. It is then detached, by heating, and cleaned in hot alcohol.
These methods, if judiciously employed, are of great service, but it is important
to remember always to thoroughly wash after the use of acid, and then to allow the
object to remain for a few minutes in alcohol.
Sulphuric acid does not whiten well. It often leaves dark shades on the surface.
Hydrochloric acid gives better results.
93. To blue steel uniformly. In order to secure a uniform color in tempering or
bluing, it is essential that the smoothing and polishing should have been very
evenly done. The surface must be perfectly clean; for otherwise parts that are
greasy, or on which the rouge has remained too long, or has been too dry, will not
exhibit the same tint as the rest. The heat must be uniformly distributed. This is
why, when bluing screws in a perforated bluing pan, it is customary to lightly
strike the handle, for the vibration and the perpetual change in the contacts ensures
their receiving the heat more evenly. A similar purpose is served by placing the
pieces in brass filings. Steel must not be tempered while only in contact with
bodies that are bad conductors of heat, stone, either in powder or block, for
Page 115
example; because, as we have already observed, the distribution of heat would
occur unevenly throughout the metal.
Watchmakers secure a uniform tint more easily by using an iron or copper
polisher than one of any other metal.
94. To blue small pieces of steel evenly. If the foregoing precautions are
carefully observed, the following methods will give satisfactory results:
First blue the object without any special regard to uniformity of color. If it
proves to be imperfect, take a piece of dead wood that does not crumble too easily,
or of clean pith, and whiten the surface with rouge without letting it be too dry.
Small pieces thus prepared, if cleaned and blued with care, will assume a very
uniform tint.
A clever mechanic assures us that he easily obtains a similar result by rubbing
the surface, after it has been well smoothed, with the end of a stick that has been
partly burnt in the fire.
95. To blue a clock hand or a spring. To blue a piece of steel that is of some
length, a clock hand for example; clockmakers place it either on ignited charcoal,
with a hole in the center for the socket, and whitened over its surface, as this
indicates a degree of heat that is approximately uniform, or on a curved bluing tray
perforated with holes large enough to admit the socket. The center will become
violet or blue sooner than the rest, and as soon as it assumes the requisite tint, the
hand must be removed, holding it with tweezers by the socket, or by the aid of a
larged-sized arbor passed through it; the lower side of the hand is then placed on
the edge of the charcoal or bluing tray, and removed by gradually sliding it off
towards the point, more or less slowly according to the progress made with the
coloring; with a little practice, the workman will soon be enabled to secure a
uniform blue throughout the length, and even, if necessary, to retouch parts that
have not assumed a sufficiently deep tint.
Instead of a bluing tray, a small mass of iron, with a slightly rounded surface
and heated to a suitable temperature, can be employed; but the color must not form
too rapidly, and this is liable to occur if the temperature of the mass is excessive.
Nor should this temperature be unevenly distributed.
A spring after being whitened can be blued in the same way. Having fixed one
end, it is stretched by a weight attached to the other end, and the hot iron is then
passed along it at such a speed that a uniform color is secured. Of course the hot
iron might be fixed and the spring passed over it. A lamp may be used, but its
employment involves more attention and dexterity.
occur unevenly throughout the metal.
Watchmakers secure a uniform tint more easily by using an iron or copper
polisher than one of any other metal.
94. To blue small pieces of steel evenly. If the foregoing precautions are
carefully observed, the following methods will give satisfactory results:
First blue the object without any special regard to uniformity of color. If it
proves to be imperfect, take a piece of dead wood that does not crumble too easily,
or of clean pith, and whiten the surface with rouge without letting it be too dry.
Small pieces thus prepared, if cleaned and blued with care, will assume a very
uniform tint.
A clever mechanic assures us that he easily obtains a similar result by rubbing
the surface, after it has been well smoothed, with the end of a stick that has been
partly burnt in the fire.
95. To blue a clock hand or a spring. To blue a piece of steel that is of some
length, a clock hand for example; clockmakers place it either on ignited charcoal,
with a hole in the center for the socket, and whitened over its surface, as this
indicates a degree of heat that is approximately uniform, or on a curved bluing tray
perforated with holes large enough to admit the socket. The center will become
violet or blue sooner than the rest, and as soon as it assumes the requisite tint, the
hand must be removed, holding it with tweezers by the socket, or by the aid of a
larged-sized arbor passed through it; the lower side of the hand is then placed on
the edge of the charcoal or bluing tray, and removed by gradually sliding it off
towards the point, more or less slowly according to the progress made with the
coloring; with a little practice, the workman will soon be enabled to secure a
uniform blue throughout the length, and even, if necessary, to retouch parts that
have not assumed a sufficiently deep tint.
Instead of a bluing tray, a small mass of iron, with a slightly rounded surface
and heated to a suitable temperature, can be employed; but the color must not form
too rapidly, and this is liable to occur if the temperature of the mass is excessive.
Nor should this temperature be unevenly distributed.
A spring after being whitened can be blued in the same way. Having fixed one
end, it is stretched by a weight attached to the other end, and the hot iron is then
passed along it at such a speed that a uniform color is secured. Of course the hot
iron might be fixed and the spring passed over it. A lamp may be used, but its
employment involves more attention and dexterity.
Page 116
96. Bluing as an indication of temper. This subject has already been very fully
considered in article 88 to 90. When the color assumed by a piece of steel does not
require to be preserved, and it is only necessary to temper the object at a certain
temperature, the means best adapted to expedite the operation will naturally be
sought. Thus, in factories, large numbers are tempered at once in a bath of tallow,
oil, etc. The workman, in judging temper by color (88), must have enough
experience to enable him to determine, for a given sample of steel, what are the
successive colors as well as the temperature of the bath, etc. His success is certain;
but it depends on the experience, and, therefore, on the sense of sight of the
operator, and, we should again add, on the knowledge he possesses of the qualities
of the steel he is using.
CAS E - HARD EN IN G .
97. This process is often resorted to when a hard surface is required on objects
of wrought iron, for example the face of an anvil. It is the exact converse of the
method already described in article 59 for obtaining malleable castings, and
consists in heating the object to a red heat in contact with charcoal, or some
substance containing carbon; this enters into the surface iron, converting it into
steel. Or after heating to a bright redness the object may be sprinkled over with
prussiate of potash, returned to the fire, and after a few minutes cooled by
immersion in water. When a greater thickness of steel is needed, or when dealing
with large articles, they must be enclosed in wrought-iron boxes, and bedded in
such substances as fragments of horn, bones, leather cuttings, etc; the box is then
luted up and the whole maintained at a red heat for twelve hours, after which the
fire is allowed to die out. Articles may sometimes be case-hardened by coating
with a paste of arsenious acid, powdered leather, horn, or other nitrogenous body
and hydrochloric acid, and then heating them to bright redness in a muffle or other
suitable furnace.
I N F L UEN C E O F F O REIG N ME TAL S A ND METAL L O I DS O N
T HE Q UAL I T IE S O F I RO N A ND S T EE L .
98. It would be impossible to give a full account of this subject in the space at
our disposal, and the reader must be referred to works on the metallurgy of iron
and steel for details in regard to the remarkable influence of minute traces of
considered in article 88 to 90. When the color assumed by a piece of steel does not
require to be preserved, and it is only necessary to temper the object at a certain
temperature, the means best adapted to expedite the operation will naturally be
sought. Thus, in factories, large numbers are tempered at once in a bath of tallow,
oil, etc. The workman, in judging temper by color (88), must have enough
experience to enable him to determine, for a given sample of steel, what are the
successive colors as well as the temperature of the bath, etc. His success is certain;
but it depends on the experience, and, therefore, on the sense of sight of the
operator, and, we should again add, on the knowledge he possesses of the qualities
of the steel he is using.
CAS E - HARD EN IN G .
97. This process is often resorted to when a hard surface is required on objects
of wrought iron, for example the face of an anvil. It is the exact converse of the
method already described in article 59 for obtaining malleable castings, and
consists in heating the object to a red heat in contact with charcoal, or some
substance containing carbon; this enters into the surface iron, converting it into
steel. Or after heating to a bright redness the object may be sprinkled over with
prussiate of potash, returned to the fire, and after a few minutes cooled by
immersion in water. When a greater thickness of steel is needed, or when dealing
with large articles, they must be enclosed in wrought-iron boxes, and bedded in
such substances as fragments of horn, bones, leather cuttings, etc; the box is then
luted up and the whole maintained at a red heat for twelve hours, after which the
fire is allowed to die out. Articles may sometimes be case-hardened by coating
with a paste of arsenious acid, powdered leather, horn, or other nitrogenous body
and hydrochloric acid, and then heating them to bright redness in a muffle or other
suitable furnace.
I N F L UEN C E O F F O REIG N ME TAL S A ND METAL L O I DS O N
T HE Q UAL I T IE S O F I RO N A ND S T EE L .
98. It would be impossible to give a full account of this subject in the space at
our disposal, and the reader must be referred to works on the metallurgy of iron
and steel for details in regard to the remarkable influence of minute traces of
Page 117
phosphorus, tungsten, silicon, manganese, arsenic, etc., on the mechanical and
chemical properties of those metals.
CO P P E R.
99. Copper is an elementary body of a reddish-brown color, which must not be
confounded with brass, occasionally termed yellow copper. In tenacity it comes
next below iron, breaking with a strain of 34 kilo. per sq. mm. of section (or
48,000 lbs. per sq. inch).
In horology, the only use made of the pure metal is for the construction of
compensation pendulums on the gridiron principle, and as wire in electric clocks.
It is also employed, when rolled into thin sheets, for a base to receive the enamel
of watch dials, in consequence of its expansion being about the same as that of the
enamel, which does not therefore crack in the cooling.
The copper of commerce is seldom pure, and this gives rise to many of the
imperfections met with in ordinary brass.
Z I NC.
100. This is an elementary metallic body of a bluish white color. It is used in the
form of rods, for compensation pendulums.
It must be obtained of great purity, whether it is employed by itself or to alloy
with another metal. The presence of foreign bodies in zinc, even in very small
quantities, has a marked influence on the physical properties of an alloy into which
it enters.
The purer the metal the more easily will it roll, and this fact can be taken
advantage of as a test of quality.
Although very brittle at 0° C. (32° F.) and 200°C. (400° F.), it has a maximum
malleability at about 100° C. (212° F.), the boiling point of water; it should, then,
be heated to this degree before bending, rolling, hammering, etc.
It may be annealed in boiling water, or by heating to such a temperature that
water hisses when allowed to drop on to it.
It melts at 420° C. (790° F.) and volatilizes if raised to a red heat.
chemical properties of those metals.
CO P P E R.
99. Copper is an elementary body of a reddish-brown color, which must not be
confounded with brass, occasionally termed yellow copper. In tenacity it comes
next below iron, breaking with a strain of 34 kilo. per sq. mm. of section (or
48,000 lbs. per sq. inch).
In horology, the only use made of the pure metal is for the construction of
compensation pendulums on the gridiron principle, and as wire in electric clocks.
It is also employed, when rolled into thin sheets, for a base to receive the enamel
of watch dials, in consequence of its expansion being about the same as that of the
enamel, which does not therefore crack in the cooling.
The copper of commerce is seldom pure, and this gives rise to many of the
imperfections met with in ordinary brass.
Z I NC.
100. This is an elementary metallic body of a bluish white color. It is used in the
form of rods, for compensation pendulums.
It must be obtained of great purity, whether it is employed by itself or to alloy
with another metal. The presence of foreign bodies in zinc, even in very small
quantities, has a marked influence on the physical properties of an alloy into which
it enters.
The purer the metal the more easily will it roll, and this fact can be taken
advantage of as a test of quality.
Although very brittle at 0° C. (32° F.) and 200°C. (400° F.), it has a maximum
malleability at about 100° C. (212° F.), the boiling point of water; it should, then,
be heated to this degree before bending, rolling, hammering, etc.
It may be annealed in boiling water, or by heating to such a temperature that
water hisses when allowed to drop on to it.
It melts at 420° C. (790° F.) and volatilizes if raised to a red heat.
Page 118
A sudden cooling, or the presence of arsenic or antimony, will render zinc
brittle. It must not be melted in cast iron vessels, as the quality of zinc is
deteriorated by the small quantity of iron it takes up under such circumstances.
This metal possesses a great affinity for oxygen, and therefore oxidizes very
readily when fused.
It is usual, before pouring zinc that is intended for rolling, to throw some pieces
of the solid metal into the molten mass, the object being to somewhat reduce the
temperature, and thus prevent a too rapid cooling, as, in that case, zinc is very
brittle.
B RAS S .
101. Pure copper is difficult to work with the graver or file, but such is not the
case when this metal is alloyed with zinc; we then obtain brass, or, as it is
sometimes termed, yellow copper.
Alloys containing copper, zinc, and tin are termed bronzes.
If a small quantity of lead, about 1 per cent. of its weight, be added to brass, it
renders the metal less fibrous, imparting to it a certain degree of brittleness so that
it is more easily worked with the graver, file, drill, or the saw.
When the brass is required to be hammered, a portion of the lead is replaced by
tin; by this means the metal becomes more malleable, or, in terms of the
workshop, soft.
The color, tenacity, ductility, malleability, etc., vary with the percentage
composition of the alloy. It is, then, of the utmost importance that a watchmaker be
able to test and select the brass before employing it in his work; metal that is
excellent for wire-drawing, for example, would be utterly useless for making an
escape wheel, since it would become distorted in the cutting in consequence of its
ductility. It belongs, in fact, to the class of metals that will extend under the
hammer without hardening (very soft brasses).
The following is given as an analysis of brass very frequently employed in
horology: copper, 66 per cent., zinc, 33 per cent.; and lead, 1 per cent. But it must
not be forgotten that this is only to be taken as a mean. Both the proportions and
the qualities vary with different makers, doubtless also according to the degree of
purity of the metals employed in their manufacture.
brittle. It must not be melted in cast iron vessels, as the quality of zinc is
deteriorated by the small quantity of iron it takes up under such circumstances.
This metal possesses a great affinity for oxygen, and therefore oxidizes very
readily when fused.
It is usual, before pouring zinc that is intended for rolling, to throw some pieces
of the solid metal into the molten mass, the object being to somewhat reduce the
temperature, and thus prevent a too rapid cooling, as, in that case, zinc is very
brittle.
B RAS S .
101. Pure copper is difficult to work with the graver or file, but such is not the
case when this metal is alloyed with zinc; we then obtain brass, or, as it is
sometimes termed, yellow copper.
Alloys containing copper, zinc, and tin are termed bronzes.
If a small quantity of lead, about 1 per cent. of its weight, be added to brass, it
renders the metal less fibrous, imparting to it a certain degree of brittleness so that
it is more easily worked with the graver, file, drill, or the saw.
When the brass is required to be hammered, a portion of the lead is replaced by
tin; by this means the metal becomes more malleable, or, in terms of the
workshop, soft.
The color, tenacity, ductility, malleability, etc., vary with the percentage
composition of the alloy. It is, then, of the utmost importance that a watchmaker be
able to test and select the brass before employing it in his work; metal that is
excellent for wire-drawing, for example, would be utterly useless for making an
escape wheel, since it would become distorted in the cutting in consequence of its
ductility. It belongs, in fact, to the class of metals that will extend under the
hammer without hardening (very soft brasses).
The following is given as an analysis of brass very frequently employed in
horology: copper, 66 per cent., zinc, 33 per cent.; and lead, 1 per cent. But it must
not be forgotten that this is only to be taken as a mean. Both the proportions and
the qualities vary with different makers, doubtless also according to the degree of
purity of the metals employed in their manufacture.
Page 119
102. To select brass. By following the directions given below any watchmaker
should be able to select the brass best suited to his special requirements.
When the copper is in excess, zinc being proportionately reduced, the brass is
usually soft and of a beautiful golden color. On the other hand, as the proportion of
zinc is increased, the brass becomes more and more brittle, and at the same time,
more fusible; the color changes to a light yellow, ultimately becoming greyish-
white, and brass of this nature is said to be “hard.”
Very soft brass chokes the file, and spreads without hardening under the
hammer; very hard brass, on the other hand, is fragile, liable to crack when
hammered cold, and breaks in passing through the draw-plate.
Metal of a good yellow shade, intermediate between the golden and the pale
yellow color, passes well through the draw-plate, spreads out slowly under the
hammer, but without cracking, until of about half the initial thickness, and then
resists the further action of the hammer, which rebounds from it; such brass is
usually found to be of good quality for watchwork.
A sheet of brass is rarely homogeneous. If, after pouring, the metal has been
allowed to cool slowly, the interior will be crystalline, and there will be an uneven
fracture. This will cause the tenacity, etc., to vary throughout the mass. Similar
differences are occasionally to be observed between the two faces of the same
plate, due to the phenomenon of liquation; that is to say, to a tendency that
characterizes certain metals when melted together to separate from one another
when the cooling is not affected under proper conditions.
If the two surfaces of a plate be scraped clean at several points, and drops, as
nearly equal as possible, of very pure watch oil, be placed on these clean surfaces,
it may be taken as a rough indication that the metals are uniformly distributed if
the successive shades of color of the oil as time goes on are the same at all the
points experimented upon.
Some watchmakers heat the brass to a red heat (which must never be exceeded),
and plunge it into nitric acid (equal parts acid and water). By this means the entire
surface is cleaned, and the above examination is facilitated.
HA MME R H ARD E NIN G O F BR AS S.
103. Plates. The selection of the metal will depend on the purpose for which it
is intended, and the thickness must be such that, when hammered till of sufficient
hardness, it will approximately equal one dimension of the required object; for it is
should be able to select the brass best suited to his special requirements.
When the copper is in excess, zinc being proportionately reduced, the brass is
usually soft and of a beautiful golden color. On the other hand, as the proportion of
zinc is increased, the brass becomes more and more brittle, and at the same time,
more fusible; the color changes to a light yellow, ultimately becoming greyish-
white, and brass of this nature is said to be “hard.”
Very soft brass chokes the file, and spreads without hardening under the
hammer; very hard brass, on the other hand, is fragile, liable to crack when
hammered cold, and breaks in passing through the draw-plate.
Metal of a good yellow shade, intermediate between the golden and the pale
yellow color, passes well through the draw-plate, spreads out slowly under the
hammer, but without cracking, until of about half the initial thickness, and then
resists the further action of the hammer, which rebounds from it; such brass is
usually found to be of good quality for watchwork.
A sheet of brass is rarely homogeneous. If, after pouring, the metal has been
allowed to cool slowly, the interior will be crystalline, and there will be an uneven
fracture. This will cause the tenacity, etc., to vary throughout the mass. Similar
differences are occasionally to be observed between the two faces of the same
plate, due to the phenomenon of liquation; that is to say, to a tendency that
characterizes certain metals when melted together to separate from one another
when the cooling is not affected under proper conditions.
If the two surfaces of a plate be scraped clean at several points, and drops, as
nearly equal as possible, of very pure watch oil, be placed on these clean surfaces,
it may be taken as a rough indication that the metals are uniformly distributed if
the successive shades of color of the oil as time goes on are the same at all the
points experimented upon.
Some watchmakers heat the brass to a red heat (which must never be exceeded),
and plunge it into nitric acid (equal parts acid and water). By this means the entire
surface is cleaned, and the above examination is facilitated.
HA MME R H ARD E NIN G O F BR AS S.
103. Plates. The selection of the metal will depend on the purpose for which it
is intended, and the thickness must be such that, when hammered till of sufficient
hardness, it will approximately equal one dimension of the required object; for it is
Page 120
advisable to remove as little of the surface metal as possible, a plate always
hardening much more at the surface than in the interior.
There is considerable difficulty in indicating clearly in a book the exact mode of
conducting the operation of hammer-hardening, and the assistance of a competent
master is essential, at any rate for the first few trials. It must suffice to point out
that the anvil, with a slightly convex surface, and the hammer, of sufficient weight,
must be in very good condition and, if possible, polished on their faces; the head
of the latter should be rather convex, and the pene or chisel end somewhat broad
and gently rounded off in all directions, for it will be needed as a means of
bending the metal upwards; the curvature being such that there is not a danger of
starting a crack, etc., by its means. We have already spoken of these two tools (79,
80); it is only necessary to add that a thick straw pad should be placed under the
anvil or block.
When one is compelled to use brass that is too thick, so that there is much work
to be done with the hammer to reduce the thickness to what is required, it is a good
plan to commence by elongating the metal in one direction, striking with the pene
of the hammer a series of parallel blows in the direction of the required elongation;
when the thickness is two or three times that ultimately needed, the surface is
smoothed with the hammer-head and annealed; then it is brought to the right
thickness by another hammering in the manner explained below, but it should be
again pointed out that, when possible, metal of a suitable thickness ought to be
taken in the first instance, since too much hammering has a detrimental effect.
Before hammer-hardening a plate, it must be dressed, an operation which
consists in rounding off the edges very carefully in order to prevent their cracking,
and in rounding the bottom and sides of internal angles which, without such a
precaution would occasion a rupture. After this is completed, proceed to the
hardening, using a rather heavy hammer, and giving sharp blows along lines
parallel to the sides of the plate; commence from one of the corners in the case of
a square plate; and with a round plate let the blows be in circles. In the latter case,
work from the circumference towards the center, at the same time gradually
increasing the force of the blows, since the metal opposes a greater resistance
towards the center. If the work is done evenly and without hurrying, the surface
will remain fairly flat, a fact which should be verified from time to time by the aid
of a metal rule.
Round plates are sometimes hardened by commencing to hammer in the center
and working towards the circumference along two radii in opposite directions; that
is along a diameter. This first diameter is then crossed by another at right angles;
the intervals are filled in with other diameters that must not touch until the entire
hardening much more at the surface than in the interior.
There is considerable difficulty in indicating clearly in a book the exact mode of
conducting the operation of hammer-hardening, and the assistance of a competent
master is essential, at any rate for the first few trials. It must suffice to point out
that the anvil, with a slightly convex surface, and the hammer, of sufficient weight,
must be in very good condition and, if possible, polished on their faces; the head
of the latter should be rather convex, and the pene or chisel end somewhat broad
and gently rounded off in all directions, for it will be needed as a means of
bending the metal upwards; the curvature being such that there is not a danger of
starting a crack, etc., by its means. We have already spoken of these two tools (79,
80); it is only necessary to add that a thick straw pad should be placed under the
anvil or block.
When one is compelled to use brass that is too thick, so that there is much work
to be done with the hammer to reduce the thickness to what is required, it is a good
plan to commence by elongating the metal in one direction, striking with the pene
of the hammer a series of parallel blows in the direction of the required elongation;
when the thickness is two or three times that ultimately needed, the surface is
smoothed with the hammer-head and annealed; then it is brought to the right
thickness by another hammering in the manner explained below, but it should be
again pointed out that, when possible, metal of a suitable thickness ought to be
taken in the first instance, since too much hammering has a detrimental effect.
Before hammer-hardening a plate, it must be dressed, an operation which
consists in rounding off the edges very carefully in order to prevent their cracking,
and in rounding the bottom and sides of internal angles which, without such a
precaution would occasion a rupture. After this is completed, proceed to the
hardening, using a rather heavy hammer, and giving sharp blows along lines
parallel to the sides of the plate; commence from one of the corners in the case of
a square plate; and with a round plate let the blows be in circles. In the latter case,
work from the circumference towards the center, at the same time gradually
increasing the force of the blows, since the metal opposes a greater resistance
towards the center. If the work is done evenly and without hurrying, the surface
will remain fairly flat, a fact which should be verified from time to time by the aid
of a metal rule.
Round plates are sometimes hardened by commencing to hammer in the center
and working towards the circumference along two radii in opposite directions; that
is along a diameter. This first diameter is then crossed by another at right angles;
the intervals are filled in with other diameters that must not touch until the entire
Page 121
surface is covered, always taking care to work from the center towards the
circumference.
When the metal is thin only the hammer-head is used, but beyond a certain
thickness the pene of the hammer must be employed until about half the required
thickness is reached; the surface is planished and the hardening finished with the
face.
Blows that are irregular, too hard or roughly given, will cause the metal to
crack. Hurried working will disturb the molecular grouping of the alloy; it will at
the same time be heated and therefore softened, thus losing all the good qualities
that are anticipated from hammer-hardening, namely increased body and elasticity.
It was in order to avoid this heating that the old watchmakers used to hammer the
brass in cold water, an excellent precaution which is too much neglected at the
present day.
Brass that is badly hammered, the blows being violent or irregular, will spring
out of shape on being cut and occasionally crack when gilding.
If during the process of hammering, a crack is observed to be commencing at
the edge, it must be removed with a rat-tail file, all sharp angles being rounded off;
and when cracks immediately reappear on continuing the operation, it is an
indication that the metal cannot support any further hammering cold.
If brass is compact or well forged it may be relied upon to preserve the oil at
pivots, etc., better, as oil is decomposed more rapidly in presence of a finely
divided metal.
104. Brass rods. Rods having a square section must only be hammered on two
opposite faces.
A rod of square section can be hammered on all four faces but it must be first
filed perfectly square; the hammering must not be pushed too far, and the four
angles must be maintained right angles. If some are made obtuse and others acute,
a flaw will be produced in the direction of a diagonal.
The three following methods are employed in the case of round rods:
The first consists in hammering over the entire surface, the rod being at the
same time rotated on the anvil by hand; but this operation must not be much
prolonged, as the metal is liable to crack lengthwise.
The second method consists in reducing the diameter of an annealed brass rod
to about one-half or two-thirds its initial amount by causing it to pass in succession
through a number of holes of the draw-plate.
circumference.
When the metal is thin only the hammer-head is used, but beyond a certain
thickness the pene of the hammer must be employed until about half the required
thickness is reached; the surface is planished and the hardening finished with the
face.
Blows that are irregular, too hard or roughly given, will cause the metal to
crack. Hurried working will disturb the molecular grouping of the alloy; it will at
the same time be heated and therefore softened, thus losing all the good qualities
that are anticipated from hammer-hardening, namely increased body and elasticity.
It was in order to avoid this heating that the old watchmakers used to hammer the
brass in cold water, an excellent precaution which is too much neglected at the
present day.
Brass that is badly hammered, the blows being violent or irregular, will spring
out of shape on being cut and occasionally crack when gilding.
If during the process of hammering, a crack is observed to be commencing at
the edge, it must be removed with a rat-tail file, all sharp angles being rounded off;
and when cracks immediately reappear on continuing the operation, it is an
indication that the metal cannot support any further hammering cold.
If brass is compact or well forged it may be relied upon to preserve the oil at
pivots, etc., better, as oil is decomposed more rapidly in presence of a finely
divided metal.
104. Brass rods. Rods having a square section must only be hammered on two
opposite faces.
A rod of square section can be hammered on all four faces but it must be first
filed perfectly square; the hammering must not be pushed too far, and the four
angles must be maintained right angles. If some are made obtuse and others acute,
a flaw will be produced in the direction of a diagonal.
The three following methods are employed in the case of round rods:
The first consists in hammering over the entire surface, the rod being at the
same time rotated on the anvil by hand; but this operation must not be much
prolonged, as the metal is liable to crack lengthwise.
The second method consists in reducing the diameter of an annealed brass rod
to about one-half or two-thirds its initial amount by causing it to pass in succession
through a number of holes of the draw-plate.
Page 122
When the third method, which is due to Brocot, is adopted, one extremity of the
brass rod is gripped in the bench vise and the other end in a hand vise, which is
then caused to rotate round the rod as an axis. If the torsion be continued until the
metal is on the point of breaking, it will be found to be very effectually hardened.
This method is resorted to with advantage for hardening pin-wire and the metal for
making pillars.
TO AN N EA L BR AS S .
105. When it is necessary to considerably reduce the dimensions of a piece of
brass, either with the hammer, rolls or draw-plate, it must be annealed from time to
time.
The metal should not be heated to redness; it is supposed, rightly or wrongly,
that such a proceedings especially if repeated, separates a portion of the zinc, or at
least changes the mode in which it is associated with the copper. Brass should be
heated slowly and uniformly, in a moderate fire, until the temperature is such that
drops of water thrown onto the surface are rapidly converted into vapour, or paper
turns yellow and begins to smoke. It is then withdrawn from the fire and allowed
to cool.
Brass is brittle when hot, so that it can only be worked cold.
When brass is annealed, just as when steel is tempered, the metal should not be
allowed to rest on a bad conductor of heat, such as wood or stone, because there
will be a tendency to uneven distribution of the heat throughout the metal.
C AS T BRAS S .
106. This is usually brittle, owing to the fact that the copper employed in its
manufacture consists, as a rule, of all sorts of scrap, from good or bad metal;
moreover, from motives of economy, the proportion of zinc is generally increased
and, in pouring, the precautions essential to avoid the effects of liquation (102),
etc., are frequently neglected. Such an alloy must never be used for small objects,
it must be entirely excluded from a watch, and in a clock only such pivots as are
called upon to perform an insignificant amount of work should be allowed to run
in it.
In order to avoid injuring the file, or embedding in the metal any particles of the
hard coating of oxide that always covers rough castings, it is usual to dip the
brass rod is gripped in the bench vise and the other end in a hand vise, which is
then caused to rotate round the rod as an axis. If the torsion be continued until the
metal is on the point of breaking, it will be found to be very effectually hardened.
This method is resorted to with advantage for hardening pin-wire and the metal for
making pillars.
TO AN N EA L BR AS S .
105. When it is necessary to considerably reduce the dimensions of a piece of
brass, either with the hammer, rolls or draw-plate, it must be annealed from time to
time.
The metal should not be heated to redness; it is supposed, rightly or wrongly,
that such a proceedings especially if repeated, separates a portion of the zinc, or at
least changes the mode in which it is associated with the copper. Brass should be
heated slowly and uniformly, in a moderate fire, until the temperature is such that
drops of water thrown onto the surface are rapidly converted into vapour, or paper
turns yellow and begins to smoke. It is then withdrawn from the fire and allowed
to cool.
Brass is brittle when hot, so that it can only be worked cold.
When brass is annealed, just as when steel is tempered, the metal should not be
allowed to rest on a bad conductor of heat, such as wood or stone, because there
will be a tendency to uneven distribution of the heat throughout the metal.
C AS T BRAS S .
106. This is usually brittle, owing to the fact that the copper employed in its
manufacture consists, as a rule, of all sorts of scrap, from good or bad metal;
moreover, from motives of economy, the proportion of zinc is generally increased
and, in pouring, the precautions essential to avoid the effects of liquation (102),
etc., are frequently neglected. Such an alloy must never be used for small objects,
it must be entirely excluded from a watch, and in a clock only such pivots as are
called upon to perform an insignificant amount of work should be allowed to run
in it.
In order to avoid injuring the file, or embedding in the metal any particles of the
hard coating of oxide that always covers rough castings, it is usual to dip the
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object in dilute nitric or sulphuric acid (155), by which the oxide is dissolved.
T IN .
107. This is an elementary body, almost as white as silver and having a breaking
strain of only 8 kilo. per sq. mm. of section (or 11,300 lbs. per sq. inch.)
Watchmakers use it in making solder. It is also sometimes used in the form of
plates or rods for polishing with rouge, and it is said to be much more efficient
when very pure.
If a strip of pure tin is bent, a crackling noise, termed the “crying” of tin, is
heard. After frequent bending, the metal loses this property.
The degree of purity may be judged:
(1) By the loudness of the “cry,” which is found to be greater as the tin is purer;
(2) By the relative lightness of two balls of equal size, one of which is formed
of very pure tin and used as a standard;
(3) By pouring the metal, when just melted, in a mould 1 or 2 centimetres
(about ¾ inch) in diameter. If tin is pure, when cast into plates or ingots, the
surface will be perfectly smooth, without exhibiting any sign of crystallization at
the moment of solidification, whereas the presence of small quantities of foreign
metals causes it to be covered with a network of needle-formed crystals, which are
the more numerous according as the metal is less pure.
The Banca tin is almost chemically pure; English tin is also very pure; but
others contain a small percentage of copper, lead, iron, or arsenic.
BRO NZ E .
108. Bronze is an alloy, in very variable proportions, of copper and tin, to which
may be added, according to circumstances, a small percentage of lead or zinc, or
even iron, when it is desired to increase the hardness or tenacity.
As a rule, this alloy is tough and hard to work; it is especially used for parts of
large machines that are subjected to considerable pressure.
The fusion and casting of bronze require special precautions, for the proportion
between the metals is liable to vary through oxidation of the tin, which then goes
to form a dross, and the composition may vary throughout the mass. It sometimes
T IN .
107. This is an elementary body, almost as white as silver and having a breaking
strain of only 8 kilo. per sq. mm. of section (or 11,300 lbs. per sq. inch.)
Watchmakers use it in making solder. It is also sometimes used in the form of
plates or rods for polishing with rouge, and it is said to be much more efficient
when very pure.
If a strip of pure tin is bent, a crackling noise, termed the “crying” of tin, is
heard. After frequent bending, the metal loses this property.
The degree of purity may be judged:
(1) By the loudness of the “cry,” which is found to be greater as the tin is purer;
(2) By the relative lightness of two balls of equal size, one of which is formed
of very pure tin and used as a standard;
(3) By pouring the metal, when just melted, in a mould 1 or 2 centimetres
(about ¾ inch) in diameter. If tin is pure, when cast into plates or ingots, the
surface will be perfectly smooth, without exhibiting any sign of crystallization at
the moment of solidification, whereas the presence of small quantities of foreign
metals causes it to be covered with a network of needle-formed crystals, which are
the more numerous according as the metal is less pure.
The Banca tin is almost chemically pure; English tin is also very pure; but
others contain a small percentage of copper, lead, iron, or arsenic.
BRO NZ E .
108. Bronze is an alloy, in very variable proportions, of copper and tin, to which
may be added, according to circumstances, a small percentage of lead or zinc, or
even iron, when it is desired to increase the hardness or tenacity.
As a rule, this alloy is tough and hard to work; it is especially used for parts of
large machines that are subjected to considerable pressure.
The fusion and casting of bronze require special precautions, for the proportion
between the metals is liable to vary through oxidation of the tin, which then goes
to form a dross, and the composition may vary throughout the mass. It sometimes
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results from this that the bronze bearings for the pivots in large clocks are not even
as good as ordinary brass, and wear away more rapidly than the pivots.
Bronze is also used by watchmakers for making plates or small rods for
polishers, and for the bells of clocks. Bell-metal contains about 78 per cent. of
copper and 22 per cent. of tin; it has a beautiful fracture, and is very fusible and
sonorous. The addition of any other metal is rather prejudicial than otherwise; this
explains why so many clock bells are wanting in sonorousness.
An impediment to the use of bronze is its want of malleability; but Dronier has
recently pointed out that such alloys may be rendered perfectly ductile and
malleable by adding from ½ to 2 per cent. of mercury. These alloys are said to be
less oxidizable than ordinary bronzes, and at the same time more hard, elastic,
resisting and sonorous.
S T E R RO .
109. This is an alloy containing 56 per cent copper, 41 zinc, 2 tin and 1 iron. It
resembles a reddish-colored brass, and has been much used in Vienna, where it is
considered superior to brass from the point of view of ductility, tenacity and
malleability.
An experienced horologist, M. Grossmann, made satisfactory lever escape-
wheels of it, and he considers it to be superior to the best brass in regard to both
density and elasticity. At the same time he points out that it clogs the cutter, and
the color is inferior to that of good hard brass.
L E AD.
110. A metal with a brilliant bluish grey lustre, which rapidly becomes dull
when exposed to the air. It is very malleable and ductile. It breaks with a strain of
2.9 kilo. per sq. mm. section (4,000 lbs. per sq. inch), but possesses extreme
flexibility.
Lead is not used in horology, except as a constituent of solders; in these,
however, it plays a very important part. It is occasionally used in the pure state as a
lap for applying polishing materials, but more frequently alloyed with tin, by
which hardness is imparted to the metal, the alloy being known as “pewter.”
as good as ordinary brass, and wear away more rapidly than the pivots.
Bronze is also used by watchmakers for making plates or small rods for
polishers, and for the bells of clocks. Bell-metal contains about 78 per cent. of
copper and 22 per cent. of tin; it has a beautiful fracture, and is very fusible and
sonorous. The addition of any other metal is rather prejudicial than otherwise; this
explains why so many clock bells are wanting in sonorousness.
An impediment to the use of bronze is its want of malleability; but Dronier has
recently pointed out that such alloys may be rendered perfectly ductile and
malleable by adding from ½ to 2 per cent. of mercury. These alloys are said to be
less oxidizable than ordinary bronzes, and at the same time more hard, elastic,
resisting and sonorous.
S T E R RO .
109. This is an alloy containing 56 per cent copper, 41 zinc, 2 tin and 1 iron. It
resembles a reddish-colored brass, and has been much used in Vienna, where it is
considered superior to brass from the point of view of ductility, tenacity and
malleability.
An experienced horologist, M. Grossmann, made satisfactory lever escape-
wheels of it, and he considers it to be superior to the best brass in regard to both
density and elasticity. At the same time he points out that it clogs the cutter, and
the color is inferior to that of good hard brass.
L E AD.
110. A metal with a brilliant bluish grey lustre, which rapidly becomes dull
when exposed to the air. It is very malleable and ductile. It breaks with a strain of
2.9 kilo. per sq. mm. section (4,000 lbs. per sq. inch), but possesses extreme
flexibility.
Lead is not used in horology, except as a constituent of solders; in these,
however, it plays a very important part. It is occasionally used in the pure state as a
lap for applying polishing materials, but more frequently alloyed with tin, by
which hardness is imparted to the metal, the alloy being known as “pewter.”
Page 125
NI CKE L .
111. An elementary metallic body of a greyish-white color, resembling that of
platinum. With care it can be forged when hot and formed into plates; its structure
in that case is fibrous. Its hardness is the same as that of iron, and nickel will take
a high polish. Next to iron, it is the most powerfully magnetic of all metals.
It can be caused to alloy with many other metals—notably iron, cobalt, copper,
zinc, tin, and antimony. According to Stodart and Faraday, an alloy of 33 parts iron
and 1 part nickel is as malleable as the former metal, but less liable to rust.
Fleitmann has recently shown that by the addition of about 1-10th per cent of
magnesium, nickel is rendered perfectly malleable and ductile, capable of being
drawn into wires or rolled into sheets, and Garnier finds that 3-10ths per cent of
phosphorus has a similar effect.
Nickel is useful as a coating for objects that are not subjected to friction, for
preserving them from the action of the air. It takes a beautiful polish, and is not
tarnished by being touched.
G E R MA N S I LV E R.
112. Although the proportion of copper in this alloy is considerably greater than
that of nickel, watchmakers frequently apply the latter name to it, doubtless on
account of the beautiful polish of which the metal is capable and the comparative
inoxidizability which it derives from the presence of nickel.
German silver is an alloy of copper, nickel and zinc, with the occasional
admixture of a small proportion of iron or tin. When used in the construction of
objects that require soldering, 2 per cent. of lead is added.
The alloy usually employed in horology is very malleable; it has a mean
composition: copper, 60 per cent; nickel, 20 per cent; and zinc, 20 per cent. That
containing 58 per cent copper, 14 nickel, 25 zinc, and 3 iron, is said to be highly
elastic.
The following useful details with regard to the employment of German silver
for watchwork are due to M. C. E. Jacot.
Watch movements have been made of this alloy for the past thirty years; it was
long thought that the taste would die out, but, on the other hand, the demand for
“nickel” movements increases each year.
111. An elementary metallic body of a greyish-white color, resembling that of
platinum. With care it can be forged when hot and formed into plates; its structure
in that case is fibrous. Its hardness is the same as that of iron, and nickel will take
a high polish. Next to iron, it is the most powerfully magnetic of all metals.
It can be caused to alloy with many other metals—notably iron, cobalt, copper,
zinc, tin, and antimony. According to Stodart and Faraday, an alloy of 33 parts iron
and 1 part nickel is as malleable as the former metal, but less liable to rust.
Fleitmann has recently shown that by the addition of about 1-10th per cent of
magnesium, nickel is rendered perfectly malleable and ductile, capable of being
drawn into wires or rolled into sheets, and Garnier finds that 3-10ths per cent of
phosphorus has a similar effect.
Nickel is useful as a coating for objects that are not subjected to friction, for
preserving them from the action of the air. It takes a beautiful polish, and is not
tarnished by being touched.
G E R MA N S I LV E R.
112. Although the proportion of copper in this alloy is considerably greater than
that of nickel, watchmakers frequently apply the latter name to it, doubtless on
account of the beautiful polish of which the metal is capable and the comparative
inoxidizability which it derives from the presence of nickel.
German silver is an alloy of copper, nickel and zinc, with the occasional
admixture of a small proportion of iron or tin. When used in the construction of
objects that require soldering, 2 per cent. of lead is added.
The alloy usually employed in horology is very malleable; it has a mean
composition: copper, 60 per cent; nickel, 20 per cent; and zinc, 20 per cent. That
containing 58 per cent copper, 14 nickel, 25 zinc, and 3 iron, is said to be highly
elastic.
The following useful details with regard to the employment of German silver
for watchwork are due to M. C. E. Jacot.
Watch movements have been made of this alloy for the past thirty years; it was
long thought that the taste would die out, but, on the other hand, the demand for
“nickel” movements increases each year.
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The alloy is better prepared at the present day; it has a beautiful grayish-white
colour, it is more malleable, and better to work than formerly, but still not so easy
as brass. The latter alloy is less detrimental to the file, and can be turned and
drilled more rapidly.
German silver is only used for the plates, cocks and bars. The barrels and
wheels are of brass, and surfaces exposed to friction, such as the center pivot-hole
(all other holes being jewelled) are bushed with the same metal, for it is observed
that in presence of nickel oil is rapidly blackened and the pivots wear sooner than
when working in good brass.
The color remains unaltered for a long time if the surface has been carefully
smoothed in the first instance; and if cleansed with soap and water, its original
freshness can be to a great extent restored. Some watchmakers prefer to employ
chemical preparations for cleaning the metal.
The following is recommended as very effective for this purpose: Mix 50 parts
alcohol, 1 part sulphuric, and one part nitric acid. Allow the pieces to remain in
this liquid for 10 or 15 seconds, wash with cold water, and subsequently with
alcohol, dry with a soft rag or in boxwood saw dust.
GOLD.
113. An elementary body, the most beautiful and the most valuable of all the
ordinary metals. In the unalloyed state it has a pure yellow color, and when
reduced to extremely thin leaves, appears green by transmitted light. It is the most
malleable and ductile of all the metals, but its tenacity is low.
Gold resembles platinum, silver, iron, etc., in being capable of welding, that is
to say, two pieces of the metal can be united without previous fusion. Indeed, by
the application of great pressure it can be made to weld when cold.
It is insoluble except in aqua regia (a mixture of 1 part nitric acid and 4 parts
hydrochloric acid), alkaline persulphides and selenic acid. Chlorine, phosphorus,
and a few other substances can be made to combine with it by the acid of heat.
It is as a preservative, that is applied in layers termed “gilding,” that gold is
principally used in watchwork, and some details will be found on this subject
under “Gilding,” (articles 142-153). Owing to its softness the metal is not used in a
pure state, but usually alloyed with copper. The principal alloys in use in this
country are:
22 parts (carats) gold, 2 parts (carats) copper, for coin and wedding rings.
colour, it is more malleable, and better to work than formerly, but still not so easy
as brass. The latter alloy is less detrimental to the file, and can be turned and
drilled more rapidly.
German silver is only used for the plates, cocks and bars. The barrels and
wheels are of brass, and surfaces exposed to friction, such as the center pivot-hole
(all other holes being jewelled) are bushed with the same metal, for it is observed
that in presence of nickel oil is rapidly blackened and the pivots wear sooner than
when working in good brass.
The color remains unaltered for a long time if the surface has been carefully
smoothed in the first instance; and if cleansed with soap and water, its original
freshness can be to a great extent restored. Some watchmakers prefer to employ
chemical preparations for cleaning the metal.
The following is recommended as very effective for this purpose: Mix 50 parts
alcohol, 1 part sulphuric, and one part nitric acid. Allow the pieces to remain in
this liquid for 10 or 15 seconds, wash with cold water, and subsequently with
alcohol, dry with a soft rag or in boxwood saw dust.
GOLD.
113. An elementary body, the most beautiful and the most valuable of all the
ordinary metals. In the unalloyed state it has a pure yellow color, and when
reduced to extremely thin leaves, appears green by transmitted light. It is the most
malleable and ductile of all the metals, but its tenacity is low.
Gold resembles platinum, silver, iron, etc., in being capable of welding, that is
to say, two pieces of the metal can be united without previous fusion. Indeed, by
the application of great pressure it can be made to weld when cold.
It is insoluble except in aqua regia (a mixture of 1 part nitric acid and 4 parts
hydrochloric acid), alkaline persulphides and selenic acid. Chlorine, phosphorus,
and a few other substances can be made to combine with it by the acid of heat.
It is as a preservative, that is applied in layers termed “gilding,” that gold is
principally used in watchwork, and some details will be found on this subject
under “Gilding,” (articles 142-153). Owing to its softness the metal is not used in a
pure state, but usually alloyed with copper. The principal alloys in use in this
country are:
22 parts (carats) gold, 2 parts (carats) copper, for coin and wedding rings.
Page 127
18 parts gold, 6 parts copper, for high-class jewelry and watch-cases.
15 parts gold, 9 parts copper, for ordinary jewelry.
12 parts gold, 12 parts copper; and 9 parts gold, 15 parts copper, for common
jewelry.
The alloys used for soldering gold will be described under “Solders” (126).
Alloys of gold with silver and copper have been employed for making watch
wheels; they wear well, and will take a beautiful polish, which is maintained for a
longer time than in the case of brass wheels.
Chronometer balance-springs and the suspension-springs for astronomical
clocks have also been made of gold-copper or gold-silver alloys rolled and
hardened (591.) If carefully prepared, they maintain their elasticity unimpaired for
a long period, and there is no liability to rust.
The dilatation for a given change of temperature is, however, greater than that
of steel, so that a greater compensating effect becomes necessary, but this
inconvenience is partially compensated for by its inoxidizability and the fact that it
is not liable to become magnetic.
S I LV E R.
114. This metal in an unalloyed state is too soft for use in horology; its principal
use is for cases, and as a constituent of solders.
Houriet made watch wheels of an alloy containing 2 parts silver to 1 part 18-
carat gold, and he affirmed that this alloy became polished at the acting surfaces of
the teeth. Jurgensen states that chronometer escape-wheels made of this alloy,
carefully hammered, do not require oil at the points of their teeth.
Dumesnil proposed an alloy of 2 parts copper, 1 part silver, and 1 part zinc, all
perfectly pure. Lecocq made chronometer balances in which the brass was
replaced by pure silver deposited on the surface of the steel by electrolysis, thus
avoiding the use of a fire. The compensation is said to have been very efficient.
AL U MI NI UM AN D AL UMIN IU M B RO N Z E.
115. Aluminium is an extremely light elementary body, having a density of only
2.56; with equal bulks, therefore, it will weigh only about as quarter as much as
15 parts gold, 9 parts copper, for ordinary jewelry.
12 parts gold, 12 parts copper; and 9 parts gold, 15 parts copper, for common
jewelry.
The alloys used for soldering gold will be described under “Solders” (126).
Alloys of gold with silver and copper have been employed for making watch
wheels; they wear well, and will take a beautiful polish, which is maintained for a
longer time than in the case of brass wheels.
Chronometer balance-springs and the suspension-springs for astronomical
clocks have also been made of gold-copper or gold-silver alloys rolled and
hardened (591.) If carefully prepared, they maintain their elasticity unimpaired for
a long period, and there is no liability to rust.
The dilatation for a given change of temperature is, however, greater than that
of steel, so that a greater compensating effect becomes necessary, but this
inconvenience is partially compensated for by its inoxidizability and the fact that it
is not liable to become magnetic.
S I LV E R.
114. This metal in an unalloyed state is too soft for use in horology; its principal
use is for cases, and as a constituent of solders.
Houriet made watch wheels of an alloy containing 2 parts silver to 1 part 18-
carat gold, and he affirmed that this alloy became polished at the acting surfaces of
the teeth. Jurgensen states that chronometer escape-wheels made of this alloy,
carefully hammered, do not require oil at the points of their teeth.
Dumesnil proposed an alloy of 2 parts copper, 1 part silver, and 1 part zinc, all
perfectly pure. Lecocq made chronometer balances in which the brass was
replaced by pure silver deposited on the surface of the steel by electrolysis, thus
avoiding the use of a fire. The compensation is said to have been very efficient.
AL U MI NI UM AN D AL UMIN IU M B RO N Z E.
115. Aluminium is an extremely light elementary body, having a density of only
2.56; with equal bulks, therefore, it will weigh only about as quarter as much as
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silver. As its capacity for heat is very great, this metal is observed to heat or cool
more slowly than other metals.
Pure, or in a slightly alloyed state, it has not been used in horology, except for
pendulum rods and large hands in regulator clocks; in short, it can be employed
where lightness is the principal quality in view.
It is extremely ductile. The presence of 1-100th part of bismuth, however,
renders the metal somewhat brittle, and it develops cracks under the hammer.
Traces of iron also decrease its malleability.
An alloy of 5 parts silver and 95 aluminium can be as easily worked as the pure
metal, but is harder and takes a better polish.
We would add a curious observation of M. Redier: After passing a piece of
aluminium several times through the draw-plate, he observed that the elongation
had only occurred at the surface; for on cutting the wire at different points, he
noticed that, throughout a portion of the length, the metal was hollow, a very fine
capillary tube being thus formed.
116. Aluminium Bronze is an alloy of aluminium with copper. A alloy of 5 parts
of the former to 95 of the latter has a beautiful golden color, but if the proportion is
changed to 10 and 90 parts respectively, we obtain the most serviceable and the
most easily worked alloy.
This bronze can be forged at a cherry-red heat, and even near its melting point;
and its thickness can be reduced to a very small amount under the hammer. It is
easily filed and turned, but does not possess any special advantage over brass,
which is less detrimental to the file; the density is 7.7, very little below that of
brass, 8.4.
It appears from a considerable number of experiments that it might be used with
advantage for the bearings of axes that rotate with high velocities. It resists wear
better than any other metal. In the experiments made by Foucault to demonstrate
the rotation of the earth by means of the pendulum, he found that an aluminum
bronze wire lasted for the longest period. Its tenacity is equal to that of iron. It has
been shown that slide-bars of locomotives made of this bronze resist wear twice as
long as those formed of the ordinary bronze. There would then be an advantage in
using it for the bearings of foot-lathes, etc.
Grossman asserts that lever escape-wheels of this metal have proved
satisfactory, and he makes the following observation on the subject. If aluminium
bronze be reduced to three-fourths of its original thickness by hammering, it will
begin to crack. This can be prevented by heating to a red heat and plunging into
water; it can then be again reduced by one-fourth of its thickness, and again
more slowly than other metals.
Pure, or in a slightly alloyed state, it has not been used in horology, except for
pendulum rods and large hands in regulator clocks; in short, it can be employed
where lightness is the principal quality in view.
It is extremely ductile. The presence of 1-100th part of bismuth, however,
renders the metal somewhat brittle, and it develops cracks under the hammer.
Traces of iron also decrease its malleability.
An alloy of 5 parts silver and 95 aluminium can be as easily worked as the pure
metal, but is harder and takes a better polish.
We would add a curious observation of M. Redier: After passing a piece of
aluminium several times through the draw-plate, he observed that the elongation
had only occurred at the surface; for on cutting the wire at different points, he
noticed that, throughout a portion of the length, the metal was hollow, a very fine
capillary tube being thus formed.
116. Aluminium Bronze is an alloy of aluminium with copper. A alloy of 5 parts
of the former to 95 of the latter has a beautiful golden color, but if the proportion is
changed to 10 and 90 parts respectively, we obtain the most serviceable and the
most easily worked alloy.
This bronze can be forged at a cherry-red heat, and even near its melting point;
and its thickness can be reduced to a very small amount under the hammer. It is
easily filed and turned, but does not possess any special advantage over brass,
which is less detrimental to the file; the density is 7.7, very little below that of
brass, 8.4.
It appears from a considerable number of experiments that it might be used with
advantage for the bearings of axes that rotate with high velocities. It resists wear
better than any other metal. In the experiments made by Foucault to demonstrate
the rotation of the earth by means of the pendulum, he found that an aluminum
bronze wire lasted for the longest period. Its tenacity is equal to that of iron. It has
been shown that slide-bars of locomotives made of this bronze resist wear twice as
long as those formed of the ordinary bronze. There would then be an advantage in
using it for the bearings of foot-lathes, etc.
Grossman asserts that lever escape-wheels of this metal have proved
satisfactory, and he makes the following observation on the subject. If aluminium
bronze be reduced to three-fourths of its original thickness by hammering, it will
begin to crack. This can be prevented by heating to a red heat and plunging into
water; it can then be again reduced by one-fourth of its thickness, and again
Page 129
annealed, and so on. He reduced the thickness from 2.5 millimeter to 0.2
millimeter, and the metal resisted for a long period repeated flexures backwards
and forwards; and he observes that no other metal, after being so much
compressed, would possess the same marvellous degree of tenacity.
In order to obtain aluminium bronze of the best quality, the copper should be
absolutely pure, and, in the manufacture, the alloy must be melted and forged two
or three times in succession, as by this means the strength and tenacity are
increased, and the metal can be more easily worked.
The beautiful golden color possessed by certain of these bronzes when polished,
has caused them to be used for cheap watch-cases, but they always tarnish at those
parts that are not subject to daily wear.
ME RC URY.
117. This is the only metal liquid at the ordinary temperature; it solidifies at
-40° C. (-40° F.). It possesses a high metallic lustre, resembling silver, but with a
slightly bluish tint, and does not oxidize at ordinary temperatures.
Mercury alloys with many other metals, forming amalgams, and as small a
quantity as 1-40th per cent of lead suffices to entirely alter its character. The
presence of such traces can be easily detected by the liquid wetting glass or china,
and therefore forming a tail when a vessel containing it is tilted.
The commercial metal is rarely pure, but the greater portion of the lead, tin,
bismuth or copper, by which it is contaminated, can be removed by distillation.
The most convenient method consists, however, in agitating the metal with either
dilute nitric acid, a solution of mercurous nitrate, strong sulphuric acid, a solution
of corrosive sublimate or of perchloride of iron, and subsequent washing with
distilled water. When mercury is only contaminated with mechanical impurities,
they can be very effectually removed by agitating with powdered loaf sugar.
This metal has many uses in the arts, for the construction of thermometers,
barometers; for plating, etc.; in horology it is used for compensation pendulums,
and has also been occasionally used for compensation balances.
P L AT IN UM.
millimeter, and the metal resisted for a long period repeated flexures backwards
and forwards; and he observes that no other metal, after being so much
compressed, would possess the same marvellous degree of tenacity.
In order to obtain aluminium bronze of the best quality, the copper should be
absolutely pure, and, in the manufacture, the alloy must be melted and forged two
or three times in succession, as by this means the strength and tenacity are
increased, and the metal can be more easily worked.
The beautiful golden color possessed by certain of these bronzes when polished,
has caused them to be used for cheap watch-cases, but they always tarnish at those
parts that are not subject to daily wear.
ME RC URY.
117. This is the only metal liquid at the ordinary temperature; it solidifies at
-40° C. (-40° F.). It possesses a high metallic lustre, resembling silver, but with a
slightly bluish tint, and does not oxidize at ordinary temperatures.
Mercury alloys with many other metals, forming amalgams, and as small a
quantity as 1-40th per cent of lead suffices to entirely alter its character. The
presence of such traces can be easily detected by the liquid wetting glass or china,
and therefore forming a tail when a vessel containing it is tilted.
The commercial metal is rarely pure, but the greater portion of the lead, tin,
bismuth or copper, by which it is contaminated, can be removed by distillation.
The most convenient method consists, however, in agitating the metal with either
dilute nitric acid, a solution of mercurous nitrate, strong sulphuric acid, a solution
of corrosive sublimate or of perchloride of iron, and subsequent washing with
distilled water. When mercury is only contaminated with mechanical impurities,
they can be very effectually removed by agitating with powdered loaf sugar.
This metal has many uses in the arts, for the construction of thermometers,
barometers; for plating, etc.; in horology it is used for compensation pendulums,
and has also been occasionally used for compensation balances.
P L AT IN UM.
Page 130
118. This elementary body is almost as white as silver, takes a brilliant polish,
and is highly ductile and malleable. It is the heaviest of the ordinary metals, the
least expansive when heated, and has a breaking strain of 40 kilo. per sq. mm.
section (56,500 lbs. per sq. inch.).
Platinum is infusible, except at the high temperatures attainable with the oxy-
hydrogen blow-pipe. At a white heat, however, it softens, and can be forged and
welded. It is unacted upon by the air at any temperature, and is insoluble in acids,
except aqua regia (155), although acted on by certain alkalies.
This metal is used in the construction of scientific instruments, and for objects
that are exposed to the air, as, for example, sun dials. Alloyed with irridium, (a rare
metal of the same group) it possesses an excellent and unalterable surface for fine
engraving, as the scales of astronomical instruments, etc. This alloy has also been
adopted for the construction of international standards of length and weight.
Platinum is much employed for chemical apparatus, in consequence of its being
unacted on by acids, and its non-liability to melt in ordinary furnaces. Both the
pure metal and its alloys with silver have been employed in the form of wire for
bushing the pivot-holes of watches, and in sheets for cutting out cocks and wheels,
but the results obtained were not as good as with good brass. As a rule, such
wheels are found to occasion a rapid wear of pinion leaves.
Attempts have also been made to construct balance-springs of this metal, but we
are informed that they were not found to possess any sufficient advantages.
It is advisable to heat platinum in a spirit lamp or Bunsen burner; the naked
flame is objectionable, because, being charged with a certain amount of carbon, it
deteriorates the metal.
PA L L A DI UM.
119. This metal resembles silver rather than platinum, and is almost as infusible
as the latter metal. It has a density of 12.5. When heated in contact with air it
becomes blue, owing to the formation of an oxide. It possesses the remarkable
power of absorbing (or occluding) about 900 times its own volume of hydrogen, if
attached to the negative pole of a battery in acidulated water; its bulk is increased
slightly by this charge, and, on expelling the gas by the aid of heat, the metal
shrinks to less than its initial dimensions. Palladium is useful for the graduated
scales of scientific instruments, since it is not discolored by sulphurous acid. It
forms alloys with most of the metals and some of these can be hardened like steel.
If 100 parts of steel be alloyed with 1 part of this metal, the resulting alloy is said
and is highly ductile and malleable. It is the heaviest of the ordinary metals, the
least expansive when heated, and has a breaking strain of 40 kilo. per sq. mm.
section (56,500 lbs. per sq. inch.).
Platinum is infusible, except at the high temperatures attainable with the oxy-
hydrogen blow-pipe. At a white heat, however, it softens, and can be forged and
welded. It is unacted upon by the air at any temperature, and is insoluble in acids,
except aqua regia (155), although acted on by certain alkalies.
This metal is used in the construction of scientific instruments, and for objects
that are exposed to the air, as, for example, sun dials. Alloyed with irridium, (a rare
metal of the same group) it possesses an excellent and unalterable surface for fine
engraving, as the scales of astronomical instruments, etc. This alloy has also been
adopted for the construction of international standards of length and weight.
Platinum is much employed for chemical apparatus, in consequence of its being
unacted on by acids, and its non-liability to melt in ordinary furnaces. Both the
pure metal and its alloys with silver have been employed in the form of wire for
bushing the pivot-holes of watches, and in sheets for cutting out cocks and wheels,
but the results obtained were not as good as with good brass. As a rule, such
wheels are found to occasion a rapid wear of pinion leaves.
Attempts have also been made to construct balance-springs of this metal, but we
are informed that they were not found to possess any sufficient advantages.
It is advisable to heat platinum in a spirit lamp or Bunsen burner; the naked
flame is objectionable, because, being charged with a certain amount of carbon, it
deteriorates the metal.
PA L L A DI UM.
119. This metal resembles silver rather than platinum, and is almost as infusible
as the latter metal. It has a density of 12.5. When heated in contact with air it
becomes blue, owing to the formation of an oxide. It possesses the remarkable
power of absorbing (or occluding) about 900 times its own volume of hydrogen, if
attached to the negative pole of a battery in acidulated water; its bulk is increased
slightly by this charge, and, on expelling the gas by the aid of heat, the metal
shrinks to less than its initial dimensions. Palladium is useful for the graduated
scales of scientific instruments, since it is not discolored by sulphurous acid. It
forms alloys with most of the metals and some of these can be hardened like steel.
If 100 parts of steel be alloyed with 1 part of this metal, the resulting alloy is said
Page 131
to be excellent for making scientific instruments, and an alloy of 24 parts
palladium, 44 silver, 72 gold, and 92 copper has been recommended for use in
horology.
M. Paillard, of Geneva, has introduced balance-springs made of an alloy, whose
composition is not given, possessing the following advantages: they are non-
magnetic, their tenacity is considerable, are not tarnished by the air, sulphurous
acid, or sea water; nor are they distorted by heating, and, on cooling, they recover
their original elasticity, which is equal to that of steel hardened and tempered to a
blue color. The co-efficient of expansion of this alloy is rather less than that of
steel.
CH AR A CT E RIS T I C PR O PE R T I ES O F AL L O Y S.
120. Density. This is sometimes rather greater and sometimes less than that
deduced from the densities of the constituent metals,[4] but no exact law has been
discovered in regard to this question.
Hardness, Ductility, Tenacity. Alloys are usually harder, more brittle, and less
ductile and tenacious than the most ductile and tenacious constituent metal.
Elasticity. The co-efficient of elasticity of an alloy generally approximates
closely to the mean of the co-efficients of its constituent metals.
Expansion. The co-efficient of linear expansion of an alloy, that is to say, the
number representing the proportional part of its length by which it increases for
each degree rise of temperature, may be approximately estimated as follows:
multiply the linear co-efficient of each constituent metal by the percentage of it
present in the alloy, and divide by its density. Add together the several numbers
thus obtained. Multiply this sum by the density of the alloy (which must be
experimentally determined) and divide by 100. The resulting figure is the required
linear co-efficient (122).
Fusibility. Alloys are always more fusible than the least fusible of their
component metals, and often more so than any one of them.
Oxidation. As a rule, the air acts with less energy on alloys than on their
constituent metals. There are, however, cases in which the converse is the case.
Action of acids. This is generally similar to the action on the predominating
metal.
palladium, 44 silver, 72 gold, and 92 copper has been recommended for use in
horology.
M. Paillard, of Geneva, has introduced balance-springs made of an alloy, whose
composition is not given, possessing the following advantages: they are non-
magnetic, their tenacity is considerable, are not tarnished by the air, sulphurous
acid, or sea water; nor are they distorted by heating, and, on cooling, they recover
their original elasticity, which is equal to that of steel hardened and tempered to a
blue color. The co-efficient of expansion of this alloy is rather less than that of
steel.
CH AR A CT E RIS T I C PR O PE R T I ES O F AL L O Y S.
120. Density. This is sometimes rather greater and sometimes less than that
deduced from the densities of the constituent metals,[4] but no exact law has been
discovered in regard to this question.
Hardness, Ductility, Tenacity. Alloys are usually harder, more brittle, and less
ductile and tenacious than the most ductile and tenacious constituent metal.
Elasticity. The co-efficient of elasticity of an alloy generally approximates
closely to the mean of the co-efficients of its constituent metals.
Expansion. The co-efficient of linear expansion of an alloy, that is to say, the
number representing the proportional part of its length by which it increases for
each degree rise of temperature, may be approximately estimated as follows:
multiply the linear co-efficient of each constituent metal by the percentage of it
present in the alloy, and divide by its density. Add together the several numbers
thus obtained. Multiply this sum by the density of the alloy (which must be
experimentally determined) and divide by 100. The resulting figure is the required
linear co-efficient (122).
Fusibility. Alloys are always more fusible than the least fusible of their
component metals, and often more so than any one of them.
Oxidation. As a rule, the air acts with less energy on alloys than on their
constituent metals. There are, however, cases in which the converse is the case.
Action of acids. This is generally similar to the action on the predominating
metal.
Page 132
Observations. Alloys formed of metals that differ materially in density are
rarely homogeneous, especially if they have been allowed to cool slowly. It is,
then, essential that they be thoroughly stirred and cooled rapidly. It is for this
reason that alloys are frequently poured out on to a flagstone to cool, or that they
are compressed after pouring, whereby the formation of crystals is prevented.
121. Metals and alloys. The following table gives the more important physical
properties of the metals and alloys generally met with, and will be found useful for
reference. The precise meaning of each number may be gathered from the notes in
paragraph 122.
Linear Expansion Specific
Specific Degree Conductivity for
per Heat per Melting
METALS. Gravity. of
Degree Point.
(Water=1) Hardness 1° Fahr. 1° Cent. Heat. Electricity.
Cent.
Aluminium
2.56 — 0.0000123 0.0000222 0.2143 1500° F. — 56.1
(115)
” Bronze
7.7 — — — — [about — —
(116)
Brass, Drawn
8.54 — 0.0000107 0.0000193 — — —
(101)
” Cast
8.10 — 0.0000104 0.0000187
} 0.0939 {
1870° — —
(106)
Bronze (108) 8.40 — 0.0000100 0.0000180 — 1692° — —
Copper (99) 8.94 2.5-3 0.0000102 0.0000183 0.0951 2000° 73.5 99.8
German Silver
— — — — — — — 7.67
(112)
Gold (113) 19.26 2.5-3 0.0000077 0.0000138 0.0324 2610° 53.2 78.4
Iron, Wrought
7.84 4.5 0.0000066 0.0000119 0.1138 2900° 11.9 16.8
(54)
” Cast (58) 6.9 to 7.5 — 0.0000062 0.0000112 0.1298 1920° — —
Lead (110) 11.33 1.5 0.0000167 0.0000301 0.0314 608° 8.5 8.3
Mercury (117) 15.60 — 0.000101 0.000182 0.0333 39° — —
Nickel (111) 8.82 5 [cubical [cubical 0.1086 — — 13.1
Palladium (119) 11.80 4.5-5 — — 0.0593 — 6.3 18.4
Platinum (118) 21.50 4-4.5 0.000005 0.000009 0.0324 — 8.4 18.0
Silver (114) 10.57 2.5-3 0.0000111 0.0000190 0.0570 1832° 100.0 100.0
Steel (60) 7.72 6-7 (hard) 0.0000057 0.0000103 0.1175 2400° — —
Sterro (109) — — — — — — — —
Tin (107) 7.30 2.5-3 0.0000152 0.0000273 0.0569 446° — 12.4
Zinc (100) 7.13 2 0.0000122 0.0000220 0.0955 680° — 29.0
rarely homogeneous, especially if they have been allowed to cool slowly. It is,
then, essential that they be thoroughly stirred and cooled rapidly. It is for this
reason that alloys are frequently poured out on to a flagstone to cool, or that they
are compressed after pouring, whereby the formation of crystals is prevented.
121. Metals and alloys. The following table gives the more important physical
properties of the metals and alloys generally met with, and will be found useful for
reference. The precise meaning of each number may be gathered from the notes in
paragraph 122.
Linear Expansion Specific
Specific Degree Conductivity for
per Heat per Melting
METALS. Gravity. of
Degree Point.
(Water=1) Hardness 1° Fahr. 1° Cent. Heat. Electricity.
Cent.
Aluminium
2.56 — 0.0000123 0.0000222 0.2143 1500° F. — 56.1
(115)
” Bronze
7.7 — — — — [about — —
(116)
Brass, Drawn
8.54 — 0.0000107 0.0000193 — — —
(101)
” Cast
8.10 — 0.0000104 0.0000187
} 0.0939 {
1870° — —
(106)
Bronze (108) 8.40 — 0.0000100 0.0000180 — 1692° — —
Copper (99) 8.94 2.5-3 0.0000102 0.0000183 0.0951 2000° 73.5 99.8
German Silver
— — — — — — — 7.67
(112)
Gold (113) 19.26 2.5-3 0.0000077 0.0000138 0.0324 2610° 53.2 78.4
Iron, Wrought
7.84 4.5 0.0000066 0.0000119 0.1138 2900° 11.9 16.8
(54)
” Cast (58) 6.9 to 7.5 — 0.0000062 0.0000112 0.1298 1920° — —
Lead (110) 11.33 1.5 0.0000167 0.0000301 0.0314 608° 8.5 8.3
Mercury (117) 15.60 — 0.000101 0.000182 0.0333 39° — —
Nickel (111) 8.82 5 [cubical [cubical 0.1086 — — 13.1
Palladium (119) 11.80 4.5-5 — — 0.0593 — 6.3 18.4
Platinum (118) 21.50 4-4.5 0.000005 0.000009 0.0324 — 8.4 18.0
Silver (114) 10.57 2.5-3 0.0000111 0.0000190 0.0570 1832° 100.0 100.0
Steel (60) 7.72 6-7 (hard) 0.0000057 0.0000103 0.1175 2400° — —
Sterro (109) — — — — — — — —
Tin (107) 7.30 2.5-3 0.0000152 0.0000273 0.0569 446° — 12.4
Zinc (100) 7.13 2 0.0000122 0.0000220 0.0955 680° — 29.0
Page 133
122. Notes on the foregoing table. For a complete explanation of the several
properties of metals and alloys that are enumerated in the above table, the reader
must be referred to works on mechanics and physics, but the following
explanatory notes are necessary.
The number in brackets after the name of each metal, etc., refers to the article in
which it is considered.
The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the weight of a given bulk of
that substance to the weight of the same bulk of water at a definite temperature.
The numbers here given can only be regarded as approximations, as the specific
gravity varies greatly with the state in which a body exists, the hammering it may
have been subjected to, etc.
Degree of hardness is ascertained by means of the following standard series,
observing which of them scratches the body under examination and which it is
capable of scratching.
1, Talc; 2, Gypsum; 3, Calc-spar; 4, Fluor-spar; 5, Apatite; 6, Felspar; 7, Quartz;
8, Topaz; 9, Sapphire; 10, Diamond.
Linear expansion. These co-efficients represent the extension in length that the
several substances undergo when heated: the first column for each degree
Fahrenheit and the second for each degree Centigrade. The extension is given per
unit of length; thus, 1 inch of copper at 32° F. will become 1 + 0.0000102, or
1.0000102 inch at 33° F.; and 1 + 30 × .0000102, or 1.000306 at 32 + 30 or 62° F.
Superficial expansion may be obtained by multiplying the linear co-efficient by
2, and cubical expansion by multiplying the same number by 3.
As in the case of specific gravity, these data, as well as those in succeeding
columns, can only be regarded as approximations, depending on the condition of
the metal etc.
Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
substance one degree (the Centigrade scale being here adopted), that required for
the same weight of water being taken as unity. The corresponding numbers on the
Fahrenheit scale can be deduced from those here given by multiplying by 5 and
dividing by 9.
The melting points are given on Fahrenheit’s scale and can only be regarded as
approximate on account of the difficulty experienced in determining these high
temperatures. Different observers often vary by two or three hundred degrees in
their estimates.
properties of metals and alloys that are enumerated in the above table, the reader
must be referred to works on mechanics and physics, but the following
explanatory notes are necessary.
The number in brackets after the name of each metal, etc., refers to the article in
which it is considered.
The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the weight of a given bulk of
that substance to the weight of the same bulk of water at a definite temperature.
The numbers here given can only be regarded as approximations, as the specific
gravity varies greatly with the state in which a body exists, the hammering it may
have been subjected to, etc.
Degree of hardness is ascertained by means of the following standard series,
observing which of them scratches the body under examination and which it is
capable of scratching.
1, Talc; 2, Gypsum; 3, Calc-spar; 4, Fluor-spar; 5, Apatite; 6, Felspar; 7, Quartz;
8, Topaz; 9, Sapphire; 10, Diamond.
Linear expansion. These co-efficients represent the extension in length that the
several substances undergo when heated: the first column for each degree
Fahrenheit and the second for each degree Centigrade. The extension is given per
unit of length; thus, 1 inch of copper at 32° F. will become 1 + 0.0000102, or
1.0000102 inch at 33° F.; and 1 + 30 × .0000102, or 1.000306 at 32 + 30 or 62° F.
Superficial expansion may be obtained by multiplying the linear co-efficient by
2, and cubical expansion by multiplying the same number by 3.
As in the case of specific gravity, these data, as well as those in succeeding
columns, can only be regarded as approximations, depending on the condition of
the metal etc.
Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a
substance one degree (the Centigrade scale being here adopted), that required for
the same weight of water being taken as unity. The corresponding numbers on the
Fahrenheit scale can be deduced from those here given by multiplying by 5 and
dividing by 9.
The melting points are given on Fahrenheit’s scale and can only be regarded as
approximate on account of the difficulty experienced in determining these high
temperatures. Different observers often vary by two or three hundred degrees in
their estimates.
Page 134
Conductivity for heat and electricity are given in reference to that of silver,
which is called 100. It surpasses all other known metals in both these properties
when chemically pure, but a trace of impurity has a very prejudicial influence on
them.
It will be observed that in many cases the conductivities have not been
determined, a remark that applies to other columns of the table.
S O L DE RING .
123. It is well known that a solder is an alloy employed to unite, by the aid of
heat, two metallic bodies that are placed in contact. A solder, then, must be much
more fusible than the metals it unites, otherwise these latter would be damaged by
the degree of heat applied. Solder is all the less tenacious, and melts the more
easily according as the proportion of the most fusible metal present is increased.
This fact is taken advantage of when several solderings have to be performed on
the same object. The alloy last employed will require to be considerably more
fusible than the first, as otherwise the heat would be so great that the earlier joints
would melt. In an ordinary lead-tin solder, the fusibility is increased by increasing
the proportion of the latter metal till the lead is to tin, as 6 is to 1. This alloy melts
at 194° C. (380° F.), and the melting point may be still further reduced by adding a
gradually increasing proportion of bismuth.
As the melting point of the solder approximates to that of the metals to be
united, the risk of damaging these latter is of course increased, but, at the same
time, the joint will be all the stronger, as the metal will be almost as strong there as
at any other point, and it can be forged, etc.
Solders are distinguished as hard or soft; the former requires the application of a
red heat, and can therefore only be used for such metals as gold, silver, brass;
whereas the latter melt at very low temperature, and can be employed for metals
that have low melting points, or when it is important not to exceed a moderate
degree of heat. The joint is, however, the more solid according as the heat
employed approximates to that at which the metal will melt.
124. Composition of solders. The solders ordinarily employed can be obtained
from material dealers, but it is advisable to give here the composition of some of
the more important, specifying the metal to which they are applicable.
125. Aluminium solders. I. Zinc, 70 parts; copper, 15; aluminium, 15.
which is called 100. It surpasses all other known metals in both these properties
when chemically pure, but a trace of impurity has a very prejudicial influence on
them.
It will be observed that in many cases the conductivities have not been
determined, a remark that applies to other columns of the table.
S O L DE RING .
123. It is well known that a solder is an alloy employed to unite, by the aid of
heat, two metallic bodies that are placed in contact. A solder, then, must be much
more fusible than the metals it unites, otherwise these latter would be damaged by
the degree of heat applied. Solder is all the less tenacious, and melts the more
easily according as the proportion of the most fusible metal present is increased.
This fact is taken advantage of when several solderings have to be performed on
the same object. The alloy last employed will require to be considerably more
fusible than the first, as otherwise the heat would be so great that the earlier joints
would melt. In an ordinary lead-tin solder, the fusibility is increased by increasing
the proportion of the latter metal till the lead is to tin, as 6 is to 1. This alloy melts
at 194° C. (380° F.), and the melting point may be still further reduced by adding a
gradually increasing proportion of bismuth.
As the melting point of the solder approximates to that of the metals to be
united, the risk of damaging these latter is of course increased, but, at the same
time, the joint will be all the stronger, as the metal will be almost as strong there as
at any other point, and it can be forged, etc.
Solders are distinguished as hard or soft; the former requires the application of a
red heat, and can therefore only be used for such metals as gold, silver, brass;
whereas the latter melt at very low temperature, and can be employed for metals
that have low melting points, or when it is important not to exceed a moderate
degree of heat. The joint is, however, the more solid according as the heat
employed approximates to that at which the metal will melt.
124. Composition of solders. The solders ordinarily employed can be obtained
from material dealers, but it is advisable to give here the composition of some of
the more important, specifying the metal to which they are applicable.
125. Aluminium solders. I. Zinc, 70 parts; copper, 15; aluminium, 15.
Page 135
II. M. Mourey employes a series of aluminium-zinc alloys, commencing with
two per cent aluminium to 98 per cent zinc, and progressing to 20 per cent of the
former to 80 per cent of the latter metal.
126. Gold solders. I. Gold, 6 parts; copper, 1 part; silver, 2 parts.
II. Gold, 15 parts; silver, 2 parts; copper, 1 part.
III. Gold, 11.94 parts; silver, 54.74 parts; copper, 28.17 parts; zinc, 5.81 parts.
The three first metals are melted together in a crucible, and when they have
somewhat cooled, a rather greater proportion of zinc than is here indicated (to
allow for loss by volatilization) is added, and the alloy constantly stirred.
127. Silver solders. I. Silver, 2 parts; brass (for pin-wire), 1 part.
II. Silver, 5 parts; pin-wire brass, 1 part.
III. Silver, 10 parts; pin-wire brass, 5 parts; pure zinc, 1 part.
128. Tin solders. I. (ordinary soft solder.) Tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part.
II. (Harder, and known as “Plumbers’ Sealed” solder.) Tin, 1 part; lead, 2 parts.
III. Many other proportions of tin and lead are occasionally used, ranging from
tin, 1 part; lead, 25 parts, to tin, 6 parts; lead, 1 part.
IV. (Very fusible solder, melting in boiling water.) Lead, 3 parts; tin, 5 parts;
bismuth, 8 parts. The fusibility is still further increased by adding mercury or
cadmium.
129. Spelter solders. (Used for brazing.) Copper and zinc in varying
proportions. It becomes more fusible as the amount of zinc present is increased.
MET HO DS O F S O L DE RI NG .
130. A thorough cleansing of the surfaces to be united is always needful, but
more especially so in the case of soft soldering. It may be effected by means of
acids, or with a graver or scraper, etc.; the cleansed surfaces must not be touched
with the fingers, and the soldering should be done at once. If acids are employed,
the objects should be thoroughly washed after soldering, in order to avoid rust;
and, after drying, they should be rinsed with alcohol.
The parts to be soldered are held in position with clamps, tweezers, pins, or iron
wire. This latter, known as binding wire, is used for delicate objects and should be
very pliable. When a high degree of heat is to be applied, all risk of the iron
two per cent aluminium to 98 per cent zinc, and progressing to 20 per cent of the
former to 80 per cent of the latter metal.
126. Gold solders. I. Gold, 6 parts; copper, 1 part; silver, 2 parts.
II. Gold, 15 parts; silver, 2 parts; copper, 1 part.
III. Gold, 11.94 parts; silver, 54.74 parts; copper, 28.17 parts; zinc, 5.81 parts.
The three first metals are melted together in a crucible, and when they have
somewhat cooled, a rather greater proportion of zinc than is here indicated (to
allow for loss by volatilization) is added, and the alloy constantly stirred.
127. Silver solders. I. Silver, 2 parts; brass (for pin-wire), 1 part.
II. Silver, 5 parts; pin-wire brass, 1 part.
III. Silver, 10 parts; pin-wire brass, 5 parts; pure zinc, 1 part.
128. Tin solders. I. (ordinary soft solder.) Tin, 2 parts; lead, 1 part.
II. (Harder, and known as “Plumbers’ Sealed” solder.) Tin, 1 part; lead, 2 parts.
III. Many other proportions of tin and lead are occasionally used, ranging from
tin, 1 part; lead, 25 parts, to tin, 6 parts; lead, 1 part.
IV. (Very fusible solder, melting in boiling water.) Lead, 3 parts; tin, 5 parts;
bismuth, 8 parts. The fusibility is still further increased by adding mercury or
cadmium.
129. Spelter solders. (Used for brazing.) Copper and zinc in varying
proportions. It becomes more fusible as the amount of zinc present is increased.
MET HO DS O F S O L DE RI NG .
130. A thorough cleansing of the surfaces to be united is always needful, but
more especially so in the case of soft soldering. It may be effected by means of
acids, or with a graver or scraper, etc.; the cleansed surfaces must not be touched
with the fingers, and the soldering should be done at once. If acids are employed,
the objects should be thoroughly washed after soldering, in order to avoid rust;
and, after drying, they should be rinsed with alcohol.
The parts to be soldered are held in position with clamps, tweezers, pins, or iron
wire. This latter, known as binding wire, is used for delicate objects and should be
very pliable. When a high degree of heat is to be applied, all risk of the iron
Page 136
uniting with gold may be avoided by mixing a little sandiver with the borax
employed. (See article 153).
Before heating, if there are already parts united with solder, they should be
covered with borax to prevent softening.
Only a moderate heat should at first be applied, so as to melt the borax, or sal-
ammoniac without displacing it. The violent frothing up, which is very liable to
displace the parts or the fragments of solder, can thus in a great part be avoided. If
a naked lamp-flame is used, or if it is directed on to the object with a blow-pipe, it
should be, so to speak, large and soft, and the jet should not be directed to the
point of juncture until the solder is observed to have fused. In soldering brass to
steel, it is sometimes necessary to direct the flame against the brass only, in order,
as far as possible, to avoid softening the steel. The hard solders for gold, silver,
etc., require a considerable degree of heat, so that the objects must be heated to
redness.
131. To solder gold and platinum to each other or to themselves. On a hard
wetted surface, marble, for example, rub a piece of borax until a white liquid paste
is obtained (or the powdered borax sold by chemists can be made into paste
direct). Having prepared the borax, the surfaces to be united are cleansed either by
scraping or with dilute nitric acid (155); the acid may be previously heated to
boiling, as it will then act more rapidly; and the surfaces are subsequently scraped.
They are now covered with the borax with a paint brush, set in position, and small
pieces of solder placed on the junction. As already observed, the heating must at
first be gentle to avoid displacing the solder by the frothing of the borax.
132. To solder silver. Also for uniting gold to silver, or silver, brass, steel to
each other or to themselves. Proceed in the manner already explained for gold and
platinum, except that the borax paste must be sensibly thicker.
133. To solder tin. Also for uniting gold, silver, brass to each other, or to other
metals, such as steel, iron, etc. Clean the surface with a graver or scraper;
sulphuric or hydrochloric acid may be used, but in this case the cleansing
afterwards must not be forgotten.
The heating is effected as in soldering gold, unless a soldering iron is used,
when the directions subsequently given should be followed.
134. To solder aluminium. M. Mourey recommends the following method.
One of the series of aluminium solders, No. II. (art. 125), is employed and, as a
flux, two-thirds of balsam of copaiba, one-third very pure Venice turpentine, and a
few drops of the juice of a citron; these constituents are pounded together in order
to secure a perfect admixture.
employed. (See article 153).
Before heating, if there are already parts united with solder, they should be
covered with borax to prevent softening.
Only a moderate heat should at first be applied, so as to melt the borax, or sal-
ammoniac without displacing it. The violent frothing up, which is very liable to
displace the parts or the fragments of solder, can thus in a great part be avoided. If
a naked lamp-flame is used, or if it is directed on to the object with a blow-pipe, it
should be, so to speak, large and soft, and the jet should not be directed to the
point of juncture until the solder is observed to have fused. In soldering brass to
steel, it is sometimes necessary to direct the flame against the brass only, in order,
as far as possible, to avoid softening the steel. The hard solders for gold, silver,
etc., require a considerable degree of heat, so that the objects must be heated to
redness.
131. To solder gold and platinum to each other or to themselves. On a hard
wetted surface, marble, for example, rub a piece of borax until a white liquid paste
is obtained (or the powdered borax sold by chemists can be made into paste
direct). Having prepared the borax, the surfaces to be united are cleansed either by
scraping or with dilute nitric acid (155); the acid may be previously heated to
boiling, as it will then act more rapidly; and the surfaces are subsequently scraped.
They are now covered with the borax with a paint brush, set in position, and small
pieces of solder placed on the junction. As already observed, the heating must at
first be gentle to avoid displacing the solder by the frothing of the borax.
132. To solder silver. Also for uniting gold to silver, or silver, brass, steel to
each other or to themselves. Proceed in the manner already explained for gold and
platinum, except that the borax paste must be sensibly thicker.
133. To solder tin. Also for uniting gold, silver, brass to each other, or to other
metals, such as steel, iron, etc. Clean the surface with a graver or scraper;
sulphuric or hydrochloric acid may be used, but in this case the cleansing
afterwards must not be forgotten.
The heating is effected as in soldering gold, unless a soldering iron is used,
when the directions subsequently given should be followed.
134. To solder aluminium. M. Mourey recommends the following method.
One of the series of aluminium solders, No. II. (art. 125), is employed and, as a
flux, two-thirds of balsam of copaiba, one-third very pure Venice turpentine, and a
few drops of the juice of a citron; these constituents are pounded together in order
to secure a perfect admixture.
Page 137
The surfaces to be united are covered with solder (employing a soldering iron of
aluminium) just as in the case of tinning (137), the flux just mentioned being used.
The two surfaces, thus prepared, are placed in contact and maintained in the
required position, and, after laying on the joint particles of solder that are richer in
aluminium than the one used for preparing the surfaces, the whole is placed over a
charcoal fire or heated before the blow-pipe, pressing gently on the pieces of
solder, which will soon melt and should be distributed by means of a little tool of
aluminium.
During this second stage of the process, it is necessary to be very cautious in the
application of the flux; the pieces of solder should only be dipped in it before
being placed in position, for the flux is mainly for use in preparing the surfaces; as
soon as the solder has run well, the temperature should be lowered in order not to
dry up and burn the solder, which would be apt to become brittle.
In preparing the solders, the aluminium is first fused and stirred with a small
iron rod; then add the zinc and stir again; add a little tallow and cast the solder into
rods.
The zinc must not be too much heated, as it will volatilize, leaving the alloy rich
in aluminium and therefore brittle.
135. Fluxes for soldering. Various substances can be employed as fluxes for
cleansing the surfaces to be united:
Sal-ammoniac reduced to powder and made into a paste with sweet oil, or
merely dissolved in water. A paste formed of sal-ammoniac and resin, reduced to
powder, with water or oil. Resin alone will suffice for the soft soldering of copper
or brass. Venice turpentine, which has the advantage of not causing steel to rust,
although it makes the objects sticky so that they require to be afterwards rinsed in
alcohol or turpentine.
Various acid solutions are sold for the purpose and experience will enable the
watchmaker to select that which is best adapted to his requirements.
Lastly, saturated chloride of zinc can be recommended. It is prepared as follows:
Some dilute hydrochloric acid (which also goes by the name of spirits of salts,
or muriatic acid) is placed in a glass flask and strips of zinc are added one by one;
the flask must be left uncorked and the zinc added a little at a time, lest the
effervescence that occurs should break the vessel. When the zinc added is not
acted on by the fluid it may be concluded that the acid is saturated or “killed,” and
the fluid may then be transferred to a stoppered or corked bottle for use. In using
it, a small quantity is spread over the surfaces that are to be united and the solder
will be found to run with great freedom. Some authorities recommend the addition
aluminium) just as in the case of tinning (137), the flux just mentioned being used.
The two surfaces, thus prepared, are placed in contact and maintained in the
required position, and, after laying on the joint particles of solder that are richer in
aluminium than the one used for preparing the surfaces, the whole is placed over a
charcoal fire or heated before the blow-pipe, pressing gently on the pieces of
solder, which will soon melt and should be distributed by means of a little tool of
aluminium.
During this second stage of the process, it is necessary to be very cautious in the
application of the flux; the pieces of solder should only be dipped in it before
being placed in position, for the flux is mainly for use in preparing the surfaces; as
soon as the solder has run well, the temperature should be lowered in order not to
dry up and burn the solder, which would be apt to become brittle.
In preparing the solders, the aluminium is first fused and stirred with a small
iron rod; then add the zinc and stir again; add a little tallow and cast the solder into
rods.
The zinc must not be too much heated, as it will volatilize, leaving the alloy rich
in aluminium and therefore brittle.
135. Fluxes for soldering. Various substances can be employed as fluxes for
cleansing the surfaces to be united:
Sal-ammoniac reduced to powder and made into a paste with sweet oil, or
merely dissolved in water. A paste formed of sal-ammoniac and resin, reduced to
powder, with water or oil. Resin alone will suffice for the soft soldering of copper
or brass. Venice turpentine, which has the advantage of not causing steel to rust,
although it makes the objects sticky so that they require to be afterwards rinsed in
alcohol or turpentine.
Various acid solutions are sold for the purpose and experience will enable the
watchmaker to select that which is best adapted to his requirements.
Lastly, saturated chloride of zinc can be recommended. It is prepared as follows:
Some dilute hydrochloric acid (which also goes by the name of spirits of salts,
or muriatic acid) is placed in a glass flask and strips of zinc are added one by one;
the flask must be left uncorked and the zinc added a little at a time, lest the
effervescence that occurs should break the vessel. When the zinc added is not
acted on by the fluid it may be concluded that the acid is saturated or “killed,” and
the fluid may then be transferred to a stoppered or corked bottle for use. In using
it, a small quantity is spread over the surfaces that are to be united and the solder
will be found to run with great freedom. Some authorities recommend the addition
Page 138
of sal-ammoniac to the extent of one-fourth the weight of acid taken. It is well
again to warn the reader that the pieces must be thoroughly washed after
employing these liquids, for, otherwise, they will cause tools with which they are
brought in contact to rust and will rust themselves if they consist wholly or in part
of iron or steel. The vessel containing the fluid must be kept well away from the
work-bench.
The liquid can be used immediately after being prepared as above explained;
but all acid reaction may be prevented by evaporating at a moderate temperature
until of the consistency of oil; it is then allowed to cool and kept in a bottle.
136. The soldering iron with a head of copper, such as is used by tin-plate
workers, is well known; if made on a small scale it may occasionally be of service
to the watchmaker. The tool may be T-shaped, one end of the horizontal portion,
the copper head, terminating in a rather thin blade, and the other enlarged, so that,
when held in the flame of a lamp, it will store up a sufficient amount of heat. The
upright part of the T corresponds, of course, to the handle. After the iron has been
heated just short of redness in the dark, the end of the blade is moistened with
soldering fluid and a small piece of solder attached to it. The object to be united is
gently heated and also moistened with the fluid; the iron charged with solder is
presented to it, often with the enlarged extremity of the head maintained in the
flame of a lamp, and the solder will, as a rule, run without again heating the object,
although this might be done while the iron is still in contact. It may be found
convenient to fix the iron in a suitable position with the lamp below the large end
of the head; the object will then be brought against the iron after being moistened
with the fluid.
137. It is often advisable to tin the surfaces to be united previous to soldering
them; in order to do this they are moistened with soldering fluid, small pieces of
solder are then spread over, and these are fused by passing the hot iron over the
surface; or the solder can be spread after fusion by means of a metallic rod charged
with the liquid.
138. Brazing. This operation consists in soldering iron, steel, brass, or copper,
with an easily fusible brass, which is specially prepared in the form of coarse dust,
termed spelter solder, or cut in thin strips of convenient shape (129). The method
resembles, in all essential particulars, the application of hard solders previously
referred to (131, etc.)
Heat is usually applied direct by the blow-pipe, borax being used as a flux, and
the precautions taken that are mentioned in article 130: it is necessary to avoid a
greater degree of heat than would melt the brass, since the object might in that
case be fused. For fine work, it is better to employ silver solder.
again to warn the reader that the pieces must be thoroughly washed after
employing these liquids, for, otherwise, they will cause tools with which they are
brought in contact to rust and will rust themselves if they consist wholly or in part
of iron or steel. The vessel containing the fluid must be kept well away from the
work-bench.
The liquid can be used immediately after being prepared as above explained;
but all acid reaction may be prevented by evaporating at a moderate temperature
until of the consistency of oil; it is then allowed to cool and kept in a bottle.
136. The soldering iron with a head of copper, such as is used by tin-plate
workers, is well known; if made on a small scale it may occasionally be of service
to the watchmaker. The tool may be T-shaped, one end of the horizontal portion,
the copper head, terminating in a rather thin blade, and the other enlarged, so that,
when held in the flame of a lamp, it will store up a sufficient amount of heat. The
upright part of the T corresponds, of course, to the handle. After the iron has been
heated just short of redness in the dark, the end of the blade is moistened with
soldering fluid and a small piece of solder attached to it. The object to be united is
gently heated and also moistened with the fluid; the iron charged with solder is
presented to it, often with the enlarged extremity of the head maintained in the
flame of a lamp, and the solder will, as a rule, run without again heating the object,
although this might be done while the iron is still in contact. It may be found
convenient to fix the iron in a suitable position with the lamp below the large end
of the head; the object will then be brought against the iron after being moistened
with the fluid.
137. It is often advisable to tin the surfaces to be united previous to soldering
them; in order to do this they are moistened with soldering fluid, small pieces of
solder are then spread over, and these are fused by passing the hot iron over the
surface; or the solder can be spread after fusion by means of a metallic rod charged
with the liquid.
138. Brazing. This operation consists in soldering iron, steel, brass, or copper,
with an easily fusible brass, which is specially prepared in the form of coarse dust,
termed spelter solder, or cut in thin strips of convenient shape (129). The method
resembles, in all essential particulars, the application of hard solders previously
referred to (131, etc.)
Heat is usually applied direct by the blow-pipe, borax being used as a flux, and
the precautions taken that are mentioned in article 130: it is necessary to avoid a
greater degree of heat than would melt the brass, since the object might in that
case be fused. For fine work, it is better to employ silver solder.
Page 139
On an emergency, two pieces of steel can be united by brazing and subsequently
hardened, and we have successfully practiced this method in such a case as the
following: A small portion having been broken off from the quarter-piece of a
repeater, we dovetailed into it another piece of steel of the required form, but a
trifle too large at the upper side. When the brass had run well into the joint, and the
piece was still at a full cherry-red heat, it was hardened, and afterwards cleaned
and tempered to a blue color. The upper surface was then brought to shape with a
good file, resting it on a wooden block against a projection, and, after making sure
that it would act correctly, the whole was smoothed and polished. It has since
worked well and does not show signs of wear.
BRO NZ I NG .
139. To bronze copper. The following are two methods recommended for
bronzing objects of this metal, for example, a medal.
Dissolve two parts of verdigris (acetate of copper) and one part of sal-ammoniac
in vinegar. Boil the solution, skim it, and dilute with water until it no longer
possesses a feebly metallic smell, nor produces a whitish precipitate on the
addition of water. Then let it boil again in an earthenware or porcelain vessel and
transfer it, while boiling, into another vessel containing the perfectly clean medals,
etc., and place the whole on the fire. As soon as the medals assume the required
color, remove them, and wash carefully in clean water.
The objects must not be left too long in the acid bath over the fire, because the
layer of oxide would become too thick, and would easily scale off the surface;
whereas, if the operation is properly conducted, the coating adheres so firmly that
it cannot be separated even by scraping. Of course, it is only after a certain number
of trials, and with experience, that the exact moment can be ascertained for
removing the objects from the bath. It is very necessary that the bath be not too
concentrated, as the superficial oxide becomes proportionately less adherent:
moreover, a whitish powder is deposited on the medal, which turns green on
exposure to the air and spoils the appearance of the bronzing.
140. Chinese bronzing. The Chinese employ the following mixture for
bronzing copper, the several constituents being powdered before being
incorporated together: 2 parts of verdigris, 2 parts of cinnabar, 5 of sal-ammoniac,
5 of alum, and 2 parts of the beak and of the liver of a duck. A paste having been
made, with vinegar, it is spread over the perfectly clean surface of the copper, and
the whole exposed for an instant to the fire, then allowed to cool, washed, and the
operation repeated as often as may be needed in order to obtain the desired tint.
hardened, and we have successfully practiced this method in such a case as the
following: A small portion having been broken off from the quarter-piece of a
repeater, we dovetailed into it another piece of steel of the required form, but a
trifle too large at the upper side. When the brass had run well into the joint, and the
piece was still at a full cherry-red heat, it was hardened, and afterwards cleaned
and tempered to a blue color. The upper surface was then brought to shape with a
good file, resting it on a wooden block against a projection, and, after making sure
that it would act correctly, the whole was smoothed and polished. It has since
worked well and does not show signs of wear.
BRO NZ I NG .
139. To bronze copper. The following are two methods recommended for
bronzing objects of this metal, for example, a medal.
Dissolve two parts of verdigris (acetate of copper) and one part of sal-ammoniac
in vinegar. Boil the solution, skim it, and dilute with water until it no longer
possesses a feebly metallic smell, nor produces a whitish precipitate on the
addition of water. Then let it boil again in an earthenware or porcelain vessel and
transfer it, while boiling, into another vessel containing the perfectly clean medals,
etc., and place the whole on the fire. As soon as the medals assume the required
color, remove them, and wash carefully in clean water.
The objects must not be left too long in the acid bath over the fire, because the
layer of oxide would become too thick, and would easily scale off the surface;
whereas, if the operation is properly conducted, the coating adheres so firmly that
it cannot be separated even by scraping. Of course, it is only after a certain number
of trials, and with experience, that the exact moment can be ascertained for
removing the objects from the bath. It is very necessary that the bath be not too
concentrated, as the superficial oxide becomes proportionately less adherent:
moreover, a whitish powder is deposited on the medal, which turns green on
exposure to the air and spoils the appearance of the bronzing.
140. Chinese bronzing. The Chinese employ the following mixture for
bronzing copper, the several constituents being powdered before being
incorporated together: 2 parts of verdigris, 2 parts of cinnabar, 5 of sal-ammoniac,
5 of alum, and 2 parts of the beak and of the liver of a duck. A paste having been
made, with vinegar, it is spread over the perfectly clean surface of the copper, and
the whole exposed for an instant to the fire, then allowed to cool, washed, and the
operation repeated as often as may be needed in order to obtain the desired tint.
Page 140
By adding sulphate of copper to the mixture a browner shade will be obtained,
and it may be made yellower by adding borax. Copper thus treated is said to
present a beautiful appearance, and to be so permanent that neither air nor water
has any influence against it.
141. To bronze brass. Dissolve copper turnings in nitric acid until it is
completely saturated. Immerse the brass objects to be bronzed in this solution after
they have been cleaned, smoothed with water of Ayr stone, and heated to such a
temperature as the hand can just support; on being placed over a charcoal fire they
will assume a green color; rub them over with rags, repeat the immersion and
heating over charcoal until the required tint is obtained. The shade may be
improved by oiling the finished surfaces.
It is asserted that by immersing copper articles in molten sulphur containing
lampblack in suspension, they assume the appearance of bronze; and that they may
even be polished without losing their color.
G IL DI N G .
142. Gold gilding without the aid of mercury. Prepare the gold in fine
powder, as explained in the following paragraph, or procure it from the dealers in
chemical products, who manufacture it of various tints. Make a mixture of this
powder with pure rock salt and cream of tartar (bitartrate of potash), pulverized in
the same manner as described in speaking of silver-plating and take the same
precautions in its application.
The gold surface will present a dull appearance; acid cannot be used to improve
its color when operating, for example, on a wheel with attached pinion, but the
same result may be attained by a very simple method. Rub the object after plating
with cream of tartar, mixed with a large proportion of water; then immediately
wash in an abundance of warm water at not less than 40° C. (104° F.); soap it
thoroughly, so as to neutralize any acid that may remain, and finally pass through
alcohol to dissolve any remaining soap.
The surface will be still further improved by rubbing with a very hard piece of
pith, such as is occasionally met with.
M. Robert, in describing the above method, adds: “In this manner I have gilded
cocks, domes, compensation balance weights, and even their brass rims. When,
skilfully and expeditiously performed, the pinion need not be discolored; but, if it
is at any time slightly marked, it may be restored by at once rubbing the surface
with a soft stick and fine rouge.”
and it may be made yellower by adding borax. Copper thus treated is said to
present a beautiful appearance, and to be so permanent that neither air nor water
has any influence against it.
141. To bronze brass. Dissolve copper turnings in nitric acid until it is
completely saturated. Immerse the brass objects to be bronzed in this solution after
they have been cleaned, smoothed with water of Ayr stone, and heated to such a
temperature as the hand can just support; on being placed over a charcoal fire they
will assume a green color; rub them over with rags, repeat the immersion and
heating over charcoal until the required tint is obtained. The shade may be
improved by oiling the finished surfaces.
It is asserted that by immersing copper articles in molten sulphur containing
lampblack in suspension, they assume the appearance of bronze; and that they may
even be polished without losing their color.
G IL DI N G .
142. Gold gilding without the aid of mercury. Prepare the gold in fine
powder, as explained in the following paragraph, or procure it from the dealers in
chemical products, who manufacture it of various tints. Make a mixture of this
powder with pure rock salt and cream of tartar (bitartrate of potash), pulverized in
the same manner as described in speaking of silver-plating and take the same
precautions in its application.
The gold surface will present a dull appearance; acid cannot be used to improve
its color when operating, for example, on a wheel with attached pinion, but the
same result may be attained by a very simple method. Rub the object after plating
with cream of tartar, mixed with a large proportion of water; then immediately
wash in an abundance of warm water at not less than 40° C. (104° F.); soap it
thoroughly, so as to neutralize any acid that may remain, and finally pass through
alcohol to dissolve any remaining soap.
The surface will be still further improved by rubbing with a very hard piece of
pith, such as is occasionally met with.
M. Robert, in describing the above method, adds: “In this manner I have gilded
cocks, domes, compensation balance weights, and even their brass rims. When,
skilfully and expeditiously performed, the pinion need not be discolored; but, if it
is at any time slightly marked, it may be restored by at once rubbing the surface
with a soft stick and fine rouge.”
Page 141
143. Preparation of the gold powder. As already observed this can be obtained
of any desired color from the dealers in chemical products, but the following
method is given for the benefit of any one who desires to prepare it for himself:
Place some gold in thin leaves in a dish, and add a little honey, thoroughly
intermixing the two by the aid of a glass rod flattened at one end; then place the
paste so obtained in a glass of water containing a little alcohol, washing it and
allowing the powder to settle. Decant the liquid and again wash the residue,
repeating the operation until a fine brilliant powder is obtained. This powder is
mixed as required with rock salt and powdered cream of tartar in the manner
already described.
144. Second method. Dissolve one part by weight (say about ten grains) of pure
gold, rolled very thin, in aqua regia (155) contained in a porcelain dish, which may
be gently heated on a sand-bath, and evaporate the acid until it assumes a blood-
red color. Add about 30 parts, by weight, of warm distilled water, in which 4 parts
of crystallized cyanide of potassium have been previously dissolved; thoroughly
stir the mixture with a glass rod, and filter it through a glass funnel.
145. Third Method. Roseleur recommends the following solution for gilding by
simple immersion. Distilled water, 17 pints; pyrophosphate of soda (in crystals) 28
ounces; hydrocyanic acid, 1-3 ounce; crystallized perchloride of gold, 2-3 ounce.
The pyrophosphate is added, in small quantities at a time, to 16 pints of water, in a
porcelain vessel, stirring with a glass rod and applying gentle heat; then filter and
cool. The gold salt is dissolved in a small amount of water; filter and add to the
cold solution of pyrophosphate; lastly, add the hydrocyanic acid and the solution,
heated to the boiling point, is ready for use.
The articles to be dipped must be thoroughly cleansed and passed through a
very dilute solution of nitrate of binoxide of mercury; they must be constantly
agitated while in the bath and the best coating is obtained by dipping the articles in
a nearly exhausted solution of the same kind immediately after the mercury
solution.
146. Electro Gilding. But the method most usually adopted is that in which a
battery is employed. It is, however, impossible, within the limits of this work, to
explain the precautions that are necessary in conducting the process, managing the
battery, etc., and the reader must be referred to works on electro-metallurgy for
these details.
147. To prepare the pieces to be plated. After the surface has been stoned, boil
the object a few minutes in a solution of soda or potash, and rinse in clean water.
of any desired color from the dealers in chemical products, but the following
method is given for the benefit of any one who desires to prepare it for himself:
Place some gold in thin leaves in a dish, and add a little honey, thoroughly
intermixing the two by the aid of a glass rod flattened at one end; then place the
paste so obtained in a glass of water containing a little alcohol, washing it and
allowing the powder to settle. Decant the liquid and again wash the residue,
repeating the operation until a fine brilliant powder is obtained. This powder is
mixed as required with rock salt and powdered cream of tartar in the manner
already described.
144. Second method. Dissolve one part by weight (say about ten grains) of pure
gold, rolled very thin, in aqua regia (155) contained in a porcelain dish, which may
be gently heated on a sand-bath, and evaporate the acid until it assumes a blood-
red color. Add about 30 parts, by weight, of warm distilled water, in which 4 parts
of crystallized cyanide of potassium have been previously dissolved; thoroughly
stir the mixture with a glass rod, and filter it through a glass funnel.
145. Third Method. Roseleur recommends the following solution for gilding by
simple immersion. Distilled water, 17 pints; pyrophosphate of soda (in crystals) 28
ounces; hydrocyanic acid, 1-3 ounce; crystallized perchloride of gold, 2-3 ounce.
The pyrophosphate is added, in small quantities at a time, to 16 pints of water, in a
porcelain vessel, stirring with a glass rod and applying gentle heat; then filter and
cool. The gold salt is dissolved in a small amount of water; filter and add to the
cold solution of pyrophosphate; lastly, add the hydrocyanic acid and the solution,
heated to the boiling point, is ready for use.
The articles to be dipped must be thoroughly cleansed and passed through a
very dilute solution of nitrate of binoxide of mercury; they must be constantly
agitated while in the bath and the best coating is obtained by dipping the articles in
a nearly exhausted solution of the same kind immediately after the mercury
solution.
146. Electro Gilding. But the method most usually adopted is that in which a
battery is employed. It is, however, impossible, within the limits of this work, to
explain the precautions that are necessary in conducting the process, managing the
battery, etc., and the reader must be referred to works on electro-metallurgy for
these details.
147. To prepare the pieces to be plated. After the surface has been stoned, boil
the object a few minutes in a solution of soda or potash, and rinse in clean water.
Page 142
Roseleur, in the articles already referred to, gives very full instructions, of
which the following is an outline. The reader who desires to obtain more complete
information can consult his works.
Attach the pieces to a cork and brush with a clean brush charged with water and
pumice-stone powder and thoroughly rinse. Place them in a solution consisting of:
water, 2¼ gal.; nitrate of binoxide of mercury, 1-14 oz.; sulphuric acid 1-7 oz.
Then rinse again.
148. Graining. Mix thoroughly with the application of moderate heat, silver
powder, 1 ounce; pure common salt, finely powdered, 13 ounces; cream of tartar 4
to 5 ounces. Make a thin paste of this mixture with water and spread with a spatula
on the pieces; having mounted them on a cork to which a rotary motion is given,
rub them in all directions with a brush with close bristles, adding fresh paste from
time to time. When the desired grain is obtained, wash and scratch-brush with
revolving wire brushes. Three of these are often used of varying degrees of
hardness and a decoction of liqorice, weak size or stale beer is liberally applied to
the surface.
149. Resist. This is a composition for covering steel parts in order to protect
them from the action of the acids, etc., in the various processes of cleaning,
graining and gilding. It consists of yellow wax, 2 ounces; clear resin, 3⅓ ounces;
very fine red sealing-wax, 1½ ounces; finest rouge, 1 ounce; Melt the resin and
sealing-wax in a porcelain dish, then add the yellow wax, and when the whole is
thoroughly liquid, gradually add the rouge, stirring with a glass rod. The parts to
be coated are slightly heated and covered with the mixture.
To remove the resist after the gilding process is completed, place the pieces in
warm oil or turpentine, then in a very hot soapy or alkaline solution and lastly in
fresh water.
150. When prepared as above explained, the object may be gilt by one of the
preceding methods; of course a hot solution cannot be resorted to when the resist
has been applied.
151. To clean objects that are of gold or gilt. The following method is equally
applicable to pieces that are gilt, such as cocks, domes, etc., the frames and parts
of timepieces and to either gold or gilt jewelry.
To about a tumbler of water add 20 drops of strong ammonia. Immerse the
object several times in this mixture and brush it with a soft brush; as soon as the
operation appears to be completed (which experience will soon enable the
workman to ascertain), wash in pure water, then in alcohol, and dry with a fine
linen rag. The original brilliancy of the gilding will then be restored.
which the following is an outline. The reader who desires to obtain more complete
information can consult his works.
Attach the pieces to a cork and brush with a clean brush charged with water and
pumice-stone powder and thoroughly rinse. Place them in a solution consisting of:
water, 2¼ gal.; nitrate of binoxide of mercury, 1-14 oz.; sulphuric acid 1-7 oz.
Then rinse again.
148. Graining. Mix thoroughly with the application of moderate heat, silver
powder, 1 ounce; pure common salt, finely powdered, 13 ounces; cream of tartar 4
to 5 ounces. Make a thin paste of this mixture with water and spread with a spatula
on the pieces; having mounted them on a cork to which a rotary motion is given,
rub them in all directions with a brush with close bristles, adding fresh paste from
time to time. When the desired grain is obtained, wash and scratch-brush with
revolving wire brushes. Three of these are often used of varying degrees of
hardness and a decoction of liqorice, weak size or stale beer is liberally applied to
the surface.
149. Resist. This is a composition for covering steel parts in order to protect
them from the action of the acids, etc., in the various processes of cleaning,
graining and gilding. It consists of yellow wax, 2 ounces; clear resin, 3⅓ ounces;
very fine red sealing-wax, 1½ ounces; finest rouge, 1 ounce; Melt the resin and
sealing-wax in a porcelain dish, then add the yellow wax, and when the whole is
thoroughly liquid, gradually add the rouge, stirring with a glass rod. The parts to
be coated are slightly heated and covered with the mixture.
To remove the resist after the gilding process is completed, place the pieces in
warm oil or turpentine, then in a very hot soapy or alkaline solution and lastly in
fresh water.
150. When prepared as above explained, the object may be gilt by one of the
preceding methods; of course a hot solution cannot be resorted to when the resist
has been applied.
151. To clean objects that are of gold or gilt. The following method is equally
applicable to pieces that are gilt, such as cocks, domes, etc., the frames and parts
of timepieces and to either gold or gilt jewelry.
To about a tumbler of water add 20 drops of strong ammonia. Immerse the
object several times in this mixture and brush it with a soft brush; as soon as the
operation appears to be completed (which experience will soon enable the
workman to ascertain), wash in pure water, then in alcohol, and dry with a fine
linen rag. The original brilliancy of the gilding will then be restored.
Page 143
When the coating is thin and has been galvanically deposited, only very soft
brushes must be used.
Gilders, instead of dipping in alcohol and drying with a linen rag, usually
immerse the pieces in boxwood sawdust, leaving them long enough to become
thoroughly dry; after this treatment they merely require to be shaken and lightly
rubbed with a fine brush.
The sawdust must be perfectly dry; indeed it is a good plan to slightly warm it
by placing the wooden box containing it for a few minutes on a hot oven or stove
in the winter and exposing it to a hot sun in summer.
Instead of ammonia, alum (156) is sometimes boiled in water and the objects
dipped two or three times in this solution, subsequently brushing as in the previous
case.
152. To restore the dead surface of gold or gilt objects. Place them for two or
three minutes in chlorine water, rinse them in clean water, soap them and finally
dry in sawdust. It is advisable that parts that are polished be prevented from actual
contact with the liquid as it would produce a somewhat deadened surface.
153. To clean gold jewelry after soldering. Particles of binding wire are often
left adhering to the surface of jewelry after soldering, and, on dipping the object
into the dipping liquid, a layer of oxide may be formed. This can be removed
without detriment to the polished surface by plunging the object for a few seconds
in nitric acid (155).
A CID S AND S ALT S .
154. The watchmaker has occasion to employ a few acids and salts. He should
never forget the advice already given to keep them away from his work-bench and
always to well wash a piece of metal that has been in contact with them.
155. Acids. Nitric Acid, either in a concentrated or dilute form, will dissolve
iron, steel, copper, lead, silver, zinc, brass, nickel, mercury, German silver. It does
not dissolve tin, but reduces it to a white powder, known as metastannic acid.
Hence, if an attempt be made to dissolve bronze which contains tin, this metal is
deposited, and the copper and zinc pass into solution.
Sulphuric acid will dissolve iron, steel, copper, tin, silver, zinc, brass, nickel,
mercury, German silver.
brushes must be used.
Gilders, instead of dipping in alcohol and drying with a linen rag, usually
immerse the pieces in boxwood sawdust, leaving them long enough to become
thoroughly dry; after this treatment they merely require to be shaken and lightly
rubbed with a fine brush.
The sawdust must be perfectly dry; indeed it is a good plan to slightly warm it
by placing the wooden box containing it for a few minutes on a hot oven or stove
in the winter and exposing it to a hot sun in summer.
Instead of ammonia, alum (156) is sometimes boiled in water and the objects
dipped two or three times in this solution, subsequently brushing as in the previous
case.
152. To restore the dead surface of gold or gilt objects. Place them for two or
three minutes in chlorine water, rinse them in clean water, soap them and finally
dry in sawdust. It is advisable that parts that are polished be prevented from actual
contact with the liquid as it would produce a somewhat deadened surface.
153. To clean gold jewelry after soldering. Particles of binding wire are often
left adhering to the surface of jewelry after soldering, and, on dipping the object
into the dipping liquid, a layer of oxide may be formed. This can be removed
without detriment to the polished surface by plunging the object for a few seconds
in nitric acid (155).
A CID S AND S ALT S .
154. The watchmaker has occasion to employ a few acids and salts. He should
never forget the advice already given to keep them away from his work-bench and
always to well wash a piece of metal that has been in contact with them.
155. Acids. Nitric Acid, either in a concentrated or dilute form, will dissolve
iron, steel, copper, lead, silver, zinc, brass, nickel, mercury, German silver. It does
not dissolve tin, but reduces it to a white powder, known as metastannic acid.
Hence, if an attempt be made to dissolve bronze which contains tin, this metal is
deposited, and the copper and zinc pass into solution.
Sulphuric acid will dissolve iron, steel, copper, tin, silver, zinc, brass, nickel,
mercury, German silver.
Page 144
Hydrochloric acid will dissolve iron, steel, zinc and nickel and has a slow action
on copper, tin, brass and German silver.
Aqua regia, a mixture of about 2 parts hydrochloric and 1 part nitric acid, will
dissolve all the above-named metals, and in addition, gold and platinum, although
separately neither acid will attack these metals.
Hydrofluoric acid attacks and dissolves all metals, except platinum, lead and
silver with violent effervescence. It is also used for etching on glass or enamel. It
is usually preserved in gutta-percha bottles, and is of such a dangerous nature that
no use should be made of it without a good knowledge of its properties.
Acids are rarely employed pure by watchmakers; they are diluted with water.
Nitric acid of commerce has a density of about 1.4 (38° on Baume’s hydrometer).
If this density is reduced by the addition of water to 1.16 (20° Baume), we obtain
the acid most commonly employed. For cleaning metallic surfaces prior to
soldering etc.; for giving a grained surface to brass, and for whitening blue steel,
special proportions are found most convenient, which the reader can best
determine experimentally for himself, remembering that the action of the acid
should neither be too quick nor too slow. When once he has ascertained the best
proportion, he can always recover it by the aid of the hydrometer.
156. Salts. Borax serves as a flux in soldering gold, silver, platinum, etc., (131);
also for the same purpose in brazing (138); it is met with in crystals or as a
powder.
Sal-Ammoniac (also called Chloride of ammonium), is used for soldering tin,
either as a powder or made into a paste, with sweet oil or with water, or mixed
with resin.
Alum dissolved in water may occasionally be used in place of nitric acid for
cleaning surfaces that have been soldered; it attacks iron or steel more
energetically than copper, zinc, or brass. This fact is often taken advantage of for
removing broken screws, etc., from brass plates. All other steel parts are removed
and the plate placed in a solution of alum, when the steel screw is gradually eaten
away by being converted into rust.
In 100 parts of cold water, only 9 parts of alum will dissolve, but if the water be
boiled, it will take up 75 parts. Its action will then be proportionately more
energetic when boiling.
O IL .
on copper, tin, brass and German silver.
Aqua regia, a mixture of about 2 parts hydrochloric and 1 part nitric acid, will
dissolve all the above-named metals, and in addition, gold and platinum, although
separately neither acid will attack these metals.
Hydrofluoric acid attacks and dissolves all metals, except platinum, lead and
silver with violent effervescence. It is also used for etching on glass or enamel. It
is usually preserved in gutta-percha bottles, and is of such a dangerous nature that
no use should be made of it without a good knowledge of its properties.
Acids are rarely employed pure by watchmakers; they are diluted with water.
Nitric acid of commerce has a density of about 1.4 (38° on Baume’s hydrometer).
If this density is reduced by the addition of water to 1.16 (20° Baume), we obtain
the acid most commonly employed. For cleaning metallic surfaces prior to
soldering etc.; for giving a grained surface to brass, and for whitening blue steel,
special proportions are found most convenient, which the reader can best
determine experimentally for himself, remembering that the action of the acid
should neither be too quick nor too slow. When once he has ascertained the best
proportion, he can always recover it by the aid of the hydrometer.
156. Salts. Borax serves as a flux in soldering gold, silver, platinum, etc., (131);
also for the same purpose in brazing (138); it is met with in crystals or as a
powder.
Sal-Ammoniac (also called Chloride of ammonium), is used for soldering tin,
either as a powder or made into a paste, with sweet oil or with water, or mixed
with resin.
Alum dissolved in water may occasionally be used in place of nitric acid for
cleaning surfaces that have been soldered; it attacks iron or steel more
energetically than copper, zinc, or brass. This fact is often taken advantage of for
removing broken screws, etc., from brass plates. All other steel parts are removed
and the plate placed in a solution of alum, when the steel screw is gradually eaten
away by being converted into rust.
In 100 parts of cold water, only 9 parts of alum will dissolve, but if the water be
boiled, it will take up 75 parts. Its action will then be proportionately more
energetic when boiling.
O IL .
Page 145
157. The oil intended for use as a lubricant for watchwork, etc., should be kept
away from the light, as otherwise it would be discolored; it is on this account that
the bottles containing such oil are frequently covered with black paper. Only the
quantity wanted for immediate use should be placed in the oil-cup.
Two preliminary tests will afford some indication as to the quality of an oil. A
thick layer is placed on a small portion of the surface of a glass plate, and side by
side, a similar layer of another oil used for comparison, and they are exposed to
the air for some time without being touched. The one that is found to be sticky
under the finger when the other has dried up will, in all probability, be preferable.
The second preliminary test is made on a whetstone; it is usually found that the oil
that takes the longest time to thicken is of better quality. Of course these tests will
only suffice to afford a rough approximation, and cannot be accepted as
conclusive.
The mode adopted for testing either the acidity or the purity of oil will afford no
evidence as to how long it will maintain its fluidity; and very good results have at
times been secured by the use of oils that were slightly acid, or from mixtures of
oils of two or more qualities.
Many of the methods recommended for purifying oils are to a great extent
illusory, for they cannot impart to the fluid characteristics that are wanting from
the beginning. Success depends largely on the skill of the manipulator; and if he is
not endowed with the power of judging, mainly by the taste, whether oil satisfies
certain prescribed conditions, he can never be certain of the result. Crops differ as
regards degree of maturity, etc., from year to year; and the animals from which oils
are procured are rarely in the same condition as regards health, age, nourishment,
etc.
Tests made on a whetstone, and on a window-pane, as well as observations
made on drops of oil placed in jewel holes, or in oil-cups in a metal plate kept for
the purpose—some of the drops being exposed to the air, while others are in
closed boxes—will afford valuable indications; and according to the observations
of M. H. Robert, it is safe to consider an oil bad if, at the end of six or eight days
after being placed on a plate of good brass, it shows a marked green tinge—
especially so if a clearly defined fringe forms round the drop, or else if the brass
itself is discolored.
After all, the only evidence on which the watchmaker can rely is that which he
obtains by experimenting on watches which he keeps to lend to his customers
while their own are undergoing repair, and these trials should last for at least a
year.
away from the light, as otherwise it would be discolored; it is on this account that
the bottles containing such oil are frequently covered with black paper. Only the
quantity wanted for immediate use should be placed in the oil-cup.
Two preliminary tests will afford some indication as to the quality of an oil. A
thick layer is placed on a small portion of the surface of a glass plate, and side by
side, a similar layer of another oil used for comparison, and they are exposed to
the air for some time without being touched. The one that is found to be sticky
under the finger when the other has dried up will, in all probability, be preferable.
The second preliminary test is made on a whetstone; it is usually found that the oil
that takes the longest time to thicken is of better quality. Of course these tests will
only suffice to afford a rough approximation, and cannot be accepted as
conclusive.
The mode adopted for testing either the acidity or the purity of oil will afford no
evidence as to how long it will maintain its fluidity; and very good results have at
times been secured by the use of oils that were slightly acid, or from mixtures of
oils of two or more qualities.
Many of the methods recommended for purifying oils are to a great extent
illusory, for they cannot impart to the fluid characteristics that are wanting from
the beginning. Success depends largely on the skill of the manipulator; and if he is
not endowed with the power of judging, mainly by the taste, whether oil satisfies
certain prescribed conditions, he can never be certain of the result. Crops differ as
regards degree of maturity, etc., from year to year; and the animals from which oils
are procured are rarely in the same condition as regards health, age, nourishment,
etc.
Tests made on a whetstone, and on a window-pane, as well as observations
made on drops of oil placed in jewel holes, or in oil-cups in a metal plate kept for
the purpose—some of the drops being exposed to the air, while others are in
closed boxes—will afford valuable indications; and according to the observations
of M. H. Robert, it is safe to consider an oil bad if, at the end of six or eight days
after being placed on a plate of good brass, it shows a marked green tinge—
especially so if a clearly defined fringe forms round the drop, or else if the brass
itself is discolored.
After all, the only evidence on which the watchmaker can rely is that which he
obtains by experimenting on watches which he keeps to lend to his customers
while their own are undergoing repair, and these trials should last for at least a
year.
Page 146
And there is great variety among the wearers of watches. Some live in
constantly varying temperatures, often dusty; many ladies use perfumes; some
persons perspire more than others; all these causes influence the oil, and make it
alter or evaporate more rapidly in one watch than in another.
158. To secure the maximum permanency in oil. In the case of very many
watchmakers who complain bitterly of the oils they employ, the fault is their own
and not that of the oil; for they neglect the most simple precautions, both in
purchasing and in using it.
The following are a few points to which attention should be given:
Do not buy, from motives of economy, bottles that have lain for years in the
shop.
Keep the oil away from the light, and only take in the oil cup the amount
required for immediate use, as stated above.
Ascertain that the watch-cases close well. If they do not, there will be air
currents generated, and the oil will suffer.
The oil in a cylinder escapement will always deteriorate very rapidly; some
watchmakers coat over the inside of the dome-joint and recommend the owner not
to open it. By doing so, the oil can be maintained in good condition at the
escapement for a long time.
Lastly, when cleaning a watch, the work should be conscientiously done. This
point is very important.
When the parts are carelessly cleaned with soap, or with impure benzine, they
will, after a few months, assume a dull colour, in consequence of a thin layer of
the materials used in cleaning having been left on the surface. It has at times been
noticed that steel work was preserved from rust through the perspiration of the
wearer, after being cleaned by certain fluids. Evidently this was due to a thin
coating having been left on the surface of the metal. The conclusion to be drawn is
obvious: clean carefully; push the pivots into rather hard pith; finish with a soft
brush in proper condition, and clear out all pivot-holes with pegwood.
159. Mixed oils: camphorated oils. Good results are frequently obtained by
mixing together two different kinds of oil. Thus, American watch oil, which is
very fluid and apt to evaporate at the temperature of the pocket, is improved by the
addition of a somewhat thicker oil. A mixture of real American oil with the
Rodanet oil has been recommended as excellent.
There are some who advocate the addition of a small quantity of camphor to an
oil that is known to be satisfactory, but we cannot answer for it from personal
constantly varying temperatures, often dusty; many ladies use perfumes; some
persons perspire more than others; all these causes influence the oil, and make it
alter or evaporate more rapidly in one watch than in another.
158. To secure the maximum permanency in oil. In the case of very many
watchmakers who complain bitterly of the oils they employ, the fault is their own
and not that of the oil; for they neglect the most simple precautions, both in
purchasing and in using it.
The following are a few points to which attention should be given:
Do not buy, from motives of economy, bottles that have lain for years in the
shop.
Keep the oil away from the light, and only take in the oil cup the amount
required for immediate use, as stated above.
Ascertain that the watch-cases close well. If they do not, there will be air
currents generated, and the oil will suffer.
The oil in a cylinder escapement will always deteriorate very rapidly; some
watchmakers coat over the inside of the dome-joint and recommend the owner not
to open it. By doing so, the oil can be maintained in good condition at the
escapement for a long time.
Lastly, when cleaning a watch, the work should be conscientiously done. This
point is very important.
When the parts are carelessly cleaned with soap, or with impure benzine, they
will, after a few months, assume a dull colour, in consequence of a thin layer of
the materials used in cleaning having been left on the surface. It has at times been
noticed that steel work was preserved from rust through the perspiration of the
wearer, after being cleaned by certain fluids. Evidently this was due to a thin
coating having been left on the surface of the metal. The conclusion to be drawn is
obvious: clean carefully; push the pivots into rather hard pith; finish with a soft
brush in proper condition, and clear out all pivot-holes with pegwood.
159. Mixed oils: camphorated oils. Good results are frequently obtained by
mixing together two different kinds of oil. Thus, American watch oil, which is
very fluid and apt to evaporate at the temperature of the pocket, is improved by the
addition of a somewhat thicker oil. A mixture of real American oil with the
Rodanet oil has been recommended as excellent.
There are some who advocate the addition of a small quantity of camphor to an
oil that is known to be satisfactory, but we cannot answer for it from personal
Page 147
experience.
160. Sinks. In cleaning, it is important to avoid removing the gilding in the oil
sinks of watches, or the superficial oxide in the sinks of clocks that have been
going for a considerable time. For if it be removed, there will be a fresh coating
formed in time, and this, too, at the expense of the oil.
In new timepieces that are not gilt, it is well worth while polishing the sinks
over their entire surface. If not applied too liberally, the oil will then be more
likely to remain in contact with the end of the pivot. Moreover, as the surface is
smoothed and hardened, and its pores are, as it were, closed by the action of the
polisher, the oil will oxidize more slowly. This fact was first pointed out by Robin.
161. Caution to be observed in applying oil. The precautions to be observed in
applying oil will be better considered in Part V. of this work, where we shall
describe the method of cleaning and putting a watch together.
162. Retention of oil on acting surfaces. Since oil is essential in order to
diminish friction, and the movement of the bodies to which it is applied tends to
drive it from the surfaces of contact, it is important, with a view to its being
constantly brought back and maintained in proximity to these surfaces, that they
be formed in accordance with certain rules based on the laws of hydrostatics.
A L CO H O L .
163. Only what is known as rectified alcohol should be used in cleaning parts of
watch work. The copper pan in which it is made to boil should not be too thin. The
handle should be so arranged that it can be fixed in the vise, and the lamp held
under the pan.
When, in heating, the alcohol ignites, it is best not to attempt its extinction by
blowing; if the pan is held against the under side of the bench, the flame will at
once be put out, or this can be effected by merely laying a piece of sheet metal
over the pan. A good plan for preventing ignition is to make a lid of wire gauze,
which is placed over the pan during the application of heat.
The substance known as “methylated spirit” is a cheap preparation of alcohol,
and of use for burning in a spirit lamp, and for other purposes where the alcohol is
not required to be pure.
BE NZ INE , ET C .
160. Sinks. In cleaning, it is important to avoid removing the gilding in the oil
sinks of watches, or the superficial oxide in the sinks of clocks that have been
going for a considerable time. For if it be removed, there will be a fresh coating
formed in time, and this, too, at the expense of the oil.
In new timepieces that are not gilt, it is well worth while polishing the sinks
over their entire surface. If not applied too liberally, the oil will then be more
likely to remain in contact with the end of the pivot. Moreover, as the surface is
smoothed and hardened, and its pores are, as it were, closed by the action of the
polisher, the oil will oxidize more slowly. This fact was first pointed out by Robin.
161. Caution to be observed in applying oil. The precautions to be observed in
applying oil will be better considered in Part V. of this work, where we shall
describe the method of cleaning and putting a watch together.
162. Retention of oil on acting surfaces. Since oil is essential in order to
diminish friction, and the movement of the bodies to which it is applied tends to
drive it from the surfaces of contact, it is important, with a view to its being
constantly brought back and maintained in proximity to these surfaces, that they
be formed in accordance with certain rules based on the laws of hydrostatics.
A L CO H O L .
163. Only what is known as rectified alcohol should be used in cleaning parts of
watch work. The copper pan in which it is made to boil should not be too thin. The
handle should be so arranged that it can be fixed in the vise, and the lamp held
under the pan.
When, in heating, the alcohol ignites, it is best not to attempt its extinction by
blowing; if the pan is held against the under side of the bench, the flame will at
once be put out, or this can be effected by merely laying a piece of sheet metal
over the pan. A good plan for preventing ignition is to make a lid of wire gauze,
which is placed over the pan during the application of heat.
The substance known as “methylated spirit” is a cheap preparation of alcohol,
and of use for burning in a spirit lamp, and for other purposes where the alcohol is
not required to be pure.
BE NZ INE , ET C .
Page 148
164. This and other preparations of a similar nature, such as Essence Lemoine,
Essence Genevoise, etc., are much used for dissolving clogged oil and other
substances of a greasy nature from parts of watches in cleaning.
PO L IS HI NG MAT E RI AL S .
165. The following account of the materials used for polishing, is, for the most
part, extracted from Holtzapffel’s Turning and Mechanical Manipulation, to which
the reader is referred for fuller information in regard to them, and to their mode of
application:
Buff Leather glued to a flat surface, or to the edge of a revolving disc, is used
with emery, crocus, rottenstone and other powders.
Charcoal is much used by steel and copper-plate engravers. That made by
burning elder without access of air is considered the best, but willow and elm have
also been recommended.
Diamond, in the form of powder, is used by lapidaries, seal engravers, and
watch jewel makers. The latter obtain the diamond bort that is rubbed off stones in
faceting, and they separate it into various degrees of fineness, by decantation
(168). The mode of applying it is described in articles 207, 216.
Diamantine, Sapphirine, Rubitine, etc., are names given to various chemical
preparations for polishing, to be obtained at the tool shops; they must not be
assumed to consist in any way of the jewels from which their names are derived.
Emery. At the present day, oilstone dust is very frequently replaced by emery
with oil or water, especially in clockwork. Any required degree of fineness can be
obtained by decantation. Emery dust is sometimes used in place of rouge for
polishing.
The solid emery wheels and sticks, that are now common in the trade, work
rapidly, but they have the disadvantage of heating steel, and many of them soon
become pasty. The heating renders them less suitable for grinding gravers, but they
are very convenient for roughly shaping steel work, or removing the hard surface
caused by the application of heat.
To make emery paper. If occasion requires it, this can be done as follows: Fix a
sheet of stout rope manila paper on a board, glueing it round the edge. Having put
emery powder into a sifter, the mesh of which has the requisite degree of fineness,
and rapidly covered the surface of the paper with thin hot glue, shake the sifter
lightly over the paper until it is evenly covered, and leave to cool. When dry,
Essence Genevoise, etc., are much used for dissolving clogged oil and other
substances of a greasy nature from parts of watches in cleaning.
PO L IS HI NG MAT E RI AL S .
165. The following account of the materials used for polishing, is, for the most
part, extracted from Holtzapffel’s Turning and Mechanical Manipulation, to which
the reader is referred for fuller information in regard to them, and to their mode of
application:
Buff Leather glued to a flat surface, or to the edge of a revolving disc, is used
with emery, crocus, rottenstone and other powders.
Charcoal is much used by steel and copper-plate engravers. That made by
burning elder without access of air is considered the best, but willow and elm have
also been recommended.
Diamond, in the form of powder, is used by lapidaries, seal engravers, and
watch jewel makers. The latter obtain the diamond bort that is rubbed off stones in
faceting, and they separate it into various degrees of fineness, by decantation
(168). The mode of applying it is described in articles 207, 216.
Diamantine, Sapphirine, Rubitine, etc., are names given to various chemical
preparations for polishing, to be obtained at the tool shops; they must not be
assumed to consist in any way of the jewels from which their names are derived.
Emery. At the present day, oilstone dust is very frequently replaced by emery
with oil or water, especially in clockwork. Any required degree of fineness can be
obtained by decantation. Emery dust is sometimes used in place of rouge for
polishing.
The solid emery wheels and sticks, that are now common in the trade, work
rapidly, but they have the disadvantage of heating steel, and many of them soon
become pasty. The heating renders them less suitable for grinding gravers, but they
are very convenient for roughly shaping steel work, or removing the hard surface
caused by the application of heat.
To make emery paper. If occasion requires it, this can be done as follows: Fix a
sheet of stout rope manila paper on a board, glueing it round the edge. Having put
emery powder into a sifter, the mesh of which has the requisite degree of fineness,
and rapidly covered the surface of the paper with thin hot glue, shake the sifter
lightly over the paper until it is evenly covered, and leave to cool. When dry,
Page 149
detach the paper and shake it vigorously to detach loose grains. Cloth may be used
instead of paper, if desired.
Hone slates. Under this heading are included a great variety of stones used for
smoothing and polishing.
Ayr stone, or water of Ayr stone, is much used for smoothing brass work prior to
gilding (142), etc. It should be kept wet in order to prevent it from becoming hard.
Blue polishing stone is much used by jewelers, clockmakers, and others; it is
recommended for use in spotting (174) and for polishing wheels (176.)
Oilstone. This forms the quickest cutting whetstone known. Oilstone slips are
used by watchmakers after the manner of files. Oilstone powder, or dust, is much
used in the earlier stages of polishing, and is preferable to emery in that it does not
leave particles embedded in the surface of the metal. On pewter laps it may also be
employed for polishing steel work.
Oxides of iron. Under this head are included the several materials known as
crocus, rouge, red-stuff, colcothar of vitriol, etc. It is advisable to remove gritty
particles from these materials by decantation (168) before using.
Pumice-Stone is extensively used for polishing cut glass, and is applicable to
brass and other metal work.
Putty Powder is oxide of tin, or, more commonly, of tin and lead in varying
proportions. The whitest kind, provided it be heavy, is considered the best.
Rottenstone. This variety of tripoli is of the greatest value for polishing brass
work, as well as for silver, glass, and even the hardest stones.
Tripoli is of a greyish yellow or red color, and consists mainly of silica. Its
principal use is in the polishing of hard woods.
Whiting is common chalk, ground, washed to remove sand, etc., and dried in
lumps.
166. Polishing Stones. The following method is described by M. Cadot for
preparing these stones, which are very useful for polishing a wheel that is not
riveted to its pinion (see article 185).
Carefully select a blue stone; after dressing its surface, smooth it with emery
paper of gradually increasing fineness. Saturate the surface with oil, and rub it
with a common piece of rough sapphire, one face of which is flat and partly
smoothed, until the surface of the stone is hardened.
Such a stone is used dry. The wheels must previously have been carefully
smoothed, since the stone does not abrade the metal. If care is taken to avoid
instead of paper, if desired.
Hone slates. Under this heading are included a great variety of stones used for
smoothing and polishing.
Ayr stone, or water of Ayr stone, is much used for smoothing brass work prior to
gilding (142), etc. It should be kept wet in order to prevent it from becoming hard.
Blue polishing stone is much used by jewelers, clockmakers, and others; it is
recommended for use in spotting (174) and for polishing wheels (176.)
Oilstone. This forms the quickest cutting whetstone known. Oilstone slips are
used by watchmakers after the manner of files. Oilstone powder, or dust, is much
used in the earlier stages of polishing, and is preferable to emery in that it does not
leave particles embedded in the surface of the metal. On pewter laps it may also be
employed for polishing steel work.
Oxides of iron. Under this head are included the several materials known as
crocus, rouge, red-stuff, colcothar of vitriol, etc. It is advisable to remove gritty
particles from these materials by decantation (168) before using.
Pumice-Stone is extensively used for polishing cut glass, and is applicable to
brass and other metal work.
Putty Powder is oxide of tin, or, more commonly, of tin and lead in varying
proportions. The whitest kind, provided it be heavy, is considered the best.
Rottenstone. This variety of tripoli is of the greatest value for polishing brass
work, as well as for silver, glass, and even the hardest stones.
Tripoli is of a greyish yellow or red color, and consists mainly of silica. Its
principal use is in the polishing of hard woods.
Whiting is common chalk, ground, washed to remove sand, etc., and dried in
lumps.
166. Polishing Stones. The following method is described by M. Cadot for
preparing these stones, which are very useful for polishing a wheel that is not
riveted to its pinion (see article 185).
Carefully select a blue stone; after dressing its surface, smooth it with emery
paper of gradually increasing fineness. Saturate the surface with oil, and rub it
with a common piece of rough sapphire, one face of which is flat and partly
smoothed, until the surface of the stone is hardened.
Such a stone is used dry. The wheels must previously have been carefully
smoothed, since the stone does not abrade the metal. If care is taken to avoid
Page 150
scratches, the surface will last for a long time, although, of course, it is only
serviceable for gold, brass, nickel or metals of a similar degree of hardness.
167. The several materials used for polishing must be kept carefully packed
(glass stoppered bottles are preferable), as a few grains of dust, or of foreign
bodies, will suffice to prevent the operation of polishing from being successful.
Polishers should be filed very smooth, with a perfectly clean file that is not quite
new. Files that are dirty or new will deposit small hard particles of dirt, or cause
pieces off the points of their teeth to become embedded in the surface of the
polisher.
PREPAR AT I O N O F P O L I SH IN G MAT ER IA L S.
168. Decantation. This consists in causing a material in a fine state of sub-
division to fall slowly through a liquid with the view to separate coarse particles,
or various degrees of fineness, by taking advantage of their different rates of
descent.
The watchmaker should prepare all his smoothing and polishing materials, etc.,
by decantation. He will by this means obtain them in grains that are much more
uniform in size, of any required degree of fineness and free from hard or large
particles.
The operation is exceedingly simple. The material having been pounded under
the hammer or otherwise, is thrown into a vessel more or less filled with a liquid,
water, oil, etc. After being thoroughly stirred, it is allowed to partially settle, and
the liquid is carefully poured into another vessel. All the coarse heavy grains will
be found as a residue in the first vessel; they are collected and used for coarse
work. After again stirring and leaving to settle for a longer period, the liquid is
again poured off, and the powder thus separated will be the second degree of
fineness, so that it may be termed No. 2. By successive operations, in which a
gradually increasing interval of time is allowed, Nos. 3, 4, etc., can be obtained;
that is to say, a series of powders of the same material but presenting a greater
degree of uniformity in the size of grains and of gradually increasing fineness. It
may be observed that when the powder of the requisite degree of fineness is nearly
attained the mass should be left to settle until the following day, or, rather, until the
fluid is clear; then decant carefully so as not to lose any of the deposit.
When treating a material that is soft and friable, it should be crushed between
the fingers, as by using a hammer hard grains of foreign matter might be
accidentally intermixed. Oil may be used for decanting diamond powder or
serviceable for gold, brass, nickel or metals of a similar degree of hardness.
167. The several materials used for polishing must be kept carefully packed
(glass stoppered bottles are preferable), as a few grains of dust, or of foreign
bodies, will suffice to prevent the operation of polishing from being successful.
Polishers should be filed very smooth, with a perfectly clean file that is not quite
new. Files that are dirty or new will deposit small hard particles of dirt, or cause
pieces off the points of their teeth to become embedded in the surface of the
polisher.
PREPAR AT I O N O F P O L I SH IN G MAT ER IA L S.
168. Decantation. This consists in causing a material in a fine state of sub-
division to fall slowly through a liquid with the view to separate coarse particles,
or various degrees of fineness, by taking advantage of their different rates of
descent.
The watchmaker should prepare all his smoothing and polishing materials, etc.,
by decantation. He will by this means obtain them in grains that are much more
uniform in size, of any required degree of fineness and free from hard or large
particles.
The operation is exceedingly simple. The material having been pounded under
the hammer or otherwise, is thrown into a vessel more or less filled with a liquid,
water, oil, etc. After being thoroughly stirred, it is allowed to partially settle, and
the liquid is carefully poured into another vessel. All the coarse heavy grains will
be found as a residue in the first vessel; they are collected and used for coarse
work. After again stirring and leaving to settle for a longer period, the liquid is
again poured off, and the powder thus separated will be the second degree of
fineness, so that it may be termed No. 2. By successive operations, in which a
gradually increasing interval of time is allowed, Nos. 3, 4, etc., can be obtained;
that is to say, a series of powders of the same material but presenting a greater
degree of uniformity in the size of grains and of gradually increasing fineness. It
may be observed that when the powder of the requisite degree of fineness is nearly
attained the mass should be left to settle until the following day, or, rather, until the
fluid is clear; then decant carefully so as not to lose any of the deposit.
When treating a material that is soft and friable, it should be crushed between
the fingers, as by using a hammer hard grains of foreign matter might be
accidentally intermixed. Oil may be used for decanting diamond powder or
Page 151
oilstone dust for smoothing; water for rottenstone or tripoli; alcohol
for hartshorn, etc.
169. To prepare diamond powder. Select rough diamonds of a
blackish tint, of such a size that there are four or five to a caret.
These are crushed in a hard steel mortar of the form indicated in
fig. 40, the pestle being provided with a small stuffing box that can
be brought down on to the mortar to prevent the escape of
diamond-dust; but it is well to first crush one stone, with a single
blow of the hammer on the pestle; remove all the fragments and
examine the end of the pestle; it will be found that a number of
particles have bedded themselves in it; these should be examined to
select pieces to serve as drills and gravers. The larger fragments
serve for gravers, and particles should be sought that are as nearly
as possibly triangular prisms about ¹⁄₅₀ inch long for making drills.
The other stones may be treated in similar manner till enough
fragments are found. Now place all other pieces in the mortar, and
continue for two or three hours striking the pestle with the hammer,
turning it partly round after each few blows to prevent the powder
from imbedding itself in the steel. When no “bite” is perceived in
Fig. 40.
rotating the pestle, the diamond is sufficiently reduced; it is shaken
out of the mortar into a watch-glass containing the most limpid oil
attainable, and if necessary the fragments are released by a steel spatula, at the
same time striking the external surface of the mortar with the hammer. Thoroughly
mix the oil and the powder, subdividing the latter as much as possible by rubbing
against the glass with a spatula; allow the mixture to rest for an hour and pour off
the liquid into a second glass, leaving the larger particles behind. Leave the oil in
the second glass for four hours; then decant, into a third glass with the same
precautions; this is left for eight hours; the next glass sixteen hours. When all the
powder has settled pour off the oil, and the several degrees are ready for use.
Some jewelers prefer to leave the powder for two or three days in a mixture of
equal nitric and sulphuric acid in order to dissolve particles of steel. The acids are
then much diluted with water, left for some days and decanted. Then wash the
powder in two fluid ounces of pure alcohol, leave for two days, decant and dry,
and afterwards treat with oil. The operation is long and hardly necessary.
S MO O T HING .
for hartshorn, etc.
169. To prepare diamond powder. Select rough diamonds of a
blackish tint, of such a size that there are four or five to a caret.
These are crushed in a hard steel mortar of the form indicated in
fig. 40, the pestle being provided with a small stuffing box that can
be brought down on to the mortar to prevent the escape of
diamond-dust; but it is well to first crush one stone, with a single
blow of the hammer on the pestle; remove all the fragments and
examine the end of the pestle; it will be found that a number of
particles have bedded themselves in it; these should be examined to
select pieces to serve as drills and gravers. The larger fragments
serve for gravers, and particles should be sought that are as nearly
as possibly triangular prisms about ¹⁄₅₀ inch long for making drills.
The other stones may be treated in similar manner till enough
fragments are found. Now place all other pieces in the mortar, and
continue for two or three hours striking the pestle with the hammer,
turning it partly round after each few blows to prevent the powder
from imbedding itself in the steel. When no “bite” is perceived in
Fig. 40.
rotating the pestle, the diamond is sufficiently reduced; it is shaken
out of the mortar into a watch-glass containing the most limpid oil
attainable, and if necessary the fragments are released by a steel spatula, at the
same time striking the external surface of the mortar with the hammer. Thoroughly
mix the oil and the powder, subdividing the latter as much as possible by rubbing
against the glass with a spatula; allow the mixture to rest for an hour and pour off
the liquid into a second glass, leaving the larger particles behind. Leave the oil in
the second glass for four hours; then decant, into a third glass with the same
precautions; this is left for eight hours; the next glass sixteen hours. When all the
powder has settled pour off the oil, and the several degrees are ready for use.
Some jewelers prefer to leave the powder for two or three days in a mixture of
equal nitric and sulphuric acid in order to dissolve particles of steel. The acids are
then much diluted with water, left for some days and decanted. Then wash the
powder in two fluid ounces of pure alcohol, leave for two days, decant and dry,
and afterwards treat with oil. The operation is long and hardly necessary.
S MO O T HING .
Page 152
170. If a surface is smoothed well, the labor of polishing will be diminished by
at least one-half, and it is an essential preliminary if a good gilding on brass is
required.
The materials most frequently used are emery and oilstone dust for steel,
pumice and water of Ayr stone for brass. The stones should not be traversed by
veins, nor exhibit hard grains. Powders should be freed from large or hard grains
by decantation, and it is advisable to repeat this operation several times in order to
have several degrees of fineness.
SMO O T HI NG O F BRA S S .
171. Every watchmaker knows that after finishing the object with a smooth file,
it is smoothed, first with a blue stone or rather coarse water of Ayr stone, and then
with one of finer grain. If the brass is to be gilt, the operation is concluded with a
series of circular strokes, so as not to leave any striæ or bright spots; if the surface
is to be spotted or watered the final strokes should all be parallel.
A soft piece of charcoal applied with water may also be used on objects
intended for gilding; in other cases it is used with oil.
172. Wavy or watered smoothing. This is done with water of Ayr stone and oil
carefully prepared, or with a piece of wood charged with oilstone dust, etc. The
oiled corner of an emery buffstick can occasionally be used.
To obtain wavy undulations on a smooth piece of metal, the finger should first
be placed at the point of commencement of the undulations. Resting the wood or
stone against the finger, it is moved a little in a straight line, and then in a series of
semicircular waved lines, from right to left or left to right. The finger is advanced
through a definite distance and the operation repeated, and so on.
A very good watered surface can be produced with soft charcoal. With a view to
increasing the regularity in the marks, a rule may be laid on the object, against
which the charcoal is brought.
Parallel watering is usually done mechanically, but any watchmaker can secure
regularity by the following simple device.
Fix a graduated rule t g across the cork (fig. 41) and two pins a a, to form stops
for preventing the stick or stone from traveling too far. A division of the rule is
made to correspond with the line v v; and, when the first line has been traced,
advance the object by one, two or three graduations of t g, according to the
at least one-half, and it is an essential preliminary if a good gilding on brass is
required.
The materials most frequently used are emery and oilstone dust for steel,
pumice and water of Ayr stone for brass. The stones should not be traversed by
veins, nor exhibit hard grains. Powders should be freed from large or hard grains
by decantation, and it is advisable to repeat this operation several times in order to
have several degrees of fineness.
SMO O T HI NG O F BRA S S .
171. Every watchmaker knows that after finishing the object with a smooth file,
it is smoothed, first with a blue stone or rather coarse water of Ayr stone, and then
with one of finer grain. If the brass is to be gilt, the operation is concluded with a
series of circular strokes, so as not to leave any striæ or bright spots; if the surface
is to be spotted or watered the final strokes should all be parallel.
A soft piece of charcoal applied with water may also be used on objects
intended for gilding; in other cases it is used with oil.
172. Wavy or watered smoothing. This is done with water of Ayr stone and oil
carefully prepared, or with a piece of wood charged with oilstone dust, etc. The
oiled corner of an emery buffstick can occasionally be used.
To obtain wavy undulations on a smooth piece of metal, the finger should first
be placed at the point of commencement of the undulations. Resting the wood or
stone against the finger, it is moved a little in a straight line, and then in a series of
semicircular waved lines, from right to left or left to right. The finger is advanced
through a definite distance and the operation repeated, and so on.
A very good watered surface can be produced with soft charcoal. With a view to
increasing the regularity in the marks, a rule may be laid on the object, against
which the charcoal is brought.
Parallel watering is usually done mechanically, but any watchmaker can secure
regularity by the following simple device.
Fix a graduated rule t g across the cork (fig. 41) and two pins a a, to form stops
for preventing the stick or stone from traveling too far. A division of the rule is
made to correspond with the line v v; and, when the first line has been traced,
advance the object by one, two or three graduations of t g, according to the
Page 153
interval that is to be left between successive
undulations. Then trace the second wave, and so on.
173. Wavy and curvilinear smoothing. These are
of two kinds; some are entire circles, which we shall
proceed to consider; others radiate in curves from the
circumference to some other point of the circle as, for
example, many of those that are met with on keyless
ratchet wheels. The latter will be discussed farther on,
when discussing the smoothing of steel, for the process
Fig. 41. is identical for both steel and brass, except that with the
latter named metal and nickel the stick may be replaced
by a strip of zinc or tin, and coarse rouge is used.
174. Circular snailing or spotting. This is produced on a special tool by which
several motions can be given to the object, but watchmakers, as a rule, so seldom
have occasion to trace this class of ornament, that it will suffice to explain how it
can be produced by the appliances that everyone has at hand.
The universal mandrel may be employed for the purpose, but, in that case, the
operation is a very slow one, whereas, with the ordinary lathe, it can be done both
rapidly and well.
Fig. 42.
Adjust a rest of the form shown at s (fig. 42), taking care that the height of the
center is sufficient; the small rectangular bed a a has a projecting edge, divided by
equidistant graduations. To the headstock of the lathe is attached, at b, a piece of
bluestone or wood. Having set the rest at a convenient height, and holding the
object to be spotted, p, on the rest, bring in it contact with b when in rotation.
undulations. Then trace the second wave, and so on.
173. Wavy and curvilinear smoothing. These are
of two kinds; some are entire circles, which we shall
proceed to consider; others radiate in curves from the
circumference to some other point of the circle as, for
example, many of those that are met with on keyless
ratchet wheels. The latter will be discussed farther on,
when discussing the smoothing of steel, for the process
Fig. 41. is identical for both steel and brass, except that with the
latter named metal and nickel the stick may be replaced
by a strip of zinc or tin, and coarse rouge is used.
174. Circular snailing or spotting. This is produced on a special tool by which
several motions can be given to the object, but watchmakers, as a rule, so seldom
have occasion to trace this class of ornament, that it will suffice to explain how it
can be produced by the appliances that everyone has at hand.
The universal mandrel may be employed for the purpose, but, in that case, the
operation is a very slow one, whereas, with the ordinary lathe, it can be done both
rapidly and well.
Fig. 42.
Adjust a rest of the form shown at s (fig. 42), taking care that the height of the
center is sufficient; the small rectangular bed a a has a projecting edge, divided by
equidistant graduations. To the headstock of the lathe is attached, at b, a piece of
bluestone or wood. Having set the rest at a convenient height, and holding the
object to be spotted, p, on the rest, bring in it contact with b when in rotation.
Page 154
When the mark is made, lean the object from b, slide it along a a so that its edge
coincides with the next division and make another mark, and so on until an entire
row is completed. Then raise or lower the rest and repeat the process for a second
row, and so on.
Instead of applying oil to the acting face of b, which would have to be renewed
at each operation, it is usual to cover the object p with oil, if b is a stone, or with
oil mixed with the substance used for smoothing, if b is of wood. If this precaution
is taken, the work will progress much more rapidly.
When the object operated upon is of irregular shape it must first be attached to a
rectangular plate and then proceed as already stated.
A still more simple method, but one that is, in certain cases quite sufficient,
consists in passing through the poppet-head a center of the form f d (h, fig. 42)
which is caused to rotate by the fingers or any other means.
To make spottings that, instead of being parallel, radiate
from the center to the circumference, the rest a a must
carry a disc that can rotate on a clamping screw, and is
maintained in position by a finger, with an even number of
equidistant divisions on the circumference of the disc. The
object to be operated upon is then fixed to the disc, and a
stick used, the diameter of which is equal to the distance
Fig. 43. between two radii that pass through a pair of graduations
on the disc; for example, the small circle s (fig. 43). A
series of circular spots is then made by gradually rotating the disc. Now replace
the rod s by one of the diameter n; advance the support until it corresponds with
the position n, and make the second range of circular spots, and so on. The figure
renders any further explanation unnecessary.
The watchmaker who has clearly followed what precedes will be able, should
occasion require it, to construct a special tool acting with certainty; but it will be
well to remember that there is a great advantage in driving the spotting stick by the
foot, and bringing it down on the object by a small hand lever, after the manner of
the drilling machines used in factories.
SMO O T HIN G O F S T E E L .
175. The smoothing of a steel object is commonly done on a piece of cork, with
a large iron polisher charged with oilstone dust and oil. If a flat surface, it can be
finished with a copper polisher or on a sheet of glass. In the case of staffs, arbors,
coincides with the next division and make another mark, and so on until an entire
row is completed. Then raise or lower the rest and repeat the process for a second
row, and so on.
Instead of applying oil to the acting face of b, which would have to be renewed
at each operation, it is usual to cover the object p with oil, if b is a stone, or with
oil mixed with the substance used for smoothing, if b is of wood. If this precaution
is taken, the work will progress much more rapidly.
When the object operated upon is of irregular shape it must first be attached to a
rectangular plate and then proceed as already stated.
A still more simple method, but one that is, in certain cases quite sufficient,
consists in passing through the poppet-head a center of the form f d (h, fig. 42)
which is caused to rotate by the fingers or any other means.
To make spottings that, instead of being parallel, radiate
from the center to the circumference, the rest a a must
carry a disc that can rotate on a clamping screw, and is
maintained in position by a finger, with an even number of
equidistant divisions on the circumference of the disc. The
object to be operated upon is then fixed to the disc, and a
stick used, the diameter of which is equal to the distance
Fig. 43. between two radii that pass through a pair of graduations
on the disc; for example, the small circle s (fig. 43). A
series of circular spots is then made by gradually rotating the disc. Now replace
the rod s by one of the diameter n; advance the support until it corresponds with
the position n, and make the second range of circular spots, and so on. The figure
renders any further explanation unnecessary.
The watchmaker who has clearly followed what precedes will be able, should
occasion require it, to construct a special tool acting with certainty; but it will be
well to remember that there is a great advantage in driving the spotting stick by the
foot, and bringing it down on the object by a small hand lever, after the manner of
the drilling machines used in factories.
SMO O T HIN G O F S T E E L .
175. The smoothing of a steel object is commonly done on a piece of cork, with
a large iron polisher charged with oilstone dust and oil. If a flat surface, it can be
finished with a copper polisher or on a sheet of glass. In the case of staffs, arbors,
Page 155
etc., that are not intended to be polished subsequently, a certain degree of
brilliancy is given to the surface by rubbing with wood, usually pegwood, or with
a stick covered with the finest emery paper and oil.
A surface that will not be subjected to friction—as, for example, the head of a
screw—can be smoothed rapidly and well with a dry emery buffstick if little metal
has to be removed, and the polishing can then be at once proceeded with. Only one
cleaning is in this case necessary, for after the emery it will suffice to rub with pith
and pass a brush over the surface.
For ordinary work, smoothing a staff or head of a screw with dry, fine emery
and finishing by the friction of rather hard pith backwards and forwards, will give
a fairly satisfactory surface.
176. White and dead smoothing. To produce a graining, the piece of steel must
be previously smoothed in the ordinary way, perfectly flat and free from scratches.
The graining is produced by rubbing the object on a sheet of ground glass with the
finger, taking very small circular strokes, especially towards the end of the
operation. The degree of success depends on the quality of the oilstone dust
employed. It must be very fine, and it will be a prudent precaution to decant the
powder in water, or preferably in oil, and not to use the earlier deposits (168).
When the oilstone dust is not very good, it may be washed in hydrochloric acid,
which dissolves most of the hard grains, but it will require to be thoroughly
washed in water afterwards, on account of the difficulty there is in removing the
last traces of the acid. Of course such a method is only to be resorted to on an
emergency.
Perhaps the most difficult piece to grain is a keyless barrel ratchet, because if
the operation is at all prolonged the edge of the ratchet may become white before
the center and it may even polish. If this happens, the ratchet should be held in the
hand and rubbed with a piece of pith cut to a blunt point with a flat end. By this
means it is easy to act on the center, avoiding the edges.
177. Dead white or frosted surface. After having grained the steel in the
manner above indicated, if it is required to obtain a dead white frosted surface,
employ a mud formed of Arkansas stone dust, or the sticky deposit on a whetstone,
which is more easily obtained. It should not be too yellow, as the result is all the
better according as a greater number of steel particles are mixed with the oil; at
least, so we are informed by some very good workmen. A large piece of elder-pith
having been divided into two equal parts lengthwise, is smoothed with a new,
clean file; the mud is spread upon it, and the piece of steel is moved over it with
circular strokes as in producing the graining. In this case the movement can be
rapid. If the operation be well done, and if the oilstone dust used be of good
brilliancy is given to the surface by rubbing with wood, usually pegwood, or with
a stick covered with the finest emery paper and oil.
A surface that will not be subjected to friction—as, for example, the head of a
screw—can be smoothed rapidly and well with a dry emery buffstick if little metal
has to be removed, and the polishing can then be at once proceeded with. Only one
cleaning is in this case necessary, for after the emery it will suffice to rub with pith
and pass a brush over the surface.
For ordinary work, smoothing a staff or head of a screw with dry, fine emery
and finishing by the friction of rather hard pith backwards and forwards, will give
a fairly satisfactory surface.
176. White and dead smoothing. To produce a graining, the piece of steel must
be previously smoothed in the ordinary way, perfectly flat and free from scratches.
The graining is produced by rubbing the object on a sheet of ground glass with the
finger, taking very small circular strokes, especially towards the end of the
operation. The degree of success depends on the quality of the oilstone dust
employed. It must be very fine, and it will be a prudent precaution to decant the
powder in water, or preferably in oil, and not to use the earlier deposits (168).
When the oilstone dust is not very good, it may be washed in hydrochloric acid,
which dissolves most of the hard grains, but it will require to be thoroughly
washed in water afterwards, on account of the difficulty there is in removing the
last traces of the acid. Of course such a method is only to be resorted to on an
emergency.
Perhaps the most difficult piece to grain is a keyless barrel ratchet, because if
the operation is at all prolonged the edge of the ratchet may become white before
the center and it may even polish. If this happens, the ratchet should be held in the
hand and rubbed with a piece of pith cut to a blunt point with a flat end. By this
means it is easy to act on the center, avoiding the edges.
177. Dead white or frosted surface. After having grained the steel in the
manner above indicated, if it is required to obtain a dead white frosted surface,
employ a mud formed of Arkansas stone dust, or the sticky deposit on a whetstone,
which is more easily obtained. It should not be too yellow, as the result is all the
better according as a greater number of steel particles are mixed with the oil; at
least, so we are informed by some very good workmen. A large piece of elder-pith
having been divided into two equal parts lengthwise, is smoothed with a new,
clean file; the mud is spread upon it, and the piece of steel is moved over it with
circular strokes as in producing the graining. In this case the movement can be
rapid. If the operation be well done, and if the oilstone dust used be of good
Page 156
quality, the object will, after being cleaned, present a beautiful uniform white
surface in which the graining is still visible. Experience and knack are everything
in the proper conduct of such an operation, especially in its concluding stage.
The surface may be cleaned in pure benzine mixed with a little sulphuric acid,
followed by a very clean buffstick, which will impart a brilliancy to the metal.
M. Bean recommends fine Turkey oilstone powder mixed with turpentine as the
best preparation for rapidly producing a dead smooth surface on steel work.
Workmen that are constantly engaged in graining employ a foot-wheel for the
purpose. The ground glass is fixed so that, although not rotating, a small circular
motion is communicated to it. The steel is then simply held against it; indeed,
several pieces can be grained in this manner at once.
To the methods above described we would add the following, which is
successfully practiced by several English workmen:
They lightly fix the ratchet, for example, by its edge, and finish the smoothing
with a piece of pith, more or less charged with pure charcoal powder and fine
oilstone dust. Here also knack is mainly instrumental in insuring success.
178. Snailing. To produce the snailing on a fusee or on keyless wheel-work, the
device shown in fig. 44 can be used. The ratchet or fusee is mounted between one
pair of centers and driven by a cord from a foot or hand-wheel. The copper or iron
lap, having a diameter equal to about three times that of the surface to be snailed,
is charged with fine emery powder and oil, or oilstone dust, etc., and set in contact
with the face of the steel, which thus causes it also to rotate. The direction of the
snailing will be the same, whether the rotation is to the right or left. If it be
required to change the direction, the relative positions of the two pieces must be
reversed.
It has been already observed that brass and nickel can be snailed in the same
way, employing a zinc or tin lap and coarse rouge (173). In some cases, hard wood
laps can be used for these softer metals.
In keyless steel wheels a beautiful snailing can be obtained with Arkansas stone
mud (or, in its absence, the greasy mass from an oilstone) mixed with polishing
rouge.
With reference to the little tool shown in fig. 44, it may be observed that, if the
axes of both the steel piece and lap were driven by bow or otherwise, the surface
would be polished and not snailed.
In the absence of the tool here referred to, any one can easily construct one for
the purpose which will adapt to the mandril or a foot-lathe: in order to help him in
surface in which the graining is still visible. Experience and knack are everything
in the proper conduct of such an operation, especially in its concluding stage.
The surface may be cleaned in pure benzine mixed with a little sulphuric acid,
followed by a very clean buffstick, which will impart a brilliancy to the metal.
M. Bean recommends fine Turkey oilstone powder mixed with turpentine as the
best preparation for rapidly producing a dead smooth surface on steel work.
Workmen that are constantly engaged in graining employ a foot-wheel for the
purpose. The ground glass is fixed so that, although not rotating, a small circular
motion is communicated to it. The steel is then simply held against it; indeed,
several pieces can be grained in this manner at once.
To the methods above described we would add the following, which is
successfully practiced by several English workmen:
They lightly fix the ratchet, for example, by its edge, and finish the smoothing
with a piece of pith, more or less charged with pure charcoal powder and fine
oilstone dust. Here also knack is mainly instrumental in insuring success.
178. Snailing. To produce the snailing on a fusee or on keyless wheel-work, the
device shown in fig. 44 can be used. The ratchet or fusee is mounted between one
pair of centers and driven by a cord from a foot or hand-wheel. The copper or iron
lap, having a diameter equal to about three times that of the surface to be snailed,
is charged with fine emery powder and oil, or oilstone dust, etc., and set in contact
with the face of the steel, which thus causes it also to rotate. The direction of the
snailing will be the same, whether the rotation is to the right or left. If it be
required to change the direction, the relative positions of the two pieces must be
reversed.
It has been already observed that brass and nickel can be snailed in the same
way, employing a zinc or tin lap and coarse rouge (173). In some cases, hard wood
laps can be used for these softer metals.
In keyless steel wheels a beautiful snailing can be obtained with Arkansas stone
mud (or, in its absence, the greasy mass from an oilstone) mixed with polishing
rouge.
With reference to the little tool shown in fig. 44, it may be observed that, if the
axes of both the steel piece and lap were driven by bow or otherwise, the surface
would be polished and not snailed.
In the absence of the tool here referred to, any one can easily construct one for
the purpose which will adapt to the mandril or a foot-lathe: in order to help him in
Page 157
doing so we will describe one designed by M. Cadot,
of Paris.
179. Tool for snailing. This is shown in fig. 45, and
we would at the outset observe that it can be used
equally well for polishing. To a shoulder at the
extremity, a, of a piece of steel rod, b (which takes the
Fig. 44. place of the slide-rest cutter) is riveted an L-shaped
piece c c d, and to the point d is firmly fixed by a screw
or rivet, the upright piece d h parallel to c c; this piece
is enlarged at h so as to give a bearing to a hardened steel screw, with a hollow
point, in the axis of b: the lap is supported between this screw and a hole in the
center of a. The figure will suffice to indicate the form of this lap which is dished
internally as shown by the dotted line. It is made of iron or copper if intended for
use with hardened steel.
The piece to be snailed is fixed to a chuck of the
foot-lathe, and, having fixed the rod b in place of the
cutter, the lap is brought, by means of the slide-rest
screws, in contact with the steel, taking care not to set
it up to the center, as snailing that starts from the center
is not so good. Having charged the lap with fine emery
and oil, the object is rotated and it sets the lap also in
motion.
It was mentioned above that this tool can be
employed for polishing: for such a purpose use fine
rouge, replace the lap by one of bronze or bell-metal,
Fig. 45. fix a ferrule at i, and, while the object turns in the lathe,
rotate the lap with a bow.
By fixing a rod at l instead of at b, the tool is at once adapted to be used in an
ordinary pair of turns, as it can be fixed in place of the T-rest; but it is not so easy
to secure parallelism of the two surfaces.
180. To restore the watered surface in nickel movements, etc. Although the
following is employed for nickel (or rather German silver) it may be well to
observe that it is equally applicable to all other metals.
As these nickel movements are not gilt subsequent to being repaired, it
frequently happens that the water marks on the surfaces do not correspond. By the
aid of the following device watchmakers can correct this fault, but we must warn
them that, as in all operations involving dexterity, they must first make
experiments in order to acquire the requisite manual skill.
of Paris.
179. Tool for snailing. This is shown in fig. 45, and
we would at the outset observe that it can be used
equally well for polishing. To a shoulder at the
extremity, a, of a piece of steel rod, b (which takes the
Fig. 44. place of the slide-rest cutter) is riveted an L-shaped
piece c c d, and to the point d is firmly fixed by a screw
or rivet, the upright piece d h parallel to c c; this piece
is enlarged at h so as to give a bearing to a hardened steel screw, with a hollow
point, in the axis of b: the lap is supported between this screw and a hole in the
center of a. The figure will suffice to indicate the form of this lap which is dished
internally as shown by the dotted line. It is made of iron or copper if intended for
use with hardened steel.
The piece to be snailed is fixed to a chuck of the
foot-lathe, and, having fixed the rod b in place of the
cutter, the lap is brought, by means of the slide-rest
screws, in contact with the steel, taking care not to set
it up to the center, as snailing that starts from the center
is not so good. Having charged the lap with fine emery
and oil, the object is rotated and it sets the lap also in
motion.
It was mentioned above that this tool can be
employed for polishing: for such a purpose use fine
rouge, replace the lap by one of bronze or bell-metal,
Fig. 45. fix a ferrule at i, and, while the object turns in the lathe,
rotate the lap with a bow.
By fixing a rod at l instead of at b, the tool is at once adapted to be used in an
ordinary pair of turns, as it can be fixed in place of the T-rest; but it is not so easy
to secure parallelism of the two surfaces.
180. To restore the watered surface in nickel movements, etc. Although the
following is employed for nickel (or rather German silver) it may be well to
observe that it is equally applicable to all other metals.
As these nickel movements are not gilt subsequent to being repaired, it
frequently happens that the water marks on the surfaces do not correspond. By the
aid of the following device watchmakers can correct this fault, but we must warn
them that, as in all operations involving dexterity, they must first make
experiments in order to acquire the requisite manual skill.
Page 158
On a small open frame c c, fig. 46, fix
several parallel bars f l, e d, etc., and on
two of these adjust a slide p o n m, with
two strips glued underneath so that it can
travel up and down between a and b. On p
o n m, fix a guide of convenient form, as
g; and, after cementing the piece, say a,
that is to be watered on a board resting on
the bench, place the frame c c above it and
trace the figure of the guide with a
pegwood stick charged with polishing
material. The same figure can be
Fig. 46. reproduced in parallel rows as the guide
can be moved up or down.
By varying the shape and position of the guides, the water lines can take the
form of waves, festoons, circles or ovals. In the two latter cases the guide has
apertures of the requisite form, and the board that carries A, not being more than
half the size of the aperture, can be moved about by hand or by a tool.
If preferred, one of the bars, as e d, can be graduated and arrangements can be
made for clamping the slide by screws in any position.
These explanations will suffice to enable any intelligent watchmaker, after a few
trials, to imitate successfully any of the beautiful watered surfaces that are, on a
manufacturing scale, produced by machinery.
As regards the material to be used, first mix medium rouge and putty powder in
equal proportions. It will be possible to decide from the shade obtained whether
more putty powder should be added, because when there is too much rouge, the
surface does not acquire a good white color.
P O L IS HI NG .
181. To polish brass. When it is required that a surface be maintained perfectly
flat, first dress with somewhat coarse water of Ayr with blue stone and then go
over with a softer stone. Next work with fine rottenstone and oil on a felt or
buffstick for objects of large dimensions and on a piece of pegwood for smaller
articles. They are then soaped, washed and dried in sawdust (151).
The work can be accomplished more rapidly, but without maintaining a
perfectly flat surface, by first employing pumice-stone and oil spread over a large
several parallel bars f l, e d, etc., and on
two of these adjust a slide p o n m, with
two strips glued underneath so that it can
travel up and down between a and b. On p
o n m, fix a guide of convenient form, as
g; and, after cementing the piece, say a,
that is to be watered on a board resting on
the bench, place the frame c c above it and
trace the figure of the guide with a
pegwood stick charged with polishing
material. The same figure can be
Fig. 46. reproduced in parallel rows as the guide
can be moved up or down.
By varying the shape and position of the guides, the water lines can take the
form of waves, festoons, circles or ovals. In the two latter cases the guide has
apertures of the requisite form, and the board that carries A, not being more than
half the size of the aperture, can be moved about by hand or by a tool.
If preferred, one of the bars, as e d, can be graduated and arrangements can be
made for clamping the slide by screws in any position.
These explanations will suffice to enable any intelligent watchmaker, after a few
trials, to imitate successfully any of the beautiful watered surfaces that are, on a
manufacturing scale, produced by machinery.
As regards the material to be used, first mix medium rouge and putty powder in
equal proportions. It will be possible to decide from the shade obtained whether
more putty powder should be added, because when there is too much rouge, the
surface does not acquire a good white color.
P O L IS HI NG .
181. To polish brass. When it is required that a surface be maintained perfectly
flat, first dress with somewhat coarse water of Ayr with blue stone and then go
over with a softer stone. Next work with fine rottenstone and oil on a felt or
buffstick for objects of large dimensions and on a piece of pegwood for smaller
articles. They are then soaped, washed and dried in sawdust (151).
The work can be accomplished more rapidly, but without maintaining a
perfectly flat surface, by first employing pumice-stone and oil spread over a large
Page 159
piece of soft wood or felt. It is then cleaned and polished with rottenstone.
When the form permits of it, a tin disc charged with tripoli and rotating in a
lathe can be employed.
Observations. Pumice-stone is powdered fine and then sifted. In using
rottenstone a piece an inch or two cube is crushed between the fingers into a cup
of water, and this is decanted so as to give several degrees of fineness (168). The
polishing can best be effected by using old wood from which the sap has dried up:
French chalk has but little action if the polisher with which it is applied is from the
animal kingdom, horn for example, etc.
182. To polish watch wheels. Although the operation of polishing is extremely
simple, it is very important that a certain degree of manual skill be acquired by
practice, as otherwise the work is never of the best.
We will here enumerate several methods of procedure, in order that, after trial,
each can select the method with which he finds himself most successful.
Smoothing. The smoothing should be done carefully with very soft water of Ayr
stone, free from veins and hard grains and perfectly flat. The wheel must then be
well cleaned.
Polishing. In polishing, rods of walnut or boxwood, of tin, bronze or zinc are
used. A buffstick and burnisher are also employed.
The materials applicable are rottenstone (with oil or alcohol, being made very
thin in the latter case) tripoli, prepared chalk, polishing rouge, crocus, etc. These
materials have been sufficiently described in articles 165-7. Workmen sometimes
prefer to make mixtures of two or more substances, but it is more usual to employ
them separately.
183. First Method. After smoothing and cleaning the wheel, it is polished while
resting on a piece of cork, where it is held between the fingers which cause it to
rotate; the best rottenstone is used and is applied by smooth pieces of boxwood,
about 8 inches long, which are filed to a bevel edge. It is best to have the grain of
the wood crosswise and the polishers should be of sufficient thickness to prevent
their bending when in use.
The rottenstone can be replaced by tripoli and the boxwood by walnut. Some
wheel polishers prefer a triangular stick of pure tin or zinc which is often planed to
ensure perfect flatness; rouge, rottenstone or tripoli can be used with it.
The wheel, after being well washed in soap and hot water, is thoroughly dried
and finished with a fine buffstick in good condition, while it rests on a cork
When the form permits of it, a tin disc charged with tripoli and rotating in a
lathe can be employed.
Observations. Pumice-stone is powdered fine and then sifted. In using
rottenstone a piece an inch or two cube is crushed between the fingers into a cup
of water, and this is decanted so as to give several degrees of fineness (168). The
polishing can best be effected by using old wood from which the sap has dried up:
French chalk has but little action if the polisher with which it is applied is from the
animal kingdom, horn for example, etc.
182. To polish watch wheels. Although the operation of polishing is extremely
simple, it is very important that a certain degree of manual skill be acquired by
practice, as otherwise the work is never of the best.
We will here enumerate several methods of procedure, in order that, after trial,
each can select the method with which he finds himself most successful.
Smoothing. The smoothing should be done carefully with very soft water of Ayr
stone, free from veins and hard grains and perfectly flat. The wheel must then be
well cleaned.
Polishing. In polishing, rods of walnut or boxwood, of tin, bronze or zinc are
used. A buffstick and burnisher are also employed.
The materials applicable are rottenstone (with oil or alcohol, being made very
thin in the latter case) tripoli, prepared chalk, polishing rouge, crocus, etc. These
materials have been sufficiently described in articles 165-7. Workmen sometimes
prefer to make mixtures of two or more substances, but it is more usual to employ
them separately.
183. First Method. After smoothing and cleaning the wheel, it is polished while
resting on a piece of cork, where it is held between the fingers which cause it to
rotate; the best rottenstone is used and is applied by smooth pieces of boxwood,
about 8 inches long, which are filed to a bevel edge. It is best to have the grain of
the wood crosswise and the polishers should be of sufficient thickness to prevent
their bending when in use.
The rottenstone can be replaced by tripoli and the boxwood by walnut. Some
wheel polishers prefer a triangular stick of pure tin or zinc which is often planed to
ensure perfect flatness; rouge, rottenstone or tripoli can be used with it.
The wheel, after being well washed in soap and hot water, is thoroughly dried
and finished with a fine buffstick in good condition, while it rests on a cork
Page 160
covered with smooth felt; this operation is with a view to prepare the surface prior
to using the burnisher.
Some polishers, instead of the dry buffstick, prefer one charged with a little
rouge, tripoli or rottenstone moistened. But such preparations must be applied very
sparingly as they involve a risk of rounding the edges.
The burnisher is next rapidly passed over the surface of the wheel, which rests
on cork, covered with a linen rag, or on a piece of wood, covered with smooth
paper. Some give long backward and forward strokes with the tool; others give
semicircular movements. It will be found sufficient to give short strokes from half
an inch to an inch in length. A slight motion of the wrist is all that is required and
after a few trials the necessary skill will be attained. We cannot say more. Practice
must also be relied on for determining the most suitable pressure.
The burnisher, about half an inch wide and four inches long, is curved in the
direction of its length. A straight burnisher might be used, but it is less safe; the
angle of the burnisher set against the pinion should be rounded off.
The burnisher is cleaned and restored by drawing across a large flat piece of
walnut charged with rouge of very good quality and very pure. After being
washed, a little white wax is passed over it, and then it is again rubbed vigorously
with a piece of cloth or a buffstick; finally with a soft linen rag. When a tendency
to stick shows itself this operation must be repeated.
184. Second process. By this method the surfaces are somewhat rounded off at
the edges. But, although not so pleasing to the eye, this circumstance involves no
inconvenience except that, when burnishing, the burnisher would not at once come
in contact with the entire surface; we need not, however, employ the burnisher.
Laying the wheel on a cork, some workmen smooth the wheel by covering it
with oil and fine tripoli and rubbing with a walnut-wood stick. Others spread a
layer of such a mixture first on the stick and then rub the wheel. When no more
lines are observable across the surface of the wheel it is cleaned, placed on a fresh
cork that is covered with a soft linen rag, and polished with a fresh buff stick (or
one that has already been used for a similar purpose) and an abundant supply of
rouge or even fine rottenstone and oil may be used. The buffstick receives a
semicircular movement in all directions in order not to needlessly round the
corners, the edges of the teeth and the crossings.
It is then washed in warm water, bathed in alcohol and dried with a fine linen
rag.
185. Third process. After smoothing with a very soft stone, rub it with a piece of
the root of boxwood cut across the fibre, on which is a layer of the following
to using the burnisher.
Some polishers, instead of the dry buffstick, prefer one charged with a little
rouge, tripoli or rottenstone moistened. But such preparations must be applied very
sparingly as they involve a risk of rounding the edges.
The burnisher is next rapidly passed over the surface of the wheel, which rests
on cork, covered with a linen rag, or on a piece of wood, covered with smooth
paper. Some give long backward and forward strokes with the tool; others give
semicircular movements. It will be found sufficient to give short strokes from half
an inch to an inch in length. A slight motion of the wrist is all that is required and
after a few trials the necessary skill will be attained. We cannot say more. Practice
must also be relied on for determining the most suitable pressure.
The burnisher, about half an inch wide and four inches long, is curved in the
direction of its length. A straight burnisher might be used, but it is less safe; the
angle of the burnisher set against the pinion should be rounded off.
The burnisher is cleaned and restored by drawing across a large flat piece of
walnut charged with rouge of very good quality and very pure. After being
washed, a little white wax is passed over it, and then it is again rubbed vigorously
with a piece of cloth or a buffstick; finally with a soft linen rag. When a tendency
to stick shows itself this operation must be repeated.
184. Second process. By this method the surfaces are somewhat rounded off at
the edges. But, although not so pleasing to the eye, this circumstance involves no
inconvenience except that, when burnishing, the burnisher would not at once come
in contact with the entire surface; we need not, however, employ the burnisher.
Laying the wheel on a cork, some workmen smooth the wheel by covering it
with oil and fine tripoli and rubbing with a walnut-wood stick. Others spread a
layer of such a mixture first on the stick and then rub the wheel. When no more
lines are observable across the surface of the wheel it is cleaned, placed on a fresh
cork that is covered with a soft linen rag, and polished with a fresh buff stick (or
one that has already been used for a similar purpose) and an abundant supply of
rouge or even fine rottenstone and oil may be used. The buffstick receives a
semicircular movement in all directions in order not to needlessly round the
corners, the edges of the teeth and the crossings.
It is then washed in warm water, bathed in alcohol and dried with a fine linen
rag.
185. Third process. After smoothing with a very soft stone, rub it with a piece of
the root of boxwood cut across the fibre, on which is a layer of the following
Page 161
composition:
Two-thirds rottenstone mixed with one-third castile soap, worked into a paste
with a few drops of water so that, although not a liquid, it can be spread out at
will.
Make the wheel move backwards and forwards between the fingers while
resting on a smooth, good cork, without a linen rag, and, as the operation nears its
completion, a semicircular motion should be given to the wood. Wash with soap,
boil in alcohol and dry.
The wheel can be burnished on a cork without any linen rag and the (curved)
burnisher should be moved with short circular strokes from the center towards the
circumference, gradually working up towards to the extremity of the burnisher; the
same portion of the burnisher should not pass twice over the wheel (see also article
166). For common work, fairly satisfactory results may be obtained by using
French chalk and a piece of hard wood.
Clock wheels are polished with a piece of felt and rottenstone. They are
subsequently soaped, washed and dried in sawdust. (151)
186. To polish lever escape-wheel teeth. The Lancashire escape-wheel makers
employ a triangular frame carrying at its corners, (1) a cutter to slit the teeth, (2) a
cutter to shape them, and (3) a revolving piece of hard leather of a section
corresponding to the form of the space. This latter is charged with the finest
glossing stuff, used dry, and the sides of the teeth of six wheels at a time are
polished by revolving the disc in each of the spaces in turn. It is hardly necessary
to observe that the operation is completed before the wheels are removed from the
cutting engine.
187. To polish sinks or oil-cups. A piece of pegwood, rounded at the end, is
used for this purpose, rotating it in a lathe; the watch plate or cock should be
inclined in varying directions to the stick in order to remove scratches. If a very
high polish is required it may be given by following with a stick, the end of which
is covered with wash-leather charged with rouge.
TO P O L I S H S T EE L .
188. The polishing must always be preceded by a very thorough smoothing,
either with oilstone dust, fine emery, or coarse rouge. If any lines are left to be
erased by means of fine rouge, the operation becomes tedious and is rarely
successful. The oilstone dust is applied on an iron or copper polisher. When it is
Two-thirds rottenstone mixed with one-third castile soap, worked into a paste
with a few drops of water so that, although not a liquid, it can be spread out at
will.
Make the wheel move backwards and forwards between the fingers while
resting on a smooth, good cork, without a linen rag, and, as the operation nears its
completion, a semicircular motion should be given to the wood. Wash with soap,
boil in alcohol and dry.
The wheel can be burnished on a cork without any linen rag and the (curved)
burnisher should be moved with short circular strokes from the center towards the
circumference, gradually working up towards to the extremity of the burnisher; the
same portion of the burnisher should not pass twice over the wheel (see also article
166). For common work, fairly satisfactory results may be obtained by using
French chalk and a piece of hard wood.
Clock wheels are polished with a piece of felt and rottenstone. They are
subsequently soaped, washed and dried in sawdust. (151)
186. To polish lever escape-wheel teeth. The Lancashire escape-wheel makers
employ a triangular frame carrying at its corners, (1) a cutter to slit the teeth, (2) a
cutter to shape them, and (3) a revolving piece of hard leather of a section
corresponding to the form of the space. This latter is charged with the finest
glossing stuff, used dry, and the sides of the teeth of six wheels at a time are
polished by revolving the disc in each of the spaces in turn. It is hardly necessary
to observe that the operation is completed before the wheels are removed from the
cutting engine.
187. To polish sinks or oil-cups. A piece of pegwood, rounded at the end, is
used for this purpose, rotating it in a lathe; the watch plate or cock should be
inclined in varying directions to the stick in order to remove scratches. If a very
high polish is required it may be given by following with a stick, the end of which
is covered with wash-leather charged with rouge.
TO P O L I S H S T EE L .
188. The polishing must always be preceded by a very thorough smoothing,
either with oilstone dust, fine emery, or coarse rouge. If any lines are left to be
erased by means of fine rouge, the operation becomes tedious and is rarely
successful. The oilstone dust is applied on an iron or copper polisher. When it is
Page 162
desired to preserve the angles sharp, at a shoulder for example, the polisher should
be of steel.
When using diamantine an iron polisher, drawn out and flattened with a
hammer, answers very well.
With fine rouge, a bronze or bell-metal polisher is preferable for shoulders; and,
for flat surfaces, discs or large zinc or tin polishers, although glass is preferable to
either of these.
After each operation with oilstone dust, coarse rouge, etc., the polisher, cork,
etc., must be changed, and the object should be well cleaned—preferably by
soaping; perfect cleanliness is essential to success.
Fine rouge or diamantine should be made into a thick paste with oil; a little is
then taken on the polisher or glass and worked until quite dry. As the object is thus
not smeared over, a black polish is more readily obtained, and the process gets on
better if the surface is cleaned from time to time.
189. To get a good black polish. As just pointed out, this is mainly secured by
using very little polishing material at once, in a very little liquid on either, the
polisher or glass plate and drying up quickly. If the surface does not prove
satisfactory at first, it will often be found that a final rapid and light application of
dry diamantine or rouge on a piece of glass or pith will produce a brilliant black
polish.
If operating on an axis or staff, polish as well as possible, first erasing the marks
of the graver or file, and then, hold the ferrule between the fingers, rotate it with
one hand and with the other rub the axis lengthwise with a pegwood stick charged
with rouge or diamantine.
A rod will show a black polish if it be rubbed lengthwise with emery paper of
gradually increasing fineness, oil being applied with the finest quality.
To polish flat surfaces. Place the object on a sound piece of cork covered with a
clean rag and rub with, a long strip of ground glass.
To polish a square shoulder. Fix a rod in place of the T-rest of the turns, and set
it in such a position that the polisher rests on this vertical rod when lying flat
against the shoulder. Another and better method consists in cementing or otherwise
fixing in the plane of the shoulder a brass disc of such dimensions that the polisher
is constrained to remain flat.
Observations. The corner of the polisher that is used for polishing a shoulder
should be neither right-angled nor too acute. In the first case it would round off the
be of steel.
When using diamantine an iron polisher, drawn out and flattened with a
hammer, answers very well.
With fine rouge, a bronze or bell-metal polisher is preferable for shoulders; and,
for flat surfaces, discs or large zinc or tin polishers, although glass is preferable to
either of these.
After each operation with oilstone dust, coarse rouge, etc., the polisher, cork,
etc., must be changed, and the object should be well cleaned—preferably by
soaping; perfect cleanliness is essential to success.
Fine rouge or diamantine should be made into a thick paste with oil; a little is
then taken on the polisher or glass and worked until quite dry. As the object is thus
not smeared over, a black polish is more readily obtained, and the process gets on
better if the surface is cleaned from time to time.
189. To get a good black polish. As just pointed out, this is mainly secured by
using very little polishing material at once, in a very little liquid on either, the
polisher or glass plate and drying up quickly. If the surface does not prove
satisfactory at first, it will often be found that a final rapid and light application of
dry diamantine or rouge on a piece of glass or pith will produce a brilliant black
polish.
If operating on an axis or staff, polish as well as possible, first erasing the marks
of the graver or file, and then, hold the ferrule between the fingers, rotate it with
one hand and with the other rub the axis lengthwise with a pegwood stick charged
with rouge or diamantine.
A rod will show a black polish if it be rubbed lengthwise with emery paper of
gradually increasing fineness, oil being applied with the finest quality.
To polish flat surfaces. Place the object on a sound piece of cork covered with a
clean rag and rub with, a long strip of ground glass.
To polish a square shoulder. Fix a rod in place of the T-rest of the turns, and set
it in such a position that the polisher rests on this vertical rod when lying flat
against the shoulder. Another and better method consists in cementing or otherwise
fixing in the plane of the shoulder a brass disc of such dimensions that the polisher
is constrained to remain flat.
Observations. The corner of the polisher that is used for polishing a shoulder
should be neither right-angled nor too acute. In the first case it would round off the
Page 163
shoulder, and in the second it would become soon distorted and leave dull radial
marks on the surface.
Diamantine should not be used for polishing the acting surfaces of pivots, the
pallets of escapements, etc., since this material, as well as emery, is liable to leave
particles embedded in the steel which occasion rapid wear.
CE MEN T, WA X , RE S IN , ET C.
190. The principal uses to which the watchmaker applies cement is for fixing
objects in the lathe, pallet-stones in position, as well as locking and unlocking
pallets, ruby-pins, etc.
The selection of a cement or wax is not a matter of indifference; fine sealing-
wax causes objects to adhere firmly together, but many of the best workmen prefer
refined shellac. Certain kinds of wax are too dry, the consequence being that a
false stroke of the graver will often detach the piece; others are thick and soft, and
are apt to heat rapidly under the action of the burnisher or polisher, so that the
object is displaced. It is only by making a series of trials that the efficiency of the
material can be ascertained. Some workers claim that a mixture of sealing-wax
and shellac gives good results.
191. Mode of applying cements. When employing wax, resin, cement, etc., for
uniting two objects, it is important to note that the mode in which it is applied has
an important influence on its efficiency. The following observations on this point
are due to M. Sibon, and the reader will be able to select those portions that have
reference to his work.
When two objects are united by a cement, this will lose much of its value if
unskillfully applied, and, in order to use it to the best advantage, the following
practical rules should be observed.
1. The surfaces to be united must be quite clean.
2. The less cement, wax, etc., that is interposed between them, the better they
will adhere. This is owing to the fact that with a thick layer the object has, at the
junction, no more rigidity than that of the cement itself; as a rule this more fragile
than the material it is employed to unite.
3. There should be perfect contact between the cement and the surfaces. With a
view to securing this, the object must be first heated to a point such that the wax or
cement cannot solidify without having first had time to effect a perfect union.
marks on the surface.
Diamantine should not be used for polishing the acting surfaces of pivots, the
pallets of escapements, etc., since this material, as well as emery, is liable to leave
particles embedded in the steel which occasion rapid wear.
CE MEN T, WA X , RE S IN , ET C.
190. The principal uses to which the watchmaker applies cement is for fixing
objects in the lathe, pallet-stones in position, as well as locking and unlocking
pallets, ruby-pins, etc.
The selection of a cement or wax is not a matter of indifference; fine sealing-
wax causes objects to adhere firmly together, but many of the best workmen prefer
refined shellac. Certain kinds of wax are too dry, the consequence being that a
false stroke of the graver will often detach the piece; others are thick and soft, and
are apt to heat rapidly under the action of the burnisher or polisher, so that the
object is displaced. It is only by making a series of trials that the efficiency of the
material can be ascertained. Some workers claim that a mixture of sealing-wax
and shellac gives good results.
191. Mode of applying cements. When employing wax, resin, cement, etc., for
uniting two objects, it is important to note that the mode in which it is applied has
an important influence on its efficiency. The following observations on this point
are due to M. Sibon, and the reader will be able to select those portions that have
reference to his work.
When two objects are united by a cement, this will lose much of its value if
unskillfully applied, and, in order to use it to the best advantage, the following
practical rules should be observed.
1. The surfaces to be united must be quite clean.
2. The less cement, wax, etc., that is interposed between them, the better they
will adhere. This is owing to the fact that with a thick layer the object has, at the
junction, no more rigidity than that of the cement itself; as a rule this more fragile
than the material it is employed to unite.
3. There should be perfect contact between the cement and the surfaces. With a
view to securing this, the object must be first heated to a point such that the wax or
cement cannot solidify without having first had time to effect a perfect union.
Page 164
This remark is especially applicable when using sealing-wax, mixtures of resin,
shellac, and similar materials. They will not adhere firmly unless the surfaces have
been heated very nearly to the point of fusion of the cement. The sealing of letters
offers an example in proof of this assertion. When the seal has been used several
times in succession or been left too long on the wax so as to become hot, it will
adhere and cause some inconvenience if further employed.
With hot melted glue, adhesion is best secured by friction or a moderate
pressure.
Sealing-wax is excellent for uniting metal to glass or stone, providing they are
sufficiently heated to melt it; for, if applied to cool surfaces, it will not adhere at
all. By heating two pieces of glass or stoneware sufficiently to melt shellac, a
small quantity will suffice to make them adhere firmly together; notwithstanding
that every one has seen such joints, very few succeed in making them, for the
simple reason that they do not recognize the necessity of heating a delicate piece
of glass or china to the point which is essential for securing a good result.
In conclusion, the principal obstacles to adhesion are air and dirt. The first is
always present; the second is due to accident or carelessness. All surfaces are
covered with a thin layer of air that is very difficult to remove; its influence
prevents highly polished metal from being moistened when immersed in water. So
long as this layer of air is not displaced, the cement cannot adhere to the surface to
which it is applied, because it cannot come into direct contact. The most effective
agent for displacing this air is heat. Metals heated to about 75° C. (170° F.) are
immediately moistened on being plunged into water, hence it follows that, as
regards cements that are applied in a fused state, heat is the best means of bringing
them into intimate contact with the surface.
We would add that, in addition to possessing this advantage, the application of
heat also renders the surfaces more penetrable to the layer of cement, after the
manner of soldering, and makes the interlocking of the molecules more perfect;
this explains the greater degree of tenacity of a well made joint with only a thin
layer of cement.
192. To set in wax in the lathe. Trace a series of concentric circles on the face
of the chuck with a graver point, after turning it true: this will increase the
adhesion of the cement. Then the flame of the spirit lamp is held under the rotating
chuck and, when this is hot enough, its surface is covered with a layer of shellac or
sealing-wax, and the object is held against it. Holding it in position with a piece of
pegwood supported on the T-rest, the lamp is removed and the lathe kept rotating
until the cement sets. The cooling can be hastened by applying a small moist
sponge, but it should not set too suddenly.
shellac, and similar materials. They will not adhere firmly unless the surfaces have
been heated very nearly to the point of fusion of the cement. The sealing of letters
offers an example in proof of this assertion. When the seal has been used several
times in succession or been left too long on the wax so as to become hot, it will
adhere and cause some inconvenience if further employed.
With hot melted glue, adhesion is best secured by friction or a moderate
pressure.
Sealing-wax is excellent for uniting metal to glass or stone, providing they are
sufficiently heated to melt it; for, if applied to cool surfaces, it will not adhere at
all. By heating two pieces of glass or stoneware sufficiently to melt shellac, a
small quantity will suffice to make them adhere firmly together; notwithstanding
that every one has seen such joints, very few succeed in making them, for the
simple reason that they do not recognize the necessity of heating a delicate piece
of glass or china to the point which is essential for securing a good result.
In conclusion, the principal obstacles to adhesion are air and dirt. The first is
always present; the second is due to accident or carelessness. All surfaces are
covered with a thin layer of air that is very difficult to remove; its influence
prevents highly polished metal from being moistened when immersed in water. So
long as this layer of air is not displaced, the cement cannot adhere to the surface to
which it is applied, because it cannot come into direct contact. The most effective
agent for displacing this air is heat. Metals heated to about 75° C. (170° F.) are
immediately moistened on being plunged into water, hence it follows that, as
regards cements that are applied in a fused state, heat is the best means of bringing
them into intimate contact with the surface.
We would add that, in addition to possessing this advantage, the application of
heat also renders the surfaces more penetrable to the layer of cement, after the
manner of soldering, and makes the interlocking of the molecules more perfect;
this explains the greater degree of tenacity of a well made joint with only a thin
layer of cement.
192. To set in wax in the lathe. Trace a series of concentric circles on the face
of the chuck with a graver point, after turning it true: this will increase the
adhesion of the cement. Then the flame of the spirit lamp is held under the rotating
chuck and, when this is hot enough, its surface is covered with a layer of shellac or
sealing-wax, and the object is held against it. Holding it in position with a piece of
pegwood supported on the T-rest, the lamp is removed and the lathe kept rotating
until the cement sets. The cooling can be hastened by applying a small moist
sponge, but it should not set too suddenly.
Page 165
If the object requires to be very exactly centered, its position must be insured
while the cement is still soft by means of a long pegwood stick in its central hole.
This stick is held in position until the cement sets, steadying it between two
fingers close up to the chuck. The slightest eccentricity will be indicated by a
motion of the free end of the stick.
If the object is round, and has no central hole, it must be centered by its
circumference, holding the pegwood in front, or resting against a corner of a
circular elevation or depression, as, for example, the collet of a wheel, or of a
cylinder riveted to its balance, etc.
The beginner should make a number of trials; they will enable him both to
acquire lightness of touch, and to recognize the proper degree of softness of the
cement for centering, as well as its tenacity.
When it is essential that the two faces of the object be strictly parallel, a
precaution is necessary; this consists in leaving on the face of the chuck a slightly
projecting circular rim with a fine smooth edge, and of a diameter rather less than
that of the object. By moving this latter backwards and forwards after applying it
to the wax, and pressing it into close contact while cooling, the requisite
parallelism will be secured.
193. To fix a pallet-stone, etc., in position. To fix a pallet-stone or an end-stone
by means of shellac it is usual to place a small piece of the latter round the stone
when in position and apply heat. But very often the lac spreads unevenly or swells
up; and this, in addition to being unsightly, is apt to displace the stone. The
inconvenience can be avoided as follows: The pallets are held in long sliding
tongs, and, taking a piece of shellac, heat it and roll it into a cylinder between the
fingers; again heat the extremity and draw it out into a fine thread. This thread will
break off, leaving a point at the end of the lac. Now heat the tongs at a little
distance from the pallets, testing the degree of heat by touching the tongs with the
shellac. When it melts easily, lightly touch the two sides of the notch with it; a
very thin layer can thus be spread over them, and the pallet-stone can then be
placed in position and held until cold enough. The tongs will not lose the heat
suddenly, so that the stone can easily be raised or lowered as required. The
projecting particles of cement can be removed by a brass wire, filed to an angle
and forming a scraper.
To fix an end-stone, the cap must be held by its edge in the sliding tongs, and
shellac carefully applied around the edge of the hollow. It is advisable to hold the
cap in a small tool formed of two parallel blades, as when reversed so as to press
the stone on a flat surface, the shellac will spread over the end-stone, from which
it will be removed with difficulty.
while the cement is still soft by means of a long pegwood stick in its central hole.
This stick is held in position until the cement sets, steadying it between two
fingers close up to the chuck. The slightest eccentricity will be indicated by a
motion of the free end of the stick.
If the object is round, and has no central hole, it must be centered by its
circumference, holding the pegwood in front, or resting against a corner of a
circular elevation or depression, as, for example, the collet of a wheel, or of a
cylinder riveted to its balance, etc.
The beginner should make a number of trials; they will enable him both to
acquire lightness of touch, and to recognize the proper degree of softness of the
cement for centering, as well as its tenacity.
When it is essential that the two faces of the object be strictly parallel, a
precaution is necessary; this consists in leaving on the face of the chuck a slightly
projecting circular rim with a fine smooth edge, and of a diameter rather less than
that of the object. By moving this latter backwards and forwards after applying it
to the wax, and pressing it into close contact while cooling, the requisite
parallelism will be secured.
193. To fix a pallet-stone, etc., in position. To fix a pallet-stone or an end-stone
by means of shellac it is usual to place a small piece of the latter round the stone
when in position and apply heat. But very often the lac spreads unevenly or swells
up; and this, in addition to being unsightly, is apt to displace the stone. The
inconvenience can be avoided as follows: The pallets are held in long sliding
tongs, and, taking a piece of shellac, heat it and roll it into a cylinder between the
fingers; again heat the extremity and draw it out into a fine thread. This thread will
break off, leaving a point at the end of the lac. Now heat the tongs at a little
distance from the pallets, testing the degree of heat by touching the tongs with the
shellac. When it melts easily, lightly touch the two sides of the notch with it; a
very thin layer can thus be spread over them, and the pallet-stone can then be
placed in position and held until cold enough. The tongs will not lose the heat
suddenly, so that the stone can easily be raised or lowered as required. The
projecting particles of cement can be removed by a brass wire, filed to an angle
and forming a scraper.
To fix an end-stone, the cap must be held by its edge in the sliding tongs, and
shellac carefully applied around the edge of the hollow. It is advisable to hold the
cap in a small tool formed of two parallel blades, as when reversed so as to press
the stone on a flat surface, the shellac will spread over the end-stone, from which
it will be removed with difficulty.
Page 166
ENAME L .
194. This name is applied to an opaque glass, with which various metallic
compounds, such as oxide of tin, phosphate of lime, borax, etc., have been
incorporated by fusion. The color, of course, varies with the substance so
added.
Willis recommends the following as a good white enamel for dials: silver
sand, 14 parts; borax, 10 parts; red lead, 18 parts; niter, 2 parts; oxide of tin,
12 parts; flint glass, four parts; and binoxide of manganese, 1-50th of a part.
But a good deal of care is requisite, both in selecting the materials and
preparing the enamel, in order to insure a pure color of any desired shade; it
is, therefore, often desirable to purchase the enamel ready prepared.
In applying enamel, regard must be had to the relative dilatation of the
metal to which it is applied, the two being so combined as to expand and
contract together; otherwise there is danger of the enamel cracking, either at
once or shortly after it has set.
Enamel may be applied to gold or copper. Associated with the latter, it
forms the ordinary dials of watches and timepieces, and, with the former, it
serves for making enameled gold dials or cases. The gold should be of 22
carat, the 2 carats of alloy consisting of equal parts of silver and copper. If
the gold is of a higher standard, it will not adhere so well, and, if lower,
there will be a further danger of melting the metal before the enamel is
fused.
Silver is apt to cockle on the application of heat, and enamel applied to it
presents a bubbly appearance.
195. Application of enamel in the cold. We are indebted for the
following particulars to M. Fournier, of Dieppe, a well-known enamel
maker:
There are two kinds of false enamel for application, when cold, to
damaged dials.
The first, a mixture of white resin and white lead, melts like sealing-wax,
which it closely resembles. It is advisable, when about to apply it, to gently
194. This name is applied to an opaque glass, with which various metallic
compounds, such as oxide of tin, phosphate of lime, borax, etc., have been
incorporated by fusion. The color, of course, varies with the substance so
added.
Willis recommends the following as a good white enamel for dials: silver
sand, 14 parts; borax, 10 parts; red lead, 18 parts; niter, 2 parts; oxide of tin,
12 parts; flint glass, four parts; and binoxide of manganese, 1-50th of a part.
But a good deal of care is requisite, both in selecting the materials and
preparing the enamel, in order to insure a pure color of any desired shade; it
is, therefore, often desirable to purchase the enamel ready prepared.
In applying enamel, regard must be had to the relative dilatation of the
metal to which it is applied, the two being so combined as to expand and
contract together; otherwise there is danger of the enamel cracking, either at
once or shortly after it has set.
Enamel may be applied to gold or copper. Associated with the latter, it
forms the ordinary dials of watches and timepieces, and, with the former, it
serves for making enameled gold dials or cases. The gold should be of 22
carat, the 2 carats of alloy consisting of equal parts of silver and copper. If
the gold is of a higher standard, it will not adhere so well, and, if lower,
there will be a further danger of melting the metal before the enamel is
fused.
Silver is apt to cockle on the application of heat, and enamel applied to it
presents a bubbly appearance.
195. Application of enamel in the cold. We are indebted for the
following particulars to M. Fournier, of Dieppe, a well-known enamel
maker:
There are two kinds of false enamel for application, when cold, to
damaged dials.
The first, a mixture of white resin and white lead, melts like sealing-wax,
which it closely resembles. It is advisable, when about to apply it, to gently
Page 167
heat the dial and the blade of a knife, and, with this, to cut a piece of enamel
of the requisite size and lay it on the dial. The new enamel must project
somewhat above the old. When cold, the surface is levelled by scraping,
and a shining surface is at once produced by holding at a little distance from
the flame of a spirit lamp. It is necessary to be very careful in conducting
this operation, as the least excess of heat will burn the enamel and turn it
yellow; it is, however, preferable to the following, although more difficult
to apply, as it is harder and does not become dirty so soon.
The second false enamel contains white lead mixed with melted white
wax. It is applied like a cement, neatly filling up the space, and afterwards
rubbing with tissue paper to produce a shining surface; if rubbed with a
knife blade or other steel implement its surface will be discolored.
P RE CIO U S S TO NE S.
196. The principal precious stones used in watches, chronometers and
regulator clocks, in their order of hardness, are: diamond, ruby, sapphire,
chrysolite.
A watchmaker, although he may not have had any previous experience of
jewels, can easily ascertain their relative hardness by rubbing one against
the other. The softer will be scratched by those that are harder, and the stone
that can be marked by a file may be thrown aside as useless.
197. Diamond. We shall make a very brief reference to this stone, as it is
not used except for the end-stones for balances for chronometers and high-
class watches.
Splinters of diamond are employed for drilling materials of a less degree
of hardness, and fragments fixed at the end of a rod are used for turning
very hard steel; diamond dust is the principal material used for working
precious stones, polishing, etc. (see articles 165 and 169).
198. Ruby. This jewel, of a rich, velvetty, red color, exists in three
principal varieties: oriental, spinel and balas rubies, which differ as regards
their chemical composition.
of the requisite size and lay it on the dial. The new enamel must project
somewhat above the old. When cold, the surface is levelled by scraping,
and a shining surface is at once produced by holding at a little distance from
the flame of a spirit lamp. It is necessary to be very careful in conducting
this operation, as the least excess of heat will burn the enamel and turn it
yellow; it is, however, preferable to the following, although more difficult
to apply, as it is harder and does not become dirty so soon.
The second false enamel contains white lead mixed with melted white
wax. It is applied like a cement, neatly filling up the space, and afterwards
rubbing with tissue paper to produce a shining surface; if rubbed with a
knife blade or other steel implement its surface will be discolored.
P RE CIO U S S TO NE S.
196. The principal precious stones used in watches, chronometers and
regulator clocks, in their order of hardness, are: diamond, ruby, sapphire,
chrysolite.
A watchmaker, although he may not have had any previous experience of
jewels, can easily ascertain their relative hardness by rubbing one against
the other. The softer will be scratched by those that are harder, and the stone
that can be marked by a file may be thrown aside as useless.
197. Diamond. We shall make a very brief reference to this stone, as it is
not used except for the end-stones for balances for chronometers and high-
class watches.
Splinters of diamond are employed for drilling materials of a less degree
of hardness, and fragments fixed at the end of a rod are used for turning
very hard steel; diamond dust is the principal material used for working
precious stones, polishing, etc. (see articles 165 and 169).
198. Ruby. This jewel, of a rich, velvetty, red color, exists in three
principal varieties: oriental, spinel and balas rubies, which differ as regards
their chemical composition.
Page 168
From a jeweler’s point of view, the value of a ruby is enhanced by its rich
color and transparency; but this is not the case in regard to its application in
horology, for which hardness and capability of taking a high polish are
mainly necessary.
The specific gravity of the three varieties is: oriental, 4.2; spinel, 3.7;
balas, 3.6.
The first of these is the best, since it is the hardest, both taking a better
polish in the first instance and retaining it for a longer period.
In comparison with the other varieties, its specific gravity is greater and it
possesses a brighter color, but will often be found to be less transparent.
Spinel and balas rubies are frequently met with that are very beautiful to
the eye, but their hardness is inferior to that of the sapphire and even of the
chrysolite. They must be carefully excluded from all good work, for, either
in consequence of the inferior hardness or the mode in which the oxide of
iron, magnesia, etc., is combined, or of other causes, oil rapidly deteriorates
in contact with them, and the moving parts, especially if they are of steel,
soon show signs of wear. The rubies themselves also suffer, and it is by no
means uncommon, especially in the case of the duplex escapement, to meet
with such jewels quite rough and even pitted on their acting surfaces.
199. False ruby. In a certain class of watches, a variety of stones pass for
rubies that are known to jewelers as rubicelle, rubace, rock ruby, Brazil,
Siberian or Bohemian ruby, rose ruby, etc., the hardness of which is even
less than that of rock crystal. Pivot-holes made of these imitations of the
real ruby are worth less than plain brass settings.
200. Sapphire. The color of this stone, sometimes even milky, passes
through all the shades of blue. Like the ruby, there are several varieties that
differ appreciably in regard to hardness. The hardness of oriental sapphire is
equal to that of oriental ruby; both consist of nearly pure alumina, colored
by a little oxide of iron; their chemical composition thus being the same,
they only differ in regard to color. It is, then, a great mistake on the part of
watchmakers to prefer spinel or balas rubies in place of oriental sapphires.
The sapphire is more brittle than the ruby.
The other kinds of sapphire, such as water sapphires, are not true
sapphires; they are soft and should never be used in horology. The density
color and transparency; but this is not the case in regard to its application in
horology, for which hardness and capability of taking a high polish are
mainly necessary.
The specific gravity of the three varieties is: oriental, 4.2; spinel, 3.7;
balas, 3.6.
The first of these is the best, since it is the hardest, both taking a better
polish in the first instance and retaining it for a longer period.
In comparison with the other varieties, its specific gravity is greater and it
possesses a brighter color, but will often be found to be less transparent.
Spinel and balas rubies are frequently met with that are very beautiful to
the eye, but their hardness is inferior to that of the sapphire and even of the
chrysolite. They must be carefully excluded from all good work, for, either
in consequence of the inferior hardness or the mode in which the oxide of
iron, magnesia, etc., is combined, or of other causes, oil rapidly deteriorates
in contact with them, and the moving parts, especially if they are of steel,
soon show signs of wear. The rubies themselves also suffer, and it is by no
means uncommon, especially in the case of the duplex escapement, to meet
with such jewels quite rough and even pitted on their acting surfaces.
199. False ruby. In a certain class of watches, a variety of stones pass for
rubies that are known to jewelers as rubicelle, rubace, rock ruby, Brazil,
Siberian or Bohemian ruby, rose ruby, etc., the hardness of which is even
less than that of rock crystal. Pivot-holes made of these imitations of the
real ruby are worth less than plain brass settings.
200. Sapphire. The color of this stone, sometimes even milky, passes
through all the shades of blue. Like the ruby, there are several varieties that
differ appreciably in regard to hardness. The hardness of oriental sapphire is
equal to that of oriental ruby; both consist of nearly pure alumina, colored
by a little oxide of iron; their chemical composition thus being the same,
they only differ in regard to color. It is, then, a great mistake on the part of
watchmakers to prefer spinel or balas rubies in place of oriental sapphires.
The sapphire is more brittle than the ruby.
The other kinds of sapphire, such as water sapphires, are not true
sapphires; they are soft and should never be used in horology. The density
Page 169
of the oriental sapphire is about 4.01, whereas that of other kinds is only
2.58.
201. Chrysolite. Under this name lapidaries include a variety of stones of
yellow-green, apple-green with shades of yellow, and other colors.
That known as oriental chrysolite, which is the same as the oriental
topaz, has a beautiful pale yellow color with shades of apple-green; it is the
most highly esteemed. This stone has a sufficiently high degree of hardness
for use in watchmaking, as it will scratch rock crystal. Its density varies
from 3.73 to 3.00.
The other varieties, ordinary chrysolites, come very low in the scale of
hardness. They can be scratched by quartz, rock crystal and even by the file,
and are thus of no use for watches.
202. Agate, Carnelian, Topaz. Only the varieties of the stones already
considered that are termed oriental can be used for the pivot-holes or the
pallets of astronomical regulators, but for the escapements of the ordinary
timepieces of commerce, such, for example, as the pallets of Brocot
escapements, the topaz, agate or carnelian may be used. When of the
hardest kind, and capable of receiving a high polish, they will very
efficiently resist the friction of brass teeth. As to the softer kinds, they are
inferior to hardened polished steel for pallets.
WO RKING IN P RE CI O U S S TO NE S.
203. The methods adopted for working in the precious stones are in great
parts kept secret by those who practise them; it is, however, well known to
watchmakers that jewels are usually worked and polished with powdered
diamond, and the following details will afford all the information necessary
to enable the reader to make a jewel of any required form. Where not
otherwise stated, the information is taken from a work published by N.
Dumontier.[5]
204. Tools for working jewels. These are all of simple construction, and
can be made by any watchmaker if, indeed, he has not them already to
hand.
2.58.
201. Chrysolite. Under this name lapidaries include a variety of stones of
yellow-green, apple-green with shades of yellow, and other colors.
That known as oriental chrysolite, which is the same as the oriental
topaz, has a beautiful pale yellow color with shades of apple-green; it is the
most highly esteemed. This stone has a sufficiently high degree of hardness
for use in watchmaking, as it will scratch rock crystal. Its density varies
from 3.73 to 3.00.
The other varieties, ordinary chrysolites, come very low in the scale of
hardness. They can be scratched by quartz, rock crystal and even by the file,
and are thus of no use for watches.
202. Agate, Carnelian, Topaz. Only the varieties of the stones already
considered that are termed oriental can be used for the pivot-holes or the
pallets of astronomical regulators, but for the escapements of the ordinary
timepieces of commerce, such, for example, as the pallets of Brocot
escapements, the topaz, agate or carnelian may be used. When of the
hardest kind, and capable of receiving a high polish, they will very
efficiently resist the friction of brass teeth. As to the softer kinds, they are
inferior to hardened polished steel for pallets.
WO RKING IN P RE CI O U S S TO NE S.
203. The methods adopted for working in the precious stones are in great
parts kept secret by those who practise them; it is, however, well known to
watchmakers that jewels are usually worked and polished with powdered
diamond, and the following details will afford all the information necessary
to enable the reader to make a jewel of any required form. Where not
otherwise stated, the information is taken from a work published by N.
Dumontier.[5]
204. Tools for working jewels. These are all of simple construction, and
can be made by any watchmaker if, indeed, he has not them already to
hand.
Page 170
(1.) A small lathe arranged to
receive chucks, fixed to the bench
or in a vise, and driven by a foot-
wheel. Its form resembles that
shown in fig. 47.
(2.) Two circular laps of copper
and one of tin about 2 inches in
diameter and ⅛th inch thick; these
present a flat face for grinding,
smoothing and polishing the
stones, and are adapted to the nose
of the lathe.
(3.) A small barrel (that also
screws into the nose of the lathe)
with six brass covers, perforated at
Fig. 47.
the center, on which to cement the
jewel-holes, when enlarging,
smoothing and polishing their holes.
(4.) A flat steel circular cutter half an
inch in diameter, for slitting stones.
Also two similar discs, one of copper
and the other of tin, of the same size,
and having sharp edges, are
occasionally useful.
(5.) Two small laps, one of copper
and one of tin, to smooth and polish
cylindrical stones. These laps are
mounted in place of the T-rest, or in
the slide-rest, in such a manner that
they can be rotated in a horizontal
plane by a bow, in a manner
sufficiently indicated by fig. 48.
(6.) Two chucks adapted to the lathe,
Fig. 48. on which to cement the jewels for
drilling, turning and polishing.
receive chucks, fixed to the bench
or in a vise, and driven by a foot-
wheel. Its form resembles that
shown in fig. 47.
(2.) Two circular laps of copper
and one of tin about 2 inches in
diameter and ⅛th inch thick; these
present a flat face for grinding,
smoothing and polishing the
stones, and are adapted to the nose
of the lathe.
(3.) A small barrel (that also
screws into the nose of the lathe)
with six brass covers, perforated at
Fig. 47.
the center, on which to cement the
jewel-holes, when enlarging,
smoothing and polishing their holes.
(4.) A flat steel circular cutter half an
inch in diameter, for slitting stones.
Also two similar discs, one of copper
and the other of tin, of the same size,
and having sharp edges, are
occasionally useful.
(5.) Two small laps, one of copper
and one of tin, to smooth and polish
cylindrical stones. These laps are
mounted in place of the T-rest, or in
the slide-rest, in such a manner that
they can be rotated in a horizontal
plane by a bow, in a manner
sufficiently indicated by fig. 48.
(6.) Two chucks adapted to the lathe,
Fig. 48. on which to cement the jewels for
drilling, turning and polishing.
Page 171
(7.) A number of small broaches, spindles with concave and convex ends,
etc., for smoothing and polishing jewel-holes, convex and concave surfaces.
There may also be added a small steel plug mortar for powdering the
diamond (169), and a flat steel plate with a block for working up the
powder.
205. Selection of Stones. This is of the first importance. By the aid of a
powerful lens, or a microscope, ascertain that they contain no cracks, air
cavities or black specks; avoid stones that are milky, preferring such as are
marbled, and in which the directions of crystalization seem to cross one
another, as they are the hardest. The hardness may be tested by trying them
one against the other (122), but an experienced workman needs only to note
the amount of resistance it offers to the operation of cutting on the lap. The
density also affords a valuable means of determining the nature of stones.
(See above notes on the several kinds.)
206. To find the axis of crystallization of a stone. It is well known that
jewels differ from glass, in that they form crystals of certain definite forms;
they are therefore termed “crystalline,” whereas glass is “vitreous.” If a
jewel-hole is drilled in any direction other than the axis round which the
crystal may be assumed to have been formed, there will be difficulty
experienced in the drilling and polishing; the edges of the hole will become
rough during the act of rounding them off, and the hardness will appear to
be irregular. This point seems, however, to be ignored by the majority of
jewel-hole makers, although the determination of the most suitable
direction presents no difficulty.
Obtain, from any optician, two tourmaline plates cut parallel to their axis
of crystallization and with their faces polished. Mount them in a light
frame, parallel to each other, so that each can rotate independently of the
other round the axis through their centers; it is convenient if a light spring
tends to bring the plates together so that a stone can be held when placed
between them. Or such an arrangement can be bought ready made at most
opticians: it is known as a tourmaline polariscope. If this instrument be held
up between the eye and a light, and one plate be rotated while the other
remains stationary, it will be seen that the light becomes gradually greater
or less according to the direction of rotation; and further, if the plates be
good ones, a point will exist at which there is nearly total darkness.
etc., for smoothing and polishing jewel-holes, convex and concave surfaces.
There may also be added a small steel plug mortar for powdering the
diamond (169), and a flat steel plate with a block for working up the
powder.
205. Selection of Stones. This is of the first importance. By the aid of a
powerful lens, or a microscope, ascertain that they contain no cracks, air
cavities or black specks; avoid stones that are milky, preferring such as are
marbled, and in which the directions of crystalization seem to cross one
another, as they are the hardest. The hardness may be tested by trying them
one against the other (122), but an experienced workman needs only to note
the amount of resistance it offers to the operation of cutting on the lap. The
density also affords a valuable means of determining the nature of stones.
(See above notes on the several kinds.)
206. To find the axis of crystallization of a stone. It is well known that
jewels differ from glass, in that they form crystals of certain definite forms;
they are therefore termed “crystalline,” whereas glass is “vitreous.” If a
jewel-hole is drilled in any direction other than the axis round which the
crystal may be assumed to have been formed, there will be difficulty
experienced in the drilling and polishing; the edges of the hole will become
rough during the act of rounding them off, and the hardness will appear to
be irregular. This point seems, however, to be ignored by the majority of
jewel-hole makers, although the determination of the most suitable
direction presents no difficulty.
Obtain, from any optician, two tourmaline plates cut parallel to their axis
of crystallization and with their faces polished. Mount them in a light
frame, parallel to each other, so that each can rotate independently of the
other round the axis through their centers; it is convenient if a light spring
tends to bring the plates together so that a stone can be held when placed
between them. Or such an arrangement can be bought ready made at most
opticians: it is known as a tourmaline polariscope. If this instrument be held
up between the eye and a light, and one plate be rotated while the other
remains stationary, it will be seen that the light becomes gradually greater
or less according to the direction of rotation; and further, if the plates be
good ones, a point will exist at which there is nearly total darkness.
Page 172
To examine a stone, cut and polish on it two parallel faces approximately
at right angles to the axis of crystallization; this can generally be roughly
guessed at by inspection. Place it between the plates (when set at their
darkest position), and not only will the light be in part restored but beautiful
colored rings will be formed. If they are circular, the faces of the stone are
at right angles to its axis; if not, incline it till the rings become so, and the
axis will then coincide with that of the instrument. In case the rings are not
observed at all, the stone must again be cut at right angles to the original
direction, and the experiment repeated. If they still do not appear, the stone
is unsuitable for drilling, but may be used for pallets, locking-stones, ruby-
pins, etc.
The stones to be examined in this manner must be larger than those
commonly met with, and if cylindrical rubies can be obtained they are to be
preferred, as it is then only necessary to slice them across their axis.
It should perhaps be observed that these precautions can only be taken in
making jewel-holes for the higher class of clocks, chronometers and
watches. The cheaper class must of necessity be cut in such a manner as
their figure may suggest.
207. Making jewel-holes. Having selected 20 or 30 stones of about the
same height, cement them to a smooth brass or copper-plate, heated to melt
the cement. Hold this plate in contact with a revolving copper lap in which
the coarser quality of diamond powder (169) has been embedded by means
of a hard steel block; the lap is moistened with water.
When one side of the stones is true, soften the cement and, after washing,
place them in a vessel containing spirits of wine heated by a lamp. After
doing the same to the plate, again cement the stones to it with the trued
sides downwards, and grind the other faces until the desired thickness is
arrived at. Clean the stones and smooth them on the brass lap charged in a
similar manner with a finer quality of powder.
The stones are now ready for drilling. This may be done with diamond
powder, or with the diamond drill, both of which methods will be
explained.
208. To drill with powder. In drilling with powder, the stone is fixed with
sealing-wax or shellac on a carrier that is adapted to the tool-holder of the
at right angles to the axis of crystallization; this can generally be roughly
guessed at by inspection. Place it between the plates (when set at their
darkest position), and not only will the light be in part restored but beautiful
colored rings will be formed. If they are circular, the faces of the stone are
at right angles to its axis; if not, incline it till the rings become so, and the
axis will then coincide with that of the instrument. In case the rings are not
observed at all, the stone must again be cut at right angles to the original
direction, and the experiment repeated. If they still do not appear, the stone
is unsuitable for drilling, but may be used for pallets, locking-stones, ruby-
pins, etc.
The stones to be examined in this manner must be larger than those
commonly met with, and if cylindrical rubies can be obtained they are to be
preferred, as it is then only necessary to slice them across their axis.
It should perhaps be observed that these precautions can only be taken in
making jewel-holes for the higher class of clocks, chronometers and
watches. The cheaper class must of necessity be cut in such a manner as
their figure may suggest.
207. Making jewel-holes. Having selected 20 or 30 stones of about the
same height, cement them to a smooth brass or copper-plate, heated to melt
the cement. Hold this plate in contact with a revolving copper lap in which
the coarser quality of diamond powder (169) has been embedded by means
of a hard steel block; the lap is moistened with water.
When one side of the stones is true, soften the cement and, after washing,
place them in a vessel containing spirits of wine heated by a lamp. After
doing the same to the plate, again cement the stones to it with the trued
sides downwards, and grind the other faces until the desired thickness is
arrived at. Clean the stones and smooth them on the brass lap charged in a
similar manner with a finer quality of powder.
The stones are now ready for drilling. This may be done with diamond
powder, or with the diamond drill, both of which methods will be
explained.
208. To drill with powder. In drilling with powder, the stone is fixed with
sealing-wax or shellac on a carrier that is adapted to the tool-holder of the
Page 173
slide-rest, this carrier being provided with a vertical slide, so that by the
screws in three directions the stone can be accurately centered; it is,
moreover, so arranged that the stone can be advanced to or from the drill by
pressing with the finger axially. Drill a small hole in the center of the chuck
and, after fixing a piece of steel in it that has been hardened and tempered
to a greyish color, turn a point on it about twice the length of a pivot, to
serve as a drill. This point must be slightly thinned backwards to prevent it
from choking in the hole and its end should be flat, so as to retain the
powder.
When the stone is exactly centered, place No. 2 diamond powder on the
end of the drill, and press the stone gently against it, constantly releasing it
from the drill for an instant at a time. The hole will be perforated in from 8
to 15 minutes, according to its depth, during which interval the powder
should be renewed two or three times. Remove the stone and fix it on the
barrel-chuck cover so as to turn true in the lathe; then turn out the oil-cup
with a diamond graver of suitable form. See again that the stone is central,
and re-center it if this be found necessary. This is done with the smooth
conical end of a soft round broach, or a pegwood, a lamp being held under
the chuck at the same time.
209. To use the diamond drill. Having centered the stone on the chuck, as
explained in the preceding paragraph, set it in rotation and bring a sharp-
pointed diamond graver against its center, pressing lightly and resting the
handle on the T-rest; a minute central mark is thus made in the stone for
maintaining the drill axial. Selecting a diamond drill of convenient
diameter, moisten it in the mouth and present it to the mark, applying a
gentle pressure, the amount of which can only be ascertained by practice. It
is to be observed that a number of stones should, if possible, be drilled at
the same time, for the hand is apt to lose the requisite knack, if only one or
two are perforated at a time.
210. Smoothing and Polishing. When the hole is made through, remove
the stone and invert it on the chuck. The diameter being less than that
ultimately required, pass a brass broach charged with No. 3 powder through
the hole, giving it a gentle axial motion while the stone revolves, and taking
care to avoid pushing it so far forward as to lock in the stone, and holding it
very lightly between finger and thumb. When sufficiently smooth, clean
with rotten wood or soft bread, and treat it in a similar manner with a
screws in three directions the stone can be accurately centered; it is,
moreover, so arranged that the stone can be advanced to or from the drill by
pressing with the finger axially. Drill a small hole in the center of the chuck
and, after fixing a piece of steel in it that has been hardened and tempered
to a greyish color, turn a point on it about twice the length of a pivot, to
serve as a drill. This point must be slightly thinned backwards to prevent it
from choking in the hole and its end should be flat, so as to retain the
powder.
When the stone is exactly centered, place No. 2 diamond powder on the
end of the drill, and press the stone gently against it, constantly releasing it
from the drill for an instant at a time. The hole will be perforated in from 8
to 15 minutes, according to its depth, during which interval the powder
should be renewed two or three times. Remove the stone and fix it on the
barrel-chuck cover so as to turn true in the lathe; then turn out the oil-cup
with a diamond graver of suitable form. See again that the stone is central,
and re-center it if this be found necessary. This is done with the smooth
conical end of a soft round broach, or a pegwood, a lamp being held under
the chuck at the same time.
209. To use the diamond drill. Having centered the stone on the chuck, as
explained in the preceding paragraph, set it in rotation and bring a sharp-
pointed diamond graver against its center, pressing lightly and resting the
handle on the T-rest; a minute central mark is thus made in the stone for
maintaining the drill axial. Selecting a diamond drill of convenient
diameter, moisten it in the mouth and present it to the mark, applying a
gentle pressure, the amount of which can only be ascertained by practice. It
is to be observed that a number of stones should, if possible, be drilled at
the same time, for the hand is apt to lose the requisite knack, if only one or
two are perforated at a time.
210. Smoothing and Polishing. When the hole is made through, remove
the stone and invert it on the chuck. The diameter being less than that
ultimately required, pass a brass broach charged with No. 3 powder through
the hole, giving it a gentle axial motion while the stone revolves, and taking
care to avoid pushing it so far forward as to lock in the stone, and holding it
very lightly between finger and thumb. When sufficiently smooth, clean
with rotten wood or soft bread, and treat it in a similar manner with a
Page 174
copper broach and No. 4 powder. Then again clean and use a tin broach and
powder No. 5. Next, taking a small bone cone, smooth the angles of the
holes; then use a copper wire with rounded end for smoothing the oil-cup
(with powder No. 3); follow as explained for the hole with the finer
degrees. Using a finely pointed pegwood that passes through the hole,
marry or round off the internal angle between the hole and oil-cup (the
powder that remains in the hole being sufficient for this purpose) and do the
same to the outer circumference of the cup with a copper spindle of
somewhat larger diameter.
Round off external angles with a diamond graver followed by a copper
polisher, the end of which is cup-shaped. The flat face of the stone is
polished with a small copper disc and No. 4 powder, pressing it lightly with
the finger at the same time that a circular movement is given to it; finish
with No. 5 powder. Or the stone may be detached and the flat face polished
by working on a ground glass plate, a pegwood point being passed into the
hole to form a handle.
Re-set the stone, inverting it, on the chuck, centering it. The other side is
then polished in the same manner, using such tools as its form may require.
Having thus completed the stone, examine it carefully with a powerful
glass to ascertain that the hole is highly polished and the angles rounded off,
etc. It is then ready for setting.
211. Setting Jewel-holes. Whether it be a plate, cock or bushing in which
the stone is to be set, the piece must always be cemented to a chuck and the
hole accurately centered. Turn it out to a depth corresponding to the
thickness of stone, and make a circular groove round the hole thus made
with a round-pointed graver, only leaving a very thin fillet of metal on the
inside. The stone should fit easily in the hole, but without play, and should
pass in to such a depth that its surface is slightly below that of the plate,
etc., when there is an end-stone; in other cases it must, of course, often
depend on the end-shake to be obtained. At the same time it appears
desirable that it always should be slightly below.
Clean out the setting and place a small quantity of oil in it to prevent the
stone from flying out when made to rotate; or it may be rendered still more
safe by a pointed pegwood held in the hand. The stone is fixed in position
with a small conical burnisher (as, for example, the point of a round broach)
powder No. 5. Next, taking a small bone cone, smooth the angles of the
holes; then use a copper wire with rounded end for smoothing the oil-cup
(with powder No. 3); follow as explained for the hole with the finer
degrees. Using a finely pointed pegwood that passes through the hole,
marry or round off the internal angle between the hole and oil-cup (the
powder that remains in the hole being sufficient for this purpose) and do the
same to the outer circumference of the cup with a copper spindle of
somewhat larger diameter.
Round off external angles with a diamond graver followed by a copper
polisher, the end of which is cup-shaped. The flat face of the stone is
polished with a small copper disc and No. 4 powder, pressing it lightly with
the finger at the same time that a circular movement is given to it; finish
with No. 5 powder. Or the stone may be detached and the flat face polished
by working on a ground glass plate, a pegwood point being passed into the
hole to form a handle.
Re-set the stone, inverting it, on the chuck, centering it. The other side is
then polished in the same manner, using such tools as its form may require.
Having thus completed the stone, examine it carefully with a powerful
glass to ascertain that the hole is highly polished and the angles rounded off,
etc. It is then ready for setting.
211. Setting Jewel-holes. Whether it be a plate, cock or bushing in which
the stone is to be set, the piece must always be cemented to a chuck and the
hole accurately centered. Turn it out to a depth corresponding to the
thickness of stone, and make a circular groove round the hole thus made
with a round-pointed graver, only leaving a very thin fillet of metal on the
inside. The stone should fit easily in the hole, but without play, and should
pass in to such a depth that its surface is slightly below that of the plate,
etc., when there is an end-stone; in other cases it must, of course, often
depend on the end-shake to be obtained. At the same time it appears
desirable that it always should be slightly below.
Clean out the setting and place a small quantity of oil in it to prevent the
stone from flying out when made to rotate; or it may be rendered still more
safe by a pointed pegwood held in the hand. The stone is fixed in position
with a small conical burnisher (as, for example, the point of a round broach)
Page 175
very carefully polished, so as to avoid all abrading action; if an excess of
metal is forced over the surface of the stone, it is removed with a graver.
The surface of the brass is finally smoothed with pith or pegwood, and
tripoli in oil, followed with polishing rouge in spirits of wine.
English jewel-setters often do not turn the groove, but leave a projecting
edge round the hole, which is pressed on to the stone with a burnisher.
212. To Make End-stones. The details already given will enable any
intelligent workman to make end-stones. If one of diamond in a brass or
steel setting is required, take a small rose-cut stone, turn out a hole in the
chuck to receive it, and, after cementing in position, turn off the corners
with a diamond graver so as to be able to set it.
For making end-stones of ruby, sapphire or chrysolite, flatten a face,
using the laps Nos. 1, 2, and 3 in succession, or a plate of ground glass.
Then cement with the flat face towards the chuck, and turn to the requisite
form with a diamond graver. Polish with the cup-ended brass and copper
spindles, and set, if requisite, in the same manner as a jewel-hole.
213. To make pallets, unlocking pallets, etc. This may be done on the
lap, or by using files of soft steel, copper and tin. In the first case the stones
are roughed out while held by the hand, and the required form is given them
while holding them in a small carrier that fits into the T-rest support, but the
forms of such stones are so various that no special details can be here given.
The diamond powder of different degrees of fineness is used, as in making
jewel-holes.
214. To make semi-cylindrical locking stones, ruby-pins, etc. The
stone must first be made approximately cylindrical on the lap No. 1, so that
it may be turned with the diamond graver. Drill a hole in the chuck, cement
the stone in it and turn it in this manner. When true and of the requisite
length and diameter, round off the outer end and smooth with a cup-ended
spindle, then polish with powders 3 and 4 successively. Round off the sharp
corner with a cup of rather greater curvature. The cylindrical surface is
polished by means of a small lap carried on a vertical spindle in a frame
fixed in the T-rest support, and caused to rotate rapidly with a bow, the
lathe-head also revolving at the same time (179). The lap-carriage should
have a vertical screw adjustment so that it may be brought just into contact
with the stone; it is supplied with the several degrees of powder in turn.
metal is forced over the surface of the stone, it is removed with a graver.
The surface of the brass is finally smoothed with pith or pegwood, and
tripoli in oil, followed with polishing rouge in spirits of wine.
English jewel-setters often do not turn the groove, but leave a projecting
edge round the hole, which is pressed on to the stone with a burnisher.
212. To Make End-stones. The details already given will enable any
intelligent workman to make end-stones. If one of diamond in a brass or
steel setting is required, take a small rose-cut stone, turn out a hole in the
chuck to receive it, and, after cementing in position, turn off the corners
with a diamond graver so as to be able to set it.
For making end-stones of ruby, sapphire or chrysolite, flatten a face,
using the laps Nos. 1, 2, and 3 in succession, or a plate of ground glass.
Then cement with the flat face towards the chuck, and turn to the requisite
form with a diamond graver. Polish with the cup-ended brass and copper
spindles, and set, if requisite, in the same manner as a jewel-hole.
213. To make pallets, unlocking pallets, etc. This may be done on the
lap, or by using files of soft steel, copper and tin. In the first case the stones
are roughed out while held by the hand, and the required form is given them
while holding them in a small carrier that fits into the T-rest support, but the
forms of such stones are so various that no special details can be here given.
The diamond powder of different degrees of fineness is used, as in making
jewel-holes.
214. To make semi-cylindrical locking stones, ruby-pins, etc. The
stone must first be made approximately cylindrical on the lap No. 1, so that
it may be turned with the diamond graver. Drill a hole in the chuck, cement
the stone in it and turn it in this manner. When true and of the requisite
length and diameter, round off the outer end and smooth with a cup-ended
spindle, then polish with powders 3 and 4 successively. Round off the sharp
corner with a cup of rather greater curvature. The cylindrical surface is
polished by means of a small lap carried on a vertical spindle in a frame
fixed in the T-rest support, and caused to rotate rapidly with a bow, the
lathe-head also revolving at the same time (179). The lap-carriage should
have a vertical screw adjustment so that it may be brought just into contact
with the stone; it is supplied with the several degrees of powder in turn.
Page 176
Now drill a hole in another chuck of the diameter of this cylinder, fix it in
position and finish off the opposite end.
To form the flat face along the axis of the stone it is cemented to a
support in place of the T-rest and brought against the revolving lap in the
lathe; or the same result may be attained by using a brass file.
215. To make a duplex roller. At the present day this operation so rarely
has to be done that only a few words can be devoted to its consideration.
Very pure rubies must be selected, and the hole drilled as explained in
209; if the drill is too short it must be introduced at opposite ends, and the
two holes made to meet. After smoothing the surface, the notch is cut with
the thin steel cutter referred to in article 204, the roller being cemented to a
support that replaces the T-rest. When the steel disc charged with powder
No. 4 is revolving very rapidly, advance the roller under it by a screw. The
notch is polished by a small copper file of suitable form, and its corners
rounded off by a tin one of square section, one edge of which enters the
notch.
216. To mount diamond drills and gravers. Drill a hole or file a notch
in the end of a piece of brass wire to correspond with the fragment of
diamond; heat the end in a spirit lamp and lay on it a piece of good sealing-
wax or shellac. When this commences to melt, set the diamond in position
and leave the whole to cool. Diamond drills are very commonly mounted at
the end of a pin that has had its point filed off; mark a point on the end with
a graver and drill the hole, which should be very shallow. Holding the pin in
a pin-vise with its point projecting about 1-10th inch, heat the vise in a
lamp, and proceed as above explained.
FOOTNOTES:
[4] The theoretical density of an alloy, on the assumption that in alloying the
metals do not contract or expand, is obtained by dividing the percentage
proportion of each constituent metal by its density, adding the products so
obtained together, and dividing their sum into 100.
[5] L’art de travailler les Pierres precieuses a l’usage de l’Horlogerie et de
l’Optique. Paris. 1843.
position and finish off the opposite end.
To form the flat face along the axis of the stone it is cemented to a
support in place of the T-rest and brought against the revolving lap in the
lathe; or the same result may be attained by using a brass file.
215. To make a duplex roller. At the present day this operation so rarely
has to be done that only a few words can be devoted to its consideration.
Very pure rubies must be selected, and the hole drilled as explained in
209; if the drill is too short it must be introduced at opposite ends, and the
two holes made to meet. After smoothing the surface, the notch is cut with
the thin steel cutter referred to in article 204, the roller being cemented to a
support that replaces the T-rest. When the steel disc charged with powder
No. 4 is revolving very rapidly, advance the roller under it by a screw. The
notch is polished by a small copper file of suitable form, and its corners
rounded off by a tin one of square section, one edge of which enters the
notch.
216. To mount diamond drills and gravers. Drill a hole or file a notch
in the end of a piece of brass wire to correspond with the fragment of
diamond; heat the end in a spirit lamp and lay on it a piece of good sealing-
wax or shellac. When this commences to melt, set the diamond in position
and leave the whole to cool. Diamond drills are very commonly mounted at
the end of a pin that has had its point filed off; mark a point on the end with
a graver and drill the hole, which should be very shallow. Holding the pin in
a pin-vise with its point projecting about 1-10th inch, heat the vise in a
lamp, and proceed as above explained.
FOOTNOTES:
[4] The theoretical density of an alloy, on the assumption that in alloying the
metals do not contract or expand, is obtained by dividing the percentage
proportion of each constituent metal by its density, adding the products so
obtained together, and dividing their sum into 100.
[5] L’art de travailler les Pierres precieuses a l’usage de l’Horlogerie et de
l’Optique. Paris. 1843.
Page 177
PART III.
HEALTH AND MANIPULATION.
P RE SE RVAT IO N O F HE A LT H.
217. Some of the following directions may perhaps be considered to be
over-minute and too restrictive; but they are not so. Good habits contracted
in youth are easily maintained, and, when the watchmaker has tried them
long enough to convince him of their influence on his health, he will
experience no difficulty in keeping them up.
T HE S IG HT.
218. When working at any small mechanism, such as a watch, it is
necessary to use the glass, but this practice is apt to produce inflammation
of the conjunctiva or cornea and a weakening of the eyesight; a too frequent
and prolonged use of the glass will have the same effect as using spectacles
that are too strong.
In order to preserve his eyesight, the watchmaker should take the
following precautions:
He should not retain the glass at his eye by a contraction of the muscles
for more than a brief interval of time. The glass holder, which can be at
HEALTH AND MANIPULATION.
P RE SE RVAT IO N O F HE A LT H.
217. Some of the following directions may perhaps be considered to be
over-minute and too restrictive; but they are not so. Good habits contracted
in youth are easily maintained, and, when the watchmaker has tried them
long enough to convince him of their influence on his health, he will
experience no difficulty in keeping them up.
T HE S IG HT.
218. When working at any small mechanism, such as a watch, it is
necessary to use the glass, but this practice is apt to produce inflammation
of the conjunctiva or cornea and a weakening of the eyesight; a too frequent
and prolonged use of the glass will have the same effect as using spectacles
that are too strong.
In order to preserve his eyesight, the watchmaker should take the
following precautions:
He should not retain the glass at his eye by a contraction of the muscles
for more than a brief interval of time. The glass holder, which can be at
Page 178
once set in any desired position, has therefore much to recommend it.
Drill a few holes in the frame of the glass to avoid or at least diminish the
inconvenience that arises from the heating of the enclosed air, as well as
from the deposition of moisture on the surface of the glass.
Do not use glasses of too great magnifying power; they needlessly
fatigue the eye.
Only use glasses that are truly achromatic. If compelled to use the
ordinary simple glass, place a ring of dead black paper inside the frame and
against the lens, which, by diminishing the field of view, will reduce the
inconvenience due to spherical aberration.
It is hardly necessary to advocate the use of a green cardboard shade to
the lamp, as they are so generally used by watchmakers. It should be so
arranged as to protect the head and eyes from radiation, and cardboard is
preferable to metal as it radiates less heat.
Working at night and by artificial light, more especially by the dazzling
light of gas, fatigues the eyes much more than with ordinary daylight, and
the workman will find it a relief, if obliged to work by artificial light on
very minute objects, to rest his eyes frequently on large stationary bodies. If
he can do so, it is a great comfort to bathe the eyes in cold water.
It is good practice to habituate oneself to the use of either eye with the
glass.
By adopting these simple precautions, how many of our fellow-workers
who are now only able to see objects indistinctly and suffer from incipient
blindness would have preserved their sight uninjured. And there is yet
another precaution that has been pointed out by Dr. Haltenhoff, of Geneva.
He has shown that by avoiding an excessive indulgence in alcoholic drinks
or tobacco, many old watchmakers in that town have succeeded in
preserving their sight unimpaired, and it is impossible to doubt the truth or
over-estimate the importance of this fact.
The same authority draws attention to the necessity of taking care that,
before adopting watchmaking as a trade, youths should ascertain that they
do not suffer from progressive nearsightedness, which is often hereditary, as
in such a case they would most certainly be compelled to abandon it in after
life. Boys should not be set to work on such small objects as the details of a
Drill a few holes in the frame of the glass to avoid or at least diminish the
inconvenience that arises from the heating of the enclosed air, as well as
from the deposition of moisture on the surface of the glass.
Do not use glasses of too great magnifying power; they needlessly
fatigue the eye.
Only use glasses that are truly achromatic. If compelled to use the
ordinary simple glass, place a ring of dead black paper inside the frame and
against the lens, which, by diminishing the field of view, will reduce the
inconvenience due to spherical aberration.
It is hardly necessary to advocate the use of a green cardboard shade to
the lamp, as they are so generally used by watchmakers. It should be so
arranged as to protect the head and eyes from radiation, and cardboard is
preferable to metal as it radiates less heat.
Working at night and by artificial light, more especially by the dazzling
light of gas, fatigues the eyes much more than with ordinary daylight, and
the workman will find it a relief, if obliged to work by artificial light on
very minute objects, to rest his eyes frequently on large stationary bodies. If
he can do so, it is a great comfort to bathe the eyes in cold water.
It is good practice to habituate oneself to the use of either eye with the
glass.
By adopting these simple precautions, how many of our fellow-workers
who are now only able to see objects indistinctly and suffer from incipient
blindness would have preserved their sight uninjured. And there is yet
another precaution that has been pointed out by Dr. Haltenhoff, of Geneva.
He has shown that by avoiding an excessive indulgence in alcoholic drinks
or tobacco, many old watchmakers in that town have succeeded in
preserving their sight unimpaired, and it is impossible to doubt the truth or
over-estimate the importance of this fact.
The same authority draws attention to the necessity of taking care that,
before adopting watchmaking as a trade, youths should ascertain that they
do not suffer from progressive nearsightedness, which is often hereditary, as
in such a case they would most certainly be compelled to abandon it in after
life. Boys should not be set to work on such small objects as the details of a
Page 179
watch too early in life, before the membranes of the eye have assumed a
certain degree of rigidity.
Mr. Brudenell Carter, a well-known ophthalmist, is of opinion that the
habitual use of the glass by watchmakers has the effect of actually
developing and preserving the power of the eye.
T HE BO DY IN G E NER AL .
219. It is often found that an old, or even middle-aged watchmaker is
irritable, often tired and soured. This arises, not so often from an over-
excited uneasiness in regard to his trade, an explanation that is usually
urged, as from a derangement of his digestive organs brought about by the
habit of life he is compelled to adopt. Prolonged working at minute
horological mechanism is perhaps more wearying to the mind and body
than any other trade or occupation.
To avoid its ill effects the watchmaker should adopt the following
precautions as far as possible:
Do not use a stool with a stuffed seat, but prefer one of cane or wood.
Take care that the relative heights of the board and stool are such that an
excessive compression of the muscles of the chest, etc., is avoided during
any long operation that renders it necessary to maintain the body in a
constrained position.
A stool with adjusting screw similar to a music stool is convenient from
this point of view.
Change the position as much and as often as possible, especially when
working with the file or graver. With this object in view many workmen
have a second board of such a height that they can work standing.
When using the lamp let it always be provided with a cardboard shade as
already recommended.
A screen to protect the head from the direct heat of the flame is often
found advantageous; in fact, the watchmaker should adopt the advice of
Boerhaave: “Keep the head cool and the feet warm.”
certain degree of rigidity.
Mr. Brudenell Carter, a well-known ophthalmist, is of opinion that the
habitual use of the glass by watchmakers has the effect of actually
developing and preserving the power of the eye.
T HE BO DY IN G E NER AL .
219. It is often found that an old, or even middle-aged watchmaker is
irritable, often tired and soured. This arises, not so often from an over-
excited uneasiness in regard to his trade, an explanation that is usually
urged, as from a derangement of his digestive organs brought about by the
habit of life he is compelled to adopt. Prolonged working at minute
horological mechanism is perhaps more wearying to the mind and body
than any other trade or occupation.
To avoid its ill effects the watchmaker should adopt the following
precautions as far as possible:
Do not use a stool with a stuffed seat, but prefer one of cane or wood.
Take care that the relative heights of the board and stool are such that an
excessive compression of the muscles of the chest, etc., is avoided during
any long operation that renders it necessary to maintain the body in a
constrained position.
A stool with adjusting screw similar to a music stool is convenient from
this point of view.
Change the position as much and as often as possible, especially when
working with the file or graver. With this object in view many workmen
have a second board of such a height that they can work standing.
When using the lamp let it always be provided with a cardboard shade as
already recommended.
A screen to protect the head from the direct heat of the flame is often
found advantageous; in fact, the watchmaker should adopt the advice of
Boerhaave: “Keep the head cool and the feet warm.”
Page 180
Let him always remember that nothing does more harm than sitting to the
bench immediately after a meal. He should allow an interval of half an hour
to elapse and with some temperaments, even this is not enough; during this
period he should only do work at which it is possible to stand. A little
exercise, such as a walk that is not hurried, will be still better; it will
stimulate the circulation and stretch the muscles that have been maintained
in a constrained position for a long time through the prolonged attention
and slight motion that his labors involve.
US E O F T HE F IL E AND G RAVE R.
220. The first operations that a watchmaker ought to learn are to file flat
and square, to turn round, to forge, to hammer-harden a piece of metal
without deteriorating it. These accomplishments are but too much neglected
in the modern training of an apprentice, an omission that is partly owing to
the want of good instructors and partly to the shortness of the time he can
afford to devote to learning his trade.
TO F I L E F L AT AND S Q UA RE WIT H BO T H HANDS AT
O NC E.
221. It is a very common practice to place an old file in the hands of an
apprentice, to fix in the jaws of a vise a piece of metal, either brass, iron or
steel, and to set him to work rubbing and filing the surfaces with great
labor, the only result being that they are utterly mis-shapen and covered
with brilliant spots.
This method is bad. The action of the file is mechanical and the problem
that has to be solved is the following: To produce good work in the shortest
possible time, and with the least expenditure of force. It is therefore only by
very slow degrees that an apprentice can hope to acquire the requisite
ability, if he is set to work trying to shape an object in some hard metal
before he knows how to maintain lines straight and surfaces flat. Not
knowing how to proportion his effort to the resistance to be overcome, and
bench immediately after a meal. He should allow an interval of half an hour
to elapse and with some temperaments, even this is not enough; during this
period he should only do work at which it is possible to stand. A little
exercise, such as a walk that is not hurried, will be still better; it will
stimulate the circulation and stretch the muscles that have been maintained
in a constrained position for a long time through the prolonged attention
and slight motion that his labors involve.
US E O F T HE F IL E AND G RAVE R.
220. The first operations that a watchmaker ought to learn are to file flat
and square, to turn round, to forge, to hammer-harden a piece of metal
without deteriorating it. These accomplishments are but too much neglected
in the modern training of an apprentice, an omission that is partly owing to
the want of good instructors and partly to the shortness of the time he can
afford to devote to learning his trade.
TO F I L E F L AT AND S Q UA RE WIT H BO T H HANDS AT
O NC E.
221. It is a very common practice to place an old file in the hands of an
apprentice, to fix in the jaws of a vise a piece of metal, either brass, iron or
steel, and to set him to work rubbing and filing the surfaces with great
labor, the only result being that they are utterly mis-shapen and covered
with brilliant spots.
This method is bad. The action of the file is mechanical and the problem
that has to be solved is the following: To produce good work in the shortest
possible time, and with the least expenditure of force. It is therefore only by
very slow degrees that an apprentice can hope to acquire the requisite
ability, if he is set to work trying to shape an object in some hard metal
before he knows how to maintain lines straight and surfaces flat. Not
knowing how to proportion his effort to the resistance to be overcome, and
Page 181
allowing the file to travel irregularly over the surface, he gets confirmed in
the tendency to give a rocking motion to the file, whereby the surface is left
round, and he will find it all the more difficult to throw this habit aside.
It is far better to let him commence on round pieces of common wood,
filing with a rasp or coarse-cut file, without removing too much at once. By
this means he may rely on learning to file flat and square by the eye alone
without the aid of a straight-edge.
When he works well in common wood, he can be set to file harder
woods, box for an example, roughing with a rasp and finishing with a new
bastard file. He should not be allowed to have hard wood until able to file a
surface so well that, on placing a metal rule across it in any direction, it is
found to be flat.
222. Let him then advance to brass, which, if cast, should be previously
dipped in acid to remove the hard surface, as this should not be filed off.
The resistance it offers would cause a jerky motion of the file that would be
apt to disturb the slight amount of decision the hand has already acquired.
As brass opposes a considerable resistance, the pupil should be carefully
watched with a view to preventing too rapid movement and an excessive
pressure, involving waste of power, while he fancies the work is being
proportionately advanced; the manner in which the file is applied to the
surface should also be observed, taking care that little or no pressure is
applied during the backward stroke. The teacher should both explain and
demonstrate that the main secret of success consists in a perfect equilibrium
between the actions of the two hands; one should increase as the other
decreases with the horizontal motion of the file, since the two levers in use,
namely the portions on either side of the point of contact, are continually
the one increasing and the other decreasing.
By filing steadily and attentively, the hands will gradually acquire the
requisite sensitiveness, or tact, that enables each to adjust the pressure in
proportion to the other, as well as the knack that enables them to maintain
the surface flat. It is important to avoid short and jerky movements.
Practical instruction from a competent teacher must be relied on to
complete the directions here given; no written instructions can replace it.
the tendency to give a rocking motion to the file, whereby the surface is left
round, and he will find it all the more difficult to throw this habit aside.
It is far better to let him commence on round pieces of common wood,
filing with a rasp or coarse-cut file, without removing too much at once. By
this means he may rely on learning to file flat and square by the eye alone
without the aid of a straight-edge.
When he works well in common wood, he can be set to file harder
woods, box for an example, roughing with a rasp and finishing with a new
bastard file. He should not be allowed to have hard wood until able to file a
surface so well that, on placing a metal rule across it in any direction, it is
found to be flat.
222. Let him then advance to brass, which, if cast, should be previously
dipped in acid to remove the hard surface, as this should not be filed off.
The resistance it offers would cause a jerky motion of the file that would be
apt to disturb the slight amount of decision the hand has already acquired.
As brass opposes a considerable resistance, the pupil should be carefully
watched with a view to preventing too rapid movement and an excessive
pressure, involving waste of power, while he fancies the work is being
proportionately advanced; the manner in which the file is applied to the
surface should also be observed, taking care that little or no pressure is
applied during the backward stroke. The teacher should both explain and
demonstrate that the main secret of success consists in a perfect equilibrium
between the actions of the two hands; one should increase as the other
decreases with the horizontal motion of the file, since the two levers in use,
namely the portions on either side of the point of contact, are continually
the one increasing and the other decreasing.
By filing steadily and attentively, the hands will gradually acquire the
requisite sensitiveness, or tact, that enables each to adjust the pressure in
proportion to the other, as well as the knack that enables them to maintain
the surface flat. It is important to avoid short and jerky movements.
Practical instruction from a competent teacher must be relied on to
complete the directions here given; no written instructions can replace it.
Page 182
It is advisable to use new, or nearly new files in the above lessons; the
wear will have brought them into good condition for working iron or steel.
Proceed with these metals as already explained in regard to brass, and
special attention must still be given in order to prevent hurry on the part of
the pupil. The files remove less metal at a time and a greater pressure is
necessary, so that he does not make such rapid progress as with brass, and
this gives rise to a tendency either to use new files, which are soon spoilt, or
to give the stroke too suddenly, while applying considerable pressure,
especially during the return stroke. He thus heats his file, breaks off the
crests of the teeth, which become embedded in the metal and do much to
further damage the file. Moreover, he will lose some of the sensitiveness of
touch that his hand has already acquired.
223. It would perhaps be well to subdivide the day into three parts for as
long as appears necessary; the first to be devoted to filing, the second to
turning, and the third to forging and cold hammering.
By this means he will be quicker in acquiring the requisite skill of hand
and eye, and, when he has attained to this ability, it will be time to practice
himself in the management of various tools. Feeling certain of himself he
will soon become quick in his work.
It is prejudicial to the true instruction of a pupil and a false economy of
both time and money, to let him commence either a clock or watch before
arriving at this point. He will experience difficulty in making even the
simplest pieces, which, besides being very badly made, will take up a long
time; he will keep forgetting as he goes on, because, owing to the slowness
with which he works, the construction of a machine occupies months, or
even years, whereas it would only have occupied a few weeks, or months, if
he had possessed sufficient manual skill to enable him to handle properly
the file and graver.
We insist specially on the need of this preliminary training of the young
horologist, because, with very rare exceptions, if a pupil is set to delicate
details before he is master of his tools, he works with a want of decision,
and, therefore, with difficulty. He will, as a rule, make a workman of but
moderate ability, and will soon become disgusted with his trade, from the
mere fact that he cannot work with ease and rapidity.
wear will have brought them into good condition for working iron or steel.
Proceed with these metals as already explained in regard to brass, and
special attention must still be given in order to prevent hurry on the part of
the pupil. The files remove less metal at a time and a greater pressure is
necessary, so that he does not make such rapid progress as with brass, and
this gives rise to a tendency either to use new files, which are soon spoilt, or
to give the stroke too suddenly, while applying considerable pressure,
especially during the return stroke. He thus heats his file, breaks off the
crests of the teeth, which become embedded in the metal and do much to
further damage the file. Moreover, he will lose some of the sensitiveness of
touch that his hand has already acquired.
223. It would perhaps be well to subdivide the day into three parts for as
long as appears necessary; the first to be devoted to filing, the second to
turning, and the third to forging and cold hammering.
By this means he will be quicker in acquiring the requisite skill of hand
and eye, and, when he has attained to this ability, it will be time to practice
himself in the management of various tools. Feeling certain of himself he
will soon become quick in his work.
It is prejudicial to the true instruction of a pupil and a false economy of
both time and money, to let him commence either a clock or watch before
arriving at this point. He will experience difficulty in making even the
simplest pieces, which, besides being very badly made, will take up a long
time; he will keep forgetting as he goes on, because, owing to the slowness
with which he works, the construction of a machine occupies months, or
even years, whereas it would only have occupied a few weeks, or months, if
he had possessed sufficient manual skill to enable him to handle properly
the file and graver.
We insist specially on the need of this preliminary training of the young
horologist, because, with very rare exceptions, if a pupil is set to delicate
details before he is master of his tools, he works with a want of decision,
and, therefore, with difficulty. He will, as a rule, make a workman of but
moderate ability, and will soon become disgusted with his trade, from the
mere fact that he cannot work with ease and rapidity.
Page 183
Time is an element of success; hence gratuitous apprenticeships for short
terms, that become a tax on the master if he does not soon make use of his
pupil’s services, will very seldom produce good watchmakers.
TO F IL E F L AT WI T H O N E HA ND .
224. When an object is to be held on a cork or wood block fixed in the
vise, with one hand, and filed with the other hand, special care must be
taken to lay the file flat without any hesitation after each return stroke, and
the hand should be able to feel if the file is wrong in this respect, and to at
once bring it flat. After the pupil has learned this, he will very soon be able
to adjust the pressure and the force exerted in moving the file horizontally,
so that it shall remove an equal amount from the entire surface operated
upon. It often happens that the object can conveniently be rested upon a
finger of the left-hand while the right-hand holds the file. The maintenance
of the file flat is in that case much easier.
225. Mechanical device for filing flat. This (the pradel) consists in
placing behind the workman a horizontal bar, on which rests one end of the
file handle, prolonged for the purpose to about a yard in length; thus the file
has two points of support: the bar, adjusted at a convenient height, behind
the workman, and the object to be filed flat fixed in the vise in front.
This method, while convenient for amateurs, may be utilized in teaching
an apprentice, letting the supports be hinged at one and press at the other
end on a rather strong spring index, which must be prolonged so as to be
brought under the eye of the pupil.
The displacement of the index will show him every false movement of
his hands, and will guide him in adjusting them. It would be best if the
prolongation of the handle were as light as possible, but rigid and arranged
so that the file can be held naturally.
TO T URN CY L I NDRI CAL P IVO T S , E T C., AND S Q UAR E
S HO UL D ERS .
terms, that become a tax on the master if he does not soon make use of his
pupil’s services, will very seldom produce good watchmakers.
TO F IL E F L AT WI T H O N E HA ND .
224. When an object is to be held on a cork or wood block fixed in the
vise, with one hand, and filed with the other hand, special care must be
taken to lay the file flat without any hesitation after each return stroke, and
the hand should be able to feel if the file is wrong in this respect, and to at
once bring it flat. After the pupil has learned this, he will very soon be able
to adjust the pressure and the force exerted in moving the file horizontally,
so that it shall remove an equal amount from the entire surface operated
upon. It often happens that the object can conveniently be rested upon a
finger of the left-hand while the right-hand holds the file. The maintenance
of the file flat is in that case much easier.
225. Mechanical device for filing flat. This (the pradel) consists in
placing behind the workman a horizontal bar, on which rests one end of the
file handle, prolonged for the purpose to about a yard in length; thus the file
has two points of support: the bar, adjusted at a convenient height, behind
the workman, and the object to be filed flat fixed in the vise in front.
This method, while convenient for amateurs, may be utilized in teaching
an apprentice, letting the supports be hinged at one and press at the other
end on a rather strong spring index, which must be prolonged so as to be
brought under the eye of the pupil.
The displacement of the index will show him every false movement of
his hands, and will guide him in adjusting them. It would be best if the
prolongation of the handle were as light as possible, but rigid and arranged
so that the file can be held naturally.
TO T URN CY L I NDRI CAL P IVO T S , E T C., AND S Q UAR E
S HO UL D ERS .
Page 184
226. Just as in working with the file, advice and demonstration by a good
master are here indispensable.
The materials should be worked in the same order as is explained in parts
221-4; that is: wood, brass, iron, steel, hardened and tempered steel; no one
sample being set aside until the student can turn it perfectly round, flat on
shoulders, etc., and smooth throughout.
He should turn for a long time, whether it be by the lathe or bow,
exclusively with the point of a square, or lozenge-shaped graver, the end of
which is ground off on a slope; this is the only possible method of learning
to turn true, and it enables the workman to acquire great delicacy of touch.
Owing to carelessness, or to the fact that, when first beginning, they were
set to work on metal that was too hard or rough, most learners turn with
gravers that are ground to very blunt points; as the graver bites less, they are
obliged to apply a proportionately increased pressure, and only succeed in
tearing the metal away, subjecting it to a kind of rolling action, and
rendering the hand heavy. If a pupil will not practice turning with the graver
point, so as to preserve it intact for some time, dependent on the nature of
the metal, he will never be able to turn perfectly true.
The bow should be used through its entire length, and with a motion that
is progressive, not jerky. The knack of the turner with the bow consists
mainly in keeping the simultaneous actions of the two hands quite distinct;
one drawing the bow downwards, while the other depresses the point of the
graver supported on the T-rest, and these two movements of the hands must
be performed at the same time, but quite independently.
Irregular and sudden depressing of the graver point, or engaging it too
deeply, causes its frequent rupture. This also sometimes arises from the fact
that the point is not removed with sufficient rapidity, so that on raising the
bow the metal catches it while traveling in the reverse direction; the graver
is thus drawn slightly towards the work, and its point will be found too
close in when the bow again descends.
As has been already observed, the bow, which must not be too short,
should be used to its full length with a regular, but not rapid motion.
Afterwards, when the hand has learnt how to manage the graver, the speed
can be gradually augmented. There is always a danger of losing time,
master are here indispensable.
The materials should be worked in the same order as is explained in parts
221-4; that is: wood, brass, iron, steel, hardened and tempered steel; no one
sample being set aside until the student can turn it perfectly round, flat on
shoulders, etc., and smooth throughout.
He should turn for a long time, whether it be by the lathe or bow,
exclusively with the point of a square, or lozenge-shaped graver, the end of
which is ground off on a slope; this is the only possible method of learning
to turn true, and it enables the workman to acquire great delicacy of touch.
Owing to carelessness, or to the fact that, when first beginning, they were
set to work on metal that was too hard or rough, most learners turn with
gravers that are ground to very blunt points; as the graver bites less, they are
obliged to apply a proportionately increased pressure, and only succeed in
tearing the metal away, subjecting it to a kind of rolling action, and
rendering the hand heavy. If a pupil will not practice turning with the graver
point, so as to preserve it intact for some time, dependent on the nature of
the metal, he will never be able to turn perfectly true.
The bow should be used through its entire length, and with a motion that
is progressive, not jerky. The knack of the turner with the bow consists
mainly in keeping the simultaneous actions of the two hands quite distinct;
one drawing the bow downwards, while the other depresses the point of the
graver supported on the T-rest, and these two movements of the hands must
be performed at the same time, but quite independently.
Irregular and sudden depressing of the graver point, or engaging it too
deeply, causes its frequent rupture. This also sometimes arises from the fact
that the point is not removed with sufficient rapidity, so that on raising the
bow the metal catches it while traveling in the reverse direction; the graver
is thus drawn slightly towards the work, and its point will be found too
close in when the bow again descends.
As has been already observed, the bow, which must not be too short,
should be used to its full length with a regular, but not rapid motion.
Afterwards, when the hand has learnt how to manage the graver, the speed
can be gradually augmented. There is always a danger of losing time,
Page 185
teaching, and, therefore, money, if pupils are too much hurried in their
lessons. Before trying to work quickly, they should, at any rate, know how
to work fairly well.
Short and sudden movements of the bow will make the object turned
jerk; it will be heated, and the sharp angles of the graver will jamb in the
metal; thus there is less work done, although there is more noise, and this is
done badly.
227. When sufficient experience has been gained in turning with the
graver point, and a trial is made with the cutting edge, do not attempt to
remove much at a time by pressing heavily, but take the metal sideways so
as to remove a continuous thread, using all the points of the edge in
succession and the entire length of the bow. The metal will thus be removed
as a thin ribbon or shaving. When the hand has had some experience, it will
be found easy to remove long strips, and the work can be done quickly,
although there be no hurrying in the movement of the bow. These remarks
are equally applicable to turning with a lathe.
228. Hardened steel that has been let down to a blue temper requires
certain precautions. If the graver is found not to cut cleanly, it must at once
be sharpened, and no attempt should be made to remove more metal by
increasing the pressure of the hand, because the steel will burnish and
become hard under a point or edge that is blunt, and the portions thus
burnished are sometimes so hard as to resist the best gravers. The only way
of attacking them is to begin at one side with a fine graver point which must
be sharpened for each stroke; at times it becomes necessary to temper the
metal afresh before it will yield. It is asserted that by moistening the point
of the graver with petroleum it becomes more able to attack hard
substances, and that a mixture of two parts petroleum and one part
turpentine enables it to turn very hard steel with comparative ease. Indeed,
for all turning it is a common practice to moisten the graver with oil, water,
turpentine, or simply by introduction into the mouth.
We have frequently seen apprentices, and even watchmakers, themselves,
careless as to the proper sharpening of their gravers and thinking that they
could hasten their work by the application of considerable pressure; they
thus produced bright spots that required several hours of work before they
could be removed.
lessons. Before trying to work quickly, they should, at any rate, know how
to work fairly well.
Short and sudden movements of the bow will make the object turned
jerk; it will be heated, and the sharp angles of the graver will jamb in the
metal; thus there is less work done, although there is more noise, and this is
done badly.
227. When sufficient experience has been gained in turning with the
graver point, and a trial is made with the cutting edge, do not attempt to
remove much at a time by pressing heavily, but take the metal sideways so
as to remove a continuous thread, using all the points of the edge in
succession and the entire length of the bow. The metal will thus be removed
as a thin ribbon or shaving. When the hand has had some experience, it will
be found easy to remove long strips, and the work can be done quickly,
although there be no hurrying in the movement of the bow. These remarks
are equally applicable to turning with a lathe.
228. Hardened steel that has been let down to a blue temper requires
certain precautions. If the graver is found not to cut cleanly, it must at once
be sharpened, and no attempt should be made to remove more metal by
increasing the pressure of the hand, because the steel will burnish and
become hard under a point or edge that is blunt, and the portions thus
burnished are sometimes so hard as to resist the best gravers. The only way
of attacking them is to begin at one side with a fine graver point which must
be sharpened for each stroke; at times it becomes necessary to temper the
metal afresh before it will yield. It is asserted that by moistening the point
of the graver with petroleum it becomes more able to attack hard
substances, and that a mixture of two parts petroleum and one part
turpentine enables it to turn very hard steel with comparative ease. Indeed,
for all turning it is a common practice to moisten the graver with oil, water,
turpentine, or simply by introduction into the mouth.
We have frequently seen apprentices, and even watchmakers, themselves,
careless as to the proper sharpening of their gravers and thinking that they
could hasten their work by the application of considerable pressure; they
thus produced bright spots that required several hours of work before they
could be removed.
Page 186
There is one essential condition for ensuring good work with the lathe,
and this consists in the perfect roundness of the points or holes of the
runners or centers, and of the holes or points that are supported in them; this
perfect truth is nevertheless very rarely met with, for it is noticeable that
barely one watchmaker in ten knows at the present day how to roll such a
point. We shall subsequently indicate the precautions to be observed in
order to secure this accuracy.
The diameter of ferrule is also to be considered; if it is too small, the bow
will slip and the object will only rotate by jerks; if too large, it loads the
object unnecessarily and the velocity of rotation is reduced, since for the
same stroke of the bow the ferrule must make a less number of turns.
Moreover, if it is of large diameter, only a light bow must be used, because
otherwise the force applied would be excessive.
Swiss workmen—at least the great majority of them—turn with the right
or left-hand indifferently. This is a very useful accomplishment easily
acquired when young.
The working of various tools, such as the English or Geneva mandrel,
and any lathe driven by a treadle, will be a great help in developing the
sense of touch and in making it more certain.
But it must not be forgotten that, in order to turn well, the lathe must be
well made and planned; without this, no accurate work can be done. The
lathe is the first and most important of tools, and a great number of very
serviceable accessories can be added to it, which, unfortunately, but few
watchmakers know how to make properly. As a rule they content
themselves with a simple pair of finishing turns on which but a
comparatively small amount of work can be done.
Without committing the mistake of having a too great multiplicity of
tools, let the pupil rest certain that a well-planned set of tools in good
condition both facilitates and abridges his work and renders it more perfect.
and this consists in the perfect roundness of the points or holes of the
runners or centers, and of the holes or points that are supported in them; this
perfect truth is nevertheless very rarely met with, for it is noticeable that
barely one watchmaker in ten knows at the present day how to roll such a
point. We shall subsequently indicate the precautions to be observed in
order to secure this accuracy.
The diameter of ferrule is also to be considered; if it is too small, the bow
will slip and the object will only rotate by jerks; if too large, it loads the
object unnecessarily and the velocity of rotation is reduced, since for the
same stroke of the bow the ferrule must make a less number of turns.
Moreover, if it is of large diameter, only a light bow must be used, because
otherwise the force applied would be excessive.
Swiss workmen—at least the great majority of them—turn with the right
or left-hand indifferently. This is a very useful accomplishment easily
acquired when young.
The working of various tools, such as the English or Geneva mandrel,
and any lathe driven by a treadle, will be a great help in developing the
sense of touch and in making it more certain.
But it must not be forgotten that, in order to turn well, the lathe must be
well made and planned; without this, no accurate work can be done. The
lathe is the first and most important of tools, and a great number of very
serviceable accessories can be added to it, which, unfortunately, but few
watchmakers know how to make properly. As a rule they content
themselves with a simple pair of finishing turns on which but a
comparatively small amount of work can be done.
Without committing the mistake of having a too great multiplicity of
tools, let the pupil rest certain that a well-planned set of tools in good
condition both facilitates and abridges his work and renders it more perfect.
Page 187
PART IV.
TOOLS AND APPLIANCES.
WO RK SH O P F IT T ING S .
229. Before proceeding to describe the various forms of lathes and the
several small tools that the watchmaker should make for himself as
occasion offers, either during his apprenticeship or immediately after, with
a view to increase his manual skill or to extend his experience, it will be
well that he take note of the principal conditions that should be satisfied by
the ordinary tools that he will have to buy, as well as the precautions to be
observed in their use and some improvements of which they are capable.
230. The bench or board. This should be fixed in front of a large
window that affords a good light. The various hooks, recesses, etc., for
holding files, hammers, etc., as well as the drawers, should be well in sight,
not only in order that the hand can at once take hold of whatever tool is
required, but also to enable the workman to restore them to their place
immediately after use. By doing so he will have no occasion to retain on the
bench any but those tools that are very frequently or continuously used.
It is an excellent habit, conducive both to well-planned and rapid work,
and which can be easily acquired by a little attention during an
apprenticeship, to always place the same tools in the same places, as the
bench will then never be encumbered. By this means loss of time in turning
TOOLS AND APPLIANCES.
WO RK SH O P F IT T ING S .
229. Before proceeding to describe the various forms of lathes and the
several small tools that the watchmaker should make for himself as
occasion offers, either during his apprenticeship or immediately after, with
a view to increase his manual skill or to extend his experience, it will be
well that he take note of the principal conditions that should be satisfied by
the ordinary tools that he will have to buy, as well as the precautions to be
observed in their use and some improvements of which they are capable.
230. The bench or board. This should be fixed in front of a large
window that affords a good light. The various hooks, recesses, etc., for
holding files, hammers, etc., as well as the drawers, should be well in sight,
not only in order that the hand can at once take hold of whatever tool is
required, but also to enable the workman to restore them to their place
immediately after use. By doing so he will have no occasion to retain on the
bench any but those tools that are very frequently or continuously used.
It is an excellent habit, conducive both to well-planned and rapid work,
and which can be easily acquired by a little attention during an
apprenticeship, to always place the same tools in the same places, as the
bench will then never be encumbered. By this means loss of time in turning
Page 188
over a number of objects in order to find one that may be small is frequently
avoided.
This observation is of minor importance to specialists who require but a
small number of tools; but it is of the first importance to a workman that is
engaged in the repair of watches.
231. The stool. Those with cane seats are to be preferred. The height of
the bench and stool should be so related that the muscles of the chest are not
too much cramped, especially if the workman is engaged on an operation
that occupies a long time and obliges him to maintain a stooping position.
The stool with a screw is advantageous in this respect.
232. The lamp. Certain precautions in regard to artificial light have
already been indicated in article 218.
233. Oilstones. It is impossible to maintain the points of gravers in good
condition if care is not taken to keep clean and flat the surface of the stone
on which they are set; if it has suffered irregular wear, the level may be
restored by rubbing the stone on a flat, smooth board, covered with a thin
paste of fine sand and water. Most kinds of oil thicken on the surface
rapidly, when the graver will slide over without being ground down at all,
turning around in the hand and thus destroying the flat face and wearing the
softer parts of the stone, rendering it uneven. A strong solution of potash or
soda is very effective for removing this gummy mass; benzine is also
recommended for the same purpose. Various substitutes for common oil are
used; such as the mineral lubricating oils or petroleum. Dr. Latteux
advocates the use of a mixture of alcohol and glycerine, the proportion of
the latter decreasing as the extent of metallic surface in contact with the
stone at once increases. Thus, for example, in setting a razor the stone will
bite better if alcohol be in excess; but for a graver, of which only a small
surface touches the stone, the amount of glycerine present should be
relatively much greater.
234. Circular oilstones. Circular oilstones will be found very convenient
for sharpening drills, gravers and other cutting tools, where it is desirable to
have exact angles. An Arkansas or Turkey stone dressed down to circular
form, and say 1½ inches in diameter, when mounted for the lathe will be
found very useful. Apply the lubricant to the stone the same as you would to
a flat one, and hold your graver or drill at the exact angle you wish the
avoided.
This observation is of minor importance to specialists who require but a
small number of tools; but it is of the first importance to a workman that is
engaged in the repair of watches.
231. The stool. Those with cane seats are to be preferred. The height of
the bench and stool should be so related that the muscles of the chest are not
too much cramped, especially if the workman is engaged on an operation
that occupies a long time and obliges him to maintain a stooping position.
The stool with a screw is advantageous in this respect.
232. The lamp. Certain precautions in regard to artificial light have
already been indicated in article 218.
233. Oilstones. It is impossible to maintain the points of gravers in good
condition if care is not taken to keep clean and flat the surface of the stone
on which they are set; if it has suffered irregular wear, the level may be
restored by rubbing the stone on a flat, smooth board, covered with a thin
paste of fine sand and water. Most kinds of oil thicken on the surface
rapidly, when the graver will slide over without being ground down at all,
turning around in the hand and thus destroying the flat face and wearing the
softer parts of the stone, rendering it uneven. A strong solution of potash or
soda is very effective for removing this gummy mass; benzine is also
recommended for the same purpose. Various substitutes for common oil are
used; such as the mineral lubricating oils or petroleum. Dr. Latteux
advocates the use of a mixture of alcohol and glycerine, the proportion of
the latter decreasing as the extent of metallic surface in contact with the
stone at once increases. Thus, for example, in setting a razor the stone will
bite better if alcohol be in excess; but for a graver, of which only a small
surface touches the stone, the amount of glycerine present should be
relatively much greater.
234. Circular oilstones. Circular oilstones will be found very convenient
for sharpening drills, gravers and other cutting tools, where it is desirable to
have exact angles. An Arkansas or Turkey stone dressed down to circular
form, and say 1½ inches in diameter, when mounted for the lathe will be
found very useful. Apply the lubricant to the stone the same as you would to
a flat one, and hold your graver or drill at the exact angle you wish the
Page 189
cutting edges to be and turn at a moderate speed. Truer angles and better
work can be produced in this manner than by any other. Emery or
corundum wheels can be mounted in a similar manner. Small circular stones
can be obtained from material dealers and dental supply houses, in sizes
varying from ½ × ⅛ to 3½ × ¾ inches. They can be mounted similar to Fig.
49, by turning down a piece of No. 30 Stubb’s steel wire to the size of the
opening in your wheel and riveting the wheel firmly upon it. The best sizes
for watchmakers’ use are ½ inch, 1 inch and 1½ inch in diameter.
Fig. 49.
235. Small grindstones. When it is necessary to remove a good deal
from the face of a graver, the operation will take too long on the oilstone,
and there would be considerable difficulty in maintaining the flat face;
recourse must then be had to the grindstone, but it should be remembered
that care is needful when using it. The grindstone must always be
thoroughly wet in order to avoid heating the graver, as its cutting power
would then be destroyed. The emery wheels described in paragraph 165 can
be used for this purpose, but they are, for the most part, inconvenient on
account of the rapid increase they occasion in the temperature of the metal.
Some forms of emery wheel can, however, be moistened just as the
grindstone.
When the cylindrical surface is rendered irregular by use, take a piece of
sheet-iron, the tail of an old file or a cold chisel, and hold it with one hand
firmly on a support against the edge of the stone, which is rotated by the
other hand. The surface can thus be made smooth and true, providing it is
only attacked gradually and the handle is not turned too rapidly. An
excessive velocity will heat the iron, which is then less effective and is
more rapidly worn down; whereas, with a slow motion, the iron will
relatively wear little and the stone more. A rough diamond mounted at the
extremity of a steel rod, affords an excellent means of trimming a
grindstone, and is at the present day generally used in factories.
work can be produced in this manner than by any other. Emery or
corundum wheels can be mounted in a similar manner. Small circular stones
can be obtained from material dealers and dental supply houses, in sizes
varying from ½ × ⅛ to 3½ × ¾ inches. They can be mounted similar to Fig.
49, by turning down a piece of No. 30 Stubb’s steel wire to the size of the
opening in your wheel and riveting the wheel firmly upon it. The best sizes
for watchmakers’ use are ½ inch, 1 inch and 1½ inch in diameter.
Fig. 49.
235. Small grindstones. When it is necessary to remove a good deal
from the face of a graver, the operation will take too long on the oilstone,
and there would be considerable difficulty in maintaining the flat face;
recourse must then be had to the grindstone, but it should be remembered
that care is needful when using it. The grindstone must always be
thoroughly wet in order to avoid heating the graver, as its cutting power
would then be destroyed. The emery wheels described in paragraph 165 can
be used for this purpose, but they are, for the most part, inconvenient on
account of the rapid increase they occasion in the temperature of the metal.
Some forms of emery wheel can, however, be moistened just as the
grindstone.
When the cylindrical surface is rendered irregular by use, take a piece of
sheet-iron, the tail of an old file or a cold chisel, and hold it with one hand
firmly on a support against the edge of the stone, which is rotated by the
other hand. The surface can thus be made smooth and true, providing it is
only attacked gradually and the handle is not turned too rapidly. An
excessive velocity will heat the iron, which is then less effective and is
more rapidly worn down; whereas, with a slow motion, the iron will
relatively wear little and the stone more. A rough diamond mounted at the
extremity of a steel rod, affords an excellent means of trimming a
grindstone, and is at the present day generally used in factories.
Page 190
236. Glasses. Some particulars have already been given in regard to these
simple microscopes in article 218.
237. Files. A new file should never be used for steel; it is best to employ
it for some time at first on brass, taking care not to use it too roughly. If
employed to steel at once, or if sharp, quick strokes are applied, the cutting
edges of the file will chip off, and the hard particles will be embedded in the
metal operated upon; the work will thus be bad, and the file itself
deteriorated. A file that has been carefully used, and has passed gradually
from brass to steel, will last four or five times as long, and will always work
well.
Watchmakers often fit files into handles by driving them firmly into
round holes in the handles; this practice frequently leads to the handles
being cracked, and the following method is preferable: Take an old worn
out file or a piece of iron of the same form as the tail of the file to be fitted;
heat it several times to bright redness and drive it, when so heated, into the
handle, taking care to maintain it perpendicular. A hole will thus be made of
the required form, in which the file will hold without there being any
occasion to apply excessive force in fixing it in position.
When the surface of a file is choked with particles of iron, copper, wood,
etc., while the cutting edges are yet good, it can be cleaned as follows:
Place the file for a few seconds in a hot lye of potash in water, and on
withdrawal, dry it before the fire and brush the surface with a stiff brush.
238. To renew the cutting edges of files, either of the following methods
can be adopted: 1. First clean the file with potash or soda dissolved in
water, if greasy or resinous substances have to be removed; with
hydrochloric acid if it is rusty; and by rubbing with a metallic brush or
piece of coke if particles of iron, brass, lead, copper or tin have to be
removed. The file is now immersed in a mixture of 1 part nitric acid, 3 parts
sulphuric acid, and 7 parts water. As the action of the acids become less
energetic owing to the combination with iron, the temperature of the
mixture must be raised, since rapidity is a condition of success. The time
during which the file should remain in this bath varies from 10 seconds to
100 or more, the roughening of fine-cut files being far more rapid than
when they are of a coarser cut. On removal from the bath, immerse in lime
wash, dry, and then cover them with a mixture of oil and turpentine by
simple microscopes in article 218.
237. Files. A new file should never be used for steel; it is best to employ
it for some time at first on brass, taking care not to use it too roughly. If
employed to steel at once, or if sharp, quick strokes are applied, the cutting
edges of the file will chip off, and the hard particles will be embedded in the
metal operated upon; the work will thus be bad, and the file itself
deteriorated. A file that has been carefully used, and has passed gradually
from brass to steel, will last four or five times as long, and will always work
well.
Watchmakers often fit files into handles by driving them firmly into
round holes in the handles; this practice frequently leads to the handles
being cracked, and the following method is preferable: Take an old worn
out file or a piece of iron of the same form as the tail of the file to be fitted;
heat it several times to bright redness and drive it, when so heated, into the
handle, taking care to maintain it perpendicular. A hole will thus be made of
the required form, in which the file will hold without there being any
occasion to apply excessive force in fixing it in position.
When the surface of a file is choked with particles of iron, copper, wood,
etc., while the cutting edges are yet good, it can be cleaned as follows:
Place the file for a few seconds in a hot lye of potash in water, and on
withdrawal, dry it before the fire and brush the surface with a stiff brush.
238. To renew the cutting edges of files, either of the following methods
can be adopted: 1. First clean the file with potash or soda dissolved in
water, if greasy or resinous substances have to be removed; with
hydrochloric acid if it is rusty; and by rubbing with a metallic brush or
piece of coke if particles of iron, brass, lead, copper or tin have to be
removed. The file is now immersed in a mixture of 1 part nitric acid, 3 parts
sulphuric acid, and 7 parts water. As the action of the acids become less
energetic owing to the combination with iron, the temperature of the
mixture must be raised, since rapidity is a condition of success. The time
during which the file should remain in this bath varies from 10 seconds to
100 or more, the roughening of fine-cut files being far more rapid than
when they are of a coarser cut. On removal from the bath, immerse in lime
wash, dry, and then cover them with a mixture of oil and turpentine by
Page 191
means of a brush, after which they are ready for use. 2. After being cleaned,
as explained above, the file is supported in a dish full of water, resting on
two cross wires, so that all its surface is in contact with the liquid. Now add
strong nitric acid in the proportion of 1 part to 8 of the water, mix it
thoroughly and allow it to remain for 25 minutes. Remove the file, and,
after washing in water and rubbing with a hard brush, place it again in the
bath, to which a second eighth part of acid is now added, and leave it for 50
minutes. Again remove and brush the file, add a sixteenth part of
concentrated sulphuric acid, and replace the file in the bath. Then wash
successively in pure water and in lime wash (to remove the last traces of
acid), and dry. The file will be found to possess both the qualities and the
appearance of a new one.
239. To cut an equaling file. It often happens that a workman is called
upon to modify the shape of, for example, the bottom of a rectangular
notch, and he is not provided with a file of suitable shape. In such a case he
can adopt one of the following methods of extemporizing a file:
1. Clamping the small steel strip, l, Fig. 50, in a vice,
cut the notches with a chisel, n, as follows: Holding n a
little inclined, cut the first notch, i. This will slightly raise
the metal, presenting a rounded face at the back. To make
the next cut, hold the chisel with its edge on l and, after
Fig. 50. drawing it backward until arrested by the back of i, incline
it to the requisite amount and give a second blow with the
hammer, then continue the operation till the whole is finished. A few trials
will enable any workman to make a small file with sufficient accuracy for
his purpose.
2. Employ an arrangement similar to that of the micrometer divider (44)
only more rigid. A study of this article and examination of the
corresponding figure will afford all the information that is necessary.
3. This is identical with the method of dividing a rule described in 46,
except that the divisions are closer together and the tracer is replaced by a
revolving cutter with its axis a little inclined, to give the requisite slope to
the teeth of the file. This cutter is supported in a hinged frame and provided
with a washer of ivory or other such substance, as seen at s, Fig. 50, to
determine the depth of cut.
as explained above, the file is supported in a dish full of water, resting on
two cross wires, so that all its surface is in contact with the liquid. Now add
strong nitric acid in the proportion of 1 part to 8 of the water, mix it
thoroughly and allow it to remain for 25 minutes. Remove the file, and,
after washing in water and rubbing with a hard brush, place it again in the
bath, to which a second eighth part of acid is now added, and leave it for 50
minutes. Again remove and brush the file, add a sixteenth part of
concentrated sulphuric acid, and replace the file in the bath. Then wash
successively in pure water and in lime wash (to remove the last traces of
acid), and dry. The file will be found to possess both the qualities and the
appearance of a new one.
239. To cut an equaling file. It often happens that a workman is called
upon to modify the shape of, for example, the bottom of a rectangular
notch, and he is not provided with a file of suitable shape. In such a case he
can adopt one of the following methods of extemporizing a file:
1. Clamping the small steel strip, l, Fig. 50, in a vice,
cut the notches with a chisel, n, as follows: Holding n a
little inclined, cut the first notch, i. This will slightly raise
the metal, presenting a rounded face at the back. To make
the next cut, hold the chisel with its edge on l and, after
Fig. 50. drawing it backward until arrested by the back of i, incline
it to the requisite amount and give a second blow with the
hammer, then continue the operation till the whole is finished. A few trials
will enable any workman to make a small file with sufficient accuracy for
his purpose.
2. Employ an arrangement similar to that of the micrometer divider (44)
only more rigid. A study of this article and examination of the
corresponding figure will afford all the information that is necessary.
3. This is identical with the method of dividing a rule described in 46,
except that the divisions are closer together and the tracer is replaced by a
revolving cutter with its axis a little inclined, to give the requisite slope to
the teeth of the file. This cutter is supported in a hinged frame and provided
with a washer of ivory or other such substance, as seen at s, Fig. 50, to
determine the depth of cut.
Page 192
240. Beaupuy files and burnishers. Most watchmakers are acquainted
with the files and burnishers that M. Beaupuy has introduced for rapidly
forming conical pivots, the main characteristic of which is that the corner
presented to the pivot is rounded to the desired form and roughed; they do
their work rapidly and well, but some skill is necessary in their
management. To the instructions which accompany them we would add the
following:
They must never be used when quite new on a pivot that is to be
employed in a watch; it will be reduced too rapidly. The freshness must be
worn off the cutting edges of the teeth by preliminary use.
The pressure must only be applied perpendicularly to the surface of the
staff as in making a square-shouldered pivot; the file is held against the flat
surface without pressure. A lateral force will have the effect of straining the
pivot and causing it to break.
241. Pliers, tweezers, etc. It is advisable to have a considerable number
of these, as their strength should always be proportional to the force that has
to be applied to them. For example, if a pair of sliding tongs is used when a
hand-vise is needed, the former will be strained beyond its limit of elasticity
and the tool becomes nearly useless.
The same might occur with any other form of pliers or tweezers. In the
hands of a good workman they will last for a long time, but if used
unintelligently, without proportioning the size of tool to the force that has to
be applied, taking up the first that comes to hand, all the tools will soon
become unsatisfactory and the work itself will suffer. It is very desirable to
have one or more pairs of brass pliers and tweezers for handling metal work
without the risk of scratching.
242. Compasses, gauges, micrometers, etc. The common compass for
measuring thickness, the douzieme gauge, is not always strictly accurate in
its indications. The douzieme proper, has a scale divided into twelfths,
though some patterns are now made that have a scale divided into tenths
and hundreds of an inch and again there are others that measure the
fractions of a millimeter. The greater majority of these tools on the
American market are correctly divided, but we sometimes come across
those of foreign make that are divided incorrectly and care should be used
in selecting. In the inaccurate tools the objection is that the opening of the
with the files and burnishers that M. Beaupuy has introduced for rapidly
forming conical pivots, the main characteristic of which is that the corner
presented to the pivot is rounded to the desired form and roughed; they do
their work rapidly and well, but some skill is necessary in their
management. To the instructions which accompany them we would add the
following:
They must never be used when quite new on a pivot that is to be
employed in a watch; it will be reduced too rapidly. The freshness must be
worn off the cutting edges of the teeth by preliminary use.
The pressure must only be applied perpendicularly to the surface of the
staff as in making a square-shouldered pivot; the file is held against the flat
surface without pressure. A lateral force will have the effect of straining the
pivot and causing it to break.
241. Pliers, tweezers, etc. It is advisable to have a considerable number
of these, as their strength should always be proportional to the force that has
to be applied to them. For example, if a pair of sliding tongs is used when a
hand-vise is needed, the former will be strained beyond its limit of elasticity
and the tool becomes nearly useless.
The same might occur with any other form of pliers or tweezers. In the
hands of a good workman they will last for a long time, but if used
unintelligently, without proportioning the size of tool to the force that has to
be applied, taking up the first that comes to hand, all the tools will soon
become unsatisfactory and the work itself will suffer. It is very desirable to
have one or more pairs of brass pliers and tweezers for handling metal work
without the risk of scratching.
242. Compasses, gauges, micrometers, etc. The common compass for
measuring thickness, the douzieme gauge, is not always strictly accurate in
its indications. The douzieme proper, has a scale divided into twelfths,
though some patterns are now made that have a scale divided into tenths
and hundreds of an inch and again there are others that measure the
fractions of a millimeter. The greater majority of these tools on the
American market are correctly divided, but we sometimes come across
those of foreign make that are divided incorrectly and care should be used
in selecting. In the inaccurate tools the objection is that the opening of the
Page 193
jaws gives a measure of a chord whereas the displacement of the index
measures the arc of a circle. It follows from this, that, if the index is first
arrested when pointing to 15, for example, and again when at 30, the
interval between the jaws in the second case will not be exactly double the
first. Before purchasing, it is well to test the gauge for accuracy in this
regard by some reliable standard.
243. Caliper for mainspring height, depth of sink, etc. A simple
instrument for taking such measurements is shown at g, Fig. 51.
The finger a travels over a graduated arc whenever the
rod c is pressed inwards; b is a fixed stop, with its
extremity in the plane of n. Any movement of a below o
measures the space traversed by c within the line b n.
Laying a coiled mainspring, for example, on a plane
surface, stand the base n of the caliper upon it, and the
end c pressing on the table will be forced upwards and
move the needle. To take the depth of a barrel, press c on
Fig. 51. the bottom, allowing b to rest on the edge of the cover
recess.
It will be evident, from the figure, that a and c are connected by a spring
passing around drums at corresponding axes. The smaller j is, the more
sensitive will the instrument become.
244. Figure 8 caliper. For ordinary work, the calipers to be bought at
material stores will suffice; but when it is required to verify escape wheels,
balances, etc., there is some risk of accidents in consequence of the
variableness of the friction at the joint. To remove this source of danger,
true the rubbing surfaces in the mandril and replace the brass discs at the
center by similar discs of steel, then carefully re-make the rivet that forms a
hinge, after oiling all the acting surfaces. The arms will now move with a
uniform degree of stiffness, so that there need be no danger of jerks.
245. Riveting stake and punch. The holes in a riveting stake are made
to increase downwards, so as to avoid any accident occurring through the
oscillation of the axis. The riveting punches made of a plain steel rod, with
a hole drilled at one end in the direction of the axis, are the best. Those that
are perforated transversely like the lanterns of screw-point tools, do not
measures the arc of a circle. It follows from this, that, if the index is first
arrested when pointing to 15, for example, and again when at 30, the
interval between the jaws in the second case will not be exactly double the
first. Before purchasing, it is well to test the gauge for accuracy in this
regard by some reliable standard.
243. Caliper for mainspring height, depth of sink, etc. A simple
instrument for taking such measurements is shown at g, Fig. 51.
The finger a travels over a graduated arc whenever the
rod c is pressed inwards; b is a fixed stop, with its
extremity in the plane of n. Any movement of a below o
measures the space traversed by c within the line b n.
Laying a coiled mainspring, for example, on a plane
surface, stand the base n of the caliper upon it, and the
end c pressing on the table will be forced upwards and
move the needle. To take the depth of a barrel, press c on
Fig. 51. the bottom, allowing b to rest on the edge of the cover
recess.
It will be evident, from the figure, that a and c are connected by a spring
passing around drums at corresponding axes. The smaller j is, the more
sensitive will the instrument become.
244. Figure 8 caliper. For ordinary work, the calipers to be bought at
material stores will suffice; but when it is required to verify escape wheels,
balances, etc., there is some risk of accidents in consequence of the
variableness of the friction at the joint. To remove this source of danger,
true the rubbing surfaces in the mandril and replace the brass discs at the
center by similar discs of steel, then carefully re-make the rivet that forms a
hinge, after oiling all the acting surfaces. The arms will now move with a
uniform degree of stiffness, so that there need be no danger of jerks.
245. Riveting stake and punch. The holes in a riveting stake are made
to increase downwards, so as to avoid any accident occurring through the
oscillation of the axis. The riveting punches made of a plain steel rod, with
a hole drilled at one end in the direction of the axis, are the best. Those that
are perforated transversely like the lanterns of screw-point tools, do not
Page 194
produce such good riveting, since the parts of the end, from behind which
metal has been removed, are more or less elastic.
246. Burnishers. Burnishers will not remain in good condition unless
their surfaces are prepared, from time to time; in the case of those used for
very fine work, by passing over a buffstick charged with polishing rouge or
very fine emery, and other kinds on an emery stick more or less fine,
according to the degree of roughness the burnisher is required to possess.
247. To re-face a burnisher. Pivot burnishers are usually re-faced by a
lapidary; a watchmaker can, however, do it for himself very effectually in
the following manner: Prepare a dry, smooth piece of wood, rather thick,
and of a width equal to the length of the burnisher. On this board carefully
glue a piece of emery paper, of a fineness corresponding to the degree of cut
required, stretching it as even as possible, and turning the edges down
towards the under side. Then lay the board on a firm smooth surface, resting
a weight upon it, and allow it to dry.
In using this lap, it is fixed or allowed to rest against the side of the
bench; holding the burnisher with two hands at its extremities, the workman
places himself at one end of the board, and draws the burnisher along it
towards him, maintaining the surface quite flat and applying considerable
pressure. On reaching the nearer end, raise it, and after again placing it on
the farther end, draw towards the body, and so on.
By proceeding in this manner and always in the same direction, placing
the burnisher so that the acting edge is farthest away from the operator, all
risk of rounding this angle will be avoided.
248. Broaches. Great care is needed in adapting handles to broaches.
Resting the point against a finger of one hand and causing the handle to
rotate by two fingers of the other hand, the broach itself should be seen to
remain true.
It is a good precaution, suggested by M. H. Robert, to gently draw a
piece of iron, charged with rouge, along the edges of pivot broaches in
order to remove the thread of metal from them. Minute particles of this
thread would otherwise remain in the holes, and occasion wear of the
pivots.
metal has been removed, are more or less elastic.
246. Burnishers. Burnishers will not remain in good condition unless
their surfaces are prepared, from time to time; in the case of those used for
very fine work, by passing over a buffstick charged with polishing rouge or
very fine emery, and other kinds on an emery stick more or less fine,
according to the degree of roughness the burnisher is required to possess.
247. To re-face a burnisher. Pivot burnishers are usually re-faced by a
lapidary; a watchmaker can, however, do it for himself very effectually in
the following manner: Prepare a dry, smooth piece of wood, rather thick,
and of a width equal to the length of the burnisher. On this board carefully
glue a piece of emery paper, of a fineness corresponding to the degree of cut
required, stretching it as even as possible, and turning the edges down
towards the under side. Then lay the board on a firm smooth surface, resting
a weight upon it, and allow it to dry.
In using this lap, it is fixed or allowed to rest against the side of the
bench; holding the burnisher with two hands at its extremities, the workman
places himself at one end of the board, and draws the burnisher along it
towards him, maintaining the surface quite flat and applying considerable
pressure. On reaching the nearer end, raise it, and after again placing it on
the farther end, draw towards the body, and so on.
By proceeding in this manner and always in the same direction, placing
the burnisher so that the acting edge is farthest away from the operator, all
risk of rounding this angle will be avoided.
248. Broaches. Great care is needed in adapting handles to broaches.
Resting the point against a finger of one hand and causing the handle to
rotate by two fingers of the other hand, the broach itself should be seen to
remain true.
It is a good precaution, suggested by M. H. Robert, to gently draw a
piece of iron, charged with rouge, along the edges of pivot broaches in
order to remove the thread of metal from them. Minute particles of this
thread would otherwise remain in the holes, and occasion wear of the
pivots.
Page 195
These fine broaches are not fixed in handles, but a piece of sealing-wax
is melted on to the upper end; then, holding the broach between the fingers,
with its stem downwards, it is rotated while held to a flame, so that the
sealing-wax forms a regular, oblong handle.
249. Blow-pipes. In order that a long even flame may be obtained, the
hole should be of moderate size and perfectly clean around the edge;
otherwise the jet cannot be straight and sharp. Difficulty will always be
experienced by anyone who has not learned to breathe without interrupting
the continuity of the blast. Where a supply of gas is available, the gas blow-
pipe presents advantages from the point of view of convenience.
Fig. 52 shows a gas blow-pipe for jewelers, which is simple and
convenient. It consists of a blow-pipe of the ordinary form, having a gas
pipe inserted in the lower half, and a threaded hood or sleeve at the lower
end, which changes the shape of the flame by screwing in or out, so as to
vary the influence of the current of air upon the flame. A ring adapted to
slip over the finger while working, is soldered to the middle joint of the
pipe, and the quantity of gas is controlled by the stop-cock and spring lever
shown in the cut, the gas being supplied to the pipe by a rubber tube
connecting it to the nearest gas jet in the usual way. Thus having the shape
of the flame under control and the quantity variable at will, the workman is
in position to accomplish the desired end speedily and effectually.
To use to the best advantage, set the jamb-nut so that with the valve lever
in its normal position, the flame at the end of the pipe will just keep alight.
The blow-pipe can then be laid down temporarily and again used without
the trouble of turning off the gas or relighting.
When used as a mouth blow-pipe, the most convenient way to hold it is
with the third finger through the ring. For bellows work it is better to pass
the ring over the index finger. The ring also serves, with the valve-lever, as
a rest to hold the flame-nozzle away from the table when the blow-pipe is
laid down temporarily.
To produce an oxy-hydrogen flame, connect the air-pipe with a cylinder
of nitrous oxide, opening the cylinder-valve carefully, so as to permit the
escape of only sufficient nitrous oxide to produce with the illuminating gas
a very small flame. Regulate the illuminating gas flow with the thumb-
screw or with the finger on the lever of the blow-pipe valve.
is melted on to the upper end; then, holding the broach between the fingers,
with its stem downwards, it is rotated while held to a flame, so that the
sealing-wax forms a regular, oblong handle.
249. Blow-pipes. In order that a long even flame may be obtained, the
hole should be of moderate size and perfectly clean around the edge;
otherwise the jet cannot be straight and sharp. Difficulty will always be
experienced by anyone who has not learned to breathe without interrupting
the continuity of the blast. Where a supply of gas is available, the gas blow-
pipe presents advantages from the point of view of convenience.
Fig. 52 shows a gas blow-pipe for jewelers, which is simple and
convenient. It consists of a blow-pipe of the ordinary form, having a gas
pipe inserted in the lower half, and a threaded hood or sleeve at the lower
end, which changes the shape of the flame by screwing in or out, so as to
vary the influence of the current of air upon the flame. A ring adapted to
slip over the finger while working, is soldered to the middle joint of the
pipe, and the quantity of gas is controlled by the stop-cock and spring lever
shown in the cut, the gas being supplied to the pipe by a rubber tube
connecting it to the nearest gas jet in the usual way. Thus having the shape
of the flame under control and the quantity variable at will, the workman is
in position to accomplish the desired end speedily and effectually.
To use to the best advantage, set the jamb-nut so that with the valve lever
in its normal position, the flame at the end of the pipe will just keep alight.
The blow-pipe can then be laid down temporarily and again used without
the trouble of turning off the gas or relighting.
When used as a mouth blow-pipe, the most convenient way to hold it is
with the third finger through the ring. For bellows work it is better to pass
the ring over the index finger. The ring also serves, with the valve-lever, as
a rest to hold the flame-nozzle away from the table when the blow-pipe is
laid down temporarily.
To produce an oxy-hydrogen flame, connect the air-pipe with a cylinder
of nitrous oxide, opening the cylinder-valve carefully, so as to permit the
escape of only sufficient nitrous oxide to produce with the illuminating gas
a very small flame. Regulate the illuminating gas flow with the thumb-
screw or with the finger on the lever of the blow-pipe valve.
Page 196
Fig. 53.
Fig. 53 shows an automatic hand blow-pipe for
use with a foot blower. One of the rubber tubes
shown is connected with the blower and the other
to the gas supply. It is self adjusting for both gas
and air, requiring only a slight motion of the lever,
shown under the thumb, to obtain instantly any
flame, from the smallest to the largest; so that
these pipes have all the delicacy of the best mouth
blow-pipe, used with the utmost skill, together
with the power and advantages obtained with a
mechanical blower.
250. Small gas furnaces. The workman will
frequently have occasion to anneal pieces of steel
or to raise to a red heat objects that are too large
for the blow-pipe; an ordinary open fire aided by
bellows is often resorted to in such a case. A better
plan, however, is to use any small portable gas
furnace, provided with a hood that completely
closes it at the top.
Fig. 54 shows a gas melting furnace, which is
kept by material and supply houses. It is powerful
enough to melt gold, silver, brass and copper, but Fig. 52.
is not recommended for cast iron. It can be used
Fig. 53 shows an automatic hand blow-pipe for
use with a foot blower. One of the rubber tubes
shown is connected with the blower and the other
to the gas supply. It is self adjusting for both gas
and air, requiring only a slight motion of the lever,
shown under the thumb, to obtain instantly any
flame, from the smallest to the largest; so that
these pipes have all the delicacy of the best mouth
blow-pipe, used with the utmost skill, together
with the power and advantages obtained with a
mechanical blower.
250. Small gas furnaces. The workman will
frequently have occasion to anneal pieces of steel
or to raise to a red heat objects that are too large
for the blow-pipe; an ordinary open fire aided by
bellows is often resorted to in such a case. A better
plan, however, is to use any small portable gas
furnace, provided with a hood that completely
closes it at the top.
Fig. 54 shows a gas melting furnace, which is
kept by material and supply houses. It is powerful
enough to melt gold, silver, brass and copper, but Fig. 52.
is not recommended for cast iron. It can be used
Page 197
for scorifying and cupelling. The lid can be pushed sideways sufficiently to
give access to the interior of the furnace.
Fig. 54.
The following points in the management of a gas furnace will be of
service to all novices in their use. The power and speed are practically
without limit, depending only on the gas and air supply, and are under
perfect control. Allowing five cubic feet of gas for heating up, it requires
about four feet of gas for every pound of cast iron melted. For small work it
is as cheap as a coke furnace, and not one-quarter the trouble.
The quantity of air required depends upon the gas supply. One must be
equal to the other, so that perfect combustion will take place, and that
entirely within the furnace. An excess of either gas or air renders a high
temperature an impossibility.
See that all gas taps have a large clear way through. High temperatures
and rapid working require a free supply of gas.
give access to the interior of the furnace.
Fig. 54.
The following points in the management of a gas furnace will be of
service to all novices in their use. The power and speed are practically
without limit, depending only on the gas and air supply, and are under
perfect control. Allowing five cubic feet of gas for heating up, it requires
about four feet of gas for every pound of cast iron melted. For small work it
is as cheap as a coke furnace, and not one-quarter the trouble.
The quantity of air required depends upon the gas supply. One must be
equal to the other, so that perfect combustion will take place, and that
entirely within the furnace. An excess of either gas or air renders a high
temperature an impossibility.
See that all gas taps have a large clear way through. High temperatures
and rapid working require a free supply of gas.
Page 198
To adjust a new furnace to its highest power, connect both gas and air
supply with the burner. Turn on the full gas supply, light the gas, the air-
way being full open, work the foot blower and then put the gauze nozzle of
the burner tight against the hole in the casing, so that no flame escapes
around it. If the flame comes out of the lid about two inches, the adjustment
is right. If the flame is longer, open the air check until the proper flame is
obtained, or reduce the gas supply. If smaller, or not visible, close the air
check until the flame appears.
The cap-nut, which will be found at the throat of the horizontal “mixing
tube,” where the air enters and mixes with the gas, is used for changing the
size of the orifice from which the gas escapes. When the escape is from a
large orifice, a smoky, yellow, or “reducing” flame is the result. By
contracting the orifice by screwing the cap-nut on to the gas delivery tube, a
blue or oxidizing flame will be obtained. Adjustment for the proper flame
should first be made by this nut, and the size of the flame regulated
afterwards by means of a cock at the gas main. A slightly yellow flame
gives the best results when a high heat is desired. The arrangement above
described is clearly shown at the left-hand lower corner of the sectional
illustration above.
A chimney or stove-pipe 8 or 10 feet high may be used as a fixture, and
the draft partially stopped by the damper or slide when lower temperatures
are required, the gas being turned down in proportion; the guide for the
proper adjustment being that under all circumstances the flame must just
cover the crucible or muffle, but not extend into the chimney so as to
make it red hot. When the flame covers the crucible or muffle, the gas is
doing its extreme duty under the most favorable circumstances, without
waste.
Keep all fluxes away from the furnace jacket, as they are injurious to fire
clay, and are liable to cause the lids, etc., to stick to the furnace.
A thin layer of quick lime on the bottom of the furnace will prevent the
crucible adhering to it when very hot.
When using a furnace for high temperatures, care should be taken not to
use a fire clay casing, as it melts at a temperature a little above that of cast
iron; plumbago or asbestos only should be used when very high
temperatures are required.
supply with the burner. Turn on the full gas supply, light the gas, the air-
way being full open, work the foot blower and then put the gauze nozzle of
the burner tight against the hole in the casing, so that no flame escapes
around it. If the flame comes out of the lid about two inches, the adjustment
is right. If the flame is longer, open the air check until the proper flame is
obtained, or reduce the gas supply. If smaller, or not visible, close the air
check until the flame appears.
The cap-nut, which will be found at the throat of the horizontal “mixing
tube,” where the air enters and mixes with the gas, is used for changing the
size of the orifice from which the gas escapes. When the escape is from a
large orifice, a smoky, yellow, or “reducing” flame is the result. By
contracting the orifice by screwing the cap-nut on to the gas delivery tube, a
blue or oxidizing flame will be obtained. Adjustment for the proper flame
should first be made by this nut, and the size of the flame regulated
afterwards by means of a cock at the gas main. A slightly yellow flame
gives the best results when a high heat is desired. The arrangement above
described is clearly shown at the left-hand lower corner of the sectional
illustration above.
A chimney or stove-pipe 8 or 10 feet high may be used as a fixture, and
the draft partially stopped by the damper or slide when lower temperatures
are required, the gas being turned down in proportion; the guide for the
proper adjustment being that under all circumstances the flame must just
cover the crucible or muffle, but not extend into the chimney so as to
make it red hot. When the flame covers the crucible or muffle, the gas is
doing its extreme duty under the most favorable circumstances, without
waste.
Keep all fluxes away from the furnace jacket, as they are injurious to fire
clay, and are liable to cause the lids, etc., to stick to the furnace.
A thin layer of quick lime on the bottom of the furnace will prevent the
crucible adhering to it when very hot.
When using a furnace for high temperatures, care should be taken not to
use a fire clay casing, as it melts at a temperature a little above that of cast
iron; plumbago or asbestos only should be used when very high
temperatures are required.
Page 199
Fig. 55.
Fig. 55 represents a small gas furnace, which is extremely useful for
small meltings, experimental work, etc. It consists of a pot made of a
mixture of fire clay and asbestos, bound with rivetted iron hoops, and
having a hole in the side at which the flame enters. A lid pierced by a
central hole permits the escape of the products of combustion, and the
crucible is placed in the center so that the flame surrounds it. It is worked
with gas and a foot blower. Gas from a ⅜-inch supply pipe will work it
efficiently. About ten cubic feet of gas per hour is sufficient for most
purposes.
The casing holds the heat so perfectly that the most refractory substances
can be fused with ease, using a Fletcher foot blower. Half a pound of cast
iron requires from seven to twelve minutes for perfect fusion; the time
depending on the gas supply and pressure of air from the foot blower. The
crucible will hold about ten ounces of gold.
The power which can be obtained is far beyond what is required for most
purposes, and is limited only by the fusibility of the crucible and casing.
Fig. 55 represents a small gas furnace, which is extremely useful for
small meltings, experimental work, etc. It consists of a pot made of a
mixture of fire clay and asbestos, bound with rivetted iron hoops, and
having a hole in the side at which the flame enters. A lid pierced by a
central hole permits the escape of the products of combustion, and the
crucible is placed in the center so that the flame surrounds it. It is worked
with gas and a foot blower. Gas from a ⅜-inch supply pipe will work it
efficiently. About ten cubic feet of gas per hour is sufficient for most
purposes.
The casing holds the heat so perfectly that the most refractory substances
can be fused with ease, using a Fletcher foot blower. Half a pound of cast
iron requires from seven to twelve minutes for perfect fusion; the time
depending on the gas supply and pressure of air from the foot blower. The
crucible will hold about ten ounces of gold.
The power which can be obtained is far beyond what is required for most
purposes, and is limited only by the fusibility of the crucible and casing.
Page 200
Fig. 56.
Fig. 56 represents a small apparatus, which, owing to its speed and
economy of operation, has a very extended use in the jewelry and
silversmithing trades. With this apparatus a sound two-ounce ingot of gold
or silver can be moulded in two minutes. A crucible of moulded carbon is
supported by a sheet-iron slide, or plate, which is clamped to an ingot
mould by a clamp which swivels in the U-shaped cast iron stand. The metal
to be melted is placed in the crucible, and the flame of the blow-pipe
directed on it until it is perfectly fused. The whole is then tilted over by
means of the upright handle at the back of the mould. The waste heat serves
to make the ingot mould hot. No flux should be used with the carbon
crucibles. For the smaller operations, such as making small quantities of
colored golds, for electroplating solutions, testing ingots, and the smaller
operations of the jeweler and plater, it is invaluable.
The air pressure used in operating gas furnaces varies from one to four
pounds per square inch, though the latter is seldom required except for the
severest work in large furnaces; as a general rule it is less than two pounds
in the operations of the gold and silversmith. The pressure must be arranged
so that the air supply equals that of the gas used. This can be readily seen by
the color of the flame, as noted in instructions for handling the furnaces. For
small operations foot blowers are used. These consist of a powerful bellows
having a hemispherical pressure chamber on one side, and adapted to work
either by the hand or foot; see Fig. 57.
Fig. 56 represents a small apparatus, which, owing to its speed and
economy of operation, has a very extended use in the jewelry and
silversmithing trades. With this apparatus a sound two-ounce ingot of gold
or silver can be moulded in two minutes. A crucible of moulded carbon is
supported by a sheet-iron slide, or plate, which is clamped to an ingot
mould by a clamp which swivels in the U-shaped cast iron stand. The metal
to be melted is placed in the crucible, and the flame of the blow-pipe
directed on it until it is perfectly fused. The whole is then tilted over by
means of the upright handle at the back of the mould. The waste heat serves
to make the ingot mould hot. No flux should be used with the carbon
crucibles. For the smaller operations, such as making small quantities of
colored golds, for electroplating solutions, testing ingots, and the smaller
operations of the jeweler and plater, it is invaluable.
The air pressure used in operating gas furnaces varies from one to four
pounds per square inch, though the latter is seldom required except for the
severest work in large furnaces; as a general rule it is less than two pounds
in the operations of the gold and silversmith. The pressure must be arranged
so that the air supply equals that of the gas used. This can be readily seen by
the color of the flame, as noted in instructions for handling the furnaces. For
small operations foot blowers are used. These consist of a powerful bellows
having a hemispherical pressure chamber on one side, and adapted to work
either by the hand or foot; see Fig. 57.
Page 201
The perfect combustion of the
gas is secured by mingling equal
quantities of gas and air in a
mixing chamber, and then igniting
the mixture. In the larger furnaces
this is accomplished by a mixing
chamber placed under the furnace,
so as to heat the mixture before
ignition, and no pressure supply of
air is necessary. In the smaller
apparatus, this mixing is done in
the burner, which consists of an
inner tube carrying an air supply,
Fig. 57. surrounded by a gas tube, and the
whole surmounted by a sliding
nozzle for changing the shape of
the flame. The mixing chamber
being so small, the air and gas pass
through it so rapidly that
considerable pressure of air must
be provided to prevent it from
being excluded by the normal
pressure of the gas; hence the
necessity for a blower when using
small burners.
When it is not desirable to use
gas, for pecuniary, or other reasons,
melting may be carried on by
means of a gasoline gas flame,
which is noisy, but otherwise little
inferior to coal gas. The furnaces
for gasoline differ but little in
construction from the others, as
will be seen by Figs. 58 and 59.
The only difference being that the
Fig. 58. burners are applied from the side
and no air pressure tubes are
gas is secured by mingling equal
quantities of gas and air in a
mixing chamber, and then igniting
the mixture. In the larger furnaces
this is accomplished by a mixing
chamber placed under the furnace,
so as to heat the mixture before
ignition, and no pressure supply of
air is necessary. In the smaller
apparatus, this mixing is done in
the burner, which consists of an
inner tube carrying an air supply,
Fig. 57. surrounded by a gas tube, and the
whole surmounted by a sliding
nozzle for changing the shape of
the flame. The mixing chamber
being so small, the air and gas pass
through it so rapidly that
considerable pressure of air must
be provided to prevent it from
being excluded by the normal
pressure of the gas; hence the
necessity for a blower when using
small burners.
When it is not desirable to use
gas, for pecuniary, or other reasons,
melting may be carried on by
means of a gasoline gas flame,
which is noisy, but otherwise little
inferior to coal gas. The furnaces
for gasoline differ but little in
construction from the others, as
will be seen by Figs. 58 and 59.
The only difference being that the
Fig. 58. burners are applied from the side
and no air pressure tubes are
Page 202
needed, while the furnace is
supported on legs to insure safety
from fire.
Fig. 59.
Fig. 60.
The burner for gasoline is radically different from that for gas, being, in
fact, a small gas machine, Fig. 60.
In Fig. 60 P is an ordinary force pump, at the bottom of which, at A, is a
valve which closes automatically upon releasing the pressure from the
pump, C is a check valve which closes the inlet to the tank T completely; F
is a filling screw for introducing gasoline. V is a vent screw for letting off
the pressure when through; H is a pipe leading from the tank to the burner
D; E is the burner regulator, terminating in a fine point, closing the orifice
of the burner; S S are packing boxes. Upon opening C and pumping a few
strokes a pressure is created in the tank and on top of the fluid, forcing it
supported on legs to insure safety
from fire.
Fig. 59.
Fig. 60.
The burner for gasoline is radically different from that for gas, being, in
fact, a small gas machine, Fig. 60.
In Fig. 60 P is an ordinary force pump, at the bottom of which, at A, is a
valve which closes automatically upon releasing the pressure from the
pump, C is a check valve which closes the inlet to the tank T completely; F
is a filling screw for introducing gasoline. V is a vent screw for letting off
the pressure when through; H is a pipe leading from the tank to the burner
D; E is the burner regulator, terminating in a fine point, closing the orifice
of the burner; S S are packing boxes. Upon opening C and pumping a few
strokes a pressure is created in the tank and on top of the fluid, forcing it
Page 203
through the tubes of the burner, which being previously heated, vaporizes
the gasoline. This issues from the orifice at the end of E as a highly heated
gas and burns as such in the form of a powerful blast, Fig. 61. After being
once started the heat of the flame passing through the burner, vaporizes the
fluid in the tubes, and hence the apparatus is automatic.
Fig. 61.
The air which is forced in is not consumed, so that to keep up the blast it
only requires a few strokes of the pump occasionally to maintain the
pressure lessened by the consumption of the fluid.
To operate the blow-pipe: close E; unscrew F, and introduce from two
quarts to one gallon of gasoline of 76° according to the capacity of the tank.
Replace F and close V; open C one or two turns and give three or four full
strokes of pump P, and close C. Heat the burner by burning some of the
fluid in a suitable vessel placed under the burner; when hot enough apply a
match and open E gradually, until the action is more or less uniform. If no
spray or liquid issues from the orifice, the burner is hot enough; if not hot
enough, burn slowly until no liquid or spray issues. When sufficiently
heated the blast can be made of any intensity desired, by the use of the
pump as above. To stop its action, shut the regulator E, or open screw V, or
both. When not in use the vent V should invariably be kept open. The mouth
of the burner D, should be two or three inches from the inlet of the furnace,
or there will not be perfect combustion.
For very high temperatures and muffle work, light the burner as above
and heat the inside of the furnace to a bright red; then place the burner
against the inlet of the furnace; turn out the burner by means of the cock E,
and immediately turn it on again without lighting it, when if the furnace is
hot enough, the gas will ignite inside the furnace. The heat can be regulated
the gasoline. This issues from the orifice at the end of E as a highly heated
gas and burns as such in the form of a powerful blast, Fig. 61. After being
once started the heat of the flame passing through the burner, vaporizes the
fluid in the tubes, and hence the apparatus is automatic.
Fig. 61.
The air which is forced in is not consumed, so that to keep up the blast it
only requires a few strokes of the pump occasionally to maintain the
pressure lessened by the consumption of the fluid.
To operate the blow-pipe: close E; unscrew F, and introduce from two
quarts to one gallon of gasoline of 76° according to the capacity of the tank.
Replace F and close V; open C one or two turns and give three or four full
strokes of pump P, and close C. Heat the burner by burning some of the
fluid in a suitable vessel placed under the burner; when hot enough apply a
match and open E gradually, until the action is more or less uniform. If no
spray or liquid issues from the orifice, the burner is hot enough; if not hot
enough, burn slowly until no liquid or spray issues. When sufficiently
heated the blast can be made of any intensity desired, by the use of the
pump as above. To stop its action, shut the regulator E, or open screw V, or
both. When not in use the vent V should invariably be kept open. The mouth
of the burner D, should be two or three inches from the inlet of the furnace,
or there will not be perfect combustion.
For very high temperatures and muffle work, light the burner as above
and heat the inside of the furnace to a bright red; then place the burner
against the inlet of the furnace; turn out the burner by means of the cock E,
and immediately turn it on again without lighting it, when if the furnace is
hot enough, the gas will ignite inside the furnace. The heat can be regulated
Page 204
as in the first method of burning. When burning inside of the furnace, there
must be no flame in the burner tube; it should all be inside the furnace, and
the tube of the burner must be close to the fire hole, or there will not be
enough heat in the tubes.
Use a drop or two of sperm oil on the piston of the pump occasionally,
also on leather washer at F, otherwise the apparatus will be apt to leak,
corrode and work badly.
251. Muffle Furnace. This consists of a fire-clay furnace, mounted upon
a powerful gas burner and containing an oven, also of fire-clay or
plumbago, so placed as to receive the full heat of the flame, without
permitting the direct action of the flame upon any object placed within it.
The objects are placed in and withdrawn from the muffle, or oven, through
the door shown in the cut. This door is made of two pieces so that the upper
one may be removed to watch the progress of the work without chilling the
contents of the muffle by too great an entrance of cold air. They are
extensively used for assaying, annealing, etc., and for many other purposes
where an exact temperature is required. The illustration shown in Fig. 62, is
of a gas muffle, but they are also made to be used with the gasoline burner
previously described.
must be no flame in the burner tube; it should all be inside the furnace, and
the tube of the burner must be close to the fire hole, or there will not be
enough heat in the tubes.
Use a drop or two of sperm oil on the piston of the pump occasionally,
also on leather washer at F, otherwise the apparatus will be apt to leak,
corrode and work badly.
251. Muffle Furnace. This consists of a fire-clay furnace, mounted upon
a powerful gas burner and containing an oven, also of fire-clay or
plumbago, so placed as to receive the full heat of the flame, without
permitting the direct action of the flame upon any object placed within it.
The objects are placed in and withdrawn from the muffle, or oven, through
the door shown in the cut. This door is made of two pieces so that the upper
one may be removed to watch the progress of the work without chilling the
contents of the muffle by too great an entrance of cold air. They are
extensively used for assaying, annealing, etc., and for many other purposes
where an exact temperature is required. The illustration shown in Fig. 62, is
of a gas muffle, but they are also made to be used with the gasoline burner
previously described.
Page 205
Fig. 62.
T HE L AT HE .
252. Of all the tools and machinery employed by the watchmaker, the
lathe is the most important. Very poor work is often turned out by those
possessing a first-class lathe, but there are very few persons who can turn
out good, true work, from a poor, cheap lathe, and if it is untrue it is utterly
T HE L AT HE .
252. Of all the tools and machinery employed by the watchmaker, the
lathe is the most important. Very poor work is often turned out by those
possessing a first-class lathe, but there are very few persons who can turn
out good, true work, from a poor, cheap lathe, and if it is untrue it is utterly
Page 206
impossible to turn out good work. Wonders can be accomplished by the
ingenious mechanic who thoroughly understands the capabilities of the
lathe. By patient skill of manipulation, the Chinese and Japanese turn out
some truly wonderful work; they succeed in turning sphere after sphere, one
inside the other, from a solid piece of ivory, the opening from one to
another being comparatively small.
The earliest form of the lathe in the trade was the dead center: that is, a
lathe whose parts did not revolve, the object to be operated on being placed
between centers and made to revolve by means of the bow. This form of
lathe was succeeded by the live spindle or live mandril pattern, although
there were many good points about it that must be acknowledged. It
contained one great element that many modern appliances, termed lathes,
lack, i. e., the element of truth. No matter how coarsely or crudely
constructed, this truth was not eliminated, except by the ignorance of the
artisan, for the centers must remain the same relatively, whatever may be
their position in relation to the lathe bed.
With the introduction of the live spindle lathe in this country, the verge,
Jacot and other lathes and tools of that type were rapidly abandoned. In
Europe, however, the live spindle lathe did not meet with such a cordial
reception, and it has taken many years, in some localities, to overcome the
prejudice against them; in fact, there are still many workmen there who
cling to the dead center patterns.
The all-important point in lathes of the live spindle type is accuracy of
fitting, and particularly in regard to the spindle and its bearings, for unless a
certain degree of perfection is attainable in this particular, it is worse than
useless, as it not only does not do the work, but leads the artisan astray. The
workman, sometimes, through motives of economy, purchases foreign made
lathes, that closely resemble the American in outline and finish. These
lathes, as a usual thing, are not accurate, and in the greater majority of cases
the chucks which accompany them are worse than nothing, and yet these
lathes, in nearly all cases, are declared to be as good as the American. There
are some foreign lathes that are very carefully made, and are quite as true as
the best American, but they are the exception and not the rule. The
workman who buys one of these lathes cannot, of course, tell whether it is
right or wrong until he has placed it on his bench and tested it, and even
then he cannot be sure, for although when a certain chuck is placed in the
ingenious mechanic who thoroughly understands the capabilities of the
lathe. By patient skill of manipulation, the Chinese and Japanese turn out
some truly wonderful work; they succeed in turning sphere after sphere, one
inside the other, from a solid piece of ivory, the opening from one to
another being comparatively small.
The earliest form of the lathe in the trade was the dead center: that is, a
lathe whose parts did not revolve, the object to be operated on being placed
between centers and made to revolve by means of the bow. This form of
lathe was succeeded by the live spindle or live mandril pattern, although
there were many good points about it that must be acknowledged. It
contained one great element that many modern appliances, termed lathes,
lack, i. e., the element of truth. No matter how coarsely or crudely
constructed, this truth was not eliminated, except by the ignorance of the
artisan, for the centers must remain the same relatively, whatever may be
their position in relation to the lathe bed.
With the introduction of the live spindle lathe in this country, the verge,
Jacot and other lathes and tools of that type were rapidly abandoned. In
Europe, however, the live spindle lathe did not meet with such a cordial
reception, and it has taken many years, in some localities, to overcome the
prejudice against them; in fact, there are still many workmen there who
cling to the dead center patterns.
The all-important point in lathes of the live spindle type is accuracy of
fitting, and particularly in regard to the spindle and its bearings, for unless a
certain degree of perfection is attainable in this particular, it is worse than
useless, as it not only does not do the work, but leads the artisan astray. The
workman, sometimes, through motives of economy, purchases foreign made
lathes, that closely resemble the American in outline and finish. These
lathes, as a usual thing, are not accurate, and in the greater majority of cases
the chucks which accompany them are worse than nothing, and yet these
lathes, in nearly all cases, are declared to be as good as the American. There
are some foreign lathes that are very carefully made, and are quite as true as
the best American, but they are the exception and not the rule. The
workman who buys one of these lathes cannot, of course, tell whether it is
right or wrong until he has placed it on his bench and tested it, and even
then he cannot be sure, for although when a certain chuck is placed in the
Page 207
spindle and tested it may apparently show no deviation from truth, there
may still be untruth in the spindle or chuck or both, as the errors in one may
be counteracting the errors in the other, and if the chuck be turned or an
absolutely true chuck placed in the spindle, the error will be made quite
apparent. If an American lathe, by any possibility, is allowed to pass the
inspector, and finds its way upon the market, the maker is only too glad to
replace it with a perfect one, for his reputation is at stake; but if one of the
imitation pattern proves untrue you will have to do the best you can.
Fig. 63.
There are American made lathes upon the market that are as inferior in
many respects as the imitations, and the watchmaker will do well to do
without a lathe until such time as he can afford to purchase one of known
reputation. Among the first-class American lathes upon the market may be
mentioned the Webster-Whitcomb, shown in Fig. 63; the Moseley, shown in
Fig. 64; the Hopkins, shown in Fig. 65, and the Rivett, shown in Fig. 66,
and others.
An excellent lathe for the heavier work of watchmakers and jewelers,
such as cannot be performed with satisfaction on the watchmaker’s lathe, is
the No. 4 Barnes, which is shown in Fig. 67.
may still be untruth in the spindle or chuck or both, as the errors in one may
be counteracting the errors in the other, and if the chuck be turned or an
absolutely true chuck placed in the spindle, the error will be made quite
apparent. If an American lathe, by any possibility, is allowed to pass the
inspector, and finds its way upon the market, the maker is only too glad to
replace it with a perfect one, for his reputation is at stake; but if one of the
imitation pattern proves untrue you will have to do the best you can.
Fig. 63.
There are American made lathes upon the market that are as inferior in
many respects as the imitations, and the watchmaker will do well to do
without a lathe until such time as he can afford to purchase one of known
reputation. Among the first-class American lathes upon the market may be
mentioned the Webster-Whitcomb, shown in Fig. 63; the Moseley, shown in
Fig. 64; the Hopkins, shown in Fig. 65, and the Rivett, shown in Fig. 66,
and others.
An excellent lathe for the heavier work of watchmakers and jewelers,
such as cannot be performed with satisfaction on the watchmaker’s lathe, is
the No. 4 Barnes, which is shown in Fig. 67.
Page 208
Fig. 64.
For screw-cutting, the manufacture of watchmaker’s tools, fishing reels,
repairs on tower clocks, in fact, all the heavier work of the trade, it is
admirably fitted.
253. Care of the Lathe. The American lathe of to-day is a marvel of
completeness in its parts, and how many hours, yea months, of study and
experiment have been bestowed upon it by its projectors and makers to
acquire these points of utility and excellency? What a vast amount of care
has been exercised for the production of a perfect lathe! Must this care
cease at the moment it passes into the hands of the watchmaker?
It is a very easy matter at any time to wipe off the dust and oil that may
accumulate, but does this alone constitute due care? There may be a nice
glass case to cover it and keep off the dust, and a very good idea it is, if
faithfully used; but if a counter shaft is on the bench, or much lathe work is
to be done, it soon falls into blissful desuetude, or finishes its usefulness by
being broken. Then, often, a cloth is wrapped about the lathe, which soon
gets soiled and looks badly, let alone the poor protection it affords.
For screw-cutting, the manufacture of watchmaker’s tools, fishing reels,
repairs on tower clocks, in fact, all the heavier work of the trade, it is
admirably fitted.
253. Care of the Lathe. The American lathe of to-day is a marvel of
completeness in its parts, and how many hours, yea months, of study and
experiment have been bestowed upon it by its projectors and makers to
acquire these points of utility and excellency? What a vast amount of care
has been exercised for the production of a perfect lathe! Must this care
cease at the moment it passes into the hands of the watchmaker?
It is a very easy matter at any time to wipe off the dust and oil that may
accumulate, but does this alone constitute due care? There may be a nice
glass case to cover it and keep off the dust, and a very good idea it is, if
faithfully used; but if a counter shaft is on the bench, or much lathe work is
to be done, it soon falls into blissful desuetude, or finishes its usefulness by
being broken. Then, often, a cloth is wrapped about the lathe, which soon
gets soiled and looks badly, let alone the poor protection it affords.
Page 209
Fig. 65.
Dust is omnipresent, and the greatest enemy to all active machinery; it
insidiously makes its way into every crease and crevice, and if not promptly
removed will cause untold damage. We cannot get rid of it and must (like
the industrious housewife) wage a constant warfare against it.
The care necessary to be given to a fine lathe differs from most other
tools; it is not confined alone to the removal of dust and keeping clean, but
the fitting properly of the several parts as used. There should be no
overstraining when tightening screws, chucks, etc., or when fitting articles
in both wire and wheel chucks, and so on through the list.
Dust is omnipresent, and the greatest enemy to all active machinery; it
insidiously makes its way into every crease and crevice, and if not promptly
removed will cause untold damage. We cannot get rid of it and must (like
the industrious housewife) wage a constant warfare against it.
The care necessary to be given to a fine lathe differs from most other
tools; it is not confined alone to the removal of dust and keeping clean, but
the fitting properly of the several parts as used. There should be no
overstraining when tightening screws, chucks, etc., or when fitting articles
in both wire and wheel chucks, and so on through the list.
Page 210
Fig. 66.
The face of the lathe bed when it comes from the makers is (or should be)
perfectly true from end to end, in order that head and tail stocks will meet
on a direct line of centers, even should they be changed end for end, and a
good lathe will meet those requirements. Now, it is obvious to any thinking
mind that if this face becomes injured by neglect, whereby the nickeling is
removed in spots or portions, they will, in all probability, become rusty; this
rust will then eat away and throw off more, and soon the face presents an
uneven surface, which will tend to destroy the line of centers between head
and tail stocks.
The head stock, usually occupying one position, causes less wear at this
point or place, while the hand-rest and tail stock are constantly being
shifted, so where there is more motion or action there must be more wear,
especially if dust, chips, or grit be allowed to accumulate beneath them, and
though the wear is seemingly imperceptible, it nevertheless is there, and
will sooner or later manifest itself, and this is a signal that the level of the
The face of the lathe bed when it comes from the makers is (or should be)
perfectly true from end to end, in order that head and tail stocks will meet
on a direct line of centers, even should they be changed end for end, and a
good lathe will meet those requirements. Now, it is obvious to any thinking
mind that if this face becomes injured by neglect, whereby the nickeling is
removed in spots or portions, they will, in all probability, become rusty; this
rust will then eat away and throw off more, and soon the face presents an
uneven surface, which will tend to destroy the line of centers between head
and tail stocks.
The head stock, usually occupying one position, causes less wear at this
point or place, while the hand-rest and tail stock are constantly being
shifted, so where there is more motion or action there must be more wear,
especially if dust, chips, or grit be allowed to accumulate beneath them, and
though the wear is seemingly imperceptible, it nevertheless is there, and
will sooner or later manifest itself, and this is a signal that the level of the
Page 211
bed is becoming impaired, and, necessarily, the truth. Thus too much care
and attention cannot be exercised in guarding against chips and dust when
sliding hand-rest back and forth on the bed.
Fig. 67.
At the end of the bed, where the tail stock takes position, many
watchmakers have the tail stock off, and this portion is more exposed to
atmospheric action, also receiving perspiration from the hands when they
come in contact. Again, others let the tail stock remain in position, only
removing when it comes in the way. In the former case, it is well to devise
some means for the protection of the bed; this is easily done by making a
sheath of chamois skin to slip tightly over the bed; it can be removed and
replaced readily, and when it becomes soiled, can be washed.
This sheath should be fully two-thirds the length of bed, or reaching from
tail end up to hand-rest when it is close to head stock. It preserves the bed
from dampness, which is considerable in some climates, also the
perspiration of the hand and flying chips and dust. In the second case, if the
tail stock is allowed to remain on the lathe, or, if removed and placed on the
bench, it is subjected to all the evils the bed is in the former. Our opinion is,
the tail stock should be kept in its compartment in a tight-fitting drawer,
away from dust and accidental knocks of other tools on the bench; the tail
spindle not being nickeled, is more liable to rust if left exposed, and should
be kept in a sheath of oiled paper. This may seem superfluous and too much
bother, yet it is taking proper care which tells in the end.
The bottom of tail stock should always be brushed off before placing in
position, not only for its protection, but for fear some particle of grit may be
and attention cannot be exercised in guarding against chips and dust when
sliding hand-rest back and forth on the bed.
Fig. 67.
At the end of the bed, where the tail stock takes position, many
watchmakers have the tail stock off, and this portion is more exposed to
atmospheric action, also receiving perspiration from the hands when they
come in contact. Again, others let the tail stock remain in position, only
removing when it comes in the way. In the former case, it is well to devise
some means for the protection of the bed; this is easily done by making a
sheath of chamois skin to slip tightly over the bed; it can be removed and
replaced readily, and when it becomes soiled, can be washed.
This sheath should be fully two-thirds the length of bed, or reaching from
tail end up to hand-rest when it is close to head stock. It preserves the bed
from dampness, which is considerable in some climates, also the
perspiration of the hand and flying chips and dust. In the second case, if the
tail stock is allowed to remain on the lathe, or, if removed and placed on the
bench, it is subjected to all the evils the bed is in the former. Our opinion is,
the tail stock should be kept in its compartment in a tight-fitting drawer,
away from dust and accidental knocks of other tools on the bench; the tail
spindle not being nickeled, is more liable to rust if left exposed, and should
be kept in a sheath of oiled paper. This may seem superfluous and too much
bother, yet it is taking proper care which tells in the end.
The bottom of tail stock should always be brushed off before placing in
position, not only for its protection, but for fear some particle of grit may be
Page 212
adhering, thereby throwing it out of truth, and screwing it down tight only
adds injury to the lathe if allowed to remain.
The head stock demands close attention; the spindle should run freely
without end-shake, and about once a week should be speeded, meanwhile
administering oil until it leaves the bearings clean, and then wiped off. A
little oil should be added every day. See that the mouth of the spindle is
kept bright and clean; thrust a piece of cloth clear through spindle every
now and then, that all dust and dirt may be removed.
Wire and wheel chucks should often be washed in gasoline to remove
gummy dirt and oil which is constantly adhering, and it is even well each
time a chuck is used, to wash off first, then wipe dry. A little dirt on the
mouth of spindle, or on the chuck, often throws it out of truth, and
consequently the article fastened therein also.
When fitting head or tail stocks, or in fact any attachment, do so
carefully. Do not bang it in place as if you held a grudge against it, and
when in position see that they are tightly screwed in place.
Having too much end-shake on live spindle, especially in soft lathes,
causes uneven wear in its bearings, besides not being reliable for true
pivoting or any such work.
When the cost of a lathe is taken into consideration, it goes to prove that
it is not easily replaced. Where is the jeweler with a stock of goods who
would retire without first seeing that his valuables were in the safe, but how
many are there that think of giving this protection to their lathes? Some do,
but the greater per cent do not. It is a good plan to see that the head stock,
the tail stock, and attachments are in the safe and should a fire break out
that endangers the store, and no chance to save it, the feeling of satisfaction
is great to know the lathe is safe, that is, the most expensive parts, for the
bed can be purchased at a nominal cost compared to the attachments.
T HE F O O T WH EE L .
254. In the selection of a foot-wheel the workman must be governed by
his own experience and taste, for the variety that exactly suits one person is
very distasteful to another. The swing treadle pattern shown in Fig. 68 is a
adds injury to the lathe if allowed to remain.
The head stock demands close attention; the spindle should run freely
without end-shake, and about once a week should be speeded, meanwhile
administering oil until it leaves the bearings clean, and then wiped off. A
little oil should be added every day. See that the mouth of the spindle is
kept bright and clean; thrust a piece of cloth clear through spindle every
now and then, that all dust and dirt may be removed.
Wire and wheel chucks should often be washed in gasoline to remove
gummy dirt and oil which is constantly adhering, and it is even well each
time a chuck is used, to wash off first, then wipe dry. A little dirt on the
mouth of spindle, or on the chuck, often throws it out of truth, and
consequently the article fastened therein also.
When fitting head or tail stocks, or in fact any attachment, do so
carefully. Do not bang it in place as if you held a grudge against it, and
when in position see that they are tightly screwed in place.
Having too much end-shake on live spindle, especially in soft lathes,
causes uneven wear in its bearings, besides not being reliable for true
pivoting or any such work.
When the cost of a lathe is taken into consideration, it goes to prove that
it is not easily replaced. Where is the jeweler with a stock of goods who
would retire without first seeing that his valuables were in the safe, but how
many are there that think of giving this protection to their lathes? Some do,
but the greater per cent do not. It is a good plan to see that the head stock,
the tail stock, and attachments are in the safe and should a fire break out
that endangers the store, and no chance to save it, the feeling of satisfaction
is great to know the lathe is safe, that is, the most expensive parts, for the
bed can be purchased at a nominal cost compared to the attachments.
T HE F O O T WH EE L .
254. In the selection of a foot-wheel the workman must be governed by
his own experience and taste, for the variety that exactly suits one person is
very distasteful to another. The swing treadle pattern shown in Fig. 68 is a
Page 213
very popular one with American
workmen. These swing treadles are
made in various ways by the different
manufacturers, but the methods of
using them are alike. There are
workmen, however, who prefer the
heel and toe motion and others that
prefer the up and down motion. This is
all a matter of taste and it matters but
little what form of lathe wheel is used
provided the motion is steady and the
exertion is light. As a general rule a
heavy wheel, say forty pounds in
weight, will be found, on the whole,
much better than a light one and the
motion will be more uniform.
255. Driving Bands and Belts.
Most foot-wheels are so constructed
that either a flat or round belt may be
used in transmitting the power to the
countershaft or lathe, as the case may
Fig. 68. be. Many watchmakers use a flat belt
between foot-wheel and countershaft
and a round leather belt, or cord, between countershaft and lathe. If we may
judge by appearances, this is the favorite fitting. Others use round leather
belts in both instances, while others again use cotton or hemp cord or gut.
All things considered, the round leather belt seems to possess advantages
over all others. It does not slip as easily as cotton cord, is more elastic than
gut and throws less strain on the bearings, absorbs less power and works
much smoother. The ends are fastened together by means of an S hook and
the cord may be readily tightened by giving it an additional twist or two.
workmen. These swing treadles are
made in various ways by the different
manufacturers, but the methods of
using them are alike. There are
workmen, however, who prefer the
heel and toe motion and others that
prefer the up and down motion. This is
all a matter of taste and it matters but
little what form of lathe wheel is used
provided the motion is steady and the
exertion is light. As a general rule a
heavy wheel, say forty pounds in
weight, will be found, on the whole,
much better than a light one and the
motion will be more uniform.
255. Driving Bands and Belts.
Most foot-wheels are so constructed
that either a flat or round belt may be
used in transmitting the power to the
countershaft or lathe, as the case may
Fig. 68. be. Many watchmakers use a flat belt
between foot-wheel and countershaft
and a round leather belt, or cord, between countershaft and lathe. If we may
judge by appearances, this is the favorite fitting. Others use round leather
belts in both instances, while others again use cotton or hemp cord or gut.
All things considered, the round leather belt seems to possess advantages
over all others. It does not slip as easily as cotton cord, is more elastic than
gut and throws less strain on the bearings, absorbs less power and works
much smoother. The ends are fastened together by means of an S hook and
the cord may be readily tightened by giving it an additional twist or two.
Page 214
Fig. 69.
256. The Countershaft. The countershaft is indispensable in using
milling tools, wheel cutters and pivot polishers. The pattern shown in Fig.
69 is but one of many on the market.
In some of the patterns the uprights extend through the top of the bench
and are held securely in place by means of thumb screws or wing nuts. The
pattern shown in the illustration is mounted on a solid metal base which is
intended to be fastened to the bench by means of screws. The advantages of
using a countershaft are three fold: First, you are able to regulate your speed
perfectly without changing the motion of the foot from fast to slow or vice
versa; second, your belt is carried to the back of the bench, where it is out
of the way, instead of coming down in front of the head; and third, you
obviate the necessity of having holes in your bench on each side of the
lathe, that small articles are liable to drop through. Fig. 70 illustrates the
favorite arrangement of foot wheel, countershaft and belts.
T HE BE NCH.
256. The Countershaft. The countershaft is indispensable in using
milling tools, wheel cutters and pivot polishers. The pattern shown in Fig.
69 is but one of many on the market.
In some of the patterns the uprights extend through the top of the bench
and are held securely in place by means of thumb screws or wing nuts. The
pattern shown in the illustration is mounted on a solid metal base which is
intended to be fastened to the bench by means of screws. The advantages of
using a countershaft are three fold: First, you are able to regulate your speed
perfectly without changing the motion of the foot from fast to slow or vice
versa; second, your belt is carried to the back of the bench, where it is out
of the way, instead of coming down in front of the head; and third, you
obviate the necessity of having holes in your bench on each side of the
lathe, that small articles are liable to drop through. Fig. 70 illustrates the
favorite arrangement of foot wheel, countershaft and belts.
T HE BE NCH.
Page 215
Fig. 70.
257. As previously suggested (230) it is of the utmost importance in
doing good work, and doing it rapidly, that your bench be kept orderly and
clean at all times, and that all your tools and devices be in their proper
places, exactly where you can put your hand on them at a moment’s notice.
An excellent arrangement for a watchmaker’s bench is shown in Fig. 70.
This bench was designed by G. W. Laughlin, and is complete in every
detail. Benches can be purchased ready made from material dealers, both
with and without curtain tops, but there are many watchmakers that prefer
to make, or have made for them, a bench varying from the usual pattern.
The bench illustrated is made of black walnut, veneered with French walnut
and bird’s eye maple. The top is 21 inches wide by 41 long and is 33 inches
from the floor. The drawers on the right-hand side are 10 inches wide. In the
center are two shallow drawers, while the left-hand side is entirely boxed
in.
257. As previously suggested (230) it is of the utmost importance in
doing good work, and doing it rapidly, that your bench be kept orderly and
clean at all times, and that all your tools and devices be in their proper
places, exactly where you can put your hand on them at a moment’s notice.
An excellent arrangement for a watchmaker’s bench is shown in Fig. 70.
This bench was designed by G. W. Laughlin, and is complete in every
detail. Benches can be purchased ready made from material dealers, both
with and without curtain tops, but there are many watchmakers that prefer
to make, or have made for them, a bench varying from the usual pattern.
The bench illustrated is made of black walnut, veneered with French walnut
and bird’s eye maple. The top is 21 inches wide by 41 long and is 33 inches
from the floor. The drawers on the right-hand side are 10 inches wide. In the
center are two shallow drawers, while the left-hand side is entirely boxed
in.
Page 216
ID L ER S.
Fig. 71.
258. Idlers are especially valuable for use on slide rest tools, such as
pivot polishers, milling attachments, wheel cutters, etc., and with traverse
spindle tailstocks, traverse spindle drivers, etc., to give a vertical direction
to the belts. Idlers are constructed in various forms, some of them being
mounted on upright posts, fastened to the bench just back of the lathe, as
shown in Fig. 71; others consist of steel rods terminating in a ball, and
socket joint, where it is fastened to the bench, as shown in Fig. 72, while in
other patterns the rod is fastened by means of a wing nut to a brace running
from one to the other of the supports of the countershaft and may be placed
at any desired angle. The idler shown in Fig. 73 can be used in this way.
Some watchmakers prefer to place their idlers on an overhead countershaft,
which is usually fastened just back of the bench and about two and a half or
Fig. 71.
258. Idlers are especially valuable for use on slide rest tools, such as
pivot polishers, milling attachments, wheel cutters, etc., and with traverse
spindle tailstocks, traverse spindle drivers, etc., to give a vertical direction
to the belts. Idlers are constructed in various forms, some of them being
mounted on upright posts, fastened to the bench just back of the lathe, as
shown in Fig. 71; others consist of steel rods terminating in a ball, and
socket joint, where it is fastened to the bench, as shown in Fig. 72, while in
other patterns the rod is fastened by means of a wing nut to a brace running
from one to the other of the supports of the countershaft and may be placed
at any desired angle. The idler shown in Fig. 73 can be used in this way.
Some watchmakers prefer to place their idlers on an overhead countershaft,
which is usually fastened just back of the bench and about two and a half or
Page 217
three feet above it. The idler shown in Fig. 72 can
be screwed to the bench or to the wall above the
bench, in the latter case it will extend out
horizontally over the lathe and is out of the way of
the watchmaker when not in use. In the forms
shown in Fig. 71, 72 and 73 the belt passes from
the countershaft over the idler and one long belt
only is used. This style is sometimes varied by
using two separate belts one from the countershaft
to the idler and another from the idler down to the
lathe. If in the latter style, a cone pulley of rubber
is used on the countershaft and also for the
corresponding pulley on the idler and a plain
pulley for the down belt. Of course in this form
the idler stand must be in the form of a
countershaft, as the pulley must be fast on the
shaft and the shaft itself must revolve. In the styles
shown above, the shaft is rigid and the pulleys
revolve upon it. The advantage of using the cone
pulley style is that the speed of the cutter or other
attachment may be varied at will without in any
way increasing or decreasing the speed of the
Fig. 72. Fig. 73. wheel.
C HU CKS.
Fig. 74. Fig. 75.
Fig. 76.
be screwed to the bench or to the wall above the
bench, in the latter case it will extend out
horizontally over the lathe and is out of the way of
the watchmaker when not in use. In the forms
shown in Fig. 71, 72 and 73 the belt passes from
the countershaft over the idler and one long belt
only is used. This style is sometimes varied by
using two separate belts one from the countershaft
to the idler and another from the idler down to the
lathe. If in the latter style, a cone pulley of rubber
is used on the countershaft and also for the
corresponding pulley on the idler and a plain
pulley for the down belt. Of course in this form
the idler stand must be in the form of a
countershaft, as the pulley must be fast on the
shaft and the shaft itself must revolve. In the styles
shown above, the shaft is rigid and the pulleys
revolve upon it. The advantage of using the cone
pulley style is that the speed of the cutter or other
attachment may be varied at will without in any
way increasing or decreasing the speed of the
Fig. 72. Fig. 73. wheel.
C HU CKS.
Fig. 74. Fig. 75.
Fig. 76.
Page 218
Fig. 77. Fig. 78.
Fig. 79.
259. True chucks are the most important adjuncts to a watchmaker’s
outfit. A true lathe with poor, untrue chucks is almost useless. Chucks hold
the work truest that comes the nearest to fitting the holes in them. If you try
to hold work in a chuck that is too large or too small, you will soon get the
chucks out of true and you will soon become dissatisfied with your chucks,
your work and your lathe. Care should always be taken to select a chuck
that will take the work without straining it open and yet is not so large that
undue pressure will have to be used in holding it. The American split chuck,
when true, will hold almost any piece of work with the greatest precision as
regards truth; but the split chuck is a delicate attachment and will not stand
hard knocks and rough treatment. After using them, you should clean them
in benzine to remove all dirt, rinsing them in alcohol and drying with a soft
linen rag, and see that no small chips of metal are left in the openings that
may throw the work out of truth the next time they are used. Fig. 74
illustrates the regular pattern split chucks that accompany American lathes.
Fig. 75 is a conoidal wire chuck, so called because the shape of the mouth
of the chuck is conoidal in lieu of the shoulder usually left on wire chucks
for the bend in the spindle. Fig. 76 is an arbor chuck. This is a solid chuck
on the end of which is a threaded arbor for the reception of saws, laps,
wheels, etc., which are held firmly in position by means of the nut on the
threaded arbor. Fig. 77 is a screw chuck. This is a solid steel chuck having a
threaded hole in the end for the reception of cement brasses, etc. Fig. 78 is a
shoulder chuck. It is a split chuck with a large opening in the end with
square shoulders for the work to rest upon. Fig. 79 is a taper chuck, which
is solid and has a large opening for the reception of tapers, centers, laps, etc.
Fig. 80 is a step or wheel chuck, which usually comes in sets of five, and as
each chuck has nine steps, a set of them will accommodate forty-five
Fig. 79.
259. True chucks are the most important adjuncts to a watchmaker’s
outfit. A true lathe with poor, untrue chucks is almost useless. Chucks hold
the work truest that comes the nearest to fitting the holes in them. If you try
to hold work in a chuck that is too large or too small, you will soon get the
chucks out of true and you will soon become dissatisfied with your chucks,
your work and your lathe. Care should always be taken to select a chuck
that will take the work without straining it open and yet is not so large that
undue pressure will have to be used in holding it. The American split chuck,
when true, will hold almost any piece of work with the greatest precision as
regards truth; but the split chuck is a delicate attachment and will not stand
hard knocks and rough treatment. After using them, you should clean them
in benzine to remove all dirt, rinsing them in alcohol and drying with a soft
linen rag, and see that no small chips of metal are left in the openings that
may throw the work out of truth the next time they are used. Fig. 74
illustrates the regular pattern split chucks that accompany American lathes.
Fig. 75 is a conoidal wire chuck, so called because the shape of the mouth
of the chuck is conoidal in lieu of the shoulder usually left on wire chucks
for the bend in the spindle. Fig. 76 is an arbor chuck. This is a solid chuck
on the end of which is a threaded arbor for the reception of saws, laps,
wheels, etc., which are held firmly in position by means of the nut on the
threaded arbor. Fig. 77 is a screw chuck. This is a solid steel chuck having a
threaded hole in the end for the reception of cement brasses, etc. Fig. 78 is a
shoulder chuck. It is a split chuck with a large opening in the end with
square shoulders for the work to rest upon. Fig. 79 is a taper chuck, which
is solid and has a large opening for the reception of tapers, centers, laps, etc.
Fig. 80 is a step or wheel chuck, which usually comes in sets of five, and as
each chuck has nine steps, a set of them will accommodate forty-five
Page 219
different sizes of work. These chucks are useful for holding mainspring
barrels when fitting in the cap, should it become out of true; for trueing up
the barrel of English lever watches that are damaged by the breaking of a
mainspring and for holding almost any wheel in a watch, such as the fitting
of a center wheel to a pinion, or in making sure that hole in the wheel is in
the center. These chucks will the hold wheels from 5 to 2.25. The chucks
mentioned above are the most common ones in every day use and usually
accompany the American lathe in combination sets. As intimated, these
chucks are delicate and as a usual thing they do not receive the care they
should, when their cost and the delicate exactitude demanded of them is
considered. The watchmaker who prides himself on his good work and the
orderly condition of his tools, attachments and bench generally will
purchase or make for himself a nice chuck box with a glass or wooden
cover to exclude all dust and flying chips. You cannot expect to do good
true work with a chuck that is thrown carelessly into a drawer containing an
assortment of files, a hammer, staking block, oilstone, screw driver, sliding
tongs, etc., and yet how many watchmakers take just this kind of care of
their chucks, and complain of their untruth, and declare that a wax chuck is
the only thing that can be absolutely relied upon for truth. Fig. 81 illustrates
a neatly arranged chuck box made by the Faneuil Watch Tool Company. In
it all the various chucks may be arranged and the whole may be covered
with a glass shade to keep out all dirt. A wooden cover might be used and
perhaps would be preferable to many as it is less liable to be broken and
occupies less space and therefore admits of the box being placed in a
drawer, leaving more room on the bench for the necessary tools and
attachments.
Fig. 80.
barrels when fitting in the cap, should it become out of true; for trueing up
the barrel of English lever watches that are damaged by the breaking of a
mainspring and for holding almost any wheel in a watch, such as the fitting
of a center wheel to a pinion, or in making sure that hole in the wheel is in
the center. These chucks will the hold wheels from 5 to 2.25. The chucks
mentioned above are the most common ones in every day use and usually
accompany the American lathe in combination sets. As intimated, these
chucks are delicate and as a usual thing they do not receive the care they
should, when their cost and the delicate exactitude demanded of them is
considered. The watchmaker who prides himself on his good work and the
orderly condition of his tools, attachments and bench generally will
purchase or make for himself a nice chuck box with a glass or wooden
cover to exclude all dust and flying chips. You cannot expect to do good
true work with a chuck that is thrown carelessly into a drawer containing an
assortment of files, a hammer, staking block, oilstone, screw driver, sliding
tongs, etc., and yet how many watchmakers take just this kind of care of
their chucks, and complain of their untruth, and declare that a wax chuck is
the only thing that can be absolutely relied upon for truth. Fig. 81 illustrates
a neatly arranged chuck box made by the Faneuil Watch Tool Company. In
it all the various chucks may be arranged and the whole may be covered
with a glass shade to keep out all dirt. A wooden cover might be used and
perhaps would be preferable to many as it is less liable to be broken and
occupies less space and therefore admits of the box being placed in a
drawer, leaving more room on the bench for the necessary tools and
attachments.
Fig. 80.
Page 220
Fig. 81.
A chuck box should be well soaked in oil so that the wood will absorb no
moisture and thus tend to rust the chucks. A small envelope made of tissue
paper and filled with quicklime will, if placed in the chuck box, take up the
moisture in the air and prevent the chucks from rusting.
260. The chuck stepping device, invented and patented by Mr. Moseley,
is a valuable attachment for the lathe. In this device, shown in Fig. 82, a
rests in chuck slightly less than diameter of work; b tightens in rear end of
draw-in spindle, and turning c regulates the depth of step. By the use of this
tool any wire chuck will accurately serve as a step chuck. It is a device of
great service to the watchmaker when used and understood. It enables him
to make a step in any wire chuck of any depth he may desire, and will push
out the work at any time when he so desires. It is very useful many times
for a stop for marking or cutting off when you want a number of pieces of
the same length or kind. Many object to the stepped chuck for general use.
A chuck box should be well soaked in oil so that the wood will absorb no
moisture and thus tend to rust the chucks. A small envelope made of tissue
paper and filled with quicklime will, if placed in the chuck box, take up the
moisture in the air and prevent the chucks from rusting.
260. The chuck stepping device, invented and patented by Mr. Moseley,
is a valuable attachment for the lathe. In this device, shown in Fig. 82, a
rests in chuck slightly less than diameter of work; b tightens in rear end of
draw-in spindle, and turning c regulates the depth of step. By the use of this
tool any wire chuck will accurately serve as a step chuck. It is a device of
great service to the watchmaker when used and understood. It enables him
to make a step in any wire chuck of any depth he may desire, and will push
out the work at any time when he so desires. It is very useful many times
for a stop for marking or cutting off when you want a number of pieces of
the same length or kind. Many object to the stepped chuck for general use.
Page 221
261. In addition to the regular chucks which
usually accompany American lathe
combinations may be mentioned some others
which from time to time have been placed upon
the market by manufacturers of watchmakers’
tools. These chucks were devised for holding
work which it was found in practice could not
be held by the ordinary chucks.
262. The bezel chuck, shown in Fig. 83, was
originally made with a view of holding bezels
Fig. 83.
only, but is now made so that it will hold watch
plates, coins, etc., and is adjustable to any size.
It can be fitted to any lathe and it requires but very little practice
to use it, as it is extremely simple and any one who uses a lathe
can make or repair bezels in a workmanlike manner. It holds the
work as in a vise, and no amount of turning or jarring will loosen
the jaws, while it may be opened or closed instantly by simply
turning the milled nut behind the face plate, thus enabling the
operator to turn and fit a bezel perfectly, by trying on the case as
many times as necessary. It holds the bezel by either groove, so
that the recess may be turned out when too shallow or too small
for the glass, or the bezel may be inverted and turned down when
it rests too hard against the dial. It will be found especially useful
in turning out the inevitable lump of solder from the recess of the
bezel after soldering, and in fitting to case, as the process of
soldering generally makes the bezel shorter, and consequently it
will not fit the case. It also renders the operation of polishing
bezels, after soldering, the work of but a few moments. In turning
out the recess for glass in bezels, especially those of the heavy
Fig.
nickel variety, it will prove a friend indeed. When, for instance,
82.
you look through your stock of flat glasses and find none to fit,
but have one that is just too large. Any watchmaker knows that if
the groove in the bezel is imperfect, it is very apt to break the glass. This
chuck is also useful as a barrel closer, holding work while engraving, and
many other uses that will present themselves to the watchmaker.
usually accompany American lathe
combinations may be mentioned some others
which from time to time have been placed upon
the market by manufacturers of watchmakers’
tools. These chucks were devised for holding
work which it was found in practice could not
be held by the ordinary chucks.
262. The bezel chuck, shown in Fig. 83, was
originally made with a view of holding bezels
Fig. 83.
only, but is now made so that it will hold watch
plates, coins, etc., and is adjustable to any size.
It can be fitted to any lathe and it requires but very little practice
to use it, as it is extremely simple and any one who uses a lathe
can make or repair bezels in a workmanlike manner. It holds the
work as in a vise, and no amount of turning or jarring will loosen
the jaws, while it may be opened or closed instantly by simply
turning the milled nut behind the face plate, thus enabling the
operator to turn and fit a bezel perfectly, by trying on the case as
many times as necessary. It holds the bezel by either groove, so
that the recess may be turned out when too shallow or too small
for the glass, or the bezel may be inverted and turned down when
it rests too hard against the dial. It will be found especially useful
in turning out the inevitable lump of solder from the recess of the
bezel after soldering, and in fitting to case, as the process of
soldering generally makes the bezel shorter, and consequently it
will not fit the case. It also renders the operation of polishing
bezels, after soldering, the work of but a few moments. In turning
out the recess for glass in bezels, especially those of the heavy
Fig.
nickel variety, it will prove a friend indeed. When, for instance,
82.
you look through your stock of flat glasses and find none to fit,
but have one that is just too large. Any watchmaker knows that if
the groove in the bezel is imperfect, it is very apt to break the glass. This
chuck is also useful as a barrel closer, holding work while engraving, and
many other uses that will present themselves to the watchmaker.
Page 222
263. The Hopkins’ patent adjustable
chuck, shown in Fig. 84, is designed to
grip and hold firmly and accurately any
size of work, from the smallest staff to the
largest pinion, watch wheels of all sizes,
mainspring barrels and other large work,
and can be adjusted to any make of lathe,
by simply placing it friction tight on a plug
chuck fitted properly to the lathe. In using
this chuck for staffs, pinions, wire, etc.,
fasten a V-piece, 7, of proper size, in the
Fig. 84. hole of attachment 6, taking care that both
the V and the seat in which it rests, are free
from chips, dirt, etc. Then lay your work in
the V and fasten it there by means of the sliding jaw above it. This done,
place the attachment on the face of the chuck body, with the disc slipped
under the heads of the two spring bolts, and then spin the work to center the
same as when using wax. After centering thus, fasten the disc to place by
tightening the nuts on the back ends of the spring bolts. For holding work
by the web of the wheel, place the wheel under the screw cap, on the face
attachment 8, and screw the cap down firmly on it, with the staff or pinion
projecting outward through the center hole. This done, proceed the same as
when using attachment 6. For mainspring barrels and like work, use
attachment 11, and place a bit of broken mainspring between the work and
the ends of the three binding screws, and tighten the screws down on this
instead of directly on the work.
Fig. 85. Fig. 86.
264. The Spickerman patent cement chuck, shown in Figs. 85 and 86,
holds and centers accurately any wheel in a watch while drilling, polishing
or fitting new staffs or pinions, and all danger of injuring the wheels is
chuck, shown in Fig. 84, is designed to
grip and hold firmly and accurately any
size of work, from the smallest staff to the
largest pinion, watch wheels of all sizes,
mainspring barrels and other large work,
and can be adjusted to any make of lathe,
by simply placing it friction tight on a plug
chuck fitted properly to the lathe. In using
this chuck for staffs, pinions, wire, etc.,
fasten a V-piece, 7, of proper size, in the
Fig. 84. hole of attachment 6, taking care that both
the V and the seat in which it rests, are free
from chips, dirt, etc. Then lay your work in
the V and fasten it there by means of the sliding jaw above it. This done,
place the attachment on the face of the chuck body, with the disc slipped
under the heads of the two spring bolts, and then spin the work to center the
same as when using wax. After centering thus, fasten the disc to place by
tightening the nuts on the back ends of the spring bolts. For holding work
by the web of the wheel, place the wheel under the screw cap, on the face
attachment 8, and screw the cap down firmly on it, with the staff or pinion
projecting outward through the center hole. This done, proceed the same as
when using attachment 6. For mainspring barrels and like work, use
attachment 11, and place a bit of broken mainspring between the work and
the ends of the three binding screws, and tighten the screws down on this
instead of directly on the work.
Fig. 85. Fig. 86.
264. The Spickerman patent cement chuck, shown in Figs. 85 and 86,
holds and centers accurately any wheel in a watch while drilling, polishing
or fitting new staffs or pinions, and all danger of injuring the wheels is
Page 223
obviated. It will fit all kinds of American or Swiss lathes. The holder shown
in Fig. 86 at a, is turned down to nearly the size of the screw for the lathe,
and the screw is cut so the holder will set as close as possible to the lathe.
The face of the holder is then turned perfectly true. Put the wheel to be
centered in cap c, as near to the center as convenient, and then screw on b.
Then place the cemented face of chuck b against the face of holder a on the
lathe, and with a lamp warm the cement between the surfaces, holding the
chuck by means of a pegwood against the pivot of the wheel in the cap c,
and it will move to an exact center as soon as warmed sufficiently. New
cement should be added occasionally between the surfaces, as the old
cement hardens and burns away, and does not center as well as when new.
Fig. 85 shows chuck with wheel inside ready for centering and drilling.
Fig. 87.
Fig. 88.
265. The gem patent pivoting chuck, shown in Figs. 87 and 88, is
intended as a substitute for wax when performing pivoting and like work.
By the means of the ball b, placed between the two sliding sockets c, c, with
the several other parts as represented in Fig. 87, a combination of sliding
and ball and socket movements, in connection with a spring pump-center is
obtained. A set of ten or more supplementary chucks g, with different sizes
of center holes, and attachment n for all sizes of wheels, are furnished with
each chuck. The supplementary chuck g, in the form of a small split chuck,
is made to fit into a hole with taper mouth, in the center of the ball b, and is
in Fig. 86 at a, is turned down to nearly the size of the screw for the lathe,
and the screw is cut so the holder will set as close as possible to the lathe.
The face of the holder is then turned perfectly true. Put the wheel to be
centered in cap c, as near to the center as convenient, and then screw on b.
Then place the cemented face of chuck b against the face of holder a on the
lathe, and with a lamp warm the cement between the surfaces, holding the
chuck by means of a pegwood against the pivot of the wheel in the cap c,
and it will move to an exact center as soon as warmed sufficiently. New
cement should be added occasionally between the surfaces, as the old
cement hardens and burns away, and does not center as well as when new.
Fig. 85 shows chuck with wheel inside ready for centering and drilling.
Fig. 87.
Fig. 88.
265. The gem patent pivoting chuck, shown in Figs. 87 and 88, is
intended as a substitute for wax when performing pivoting and like work.
By the means of the ball b, placed between the two sliding sockets c, c, with
the several other parts as represented in Fig. 87, a combination of sliding
and ball and socket movements, in connection with a spring pump-center is
obtained. A set of ten or more supplementary chucks g, with different sizes
of center holes, and attachment n for all sizes of wheels, are furnished with
each chuck. The supplementary chuck g, in the form of a small split chuck,
is made to fit into a hole with taper mouth, in the center of the ball b, and is
Page 224
drawn into place and the work fastened firmly in it by means of the binding
nut m, which screws on to a projection extending outward from the front of
the ball. To use this chuck, proceed as follows: Remove the nut m, and give
freedom to the working parts by loosening the large back nut k. Then to
bring the hole through the ball b into line, spin the ball to center, first at the
base of the projecting screw and then at the mouth of the hole through it,
and in this position again fasten the parts, by tightening the nut k. Then give
freedom to the pump-center by slightly loosening the set screw j. When
doing this, hold your finger against the front of the chuck, to prevent the
center rod from shooting out of its place when freed. Then having placed a
supplementary chuck g, of proper size, in its place in the chuck, and your
work in it, with its back end resting properly in the countersink in the end of
the pump-center, fasten it there by screwing the cap m down snugly over it,
using a small lever pin when necessary for the purpose, but not with undue
force. Then again loosen the nut k, and spin the work to center at its outer
end; and then tighten both the nut k and set screw j. In tightening the set
screw j, make sure it is so tightened as to prevent the pump-center from
slipping from place when working. If from tightening the screw j, it is
found that the work has been thrown in any degree away from true center,
loosen the nut k, leaving the pump-center fast, and again spin to center and
fasten as before. After a little practice this can all be done in a few seconds,
and the work brought to absolute center.
In using attachment n, for wheels, the nut m and chuck g are removed,
and n is substituted therefor; the work being held on the face of the
attachment by flat-headed screws that grip the arms of the wheel. For
cylinder escape wheels a special attachment n is furnished.
Fig. 89.
266. Fig. 89 illustrates a crown chuck, which is used for holding crowns
while undergoing repairs. The Dale chuck shown in Fig. 89 is made on the
lines of the ordinary split wire chuck, a large recess being turned in the end
nut m, which screws on to a projection extending outward from the front of
the ball. To use this chuck, proceed as follows: Remove the nut m, and give
freedom to the working parts by loosening the large back nut k. Then to
bring the hole through the ball b into line, spin the ball to center, first at the
base of the projecting screw and then at the mouth of the hole through it,
and in this position again fasten the parts, by tightening the nut k. Then give
freedom to the pump-center by slightly loosening the set screw j. When
doing this, hold your finger against the front of the chuck, to prevent the
center rod from shooting out of its place when freed. Then having placed a
supplementary chuck g, of proper size, in its place in the chuck, and your
work in it, with its back end resting properly in the countersink in the end of
the pump-center, fasten it there by screwing the cap m down snugly over it,
using a small lever pin when necessary for the purpose, but not with undue
force. Then again loosen the nut k, and spin the work to center at its outer
end; and then tighten both the nut k and set screw j. In tightening the set
screw j, make sure it is so tightened as to prevent the pump-center from
slipping from place when working. If from tightening the screw j, it is
found that the work has been thrown in any degree away from true center,
loosen the nut k, leaving the pump-center fast, and again spin to center and
fasten as before. After a little practice this can all be done in a few seconds,
and the work brought to absolute center.
In using attachment n, for wheels, the nut m and chuck g are removed,
and n is substituted therefor; the work being held on the face of the
attachment by flat-headed screws that grip the arms of the wheel. For
cylinder escape wheels a special attachment n is furnished.
Fig. 89.
266. Fig. 89 illustrates a crown chuck, which is used for holding crowns
while undergoing repairs. The Dale chuck shown in Fig. 89 is made on the
lines of the ordinary split wire chuck, a large recess being turned in the end
Page 225
for the reception of the crown. The Johanson
chuck is illustrated in Fig. 90, and is quite
different in construction, a ball-shaped cap with
right hand thread screwing down onto the body of
the chuck, thus holding the crown from the
outside, while a screw-center with left hand
Fig. 90. thread, holds it firmly from the inside. This chuck
is made in two patterns, one for use in a No. 40
wire chuck, as shown in Fig. 90, and the other is
mounted on a regular chuck and is ready to insert into the lathe-head the
same as an ordinary wire chuck.
T HE S L IDE RES T.
Fig. 91.
267. The slide rest is an expensive but very useful adjunct to the lathe. It
is used so extensively in this country, however, that a full description of it
seems superfluous. Fig. 91 is a fair example of a modern slide rest for the
American lathe. The tool-holder varies with the different makers, but the
rests proper are all made on the same general principles, that of two sliding
chuck is illustrated in Fig. 90, and is quite
different in construction, a ball-shaped cap with
right hand thread screwing down onto the body of
the chuck, thus holding the crown from the
outside, while a screw-center with left hand
Fig. 90. thread, holds it firmly from the inside. This chuck
is made in two patterns, one for use in a No. 40
wire chuck, as shown in Fig. 90, and the other is
mounted on a regular chuck and is ready to insert into the lathe-head the
same as an ordinary wire chuck.
T HE S L IDE RES T.
Fig. 91.
267. The slide rest is an expensive but very useful adjunct to the lathe. It
is used so extensively in this country, however, that a full description of it
seems superfluous. Fig. 91 is a fair example of a modern slide rest for the
American lathe. The tool-holder varies with the different makers, but the
rests proper are all made on the same general principles, that of two sliding
Page 226
beds working at right angles to each other, and carrying a tool-holder,
capable of being raised or lowered or set at any desired angle.
268. Brass is easily turned with the slide-rest in an ordinary lathe
arranged for the purpose, but the turning of steel demands more care in
setting the cutter so as to obtain the best cutting edge as well as in
determining the point of application of the tool. Preliminary trials must be
made, and the following remarks will be of service as a guide.
269. Engineers use a hooked tool to a
very great extent for both planing and
turning. Both experience and reasoning
point to the conclusion that a tool of the
form b or d Fig. 92, possesses many
recommendations, and numerous designs
of hooked tools more or less resembling
Fig. 92. these figures are employed with
advantage; the tool occupies the best
possible position in reference to the surface it is required to cut, and the
cutting edge is both sharp and solid. It will be evident that a certain relation
exists between the cutting angle and the point of application of the tool to
the cylindrical object that is being turned, and this it is necessary to
determine. With a hooked tool, as with the ordinary slide-rest cutter, a
cutting angle which is too acute will wear away rapidly; when too obtuse,
the tool scrapes and will only act when considerable pressure is applied.
In conclusion, it is clear that in forming or re-grinding any tool for
cutting a surface, it must be so arranged that its edge makes the least
possible angle with the surface that is consistent with the securing of a
sufficient degree of resistance to the cohesion and the hardness of metal
operated upon; in other words, the end of the tool must be almost tangential
to the circumference of the object, and the angle of the cutting edge must be
obtained by removing metal from the top face of the tool. These principles
are applicable to all tools for metals; to the blades of drills as well as to the
cutting edges of gravers, etc.
270. The angle of the cutting edge of the tool used in the slide rest for
steel should be less than that employed for operating on brass. According to
Holtzapffel, it may vary in the former case from 60° to 80° and, in the latter
capable of being raised or lowered or set at any desired angle.
268. Brass is easily turned with the slide-rest in an ordinary lathe
arranged for the purpose, but the turning of steel demands more care in
setting the cutter so as to obtain the best cutting edge as well as in
determining the point of application of the tool. Preliminary trials must be
made, and the following remarks will be of service as a guide.
269. Engineers use a hooked tool to a
very great extent for both planing and
turning. Both experience and reasoning
point to the conclusion that a tool of the
form b or d Fig. 92, possesses many
recommendations, and numerous designs
of hooked tools more or less resembling
Fig. 92. these figures are employed with
advantage; the tool occupies the best
possible position in reference to the surface it is required to cut, and the
cutting edge is both sharp and solid. It will be evident that a certain relation
exists between the cutting angle and the point of application of the tool to
the cylindrical object that is being turned, and this it is necessary to
determine. With a hooked tool, as with the ordinary slide-rest cutter, a
cutting angle which is too acute will wear away rapidly; when too obtuse,
the tool scrapes and will only act when considerable pressure is applied.
In conclusion, it is clear that in forming or re-grinding any tool for
cutting a surface, it must be so arranged that its edge makes the least
possible angle with the surface that is consistent with the securing of a
sufficient degree of resistance to the cohesion and the hardness of metal
operated upon; in other words, the end of the tool must be almost tangential
to the circumference of the object, and the angle of the cutting edge must be
obtained by removing metal from the top face of the tool. These principles
are applicable to all tools for metals; to the blades of drills as well as to the
cutting edges of gravers, etc.
270. The angle of the cutting edge of the tool used in the slide rest for
steel should be less than that employed for operating on brass. According to
Holtzapffel, it may vary in the former case from 60° to 80° and, in the latter
Page 227
case, 70° to 90°, according as the tool is required for rough turning or
finishing. 60° and 80° may, however, be taken as convenient angles in the
cases respectively. Simple methods of ensuring that the cutting edge has
any required angle are described in article 396.
The velocity with which the lathe revolves should also be less when
turning steel, and care must be taken that both the tool and object are
constantly moistened with oil.
It is sometimes desirable to arrange a small dropping-can for the purpose
of keeping up the supply; this may be easily done by placing a can
containing the fluid above the level of the work and allowing a piece of
lamp-wick, previously moistened, to hang from it so as to almost touch the
work: a continuous series of drops will fall, owing to the influence of
capillarity.
271. When roughing out work it is best that the cutter first
travel perpendicular to the object, from a towards b, Fig. 93,
and then in the direction of the arrow. The corner a should
only be used for finishing an internal angle or for roughing it
out, and, in this latter case, the cutter must advance along a b
and be withdrawn from the metal in the direction of the arrow.
The small face at the end, a c, should be narrow.
272. Forms of slide-rest cutters. The usual forms of
cutters for use in the slide-rest are shown in Figs. 94 and 95. a Fig. 93.
and a′ are respectively the plan and side view of the most
common form. Two inclined planes i n and d c are
formed on the left-hand and under sides. The point
on which they terminate is cut off square, a cutting
edge, which is more or less acute according to the
metal to be operated upon, being obtained by a
third incline c n. The width of the square cutting Fig. 94.
edge, indicated at n in figure a, varies according to
the metal to be operated upon, as well as this incline c n. It is advisable to
be provided with at least half-a-dozen cutters of this form, with edges of
varying width and inclination, and even this number is often found
insufficient; cutters for steel should never be used in turning brass.
finishing. 60° and 80° may, however, be taken as convenient angles in the
cases respectively. Simple methods of ensuring that the cutting edge has
any required angle are described in article 396.
The velocity with which the lathe revolves should also be less when
turning steel, and care must be taken that both the tool and object are
constantly moistened with oil.
It is sometimes desirable to arrange a small dropping-can for the purpose
of keeping up the supply; this may be easily done by placing a can
containing the fluid above the level of the work and allowing a piece of
lamp-wick, previously moistened, to hang from it so as to almost touch the
work: a continuous series of drops will fall, owing to the influence of
capillarity.
271. When roughing out work it is best that the cutter first
travel perpendicular to the object, from a towards b, Fig. 93,
and then in the direction of the arrow. The corner a should
only be used for finishing an internal angle or for roughing it
out, and, in this latter case, the cutter must advance along a b
and be withdrawn from the metal in the direction of the arrow.
The small face at the end, a c, should be narrow.
272. Forms of slide-rest cutters. The usual forms of
cutters for use in the slide-rest are shown in Figs. 94 and 95. a Fig. 93.
and a′ are respectively the plan and side view of the most
common form. Two inclined planes i n and d c are
formed on the left-hand and under sides. The point
on which they terminate is cut off square, a cutting
edge, which is more or less acute according to the
metal to be operated upon, being obtained by a
third incline c n. The width of the square cutting Fig. 94.
edge, indicated at n in figure a, varies according to
the metal to be operated upon, as well as this incline c n. It is advisable to
be provided with at least half-a-dozen cutters of this form, with edges of
varying width and inclination, and even this number is often found
insufficient; cutters for steel should never be used in turning brass.
Page 228
A cutter may be sharpened in the usual manner
for ordinary work; but if it is desired to produce
very smooth sinks, etc., one that has been
carefully polished must be used for the final cut.
The blade should cut with both its edges; the
straight edge will serve to form right-angled
corners of sinks, while the other edge will form
bevels. It is hardly necessary to add that, when a
Fig. 95.
square corner formed by the first of these edges
requires to be beveled by the second, the lathe
must rotate in the opposite direction and the cutter be passed over to the
opposite side of the center.
273. c, in the same figure, is a rounded cutter for making circular
grooves. f, Fig. 95, is for cutting the groove that receives a barrel-cover. j
and v are for forming the “tallow-drop” shoulders of pivot-holes, etc.
It will doubtless be observed that these cutters would form nipples that
are dome-shaped and relatively somewhat high, and, for small pivot-holes,
the blade would require to be narrower and of a shape that corresponds with
the nipple it is desired to produce. l is for rounding off angles. s is a
convenient shape for smoothing the bottom of a barrel without damage to
the hook. t has a square point; it is used narrow for cutting, for example, the
passage under the escape-wheel cock in a cylinder watch, and, when made
wider, will serve to cut the settings for jewels. In the latter case it may either
be square at the end or a little rounded at the corners.
In addition to the use indicated above, v can be employed for raising the
edge of a jewel setting.
274. Sharpening slide-rest tools. A flat surface turned in the lathe will
never be even unless the cutting face n in a Fig. 94, is smooth, and indeed
polished, and its edge parallel to the face-plate. Some care is therefore
necessary in sharpening this face. The requisite parallelism can be secured
by the following method.
275. Sharpen the tool while it is held in the tool represented in Fig. 96.
On a thick brass plate l and parallel to its plane at one extremity b, a plate
p is pivoted. The inclination of p to l can be varied and it is fixed in any
for ordinary work; but if it is desired to produce
very smooth sinks, etc., one that has been
carefully polished must be used for the final cut.
The blade should cut with both its edges; the
straight edge will serve to form right-angled
corners of sinks, while the other edge will form
bevels. It is hardly necessary to add that, when a
Fig. 95.
square corner formed by the first of these edges
requires to be beveled by the second, the lathe
must rotate in the opposite direction and the cutter be passed over to the
opposite side of the center.
273. c, in the same figure, is a rounded cutter for making circular
grooves. f, Fig. 95, is for cutting the groove that receives a barrel-cover. j
and v are for forming the “tallow-drop” shoulders of pivot-holes, etc.
It will doubtless be observed that these cutters would form nipples that
are dome-shaped and relatively somewhat high, and, for small pivot-holes,
the blade would require to be narrower and of a shape that corresponds with
the nipple it is desired to produce. l is for rounding off angles. s is a
convenient shape for smoothing the bottom of a barrel without damage to
the hook. t has a square point; it is used narrow for cutting, for example, the
passage under the escape-wheel cock in a cylinder watch, and, when made
wider, will serve to cut the settings for jewels. In the latter case it may either
be square at the end or a little rounded at the corners.
In addition to the use indicated above, v can be employed for raising the
edge of a jewel setting.
274. Sharpening slide-rest tools. A flat surface turned in the lathe will
never be even unless the cutting face n in a Fig. 94, is smooth, and indeed
polished, and its edge parallel to the face-plate. Some care is therefore
necessary in sharpening this face. The requisite parallelism can be secured
by the following method.
275. Sharpen the tool while it is held in the tool represented in Fig. 96.
On a thick brass plate l and parallel to its plane at one extremity b, a plate
p is pivoted. The inclination of p to l can be varied and it is fixed in any
Page 229
required position by the curved arc passing under the
clamping screw j.
A small bar c is fixed to l with its edge set
accurately at right angles to the line at b′ in which the
two planes intersect. An examination of the figure will
suffice to indicate the manner in which such a tool is
used. Having set p so that it makes with l the angle to
be given to the cutting face, the cutter b is held against
the bar c, where it may be fixed with a screw v, or in
any convenient manner, taking care to leave the
portion of the cutter that is to be removed projecting
Fig. 96. beyond the face of p as shown at b′. Now pass a piece
of smooth oilstone or disc of steel charged with
oilstone dust over the face of p until the projecting portion is removed; if a
polished face is required, this must be succeeded by a bronze or ground
glass disc charged with rouge. If the plate p is of sufficient dimensions, it
will not be distorted, even though only made of hammered brass; but it
would of course be better made of steel, hardened if possible.
276. If the watchmaker will make a rectangular holder to fit in his tool
post, with a square groove planed in its upper side that will fit some
particular size of tool steel, say one-fourth or three-sixteenths of an inch, he
can then buy bar steel of that size and make his cutters by simply cutting off
a piece from the bar and grinding one end to the desired shapes and angles,
thus saving a vast amount of time and labor in the preparation of his tools,
facilitating their rapid interchange in the tool post, when working, and
securing the greatest possible rigidity of the tool, as the cutting edge
projects from the holder only far enough to allow the holder to clear the
work.
G RAVERS AND O T HE R HA ND- T UR NING TO O L S .
277. Hooked gravers. It is needless to do more than mention the gravers
that some watchmakers are in the habit of making of worn-out files, of
various forms to suit their special requirements; but we would remind
learners that care is essential in fixing the position of the rest and the
clamping screw j.
A small bar c is fixed to l with its edge set
accurately at right angles to the line at b′ in which the
two planes intersect. An examination of the figure will
suffice to indicate the manner in which such a tool is
used. Having set p so that it makes with l the angle to
be given to the cutting face, the cutter b is held against
the bar c, where it may be fixed with a screw v, or in
any convenient manner, taking care to leave the
portion of the cutter that is to be removed projecting
Fig. 96. beyond the face of p as shown at b′. Now pass a piece
of smooth oilstone or disc of steel charged with
oilstone dust over the face of p until the projecting portion is removed; if a
polished face is required, this must be succeeded by a bronze or ground
glass disc charged with rouge. If the plate p is of sufficient dimensions, it
will not be distorted, even though only made of hammered brass; but it
would of course be better made of steel, hardened if possible.
276. If the watchmaker will make a rectangular holder to fit in his tool
post, with a square groove planed in its upper side that will fit some
particular size of tool steel, say one-fourth or three-sixteenths of an inch, he
can then buy bar steel of that size and make his cutters by simply cutting off
a piece from the bar and grinding one end to the desired shapes and angles,
thus saving a vast amount of time and labor in the preparation of his tools,
facilitating their rapid interchange in the tool post, when working, and
securing the greatest possible rigidity of the tool, as the cutting edge
projects from the holder only far enough to allow the holder to clear the
work.
G RAVERS AND O T HE R HA ND- T UR NING TO O L S .
277. Hooked gravers. It is needless to do more than mention the gravers
that some watchmakers are in the habit of making of worn-out files, of
various forms to suit their special requirements; but we would remind
learners that care is essential in fixing the position of the rest and the
Page 230
inclination that has to be given to the tool so as to obtain a smooth surface,
and at the same time a rapid removal of metal.
The most usual forms of the hooked graver are shown in Fig. 97. a will
serve to hollow out a plate, barrel, etc.; b for turning the bottom of a barrel
without touching the hook; c for forming a barrel-cover groove after it has
been roughed out with an ordinary graver. The bottom of a barrel can also
be turned with a graver of the form d held on the T-rest at right angles to
the bottom, and a slide-rest cutter can be made of this form with advantage.
Fig. 97.
Some workmen incline the end cutting face of a slightly backwards from
the perpendicular to d d, fearing lest, in sharpening, it should accidentally
be made to incline in the other direction, and so make it difficult to form
internal square corners.
278. Gravers for turning square shoulders, etc. Very few watchmakers
are able to finish off a square shoulder by using a graver with the usual
point; as a rule, when they are smoothing the surface of the pivot they allow
the point to cut a ring in the shoulder, and if, instead of being sharp, the
point is dull, a rough groove is the result.
To avoid such a fault it is a common practice to employ gravers with very
short faces, but their inconvenience is evident. It is much better to retain the
long lozenge-shaped face, but with the point modified, as indicated by b or
c, Fig. 98.
The ordinary point, shown at a, can be used for cutting the back slope of
a shoulder, b for forming the square-shouldered pivot, and c for beveled
shoulders. The inclination of the face e d of b may vary, the angle e being
more or less acute, according as more or less use is required to be made of
and at the same time a rapid removal of metal.
The most usual forms of the hooked graver are shown in Fig. 97. a will
serve to hollow out a plate, barrel, etc.; b for turning the bottom of a barrel
without touching the hook; c for forming a barrel-cover groove after it has
been roughed out with an ordinary graver. The bottom of a barrel can also
be turned with a graver of the form d held on the T-rest at right angles to
the bottom, and a slide-rest cutter can be made of this form with advantage.
Fig. 97.
Some workmen incline the end cutting face of a slightly backwards from
the perpendicular to d d, fearing lest, in sharpening, it should accidentally
be made to incline in the other direction, and so make it difficult to form
internal square corners.
278. Gravers for turning square shoulders, etc. Very few watchmakers
are able to finish off a square shoulder by using a graver with the usual
point; as a rule, when they are smoothing the surface of the pivot they allow
the point to cut a ring in the shoulder, and if, instead of being sharp, the
point is dull, a rough groove is the result.
To avoid such a fault it is a common practice to employ gravers with very
short faces, but their inconvenience is evident. It is much better to retain the
long lozenge-shaped face, but with the point modified, as indicated by b or
c, Fig. 98.
The ordinary point, shown at a, can be used for cutting the back slope of
a shoulder, b for forming the square-shouldered pivot, and c for beveled
shoulders. The inclination of the face e d of b may vary, the angle e being
more or less acute, according as more or less use is required to be made of
Page 231
the point. This form of graver has the double advantage that a pivot can be
turned and smoothed at one operation, very little polishing being needed.
Moreover, the point is less fragile, and such a graver combines the
advantages of those with pointed and square ends.
Fig. 98.
The length of this small face depends on the work required of it, thus for
making a cylinder pivot it may be about a third the length of the pivot; this
is found convenient for ensuring that the pivot shall be of uniform diameter.
The direction to be given to the face is indicated by the dotted line e d, and
a lozenge-shaped graver is preferable to one of square section for this
purpose. This direction e d is very important, and frequent trials should be
made so as to ensure its being always produced. The form c for beveling off
a shoulder does not call for explanation.
Although of less importance than when turning with the slide-rest, the
cutting angle of the graver should correspond with the nature of the metal
operated on. In reference to this question see article 270.
279. Spherical turning tool. A very simple and convenient tool for
forming a sphere of metal may be made by taking a hardened steel tube
whose internal diameter is less than that of the sphere to be produced. This
is ground square and flat at one end, and sharpened by rubbing this flat end
on an oilstone. The tool is moved about over the surface of the ball,
previously roughed out, and a perfect sphere will soon be obtained, the
metal being removed by the internal edge of the tube. If a steel tube is not
accessible it will be enough to drill a hole in the end of a softened worn-out
file, subsequently hardening it.
turned and smoothed at one operation, very little polishing being needed.
Moreover, the point is less fragile, and such a graver combines the
advantages of those with pointed and square ends.
Fig. 98.
The length of this small face depends on the work required of it, thus for
making a cylinder pivot it may be about a third the length of the pivot; this
is found convenient for ensuring that the pivot shall be of uniform diameter.
The direction to be given to the face is indicated by the dotted line e d, and
a lozenge-shaped graver is preferable to one of square section for this
purpose. This direction e d is very important, and frequent trials should be
made so as to ensure its being always produced. The form c for beveling off
a shoulder does not call for explanation.
Although of less importance than when turning with the slide-rest, the
cutting angle of the graver should correspond with the nature of the metal
operated on. In reference to this question see article 270.
279. Spherical turning tool. A very simple and convenient tool for
forming a sphere of metal may be made by taking a hardened steel tube
whose internal diameter is less than that of the sphere to be produced. This
is ground square and flat at one end, and sharpened by rubbing this flat end
on an oilstone. The tool is moved about over the surface of the ball,
previously roughed out, and a perfect sphere will soon be obtained, the
metal being removed by the internal edge of the tube. If a steel tube is not
accessible it will be enough to drill a hole in the end of a softened worn-out
file, subsequently hardening it.
Page 232
DRI L L S.
280. The forms ordinarily adopted for the blades of
drills are shows at a and c, Fig. 99. The form c is best
suited for perforating brass and other metals having a
similar degree of hardness. The blade must not be too
thick, as, if it were, there would not be a sufficient
cutting edge. As the hardness of the metal operated on
is greater, the thickness of the blade must
proportionately increase, or what amounts to the
Fig. 99. same, the two slopes that give the cutting edges must
have a less degree of inclination. If this condition of
sufficient thickness be satisfied by a drill of the form c, it will perforate
steel very well, but its point will rapidly wear. When operating on this
metal, therefore, the form a is preferable, especially when the steel is at all
hard. Such a drill with the corners rounded off and sharpened will last for a
long time, if the cutting angles are not too acute. If the metal is not hard,
more rapid progress may be made by adopting a blade less flattened than a,
that is to say, something intermediate between a and c.
A drill may be asserted to be good if it satisfies the following conditions:
the point must be in the middle of the blade; it must be made of good steel
that is carefully hardened, without being heated beyond the proper
temperature; lastly, it must be quite true—in other words, in rotating it must
run with sufficient truth throughout its entire length, so that it withstands
the end pressure required to cause it to bite, and does not bend.
281. It must not be forgotten that: (1) if a drill is driven too rapidly it will
heat, and thus become softened as though too much tempered; it is with a
view to prevent this that, when operating upon iron or steel, many workmen
now and then dip the drill into a cold liquid (turpentine is good for this
purpose), dry it, and recommence drilling, the hole being liberally supplied
with oil; (2) when the blade is left too hard, the cutting edge too acute, or if
a feather edge has been left by the oilstone, small hard particles that are
detached from the drill will embed themselves in the hole, and this will be
especially the case if it is worked too rapidly or with jerks; such particles
render the operation of drilling very slow and difficult.
280. The forms ordinarily adopted for the blades of
drills are shows at a and c, Fig. 99. The form c is best
suited for perforating brass and other metals having a
similar degree of hardness. The blade must not be too
thick, as, if it were, there would not be a sufficient
cutting edge. As the hardness of the metal operated on
is greater, the thickness of the blade must
proportionately increase, or what amounts to the
Fig. 99. same, the two slopes that give the cutting edges must
have a less degree of inclination. If this condition of
sufficient thickness be satisfied by a drill of the form c, it will perforate
steel very well, but its point will rapidly wear. When operating on this
metal, therefore, the form a is preferable, especially when the steel is at all
hard. Such a drill with the corners rounded off and sharpened will last for a
long time, if the cutting angles are not too acute. If the metal is not hard,
more rapid progress may be made by adopting a blade less flattened than a,
that is to say, something intermediate between a and c.
A drill may be asserted to be good if it satisfies the following conditions:
the point must be in the middle of the blade; it must be made of good steel
that is carefully hardened, without being heated beyond the proper
temperature; lastly, it must be quite true—in other words, in rotating it must
run with sufficient truth throughout its entire length, so that it withstands
the end pressure required to cause it to bite, and does not bend.
281. It must not be forgotten that: (1) if a drill is driven too rapidly it will
heat, and thus become softened as though too much tempered; it is with a
view to prevent this that, when operating upon iron or steel, many workmen
now and then dip the drill into a cold liquid (turpentine is good for this
purpose), dry it, and recommence drilling, the hole being liberally supplied
with oil; (2) when the blade is left too hard, the cutting edge too acute, or if
a feather edge has been left by the oilstone, small hard particles that are
detached from the drill will embed themselves in the hole, and this will be
especially the case if it is worked too rapidly or with jerks; such particles
render the operation of drilling very slow and difficult.
Page 233
282. To drill steel of a blue temper. At first not much difficulty will be
experienced; but when the drill reaches a certain depth and the metal seems
to oppose a gradually increasing resistance, the operation must at once be
stopped. If the blade of the drill be now examined with a glass, it will be
easy to see which points have ceased to cut, producing instead a series of
bright rings at the bottom of the hole that are very difficult to remove.
Exchange the drill for one of a different form or, without reducing its width,
change the form of the blade; if it was arrow-headed for example, make it a
semicircle, or semi-oval, or chisel-shaped with sloping edges. All that is
essential is that the form be so changed that the bright portions of the
surface shall be gradually removed, and that no attempt be made to act on
the whole bright surface at once. Until this hard portion is removed, the
blade will require frequent sharpening.
Some authorities recommend that the hole be moistened from time to
time with dilute nitric acid, which is then washed off, and renewed when a
shiny surface is produced. Oil can with advantage be replaced by turpentine
as a lubricant for the drill blade.
The formation of hard shining surfaces is attributed to three causes: (1) to
the cutting edge being rounded, rolling as it were and hardening the surface
of the metal against which it continues to move; (2) to the drill being made
of bad steel or imperfectly hardened, so that small particles break off and
are embedded in the metal operated upon; and (3) to a deficiency in the
supply of oil, or an excessive velocity of rotation of the drill.
These difficulties may usually be avoided by observing the following
precautions:
283. Blade of the drill. This should be
neither as thin nor as acute as is used for
drilling brass. Its angle should never be
less than 100° and the incline should be at
Fig. 100. about 45°. The forms generally employed
are shown in Fig. 100, at a, b and c. At
first the form a is used, and, as the
operation progresses, it is modified with an oilstone slip.
284. Drilling slowly with considerable pressure. If the drill rotates too
rapidly or there is not sufficient oil, the surfaces of contact will be heated
experienced; but when the drill reaches a certain depth and the metal seems
to oppose a gradually increasing resistance, the operation must at once be
stopped. If the blade of the drill be now examined with a glass, it will be
easy to see which points have ceased to cut, producing instead a series of
bright rings at the bottom of the hole that are very difficult to remove.
Exchange the drill for one of a different form or, without reducing its width,
change the form of the blade; if it was arrow-headed for example, make it a
semicircle, or semi-oval, or chisel-shaped with sloping edges. All that is
essential is that the form be so changed that the bright portions of the
surface shall be gradually removed, and that no attempt be made to act on
the whole bright surface at once. Until this hard portion is removed, the
blade will require frequent sharpening.
Some authorities recommend that the hole be moistened from time to
time with dilute nitric acid, which is then washed off, and renewed when a
shiny surface is produced. Oil can with advantage be replaced by turpentine
as a lubricant for the drill blade.
The formation of hard shining surfaces is attributed to three causes: (1) to
the cutting edge being rounded, rolling as it were and hardening the surface
of the metal against which it continues to move; (2) to the drill being made
of bad steel or imperfectly hardened, so that small particles break off and
are embedded in the metal operated upon; and (3) to a deficiency in the
supply of oil, or an excessive velocity of rotation of the drill.
These difficulties may usually be avoided by observing the following
precautions:
283. Blade of the drill. This should be
neither as thin nor as acute as is used for
drilling brass. Its angle should never be
less than 100° and the incline should be at
Fig. 100. about 45°. The forms generally employed
are shown in Fig. 100, at a, b and c. At
first the form a is used, and, as the
operation progresses, it is modified with an oilstone slip.
284. Drilling slowly with considerable pressure. If the drill rotates too
rapidly or there is not sufficient oil, the surfaces of contact will be heated
Page 234
and shining rings will form. It is well to practice slightly, varying the speed
of the wheel, in accordance with the pressure applied; the speed should be
more decided when the pressure is, for the instant comparatively great. With
continuous rotation, considerable pressure should be applied with moderate
velocity. Constantly remove the drill to sharpen, clean the hole and have an
abundant supply of oil. Whatever liquid is most effective in maintaining the
drill cool will probably be the best; turpentine is better than oil, since it has
the additional advantage of increasing the “bite” of the drill.
285. The part against which the drill acts should be very rigid. For
example, if a hole is being made for a pivot in a cylinder plug which is not
provided with a shellac backing, and is, therefore, flexible, the operation
will be more tedious than when the cylinder is filled with shellac. The
firmness is usually greater when the object is centered about the point to
which the drill is applied.
286. Making the drill. The very best steel should be used, and the
precautions indicated in article 87 should be taken in the hardening. If the
steel is burnt in this process, no satisfactory results are to be expected of it.
To avoid such a danger it is often advisable to leave the blade nearly round
and thicker than is required, finishing with a piece of oilstone. Although
somewhat more tedious, this method has the advantage of ensuring that,
after hardening, all the metal that is most liable to have been burnt is
removed.
The drill must be short, the blade being thick and not much reduced at the
shoulder, in order to stand pressure when in use. A drill that has been
several times hardened is rarely good.
287. Finished drills. We would here draw the attention of watchmakers
to some beautifully made drills that have been introduced and are known in
the trade as “finished” drills, in contra-distinction to the well known pivot
drills that are always sold in the rough. They are of two forms,
corresponding to a and c, Fig. 99, for steel and brass respectively; they are
made of the best steel, carefully hardened and tempered to the requisite
degree; and a principal recommendation consists in the fact that, while
being moderate in price, they are of definite graduated sizes, extending
from 0.1 mm. to 2.5 mm. (0.004 to 0.1 inch), a range which comprises 37
distinct sizes.
of the wheel, in accordance with the pressure applied; the speed should be
more decided when the pressure is, for the instant comparatively great. With
continuous rotation, considerable pressure should be applied with moderate
velocity. Constantly remove the drill to sharpen, clean the hole and have an
abundant supply of oil. Whatever liquid is most effective in maintaining the
drill cool will probably be the best; turpentine is better than oil, since it has
the additional advantage of increasing the “bite” of the drill.
285. The part against which the drill acts should be very rigid. For
example, if a hole is being made for a pivot in a cylinder plug which is not
provided with a shellac backing, and is, therefore, flexible, the operation
will be more tedious than when the cylinder is filled with shellac. The
firmness is usually greater when the object is centered about the point to
which the drill is applied.
286. Making the drill. The very best steel should be used, and the
precautions indicated in article 87 should be taken in the hardening. If the
steel is burnt in this process, no satisfactory results are to be expected of it.
To avoid such a danger it is often advisable to leave the blade nearly round
and thicker than is required, finishing with a piece of oilstone. Although
somewhat more tedious, this method has the advantage of ensuring that,
after hardening, all the metal that is most liable to have been burnt is
removed.
The drill must be short, the blade being thick and not much reduced at the
shoulder, in order to stand pressure when in use. A drill that has been
several times hardened is rarely good.
287. Finished drills. We would here draw the attention of watchmakers
to some beautifully made drills that have been introduced and are known in
the trade as “finished” drills, in contra-distinction to the well known pivot
drills that are always sold in the rough. They are of two forms,
corresponding to a and c, Fig. 99, for steel and brass respectively; they are
made of the best steel, carefully hardened and tempered to the requisite
degree; and a principal recommendation consists in the fact that, while
being moderate in price, they are of definite graduated sizes, extending
from 0.1 mm. to 2.5 mm. (0.004 to 0.1 inch), a range which comprises 37
distinct sizes.
Page 235
288. Semi-cylindrical drills. These drills give excellent results when
driven by a wheel, and, although they have been long in use by engineers,
they are hardly known to watchmakers.
The simplest form is a cylindrical rod rounded at its
end and then filed down to a trifle less than half its
thickness, as seen at b d and l i, Fig. 101.
The length of the point is greater or less according
to the nature of the metal to be operated upon, but
under no circumstances must the point itself be sharp.
With the form shown at b d, some of the rod that is
left cylindrical must be partially filed away; a better
shape is indicated by the dotted lines, all the metal Fig. 101.
being removed that is outside the line i l. With such a
drill the hole is smoothed immediately after it is made by one or the other
cutting edge of the portion i l. It should be sharpened on the round, not on
the flat surface (or at any rate very slightly), because the thickness would be
rapidly reduced and the blade made smaller. When such a drill does not turn
true the back of the blade can be reduced, starting from the cutting edge, it
being observed that, with the continuous motion of the wheel, only one
edge acts. After a few trials it will be found easy to use this form of drill.
It possesses this very great advantage: when fixed in a drill-chuck, it can
be turned exactly round, of the required diameter and finished; so that,
whenever replaced in the chuck, one can be certain beforehand that the hole
drilled will be of a definite diameter.
289. Fig. 102, shows, at c and d, another form of semi-
cylindrical drill; the first, c, is a front and the second a
side view. The angle a is formed by a sloping semicircle
and the stem of the drill is of less diameter than the head,
as indicated by the shoulder j. The angle t s r and the one
between the face d and the plane b a must not be too
acute.
This drill works evenly, but two conditions must be
Fig. 102. satisfied; it must be maintained perfectly true by the
chuck, and, in commencing, both sides of the blade must
driven by a wheel, and, although they have been long in use by engineers,
they are hardly known to watchmakers.
The simplest form is a cylindrical rod rounded at its
end and then filed down to a trifle less than half its
thickness, as seen at b d and l i, Fig. 101.
The length of the point is greater or less according
to the nature of the metal to be operated upon, but
under no circumstances must the point itself be sharp.
With the form shown at b d, some of the rod that is
left cylindrical must be partially filed away; a better
shape is indicated by the dotted lines, all the metal Fig. 101.
being removed that is outside the line i l. With such a
drill the hole is smoothed immediately after it is made by one or the other
cutting edge of the portion i l. It should be sharpened on the round, not on
the flat surface (or at any rate very slightly), because the thickness would be
rapidly reduced and the blade made smaller. When such a drill does not turn
true the back of the blade can be reduced, starting from the cutting edge, it
being observed that, with the continuous motion of the wheel, only one
edge acts. After a few trials it will be found easy to use this form of drill.
It possesses this very great advantage: when fixed in a drill-chuck, it can
be turned exactly round, of the required diameter and finished; so that,
whenever replaced in the chuck, one can be certain beforehand that the hole
drilled will be of a definite diameter.
289. Fig. 102, shows, at c and d, another form of semi-
cylindrical drill; the first, c, is a front and the second a
side view. The angle a is formed by a sloping semicircle
and the stem of the drill is of less diameter than the head,
as indicated by the shoulder j. The angle t s r and the one
between the face d and the plane b a must not be too
acute.
This drill works evenly, but two conditions must be
Fig. 102. satisfied; it must be maintained perfectly true by the
chuck, and, in commencing, both sides of the blade must
Page 236
engage against the sides of a conical opening that forms the beginning of a
hole which has to be enlarged.
290. At f and n m, Fig. 103, are seen front and side
views of another form of drill. While acting in a similar
manner to the others described above, it differs from them
in that the blade also cuts with its two sides; the edges, p,
i, i, o, are sloped off backwards to form cutting angles.
The shape is indicated to the right of m, this portion being
the exact inverse of the side n.
As with the drills previously considered, a few trials Fig. 103.
must be made to decide upon the best slopes for the
cutting angles, etc., according to the metal operated upon.
They may be retained as left by the lathe, or very slightly inclined, on the
faces p and i. All these forms of drills require to be mounted so as to run
very true. The point o must be accurately central. A hole that has been
already drilled small can be rapidly enlarged by such a drill as this last, the
pin o, having the same diameter as the one originally drilled.
291. The Twist Drill. The Morse twist drill, shown in Fig. 104,
is rapidly coming into favor with watchmakers for the heavier
classes of work, and is very desirable when drilling deeply, as this
form of drill heats slowly and the particles are carried to the
surface of the work. A large range of sizes in these drills are now
carried in stock by the material dealers.
Fig.
104.
L AT HE AT TACHME NT S .
292. Tailstocks. Besides the regular tailstock which accompanies the
American lathe there are several other varieties made for use on special
kinds of work. Fig. 105 illustrates the half open tailstock which is cut away
so that the spindles can be laid in, instead of being passed through the holes.
hole which has to be enlarged.
290. At f and n m, Fig. 103, are seen front and side
views of another form of drill. While acting in a similar
manner to the others described above, it differs from them
in that the blade also cuts with its two sides; the edges, p,
i, i, o, are sloped off backwards to form cutting angles.
The shape is indicated to the right of m, this portion being
the exact inverse of the side n.
As with the drills previously considered, a few trials Fig. 103.
must be made to decide upon the best slopes for the
cutting angles, etc., according to the metal operated upon.
They may be retained as left by the lathe, or very slightly inclined, on the
faces p and i. All these forms of drills require to be mounted so as to run
very true. The point o must be accurately central. A hole that has been
already drilled small can be rapidly enlarged by such a drill as this last, the
pin o, having the same diameter as the one originally drilled.
291. The Twist Drill. The Morse twist drill, shown in Fig. 104,
is rapidly coming into favor with watchmakers for the heavier
classes of work, and is very desirable when drilling deeply, as this
form of drill heats slowly and the particles are carried to the
surface of the work. A large range of sizes in these drills are now
carried in stock by the material dealers.
Fig.
104.
L AT HE AT TACHME NT S .
292. Tailstocks. Besides the regular tailstock which accompanies the
American lathe there are several other varieties made for use on special
kinds of work. Fig. 105 illustrates the half open tailstock which is cut away
so that the spindles can be laid in, instead of being passed through the holes.
Page 237
The fixture will be found exceedingly convenient when several spindles are
to be used for drilling, counterboring and chamfering. Fig. 106 illustrates
the screw tailstock, an attachment which is very convenient for all kinds of
heavy drilling, the spindle being moved by a screw with hand-wheel
attached. Fig. 107 illustrates the traverse spindle tailstock, which will be
found very convenient for straight drilling and especially where the
watchmaker has considerable drilling to do.
Fig. 105.
Fig. 106.
to be used for drilling, counterboring and chamfering. Fig. 106 illustrates
the screw tailstock, an attachment which is very convenient for all kinds of
heavy drilling, the spindle being moved by a screw with hand-wheel
attached. Fig. 107 illustrates the traverse spindle tailstock, which will be
found very convenient for straight drilling and especially where the
watchmaker has considerable drilling to do.
Fig. 105.
Fig. 106.
Page 238
Fig. 107.
293. Jeweling Caliper
Rest. Although this tool
was invented and
manufactured for the
purpose of cutting jewel
settings it may be used to
great advantage in
countersinking for screw
heads, opening wheels for
pinions or bushings, etc.
The sliding jaws of the
calipers should be so
adjusted that when the
swinging part is brought
back snugly against them,
the front cutting edge of the
cutter in the sliding spindle
Fig. 108. will exactly line with the
center of the lathe spindle.
Then if the calipers are at the right height, when a jewel or jewel setting is
placed in the jaws of the caliper it will move the edge of the cutter outward
from the lathe center just half the diameter of the jewel then in the caliper
and the cutting made at that distance from the center will exactly coincide
with the size of the jewel to be set. If however, when set and worked as
above, it is found that the hole cut is too large for the jewel, it will indicate
293. Jeweling Caliper
Rest. Although this tool
was invented and
manufactured for the
purpose of cutting jewel
settings it may be used to
great advantage in
countersinking for screw
heads, opening wheels for
pinions or bushings, etc.
The sliding jaws of the
calipers should be so
adjusted that when the
swinging part is brought
back snugly against them,
the front cutting edge of the
cutter in the sliding spindle
Fig. 108. will exactly line with the
center of the lathe spindle.
Then if the calipers are at the right height, when a jewel or jewel setting is
placed in the jaws of the caliper it will move the edge of the cutter outward
from the lathe center just half the diameter of the jewel then in the caliper
and the cutting made at that distance from the center will exactly coincide
with the size of the jewel to be set. If however, when set and worked as
above, it is found that the hole cut is too large for the jewel, it will indicate
Page 239
that the calipers are too low down and should be raised, provision for which
is made in the construction of the tool. Upon the other hand, if the cutting is
found too small to fit, it will indicate the calipers should be lowered. The
final cutting for the jewel seat should be made by running the center straight
inward from the face of the plate; the adjustable stop screw on the back end
of the sliding spindle, serving to gauge the depth of the cutting.
Fig. 109.
Fig. 110.
is made in the construction of the tool. Upon the other hand, if the cutting is
found too small to fit, it will indicate the calipers should be lowered. The
final cutting for the jewel seat should be made by running the center straight
inward from the face of the plate; the adjustable stop screw on the back end
of the sliding spindle, serving to gauge the depth of the cutting.
Fig. 109.
Fig. 110.
Page 240
Fig. 111.
Fig. 112.
294. Pivot Polishers. The pivot polisher is used for grinding and
polishing conical and straight pivots and shoulders. It is also used for
drilling, polishing or snailing steel wheels, milling out odd places in plate or
bridge, where only a part of a circle is to be removed, etc. In the style
shown in Fig. 109, the American Watch Tool Co.’s polisher, and Fig. 110,
the Moseley pattern, the circular base is graduated to degrees and the fixture
can be set at any angle. The spindle has a taper hole for drill chucks, which
makes the fixture very useful for drilling either in the center or eccentric
and by using the graduations on the pulley of the headstock an accurately
spaced circle of holes may be drilled. Fig. 111 illustrates the polisher made
by the Faneuil Watch Tool Company, and is intended to be mounted on the
slide rest. Fig. 112 illustrates the Johanson pivot polisher and in general
principle is like the others. This style is made both for use on the slide rest
and also for the hand rest. When used in the latter, a stud, shown in Fig.
Fig. 112.
294. Pivot Polishers. The pivot polisher is used for grinding and
polishing conical and straight pivots and shoulders. It is also used for
drilling, polishing or snailing steel wheels, milling out odd places in plate or
bridge, where only a part of a circle is to be removed, etc. In the style
shown in Fig. 109, the American Watch Tool Co.’s polisher, and Fig. 110,
the Moseley pattern, the circular base is graduated to degrees and the fixture
can be set at any angle. The spindle has a taper hole for drill chucks, which
makes the fixture very useful for drilling either in the center or eccentric
and by using the graduations on the pulley of the headstock an accurately
spaced circle of holes may be drilled. Fig. 111 illustrates the polisher made
by the Faneuil Watch Tool Company, and is intended to be mounted on the
slide rest. Fig. 112 illustrates the Johanson pivot polisher and in general
principle is like the others. This style is made both for use on the slide rest
and also for the hand rest. When used in the latter, a stud, shown in Fig.
Page 241
113, is screwed into the base plate and supports the tool in the hand rest, so
as to be readily adjustable in any direction. When used in the slide rest, this
stud is removed and the plate clamped between two hollow cylindrical
supports by a stud which is slipped into the groove of the slide rest and
fasted by a nut at the top, the whole forming a turret-like mount of great
strength and upon which the machine can be readily swiveled in any
direction. In general, polishers are used as follows: After the pivot is turned
to proper shape, put on your polisher, with the lap back of the pivot, usually
the cast iron lap first. A square-cornered lap for square shoulders and a
round-cornered lap for conical pivots. The laps for conical pivots can be
readily cornered with a fine file, and cross-ground with fine oilstone to
remove any lines made by graver or files. Lines on the end can be removed
the same way, or by means of the fingers often rubbing them on a piece of
ground glass which has on it a paste of oilstone powder and oil, well mixed.
Oilstone powder and oil used on the lap, or No. 1 crocus will rough out the
work well. When roughed out to your liking, wipe off the oilstone powder
or crocus and with a little oil touch the pivot gently; repeat the second time.
Then change lap for one of boxwood or brass and use crocus No. 4, very
fine, and ground down to a paste. Proceed as with the first lap, being careful
at all times to keep the lap properly oiled and not pressed too hard against
the work, particularly in the last operation. Be sparing of your grinding and
polishing material as a little will accomplish as much work as a large
quantity and do it better. Bring the lap up carefully against the work until
spread all the way around, then proceed, bearing in mind that grinding is
not polishing, and that to polish nicely the work and lap must be very nearly
the same shape. Fig. 114 illustrates the Hardinge pivot polisher, which is a
hand polisher and much more simple in construction and use than those
mentioned above. It is attached to the lathe bed the same as the T or hand
rest. Polishing and grinding slips are furnished with this attachment, as with
the others.
as to be readily adjustable in any direction. When used in the slide rest, this
stud is removed and the plate clamped between two hollow cylindrical
supports by a stud which is slipped into the groove of the slide rest and
fasted by a nut at the top, the whole forming a turret-like mount of great
strength and upon which the machine can be readily swiveled in any
direction. In general, polishers are used as follows: After the pivot is turned
to proper shape, put on your polisher, with the lap back of the pivot, usually
the cast iron lap first. A square-cornered lap for square shoulders and a
round-cornered lap for conical pivots. The laps for conical pivots can be
readily cornered with a fine file, and cross-ground with fine oilstone to
remove any lines made by graver or files. Lines on the end can be removed
the same way, or by means of the fingers often rubbing them on a piece of
ground glass which has on it a paste of oilstone powder and oil, well mixed.
Oilstone powder and oil used on the lap, or No. 1 crocus will rough out the
work well. When roughed out to your liking, wipe off the oilstone powder
or crocus and with a little oil touch the pivot gently; repeat the second time.
Then change lap for one of boxwood or brass and use crocus No. 4, very
fine, and ground down to a paste. Proceed as with the first lap, being careful
at all times to keep the lap properly oiled and not pressed too hard against
the work, particularly in the last operation. Be sparing of your grinding and
polishing material as a little will accomplish as much work as a large
quantity and do it better. Bring the lap up carefully against the work until
spread all the way around, then proceed, bearing in mind that grinding is
not polishing, and that to polish nicely the work and lap must be very nearly
the same shape. Fig. 114 illustrates the Hardinge pivot polisher, which is a
hand polisher and much more simple in construction and use than those
mentioned above. It is attached to the lathe bed the same as the T or hand
rest. Polishing and grinding slips are furnished with this attachment, as with
the others.
Page 242
Fig. 113.
Fig. 114.
295. Centering Attachments or Back Rests. These attachments are very
useful in rapidly bringing work to an accurate center, when pivoting,
staffing, etc., and particularly where a large number of pieces have to be
Fig. 114.
295. Centering Attachments or Back Rests. These attachments are very
useful in rapidly bringing work to an accurate center, when pivoting,
staffing, etc., and particularly where a large number of pieces have to be
Page 243
centered successively. Fig. 115 illustrates the Potter patent self-centering
lathe attachment which is made to fit any pattern of American lathe.
It consists principally of
the slide bed pieces R and
D, the upright plate A and
the reversible anti-friction
sliding jaws O U V X. The
upright plate A is attached
to the slide D in such a way
that it may be readily raised
or lowered, or adjusted in
any other direction at
pleasure; and may be set
with either side facing the
lathe-head. The sliding
jaws are made of phosphor
bronze anti-friction metal
and four sets, of three in a
set, are furnished with each
attachment, as shown at O,
U, V, X, the forms differing
so they may be adapted to
the various kinds of watch
work, and they are operated
Fig. 115. in radial grooves in the
upright plate A by means of
the rotating lever L, which moves the three jaws in and out, to and from the
center, or opens and closes them in perfect unison. One set of jaws may be
withdrawn and another set substituted therefor in a few moments. With each
change of the jaws, however, the plate A requires readjustment, but this too,
may be done in a few moments, as follows: Having previously provided
yourself with a bit of straight wire or a small steel rod, turned to run
perfectly true in your lathe, and having fastened this in your chuck in the
lathe, loosen the nuts C C, so as to give freedom of movement to the plate
A; then bring the attachment to proper position on the lathe bed and fasten it
there, after which move the sliding jaws inward until they bind tightly on
the piece of straight wire held in the chuck and in this position again tighten
lathe attachment which is made to fit any pattern of American lathe.
It consists principally of
the slide bed pieces R and
D, the upright plate A and
the reversible anti-friction
sliding jaws O U V X. The
upright plate A is attached
to the slide D in such a way
that it may be readily raised
or lowered, or adjusted in
any other direction at
pleasure; and may be set
with either side facing the
lathe-head. The sliding
jaws are made of phosphor
bronze anti-friction metal
and four sets, of three in a
set, are furnished with each
attachment, as shown at O,
U, V, X, the forms differing
so they may be adapted to
the various kinds of watch
work, and they are operated
Fig. 115. in radial grooves in the
upright plate A by means of
the rotating lever L, which moves the three jaws in and out, to and from the
center, or opens and closes them in perfect unison. One set of jaws may be
withdrawn and another set substituted therefor in a few moments. With each
change of the jaws, however, the plate A requires readjustment, but this too,
may be done in a few moments, as follows: Having previously provided
yourself with a bit of straight wire or a small steel rod, turned to run
perfectly true in your lathe, and having fastened this in your chuck in the
lathe, loosen the nuts C C, so as to give freedom of movement to the plate
A; then bring the attachment to proper position on the lathe bed and fasten it
there, after which move the sliding jaws inward until they bind tightly on
the piece of straight wire held in the chuck and in this position again tighten
Page 244
the nuts C C. Once adjusted to accurate center in this way, no further
adjustment, whatever the size of the work to be operated upon, is required,
until you make another change of jaws.
In use, the end of the work to be operated upon is placed in an accurate
split chuck in the lathe, and the chuck tightened on it, just sufficiently to
hold it in place and to rotate it, the other end being supported in the central
bearing, formed by the sliding jaws. In this position the jaws may be opened
or closed as often as desired, and each time they will bring the work to
accurate center.
A similar attachment to the one above described is extensively used by
machinists and is known as the back rest. In principle it is very similar, but
is more simple in construction, and ambitious workmen can make them
without difficulty. This attachment, which is shown in Fig. 116, differs in its
mode of fastening to the lathe bed and the jaws cannot be opened and
closed at one time as in the Potter attachment.
adjustment, whatever the size of the work to be operated upon, is required,
until you make another change of jaws.
In use, the end of the work to be operated upon is placed in an accurate
split chuck in the lathe, and the chuck tightened on it, just sufficiently to
hold it in place and to rotate it, the other end being supported in the central
bearing, formed by the sliding jaws. In this position the jaws may be opened
or closed as often as desired, and each time they will bring the work to
accurate center.
A similar attachment to the one above described is extensively used by
machinists and is known as the back rest. In principle it is very similar, but
is more simple in construction, and ambitious workmen can make them
without difficulty. This attachment, which is shown in Fig. 116, differs in its
mode of fastening to the lathe bed and the jaws cannot be opened and
closed at one time as in the Potter attachment.
Page 245
Fig. 116.
The illustration shows the rest in position on the lathe bed, looking from
the right-hand end of bed; m shows the base, looking from above, in
direction of arrow k; d shows bolt for binding it to the lathe bed. It does not
seem as though it needed much explanation, as it will be readily seen that
the head d of bolt, passes up through the longitudinal slot in the lathe bed,
through the round hole in base of back rest and is slipped back into slot m,
when about half a turn of nut g binds it firmly to the bed. The washer h, on
the end of the binding screw, is riveted or soldered in place and should be
close enough to nut g to allow only about half a turn to loosen the bolt, as
that is sufficient, and more space would occasion a loss of time in running
the nut back and forth to bind or loosen the rest. It will be seen that when
the nut g is slackened, it binds against the washer h, and it will stay there,
The illustration shows the rest in position on the lathe bed, looking from
the right-hand end of bed; m shows the base, looking from above, in
direction of arrow k; d shows bolt for binding it to the lathe bed. It does not
seem as though it needed much explanation, as it will be readily seen that
the head d of bolt, passes up through the longitudinal slot in the lathe bed,
through the round hole in base of back rest and is slipped back into slot m,
when about half a turn of nut g binds it firmly to the bed. The washer h, on
the end of the binding screw, is riveted or soldered in place and should be
close enough to nut g to allow only about half a turn to loosen the bolt, as
that is sufficient, and more space would occasion a loss of time in running
the nut back and forth to bind or loosen the rest. It will be seen that when
the nut g is slackened, it binds against the washer h, and it will stay there,
Page 246
and be just where you want it when you are ready to use it again. The jaws
are of hard brass; about three sets, with points of different widths, will
cover a large range of work. Those shown in Fig. 116 are suitable for such
work as pivoting small French clock pinions, etc. It will be observed that
the jaws are so made that they may be changed by slightly loosening the
screws. The screw heads should have thin steel washers under them.
Fig. 117.
296. Universal Head. The universal
head has entirely superseded the clumsy
universal mandrel in this country. The
example shown in Fig. 117 is more
accurate, less clumsy and complicated and
will perform all the work that can be
performed on the universal mandrel. The
face-plate is 3½ inches in diameter, but by
the use of the two crescent-shaped slots it
will hold anything in size and shape of
watch work. The pump center is operated
from the back by the rubber knob and can
Fig. 118. be used either with or without a spring.
are of hard brass; about three sets, with points of different widths, will
cover a large range of work. Those shown in Fig. 116 are suitable for such
work as pivoting small French clock pinions, etc. It will be observed that
the jaws are so made that they may be changed by slightly loosening the
screws. The screw heads should have thin steel washers under them.
Fig. 117.
296. Universal Head. The universal
head has entirely superseded the clumsy
universal mandrel in this country. The
example shown in Fig. 117 is more
accurate, less clumsy and complicated and
will perform all the work that can be
performed on the universal mandrel. The
face-plate is 3½ inches in diameter, but by
the use of the two crescent-shaped slots it
will hold anything in size and shape of
watch work. The pump center is operated
from the back by the rubber knob and can
Fig. 118. be used either with or without a spring.
Page 247
The jaws, which will pass the center, are held in position on face of plate by
springs and are fastened from the back. Peep holes are provided in these
heads in order that the workman may examine the back of the work at all
times. In the Moseley head, shown in Fig. 117, these holes are of taper
form. Fig. 118 shows a universal face-plate to be used in a chuck in the
lathe. It is smaller and less expensive than the universal head and answers
very well for some work, especially that of the lighter kind, but cannot be
recommended as highly as the universal head, as it is not so accurate. The
pump center is used to center, from the back, any object confined in the
jaws, but it sometimes becomes necessary to mount the object, by means of
wax, upon a plate, and hold the plate in the jaws. In such a case the work
must necessarily be centered from the front. This can be done accurately by
means of a piece of pegwood, as ordinarily done on the lathe, by placing the
point in the center hole and the pegwood resting on the T-rest and observing
if the free end of the pegwood remains stationary.
297. Traverse Spindle Grinder. This tool will be found very useful for
grinding cutters, lathe centers, pump centers, reamers, countersinks,
squaring up barrel arbors after hardening, or work on any hardened steel
tool. In the hands of an ingenious workman, it will be found exceedingly
useful, as by its aid a great variety of work can be performed that cannot be
accomplished without it. Fig. 119 is intended to be attached to the slide rest.
Fig. 119.
298. Milling Fixture. This attachment, which is shown in Fig. 120 is
designed to be fitted to the slide rest and holds the wire chuck vertically
under the center of the lathe, so that articles held in the chucks can be fed
under mills or saws held in the saw arbor in the lathe-head.
299. Wheel Cutters. The wheel cutter is a valuable addition to the lathe.
Several different styles of these attachments are made, each possessing
springs and are fastened from the back. Peep holes are provided in these
heads in order that the workman may examine the back of the work at all
times. In the Moseley head, shown in Fig. 117, these holes are of taper
form. Fig. 118 shows a universal face-plate to be used in a chuck in the
lathe. It is smaller and less expensive than the universal head and answers
very well for some work, especially that of the lighter kind, but cannot be
recommended as highly as the universal head, as it is not so accurate. The
pump center is used to center, from the back, any object confined in the
jaws, but it sometimes becomes necessary to mount the object, by means of
wax, upon a plate, and hold the plate in the jaws. In such a case the work
must necessarily be centered from the front. This can be done accurately by
means of a piece of pegwood, as ordinarily done on the lathe, by placing the
point in the center hole and the pegwood resting on the T-rest and observing
if the free end of the pegwood remains stationary.
297. Traverse Spindle Grinder. This tool will be found very useful for
grinding cutters, lathe centers, pump centers, reamers, countersinks,
squaring up barrel arbors after hardening, or work on any hardened steel
tool. In the hands of an ingenious workman, it will be found exceedingly
useful, as by its aid a great variety of work can be performed that cannot be
accomplished without it. Fig. 119 is intended to be attached to the slide rest.
Fig. 119.
298. Milling Fixture. This attachment, which is shown in Fig. 120 is
designed to be fitted to the slide rest and holds the wire chuck vertically
under the center of the lathe, so that articles held in the chucks can be fed
under mills or saws held in the saw arbor in the lathe-head.
299. Wheel Cutters. The wheel cutter is a valuable addition to the lathe.
Several different styles of these attachments are made, each possessing
Page 248
points of merit. They are designed for
cutting all kinds of wheels and pinions
used in key and stem-wind watches. When
the cutter spindle is vertical the belt runs
directly to it from the countershaft, but
when horizontal, the belt passes over idler
pulleys held above the lathe. One style of
wheel-cutting attachment is shown in Fig.
121, while another style is shown in Fig.
71.
Fig. 120.
Fig. 121.
cutting all kinds of wheels and pinions
used in key and stem-wind watches. When
the cutter spindle is vertical the belt runs
directly to it from the countershaft, but
when horizontal, the belt passes over idler
pulleys held above the lathe. One style of
wheel-cutting attachment is shown in Fig.
121, while another style is shown in Fig.
71.
Fig. 120.
Fig. 121.
Page 249
Fig. 122.
300. Rounding-up Attachment. The Webster rounding up attachment,
shown in Fig. 122, is a very useful adjunct to the lathe. It is attached to the
top of the slide-rest. To operate, a pointed taper chuck is put in the lathe
spindle. The wheel to be rounded up is put into the fixture and the wheel
adjusted vertically so that the point of the lathe center will be at the center
of the thickness of the wheel, after which the lower spindle of the fixture
should not be moved. Now remove the wheel, also the taper chuck, and put
the saw arbor, with the rounding-up center, in the lathe spindle, and adjust
the longitudinal slide of the slide-rest so that the rounding-up cutter will be
back of and in line with the center of the rounding-up fixture, after which
the longitudinal slide of the slide-rest should not be moved. Now put the
wheel and supporting collet in place, and proceed with the rounding-up.
MI SC EL L ANE O US SMA L L TO O L S.
300. Rounding-up Attachment. The Webster rounding up attachment,
shown in Fig. 122, is a very useful adjunct to the lathe. It is attached to the
top of the slide-rest. To operate, a pointed taper chuck is put in the lathe
spindle. The wheel to be rounded up is put into the fixture and the wheel
adjusted vertically so that the point of the lathe center will be at the center
of the thickness of the wheel, after which the lower spindle of the fixture
should not be moved. Now remove the wheel, also the taper chuck, and put
the saw arbor, with the rounding-up center, in the lathe spindle, and adjust
the longitudinal slide of the slide-rest so that the rounding-up cutter will be
back of and in line with the center of the rounding-up fixture, after which
the longitudinal slide of the slide-rest should not be moved. Now put the
wheel and supporting collet in place, and proceed with the rounding-up.
MI SC EL L ANE O US SMA L L TO O L S.
Page 250
301. Screw Head Sink Cutter. This is usually made in the
form of an arbor terminating in a cutting edge similar to the
rose-cutter, but having a projecting pin from its center. This
tool will be found especially useful in replacing broken end-
stones. The jewel being set in brass, is held by two screws, on
opposite sides, the screw heads being let in or sunk even with
the surface, half of the screw head projecting over on the end-
stone. The end-stones furnished by the watch companies are
not sunk for these screw heads, but are round and of the
proper diameter. These cutters will cut away from the jewel
setting the space to be occupied by the screw head in a very
Fig. 123. few moments and in a very perfect manner. All of the watch
companies do not use the same diameter of screw head in the
cock and potance, consequently you will be compelled to make separate
tools for the different makes of watches. With a set of five or six of these
cutters you can fit any American watch. After you have completed your set,
of say five or six cutters, select a small brass plate and bore five or six small
holes in a row, in which the guide pins of the cutters will enter, and then cut
with the tools a number of sinks, numbering these holes in the plate and
also the arbors of the tools with corresponding numbers. You will then have
a plate similar to Fig. 123 which can then be used as a gauge for measuring
the heads of screws.
Fig. 124.
These cutters are easily made as follows: cut off a piece of wire of the
required diameter, about one inch long, and place it in a chuck that fits it
snugly and turn one end to a center, about 40°; now reverse the wire in the
chuck and be sure it is true; select a drill that will pass through the screw
hole in the cock or potance freely and proceed to drill a hole in the center of
the end of the wire, about ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch deep. Remove from the lathe and
with a sharp file and graver, proceed to cut a series of teeth as equal and
even as possible. Use a good strong glass while working and be sure you
have every tooth sharp and perfect, as upon this depends the quick and nice
work you expect from the tool. When this is well done, proceed to temper
fairly hard and polish up the outside to make it look workmanlike. Now
form of an arbor terminating in a cutting edge similar to the
rose-cutter, but having a projecting pin from its center. This
tool will be found especially useful in replacing broken end-
stones. The jewel being set in brass, is held by two screws, on
opposite sides, the screw heads being let in or sunk even with
the surface, half of the screw head projecting over on the end-
stone. The end-stones furnished by the watch companies are
not sunk for these screw heads, but are round and of the
proper diameter. These cutters will cut away from the jewel
setting the space to be occupied by the screw head in a very
Fig. 123. few moments and in a very perfect manner. All of the watch
companies do not use the same diameter of screw head in the
cock and potance, consequently you will be compelled to make separate
tools for the different makes of watches. With a set of five or six of these
cutters you can fit any American watch. After you have completed your set,
of say five or six cutters, select a small brass plate and bore five or six small
holes in a row, in which the guide pins of the cutters will enter, and then cut
with the tools a number of sinks, numbering these holes in the plate and
also the arbors of the tools with corresponding numbers. You will then have
a plate similar to Fig. 123 which can then be used as a gauge for measuring
the heads of screws.
Fig. 124.
These cutters are easily made as follows: cut off a piece of wire of the
required diameter, about one inch long, and place it in a chuck that fits it
snugly and turn one end to a center, about 40°; now reverse the wire in the
chuck and be sure it is true; select a drill that will pass through the screw
hole in the cock or potance freely and proceed to drill a hole in the center of
the end of the wire, about ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch deep. Remove from the lathe and
with a sharp file and graver, proceed to cut a series of teeth as equal and
even as possible. Use a good strong glass while working and be sure you
have every tooth sharp and perfect, as upon this depends the quick and nice
work you expect from the tool. When this is well done, proceed to temper
fairly hard and polish up the outside to make it look workmanlike. Now
Page 251
select a piece of steel pivot wire, of a size that will almost fit in the hole
drilled in the end of the tool and polish down to the proper size to drive in
the hole tightly. Allow the wire to project about ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch, taper the
point and polish. The tool is now complete and will resemble Fig. 124.
Select an end-stone of a diameter to fit tightly in the cock or potance, as
maybe required; set the hole jewel in place and then the end-stone pressed
down tightly against the hole jewel. Place your cutter in a chuck that fits it
true; select a smaller medium sized drill rest and place it in the tail stock
spindle. Hold the cock, or potance, with the jewels in place, against the drill
rest, level, and proceeding to run the lathe at a fair speed, slowly feed the
cock or potance to the cutter, the projecting pivot in the end of the cutter
passing through the screw hole and acting as a guide to keep the cutter in
the center of the hole. Caution must be exercised, or you will cut the recess
for the screw heads too deep, as these little cutters are very deceiving and
cut much faster than you would suppose. In fitting an end-stone, select one
that is more than flush when the jewel hole and end-stone are in the proper
position, and after sinking the screw head as described, turn off on the lathe
almost flush or level. Make a small dot on one side of the end-stone as a
mark or guide in replacing it. Remove the end-stone and proceed to polish
the top of the setting on a plate glass polisher.
302. Screw Extractors. The Bullock Screw Extractor, shown in Fig. 125,
is a simple yet very valuable tool to the watchmaker who finds he has a
plate in which a screw has been broken off. To use this tool, first fasten it in
your vise, then bring one end of the broken or rusted-in screw against screw
center and the broken screw head against screw driver; turn the washers so
as to hold the broken screw firmly in place; turn the plate gently and the
broken screw will follow the screw driver point out of the plate. It may be
necessary in some instances to turn the screw driver point against the
broken head with a good deal of force in order to start the screw. A little
benzine or kerosene applied to the screw will help to loosen it.
drilled in the end of the tool and polish down to the proper size to drive in
the hole tightly. Allow the wire to project about ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch, taper the
point and polish. The tool is now complete and will resemble Fig. 124.
Select an end-stone of a diameter to fit tightly in the cock or potance, as
maybe required; set the hole jewel in place and then the end-stone pressed
down tightly against the hole jewel. Place your cutter in a chuck that fits it
true; select a smaller medium sized drill rest and place it in the tail stock
spindle. Hold the cock, or potance, with the jewels in place, against the drill
rest, level, and proceeding to run the lathe at a fair speed, slowly feed the
cock or potance to the cutter, the projecting pivot in the end of the cutter
passing through the screw hole and acting as a guide to keep the cutter in
the center of the hole. Caution must be exercised, or you will cut the recess
for the screw heads too deep, as these little cutters are very deceiving and
cut much faster than you would suppose. In fitting an end-stone, select one
that is more than flush when the jewel hole and end-stone are in the proper
position, and after sinking the screw head as described, turn off on the lathe
almost flush or level. Make a small dot on one side of the end-stone as a
mark or guide in replacing it. Remove the end-stone and proceed to polish
the top of the setting on a plate glass polisher.
302. Screw Extractors. The Bullock Screw Extractor, shown in Fig. 125,
is a simple yet very valuable tool to the watchmaker who finds he has a
plate in which a screw has been broken off. To use this tool, first fasten it in
your vise, then bring one end of the broken or rusted-in screw against screw
center and the broken screw head against screw driver; turn the washers so
as to hold the broken screw firmly in place; turn the plate gently and the
broken screw will follow the screw driver point out of the plate. It may be
necessary in some instances to turn the screw driver point against the
broken head with a good deal of force in order to start the screw. A little
benzine or kerosene applied to the screw will help to loosen it.
Page 252
Fig. 125.
The ingenious workman can, with the expenditure of a little time, make
an attachment for removing broken screws, somewhat similar to the above.
Take two common steel watch keys having hardened and tempered pipes—
size, four or five—having care that the squares in each are of the same size
and of good depth. Cut off the pipes about half an inch from the end; file up
one of these for about one-half its length, on three equal sides, to fit one of
the large split chucks of the lathe. Drill a hole in one of the brass centers of
the lathe of sufficient size and depth, into which insert the other key-pipe,
and fasten with a little solder. Soften a piece of Stubbs’ wire, to work easily
in the lathe, and turn down for an eighth of an inch from the end to a size a
little smaller than the broken screw in the plate; finish with a conical
shoulder, for greater strength, and cross-file the end with a fine slot or
knife-edge file, that the tool may not slip on the end of the broken screw;
cut off the wire a half inch from the end and file down to a square that will
fit closely in one of the key-pipes. Make a second point like the first one
and fit it to the other key-pipe; harden in oil, polish, and temper to a dark
straw color. Fit the brass center into the tail stock. To use, put the tools in
place in the lathe, place the broken end of the screw against the end of the
point in the lathe-head; slide up the back center and fasten the point firmly
against the other end of the screw, that it may not slip or turn; revolve the
The ingenious workman can, with the expenditure of a little time, make
an attachment for removing broken screws, somewhat similar to the above.
Take two common steel watch keys having hardened and tempered pipes—
size, four or five—having care that the squares in each are of the same size
and of good depth. Cut off the pipes about half an inch from the end; file up
one of these for about one-half its length, on three equal sides, to fit one of
the large split chucks of the lathe. Drill a hole in one of the brass centers of
the lathe of sufficient size and depth, into which insert the other key-pipe,
and fasten with a little solder. Soften a piece of Stubbs’ wire, to work easily
in the lathe, and turn down for an eighth of an inch from the end to a size a
little smaller than the broken screw in the plate; finish with a conical
shoulder, for greater strength, and cross-file the end with a fine slot or
knife-edge file, that the tool may not slip on the end of the broken screw;
cut off the wire a half inch from the end and file down to a square that will
fit closely in one of the key-pipes. Make a second point like the first one
and fit it to the other key-pipe; harden in oil, polish, and temper to a dark
straw color. Fit the brass center into the tail stock. To use, put the tools in
place in the lathe, place the broken end of the screw against the end of the
point in the lathe-head; slide up the back center and fasten the point firmly
against the other end of the screw, that it may not slip or turn; revolve the
Page 253
plate slowly, and the broken screw, being held fast between the two points
will be quickly removed. To remove a broken pillar screw, place the broken
screw against the point in the lathe-head, holding the plate firmly with the
right-hand, the pillar on a line with the lathe center; turn the lathe-head
slowly backward with the left-hand, and the screw will be removed. Should
the tool slip on the broken screw, and fail to draw it out, drill a hole in the
lower or dial side of pillar, down to the screw point (if the size of the pillar
will admit of it), and with the second point in the back center, remove the
screw in the same manner as in the first process. Five or six sizes of these
points will be found sufficient for the majority of these breakages that may
occur.
It sometimes happens that a screw gets broken off in a watch plate in
such a manner that it is impossible to remove it with tools without marring
the plate. In such an event proceed as follows: Put enough rain water in a
glass tumbler to thoroughly cover the plate and add sulphuric acid, until the
water tastes a little sharp. Place the plate in the solution and allow it to
remain a few hours, when the screw will partially dissolve and drop out.
Remove from the solution, wash thoroughly in clean water, then in alcohol
and dry in saw dust. The solution will not injure the brass plate or gilding in
the slightest, but care must be taken to remove all other screws or cemented
jewels, previous to immersion.
303. Roller Remover. There are numerous designs in the way of roller
removers upon the market, some of them good but many of them weak and
liable to bend where the roller is very tight on the staff. All points being
considered, the Hardinge remover, shown in Fig. 126, is perhaps the
strongest and best on the market and is built on true mechanical principles.
The nose in the center and top of the illustration is drilled up so as to
receive a balance pivot without bearing on its point, and can be moved
towards or from the two bent prongs by means of the thumb nut at the
bottom of the tool. The prongs can be spread apart or drawn together, and
are secured in place by means of the binding screws at the sides. In using
the remover the feet of the two prongs are brought under the roller and
secured by the binding screws. The nose is now advanced against the
shoulder of the bottom pivot and the staff can be driven out without damage
to either roller or staff.
will be quickly removed. To remove a broken pillar screw, place the broken
screw against the point in the lathe-head, holding the plate firmly with the
right-hand, the pillar on a line with the lathe center; turn the lathe-head
slowly backward with the left-hand, and the screw will be removed. Should
the tool slip on the broken screw, and fail to draw it out, drill a hole in the
lower or dial side of pillar, down to the screw point (if the size of the pillar
will admit of it), and with the second point in the back center, remove the
screw in the same manner as in the first process. Five or six sizes of these
points will be found sufficient for the majority of these breakages that may
occur.
It sometimes happens that a screw gets broken off in a watch plate in
such a manner that it is impossible to remove it with tools without marring
the plate. In such an event proceed as follows: Put enough rain water in a
glass tumbler to thoroughly cover the plate and add sulphuric acid, until the
water tastes a little sharp. Place the plate in the solution and allow it to
remain a few hours, when the screw will partially dissolve and drop out.
Remove from the solution, wash thoroughly in clean water, then in alcohol
and dry in saw dust. The solution will not injure the brass plate or gilding in
the slightest, but care must be taken to remove all other screws or cemented
jewels, previous to immersion.
303. Roller Remover. There are numerous designs in the way of roller
removers upon the market, some of them good but many of them weak and
liable to bend where the roller is very tight on the staff. All points being
considered, the Hardinge remover, shown in Fig. 126, is perhaps the
strongest and best on the market and is built on true mechanical principles.
The nose in the center and top of the illustration is drilled up so as to
receive a balance pivot without bearing on its point, and can be moved
towards or from the two bent prongs by means of the thumb nut at the
bottom of the tool. The prongs can be spread apart or drawn together, and
are secured in place by means of the binding screws at the sides. In using
the remover the feet of the two prongs are brought under the roller and
secured by the binding screws. The nose is now advanced against the
shoulder of the bottom pivot and the staff can be driven out without damage
to either roller or staff.
Page 254
304. Balance Protectors. These
are of two kinds and for entirely
different operations. The Arrick
protector, shown in Fig. 127, is
used for protecting balances while
working upon the pivots while in
the lathe. No matter how careful a
person may be, accidents will
happen, and the least accident to a
compensation balance gives the
workman considerable trouble. The
least slip of the graver, polisher or
hand rest and great damage is the
result. The staff is passed through
the hole in the protector, and held
in a wire chuck, and the protector
Fig. 126. is secured to the arms of the
balance by two screws. The
Bullock protector, shown in Fig. 128, is designed to
protect the balance and other wheels from heat while
drawing the temper from staff or pinion for the
purpose of pivoting.
Fig. 127.
Fig. 128.
are of two kinds and for entirely
different operations. The Arrick
protector, shown in Fig. 127, is
used for protecting balances while
working upon the pivots while in
the lathe. No matter how careful a
person may be, accidents will
happen, and the least accident to a
compensation balance gives the
workman considerable trouble. The
least slip of the graver, polisher or
hand rest and great damage is the
result. The staff is passed through
the hole in the protector, and held
in a wire chuck, and the protector
Fig. 126. is secured to the arms of the
balance by two screws. The
Bullock protector, shown in Fig. 128, is designed to
protect the balance and other wheels from heat while
drawing the temper from staff or pinion for the
purpose of pivoting.
Fig. 127.
Fig. 128.
Page 255
305. Beat Block. This simple
device obviates the necessity of
marking the balance to see that it is
in beat. Before taking off the hair
spring lay it on the block, shown in
Fig. 129, turn the balance so the
roller pin hits on the side the arrow
points, then turn the table so that
the line comes under the stud. In
replacing the balance put the stud Fig. 129.
over the line and it will then beat
the same as before. By using this tool you also avoid getting the balance out
of true.
306. Female Centers. Centers are of two kinds,, male and female. The
ordinary centers that accompany the lathe, which are male centers, are
familiar to all watchmakers. Female centers, however, are not so well
known among watchmakers, and they can be used to great advantage in
many operations where other and less simple attachments and means are
usually resorted to. You should have at least six pairs of female centers, the
largest being one-fourth of an inch in diameter, which will accommodate as
large a piece as you will wish to handle on your watch lathe, viz: winding
arbors for clocks. These female centers are made from steel tapers, the same
as male centers are made, but instead of turning the end to a sharp point
they are countersunk, Fig. 130. First place the taper in a chuck and turn off
the outside and end true; drill a small hole in the center of the taper, while
the lathe is running, and deep enough so the countersink will not reach the
bottom of the hole, or one-eighth of an inch deeper than the countersink.
Harden the end only, and after tempering polish off the bluing. After you
have made all the sizes you require, test all of them in your lathe to make
sure they did not get out of true in tempering.
These female centers are very useful for
holding or suspending any article in the
lathe that is too large to be held in the split
Fig. 130. chucks. Pivots of clocks can be turned and
polished very quickly and accurately in
these centers.
device obviates the necessity of
marking the balance to see that it is
in beat. Before taking off the hair
spring lay it on the block, shown in
Fig. 129, turn the balance so the
roller pin hits on the side the arrow
points, then turn the table so that
the line comes under the stud. In
replacing the balance put the stud Fig. 129.
over the line and it will then beat
the same as before. By using this tool you also avoid getting the balance out
of true.
306. Female Centers. Centers are of two kinds,, male and female. The
ordinary centers that accompany the lathe, which are male centers, are
familiar to all watchmakers. Female centers, however, are not so well
known among watchmakers, and they can be used to great advantage in
many operations where other and less simple attachments and means are
usually resorted to. You should have at least six pairs of female centers, the
largest being one-fourth of an inch in diameter, which will accommodate as
large a piece as you will wish to handle on your watch lathe, viz: winding
arbors for clocks. These female centers are made from steel tapers, the same
as male centers are made, but instead of turning the end to a sharp point
they are countersunk, Fig. 130. First place the taper in a chuck and turn off
the outside and end true; drill a small hole in the center of the taper, while
the lathe is running, and deep enough so the countersink will not reach the
bottom of the hole, or one-eighth of an inch deeper than the countersink.
Harden the end only, and after tempering polish off the bluing. After you
have made all the sizes you require, test all of them in your lathe to make
sure they did not get out of true in tempering.
These female centers are very useful for
holding or suspending any article in the
lathe that is too large to be held in the split
Fig. 130. chucks. Pivots of clocks can be turned and
polished very quickly and accurately in
these centers.
Page 256
Almost any kind of large work can be done on a medium sized
watchmaker’s lathe by fitting to it a face plate one and three-fourths inches
in diameter, with four slots, and fitted to a chuck with a standard taper hole
to receive both male and female centers interchangeably. With two styles of
dogs, almost any kind of large clock work can be readily handled.
These centers prove very useful for many odd jobs. As an example: It is a
very common occurrence to hear an American clock beat irregularly, caused
by the escape wheel being out of round. Select a pair of female centers that
will admit the ends of the pivots of the escape wheel snugly; place one
center in the taper chuck and the other in the tail stock spindle, and suspend
the escape pinion in these centers; fasten on a dog, run the lathe at a high
speed and hold a fine sharp file so it will touch the teeth of the ’scape wheel
slightly, and in a moment the wheel will be perfectly round, after which
sharpen up the teeth that are too thick.
307. Drill Rest. In using
the lathe for drilling, a
great saving in both time
and drills can be effected
by using a drill rest similar
to that shown in Fig. 131. It
is well to have a half dozen
different sizes, starting at ¼
Fig. 131. inch and increasing by ⅛
inch, for various classes of
work. These rests are not kept by material dealers, but can be made by the
watchmaker. Saw from a piece of rolled sheet brass, say 1-16 inch thick, the
circles required, leaving metal enough to finish nicely. Place a steel taper
plug in the taper chuck of your lathe and turn down a recess, leaving a
shoulder on the taper. Drill a hole through the brass plate to fit the steel
taper tightly. Place the end of the taper on a lead block and proceed to rivet
the brass plate, on the taper, making sure that it is true replace the taper in
the lathe chuck and proceed to turn the face and edge of the brass plate
perfectly true and to the proper size. Those who have tried to drill a straight
hole through an object by holding it in the fingers know just how difficult it
is to do, but by placing one of these drill rests in the spindle of the tail
stock, placing the article to be drilled against it and bringing it up against
watchmaker’s lathe by fitting to it a face plate one and three-fourths inches
in diameter, with four slots, and fitted to a chuck with a standard taper hole
to receive both male and female centers interchangeably. With two styles of
dogs, almost any kind of large clock work can be readily handled.
These centers prove very useful for many odd jobs. As an example: It is a
very common occurrence to hear an American clock beat irregularly, caused
by the escape wheel being out of round. Select a pair of female centers that
will admit the ends of the pivots of the escape wheel snugly; place one
center in the taper chuck and the other in the tail stock spindle, and suspend
the escape pinion in these centers; fasten on a dog, run the lathe at a high
speed and hold a fine sharp file so it will touch the teeth of the ’scape wheel
slightly, and in a moment the wheel will be perfectly round, after which
sharpen up the teeth that are too thick.
307. Drill Rest. In using
the lathe for drilling, a
great saving in both time
and drills can be effected
by using a drill rest similar
to that shown in Fig. 131. It
is well to have a half dozen
different sizes, starting at ¼
Fig. 131. inch and increasing by ⅛
inch, for various classes of
work. These rests are not kept by material dealers, but can be made by the
watchmaker. Saw from a piece of rolled sheet brass, say 1-16 inch thick, the
circles required, leaving metal enough to finish nicely. Place a steel taper
plug in the taper chuck of your lathe and turn down a recess, leaving a
shoulder on the taper. Drill a hole through the brass plate to fit the steel
taper tightly. Place the end of the taper on a lead block and proceed to rivet
the brass plate, on the taper, making sure that it is true replace the taper in
the lathe chuck and proceed to turn the face and edge of the brass plate
perfectly true and to the proper size. Those who have tried to drill a straight
hole through an object by holding it in the fingers know just how difficult it
is to do, but by placing one of these drill rests in the spindle of the tail
stock, placing the article to be drilled against it and bringing it up against
Page 257
the drill, you can drill the hole perfectly upright and avoid all danger of
breaking the drill.
308. Filing Fixture or Rest. These rests will be
found very convenient in squaring winding arbors,
center squares, etc. There are several makes of these
tools, but they are all built upon the same principle,
that of two hardened steel rollers on which the file
rests, and Fig. 132 is a fair example. One pattern is
made to fit in the hand rest after the T is removed,
while the other is attached to the bed of the lathe in
the same manner as the slide rest. The piece to be
Fig. 132.
squared is held in the split or spring chuck in the lathe,
and the index on the pulley is used to divide the
square correctly. Any article can be filed to a perfect square, hexagon or
octagon as may be desired. The arm carrying the rollers can be raised or
lowered as required for adjustment to work of various sizes.
309. Filing Block. A contrivance made to take the place of the filing rest,
which was made of box wood or bone. Ide’s filing fixture, shown in Fig.
133, consists of a cylinder of hardened steel, riveted upon a staff which in
turn enters a split socket. The surface of the steel cylinder is grooved with
various sizes of grooves for the different sizes of wire, or to suit any work.
Fig. 133.
breaking the drill.
308. Filing Fixture or Rest. These rests will be
found very convenient in squaring winding arbors,
center squares, etc. There are several makes of these
tools, but they are all built upon the same principle,
that of two hardened steel rollers on which the file
rests, and Fig. 132 is a fair example. One pattern is
made to fit in the hand rest after the T is removed,
while the other is attached to the bed of the lathe in
the same manner as the slide rest. The piece to be
Fig. 132.
squared is held in the split or spring chuck in the lathe,
and the index on the pulley is used to divide the
square correctly. Any article can be filed to a perfect square, hexagon or
octagon as may be desired. The arm carrying the rollers can be raised or
lowered as required for adjustment to work of various sizes.
309. Filing Block. A contrivance made to take the place of the filing rest,
which was made of box wood or bone. Ide’s filing fixture, shown in Fig.
133, consists of a cylinder of hardened steel, riveted upon a staff which in
turn enters a split socket. The surface of the steel cylinder is grooved with
various sizes of grooves for the different sizes of wire, or to suit any work.
Fig. 133.
Page 258
Fig. 134.
Fig. 134 illustrates Melotte’s revolving bench block, which combines
both anvil and filing block. No. 1 is a steel anvil which may be instantly
revolved and stopped on quarters. No. 2 is a rubber block, held by friction
on its arm, and can readily be turned to any position. This rubber, being
slightly elastic, makes a very suitable filing bed for small articles of any
material and may be used without risk of scratching or defacing polished
surfaces. No. 3 is a wooden block, held on to its arm by a spring friction
device, which also allows it to be turned around to any desired position. The
three-armed hub is revolved by pulling out slightly and is automatically
held perfectly firm and solid in any of the three positions.
Fig. 135.
Fig. 134 illustrates Melotte’s revolving bench block, which combines
both anvil and filing block. No. 1 is a steel anvil which may be instantly
revolved and stopped on quarters. No. 2 is a rubber block, held by friction
on its arm, and can readily be turned to any position. This rubber, being
slightly elastic, makes a very suitable filing bed for small articles of any
material and may be used without risk of scratching or defacing polished
surfaces. No. 3 is a wooden block, held on to its arm by a spring friction
device, which also allows it to be turned around to any desired position. The
three-armed hub is revolved by pulling out slightly and is automatically
held perfectly firm and solid in any of the three positions.
Fig. 135.
Page 259
310. Micrometer Caliper. Fig. 135 is a full size cut of the Brown &
Sharp Mfg. Co.’s micrometer caliper. It measures from one-thousandth of
an inch to one-half inch. It is graduated to read to thousandths of an inch,
but one-half and one-quarter thousandths are readily estimated. This
instrument is also graduated to the hundredths of a millimeter, but when so
graduated the table of decimal equivalents is omitted. They are also made to
read to ten thousandths of an inch. The edges of the measuring surfaces are
not beveled, but are left square, as it is more convenient for measuring
certain classes of work. It will gauge under a shoulder or measure a small
projection on a plain surface. Watchmakers will especially appreciate
micrometers of this form. This tool will be found very useful for gauging
mainsprings, pinions, etc. In the caliper, shown by cut, the gauge or
measuring screw is cut on the concealed part of the spindle C, and moves in
the thread tapped in the hub A; the hollow sleeve, or thimble D is attached
to the spindle C and covers and protects the gauge screw. By turning the
thimble, the screw is drawn back and the caliper opened.
The pitch of the screw is 40 to the inch. The graduation of the hub A, in a
line parallel to the axis of the screw, is 40 to the inch, and is figured 0, 1, 2,
etc., every fourth division. As the graduation conforms to the pitch of the
screw, each division equals the longitudinal distance traversed by the screw
in one complete rotation, and shows that the caliper has been opened 1-40th
or .025 of an inch. The beveled edge of the thimble D is graduated into 25
equal parts, and figured every fifth division 0, 5, 10, 15, 20. Each division
when passing the line of graduation on hub A, indicates that the screw has
made 1-25th of a turn, and the opening of the caliper increased 1-25th of 1-
40th, or a thousandth of an inch.
Hence, to read the caliper, multiply the number of divisions visible on the
scale of the hub by 25, and add the number of divisions on the scale of the
thimble, from zero to the line coincident with the line of graduation on hub.
For example: As the caliper is set in the cut, there are three whole divisions
visible on the hub. Multiply this number by 25, and add the number of
divisions registered on the scale of the thimble, which is 0 in this case, the
result is seventy-five thousandths of an inch. (3 × 25 = 75 0 = 75). These
calculations are readily made mentally.
Differences between Wire Gauges in Decimal Parts of an Inch.
Sharp Mfg. Co.’s micrometer caliper. It measures from one-thousandth of
an inch to one-half inch. It is graduated to read to thousandths of an inch,
but one-half and one-quarter thousandths are readily estimated. This
instrument is also graduated to the hundredths of a millimeter, but when so
graduated the table of decimal equivalents is omitted. They are also made to
read to ten thousandths of an inch. The edges of the measuring surfaces are
not beveled, but are left square, as it is more convenient for measuring
certain classes of work. It will gauge under a shoulder or measure a small
projection on a plain surface. Watchmakers will especially appreciate
micrometers of this form. This tool will be found very useful for gauging
mainsprings, pinions, etc. In the caliper, shown by cut, the gauge or
measuring screw is cut on the concealed part of the spindle C, and moves in
the thread tapped in the hub A; the hollow sleeve, or thimble D is attached
to the spindle C and covers and protects the gauge screw. By turning the
thimble, the screw is drawn back and the caliper opened.
The pitch of the screw is 40 to the inch. The graduation of the hub A, in a
line parallel to the axis of the screw, is 40 to the inch, and is figured 0, 1, 2,
etc., every fourth division. As the graduation conforms to the pitch of the
screw, each division equals the longitudinal distance traversed by the screw
in one complete rotation, and shows that the caliper has been opened 1-40th
or .025 of an inch. The beveled edge of the thimble D is graduated into 25
equal parts, and figured every fifth division 0, 5, 10, 15, 20. Each division
when passing the line of graduation on hub A, indicates that the screw has
made 1-25th of a turn, and the opening of the caliper increased 1-25th of 1-
40th, or a thousandth of an inch.
Hence, to read the caliper, multiply the number of divisions visible on the
scale of the hub by 25, and add the number of divisions on the scale of the
thimble, from zero to the line coincident with the line of graduation on hub.
For example: As the caliper is set in the cut, there are three whole divisions
visible on the hub. Multiply this number by 25, and add the number of
divisions registered on the scale of the thimble, which is 0 in this case, the
result is seventy-five thousandths of an inch. (3 × 25 = 75 0 = 75). These
calculations are readily made mentally.
Differences between Wire Gauges in Decimal Parts of an Inch.
Page 260
Old
Washburn &
Trenton English
No. of American Moen
Birmingham Iron Co., New from No. of
Wire or Brown Manufacturing
or Stubs’. Trenton, British. Brass Wire.
Gauge. & Sharpe. Co., Worcester,
N.J. Mfrs.
Mass.
List.
000000 —— —— .46 —— —— —— 000000
00000 —— —— .43 .45 —— —— 00000
0000 .46 .454 .393 .4 .4 —— 0000
000 .40964 .425 .362 .36 .372 —— 000
00 .3648 .38 .331 .33 .348 —— 00
0 .32495 .34 .307 .305 .324 —— 0
1 .2893 .3 .283 .285 .3 —— 1
2 .25763 .284 .263 .265 .276 —— 2
3 .22942 .259 .244 .245 .252 —— 3
4 .20431 .238 .225 .225 .232 —— 4
5 .18194 .22 .207 .205 .212 —— 5
6 .16202 .203 .192 .19 .192 —— 6
7 .14428 .18 .177 .175 .176 —— 7
8 .12849 .165 .162 .16 .16 —— 8
9 .11443 .148 .148 .145 .144 —— 9
10 .10189 .134 .135 .13 .128 —— 10
11 .090742 .12 .12 .1175 .116 —— 11
12 .080808 .109 .105 .105 .104 —— 12
13 .071961 .095 .092 .0925 .092 —— 13
14 .064084 .083 .08 .08 .08 .083 14
15 .057068 .072 .072 .07 .072 .072 15
16 .05082 .065 .063 .061 .064 .065 16
Washburn &
Trenton English
No. of American Moen
Birmingham Iron Co., New from No. of
Wire or Brown Manufacturing
or Stubs’. Trenton, British. Brass Wire.
Gauge. & Sharpe. Co., Worcester,
N.J. Mfrs.
Mass.
List.
000000 —— —— .46 —— —— —— 000000
00000 —— —— .43 .45 —— —— 00000
0000 .46 .454 .393 .4 .4 —— 0000
000 .40964 .425 .362 .36 .372 —— 000
00 .3648 .38 .331 .33 .348 —— 00
0 .32495 .34 .307 .305 .324 —— 0
1 .2893 .3 .283 .285 .3 —— 1
2 .25763 .284 .263 .265 .276 —— 2
3 .22942 .259 .244 .245 .252 —— 3
4 .20431 .238 .225 .225 .232 —— 4
5 .18194 .22 .207 .205 .212 —— 5
6 .16202 .203 .192 .19 .192 —— 6
7 .14428 .18 .177 .175 .176 —— 7
8 .12849 .165 .162 .16 .16 —— 8
9 .11443 .148 .148 .145 .144 —— 9
10 .10189 .134 .135 .13 .128 —— 10
11 .090742 .12 .12 .1175 .116 —— 11
12 .080808 .109 .105 .105 .104 —— 12
13 .071961 .095 .092 .0925 .092 —— 13
14 .064084 .083 .08 .08 .08 .083 14
15 .057068 .072 .072 .07 .072 .072 15
16 .05082 .065 .063 .061 .064 .065 16
Page 261
17 .045257 .058 .054 .0525 .056 .058 17
18 .040803 .049 .047 .045 .048 .049 18
19 .03539 .042 .041 .039 .04 .04 19
20 .031961 .035 .035 .034 .036 .035 20
21 .028462 .032 .032 .03 .032 .0315 21
22 .025347 .028 .028 .27 .028 .0295 22
23 .022571 .025 .025 .024 .024 .027 23
24 .0201 .022 .023 .0215 .022 .025 24
25 .0179 .02 .02 .019 .02 .023 25
26 .01594 .018 .018 .018 .018 .0205 26
27 .014195 .016 .017 .017 .0164 .01875 27
28 .012641 .014 .016 .016 .0148 .0165 28
29 .011257 .013 .015 .015 .0136 .0155 29
30 .010025 .012 .014 .014 .0124 .01375 30
31 .008928 .01 .0135 .013 .0116 .01225 31
32 .00795 .009 .013 .012 .0108 .01125 32
33 .00708 .008 .011 .011 .01 .01025 33
34 .006304 .007 .01 .01 .0092 .0095 34
35 .005614 .005 .0095 .009 .0084 .009 35
36 .005 .004 .009 .008 .0076 .0075 36
37 .004453 —— .0085 .00725 .0068 .0065 37
38 .003965 —— .008 .0065 .006 .00575 38
39 .003531 —— .0075 .00575 .0052 .005 39
40 .003144 —— .007 .005 .0048 .0045 40
18 .040803 .049 .047 .045 .048 .049 18
19 .03539 .042 .041 .039 .04 .04 19
20 .031961 .035 .035 .034 .036 .035 20
21 .028462 .032 .032 .03 .032 .0315 21
22 .025347 .028 .028 .27 .028 .0295 22
23 .022571 .025 .025 .024 .024 .027 23
24 .0201 .022 .023 .0215 .022 .025 24
25 .0179 .02 .02 .019 .02 .023 25
26 .01594 .018 .018 .018 .018 .0205 26
27 .014195 .016 .017 .017 .0164 .01875 27
28 .012641 .014 .016 .016 .0148 .0165 28
29 .011257 .013 .015 .015 .0136 .0155 29
30 .010025 .012 .014 .014 .0124 .01375 30
31 .008928 .01 .0135 .013 .0116 .01225 31
32 .00795 .009 .013 .012 .0108 .01125 32
33 .00708 .008 .011 .011 .01 .01025 33
34 .006304 .007 .01 .01 .0092 .0095 34
35 .005614 .005 .0095 .009 .0084 .009 35
36 .005 .004 .009 .008 .0076 .0075 36
37 .004453 —— .0085 .00725 .0068 .0065 37
38 .003965 —— .008 .0065 .006 .00575 38
39 .003531 —— .0075 .00575 .0052 .005 39
40 .003144 —— .007 .005 .0048 .0045 40
Page 262
Fig. 136.
311. Registering Gauge. The registering gauges shown in the
illustrations are two of the best examples of this class of tools. They are
manufactured by A. J. Logan, Waltham, Mass., and are very accurate and
nicely finished. Fig. 136 is an upright and jaw gauge, and Fig. 137 is
designed as a jaw and depth gauge. They are both made to gauge one-
thousandth of a centimeter or one-thousandth of an inch. Fig. 137 shows the
piece of work marked A being gauged, while B represents a sliding spindle
to get the depth of a hole or recess, or the thickness of any piece of work,
which will be indicated on the dial.
311. Registering Gauge. The registering gauges shown in the
illustrations are two of the best examples of this class of tools. They are
manufactured by A. J. Logan, Waltham, Mass., and are very accurate and
nicely finished. Fig. 136 is an upright and jaw gauge, and Fig. 137 is
designed as a jaw and depth gauge. They are both made to gauge one-
thousandth of a centimeter or one-thousandth of an inch. Fig. 137 shows the
piece of work marked A being gauged, while B represents a sliding spindle
to get the depth of a hole or recess, or the thickness of any piece of work,
which will be indicated on the dial.
Page 263
Fig. 137.
Fig. 138.
Another form of registering gauge is shown in Fig. 138. It is an English
gauge and but little used in this country. The principle of its construction,
Fig. 138.
Another form of registering gauge is shown in Fig. 138. It is an English
gauge and but little used in this country. The principle of its construction,
Page 264
however, is good, and any ingenious
watchmaker can make it. The back of
the dial is recessed and arranged as in
Fig. 139. One limb is fixed; the other is
pivoted, and has a few rack teeth
meshing into a center pinion. The
pinion carries the hand, which should
make a revolution in closing the
calipers. The spiral spring attached to
the pinion is to keep it and the hand
banked in one direction for shake. The
spring s is to keep the jaws open. The
milled headed screw and the clamp c
Fig. 139. are to fix the jaws in case it is required
to do so. A cover is snapped into the
recess, and takes the back pivot of the pinion.
Fig. 140.
312. Staff Gauge. The tool shown in Fig. 140 is designed for measuring
the height of the balance staff from the balance seat to the end of the top
pivot. The illustration is enlarged to give more distinctness. E E′ is a piece
of curved steel about ¹⁄₂₀ of an inch thick, and ¹⁄₂₅ of an inch wide. On the
lower side from E′ to the end, the arm is filed down in width and thickness
to correspond to an ordinary balance arm; C is a slot in the upper arm E,
which allows A, B, D, A′ to be moved backward and forward. D D′ is a
round brass post drilled and tapped. The part D′ has a thread cut on it, and
the part shown in the slot C fits with easy friction. B is a lock-nut, drilled
watchmaker can make it. The back of
the dial is recessed and arranged as in
Fig. 139. One limb is fixed; the other is
pivoted, and has a few rack teeth
meshing into a center pinion. The
pinion carries the hand, which should
make a revolution in closing the
calipers. The spiral spring attached to
the pinion is to keep it and the hand
banked in one direction for shake. The
spring s is to keep the jaws open. The
milled headed screw and the clamp c
Fig. 139. are to fix the jaws in case it is required
to do so. A cover is snapped into the
recess, and takes the back pivot of the pinion.
Fig. 140.
312. Staff Gauge. The tool shown in Fig. 140 is designed for measuring
the height of the balance staff from the balance seat to the end of the top
pivot. The illustration is enlarged to give more distinctness. E E′ is a piece
of curved steel about ¹⁄₂₀ of an inch thick, and ¹⁄₂₅ of an inch wide. On the
lower side from E′ to the end, the arm is filed down in width and thickness
to correspond to an ordinary balance arm; C is a slot in the upper arm E,
which allows A, B, D, A′ to be moved backward and forward. D D′ is a
round brass post drilled and tapped. The part D′ has a thread cut on it, and
the part shown in the slot C fits with easy friction. B is a lock-nut, drilled
Page 265
and tapped to fit the thread on D′. It is for the purpose of clamping D D′
against the arm E. A A′ is a small steel screw with milled head, and is made
to fit the tapped hole in D D′.
Mr. Beeton describes his method of using this tool as follows: Take your
measurement of the distance the balance seat is to be from the end of the
top pivot, as follows: remove the end-stone in balance-cock, and screw the
cock on the top of the top plate (18-size full plate movement); then taking
the plate in your left-hand, and tool (shown in Fig. 139) in your right, place
H in position, so that the end of the screw A′ rests on the jewel in the
balance cock, and notice the position of the arm E′ which corresponds to the
balance arm, between the top plate and under side of the balance-cock. If
the distance between the arm E′ and end of screw A′ is too great, the arm E′
will be too low and touch the plate; if not enough, it will be too high and
touch the regulator pins. Therefore, all that is necessary to do is to move the
screw A A′ up or down as the case may be, sufficiently to ensure that the
arm E′ will assume the position the arm of the balance is to have. Take an
18-size balance with oversprung hairspring, the arm is at the bottom of the
rim; in that case, when measuring, the screw A′ is adjusted so as to bring the
arm E′ close to the plate, when A′ is resting on the balance jewel; if the
balance is old style with undersprung hairspring, the balance arm is at top
of rim, in which case A′ is adjusted so that the arm E′ is close to the balance
cock; if the balance arm is in the center of the rim, as in some English and
Swiss balances, the screw A′ is adjusted so that the arm E′ is midway
between the plate and cock.
The reason the part A, B, D, A′ are arranged to move laterally in slot C is,
because all balance shoulders are not the same distance from the center, and
where, in some cases, the screw A′ would be in a line with the center of the
staff when the arm E′ was resting on the balance seat, in other cases it
would reach past the center, of course, short of it; and, therefore, it is made
adjustable to suit all cases.
313. Staff or Cylinder Height Gauge. The obvious advantage of this
tool, which is shown at Fig. 141, is the automatic transfer of the
measurement so that it may be readily applied to the work in hand. The tool,
as the illustration shows, consists of a brass tube terminating in a cone-
shaped piece. To the bottom of this cone is attached a disc through which a
needle plays. Around the upper end of the tube is a collar upon which is
against the arm E. A A′ is a small steel screw with milled head, and is made
to fit the tapped hole in D D′.
Mr. Beeton describes his method of using this tool as follows: Take your
measurement of the distance the balance seat is to be from the end of the
top pivot, as follows: remove the end-stone in balance-cock, and screw the
cock on the top of the top plate (18-size full plate movement); then taking
the plate in your left-hand, and tool (shown in Fig. 139) in your right, place
H in position, so that the end of the screw A′ rests on the jewel in the
balance cock, and notice the position of the arm E′ which corresponds to the
balance arm, between the top plate and under side of the balance-cock. If
the distance between the arm E′ and end of screw A′ is too great, the arm E′
will be too low and touch the plate; if not enough, it will be too high and
touch the regulator pins. Therefore, all that is necessary to do is to move the
screw A A′ up or down as the case may be, sufficiently to ensure that the
arm E′ will assume the position the arm of the balance is to have. Take an
18-size balance with oversprung hairspring, the arm is at the bottom of the
rim; in that case, when measuring, the screw A′ is adjusted so as to bring the
arm E′ close to the plate, when A′ is resting on the balance jewel; if the
balance is old style with undersprung hairspring, the balance arm is at top
of rim, in which case A′ is adjusted so that the arm E′ is close to the balance
cock; if the balance arm is in the center of the rim, as in some English and
Swiss balances, the screw A′ is adjusted so that the arm E′ is midway
between the plate and cock.
The reason the part A, B, D, A′ are arranged to move laterally in slot C is,
because all balance shoulders are not the same distance from the center, and
where, in some cases, the screw A′ would be in a line with the center of the
staff when the arm E′ was resting on the balance seat, in other cases it
would reach past the center, of course, short of it; and, therefore, it is made
adjustable to suit all cases.
313. Staff or Cylinder Height Gauge. The obvious advantage of this
tool, which is shown at Fig. 141, is the automatic transfer of the
measurement so that it may be readily applied to the work in hand. The tool,
as the illustration shows, consists of a brass tube terminating in a cone-
shaped piece. To the bottom of this cone is attached a disc through which a
needle plays. Around the upper end of the tube is a collar upon which is
Page 266
fixed a curved steel index finger. A similar jaw,
which is free to move, works in a slot in the tube.
The movable jaw is tapped and is propelled by a
screw that terminates in the needle point. This tool
is very useful in making the necessary
measurements required in putting in a staff. To use
it in this work, set the pivots of the gauge through
the foot hole, and upon the end-stone project the
needle such a distance as you wish the shoulder to
be formed above the point of the pivot. Next set
the gauge in the foot hole as before, and elevate
the disc to a height that shall be right for the roller,
which is done by having the lever in place, the
little disc showing exactly where the roller should
come. Finish the staff up to that point; then take Fig. 141.
the next measurement from the end-stone to where
the shoulder should be, for the balance to rest
upon. This point being marked, the staff can be reversed and measurements
commenced from the upper end-stone, by which to finish the upper end of
the staff. Distances between the shoulders for pinions and arbors can be
obtained with the same facility, a little practice being the only requisite.
314. Vernier Caliper. Fig. 142 is an illustration of the Vernier Caliper, a
light, convenient and valuable instrument for obtaining correct
measurements. The side represented in the illustration is graduated upon the
bar to inches and fiftieths of an inch, and by the aid of a Vernier is read to
the thousandths of an inch (see description below). The opposite side is
graduated to inches and sixty-fourths of an inch. The outside of the jaws are
of suitable form for taking inside measurements, and when the jaws are
closed, measure two hundred and fifty thousandths of an inch in diameter.
which is free to move, works in a slot in the tube.
The movable jaw is tapped and is propelled by a
screw that terminates in the needle point. This tool
is very useful in making the necessary
measurements required in putting in a staff. To use
it in this work, set the pivots of the gauge through
the foot hole, and upon the end-stone project the
needle such a distance as you wish the shoulder to
be formed above the point of the pivot. Next set
the gauge in the foot hole as before, and elevate
the disc to a height that shall be right for the roller,
which is done by having the lever in place, the
little disc showing exactly where the roller should
come. Finish the staff up to that point; then take Fig. 141.
the next measurement from the end-stone to where
the shoulder should be, for the balance to rest
upon. This point being marked, the staff can be reversed and measurements
commenced from the upper end-stone, by which to finish the upper end of
the staff. Distances between the shoulders for pinions and arbors can be
obtained with the same facility, a little practice being the only requisite.
314. Vernier Caliper. Fig. 142 is an illustration of the Vernier Caliper, a
light, convenient and valuable instrument for obtaining correct
measurements. The side represented in the illustration is graduated upon the
bar to inches and fiftieths of an inch, and by the aid of a Vernier is read to
the thousandths of an inch (see description below). The opposite side is
graduated to inches and sixty-fourths of an inch. The outside of the jaws are
of suitable form for taking inside measurements, and when the jaws are
closed, measure two hundred and fifty thousandths of an inch in diameter.
Page 267
Fig. 142.
These instruments can be furnished with millimeters (in the place of
sixty-fourths of an inch), and provided with a Vernier to read to one-fiftieth
of a millimeter.
On the bar of the instrument is a line of inches numbered 1, 2, 3, each
inch being divided into tenths, and each tenth into five parts, making fifty
divisions to one inch. Upon the sliding jaw is a line of divisions (called a
Vernier, from the inventor’s name), of twenty parts, figured 0, 5, 10, 15, 20.
These twenty divisions on the Vernier correspond to extreme length with
nineteen parts, or nineteen-fiftieths on the bar, consequently each division
on the Vernier is smaller than each division on the bar by one-thousandth of
an inch. If the sliding jaw of the caliper is pushed up to the other, so that the
line 0 on the Vernier corresponds with 0 on the bar, then the next two lines
on the left will differ from each other one-thousandth of an inch, and so the
difference will continue to increase one-thousandth of an inch for each
division till they again correspond on the twentieth line on the Vernier. To
read the distance the caliper may be open, commence by noticing how
many inches, tenths and parts of tenths the zero point on the Vernier has
been moved from the zero point on the bar. Then count upon the Vernier the
number of divisions until one is found which coincides with one on the bar,
which will be the number of thousandths to be added to the distance read
off on the bar. The best way of expressing the value of the divisions on the
bar is to call the tenths one hundred thousandths (.100) and the fifths of
tenths, or fiftieths, twenty thousands (.020). Referring to the accompanying
cut, it will be seen that the jaws are open one-tenth of an inch, which is
equal to one hundred thousandths (.100). Suppose now, the sliding jaw was
These instruments can be furnished with millimeters (in the place of
sixty-fourths of an inch), and provided with a Vernier to read to one-fiftieth
of a millimeter.
On the bar of the instrument is a line of inches numbered 1, 2, 3, each
inch being divided into tenths, and each tenth into five parts, making fifty
divisions to one inch. Upon the sliding jaw is a line of divisions (called a
Vernier, from the inventor’s name), of twenty parts, figured 0, 5, 10, 15, 20.
These twenty divisions on the Vernier correspond to extreme length with
nineteen parts, or nineteen-fiftieths on the bar, consequently each division
on the Vernier is smaller than each division on the bar by one-thousandth of
an inch. If the sliding jaw of the caliper is pushed up to the other, so that the
line 0 on the Vernier corresponds with 0 on the bar, then the next two lines
on the left will differ from each other one-thousandth of an inch, and so the
difference will continue to increase one-thousandth of an inch for each
division till they again correspond on the twentieth line on the Vernier. To
read the distance the caliper may be open, commence by noticing how
many inches, tenths and parts of tenths the zero point on the Vernier has
been moved from the zero point on the bar. Then count upon the Vernier the
number of divisions until one is found which coincides with one on the bar,
which will be the number of thousandths to be added to the distance read
off on the bar. The best way of expressing the value of the divisions on the
bar is to call the tenths one hundred thousandths (.100) and the fifths of
tenths, or fiftieths, twenty thousands (.020). Referring to the accompanying
cut, it will be seen that the jaws are open one-tenth of an inch, which is
equal to one hundred thousandths (.100). Suppose now, the sliding jaw was
Page 268
moved to the left, so that the first line on the Vernier would coincide with
the next line on the bar, this would then make twenty thousandths (.020)
more to be added to one hundred thousandths (.100), making the jaws then
open one hundred and twenty thousandths (.120) of an inch. If but half the
last described movement was made, the tenth line on the Vernier would
coincide with a line on the bar, and would then read, one hundred and ten
thousandths (.110) of an inch.
315. Hair Spring Stud Index.
Fig. 143 illustrates Johanson’s hair
spring stud index. The engraving
shows the full size of the tool,
which consists of a steel plate
mounted on feet, and pierced with
a number of holes for the reception
of screws, when taking down a
watch. In the center of the index is
a hole for the staff, and an oblong
Fig. 143. slot for the reception of the roller
jewel. To get any American
movement in beat, proceed as
follows: In front of No. 100 is a small spring; push same towards No. 10;
then place the balance on top of the stand, with staff in center and roller
jewel in the oblong hole; let the spring back gently; the balance will then
take its own position. Set degree hand in front of the desired degree, as per
direction on index table; place hair spring stud in front of degree hand, and
push on the collet.
INDEX TABLE FOR HAIR SPRING STUDS.
Size. Degree.
Columbus 18 Open Face Breguet 23
Columbus 6 Open Face Breguet
Elgin 18 Open Face Breguet 66
Elgin 16 Open Face Breguet 52
Elgin 16 Flat Hair Spring 52
Elgin 10 Flat Hair Spring 50
Elgin 6 and 8 Flat Hair Spring 50
Elgin 0 Flat Hair Spring
the next line on the bar, this would then make twenty thousandths (.020)
more to be added to one hundred thousandths (.100), making the jaws then
open one hundred and twenty thousandths (.120) of an inch. If but half the
last described movement was made, the tenth line on the Vernier would
coincide with a line on the bar, and would then read, one hundred and ten
thousandths (.110) of an inch.
315. Hair Spring Stud Index.
Fig. 143 illustrates Johanson’s hair
spring stud index. The engraving
shows the full size of the tool,
which consists of a steel plate
mounted on feet, and pierced with
a number of holes for the reception
of screws, when taking down a
watch. In the center of the index is
a hole for the staff, and an oblong
Fig. 143. slot for the reception of the roller
jewel. To get any American
movement in beat, proceed as
follows: In front of No. 100 is a small spring; push same towards No. 10;
then place the balance on top of the stand, with staff in center and roller
jewel in the oblong hole; let the spring back gently; the balance will then
take its own position. Set degree hand in front of the desired degree, as per
direction on index table; place hair spring stud in front of degree hand, and
push on the collet.
INDEX TABLE FOR HAIR SPRING STUDS.
Size. Degree.
Columbus 18 Open Face Breguet 23
Columbus 6 Open Face Breguet
Elgin 18 Open Face Breguet 66
Elgin 16 Open Face Breguet 52
Elgin 16 Flat Hair Spring 52
Elgin 10 Flat Hair Spring 50
Elgin 6 and 8 Flat Hair Spring 50
Elgin 0 Flat Hair Spring
Page 269
Illinois 18 Open Face Breguet 33
Illinois 18 Hunting 84
Illinois 18 Open Face Flat 89
Illinois 16
Illinois 6 Hunting 52
Illinois 4
Hampden 18 Dueber Hunting 80
Hampden 18 Open Face 75
Hampden 16
Hampden 6 Hunting 50
Howard 18 Old Model 5
Howard 18 New Model 23
Howard 16
Howard 6
Rockford 18 27
Rockford 6
Waltham 18 Key Flat Hair Spr’g 48
Waltham 18 O. F. Hair Spring 61
Waltham 18 Breguet 50
Waltham 14-16 42
Waltham 4-6 50
Waltham 1 42
Seth Thomas 18 Open Face 50
Seth Thomas 18 Hunting 52
316. Oil-cup Drills or Chamfering Tools. The reservoirs that contain a
supply of oil at the ends of pivot holes are made in the lathe with a semi-
cylindrical drill, or by hand with a chamfering tool of the form shown at b
or c, Fig. 144. A drill gives a clean cut, but necessitates a subsequent
polishing of the hole; as to the chamfering tool here referred to, some
inconvenience will be experienced in its use, owing to the point being apt to
jump out of the hole and make irregular scratches on the brass, which are
difficult to remove.
Illinois 18 Hunting 84
Illinois 18 Open Face Flat 89
Illinois 16
Illinois 6 Hunting 52
Illinois 4
Hampden 18 Dueber Hunting 80
Hampden 18 Open Face 75
Hampden 16
Hampden 6 Hunting 50
Howard 18 Old Model 5
Howard 18 New Model 23
Howard 16
Howard 6
Rockford 18 27
Rockford 6
Waltham 18 Key Flat Hair Spr’g 48
Waltham 18 O. F. Hair Spring 61
Waltham 18 Breguet 50
Waltham 14-16 42
Waltham 4-6 50
Waltham 1 42
Seth Thomas 18 Open Face 50
Seth Thomas 18 Hunting 52
316. Oil-cup Drills or Chamfering Tools. The reservoirs that contain a
supply of oil at the ends of pivot holes are made in the lathe with a semi-
cylindrical drill, or by hand with a chamfering tool of the form shown at b
or c, Fig. 144. A drill gives a clean cut, but necessitates a subsequent
polishing of the hole; as to the chamfering tool here referred to, some
inconvenience will be experienced in its use, owing to the point being apt to
jump out of the hole and make irregular scratches on the brass, which are
difficult to remove.
Page 270
Fig. 144.
The best shapes of drills for making, or at any rate for re-
forming or finishing oil-cups, are shown at d and f, Fig. 144,
and in Fig. 145.
d and f are two drill-blades that terminate in non-cutting
circular arcs. The flat curved end is more and more inclined
from the top towards the corner, from i towards the side e; the
angle at i becoming more acute, and at e more obtuse towards
Fig. 145. the corners. The drill will, of course, only cut when rotating in
one direction; in the other direction the obtuse angles and the
reverse sides of the cutting angles will act as burnishers. Thus
if the angles on either side are well formed and the blade has been polished,
the surface of the oil-cup will be clean cut and polished. f is similar to d,
but made from a steel rod.
317. Observations on making the oil-cups. Reservoirs that are made with
a drill, or with a chamfering tool by hand, will often be found to be
eccentric, and, when a pivot-hole is bushed and re-drilled, it proves to be
struck from a different center from the oil-cup. In such cases watchmakers
often give themselves endless trouble without securing a cup of good form
and well centered. This difficulty can be avoided by using the tool in a lathe
driven by a wheel; then, holding the plate in one hand square against a drill
rest in tail stock, advance the tail stock with the other hand so as to bring
the plate in contact with the drill.
When it is only required to correct the form of an oil-cup, the drill may
be replaced by a rod with file cuts on its rounded extremity (h, Fig. 144).
The reader will find no difficulty in making such a cutter for himself,
drawing a file with both hands over the rounded end, but always in the
direction of the file-cuts. After covering the surface with lines in this
manner, rotate the cutter through a right angle and form a number of cross
The best shapes of drills for making, or at any rate for re-
forming or finishing oil-cups, are shown at d and f, Fig. 144,
and in Fig. 145.
d and f are two drill-blades that terminate in non-cutting
circular arcs. The flat curved end is more and more inclined
from the top towards the corner, from i towards the side e; the
angle at i becoming more acute, and at e more obtuse towards
Fig. 145. the corners. The drill will, of course, only cut when rotating in
one direction; in the other direction the obtuse angles and the
reverse sides of the cutting angles will act as burnishers. Thus
if the angles on either side are well formed and the blade has been polished,
the surface of the oil-cup will be clean cut and polished. f is similar to d,
but made from a steel rod.
317. Observations on making the oil-cups. Reservoirs that are made with
a drill, or with a chamfering tool by hand, will often be found to be
eccentric, and, when a pivot-hole is bushed and re-drilled, it proves to be
struck from a different center from the oil-cup. In such cases watchmakers
often give themselves endless trouble without securing a cup of good form
and well centered. This difficulty can be avoided by using the tool in a lathe
driven by a wheel; then, holding the plate in one hand square against a drill
rest in tail stock, advance the tail stock with the other hand so as to bring
the plate in contact with the drill.
When it is only required to correct the form of an oil-cup, the drill may
be replaced by a rod with file cuts on its rounded extremity (h, Fig. 144).
The reader will find no difficulty in making such a cutter for himself,
drawing a file with both hands over the rounded end, but always in the
direction of the file-cuts. After covering the surface with lines in this
manner, rotate the cutter through a right angle and form a number of cross
Page 271
cuts. Or roughen the surface with a chisel of the form shown at h; after
making a few cuts parallel to each other, turn the chisel through an angle
and repeat the operation.
318. Chamfering Tool. As is well known, this is used for removing the
roughness that a drill leaves at the edge of a hole, or to take off the cutting
edge around a screw head sink, etc., thus forming a bevel edge. The tool
commonly has a flat semicircular blade, the diameter of which depends on
size of hole to be made; this semicircle is ground to a cutting edge like a
drill, as shown at a, Fig. 144. Chamfering tools are also made pyramidal,
with flat faces, as at b and c; the angle at the apex is more or less acute,
according to the depth of chamfer required.
The oil-cup drills d and f are also used for chamfering the edge of a hole.
A cone formed at the extremity of a piece of pinion wire with a cutting
edge on each leaf and hardened will be found very useful for this purpose.
319. The two forms of chamfering tool first described leave a series of
undulations on the bevel edge, so that, instead of being conical, it presents a
number of small facets. This inconvenience can be avoided by using the
tool shown at z, Fig. 145.
A small disc of hardened steel is pivoted within a recess formed at the
end of a rod, the pin on which it rotates being at right angles to the direction
of the rod. As is seen in the figure to right of z, the section of this roller is a
rectangle, and the surface is carefully polished, the edges being left sharp.
Clockmakers make use of a tool for forming oil-cups that only differs
from the one above described in two particulars: (1) The disc is fixed on its
axis; and (2) the edge, instead of being square to the two faces, is inclined
as shown at j and at the same time is slightly rounded crosswise.
A few trials will be found necessary before the most convenient thickness
and inclination of edge are arrived at.
320. Hollow Chamfering Tools. These, as is well known, are used for
removing the angles at the ends of cylindrical rods, of steady-pins, etc., or
for rounding them off. Three forms are shown at o, q, n, Fig. 146.
o is a round rod, the flat end of which has been filed across with the
corner of a triangular file. Four cutting edges are thus produced which will
making a few cuts parallel to each other, turn the chisel through an angle
and repeat the operation.
318. Chamfering Tool. As is well known, this is used for removing the
roughness that a drill leaves at the edge of a hole, or to take off the cutting
edge around a screw head sink, etc., thus forming a bevel edge. The tool
commonly has a flat semicircular blade, the diameter of which depends on
size of hole to be made; this semicircle is ground to a cutting edge like a
drill, as shown at a, Fig. 144. Chamfering tools are also made pyramidal,
with flat faces, as at b and c; the angle at the apex is more or less acute,
according to the depth of chamfer required.
The oil-cup drills d and f are also used for chamfering the edge of a hole.
A cone formed at the extremity of a piece of pinion wire with a cutting
edge on each leaf and hardened will be found very useful for this purpose.
319. The two forms of chamfering tool first described leave a series of
undulations on the bevel edge, so that, instead of being conical, it presents a
number of small facets. This inconvenience can be avoided by using the
tool shown at z, Fig. 145.
A small disc of hardened steel is pivoted within a recess formed at the
end of a rod, the pin on which it rotates being at right angles to the direction
of the rod. As is seen in the figure to right of z, the section of this roller is a
rectangle, and the surface is carefully polished, the edges being left sharp.
Clockmakers make use of a tool for forming oil-cups that only differs
from the one above described in two particulars: (1) The disc is fixed on its
axis; and (2) the edge, instead of being square to the two faces, is inclined
as shown at j and at the same time is slightly rounded crosswise.
A few trials will be found necessary before the most convenient thickness
and inclination of edge are arrived at.
320. Hollow Chamfering Tools. These, as is well known, are used for
removing the angles at the ends of cylindrical rods, of steady-pins, etc., or
for rounding them off. Three forms are shown at o, q, n, Fig. 146.
o is a round rod, the flat end of which has been filed across with the
corner of a triangular file. Four cutting edges are thus produced which will
Page 272
act on the end of any object that rotates
within them, or vice versa. If it be required
to form a very acute angle, two slits must
be cut with a screw-head file and the sides
afterwards inclined to the required extent
with a flat file. This tool will serve a
double purpose: (1) to chamfer off the
Fig. 146. edge of a rod; and, (2) by prolonging this
operation to form a point at the end.
As a rule, when it is desired to round off, say, a pillar of a clock after
reducing its length or from any other cause, a hollow chamfering tool of
very open angle is used, a rocking motion being imparted to it round the
axis of the spindle; it is better to use a tool of the shape shown at n or q. The
latter, q, is easily formed by strokes of a rat-tail file at right angles across its
end; the other, n, is cut internally with a shaped chisel or with a small
rotating cutter to which different inclinations are given during the cutting,
as is also done when using the chisel.
321. The tool shown at o, Fig. 146, has been modified as follows by M.
Roze. The two notches at right angles are replaced by three equidistant
notches of equal depth. To make these in a piece of round steel it should be
divided on the circumference into six equal parts; then cut the three notches
as follows: Calling the points marked on the circumference 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
one notch will lie parallel to the line joining 1, 3, and equidistant between
this line and the point 5; a second will be parallel to 3, 5, and midway
between that line and point 1, and the third will be parallel to 5, 1, and
midway between this and the point 3.
In a hollow chamfering tool thus constructed it will be found that only
the three long sides 1, 3, 5, actually cut, and at 2, 4 and 6 are short sides that
are set back. But when a file is laid on the face joining two of the former
sides, say 1, 3, the short faces 4, 6, will protect the cutting edge 5 from
contact with the file.
322. Tool for Centering Rods. These appliances are well known to
watchmakers, who often employ them for marking the position of the hole
in the brass wire when making bushings. It is advisable to have such a tool
somewhat large, about a third as large again as that shown at s r, Fig. 147.
within them, or vice versa. If it be required
to form a very acute angle, two slits must
be cut with a screw-head file and the sides
afterwards inclined to the required extent
with a flat file. This tool will serve a
double purpose: (1) to chamfer off the
Fig. 146. edge of a rod; and, (2) by prolonging this
operation to form a point at the end.
As a rule, when it is desired to round off, say, a pillar of a clock after
reducing its length or from any other cause, a hollow chamfering tool of
very open angle is used, a rocking motion being imparted to it round the
axis of the spindle; it is better to use a tool of the shape shown at n or q. The
latter, q, is easily formed by strokes of a rat-tail file at right angles across its
end; the other, n, is cut internally with a shaped chisel or with a small
rotating cutter to which different inclinations are given during the cutting,
as is also done when using the chisel.
321. The tool shown at o, Fig. 146, has been modified as follows by M.
Roze. The two notches at right angles are replaced by three equidistant
notches of equal depth. To make these in a piece of round steel it should be
divided on the circumference into six equal parts; then cut the three notches
as follows: Calling the points marked on the circumference 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
one notch will lie parallel to the line joining 1, 3, and equidistant between
this line and the point 5; a second will be parallel to 3, 5, and midway
between that line and point 1, and the third will be parallel to 5, 1, and
midway between this and the point 3.
In a hollow chamfering tool thus constructed it will be found that only
the three long sides 1, 3, 5, actually cut, and at 2, 4 and 6 are short sides that
are set back. But when a file is laid on the face joining two of the former
sides, say 1, 3, the short faces 4, 6, will protect the cutting edge 5 from
contact with the file.
322. Tool for Centering Rods. These appliances are well known to
watchmakers, who often employ them for marking the position of the hole
in the brass wire when making bushings. It is advisable to have such a tool
somewhat large, about a third as large again as that shown at s r, Fig. 147.
Page 273
The head of the centering punch or drill is filed flat
on either side, and this flattened portion passes into a
notch in the spring r, which maintains it in position
and prevents rotation when the triangular-pointed
blade is pressed against the end of this rod, this rod
being caused to rotate in the hollow cone of s. Instead
of a spring such as r, a helical spring is often used; but
it then becomes necessary to fix a pin in the drill that
slides in a groove in s, so as to prevent the drill from
rotating.
323. Centering with a Set-Square. The set square
may be used for centering round rods, and the
following is a very simple mode of applying it:
On one arm of the square r, Fig.
148, a triangular plate c d is screwed Fig. 147.
or riveted so that its edge c d exactly
bisects the right angle, that is, divides it into two equal
angles. The flat end of a round rod is held within the angle
and against the plate, a line being traced on it along c d; it
is then turned through about a right angle and a second
Fig. 148.
line traced. The intersection of these two lines gives the
axis of the rod.
324. Tool for Roughing Out Points. This is merely the inverted
chamfering tool of which two forms are described in paragraphs 320-21,
one of them being also shown at o, Fig. 146. It will be evident that when the
end of a rod is caused to rotate in this hollow cone it will take its form.
In some cases it may be found convenient to place such a tool in the tail
stock of the lathe.
If the bottom of the cone at the end of o were prolonged by continuing
the cuts farther down with a thin flat file, the point of the rod might be
formed like a conical-headed screw before it is tapped.
325. Balance-spring Collet Tool. This convenient little tool for rotating
the balance-spring collet is commended almost as much by its simplicity
and facility of construction as by its usefulness.
on either side, and this flattened portion passes into a
notch in the spring r, which maintains it in position
and prevents rotation when the triangular-pointed
blade is pressed against the end of this rod, this rod
being caused to rotate in the hollow cone of s. Instead
of a spring such as r, a helical spring is often used; but
it then becomes necessary to fix a pin in the drill that
slides in a groove in s, so as to prevent the drill from
rotating.
323. Centering with a Set-Square. The set square
may be used for centering round rods, and the
following is a very simple mode of applying it:
On one arm of the square r, Fig.
148, a triangular plate c d is screwed Fig. 147.
or riveted so that its edge c d exactly
bisects the right angle, that is, divides it into two equal
angles. The flat end of a round rod is held within the angle
and against the plate, a line being traced on it along c d; it
is then turned through about a right angle and a second
Fig. 148.
line traced. The intersection of these two lines gives the
axis of the rod.
324. Tool for Roughing Out Points. This is merely the inverted
chamfering tool of which two forms are described in paragraphs 320-21,
one of them being also shown at o, Fig. 146. It will be evident that when the
end of a rod is caused to rotate in this hollow cone it will take its form.
In some cases it may be found convenient to place such a tool in the tail
stock of the lathe.
If the bottom of the cone at the end of o were prolonged by continuing
the cuts farther down with a thin flat file, the point of the rod might be
formed like a conical-headed screw before it is tapped.
325. Balance-spring Collet Tool. This convenient little tool for rotating
the balance-spring collet is commended almost as much by its simplicity
and facility of construction as by its usefulness.
Page 274
A steel rod n, Fig. 149, is fixed in a handle t; it
terminates in a cone a and is drilled with a fine hole as
indicated by the dotted lines. A thin wing b, pointed at its
extremity, is also attached to the handle.
Holding the balance between the fingers of the left
hand and the tool in the right, the blade b is introduced
into the slit in the collet while a rests on the balance staff
shoulder, the pivot being within the hole n. Now rotate to
the right or left until the stud is opposite to the mark on
the balance rim, and this may be done without danger,
providing the tool is held firmly and vertical.
326. Watch-hand Holder. A very
convenient form of tool, in which to
clamp a hand while enlarging the center
Fig. 149.
hole is represented in Fig. 150. Two
brass plates, f and g, are hinged at m like
a sector. A collar, a b, surrounding the two is pivoted at a
and has a clamping-screw b by which the two plates can
be forced together. Several circular sinks of different sizes
and equally divided between the two plates, are cut of a
depth varying from one-half to two-thirds that of the
Fig. 150. plates, and they must be made to increase in diameter as
they get deeper, thus resembling the internal groove that
receives a barrel cover. The plate a is cut away along the
portion c d and grooves are formed to leave passages open between this
surface and the bottom of the sinks in g and f.
When it is required to enlarge the hole of a watch-hand, place it, inverted,
in the hole of suitable size, as shown at c of the figure, and tighten the
screw b. Held round the whole or greater part of its circumference, the hand
is thus firm and its center hole can be enlarged without risk, either with a
drill or broach; the hand will not show marks due to the pressure with
which it has been held.
327. Common Hand fitting Pliers. The sliding tongs with large flat
head, perforated with a number of holes in which the head of a hand is
clamped when the opening requires to be enlarged, are often useful, but we
terminates in a cone a and is drilled with a fine hole as
indicated by the dotted lines. A thin wing b, pointed at its
extremity, is also attached to the handle.
Holding the balance between the fingers of the left
hand and the tool in the right, the blade b is introduced
into the slit in the collet while a rests on the balance staff
shoulder, the pivot being within the hole n. Now rotate to
the right or left until the stud is opposite to the mark on
the balance rim, and this may be done without danger,
providing the tool is held firmly and vertical.
326. Watch-hand Holder. A very
convenient form of tool, in which to
clamp a hand while enlarging the center
Fig. 149.
hole is represented in Fig. 150. Two
brass plates, f and g, are hinged at m like
a sector. A collar, a b, surrounding the two is pivoted at a
and has a clamping-screw b by which the two plates can
be forced together. Several circular sinks of different sizes
and equally divided between the two plates, are cut of a
depth varying from one-half to two-thirds that of the
Fig. 150. plates, and they must be made to increase in diameter as
they get deeper, thus resembling the internal groove that
receives a barrel cover. The plate a is cut away along the
portion c d and grooves are formed to leave passages open between this
surface and the bottom of the sinks in g and f.
When it is required to enlarge the hole of a watch-hand, place it, inverted,
in the hole of suitable size, as shown at c of the figure, and tighten the
screw b. Held round the whole or greater part of its circumference, the hand
is thus firm and its center hole can be enlarged without risk, either with a
drill or broach; the hand will not show marks due to the pressure with
which it has been held.
327. Common Hand fitting Pliers. The sliding tongs with large flat
head, perforated with a number of holes in which the head of a hand is
clamped when the opening requires to be enlarged, are often useful, but we
Page 275
feel them to be less so than the holder just described. It is desirable that the
inner faces of their jaws, which are usually left rough, be at least smoothed.
328. Another form of Watch-hand Holder. M.
Fiquemont has devised the simple little tool shown in
Fig. 151. It consists of a short brass rod r, perforated
lengthwise and having a thread cut externally on the
surface a b. It should be reduced in thickness below
this tapped portion. The rod, shown also in
longitudinal section at p, is cut into four quarters by
two slits from a to b, which are at right angles and
leave the points as indicated apart at d. The elasticity
of these four quarters should make them take the form
Fig. 151. of a reversed cone when holding a hand, so that the
ascent of the screw c shall tighten them.
Within the head a of the tool is formed a circular recess, so that, if the
reversed head of a watch-hand be placed within it and the screw made to
ascend, it will be held very firmly by the circumference, as seen in the
figure. The hand will thus be perfectly free to adjust in any way that is
needed for fitting it while held at the end of the tool, and without being
removed before the work is complete. Three or four sizes will suffice for all
ordinary watch-hands.
A tool may be made in a similar manner, except that the screw is not
divided by the longitudinal slits, and the hand is held against the point by a
lantern (similar to those of a screw-point tool), which must be cut away in
the manner indicated in Fig. 150, explained above (326). An assortment of
three or four lanterns will render the tool serviceable for all sizes of hands.
329. Clip for Holding Escapewheels while Cleaning. A mere inspection
of m, Fig. 152, will make the arrangement of this little tool evident. The
fork is made of a piece of brass rod and its two arms are elastic, a handle
being screwed into the lower extremity.
Two small steel jaws are fixed to the upper ends inclined towards each
other, and, in using the tool, it is only necessary to press with two fingers on
the heads of the screws, when the jaws will open. Having placed the escape
wheel pinion between them, the wheel will be firmly held so that its teeth
can be easily cleaned, etc.
inner faces of their jaws, which are usually left rough, be at least smoothed.
328. Another form of Watch-hand Holder. M.
Fiquemont has devised the simple little tool shown in
Fig. 151. It consists of a short brass rod r, perforated
lengthwise and having a thread cut externally on the
surface a b. It should be reduced in thickness below
this tapped portion. The rod, shown also in
longitudinal section at p, is cut into four quarters by
two slits from a to b, which are at right angles and
leave the points as indicated apart at d. The elasticity
of these four quarters should make them take the form
Fig. 151. of a reversed cone when holding a hand, so that the
ascent of the screw c shall tighten them.
Within the head a of the tool is formed a circular recess, so that, if the
reversed head of a watch-hand be placed within it and the screw made to
ascend, it will be held very firmly by the circumference, as seen in the
figure. The hand will thus be perfectly free to adjust in any way that is
needed for fitting it while held at the end of the tool, and without being
removed before the work is complete. Three or four sizes will suffice for all
ordinary watch-hands.
A tool may be made in a similar manner, except that the screw is not
divided by the longitudinal slits, and the hand is held against the point by a
lantern (similar to those of a screw-point tool), which must be cut away in
the manner indicated in Fig. 150, explained above (326). An assortment of
three or four lanterns will render the tool serviceable for all sizes of hands.
329. Clip for Holding Escapewheels while Cleaning. A mere inspection
of m, Fig. 152, will make the arrangement of this little tool evident. The
fork is made of a piece of brass rod and its two arms are elastic, a handle
being screwed into the lower extremity.
Two small steel jaws are fixed to the upper ends inclined towards each
other, and, in using the tool, it is only necessary to press with two fingers on
the heads of the screws, when the jaws will open. Having placed the escape
wheel pinion between them, the wheel will be firmly held so that its teeth
can be easily cleaned, etc.
Page 276
330. The appliance shown in
Fig. 153 can be used for a
similar purpose, and is further
especially serviceable for
holding an escape-wheel that is
not riveted to its pinion. It
consists of two parts, a handle t, Fig. 153.
shown separate at t, which is
drilled throughout its length and tapped externally at the
portion t, and a collar or nut d, the end of which is traversed
by two cuts at right angles that resemble the letter T in
section. If the tool is intended for holding escape-wheels that
have three instead of four arms, this cross must be replaced by
three radiating grooves of similar section. The position
occupied by the wheel is indicated by the dotted lines r r, and
it will be evident that, when the flat end of t is screwed up
Fig. 152. against this wheel, after dropping it into the cross and slightly
turning round the axis as in a bayonet joint, it may be firmly
held. The safest mode of introducing the wheel is by holding it on a broach,
which is subsequently removed.
331. Tool for Testing the Truth of a Cylinder
Escapewheel. The small tool shown at d, Fig. 154,
can be advantageously used in place of the plain arbor
commonly employed for testing the equality of the
spaces in such a wheel. The plate d, which may be
mounted on three feet, is traversed at its center by the
smooth conical portion f of the screw f v, tapped
somewhat tightly into a cock fixed to the other side of
the plate. There is a radial slot, a c, cut in the plate
large enough to allow an escape-wheel pinion to move
freely. An inspection of the figure will make evident
the manner in which the tool is to be used: a wheel
being placed as shown, or with reverse side upwards,
is made to slide towards the center, gradually raising
the screw until the largest space is found to admit f
Fig. 154. with contact at both sides. All the smaller spaces are
Fig. 153 can be used for a
similar purpose, and is further
especially serviceable for
holding an escape-wheel that is
not riveted to its pinion. It
consists of two parts, a handle t, Fig. 153.
shown separate at t, which is
drilled throughout its length and tapped externally at the
portion t, and a collar or nut d, the end of which is traversed
by two cuts at right angles that resemble the letter T in
section. If the tool is intended for holding escape-wheels that
have three instead of four arms, this cross must be replaced by
three radiating grooves of similar section. The position
occupied by the wheel is indicated by the dotted lines r r, and
it will be evident that, when the flat end of t is screwed up
Fig. 152. against this wheel, after dropping it into the cross and slightly
turning round the axis as in a bayonet joint, it may be firmly
held. The safest mode of introducing the wheel is by holding it on a broach,
which is subsequently removed.
331. Tool for Testing the Truth of a Cylinder
Escapewheel. The small tool shown at d, Fig. 154,
can be advantageously used in place of the plain arbor
commonly employed for testing the equality of the
spaces in such a wheel. The plate d, which may be
mounted on three feet, is traversed at its center by the
smooth conical portion f of the screw f v, tapped
somewhat tightly into a cock fixed to the other side of
the plate. There is a radial slot, a c, cut in the plate
large enough to allow an escape-wheel pinion to move
freely. An inspection of the figure will make evident
the manner in which the tool is to be used: a wheel
being placed as shown, or with reverse side upwards,
is made to slide towards the center, gradually raising
the screw until the largest space is found to admit f
Fig. 154. with contact at both sides. All the smaller spaces are
Page 277
then carefully opened until they admit the cone in the same manner as the
largest.
332. Novel tool for the same purpose. When the spaces are adjusted in
the manner explained above, or if the length of the teeth is measured in a
narrow gauge plate, there will nearly always remain a certain degree of
irregularity in the teeth. A more efficient means would be for the gauge to
embrace both a tooth and space, and this condition is satisfied by the
following appliance.
The slide k k, Fig. 155, is dovetailed into a
plate, level with its surface, so that k k can be
moved in a vertical direction by a screw; it is
perforated with a series of holes of gradually
decreasing diameter. To the same plate are also
fixed: (1) a smooth tongue, b, with a foot and
screw; and (2) a second tongue, j, terminating in
Fig. 155. an index x n, which is movable about a pivot, x,
and held against a pin in the plate by a light
straight or spiral spring. The extremity, n, traverses a graduated arc.
Having introduced the pinion of the wheel, or the arbor on which it is
held, into a hole of the slide that it fits without shake, and brought this hole
to the position indicated in the figure, apply a slight pressure to the wheel in
the direction of its rotation. With one tooth resting against b the tongue j
will be held by the spring against the next and the reading of the index is to
be noted accurately. Withdraw the wheel slightly, and, placing the
succeeding tooth against b, take a second reading, and so on around the
entire circumference.
Of course, the delicacy of the instrument will be increased by
lengthening x n in comparison with x j.
333. Tool for Removing Studs. Fig. 156 represents a small tool which
may be employed for this purpose. It consists of a thick strip of metal, c,
spreading out like the letter T at the end which is not shown, so as to form
two feet, the screw, j, being a third, so arranged that the T rests horizontally.
The disc, d (shown also in plan), rotates on the screw, j, and is partially
enclosed in a horizontal slot. Around the circumference of d are four
rectangular notches of different sizes. The holes indicated by black dots on
largest.
332. Novel tool for the same purpose. When the spaces are adjusted in
the manner explained above, or if the length of the teeth is measured in a
narrow gauge plate, there will nearly always remain a certain degree of
irregularity in the teeth. A more efficient means would be for the gauge to
embrace both a tooth and space, and this condition is satisfied by the
following appliance.
The slide k k, Fig. 155, is dovetailed into a
plate, level with its surface, so that k k can be
moved in a vertical direction by a screw; it is
perforated with a series of holes of gradually
decreasing diameter. To the same plate are also
fixed: (1) a smooth tongue, b, with a foot and
screw; and (2) a second tongue, j, terminating in
Fig. 155. an index x n, which is movable about a pivot, x,
and held against a pin in the plate by a light
straight or spiral spring. The extremity, n, traverses a graduated arc.
Having introduced the pinion of the wheel, or the arbor on which it is
held, into a hole of the slide that it fits without shake, and brought this hole
to the position indicated in the figure, apply a slight pressure to the wheel in
the direction of its rotation. With one tooth resting against b the tongue j
will be held by the spring against the next and the reading of the index is to
be noted accurately. Withdraw the wheel slightly, and, placing the
succeeding tooth against b, take a second reading, and so on around the
entire circumference.
Of course, the delicacy of the instrument will be increased by
lengthening x n in comparison with x j.
333. Tool for Removing Studs. Fig. 156 represents a small tool which
may be employed for this purpose. It consists of a thick strip of metal, c,
spreading out like the letter T at the end which is not shown, so as to form
two feet, the screw, j, being a third, so arranged that the T rests horizontally.
The disc, d (shown also in plan), rotates on the screw, j, and is partially
enclosed in a horizontal slot. Around the circumference of d are four
rectangular notches of different sizes. The holes indicated by black dots on
Page 278
the plan receive the point of the screw, v, which
clamps the disc when the notch corresponding in
size with the stud to be removed has been brought
under the small cone projecting from the spring, b;
the other end of b is fixed to the T-shaped piece, c.
The mode of using this little instrument will at
once be evident. Resting the right arm on the
bench, and, with the left-hand, bringing the wing
of the cock above the notch in d, the other hand
presses upon the milled button of b, forcing the
conical pin against the stud and thus removing it
from the cock. The screw, a, can be adjusted so as
Fig. 156. to prevent too great force being applied.
334. Tweezers for
Removing Studs. One form is shown in Fig.
157. The upper arm, h, is bent downwards as
indicated at g. The lower arm is shorter and
carries a separate piece, n m, which slides
under two screws, s, and is pressed forward by
Fig. 157.
a spring, r. The action will be easily
understood; the extremity, m, rests against the
stud, and m n is forced backwards until the point, g, is exactly over the stud
pin. A simple pressure of the finger will then suffice to remove the stud.
A still more simple pair of tweezers for this purpose may be made by
filling a square notch in the end of one prong of an ordinary pair with broad
noses, and setting a pin opposite to its center in the end of the other prong.
335. Staking Tool. The modern staking tool will perform the same work
as the last two tools described and many other operations. It consists of a
shifting table, around which holes of various sizes are arranged in a circle,
so that any desired hole may be brought under a suitable punch moving in a
vertical holder. Usually twenty-four tempered steel punches and four
stumps are provided, which will be found sufficient to cover all the
operations in the ordinary run of watch repairs, and the ingenious workman
can from time to time add to these by making punches in his spare
moments, if he finds from experience that he is in need of punches of a
clamps the disc when the notch corresponding in
size with the stud to be removed has been brought
under the small cone projecting from the spring, b;
the other end of b is fixed to the T-shaped piece, c.
The mode of using this little instrument will at
once be evident. Resting the right arm on the
bench, and, with the left-hand, bringing the wing
of the cock above the notch in d, the other hand
presses upon the milled button of b, forcing the
conical pin against the stud and thus removing it
from the cock. The screw, a, can be adjusted so as
Fig. 156. to prevent too great force being applied.
334. Tweezers for
Removing Studs. One form is shown in Fig.
157. The upper arm, h, is bent downwards as
indicated at g. The lower arm is shorter and
carries a separate piece, n m, which slides
under two screws, s, and is pressed forward by
Fig. 157.
a spring, r. The action will be easily
understood; the extremity, m, rests against the
stud, and m n is forced backwards until the point, g, is exactly over the stud
pin. A simple pressure of the finger will then suffice to remove the stud.
A still more simple pair of tweezers for this purpose may be made by
filling a square notch in the end of one prong of an ordinary pair with broad
noses, and setting a pin opposite to its center in the end of the other prong.
335. Staking Tool. The modern staking tool will perform the same work
as the last two tools described and many other operations. It consists of a
shifting table, around which holes of various sizes are arranged in a circle,
so that any desired hole may be brought under a suitable punch moving in a
vertical holder. Usually twenty-four tempered steel punches and four
stumps are provided, which will be found sufficient to cover all the
operations in the ordinary run of watch repairs, and the ingenious workman
can from time to time add to these by making punches in his spare
moments, if he finds from experience that he is in need of punches of a
Page 279
different shape. Fig. 158 illustrates the Johanson combination staking tool,
on the front end of which a hairspring stud indicator is arranged.
Fig. 158.
336. The staking tool can be used as a cannon pinion tightener by making
a punch for it having a blunt chisel edge. When a cannon pinion is placed
on a stump which is slightly dished in that portion of its face opposite to the
punch, and the punch gently struck with a hammer, it will be sufficiently
contracted to insure the requisite adherence to the set-hands arbor. If fears
are entertained lest the pinion should be cracked with the blow, it may be
placed loosely on an arbor and held in position.
337. It may also be used to advantage for tightening the set-hands arbor
in the center or cannon pinion, but care must be exercised or the arbor may
be bent so that the minute hand which it carries passes nearer the dial at one
place than another.
on the front end of which a hairspring stud indicator is arranged.
Fig. 158.
336. The staking tool can be used as a cannon pinion tightener by making
a punch for it having a blunt chisel edge. When a cannon pinion is placed
on a stump which is slightly dished in that portion of its face opposite to the
punch, and the punch gently struck with a hammer, it will be sufficiently
contracted to insure the requisite adherence to the set-hands arbor. If fears
are entertained lest the pinion should be cracked with the blow, it may be
placed loosely on an arbor and held in position.
337. It may also be used to advantage for tightening the set-hands arbor
in the center or cannon pinion, but care must be exercised or the arbor may
be bent so that the minute hand which it carries passes nearer the dial at one
place than another.
Page 280
An arbor that is too loose is introduced into a suitable stump and at the
top and bottom of the slack portion two punch marks are made opposite one
another. The punch having a conical or three-sided point, will occasion an
expansion of the metal round each mark; if a smooth file be passed over the
surface so as to remove the burr, which would not offer any permanent
resistance, sufficient projecting metal will be left to secure a sound and
lasting friction when a little oil is applied.
If the arbor is well supported immediately beneath the punch, it will not
be distorted by any moderate impact. It is advisable before operating on the
metal to ascertain its degree of hardness.
338. It may also be used as a pinion riveting tool. The pinion, with its
wheel in position, is placed on the hardened steel stump, the end to be
riveted being upwards. The riveting is then struck with the polished end of a
hollow punch. If it be required to spread the riveting, a punch must first be
used that is rounded from within outwards, to be followed with a perfectly
flat punch. A little practice will at once enable a workman to select the best
form of punch.
The stump should be very hard and polished, funnel-shaped downwards
and carefully fitted to the bed, so as to be firm and central with the punch. If
these precautions are not taken the pinion will spring and the riveting will
be imperfect.
339. The staking tool may also be used for closing up barrel holes, screw-
holes, etc. In repairing watches it is often found that the screws hold badly
or not at all, and the holes at times cannot be satisfactorily bushed. In such
cases it becomes necessary to close them, an operation which any
intelligent workman can perform very well in the following manner: Make
a stump rounded at the top and provided with a pump-center. This can be
merely a pointed steel rod that passes through the stump from below with
slight friction, and is forced upwards by a light spring fixed by a screw, so
that, on undoing the screw, the rod can be removed. The one pump-center
can be used for various stumps as the openings are funnel-shaped
downwards. Center the hole to be closed by means of the pump-center, then
bring down the hollow punch and strike it as in riveting a pinion. A small
circular groove will be formed around the hole, which, if the punch is in
good order, will be perfectly even. The form of the punch is very important;
top and bottom of the slack portion two punch marks are made opposite one
another. The punch having a conical or three-sided point, will occasion an
expansion of the metal round each mark; if a smooth file be passed over the
surface so as to remove the burr, which would not offer any permanent
resistance, sufficient projecting metal will be left to secure a sound and
lasting friction when a little oil is applied.
If the arbor is well supported immediately beneath the punch, it will not
be distorted by any moderate impact. It is advisable before operating on the
metal to ascertain its degree of hardness.
338. It may also be used as a pinion riveting tool. The pinion, with its
wheel in position, is placed on the hardened steel stump, the end to be
riveted being upwards. The riveting is then struck with the polished end of a
hollow punch. If it be required to spread the riveting, a punch must first be
used that is rounded from within outwards, to be followed with a perfectly
flat punch. A little practice will at once enable a workman to select the best
form of punch.
The stump should be very hard and polished, funnel-shaped downwards
and carefully fitted to the bed, so as to be firm and central with the punch. If
these precautions are not taken the pinion will spring and the riveting will
be imperfect.
339. The staking tool may also be used for closing up barrel holes, screw-
holes, etc. In repairing watches it is often found that the screws hold badly
or not at all, and the holes at times cannot be satisfactorily bushed. In such
cases it becomes necessary to close them, an operation which any
intelligent workman can perform very well in the following manner: Make
a stump rounded at the top and provided with a pump-center. This can be
merely a pointed steel rod that passes through the stump from below with
slight friction, and is forced upwards by a light spring fixed by a screw, so
that, on undoing the screw, the rod can be removed. The one pump-center
can be used for various stumps as the openings are funnel-shaped
downwards. Center the hole to be closed by means of the pump-center, then
bring down the hollow punch and strike it as in riveting a pinion. A small
circular groove will be formed around the hole, which, if the punch is in
good order, will be perfectly even. The form of the punch is very important;
Page 281
the watchmaker must decide for himself by trial as to the most convenient
shape. The thickness of the ring of metal may be modified; it is rounded off
in a semicircle by some, and curved inwards or outwards by others.
Instead of a pump-center below we have used punches that were
themselves provided with a pump center and helical spring. Either form
gives satisfactory results.
The holes of barrels can be closed with a punch that is only depressed at
its center enough to avoid the point of the pump-center. When the face is
more or less rounded the hole will be closed by forming a cup as with a
chamfering tool. The tool may then be enlarged if requisite with a round
broach or an arbor covered with white wax. It will thus be hardened, and
the cup-shaped recess will serve to retain the oil, while the somewhat
thinner hole will probably be in a condition to resist friction as long as
formerly.
When the hole is of moderate thickness, and it does not require much
reduction in diameter, this method will be found satisfactory; barrels that
have been thus treated have been found to stand ten years without
appreciable wear. When the metal is thicker, however, the spreading
inwards is very slight, and there is some danger, in using a round broach to
do it, of straining the metal or detaching the central ring of the barrel or its
cover.
It should be observed that the methods explained above are absolutely
useless for closing pivot-holes, and should only be resorted to for barrels,
on an emergency.
340. Drifting Tool. This appliance, shown in Fig. 159, is very useful for
making holes of round, oval or square, or, indeed, any required form. It
takes the place of a punching machine for light work.
shape. The thickness of the ring of metal may be modified; it is rounded off
in a semicircle by some, and curved inwards or outwards by others.
Instead of a pump-center below we have used punches that were
themselves provided with a pump center and helical spring. Either form
gives satisfactory results.
The holes of barrels can be closed with a punch that is only depressed at
its center enough to avoid the point of the pump-center. When the face is
more or less rounded the hole will be closed by forming a cup as with a
chamfering tool. The tool may then be enlarged if requisite with a round
broach or an arbor covered with white wax. It will thus be hardened, and
the cup-shaped recess will serve to retain the oil, while the somewhat
thinner hole will probably be in a condition to resist friction as long as
formerly.
When the hole is of moderate thickness, and it does not require much
reduction in diameter, this method will be found satisfactory; barrels that
have been thus treated have been found to stand ten years without
appreciable wear. When the metal is thicker, however, the spreading
inwards is very slight, and there is some danger, in using a round broach to
do it, of straining the metal or detaching the central ring of the barrel or its
cover.
It should be observed that the methods explained above are absolutely
useless for closing pivot-holes, and should only be resorted to for barrels,
on an emergency.
340. Drifting Tool. This appliance, shown in Fig. 159, is very useful for
making holes of round, oval or square, or, indeed, any required form. It
takes the place of a punching machine for light work.
Page 282
Fig. 159.
The punch, or “drift,” is screwed into the stock c c′. A pin, p, fixed in c c′
prevents its rotation while allowing an end motion along the slot m n. The
end c′ is hollowed out to receive the point of a screw, b, and a pin, shown
near c′, is received in a groove turned in b, thus enabling it to draw the stock
in the direction c c′. The part h is gripped in the jaws of a vise, and a strong
handle, e, is used to advance the screw b b′. With a tool about three times
the size of the figure there is no difficulty in punching the eyes of
mainsprings, square holes in stop fingers, etc., and it can be made by an
apprentice. Of course its strength depends on the pitch of the screw and the
radius of the handle e.
341. For heavier work it will be necessary to resort to the punching
machine. There are several constructions in use, but the most usual is
essentially the same as that of the tool just described. The screw works
vertically in a strong bridge that is fixed to the bed in which the counterpart
of the punch is held. Great use is made of this machine in factories at the
present day, almost every part of a watch being in the first instance roughly
shaped by its means. Indeed, thin metal is often left as it comes from the
punch, and very perfect crossings of wheels, etc., are thus produced.
Steel does not cut well in the press unless it is soft and homogeneous, and
the final dimensions of the object can be more nearly approached according
as these conditions are satisfied. Attempts have been made to cut levers,
etc., of the exact dimensions required, but it is better to leave a slight excess
of metal to be afterwards removed by a mill cutter or other means. The
crossings of steel lever and cylinder escape-wheels are punched out, but the
metal used is of special excellence. Before introducing a piece of steel into
the press it is advisable to remove any scale, etc., by pickling, or with a file.
The punch, or “drift,” is screwed into the stock c c′. A pin, p, fixed in c c′
prevents its rotation while allowing an end motion along the slot m n. The
end c′ is hollowed out to receive the point of a screw, b, and a pin, shown
near c′, is received in a groove turned in b, thus enabling it to draw the stock
in the direction c c′. The part h is gripped in the jaws of a vise, and a strong
handle, e, is used to advance the screw b b′. With a tool about three times
the size of the figure there is no difficulty in punching the eyes of
mainsprings, square holes in stop fingers, etc., and it can be made by an
apprentice. Of course its strength depends on the pitch of the screw and the
radius of the handle e.
341. For heavier work it will be necessary to resort to the punching
machine. There are several constructions in use, but the most usual is
essentially the same as that of the tool just described. The screw works
vertically in a strong bridge that is fixed to the bed in which the counterpart
of the punch is held. Great use is made of this machine in factories at the
present day, almost every part of a watch being in the first instance roughly
shaped by its means. Indeed, thin metal is often left as it comes from the
punch, and very perfect crossings of wheels, etc., are thus produced.
Steel does not cut well in the press unless it is soft and homogeneous, and
the final dimensions of the object can be more nearly approached according
as these conditions are satisfied. Attempts have been made to cut levers,
etc., of the exact dimensions required, but it is better to leave a slight excess
of metal to be afterwards removed by a mill cutter or other means. The
crossings of steel lever and cylinder escape-wheels are punched out, but the
metal used is of special excellence. Before introducing a piece of steel into
the press it is advisable to remove any scale, etc., by pickling, or with a file.
Page 283
342. Draw-Plate. Every watchmaker should possess a plate for drawing
round wire so as to be able to obtain it of any required diameter. They are to
be had at all material houses. In bushing holes in a brass plate, it not
unfrequently happens that the brass used for the bushing is not of the same
color as the plate. To avoid such a difference cut off a piece from a plate of
the same color and round it by hand, making one end to taper. Fixing the
draw-plate in the vise, pass this end through one of its holes, and, gripping
it in the hand-vise, pull the brass through the plate. Continue this operation
through successive holes until the requisite thickness is attained.
No special precautions are necessary, further than keeping the holes well
greased and annealing the brass from time to time so as to counteract the
hardening caused by the operation.
Such a plate can also be used for steel wire, and plates with holes of
special form, for example those for drawing click and pinion wire, are well
known in the trade.
343. The Grammaire, or Dividing Plate. This
tool is shown in Fig. 160. To mark out the
crossings of a wheel, etc., fix it by the conical-
headed screw t to the middle of the plate, on
which are traced a series of concentric circles (not
shown) divided into 6, 8, 10 and 12 equal parts.
By laying the little ruler r r over the wheel blank
and using these division marks as a guide, 3, 4, 5
or 6 radii can be drawn to serve as guides for Fig. 160.
cutting out the arms.
If it is desired to indicate the width of the arms instead of a mere central
line, a series of holes must be drilled at the division marks and screws with
tapered points tapped into them from below. Resting the ruler against these
cones, the arms can be drawn of any required width, according to the
distance to which the screws project. No further explanation is necessary,
for the figure shows: (1) a grammaire adapted to mark out a four-armed
wheel, these arms being indicated by the dotted lines; and (2) the small
ruler r r cut away at the middle so as to avoid coming into contact with the
conical-headed screw.
round wire so as to be able to obtain it of any required diameter. They are to
be had at all material houses. In bushing holes in a brass plate, it not
unfrequently happens that the brass used for the bushing is not of the same
color as the plate. To avoid such a difference cut off a piece from a plate of
the same color and round it by hand, making one end to taper. Fixing the
draw-plate in the vise, pass this end through one of its holes, and, gripping
it in the hand-vise, pull the brass through the plate. Continue this operation
through successive holes until the requisite thickness is attained.
No special precautions are necessary, further than keeping the holes well
greased and annealing the brass from time to time so as to counteract the
hardening caused by the operation.
Such a plate can also be used for steel wire, and plates with holes of
special form, for example those for drawing click and pinion wire, are well
known in the trade.
343. The Grammaire, or Dividing Plate. This
tool is shown in Fig. 160. To mark out the
crossings of a wheel, etc., fix it by the conical-
headed screw t to the middle of the plate, on
which are traced a series of concentric circles (not
shown) divided into 6, 8, 10 and 12 equal parts.
By laying the little ruler r r over the wheel blank
and using these division marks as a guide, 3, 4, 5
or 6 radii can be drawn to serve as guides for Fig. 160.
cutting out the arms.
If it is desired to indicate the width of the arms instead of a mere central
line, a series of holes must be drilled at the division marks and screws with
tapered points tapped into them from below. Resting the ruler against these
cones, the arms can be drawn of any required width, according to the
distance to which the screws project. No further explanation is necessary,
for the figure shows: (1) a grammaire adapted to mark out a four-armed
wheel, these arms being indicated by the dotted lines; and (2) the small
ruler r r cut away at the middle so as to avoid coming into contact with the
conical-headed screw.
Page 284
Fig. 161.
344. Jewel-resetting Tools. Hopkins’ patent jeweling and staking tool,
shown in Fig. 161, is an ingenious device, and one that will be found very
useful to the watch repairer. As the spindle, or handle, to which the cutters
and burnishers P P P are attached, is sustained in upright position when in
use, by the long bearings through which it passes in the upright F,
independently of the lower center, the hole to be cut may be centered either
from above or below as preferred; and the depth to which it is desired the
cutter shall work is regulated by adjustment of the sliding collar E, and this
being a correct uprighting, as well as jeweling tool, with it a pivot hole, or a
344. Jewel-resetting Tools. Hopkins’ patent jeweling and staking tool,
shown in Fig. 161, is an ingenious device, and one that will be found very
useful to the watch repairer. As the spindle, or handle, to which the cutters
and burnishers P P P are attached, is sustained in upright position when in
use, by the long bearings through which it passes in the upright F,
independently of the lower center, the hole to be cut may be centered either
from above or below as preferred; and the depth to which it is desired the
cutter shall work is regulated by adjustment of the sliding collar E, and this
being a correct uprighting, as well as jeweling tool, with it a pivot hole, or a
Page 285
jewel setting, the correct center (upright) of which has been lost, may
readily be corrected, or its true center again found, and, what in some cases
would be a very desirable consideration, by careful manipulation with the
cutter, which is under perfect control of the operator, the position of jewel
settings may be changed so as to alter the depth of locking of the wheels to
any desired extent. To regulate the depth to which it is desired a cutter shall
work below the surface of a plate, lower the spindle D until, when moved
out sufficiently far, the end of the cutter will rest down on the top of the
plate to be operated upon, and fasten it there by lightly tightening the screw
K; this done adjust and fasten the collar E on the spindle D, to the same
height above the top of the upright F as it is desired the cutter shall work
below the surface of the plate on which it now rests. This, when the spindle
D has been again set free by loosening the screw K, will of course allow the
cutter to sink into the hole to be operated upon to the exact distance the
collar E had been set above top of F. In adjusting the collar, E, the
graduated wedge No. 4, or the jewel to be set, as preferred, may be used as
a gauge. The burnishers, No. 9, are used both for opening and closing
settings; the same burnisher, having chosen one of proper size, is used for
both purposes; the side being used for opening the setting, and the beveled
and rounded end for burnishing it down again over the jewel. The pieces 13
and 14 are made to fit in the lower end of the spindle D (the cutter P having
been removed), same as an ordinary drill-stock, and are used for burnishing
the edges of a jewel setting down flat over the jewel, countersinking screw
heads, giving end-shake to wheels, etc.; and being easily made, any one
owning the tool can make these for himself, of forms and sizes to suit the
particular work in hand. For uprighting purposes, withdraw the spindle D
and substitute No. 5, the rings, No. 3, being intended for laying the work
on, on the tool bed. For upright drilling through watch plates, mark the
place to be drilled (prick punch it slightly) with the cone point of No. 5;
which done turn the spindle No. 5 upside down and rest the upper end of
the drill in the countersink in its end, the drill being operated with a fiddle
bow acting on a collet placed on its shank for the purpose. For cutting off
bushings level with a watch plate, either a cutter of the No. 13 or 14 class,
or one of the P cutters can be used. For staking or riveting wheels upright
on their pinions, lay the stake No. 7 level on the tool bed (the center M
having been fastened down out of the way), and with No. 5 center
accurately the hole to be used in the stake, and fasten it there by means of
readily be corrected, or its true center again found, and, what in some cases
would be a very desirable consideration, by careful manipulation with the
cutter, which is under perfect control of the operator, the position of jewel
settings may be changed so as to alter the depth of locking of the wheels to
any desired extent. To regulate the depth to which it is desired a cutter shall
work below the surface of a plate, lower the spindle D until, when moved
out sufficiently far, the end of the cutter will rest down on the top of the
plate to be operated upon, and fasten it there by lightly tightening the screw
K; this done adjust and fasten the collar E on the spindle D, to the same
height above the top of the upright F as it is desired the cutter shall work
below the surface of the plate on which it now rests. This, when the spindle
D has been again set free by loosening the screw K, will of course allow the
cutter to sink into the hole to be operated upon to the exact distance the
collar E had been set above top of F. In adjusting the collar, E, the
graduated wedge No. 4, or the jewel to be set, as preferred, may be used as
a gauge. The burnishers, No. 9, are used both for opening and closing
settings; the same burnisher, having chosen one of proper size, is used for
both purposes; the side being used for opening the setting, and the beveled
and rounded end for burnishing it down again over the jewel. The pieces 13
and 14 are made to fit in the lower end of the spindle D (the cutter P having
been removed), same as an ordinary drill-stock, and are used for burnishing
the edges of a jewel setting down flat over the jewel, countersinking screw
heads, giving end-shake to wheels, etc.; and being easily made, any one
owning the tool can make these for himself, of forms and sizes to suit the
particular work in hand. For uprighting purposes, withdraw the spindle D
and substitute No. 5, the rings, No. 3, being intended for laying the work
on, on the tool bed. For upright drilling through watch plates, mark the
place to be drilled (prick punch it slightly) with the cone point of No. 5;
which done turn the spindle No. 5 upside down and rest the upper end of
the drill in the countersink in its end, the drill being operated with a fiddle
bow acting on a collet placed on its shank for the purpose. For cutting off
bushings level with a watch plate, either a cutter of the No. 13 or 14 class,
or one of the P cutters can be used. For staking or riveting wheels upright
on their pinions, lay the stake No. 7 level on the tool bed (the center M
having been fastened down out of the way), and with No. 5 center
accurately the hole to be used in the stake, and fasten it there by means of
Page 286
the clamps N; then remove the cone end of No. 5, and place a punch with a
hole in its end of the required size, on the part m, and proceed as in an
ordinary upright staking tool.
345. Tool for Flat Polishing. A thick brass plate is provided with three
strong screws arranged in triangular form (g, Fig. 162), and far enough
apart to ensure that, if the plate is reversed and rests on their heads, it will
remain flat when moved by hand over a polishing surface.
The screws should fit tightly or be provided
with lock-nuts.
We believe that every watchmaker must be
Fig. 162. acquainted with this little tool. The object to be
smoothed or polished is fixed with shellac or
sealing-wax to the middle of the triangle formed
by the screws; the level is then adjusted so that, when resting on a flat
surface, the object to be polished coincides exactly with it. The polisher (for
example, a sheet of ground glass) is charged with oilstone dust or polishing
rouge, and the object is passed over it until perfectly flat and smooth.
346. For smoothing, it is best to use a large sheet of iron or steel. For
polishing, copper or bronze is preferred. Ground glass may be employed for
both operations; it must be hard and perfectly flat.
A disc rotating in the lathe or mandril, etc., is often used.
The tool may be inverted and rest firmly on a cork, the polisher being
then moved backwards and forwards by hand, and always in contact with
the three screws.
It is best to use pith for cleaning the polished surface; in its absence use
soap, then wash and dry with a soft linen rag. The object is detached by
heating the tool, and is cleaned by boiling in alcohol; afterwards pass
through pure alcohol at the ordinary temperature and dry.
347. This tool can be employed for polishing small surfaces, such as the
end of a rod, of a barrel-arbor or a screw-head, as well as for those of
greater extent. But it appears needless to enter into further detail.
Instead of three screws some workmen only use two, at some distance
apart. The object to be polished, being placed at the third corner of the
hole in its end of the required size, on the part m, and proceed as in an
ordinary upright staking tool.
345. Tool for Flat Polishing. A thick brass plate is provided with three
strong screws arranged in triangular form (g, Fig. 162), and far enough
apart to ensure that, if the plate is reversed and rests on their heads, it will
remain flat when moved by hand over a polishing surface.
The screws should fit tightly or be provided
with lock-nuts.
We believe that every watchmaker must be
Fig. 162. acquainted with this little tool. The object to be
smoothed or polished is fixed with shellac or
sealing-wax to the middle of the triangle formed
by the screws; the level is then adjusted so that, when resting on a flat
surface, the object to be polished coincides exactly with it. The polisher (for
example, a sheet of ground glass) is charged with oilstone dust or polishing
rouge, and the object is passed over it until perfectly flat and smooth.
346. For smoothing, it is best to use a large sheet of iron or steel. For
polishing, copper or bronze is preferred. Ground glass may be employed for
both operations; it must be hard and perfectly flat.
A disc rotating in the lathe or mandril, etc., is often used.
The tool may be inverted and rest firmly on a cork, the polisher being
then moved backwards and forwards by hand, and always in contact with
the three screws.
It is best to use pith for cleaning the polished surface; in its absence use
soap, then wash and dry with a soft linen rag. The object is detached by
heating the tool, and is cleaned by boiling in alcohol; afterwards pass
through pure alcohol at the ordinary temperature and dry.
347. This tool can be employed for polishing small surfaces, such as the
end of a rod, of a barrel-arbor or a screw-head, as well as for those of
greater extent. But it appears needless to enter into further detail.
Instead of three screws some workmen only use two, at some distance
apart. The object to be polished, being placed at the third corner of the
Page 287
triangle, takes the place of the remaining screw.
Lastly, if a band be fitted to one side of the brass plate, as shown at b,
Fig. 162, and held by two screws, it will often be of service as a clamp for
fixing the object, as at s.
348. Flat pieces can be polished on a revolving lap worked by the foot,
being simply held in the hand or in a piece of soft leather; but a certain
amount of practice is needed in order to do this successfully.
ACCE SS O RI E S
AND MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS TO BE PERFORMED IN THE UNIVERSAL
HEAD.
349. With a view to simplify the work, we will here give, in a collected
form, a number of operations that may be performed in the mandril, or
universal head, among which the practical watchmaker will easily be able
to distinguish those that can be done in the ordinary lathe; we will also
describe numerous accessories that the workman should make for himself,
if he is desirous of making his mandril or universal head still more
generally useful.
350. Prepare a number of chucks of the form
shown in Fig. 163. Some of these carry a small bar
with screws, by which an object may be clamped
firmly to the chuck, an arrangement which is also
shown at a, Fig. 163; others have a hole drilled
Fig. 163. through their axis; others again have a projecting
arbor, etc. They may also be made with a flat face
on which to cement objects in the ordinary manner.
As it is often necessary to have a considerable surface to cement, for
example, a watch-plate, one or more may be made of the form shown at t,
Fig. 164. The lower plate being clamped in the dogs, the disc e will be free.
If this disc be made of bronze or steel it may be used as a lap; if of brass, it
may be turned true and used as a wax chuck, etc.
Lastly, if a band be fitted to one side of the brass plate, as shown at b,
Fig. 162, and held by two screws, it will often be of service as a clamp for
fixing the object, as at s.
348. Flat pieces can be polished on a revolving lap worked by the foot,
being simply held in the hand or in a piece of soft leather; but a certain
amount of practice is needed in order to do this successfully.
ACCE SS O RI E S
AND MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS TO BE PERFORMED IN THE UNIVERSAL
HEAD.
349. With a view to simplify the work, we will here give, in a collected
form, a number of operations that may be performed in the mandril, or
universal head, among which the practical watchmaker will easily be able
to distinguish those that can be done in the ordinary lathe; we will also
describe numerous accessories that the workman should make for himself,
if he is desirous of making his mandril or universal head still more
generally useful.
350. Prepare a number of chucks of the form
shown in Fig. 163. Some of these carry a small bar
with screws, by which an object may be clamped
firmly to the chuck, an arrangement which is also
shown at a, Fig. 163; others have a hole drilled
Fig. 163. through their axis; others again have a projecting
arbor, etc. They may also be made with a flat face
on which to cement objects in the ordinary manner.
As it is often necessary to have a considerable surface to cement, for
example, a watch-plate, one or more may be made of the form shown at t,
Fig. 164. The lower plate being clamped in the dogs, the disc e will be free.
If this disc be made of bronze or steel it may be used as a lap; if of brass, it
may be turned true and used as a wax chuck, etc.
Page 288
The chucks should, as far as possible, be well made,
so that they can be truly centered by means of the
pump-center.
Fig. 164.
TO CE NT ER AN O BJ E CT.
351. When there is a hole at the center on the side towards the face-plate,
in the universal head, as is usually the case, it is only necessary to place this
hole over the point of the pump, pressing it inwards, and then to clamp the
object in the dogs; the pump is then drawn within the body of the arbor.
Very often, however, there is no central hole, or there is only a mark on the
face that is towards the cutter; in such a case it becomes necessary to center
from the front or by the circumference.
352. To Center from the Front. If the object is held by wax on a plate, it
may be centered as in the ordinary lathe while the plate is hot, by resting a
piece of pegwood on the T-rest with a point placed in the central hole, and
observing whether its free end remains stationary.
After the plate has cooled, the accuracy of the centering should be tested
by means of a long piece of pegwood which rests on the T-rest brought
close up to the object. The pegwood is held parallel to the lathe-bed, and, if
the centering is satisfactory, its outer end will not move. The detection of
any slight movement is greatly facilitated by placing some fixed object
close to the free end of the pegwood. If a motion is still observed the
centering is imperfect, and must be corrected in the manner explained
below (354).
353. Perrelet’s method of Centering. In principle, this is identical with the
one just described; but the pegwood index is replaced by the small
apparatus shown in Fig. 165.
A hollow cylinder, of which a c c a′ is a section, is firmly held by friction
by its portion a b b′ a′ in the tailstock. In the front of this cylinder is fixed a
steel ring that is thick at the circumference and tapers inward, so that the
central hole has a cutting edge. The two black triangles represent a section
so that they can be truly centered by means of the
pump-center.
Fig. 164.
TO CE NT ER AN O BJ E CT.
351. When there is a hole at the center on the side towards the face-plate,
in the universal head, as is usually the case, it is only necessary to place this
hole over the point of the pump, pressing it inwards, and then to clamp the
object in the dogs; the pump is then drawn within the body of the arbor.
Very often, however, there is no central hole, or there is only a mark on the
face that is towards the cutter; in such a case it becomes necessary to center
from the front or by the circumference.
352. To Center from the Front. If the object is held by wax on a plate, it
may be centered as in the ordinary lathe while the plate is hot, by resting a
piece of pegwood on the T-rest with a point placed in the central hole, and
observing whether its free end remains stationary.
After the plate has cooled, the accuracy of the centering should be tested
by means of a long piece of pegwood which rests on the T-rest brought
close up to the object. The pegwood is held parallel to the lathe-bed, and, if
the centering is satisfactory, its outer end will not move. The detection of
any slight movement is greatly facilitated by placing some fixed object
close to the free end of the pegwood. If a motion is still observed the
centering is imperfect, and must be corrected in the manner explained
below (354).
353. Perrelet’s method of Centering. In principle, this is identical with the
one just described; but the pegwood index is replaced by the small
apparatus shown in Fig. 165.
A hollow cylinder, of which a c c a′ is a section, is firmly held by friction
by its portion a b b′ a′ in the tailstock. In the front of this cylinder is fixed a
steel ring that is thick at the circumference and tapers inward, so that the
central hole has a cutting edge. The two black triangles represent a section
Page 289
of this ring. The rod r n
passes without play through
this hole, and carries a
projecting ring at s to
Fig. 165. determine the distance to
which it enters the collar c
c; there is also a small key
that corresponds with a nick in c c, and thus prevents rotation.
An inspection of the figure will show that, when s rests against c c, if the
finger be placed on r and communicate motion to it, the rod n r will be able
to oscillate in any direction, and to an extent limited by the diameter of the
hole in the cylinder.
The error in the centering at r will be multiplied at n in the proportion of
n s to s r; thus if n s is ten times s r, the motion at n will be ten times as
great as the actual error at r.
354. The instrument is used as follows: The object to be centered being
placed between the jaws, having the centering spindle in position in
tailstock. Slide tailstock towards the face-plate until the point r of the rod
enters the hole, or central mark of the object, and, setting the T-rest close to
the point n, rotate the face-plate. If the centering is exact, the point n will
remain stationary. If n moves to and fro, give a gentle blow against the edge
of the object, which should not be held firmly in the dogs; the blow must be
on the side opposite to that at which n shows the greatest deviation from the
point of reference. Repeat the process until the centering is perfect or
sufficiently accurate; then clamp the dogs firmly, taking care not to disturb
anything.
In centering from a jewel hole, an aluminium rod n s may be employed
on account of its lightness, and it may be terminated in an ivory cone at r.
355. There is one precaution to be observed, as it facilitates the use of
this appliance; it is advisable that the portion a b b′ a′ of the cylinder be
somewhat long and well made, in order that, while being in the first
instance inserted in tailstock up to the shoulder, the cylinder may be
partially withdrawn and still held firmly. The reason for this is as follows:
When the tailstock is pushed along, a considerable amount of friction resists
its motion, and, as the hand cannot always control this motion, it may
passes without play through
this hole, and carries a
projecting ring at s to
Fig. 165. determine the distance to
which it enters the collar c
c; there is also a small key
that corresponds with a nick in c c, and thus prevents rotation.
An inspection of the figure will show that, when s rests against c c, if the
finger be placed on r and communicate motion to it, the rod n r will be able
to oscillate in any direction, and to an extent limited by the diameter of the
hole in the cylinder.
The error in the centering at r will be multiplied at n in the proportion of
n s to s r; thus if n s is ten times s r, the motion at n will be ten times as
great as the actual error at r.
354. The instrument is used as follows: The object to be centered being
placed between the jaws, having the centering spindle in position in
tailstock. Slide tailstock towards the face-plate until the point r of the rod
enters the hole, or central mark of the object, and, setting the T-rest close to
the point n, rotate the face-plate. If the centering is exact, the point n will
remain stationary. If n moves to and fro, give a gentle blow against the edge
of the object, which should not be held firmly in the dogs; the blow must be
on the side opposite to that at which n shows the greatest deviation from the
point of reference. Repeat the process until the centering is perfect or
sufficiently accurate; then clamp the dogs firmly, taking care not to disturb
anything.
In centering from a jewel hole, an aluminium rod n s may be employed
on account of its lightness, and it may be terminated in an ivory cone at r.
355. There is one precaution to be observed, as it facilitates the use of
this appliance; it is advisable that the portion a b b′ a′ of the cylinder be
somewhat long and well made, in order that, while being in the first
instance inserted in tailstock up to the shoulder, the cylinder may be
partially withdrawn and still held firmly. The reason for this is as follows:
When the tailstock is pushed along, a considerable amount of friction resists
its motion, and, as the hand cannot always control this motion, it may
Page 290
happen that r comes up against the object with some force. To avoid this,
bring the point near the hole and then rotate the collar in the tailstock so as
to gently withdraw it to the requisite amount. The cylinder may, if desired,
be fixed by a small screw after the point r has been set in position.
356. Another Centering
Device. The centering indicator
shown in Fig. 166 will also be
found useful for testing for exact
center. The body of the indicator is
made of sheet brass, and should be
about five inches long by two
inches in width at the larger end.
The shank C is made to fit in rest
holder, and is either riveted or
soldered to the body; R is steel or
Fig. 166. copper wire sharpened to a fine
point, and balances on a pivot at 1;
B is a clock hand pivoted to the body at 1; 2 and 2 are pivot joints only, and
do not go through the body; C will perhaps give a better idea of the end R.
To center with this tool, unscrew your rest and remove it, then place the
shaft C in rest holder and adjust it till the needle point R touches the top of
hole, as shown at A. The index hand will then note the variations as the
head revolves. If too low, the hand will point above center, and if high, vice
versa.
357. To Center from the Circumference. Two cases may occur: Either
the entire rim of the object is exposed, as when the teeth are to be cut in a
wheel blank; or the rim can only be used as a means of determining the
center, as when a barrel has been bushed with an undrilled bushing.
358. The tool shown in Fig. 166 may also be used for the test if the short
end of arm R rests against the under side of the object that it is desired to
center.
359. When it is required to drill or merely to center the hole in a wheel,
barrel, etc., that does not run true, clamp a piece of sheet brass in the dogs
and turn out a sink that will exactly receive the wheel, etc., but allowing it
to project slightly. Now unscrew one dog and advance it a little, so as to
bring the point near the hole and then rotate the collar in the tailstock so as
to gently withdraw it to the requisite amount. The cylinder may, if desired,
be fixed by a small screw after the point r has been set in position.
356. Another Centering
Device. The centering indicator
shown in Fig. 166 will also be
found useful for testing for exact
center. The body of the indicator is
made of sheet brass, and should be
about five inches long by two
inches in width at the larger end.
The shank C is made to fit in rest
holder, and is either riveted or
soldered to the body; R is steel or
Fig. 166. copper wire sharpened to a fine
point, and balances on a pivot at 1;
B is a clock hand pivoted to the body at 1; 2 and 2 are pivot joints only, and
do not go through the body; C will perhaps give a better idea of the end R.
To center with this tool, unscrew your rest and remove it, then place the
shaft C in rest holder and adjust it till the needle point R touches the top of
hole, as shown at A. The index hand will then note the variations as the
head revolves. If too low, the hand will point above center, and if high, vice
versa.
357. To Center from the Circumference. Two cases may occur: Either
the entire rim of the object is exposed, as when the teeth are to be cut in a
wheel blank; or the rim can only be used as a means of determining the
center, as when a barrel has been bushed with an undrilled bushing.
358. The tool shown in Fig. 166 may also be used for the test if the short
end of arm R rests against the under side of the object that it is desired to
center.
359. When it is required to drill or merely to center the hole in a wheel,
barrel, etc., that does not run true, clamp a piece of sheet brass in the dogs
and turn out a sink that will exactly receive the wheel, etc., but allowing it
to project slightly. Now unscrew one dog and advance it a little, so as to
Page 291
grip the edge of the object as well as the plate; move the other dogs inwards
in succession, and it will only remain to drill or true the hole with a suitable
drill.
UP RIG HT ING AND D RIL L IN G .
360. When the Lathe is Provided with a Tailstock. Let it be required to
mark and drill a pivot-hole in the cock when the plate-hole is accurately
centered by means of the pump-center. Place the tailstock in position on the
lathe-bed, and mark the position of the hole with a center, as in an ordinary
uprighting tool; then, if the hole is to be very fine, make it with an ordinary
pivot-drill.
If the hole to be drilled is somewhat large, it may be drilled with the twist
drill, the bed of the lathe being, as usual, horizontal.
361. When the Lathe is not Provided with a Tailstock. In such a case it
is possible to upright and drill by using fine drills, and making points so
formed as to take the place of the cutter. Or a stock may be made to receive
drills, points, etc., and it may be well here to remark that stocks of the same
form are convenient for receiving chamfering or sinking tools.
This stock is shown in Fig. 167.
An inspection of e c will suffice to
show its form, and it may be used
for holding either a drill or a
marking point, or a small hollow
center in which to support a pivot
drill.
The following method should be
Fig. 167. adopted for securing accuracy in
the adjustment of these stocks:
There must be no shake of the stock in the tool-holder; it is especially
important to avoid any displacement during the act of clamping. If there is
any reason for doubt on this point, drill a hole at the foot of the cutter in
which an index, y, can be temporarily inserted; any displacement can be
detected by its deviation from a fixed mark. As a rule, however, there will
in succession, and it will only remain to drill or true the hole with a suitable
drill.
UP RIG HT ING AND D RIL L IN G .
360. When the Lathe is Provided with a Tailstock. Let it be required to
mark and drill a pivot-hole in the cock when the plate-hole is accurately
centered by means of the pump-center. Place the tailstock in position on the
lathe-bed, and mark the position of the hole with a center, as in an ordinary
uprighting tool; then, if the hole is to be very fine, make it with an ordinary
pivot-drill.
If the hole to be drilled is somewhat large, it may be drilled with the twist
drill, the bed of the lathe being, as usual, horizontal.
361. When the Lathe is not Provided with a Tailstock. In such a case it
is possible to upright and drill by using fine drills, and making points so
formed as to take the place of the cutter. Or a stock may be made to receive
drills, points, etc., and it may be well here to remark that stocks of the same
form are convenient for receiving chamfering or sinking tools.
This stock is shown in Fig. 167.
An inspection of e c will suffice to
show its form, and it may be used
for holding either a drill or a
marking point, or a small hollow
center in which to support a pivot
drill.
The following method should be
Fig. 167. adopted for securing accuracy in
the adjustment of these stocks:
There must be no shake of the stock in the tool-holder; it is especially
important to avoid any displacement during the act of clamping. If there is
any reason for doubt on this point, drill a hole at the foot of the cutter in
which an index, y, can be temporarily inserted; any displacement can be
detected by its deviation from a fixed mark. As a rule, however, there will
Page 292
be no occasion for doubt if the plate that is screwed down upon the stock is
parallel to the bed of the tool-holder.
The cutter is then replaced by a stock of the form shown at e′, in which a
hole has been previously drilled to receive the drill or other bit, but
somewhat smaller than it is required finally to be. The pump-center must
now be replaced by an accurately fitting piece b that terminates in a short
semi-cylindrical drill.
It will be evident that if the mandrel be revolved, and, at the same time,
the tool-holder advanced towards this drill, the hole in the stock e′ will be
enlarged and smoothed, and its axis will accurately coincide with that of b.
Any drill, chamfering tool, etc., that has been turned true, will, therefore, on
being inserted in the stock, prove to be strictly in the axis of the lathe.
362. To Drill a Series of Holes. Mount on a
stock similar to that just described, a small frame
carrying a drill-stock, as shown in Fig. 168. If this
be fixed in the slide-rest in place of the cutter, it
can be used for drilling a hole or a series of holes
previously marked out, or, if the pitch of the
transverse screw of the slide-rest is known, for a
series of equidistant holes in a horizontal line.
When it is required to drill a series of holes in a
Fig. 168.
circle, as, for example, in the escape-wheel of the
pin-escapement, bring the point of the drill onto
the circumference and then proceed as when using the ordinary wheel-
cutting engine provided with a vertical drill-holder, taking care to fix the
face-plate by means of an index.
This index should have a means of slightly modifying its length, so that
the point of the drill may always be brought into exact coincidence with the
points that have been previously marked on the object.
It will be observed that, if the drill were replaced by a round milling tool,
the u’s of a cylinder escape-wheel might be polished, or, indeed, cut, the
concave ends of the teeth of the star-wheel in a Geneva stopwork could be
corrected, etc. But it is unnecessary further to insist upon the many uses to
which this form of tool can be applied.
parallel to the bed of the tool-holder.
The cutter is then replaced by a stock of the form shown at e′, in which a
hole has been previously drilled to receive the drill or other bit, but
somewhat smaller than it is required finally to be. The pump-center must
now be replaced by an accurately fitting piece b that terminates in a short
semi-cylindrical drill.
It will be evident that if the mandrel be revolved, and, at the same time,
the tool-holder advanced towards this drill, the hole in the stock e′ will be
enlarged and smoothed, and its axis will accurately coincide with that of b.
Any drill, chamfering tool, etc., that has been turned true, will, therefore, on
being inserted in the stock, prove to be strictly in the axis of the lathe.
362. To Drill a Series of Holes. Mount on a
stock similar to that just described, a small frame
carrying a drill-stock, as shown in Fig. 168. If this
be fixed in the slide-rest in place of the cutter, it
can be used for drilling a hole or a series of holes
previously marked out, or, if the pitch of the
transverse screw of the slide-rest is known, for a
series of equidistant holes in a horizontal line.
When it is required to drill a series of holes in a
Fig. 168.
circle, as, for example, in the escape-wheel of the
pin-escapement, bring the point of the drill onto
the circumference and then proceed as when using the ordinary wheel-
cutting engine provided with a vertical drill-holder, taking care to fix the
face-plate by means of an index.
This index should have a means of slightly modifying its length, so that
the point of the drill may always be brought into exact coincidence with the
points that have been previously marked on the object.
It will be observed that, if the drill were replaced by a round milling tool,
the u’s of a cylinder escape-wheel might be polished, or, indeed, cut, the
concave ends of the teeth of the star-wheel in a Geneva stopwork could be
corrected, etc. But it is unnecessary further to insist upon the many uses to
which this form of tool can be applied.
Page 293
363. To Cut the Teeth of a Ratchet, Minute-Wheel, Etc. When the
face-plate is divided on the circumference, it is easy to cut the teeth of an
ordinary wheel of a timepiece, escape-wheel, barrel ratchet, to cut or true a
star-wheel for the stopwork, etc. After mounting the wheel on a chuck and
carefully centering it, replace the cutter by a small revolving cutter-frame
after the model of that shown in Fig. 168.
The stock d, shown in both plan and elevation, carries a piece c at right
angles, which has a slot cut throughout its length. In this slot a U-shaped
support can be clamped by a nut in any position. The u portion forms a
bearing for a cutter, such as is shown at f in the figure, and the axis projects
so as to receive a ferrule for rotating the cutter.
It will be evident that, with such an arrangement, the height of the cutter
can be adjusted in accordance with the teeth to be cut.
364. To Cut a Circular or Elliptic Groove. For this purpose no special
accessory is needed; an ordinary cutter will suffice.
Let a b c d, Fig. 169, be the form of the required
groove. Mark a series of centers so that circles struck
from them will just overlap one another, and at the
same time nearly reach the edge of the groove. Then
turn out all the circular sinks, indicated by shaded
lines, to the required depth.
Center the plate by the point o from which the arc a
b is struck; now bring the cutter to such a position that Fig. 169.
its outer cutting edge coincides with the arc a b, and
bring it against the plate; set the face-plate in motion, not, however, by
using the treadle, but by the hand at its circumference, and traverse the arc
from b to a; then withdraw the cutter. By this means the projecting angles,
left white in the figure, will be removed, and a clean edge will be left to the
groove.
As an operation of this description will not present any difficulty, further
explanation appears unnecessary; for the information above given will
enable any watchmaker to make curved grooves of the kind indicated.
If it is required to smooth the surface of the groove, replace the cutter by
a pegwood stick that can be rotated with friction, and the end of which just
face-plate is divided on the circumference, it is easy to cut the teeth of an
ordinary wheel of a timepiece, escape-wheel, barrel ratchet, to cut or true a
star-wheel for the stopwork, etc. After mounting the wheel on a chuck and
carefully centering it, replace the cutter by a small revolving cutter-frame
after the model of that shown in Fig. 168.
The stock d, shown in both plan and elevation, carries a piece c at right
angles, which has a slot cut throughout its length. In this slot a U-shaped
support can be clamped by a nut in any position. The u portion forms a
bearing for a cutter, such as is shown at f in the figure, and the axis projects
so as to receive a ferrule for rotating the cutter.
It will be evident that, with such an arrangement, the height of the cutter
can be adjusted in accordance with the teeth to be cut.
364. To Cut a Circular or Elliptic Groove. For this purpose no special
accessory is needed; an ordinary cutter will suffice.
Let a b c d, Fig. 169, be the form of the required
groove. Mark a series of centers so that circles struck
from them will just overlap one another, and at the
same time nearly reach the edge of the groove. Then
turn out all the circular sinks, indicated by shaded
lines, to the required depth.
Center the plate by the point o from which the arc a
b is struck; now bring the cutter to such a position that Fig. 169.
its outer cutting edge coincides with the arc a b, and
bring it against the plate; set the face-plate in motion, not, however, by
using the treadle, but by the hand at its circumference, and traverse the arc
from b to a; then withdraw the cutter. By this means the projecting angles,
left white in the figure, will be removed, and a clean edge will be left to the
groove.
As an operation of this description will not present any difficulty, further
explanation appears unnecessary; for the information above given will
enable any watchmaker to make curved grooves of the kind indicated.
If it is required to smooth the surface of the groove, replace the cutter by
a pegwood stick that can be rotated with friction, and the end of which just
Page 294
fits into the groove, charging it with pumice or other stone and oil. One
hand moves the face-plate backwards and forwards, while the other rotates
the stick.
365. To Cut the Cylinder Escape-Wheel Cock Passage. As
a rule the cock is cemented, inverted, to a wax chuck, and the
passage cut or enlarged on the lathe. It is more expeditious to
use a plate provided with a clamping bridge, as shown at Fig.
170. The face-plate should be made to oscillate backwards
and forwards by hand, and not rotated by the wheel. Fig. 170.
366. To Make a Straight Groove. First method. The tool
devised by M. Chopard, director of the school of horology at Besançon, and
shown in Fig. 171, is used for this purpose. As will be seen, it consists of a
small lathe which is adapted to the slide-rest as follows:
Fig. 171.
Two pins, a a′, are planted in the top of the tool-holder, the cutter
together with the plate by which it is clamped having been first removed.
Holes drilled in the frame f f fit accurately onto these pins, while a screw, h,
passing through an intermediate hole, affords a means of firmly fixing the
apparatus to the tool-holder m.
This tool should satisfy the following conditions: The arbor c should fit
into a recess that receives a cutter, but without coming into contact with it;
this arbor should be parallel to the bed of the lathe; and, lastly, the axis of c
should be on a line with the lathe center.
367. Having set this little appliance in position, trace on the watch-plate
two lines indicating the directions of the sides of the groove as well as lines
fixing its length. Now place the plate in the dogs, setting the point of the
pump-center anywhere on the line drawn along the middle of the groove.
hand moves the face-plate backwards and forwards, while the other rotates
the stick.
365. To Cut the Cylinder Escape-Wheel Cock Passage. As
a rule the cock is cemented, inverted, to a wax chuck, and the
passage cut or enlarged on the lathe. It is more expeditious to
use a plate provided with a clamping bridge, as shown at Fig.
170. The face-plate should be made to oscillate backwards
and forwards by hand, and not rotated by the wheel. Fig. 170.
366. To Make a Straight Groove. First method. The tool
devised by M. Chopard, director of the school of horology at Besançon, and
shown in Fig. 171, is used for this purpose. As will be seen, it consists of a
small lathe which is adapted to the slide-rest as follows:
Fig. 171.
Two pins, a a′, are planted in the top of the tool-holder, the cutter
together with the plate by which it is clamped having been first removed.
Holes drilled in the frame f f fit accurately onto these pins, while a screw, h,
passing through an intermediate hole, affords a means of firmly fixing the
apparatus to the tool-holder m.
This tool should satisfy the following conditions: The arbor c should fit
into a recess that receives a cutter, but without coming into contact with it;
this arbor should be parallel to the bed of the lathe; and, lastly, the axis of c
should be on a line with the lathe center.
367. Having set this little appliance in position, trace on the watch-plate
two lines indicating the directions of the sides of the groove as well as lines
fixing its length. Now place the plate in the dogs, setting the point of the
pump-center anywhere on the line drawn along the middle of the groove.
Page 295
Turn the plate so that this line is horizontal, and fix it in any way that is
convenient.
The arbor c carries a revolving cutter k, which can be changed as desired,
and is held in position by the clamping screw d. Assume that the diameter
of this cutter corresponds exactly with that of the required groove; advance
it towards the plate, turning the wheel rapidly, the cord being round the
ferrule b; a circular sink will thus be formed in the plate of the same
diameter as k.
When this has been cut to a sufficient depth, the tool is moved parallel to
the face-plate, and the cutter k, continuing its movement of rotation, will
now cut, not with its extremity i, but with its sides. It will thus form a
straight groove of any desired length.
368. The cutter is a three-sided prism, or it may have four sides with four
cutting edges on the sides, and only one cutting edge at the extremity i. If it
is preferred to retain only the two acting edges that start from either end of
the cutting edge i, they may be made more acute, and the other pair reduced
by means of a file.
369. Second method. This is simpler than the
one just considered. At the end of a rod g, Fig.
172, which takes the place of the cutter in the
slide-rest, a plate p is fixed. A line is drawn across
the face of this plate in such a position that, when
g is clamped in the tool-holder, this line is
horizontal, and in the plane that contains the axis Fig. 172.
of the pump-center.
Let it be required to cut a straight groove in the piece of brass l. Wax it to
the plate p so that the axis of the required groove is over the line traced on
the plate. Now fix g in the tool-holder and replace the pump-center by a rod
d, the extremity of which is formed into a cutter of a diameter equal to the
width of the required groove; the rod d should be fixed in the hollow arbor
by a screw. It is then only necessary to set the cutter in motion, forcing the
piece l against the revolving cutter, until the requisite depth is attained.
Then, by making the tool-holder travel parallel to the face-plate, the groove
will be elongated until of the desired length.
convenient.
The arbor c carries a revolving cutter k, which can be changed as desired,
and is held in position by the clamping screw d. Assume that the diameter
of this cutter corresponds exactly with that of the required groove; advance
it towards the plate, turning the wheel rapidly, the cord being round the
ferrule b; a circular sink will thus be formed in the plate of the same
diameter as k.
When this has been cut to a sufficient depth, the tool is moved parallel to
the face-plate, and the cutter k, continuing its movement of rotation, will
now cut, not with its extremity i, but with its sides. It will thus form a
straight groove of any desired length.
368. The cutter is a three-sided prism, or it may have four sides with four
cutting edges on the sides, and only one cutting edge at the extremity i. If it
is preferred to retain only the two acting edges that start from either end of
the cutting edge i, they may be made more acute, and the other pair reduced
by means of a file.
369. Second method. This is simpler than the
one just considered. At the end of a rod g, Fig.
172, which takes the place of the cutter in the
slide-rest, a plate p is fixed. A line is drawn across
the face of this plate in such a position that, when
g is clamped in the tool-holder, this line is
horizontal, and in the plane that contains the axis Fig. 172.
of the pump-center.
Let it be required to cut a straight groove in the piece of brass l. Wax it to
the plate p so that the axis of the required groove is over the line traced on
the plate. Now fix g in the tool-holder and replace the pump-center by a rod
d, the extremity of which is formed into a cutter of a diameter equal to the
width of the required groove; the rod d should be fixed in the hollow arbor
by a screw. It is then only necessary to set the cutter in motion, forcing the
piece l against the revolving cutter, until the requisite depth is attained.
Then, by making the tool-holder travel parallel to the face-plate, the groove
will be elongated until of the desired length.
Page 296
370. The cutter may be of the form shown in Fig. 171, or it may be as
shown at b in Fig. 172, since the movement is always in the same direction.
The cutting edges are each formed by two small inclined faces, one pair of
which is shown at b; they occupy half the diameter of the cutter. At the back
of this pair the cutter presents the appearance of the lower half shown in the
figure and vice versa.
It will be evident that the two sides of this cutter will act while its motion
is continuous in one direction.
Besides the numerous operations that can be performed on the lathe as
we have hitherto indicated, it may be employed, if divided on the head
stock, for tracing out angles, marking the crossings of a wheel, a balance,
etc., and for other purposes, many of which are referred to in the course of
this work.
P RO DUCT IO N O F SC REW T H REA DS .
SCREW PLATES AND TAPS.
371. The lathes employed in the manufacture of screws are of two kinds;
those intended for polishing and, where necessary, modifying the form of
screw-heads, much used by watch examiners and repairers, and those
specially designed for cutting the threads, which are mainly in use in
factories.
Before discussing them, however, we will give some account of the
screw-plates and taps in ordinary use.
372. Common Hand Screw-plates. The use of these is much facilitated
by providing a second plate perforated with holes of such sizes that a
spindle which just passes into a hole of any given number will be of the size
most convenient for forming a screw in the hole of the same number in the
screw-plate. For a long time we have made use of two Latard screw-plates
so made that a rod which would enter one hole without play was of the most
convenient size for forming a screw in the next smaller hole but one (thus
the plate perforated with plain holes can be replaced by a second screw-
plate, or by using the successively larger holes on a single plate as gauges).
shown at b in Fig. 172, since the movement is always in the same direction.
The cutting edges are each formed by two small inclined faces, one pair of
which is shown at b; they occupy half the diameter of the cutter. At the back
of this pair the cutter presents the appearance of the lower half shown in the
figure and vice versa.
It will be evident that the two sides of this cutter will act while its motion
is continuous in one direction.
Besides the numerous operations that can be performed on the lathe as
we have hitherto indicated, it may be employed, if divided on the head
stock, for tracing out angles, marking the crossings of a wheel, a balance,
etc., and for other purposes, many of which are referred to in the course of
this work.
P RO DUCT IO N O F SC REW T H REA DS .
SCREW PLATES AND TAPS.
371. The lathes employed in the manufacture of screws are of two kinds;
those intended for polishing and, where necessary, modifying the form of
screw-heads, much used by watch examiners and repairers, and those
specially designed for cutting the threads, which are mainly in use in
factories.
Before discussing them, however, we will give some account of the
screw-plates and taps in ordinary use.
372. Common Hand Screw-plates. The use of these is much facilitated
by providing a second plate perforated with holes of such sizes that a
spindle which just passes into a hole of any given number will be of the size
most convenient for forming a screw in the hole of the same number in the
screw-plate. For a long time we have made use of two Latard screw-plates
so made that a rod which would enter one hole without play was of the most
convenient size for forming a screw in the next smaller hole but one (thus
the plate perforated with plain holes can be replaced by a second screw-
plate, or by using the successively larger holes on a single plate as gauges).
Page 297
In order to form a screw that is clean-cut and even, with
the least possible straining of the metal, the holes in the
screw-plate should have notches cut as shown at f, Fig.
173; they should be carefully hardened and well polished
on each side of the notch, and this system is now even
Fig. 173. applied in the case of the smallest jewel screws.
373. Screw Dies. The ordinary plate, in which notches
are not cut at the sides, squeezes up and strains the metal. This effect is less
marked when separate dies are used, and disappears entirely if only a small
quantity of metal is removed at a time, and the cutting edges of the dies are
smooth and in good order. In addition to possessing other advantages, this
form of screw-plate enables us to obtain at will screws of the same thread
and different diameters or of the same diameter and different threads. The
dies must be carefully fitted to the slides that receive them. Dies cannot be
employed for cutting very small screws.
374. Fine-threaded Screw-plates. At the present day these can always
be obtained at the material stores; but thirty years ago it was not so, and the
watchmaker was obliged to make them for himself. The following method
was adopted:
Take a screw formed with an ordinary plate, in which the thread is broad
as compared with the hollow. If the screw does not satisfy this condition it
must be modified thus:
Having ascertained that it runs true, and that it is larger than will be
ultimately required, insert it in a chuck in your lathe. The T-rest must carry
a smooth horizontal rod of hardened steel.
Rotating the screw, hold a slitting file in the hollow; the file should fit
into this hollow accurately, and should be smoothed on its two sides, only
cutting with one edge. The bar of hardened steel will determine the depth to
which the file is allowed to cut. By this means a screw is obtained that has a
thread thick at the bottom. With the graver remove the top of this thread,
round off its corners, and harden the screw, filing three facets along its
entire length, that make it taper.
The tap, having been thus prepared, is employed for cutting a thread in a
piece of steel, not too thick, that has been previously annealed, and in which
the least possible straining of the metal, the holes in the
screw-plate should have notches cut as shown at f, Fig.
173; they should be carefully hardened and well polished
on each side of the notch, and this system is now even
Fig. 173. applied in the case of the smallest jewel screws.
373. Screw Dies. The ordinary plate, in which notches
are not cut at the sides, squeezes up and strains the metal. This effect is less
marked when separate dies are used, and disappears entirely if only a small
quantity of metal is removed at a time, and the cutting edges of the dies are
smooth and in good order. In addition to possessing other advantages, this
form of screw-plate enables us to obtain at will screws of the same thread
and different diameters or of the same diameter and different threads. The
dies must be carefully fitted to the slides that receive them. Dies cannot be
employed for cutting very small screws.
374. Fine-threaded Screw-plates. At the present day these can always
be obtained at the material stores; but thirty years ago it was not so, and the
watchmaker was obliged to make them for himself. The following method
was adopted:
Take a screw formed with an ordinary plate, in which the thread is broad
as compared with the hollow. If the screw does not satisfy this condition it
must be modified thus:
Having ascertained that it runs true, and that it is larger than will be
ultimately required, insert it in a chuck in your lathe. The T-rest must carry
a smooth horizontal rod of hardened steel.
Rotating the screw, hold a slitting file in the hollow; the file should fit
into this hollow accurately, and should be smoothed on its two sides, only
cutting with one edge. The bar of hardened steel will determine the depth to
which the file is allowed to cut. By this means a screw is obtained that has a
thread thick at the bottom. With the graver remove the top of this thread,
round off its corners, and harden the screw, filing three facets along its
entire length, that make it taper.
The tap, having been thus prepared, is employed for cutting a thread in a
piece of steel, not too thick, that has been previously annealed, and in which
Page 298
a hole is drilled of the proper size. The thread of this internal screw will be
thin and the hollow proportionately broad.
The plate is now hammered cold with care until the thickness is so far
diminished that the thread and hollow are as nearly as possible of equal
thickness. Harden it and chamfer the ends of the hole with a conical steel
point and oilstone dust. Then clean it and cut a thread on a piece of soft
steel which may be formed into a tap.
If the operation has been properly conducted, this tap will satisfy the
prescribed conditions, and, when hardened, it is to be employed to cut a
thread in a second steel plate, which will be employed as a screw-plate; for
that first formed must, in consequence of the hammering to which it was
subjected, present irregularities in the hole, and can only be used to cut one
or two taps cautiously. It is useless for making screws or tapping brass. (See
also 378.)
375. To Clear a Stopped Hole in a Screw-Plate. Drill a hole through the
center of the piece of metal that fills up the hole, taking care to maintain it
central, and to employ a drill that is sufficiently small to avoid all risk of
contact with the screw threads. Pass a broach through this hole and, after
tightening it with a few gentle blows with the hammer, turn it in such a
direction that it tends to unscrew the broken screw, which will in nearly
every case, be removed without difficulty by this means.
TAP S .
376. Screw-cutting comprises two distinct operations—the formation of a
spiral thread on the circumference of a cylindrical spindle, and of a spiral
groove within a cylindrical hole to receive this thread.
Taps are made either by means of a screw-plate or in the lathe; we shall
presently refer to this second method. Every watchmaker may be supposed
to have received, early in his career, instruction as to the cutting of a tap
with a screw-plate. Great caution is necessary in the hardening, for if the tap
is not true or the metal burnt it will cut badly and be apt to break. Taps are
cleaned after hardening with a piece of wood in the lathe or between two
hard pieces of pith covered with oilstone dust, and either three or four
thin and the hollow proportionately broad.
The plate is now hammered cold with care until the thickness is so far
diminished that the thread and hollow are as nearly as possible of equal
thickness. Harden it and chamfer the ends of the hole with a conical steel
point and oilstone dust. Then clean it and cut a thread on a piece of soft
steel which may be formed into a tap.
If the operation has been properly conducted, this tap will satisfy the
prescribed conditions, and, when hardened, it is to be employed to cut a
thread in a second steel plate, which will be employed as a screw-plate; for
that first formed must, in consequence of the hammering to which it was
subjected, present irregularities in the hole, and can only be used to cut one
or two taps cautiously. It is useless for making screws or tapping brass. (See
also 378.)
375. To Clear a Stopped Hole in a Screw-Plate. Drill a hole through the
center of the piece of metal that fills up the hole, taking care to maintain it
central, and to employ a drill that is sufficiently small to avoid all risk of
contact with the screw threads. Pass a broach through this hole and, after
tightening it with a few gentle blows with the hammer, turn it in such a
direction that it tends to unscrew the broken screw, which will in nearly
every case, be removed without difficulty by this means.
TAP S .
376. Screw-cutting comprises two distinct operations—the formation of a
spiral thread on the circumference of a cylindrical spindle, and of a spiral
groove within a cylindrical hole to receive this thread.
Taps are made either by means of a screw-plate or in the lathe; we shall
presently refer to this second method. Every watchmaker may be supposed
to have received, early in his career, instruction as to the cutting of a tap
with a screw-plate. Great caution is necessary in the hardening, for if the tap
is not true or the metal burnt it will cut badly and be apt to break. Taps are
cleaned after hardening with a piece of wood in the lathe or between two
hard pieces of pith covered with oilstone dust, and either three or four
Page 299
cutting facets may be made. It is important to avoid the production of a burr
in making these facets; a good plan is to make them while the metal is still
soft, and to pass the tap through the plate subsequently, as a sharp cutting
edge is thereby produced. The facets should be carefully smoothed, and the
use of coarse rouge is an advantage.
A tap with three facets gives the cleanest cut and leaves the most space to
receive the metal that is removed, but with four facets the roundness of the
hole is more certain to be maintained.
We have seen taps formed as represented at m,
Fig. 174, so that the object in which a thread is
being cut is loose at the part o, when the direction
of movement of the tap is reversed. They are also
at times made semi-cylindrical, as at g, and work
well in the lathe for tapping brass, but we have not
tried this form with steel.
Fig. 174.
377. To Cut a Tap when of Considerable
Length. The following precautions must be
observed in order to ensure that a long screw shall be both round and true.
The steel must be of very goad quality, and loose dies should be used in
preference to a screw-plate. It is a good practice to employ two pairs of dies
(or even more); one to rough out the screw, leaving the thread somewhat
larger than it will finally be, and the other to finish after having trued it, and
even sometimes lightly turned the surface in places. Very little metal must
be removed at a time, the dies should have sharp cutting edges, and a rather
large number of threads.
A screw can be made in the ordinary manner in a screw-plate rather
larger than is required, then reduced to the requisite diameter, and finished
with a plate in which the holes are of the form shown at f, Fig. 173, or in a
screw-cutting lathe; in either case, however, care must be taken to avoid
straining the metal in its passage through the first plate, on account of the
tendency which it then possesses to become distorted in the hardening.
If a micrometer screw is required, that is, a screw of absolutely uniform
pitch, it is necessary to apply to makers of astronomical and other similar
instruments of precision.
in making these facets; a good plan is to make them while the metal is still
soft, and to pass the tap through the plate subsequently, as a sharp cutting
edge is thereby produced. The facets should be carefully smoothed, and the
use of coarse rouge is an advantage.
A tap with three facets gives the cleanest cut and leaves the most space to
receive the metal that is removed, but with four facets the roundness of the
hole is more certain to be maintained.
We have seen taps formed as represented at m,
Fig. 174, so that the object in which a thread is
being cut is loose at the part o, when the direction
of movement of the tap is reversed. They are also
at times made semi-cylindrical, as at g, and work
well in the lathe for tapping brass, but we have not
tried this form with steel.
Fig. 174.
377. To Cut a Tap when of Considerable
Length. The following precautions must be
observed in order to ensure that a long screw shall be both round and true.
The steel must be of very goad quality, and loose dies should be used in
preference to a screw-plate. It is a good practice to employ two pairs of dies
(or even more); one to rough out the screw, leaving the thread somewhat
larger than it will finally be, and the other to finish after having trued it, and
even sometimes lightly turned the surface in places. Very little metal must
be removed at a time, the dies should have sharp cutting edges, and a rather
large number of threads.
A screw can be made in the ordinary manner in a screw-plate rather
larger than is required, then reduced to the requisite diameter, and finished
with a plate in which the holes are of the form shown at f, Fig. 173, or in a
screw-cutting lathe; in either case, however, care must be taken to avoid
straining the metal in its passage through the first plate, on account of the
tendency which it then possesses to become distorted in the hardening.
If a micrometer screw is required, that is, a screw of absolutely uniform
pitch, it is necessary to apply to makers of astronomical and other similar
instruments of precision.
Page 300
Fig. 175.
378. To Cut a Screw of any Desired Pitch and Diameter. Let it be
required to cut a thread on the stem b, Fig. 175, of any pre-determined pitch
that already exists in a screw-plate. Turn down the portion d to such a
diameter that a screw can be cut on it in this hole, and fit two runners to the
lathe of the form shown at g and h. The end of h is drilled and tapped so
that d turns freely in it, and a hole is drilled in g to receive the stem b freely,
but without sensible play, and a fine notch is cut at a.
It will be obvious that if now the ferrule r is caused to rotate, while a fine
saw or file is inserted in the notch a, a screw will be formed on b of the
same pitch as that on d, although there may at the same time be a very
considerable difference in their diameters. This method may be adopted in
place of that explained in article 374 for obtaining a fine-threaded screw.
379. Left-handed Screw Taps. The manner in which these are made in
the screw-cutting lathe will be subsequently explained; in its absence the
watchmaker may adopt one of the following methods:
First method. If, when an internal screw has been cut
with a right-handed tap, b, Fig. 176, it be required to tap a
second hole in the reverse direction, the following plan
may be resorted to:
File the original tap b on two opposite sides, so as to
give it the flattened shape shown at a in the same figure.
Insert the end into the hole to be tapped and turn the tap to
the left with the application of considerable pressure, so
Fig. 176. as to force the tap to bite. When the tap has been passed in
and withdrawn there will be found to be a left-handed
thread cut in the hole. For, if the tap is turned towards the
right, the thread f passes into the groove already formed by the thread a;
but, if turned towards the left, f will originate a groove into which b will
pass, traveling in an inverse direction to that previously given to it.
378. To Cut a Screw of any Desired Pitch and Diameter. Let it be
required to cut a thread on the stem b, Fig. 175, of any pre-determined pitch
that already exists in a screw-plate. Turn down the portion d to such a
diameter that a screw can be cut on it in this hole, and fit two runners to the
lathe of the form shown at g and h. The end of h is drilled and tapped so
that d turns freely in it, and a hole is drilled in g to receive the stem b freely,
but without sensible play, and a fine notch is cut at a.
It will be obvious that if now the ferrule r is caused to rotate, while a fine
saw or file is inserted in the notch a, a screw will be formed on b of the
same pitch as that on d, although there may at the same time be a very
considerable difference in their diameters. This method may be adopted in
place of that explained in article 374 for obtaining a fine-threaded screw.
379. Left-handed Screw Taps. The manner in which these are made in
the screw-cutting lathe will be subsequently explained; in its absence the
watchmaker may adopt one of the following methods:
First method. If, when an internal screw has been cut
with a right-handed tap, b, Fig. 176, it be required to tap a
second hole in the reverse direction, the following plan
may be resorted to:
File the original tap b on two opposite sides, so as to
give it the flattened shape shown at a in the same figure.
Insert the end into the hole to be tapped and turn the tap to
the left with the application of considerable pressure, so
Fig. 176. as to force the tap to bite. When the tap has been passed in
and withdrawn there will be found to be a left-handed
thread cut in the hole. For, if the tap is turned towards the
right, the thread f passes into the groove already formed by the thread a;
but, if turned towards the left, f will originate a groove into which b will
pass, traveling in an inverse direction to that previously given to it.
Page 301
The finer the thread of the screw, the better is the chance of success, and
with a wide thread it is often necessary to recommence two or three times.
If a plate or pair of dies be cut in this manner and hardened, they will serve
to cut an even left-handed tap.
Second method. Attach a comb to one or two sides of a
cylinder, as indicated at f, Fig. 177. This can be used to cut a
thread in the piece of metal s, that is either right or left-
handed according to the direction of rotation of f, sufficient
pressure being at the same time applied to force it into the
plate. The pitch of the thread will depend on the amount of
pressure applied. This plan is only a modification of the one
described above, and, as in that case, success can only be
guaranteed when a means is adopted for securing a definite
Fig. 177. relative amount of motion in f around its axis and s vertically.
Third method. A tap of unhardened steel is
filed into a triangular form, c, Fig. 178, and twisted so as to
bring the angles b, f, towards a, d, etc.; we thus obtain a tap
which will serve, throughout a certain portion of its length, to
cut a left-handed thread, but the part that is not so adapted, at
the extremities, will require to be removed before hardening.
380. To Make a Left-handed Tap by Means of a Right-
Fig. 178.
handed Tap. A portion of the right-handed tap is filed off on
three faces to the section shown at b, Fig. 179, and
firmly set in the die d so as to be held in the frame
for screw-cutting dies. A second die, f made of
brass and having a semi-cylindrical recess
opposite b is fitted to the frame. The diameter of
this semi-cylinder should be the same as that of
the rod on which a left-handed thread is to be cut.
Now grip this rod as shown at a by means of the
screw g, so that it is held between the die f and the Fig. 179.
block b, and rotate the frame or the rod a towards
the left; a spiral groove will thus be cut by the thread on b. It is sometimes
an advantage to cut this thread lengthwise in the manner indicated at b′.
with a wide thread it is often necessary to recommence two or three times.
If a plate or pair of dies be cut in this manner and hardened, they will serve
to cut an even left-handed tap.
Second method. Attach a comb to one or two sides of a
cylinder, as indicated at f, Fig. 177. This can be used to cut a
thread in the piece of metal s, that is either right or left-
handed according to the direction of rotation of f, sufficient
pressure being at the same time applied to force it into the
plate. The pitch of the thread will depend on the amount of
pressure applied. This plan is only a modification of the one
described above, and, as in that case, success can only be
guaranteed when a means is adopted for securing a definite
Fig. 177. relative amount of motion in f around its axis and s vertically.
Third method. A tap of unhardened steel is
filed into a triangular form, c, Fig. 178, and twisted so as to
bring the angles b, f, towards a, d, etc.; we thus obtain a tap
which will serve, throughout a certain portion of its length, to
cut a left-handed thread, but the part that is not so adapted, at
the extremities, will require to be removed before hardening.
380. To Make a Left-handed Tap by Means of a Right-
Fig. 178.
handed Tap. A portion of the right-handed tap is filed off on
three faces to the section shown at b, Fig. 179, and
firmly set in the die d so as to be held in the frame
for screw-cutting dies. A second die, f made of
brass and having a semi-cylindrical recess
opposite b is fitted to the frame. The diameter of
this semi-cylinder should be the same as that of
the rod on which a left-handed thread is to be cut.
Now grip this rod as shown at a by means of the
screw g, so that it is held between the die f and the Fig. 179.
block b, and rotate the frame or the rod a towards
the left; a spiral groove will thus be cut by the thread on b. It is sometimes
an advantage to cut this thread lengthwise in the manner indicated at b′.
Page 302
This method enables us to cut a given thread on
a rod of any given diameter. From an examination
of Figs. 179 and 180, it will be seen that a simple
comb of the form of c or d, carefully made by
hand and fixed in the place of b, can be employed
to cut a right or left-handed thread on any given
rod; it is advisable, however, that the teeth of the
comb be inclined to the axis of the screw, like the
Fig. 180.
thread of an ordinary tap, as otherwise the
operation becomes more difficult and success less
certain.
The method may be simplified by taking a brass
plate, d, Fig. 181, of sufficient thickness, and
firmly setting in it the right-handed tap, v, having
only filed away two opposite faces before
hardening. The rod to be tapped is then introduced
with considerable pressure into the hole j, and, if
rotated towards the left, it will receive a left-
Fig. 181.
handed thread of the same pitch. The notch shown
at b′, Fig. 179, will facilitate the operation, as a
cutting action will take the place of compression.
381. M. Gontard has suggested a modification of this arrangement, which
consists in forming the die f, Fig. 179, so that the original right-handed tap
can be embedded in a hole previously tapped in it and filed away on the
side towards b so as to expose a cutting edge; and he points out that, by
suitably inclining the frame with reference to the axis of the rod to be
tapped, the appliance can be used to cut a double or even a triple-threaded
screw, right or left-handed. He further draws attention to the fact that in a
screw formed in this manner the sides of the thread are smooth and
polished, a condition which cannot be secured when either a plate or dies
are used.
382. To Increase the Diameter of a Tap. It sometimes happens that a
screw will not penetrate to a sufficient depth, or fits too tightly into its hole,
owing to the tap employed being of a less diameter, either in consequence
of the hardening, polishing or wear, or through having been formed in a
a rod of any given diameter. From an examination
of Figs. 179 and 180, it will be seen that a simple
comb of the form of c or d, carefully made by
hand and fixed in the place of b, can be employed
to cut a right or left-handed thread on any given
rod; it is advisable, however, that the teeth of the
comb be inclined to the axis of the screw, like the
Fig. 180.
thread of an ordinary tap, as otherwise the
operation becomes more difficult and success less
certain.
The method may be simplified by taking a brass
plate, d, Fig. 181, of sufficient thickness, and
firmly setting in it the right-handed tap, v, having
only filed away two opposite faces before
hardening. The rod to be tapped is then introduced
with considerable pressure into the hole j, and, if
rotated towards the left, it will receive a left-
Fig. 181.
handed thread of the same pitch. The notch shown
at b′, Fig. 179, will facilitate the operation, as a
cutting action will take the place of compression.
381. M. Gontard has suggested a modification of this arrangement, which
consists in forming the die f, Fig. 179, so that the original right-handed tap
can be embedded in a hole previously tapped in it and filed away on the
side towards b so as to expose a cutting edge; and he points out that, by
suitably inclining the frame with reference to the axis of the rod to be
tapped, the appliance can be used to cut a double or even a triple-threaded
screw, right or left-handed. He further draws attention to the fact that in a
screw formed in this manner the sides of the thread are smooth and
polished, a condition which cannot be secured when either a plate or dies
are used.
382. To Increase the Diameter of a Tap. It sometimes happens that a
screw will not penetrate to a sufficient depth, or fits too tightly into its hole,
owing to the tap employed being of a less diameter, either in consequence
of the hardening, polishing or wear, or through having been formed in a
Page 303
different screw-plate. In such a case the following expedient may be
resorted to:
Make a fresh tap in soft steel and file away two
opposite sides so as to give it the section shown at a or b,
Fig. 182: after measuring the diameter at several points in
its length, hammer gently on the flattened sides. With a
little care and by using a micrometer at intervals for
testing the alteration in diameter, it will be found that the
Fig. 182. required increase can be obtained without much difficulty.
The tap is then hardened and polished, etc.; indeed, it is
best to make a fresh tap.
MET HO DS O F TAP PI NG HO L ES .
383. It is needless to refer to the method of tapping by hand, as it is well
known to all practical men.
384. Tapping in the Lathe. The plate of a watch is gripped in the dogs of
a face-plate, the hole to be tapped being centered by means of the pump-
center, which is then withdrawn, and a tap held to the hole; the face-plate is
then caused to rotate either by the hand resting on its circumference, a slight
backward motion being given after each advance, or the motion may be
continuous and be given by the wheel. In the latter case, however, the tap
must have a good cutting edge and only be held in the hand with the degree
of force required to make it cut, so that it may rotate without breaking in
case the resistance opposed becomes too great. The tap may be steadied on
the T-rest.
385. To Tap with a Mainspring Winder. The ordinary mainspring
winder will, if the click work is removed, be found very convenient for
tapping holes, and indeed, for forming the external thread on screws.
Having removed the winding arbor, replace it by a tap carefully centered;
then introduce its coned end into the hole in the plate, which must be
pressed forward while the handle is turned, a short backward motion being
given to it at frequent intervals. When the tap is engaged sufficiently in the
resorted to:
Make a fresh tap in soft steel and file away two
opposite sides so as to give it the section shown at a or b,
Fig. 182: after measuring the diameter at several points in
its length, hammer gently on the flattened sides. With a
little care and by using a micrometer at intervals for
testing the alteration in diameter, it will be found that the
Fig. 182. required increase can be obtained without much difficulty.
The tap is then hardened and polished, etc.; indeed, it is
best to make a fresh tap.
MET HO DS O F TAP PI NG HO L ES .
383. It is needless to refer to the method of tapping by hand, as it is well
known to all practical men.
384. Tapping in the Lathe. The plate of a watch is gripped in the dogs of
a face-plate, the hole to be tapped being centered by means of the pump-
center, which is then withdrawn, and a tap held to the hole; the face-plate is
then caused to rotate either by the hand resting on its circumference, a slight
backward motion being given after each advance, or the motion may be
continuous and be given by the wheel. In the latter case, however, the tap
must have a good cutting edge and only be held in the hand with the degree
of force required to make it cut, so that it may rotate without breaking in
case the resistance opposed becomes too great. The tap may be steadied on
the T-rest.
385. To Tap with a Mainspring Winder. The ordinary mainspring
winder will, if the click work is removed, be found very convenient for
tapping holes, and indeed, for forming the external thread on screws.
Having removed the winding arbor, replace it by a tap carefully centered;
then introduce its coned end into the hole in the plate, which must be
pressed forward while the handle is turned, a short backward motion being
given to it at frequent intervals. When the tap is engaged sufficiently in the
Page 304
hole it is merely necessary to maintain the plate at right angles without
applying pressure.
386. To Tap with a Bow. Instead of the mainspring winder, one of the
small drill-stocks to be driven by a bow, consisting of an arbor, with a
coned hole at one end and ferrule at the other, supported in a frame that is
clamped in the vise, may be used. They are to be obtained at any tool-shop.
The bow being on the ferrule and the tap properly centered in the arbor,
the hole is held against the coned end and the bow worked with an alternate
forward and backward movement; but if the tap has a good cutting edge and
the bow is strong (of steel or cane), a hole may be tapped with a single
stroke of the bow. After a few trials the method will be found very easy and
certain.
A regular and rather slow motion should be given to the bow, which
should be long and strong. It is well to ascertain the number of revolutions
of the ferrule that correspond to a stroke of the bow, so as to ensure that the
tap is not introduced to a greater depth than is required. If it is desired that
the screw work easily in the hole, the tap should be moved several times
backwards and forwards.
387. The little turns here referred to, some of which are perforated
throughout their entire length and others only at one end, are very cheap
and will often be found useful; they can be adapted to receive drills,
broaches, taps, etc.
388. To Tap in an Ordinary Lathe. In factories it is a common practice
to tap the holes in plates, etc., and even to cut the threads of screws in a
lathe specially arranged for the purpose. The tools adapted for such work
are of two kinds: in some the tap enters to the required depth, when it is
immediately arrested, disconnected, and then rotated in an opposite
direction; in others, the tap advances to a definite point, and is immediately
withdrawn. As a rule, however, the tap remains stationary and the object is
caused to rotate.
389. Beillard Lathe for Tapping Screws. The axis f m, Fig. 183, is
perforated throughout its length. At f, the screw-plate g is dovetailed into it.
The inner end of the hole in this plate is slightly coned to facilitate the
insertion of the brass wire d, and it must be exactly in the axis of f m. A
applying pressure.
386. To Tap with a Bow. Instead of the mainspring winder, one of the
small drill-stocks to be driven by a bow, consisting of an arbor, with a
coned hole at one end and ferrule at the other, supported in a frame that is
clamped in the vise, may be used. They are to be obtained at any tool-shop.
The bow being on the ferrule and the tap properly centered in the arbor,
the hole is held against the coned end and the bow worked with an alternate
forward and backward movement; but if the tap has a good cutting edge and
the bow is strong (of steel or cane), a hole may be tapped with a single
stroke of the bow. After a few trials the method will be found very easy and
certain.
A regular and rather slow motion should be given to the bow, which
should be long and strong. It is well to ascertain the number of revolutions
of the ferrule that correspond to a stroke of the bow, so as to ensure that the
tap is not introduced to a greater depth than is required. If it is desired that
the screw work easily in the hole, the tap should be moved several times
backwards and forwards.
387. The little turns here referred to, some of which are perforated
throughout their entire length and others only at one end, are very cheap
and will often be found useful; they can be adapted to receive drills,
broaches, taps, etc.
388. To Tap in an Ordinary Lathe. In factories it is a common practice
to tap the holes in plates, etc., and even to cut the threads of screws in a
lathe specially arranged for the purpose. The tools adapted for such work
are of two kinds: in some the tap enters to the required depth, when it is
immediately arrested, disconnected, and then rotated in an opposite
direction; in others, the tap advances to a definite point, and is immediately
withdrawn. As a rule, however, the tap remains stationary and the object is
caused to rotate.
389. Beillard Lathe for Tapping Screws. The axis f m, Fig. 183, is
perforated throughout its length. At f, the screw-plate g is dovetailed into it.
The inner end of the hole in this plate is slightly coned to facilitate the
insertion of the brass wire d, and it must be exactly in the axis of f m. A
Page 305
guide b sliding on two rods c, c, is traversed by the rod d which can be
clamped in it by the screw a.
By pushing d against the screw-plate at the same time that the handle n is
rotated, a thread will be traced on it and it will emerge at k. When b has
advanced to the point m, the screw a is released, b is drawn back, and a
again clamped.
When a long screw, such as x x has to be
tapped, the screw-plate is fixed at m, and
the guide b is fastened on to the portion x.
Of course the hole in the screw-plate must
always be abundantly provided with oil.
If the screw-plate f is replaced by a
plate perforated with a round or square
Fig. 183. hole, a drill, broach or tap may be
substituted for k, being clamped by the
screw h, and the tool is at once available for drilling, broaching or tapping
any given hole.
RAP ID MO DE O F MAKI N G A S CR EW.
390. The methods ordinarily adopted by watchmakers are too well known
to need description; we will therefore at once proceed to give a special plan
recommended by M. Vissiere.
An eccentric poppet-head with boring-plate, Fig. 185, is fitted to the bed
of the lathe, the eccentricity being such that the axis of the centers is at the
point a on the circumference of the circle a y. The conical hole, having a
center at a, is cut away towards the rim of the plate to the degree indicated
in the figure, and its center is so placed that the vertical line f and the radius
d are inclined at 120°. The position of the T-rest is shown at s, and by
bringing it into actual contact with the disc the steadiness of both is
increased.
The fixed headstock of the lathe is provided with a runner of the form b,
Fig. 184, terminating in a point m at one end and a hollow cone or funnel n
at the other end.
clamped in it by the screw a.
By pushing d against the screw-plate at the same time that the handle n is
rotated, a thread will be traced on it and it will emerge at k. When b has
advanced to the point m, the screw a is released, b is drawn back, and a
again clamped.
When a long screw, such as x x has to be
tapped, the screw-plate is fixed at m, and
the guide b is fastened on to the portion x.
Of course the hole in the screw-plate must
always be abundantly provided with oil.
If the screw-plate f is replaced by a
plate perforated with a round or square
Fig. 183. hole, a drill, broach or tap may be
substituted for k, being clamped by the
screw h, and the tool is at once available for drilling, broaching or tapping
any given hole.
RAP ID MO DE O F MAKI N G A S CR EW.
390. The methods ordinarily adopted by watchmakers are too well known
to need description; we will therefore at once proceed to give a special plan
recommended by M. Vissiere.
An eccentric poppet-head with boring-plate, Fig. 185, is fitted to the bed
of the lathe, the eccentricity being such that the axis of the centers is at the
point a on the circumference of the circle a y. The conical hole, having a
center at a, is cut away towards the rim of the plate to the degree indicated
in the figure, and its center is so placed that the vertical line f and the radius
d are inclined at 120°. The position of the T-rest is shown at s, and by
bringing it into actual contact with the disc the steadiness of both is
increased.
The fixed headstock of the lathe is provided with a runner of the form b,
Fig. 184, terminating in a point m at one end and a hollow cone or funnel n
at the other end.
Page 306
Having filed the ends of a rod t, of any required diameter, square and
fitted a ferrule, support it between the two cones, a of the boring-plate and n
of the runner. Near the end a cut a hollow r sufficiently small to allow the
stem to pass through the notch in the hole a, Fig. 185. After passing it
through, the rod will be supported as shown at h, Fig. 184, so that the rim e
i rests against the cone.
Fig. 184. Fig. 185.
Further explanation is hardly necessary; after removing the portion c g
with a graver, turn down to a point p. When making a screw, turn out a
second hollow o o′; it then only remains to turn off the disc at the extremity,
and the screw will be roughed out of the form c p g v.
If it is preferred to work with a point at the left-hand end of b, remove the
rod after the point v has been turned, replace m b n by a common runner,
reverse b, and recommence the operation.
It would be difficult to devise a method for roughing out a screw and
making a point that would be more expeditious than the one here described.
S CREW- HE AD TO O L S.
391. These are of various kinds: some work by hand and others by a bow.
The jaws are brought together sometimes by a sliding ring, and at others by
a milled head placed between them and rigidly attached to a pin tapped with
right and left-handed threads that engage in the jaws. But neither of these
plans is good; the screws are not held firmly and they are rarely well
centered; owing to the slight displacements of the jaws.
fitted a ferrule, support it between the two cones, a of the boring-plate and n
of the runner. Near the end a cut a hollow r sufficiently small to allow the
stem to pass through the notch in the hole a, Fig. 185. After passing it
through, the rod will be supported as shown at h, Fig. 184, so that the rim e
i rests against the cone.
Fig. 184. Fig. 185.
Further explanation is hardly necessary; after removing the portion c g
with a graver, turn down to a point p. When making a screw, turn out a
second hollow o o′; it then only remains to turn off the disc at the extremity,
and the screw will be roughed out of the form c p g v.
If it is preferred to work with a point at the left-hand end of b, remove the
rod after the point v has been turned, replace m b n by a common runner,
reverse b, and recommence the operation.
It would be difficult to devise a method for roughing out a screw and
making a point that would be more expeditious than the one here described.
S CREW- HE AD TO O L S.
391. These are of various kinds: some work by hand and others by a bow.
The jaws are brought together sometimes by a sliding ring, and at others by
a milled head placed between them and rigidly attached to a pin tapped with
right and left-handed threads that engage in the jaws. But neither of these
plans is good; the screws are not held firmly and they are rarely well
centered; owing to the slight displacements of the jaws.
Page 307
A better plan is to arrange, either in the lathe or in the jaws of
the screw-head tool (when driven by a bow), a series of chucks of
the form shown at t, Fig. 186. They are easily made and tapped,
the hole i serving to remove the metal from the inner end of the
hole that has to be tapped; such chucks occupy very little space,
and, if numbered to correspond with the size of screw, any chuck
required can be found without trouble. If the hole becomes too
large owing to frequent use, a larger size of tap can be passed
through the hole and its number changed.
Fig. 392. A set of such chucks is almost indispensable at the present
186. day to the watchmaker who wishes to repair watches well; for he
rarely makes his own screws, as they are to be obtained well
made and very cheap at the material dealers, whereby a great saving of time
is effected. But their heads are seldom of the proper size to fit the original
sinks, and by being provided with such a series of chucks the watchmaker
can at once overcome this difficulty, as he can turn the heads down with a
graver.
393. r, Fig. 187, is an arbor for a screw-head tool that is driven by a bow,
and is adapted to receive such chucks, or it can be used in an ordinary lathe,
d being supported on a pointed center, and g in a boring-plate, Fig. 188, or
in a cone-plate center.
394. In this form of screw-head tool the portion a is sometimes perfectly
cylindrical, so that the piece v can slide on to it, being clamped by the screw
b.
This tube v is cut away through about half its length with a notch, as
indicated in the figure; bent pieces of hardened steel c and n are screwed to
either side of the notch. Screws, h and f, provided with lock-nuts, determine
the distance between these plates, and when v is in position on a the ends of
c, n, will rest on the screw-head, leaving just sufficient space between them
for inserting the file that cuts the slit.
Hard steel caps of the form shown at m may also be fitted to a, a notch
being cut in them to receive the screw b. These will be found useful as
guides for filing or polishing screw-heads, or the ends of arbors flat,
reducing the heads of several screws to the same height, etc.
the screw-head tool (when driven by a bow), a series of chucks of
the form shown at t, Fig. 186. They are easily made and tapped,
the hole i serving to remove the metal from the inner end of the
hole that has to be tapped; such chucks occupy very little space,
and, if numbered to correspond with the size of screw, any chuck
required can be found without trouble. If the hole becomes too
large owing to frequent use, a larger size of tap can be passed
through the hole and its number changed.
Fig. 392. A set of such chucks is almost indispensable at the present
186. day to the watchmaker who wishes to repair watches well; for he
rarely makes his own screws, as they are to be obtained well
made and very cheap at the material dealers, whereby a great saving of time
is effected. But their heads are seldom of the proper size to fit the original
sinks, and by being provided with such a series of chucks the watchmaker
can at once overcome this difficulty, as he can turn the heads down with a
graver.
393. r, Fig. 187, is an arbor for a screw-head tool that is driven by a bow,
and is adapted to receive such chucks, or it can be used in an ordinary lathe,
d being supported on a pointed center, and g in a boring-plate, Fig. 188, or
in a cone-plate center.
394. In this form of screw-head tool the portion a is sometimes perfectly
cylindrical, so that the piece v can slide on to it, being clamped by the screw
b.
This tube v is cut away through about half its length with a notch, as
indicated in the figure; bent pieces of hardened steel c and n are screwed to
either side of the notch. Screws, h and f, provided with lock-nuts, determine
the distance between these plates, and when v is in position on a the ends of
c, n, will rest on the screw-head, leaving just sufficient space between them
for inserting the file that cuts the slit.
Hard steel caps of the form shown at m may also be fitted to a, a notch
being cut in them to receive the screw b. These will be found useful as
guides for filing or polishing screw-heads, or the ends of arbors flat,
reducing the heads of several screws to the same height, etc.
Page 308
395. The tool
for forming the
U-spaces in a
cylinder escape-
wheel can be
easily be Fig. 188.
converted into a
screw-head tool
with laps. A glance at Fig. 189 will at once make
this evident. A number of chucks are adapted to
the arbor a, and in the tube c c either a T-rest or a
spindle carrying a lap is fixed.
It will also serve as a tool for drilling; a drill-
Fig. 187. chuck with drill, f, being adapted to a, and the
object to be perforated at b resting against a plate
that projects at right angles from a slide d d, which may be advanced by a
screw g.
396. The modern watchmaker has so little call to cut screws that it does
not pay him to purchase a screw-cutting lathe; for a very small sum he can
have screws of any thread or diameter cut by those who make a specialty of
such work, always provided that he cannot find what is wanted in the
material stores. The same thing also applies to fuzees.
Fig. 189.
TO O L S F O R CUT T I NG AND RO UN DIN G - U P T H E T E E T H
O F WHEE L S .
WHEEL-CUTTING ENGINE.
for forming the
U-spaces in a
cylinder escape-
wheel can be
easily be Fig. 188.
converted into a
screw-head tool
with laps. A glance at Fig. 189 will at once make
this evident. A number of chucks are adapted to
the arbor a, and in the tube c c either a T-rest or a
spindle carrying a lap is fixed.
It will also serve as a tool for drilling; a drill-
Fig. 187. chuck with drill, f, being adapted to a, and the
object to be perforated at b resting against a plate
that projects at right angles from a slide d d, which may be advanced by a
screw g.
396. The modern watchmaker has so little call to cut screws that it does
not pay him to purchase a screw-cutting lathe; for a very small sum he can
have screws of any thread or diameter cut by those who make a specialty of
such work, always provided that he cannot find what is wanted in the
material stores. The same thing also applies to fuzees.
Fig. 189.
TO O L S F O R CUT T I NG AND RO UN DIN G - U P T H E T E E T H
O F WHEE L S .
WHEEL-CUTTING ENGINE.
Page 309
397. The machine for dividing the circumference of a wheel, termed the
wheel-cutting engine, and one form of which is shown in Fig. 190, is well
known to nearly all workmen. The wheel is fixed to a chuck at b by wax or
screws, or by the pressure of a hollow cone or “sugar loaf” of steel, to the
apex of which pressure is applied by the arm d, or in other ways. The wheel
may be centered either by a pump-center within the chuck or by an
appliance such as is shown in Fig. 191, except that the arm b is curved and
its index much longer. This little addition may be fixed to the frame of the
engine in any convenient position.
Fig. 190.
The chuck b that carries the wheel is rigidly connected with a large brass
plate a a, on which are concentric circles of divisions, and the whole can be
maintained stationary by setting the point of the index c c in any desired
wheel-cutting engine, and one form of which is shown in Fig. 190, is well
known to nearly all workmen. The wheel is fixed to a chuck at b by wax or
screws, or by the pressure of a hollow cone or “sugar loaf” of steel, to the
apex of which pressure is applied by the arm d, or in other ways. The wheel
may be centered either by a pump-center within the chuck or by an
appliance such as is shown in Fig. 191, except that the arm b is curved and
its index much longer. This little addition may be fixed to the frame of the
engine in any convenient position.
Fig. 190.
The chuck b that carries the wheel is rigidly connected with a large brass
plate a a, on which are concentric circles of divisions, and the whole can be
maintained stationary by setting the point of the index c c in any desired
Page 310
hole on the division-plate. The cutter is carried on an arbor (shown separate
at l) between horizontal bearings in the frame j, and is caused to revolve by
means of the pulley k. The several parts lettered e, f, g, h, are for bringing
the cutter against the wheel and modifying the direction in which it moves,
so that the machine can cut straight or inclined teeth, bevel or crown
wheels, etc. It should be added that the engine here represented is more
complex than those ordinarily used for cutting watch wheels, although the
principle on which it acts is the same.
The teeth may be cut by circular cutters of the nature of files, by a small
straight cutter, similar to those used in a slide-rest projecting from a rotating
axis, or by several such cutters mounted on a disc which is caused to rotate.
For the sake of distinction it will be well to refer to the first of these as file
or mill cutters, while the second and third may be termed respectively
single and multiple blade or composite cutters.
Watchmakers rarely possess a
sufficiently large assortment of file-cutters
for making all the various forms of teeth
that are met with in horology; but this
deficiency can be supplied by making
them for themselves to any required
pattern in the manner subsequently
described.
398. Observations. The wheel-cutting
engine in which the plate is caused to
rotate by means of a tangent screw is
usually the most accurate. If the pitch of
Fig. 191. the screw is fine it will give all the
subdivisions of a circle that are required
for ordinary work, but it is essential that a
good form of counter be attached to the screw, and a certain amount of
calculation is always needful.
The engine that has a division-plate with conical holes arranged
concentrically over its surface is simpler and better adapted for rapid work.
The larger this plate, the greater is its chance of being correct and, at the
same time, it affords room for a larger number of divisions.
at l) between horizontal bearings in the frame j, and is caused to revolve by
means of the pulley k. The several parts lettered e, f, g, h, are for bringing
the cutter against the wheel and modifying the direction in which it moves,
so that the machine can cut straight or inclined teeth, bevel or crown
wheels, etc. It should be added that the engine here represented is more
complex than those ordinarily used for cutting watch wheels, although the
principle on which it acts is the same.
The teeth may be cut by circular cutters of the nature of files, by a small
straight cutter, similar to those used in a slide-rest projecting from a rotating
axis, or by several such cutters mounted on a disc which is caused to rotate.
For the sake of distinction it will be well to refer to the first of these as file
or mill cutters, while the second and third may be termed respectively
single and multiple blade or composite cutters.
Watchmakers rarely possess a
sufficiently large assortment of file-cutters
for making all the various forms of teeth
that are met with in horology; but this
deficiency can be supplied by making
them for themselves to any required
pattern in the manner subsequently
described.
398. Observations. The wheel-cutting
engine in which the plate is caused to
rotate by means of a tangent screw is
usually the most accurate. If the pitch of
Fig. 191. the screw is fine it will give all the
subdivisions of a circle that are required
for ordinary work, but it is essential that a
good form of counter be attached to the screw, and a certain amount of
calculation is always needful.
The engine that has a division-plate with conical holes arranged
concentrically over its surface is simpler and better adapted for rapid work.
The larger this plate, the greater is its chance of being correct and, at the
same time, it affords room for a larger number of divisions.
Page 311
It is preferable that the cutter frame rise and fall in a vertical dovetail, for
when the arbor is carried in an H shaped arm pivoted on two screws, the
teeth are always slightly dished. The entire apparatus should be somewhat
heavily constructed and supported on a solid bed; so as to prevent the
vibration of the cutter-arbor from being distributed over the entire machine.
The highest numbers on the plate should be used whenever it is possible,
so as to diminish the error due to irregularities in the sub-division. For
example, in cutting a wheel of 30 teeth, use the 90 or 120 circles, taking
every third or fourth hole.
These remarks will probably be sufficient to enable any watchmaker who
possesses a wheel-cutting engine to employ it with success; we will,
however, add the description of a few appliances or processes that have a
bearing on this question.
399. To Divide a Wheel so that it has one Tooth more or less than any
given number on the Division-plate. It is to be observed that neither this
nor the following method is mathematically exact, but if it is practiced with
care and the division-plate is of sufficient diameter, the error may as a rule
be neglected.
Let p, Fig. 192, be a division plate that
has a 30 circle, but not one of 29 or 31
divisions. Divide the circumference of a
disc d, seen on edge, into a large number
of parts in the engine, 360 for example,
and fix it to the end of the index, at the
same time attaching a finger, i, to the
support s. Now advance the screw of the
index through a distance corresponding to Fig. 192.
the angle l p k included between the two
successive points of the 30-division circle.
To measure this distance a pointer should be previously fixed to the frame
to correspond with the middle point of a hole in the circle under
consideration, and the motion should be arrested when it coincides with the
next succeeding hole. Assume that this amount of displacement has required
three complete turns of the screw; 1,080 divisions on the disc have thus
passed under the finger i. Dividing this number by 31, we obtain 34.83.
when the arbor is carried in an H shaped arm pivoted on two screws, the
teeth are always slightly dished. The entire apparatus should be somewhat
heavily constructed and supported on a solid bed; so as to prevent the
vibration of the cutter-arbor from being distributed over the entire machine.
The highest numbers on the plate should be used whenever it is possible,
so as to diminish the error due to irregularities in the sub-division. For
example, in cutting a wheel of 30 teeth, use the 90 or 120 circles, taking
every third or fourth hole.
These remarks will probably be sufficient to enable any watchmaker who
possesses a wheel-cutting engine to employ it with success; we will,
however, add the description of a few appliances or processes that have a
bearing on this question.
399. To Divide a Wheel so that it has one Tooth more or less than any
given number on the Division-plate. It is to be observed that neither this
nor the following method is mathematically exact, but if it is practiced with
care and the division-plate is of sufficient diameter, the error may as a rule
be neglected.
Let p, Fig. 192, be a division plate that
has a 30 circle, but not one of 29 or 31
divisions. Divide the circumference of a
disc d, seen on edge, into a large number
of parts in the engine, 360 for example,
and fix it to the end of the index, at the
same time attaching a finger, i, to the
support s. Now advance the screw of the
index through a distance corresponding to Fig. 192.
the angle l p k included between the two
successive points of the 30-division circle.
To measure this distance a pointer should be previously fixed to the frame
to correspond with the middle point of a hole in the circle under
consideration, and the motion should be arrested when it coincides with the
next succeeding hole. Assume that this amount of displacement has required
three complete turns of the screw; 1,080 divisions on the disc have thus
passed under the finger i. Dividing this number by 31, we obtain 34.83.
Page 312
After observing the division on d that coincides with the pointer i, cut the
first space of the wheel; then cause 34.83 divisions to pass under i, in such a
direction that the plate is drawn with the arrow, and transfer the index to the
next hole of the circle, rotating this time opposite to the arrow; the second
space can now be cut, and so on.
With a view to diminish errors arising from the omission of fractions,
since 31 does not divide evenly into 360, a number of multiples of the
number 34.83 should be determined. Thus 4 times 34.83 is 139.32, so that,
when the fourth space is cut, the pointer i must be at this number of
divisions from its initial position.
The index should be so situated that, when half the arc l k has been
traversed, as explained above, s a is at right angles to the radius p r of the
division-plate. If it is desired to move d in a reverse direction, it must be
moved backwards to a considerable distance and then forward up to the
required point so as to avoid error due to backlash. The screw of the index
should fit the support s firmly and without any shake.
400. To Cut a Wheel with any Given Number of Teeth. When the
given number does not occur on the division plate, proceed as follows: Take
a strip of metal, for example a pliant piece of soft steel, and cut in it a series
of equal and equidistant notches as shown at b, Fig. 193. Cut the band to
such a length that it has the same number of pairs of teeth and spaces as the
wheel is required to have teeth. Now turn a lead disc of a diameter that the
strip of metal will exactly enclose; fix this strip round the circumference
with pins, screws, or in any convenient manner, as is shown at c. We thus
obtain a temporary division plate which can replace the permanent one or
be attached to its upper or under surface, and, when an index has been
adapted to it, the wheel can be divided into the requisite number of parts.
When employing an engine the division plate of
which is worked by a tangent screw, the above
affords an easy means of making the divided head
for the screw with any desired number of
divisions.
Fig. 193. 401. With a view to insure accuracy, it is
advisable to employ a disc of large diameter as the
first space of the wheel; then cause 34.83 divisions to pass under i, in such a
direction that the plate is drawn with the arrow, and transfer the index to the
next hole of the circle, rotating this time opposite to the arrow; the second
space can now be cut, and so on.
With a view to diminish errors arising from the omission of fractions,
since 31 does not divide evenly into 360, a number of multiples of the
number 34.83 should be determined. Thus 4 times 34.83 is 139.32, so that,
when the fourth space is cut, the pointer i must be at this number of
divisions from its initial position.
The index should be so situated that, when half the arc l k has been
traversed, as explained above, s a is at right angles to the radius p r of the
division-plate. If it is desired to move d in a reverse direction, it must be
moved backwards to a considerable distance and then forward up to the
required point so as to avoid error due to backlash. The screw of the index
should fit the support s firmly and without any shake.
400. To Cut a Wheel with any Given Number of Teeth. When the
given number does not occur on the division plate, proceed as follows: Take
a strip of metal, for example a pliant piece of soft steel, and cut in it a series
of equal and equidistant notches as shown at b, Fig. 193. Cut the band to
such a length that it has the same number of pairs of teeth and spaces as the
wheel is required to have teeth. Now turn a lead disc of a diameter that the
strip of metal will exactly enclose; fix this strip round the circumference
with pins, screws, or in any convenient manner, as is shown at c. We thus
obtain a temporary division plate which can replace the permanent one or
be attached to its upper or under surface, and, when an index has been
adapted to it, the wheel can be divided into the requisite number of parts.
When employing an engine the division plate of
which is worked by a tangent screw, the above
affords an easy means of making the divided head
for the screw with any desired number of
divisions.
Fig. 193. 401. With a view to insure accuracy, it is
advisable to employ a disc of large diameter as the
Page 313
errors of division are thereby rendered less important and the metallic blade
can be made to lie closer to the rim.
The blade is subdivided by a saw to which a guide is attached as
indicated at h, Fig. 193, or the saw can with advantage be replaced by a file
that only cuts on its edge and not on either face, or by a pair of mills or
revolving cutters united together as shown at s. The following plan,
however, appears to be more expeditious and to involve less trouble to
ensure accuracy.
A hole a, Fig. 194 is drilled in a metallic band by
means of a semi-cylindrical drill fixed in the chuck of
a lathe or in a wheel-cutting engine, etc. It will be
convenient if the drill can be set vertical. Beneath it is
a brass bed-plate in which are fixed two pins equal in
diameter to the hole a; this hole having been placed
over one pin b, the band is held firmly against the Fig. 194.
other, while the second hole is drilled. This is then
transferred to the pin, and so on.
In the absence of a suitable tool, a well made measure can be employed
for marking a series of points with the aid of an eyeglass; the holes are then
drilled with the bow or in any other manner.
402. To Cut a Wheel, Ratchet or Pinion on an Ordinary Lathe. When
only a moderate degree of accuracy is required, the ordinary lathe can be
adapted for cutting the teeth of minute wheels, ratchets, pinions, etc., by
making the following appliance:
The piece b, Fig. 195, provided with a stud at p, slides on two horizontal
and parallel cylindrical rods fixed to the slide c, or it may move in a
dovetail. The cannon d, carrying a ferrule k and a file-cutter f, rotates on the
foot at p without shake; and the cord of a wheel or bow passes round k.
r, the wheel to be cut, is supported between the runners, the divided plate
v, which may even be an old wheel with the required number of teeth, being
fixed to the axis of r. v is held stationary during the operation of cutting, by
the index l. The mode of action hardly requires explanation: while f is
rotating, advance b until it is arrested by the stop t; then draw b back,
advance l to the next division on the plate, and so on.
can be made to lie closer to the rim.
The blade is subdivided by a saw to which a guide is attached as
indicated at h, Fig. 193, or the saw can with advantage be replaced by a file
that only cuts on its edge and not on either face, or by a pair of mills or
revolving cutters united together as shown at s. The following plan,
however, appears to be more expeditious and to involve less trouble to
ensure accuracy.
A hole a, Fig. 194 is drilled in a metallic band by
means of a semi-cylindrical drill fixed in the chuck of
a lathe or in a wheel-cutting engine, etc. It will be
convenient if the drill can be set vertical. Beneath it is
a brass bed-plate in which are fixed two pins equal in
diameter to the hole a; this hole having been placed
over one pin b, the band is held firmly against the Fig. 194.
other, while the second hole is drilled. This is then
transferred to the pin, and so on.
In the absence of a suitable tool, a well made measure can be employed
for marking a series of points with the aid of an eyeglass; the holes are then
drilled with the bow or in any other manner.
402. To Cut a Wheel, Ratchet or Pinion on an Ordinary Lathe. When
only a moderate degree of accuracy is required, the ordinary lathe can be
adapted for cutting the teeth of minute wheels, ratchets, pinions, etc., by
making the following appliance:
The piece b, Fig. 195, provided with a stud at p, slides on two horizontal
and parallel cylindrical rods fixed to the slide c, or it may move in a
dovetail. The cannon d, carrying a ferrule k and a file-cutter f, rotates on the
foot at p without shake; and the cord of a wheel or bow passes round k.
r, the wheel to be cut, is supported between the runners, the divided plate
v, which may even be an old wheel with the required number of teeth, being
fixed to the axis of r. v is held stationary during the operation of cutting, by
the index l. The mode of action hardly requires explanation: while f is
rotating, advance b until it is arrested by the stop t; then draw b back,
advance l to the next division on the plate, and so on.
Page 314
403. We have said enough on
this subject to enable any
watchmaker to make such a tool,
modifying it or completing it
according to his requirements. We
would only remark that: (1) If a
cannon of the form d is used, the
stud should be diminished in
diameter at its middle part for
about three-quarters of its length,
so that friction occurs only at
extremities; and (2) if a wheel is
used to rotate k, there should be an
idle pulley at m supported on a
fixed arm independent of b, either
attached to the lathe-bed or bench,
or fixed in the vise, so that the
ferrule k can move backwards or
forwards without altering the
tension of the cord, in the manner
indicated at y. Fig. 195.
404. Wheel-cutting Arbor-
chucks. These appliances are specially useful in making wheels that are
required to be rigorously true, such, for example, as escape wheels. The
form is represented in Fig. 196.
It is simply the arbor of an ordinary lathe, formed in two pieces, b a and
b c, the body b d being very accurately fitted into the conical hole in the
plate of the wheel-cutting engine. If now a wheel is fixed with wax on the
extremity z and turned in the lathe to the required form, it is only necessary
to unscrew b c and introduce b d into the socket of the wheel-cutting
engine; then having cut the teeth, the piece b c is replaced, and the whole is
set in the lathe, if required to test its truth, without the wheel having been
displaced from the chuck.
It will, of course, be evident that the two parts must be accurately fitted
together; the tapped hole and the screw must be true with the axis. M.
this subject to enable any
watchmaker to make such a tool,
modifying it or completing it
according to his requirements. We
would only remark that: (1) If a
cannon of the form d is used, the
stud should be diminished in
diameter at its middle part for
about three-quarters of its length,
so that friction occurs only at
extremities; and (2) if a wheel is
used to rotate k, there should be an
idle pulley at m supported on a
fixed arm independent of b, either
attached to the lathe-bed or bench,
or fixed in the vise, so that the
ferrule k can move backwards or
forwards without altering the
tension of the cord, in the manner
indicated at y. Fig. 195.
404. Wheel-cutting Arbor-
chucks. These appliances are specially useful in making wheels that are
required to be rigorously true, such, for example, as escape wheels. The
form is represented in Fig. 196.
It is simply the arbor of an ordinary lathe, formed in two pieces, b a and
b c, the body b d being very accurately fitted into the conical hole in the
plate of the wheel-cutting engine. If now a wheel is fixed with wax on the
extremity z and turned in the lathe to the required form, it is only necessary
to unscrew b c and introduce b d into the socket of the wheel-cutting
engine; then having cut the teeth, the piece b c is replaced, and the whole is
set in the lathe, if required to test its truth, without the wheel having been
displaced from the chuck.
It will, of course, be evident that the two parts must be accurately fitted
together; the tapped hole and the screw must be true with the axis. M.
Page 315
Millot, with whom we have seen this form of arbor in use, has
not been able to detect any eccentricity, although he often
employs them.
405. They might be formed in one piece, as a d b, with a
point at p. A boxwood ferrule is then fitted onto the portion b
d, where it is clamped by two screws, and these can be
released when it is desired to insert the chuck into the wheel-
cutting engine. The points of these screws should be received
in recesses in order to avoid the production of any roughness
on the surface of b d.
Wheel-cutting engines have been made to receive these
arbor-chucks without removing the pulley. The point c is
placed in a hole and the upper end is enclosed in a collar,
Fig. 196. which is tightened by means of a screw.
The arbor used by M. Millot had a lantern chuck, and this
is very convenient in making objects that require to be measured during the
progress of the work.
406. Modification of the Ordinary Arrangement for Holding the
Wheel While Cutting. In the wheel-cutting engine as usually met with, the
wheel (when not mounted on an axis) is held against the chuck by a hollow
steel cone, on which presses an arm that slides on a vertical pillar and can
be clamped in any position. The hole at the end of this arm does not always,
therefore, correspond with the point of the cone, and, as a consequence, the
wheel often gets displaced during cutting. This inconvenience can be
avoided by adopting the following device, which we have seen in use with
several watchmakers.
The pillar with its sliding arm is replaced by an iron or steel
piece of the form g, Fig. 197. The point a is received by the
central hole at the lower end of the division-plate axis, while the
screw b presses on the point of the cone, clamping it firmly.
Further explanation seems unnecessary; we would only add that
the piece g must be made strong and perfectly rigid.
Fig.
197.
not been able to detect any eccentricity, although he often
employs them.
405. They might be formed in one piece, as a d b, with a
point at p. A boxwood ferrule is then fitted onto the portion b
d, where it is clamped by two screws, and these can be
released when it is desired to insert the chuck into the wheel-
cutting engine. The points of these screws should be received
in recesses in order to avoid the production of any roughness
on the surface of b d.
Wheel-cutting engines have been made to receive these
arbor-chucks without removing the pulley. The point c is
placed in a hole and the upper end is enclosed in a collar,
Fig. 196. which is tightened by means of a screw.
The arbor used by M. Millot had a lantern chuck, and this
is very convenient in making objects that require to be measured during the
progress of the work.
406. Modification of the Ordinary Arrangement for Holding the
Wheel While Cutting. In the wheel-cutting engine as usually met with, the
wheel (when not mounted on an axis) is held against the chuck by a hollow
steel cone, on which presses an arm that slides on a vertical pillar and can
be clamped in any position. The hole at the end of this arm does not always,
therefore, correspond with the point of the cone, and, as a consequence, the
wheel often gets displaced during cutting. This inconvenience can be
avoided by adopting the following device, which we have seen in use with
several watchmakers.
The pillar with its sliding arm is replaced by an iron or steel
piece of the form g, Fig. 197. The point a is received by the
central hole at the lower end of the division-plate axis, while the
screw b presses on the point of the cone, clamping it firmly.
Further explanation seems unnecessary; we would only add that
the piece g must be made strong and perfectly rigid.
Fig.
197.
Page 316
CUT T E RS F O R F O R MI NG T HE T EE T H O F B RAS S
WHE EL S .
407. For making the teeth of the wheels of a train, a special form of
cutter, set to revolve on an axis, is employed, and it may be constructed on
either of three distinct systems.
Fig. 198. Fig. 199.
(1) A single cutter mounted on an arbor, as at a, b, Figs. 198 and 199; this
may be termed a single cutter.
(2) A circular cutter, formed of a series of such single cutters, which will
be termed a multiple blade or composite cutter. Two specimens are shown
at f, j, Fig. 200.
Fig. 200.
(3) The pinion, or steel wheel cutter or mill, formed of a single piece of
metal, as seen in Figs. 201, 202 and 203. These may be described as mill or
file cutters.
408. To Make a Single Cutter. The form shown at a, Fig. 198, is
roughed out to as nearly as possible the required form in good steel. Some
makers, possessed of exceptional skill, make them entirely by hand, and
they make very beautiful teeth by this means; but as a rule watchmakers
cannot look for such success, so that it is better to complete the formation of
the cutter in a specially arranged tool.
WHE EL S .
407. For making the teeth of the wheels of a train, a special form of
cutter, set to revolve on an axis, is employed, and it may be constructed on
either of three distinct systems.
Fig. 198. Fig. 199.
(1) A single cutter mounted on an arbor, as at a, b, Figs. 198 and 199; this
may be termed a single cutter.
(2) A circular cutter, formed of a series of such single cutters, which will
be termed a multiple blade or composite cutter. Two specimens are shown
at f, j, Fig. 200.
Fig. 200.
(3) The pinion, or steel wheel cutter or mill, formed of a single piece of
metal, as seen in Figs. 201, 202 and 203. These may be described as mill or
file cutters.
408. To Make a Single Cutter. The form shown at a, Fig. 198, is
roughed out to as nearly as possible the required form in good steel. Some
makers, possessed of exceptional skill, make them entirely by hand, and
they make very beautiful teeth by this means; but as a rule watchmakers
cannot look for such success, so that it is better to complete the formation of
the cutter in a specially arranged tool.
Page 317
Fig. 201. Fig. 202.
The two sides may be made in the wheel-cutting engine, with the same
mill cutter, which is inclined when used to undercut the acting edge; but this
operation is not as easy as it appears at first sight, and the watchmaker will
find it to his advantage to make the following device:
A spindle, b d, Fig. 204, supported
between the runners, t, v, serves as an axis
for the arm f g h, which is bent at g so as to
afford a support to a conical cutter a,
driven on the ferrule c. The descent of this
arm is limited by an adjustable stop, fixed
to the bed of the turns.
Fig. 203.
Having removed the T-rest, replace it by
the rod n, to which the cutter is clamped by a screw k, after being roughed
out so as to reduce the work required of the cutter.
Place n so that the conical cutter occupies the position indicated at z, and,
if a slight pressure be applied at h while a is caused to revolve, both the
straight and curved portion of the side will be formed, and the side will, at
the same time, be bevelled to an angle corresponding with that of the cone.
The curved portion of the side will be more or less undercut, according as
the arm h is depressed below the horizontal plane passing through the axis
of the lathe. The opposite side is formed by inverting the piece f g h.
In smoothing or polishing it is only requisite to replace the cutter by a
smooth conical roller, and to work as before.
409. The cutter is sometimes fixed in the arbor as shown in Fig. 198. The
arbor itself is thick and perforated with a round hole in which the tail of the
cutter accurately fits, a slight pressure applied by the screw m being
sufficient to make it steady.
The two sides may be made in the wheel-cutting engine, with the same
mill cutter, which is inclined when used to undercut the acting edge; but this
operation is not as easy as it appears at first sight, and the watchmaker will
find it to his advantage to make the following device:
A spindle, b d, Fig. 204, supported
between the runners, t, v, serves as an axis
for the arm f g h, which is bent at g so as to
afford a support to a conical cutter a,
driven on the ferrule c. The descent of this
arm is limited by an adjustable stop, fixed
to the bed of the turns.
Fig. 203.
Having removed the T-rest, replace it by
the rod n, to which the cutter is clamped by a screw k, after being roughed
out so as to reduce the work required of the cutter.
Place n so that the conical cutter occupies the position indicated at z, and,
if a slight pressure be applied at h while a is caused to revolve, both the
straight and curved portion of the side will be formed, and the side will, at
the same time, be bevelled to an angle corresponding with that of the cone.
The curved portion of the side will be more or less undercut, according as
the arm h is depressed below the horizontal plane passing through the axis
of the lathe. The opposite side is formed by inverting the piece f g h.
In smoothing or polishing it is only requisite to replace the cutter by a
smooth conical roller, and to work as before.
409. The cutter is sometimes fixed in the arbor as shown in Fig. 198. The
arbor itself is thick and perforated with a round hole in which the tail of the
cutter accurately fits, a slight pressure applied by the screw m being
sufficient to make it steady.
Page 318
For cutting the escape-wheels of
clocks the arbor should have a
velocity of about 200 turns a
second.
M. Peupin, a skilful watchmaker
who adopts the practice here given,
having observed that with a sharp
cutting edge he did not obtain a
sufficiently smooth surface,
succeeded in obviating the
difficulty by drawing a polisher
Fig. 204. with rouge along the cutting edge,
maintaining it at right angles to the
plane of the cutter. This operation,
if carefully executed, will serve to remove the feather-edge, to make the
edge even and yet not dull, and to secure a highly polished cut surface. The
sides of the teeth will present a proportionately better surface, according as
the portion c a (m, Fig. 198,) approximates towards the dotted line c d.
His escape-wheel teeth are cut in successive stages. The last stroke of the
cutter is given by advancing it against the side of the wheel, so that the
cutter axis remains in the plane of the wheel.
410. Triangular Cutters. When a cylindrical or conical mill is not
available for finishing and sloping the sides of a cutter, it may be replaced
by a triangular cutter (t or c, Fig. 205,) and when the application of much
force is required there may be a pointed bearing; but this is seldom
necessary.
If carefully hardened and set, such a cutter gives a clean cut; of course it
will not act for as long a period as the conical form above described, but
this is of comparatively little importance, since the blank cutters are always
roughed out previously to nearly the requisite shape.
411. To Make Several Cutters at Once. By adopting the following
method, it is possible to make several such cutters in one operation.
Turn a steel disc of the form of an ordinary mill cutter, as shown at l p,
Fig. 200. To finish it, giving the same curvature to the two sides, take a
clocks the arbor should have a
velocity of about 200 turns a
second.
M. Peupin, a skilful watchmaker
who adopts the practice here given,
having observed that with a sharp
cutting edge he did not obtain a
sufficiently smooth surface,
succeeded in obviating the
difficulty by drawing a polisher
Fig. 204. with rouge along the cutting edge,
maintaining it at right angles to the
plane of the cutter. This operation,
if carefully executed, will serve to remove the feather-edge, to make the
edge even and yet not dull, and to secure a highly polished cut surface. The
sides of the teeth will present a proportionately better surface, according as
the portion c a (m, Fig. 198,) approximates towards the dotted line c d.
His escape-wheel teeth are cut in successive stages. The last stroke of the
cutter is given by advancing it against the side of the wheel, so that the
cutter axis remains in the plane of the wheel.
410. Triangular Cutters. When a cylindrical or conical mill is not
available for finishing and sloping the sides of a cutter, it may be replaced
by a triangular cutter (t or c, Fig. 205,) and when the application of much
force is required there may be a pointed bearing; but this is seldom
necessary.
If carefully hardened and set, such a cutter gives a clean cut; of course it
will not act for as long a period as the conical form above described, but
this is of comparatively little importance, since the blank cutters are always
roughed out previously to nearly the requisite shape.
411. To Make Several Cutters at Once. By adopting the following
method, it is possible to make several such cutters in one operation.
Turn a steel disc of the form of an ordinary mill cutter, as shown at l p,
Fig. 200. To finish it, giving the same curvature to the two sides, take a
Page 319
piece of steel, c, and shape the corner r
to exactly correspond with the side of
the point or ogive of a tooth, bevelling
it so as to give a cutting edge at the
upper surface; then harden and smooth
it with care. Having fixed it in position
in the tool that carries the arbor a and
the roughed out disc (whether this be
the lathe, wheel or pinion-cutting
Fig. 205. engine, or a special device) in the
required position, one side of the disc
may be finished. The arbor a is then
reversed and the other side finished in the same manner, so that both sides
have the same curvature in opposite directions.
Of course the tool c may be advanced against l p, either sideways from r
towards l, or radially in the direction l p, as is most convenient. Or the tool
might remain fixed and the disc advance against it radially or laterally.
The traverse slide in a lathe is usually provided with a stop; it would then
be very easy to form one side of the disc in such a tool, afterwards reversing
the arbor and forming the other side.
If a very good cutting edge is desired, the sides should be smoothed and,
when the disc is completed, it may be divided into pieces similar to b, Fig.
199, each of which will serve as a cutter. It will be noticed that the acting
edge is not undercut behind; it is thus necessary to slope the cutter a little as
shown at b, as otherwise the rim will choke in the spaces of the wheel,
straining it without cutting.
412. Composite Cutter Formed of a Succession Of Single Cutters. By
mounting a series of identical single cutters round the circumference of a
disc, a circular cutter can be formed in the manner indicated in Fig. 206.
The upper portion represents the arrangement of the pieces while they are
being turned, and the lower portion shows their positions when the cutter is
ready to be used. M. A. Croutte, to whom we are indebted for several of the
details here given, was much surprised that this form of cutter is not better
known, since it possesses certain special advantages; we will summarize his
remarks on the subject.
to exactly correspond with the side of
the point or ogive of a tooth, bevelling
it so as to give a cutting edge at the
upper surface; then harden and smooth
it with care. Having fixed it in position
in the tool that carries the arbor a and
the roughed out disc (whether this be
the lathe, wheel or pinion-cutting
Fig. 205. engine, or a special device) in the
required position, one side of the disc
may be finished. The arbor a is then
reversed and the other side finished in the same manner, so that both sides
have the same curvature in opposite directions.
Of course the tool c may be advanced against l p, either sideways from r
towards l, or radially in the direction l p, as is most convenient. Or the tool
might remain fixed and the disc advance against it radially or laterally.
The traverse slide in a lathe is usually provided with a stop; it would then
be very easy to form one side of the disc in such a tool, afterwards reversing
the arbor and forming the other side.
If a very good cutting edge is desired, the sides should be smoothed and,
when the disc is completed, it may be divided into pieces similar to b, Fig.
199, each of which will serve as a cutter. It will be noticed that the acting
edge is not undercut behind; it is thus necessary to slope the cutter a little as
shown at b, as otherwise the rim will choke in the spaces of the wheel,
straining it without cutting.
412. Composite Cutter Formed of a Succession Of Single Cutters. By
mounting a series of identical single cutters round the circumference of a
disc, a circular cutter can be formed in the manner indicated in Fig. 206.
The upper portion represents the arrangement of the pieces while they are
being turned, and the lower portion shows their positions when the cutter is
ready to be used. M. A. Croutte, to whom we are indebted for several of the
details here given, was much surprised that this form of cutter is not better
known, since it possesses certain special advantages; we will summarize his
remarks on the subject.
Page 320
The separate cutters b, g, etc.,
Fig. 206, are not undercut from the
acting edge backward; they are
merely reversed, so that this acting
edge is towards the front, in other
words it lies along the radius.
Fig. 206. These separate pieces possess a
special advantage in that they can
be used until the steel is quite worn
out by the setting; in this respect differing from the undercut cutters, for
they are not altered either in form or thickness by setting.
As a set-off against this important advantage, they are characterized by
the inconvenience of requiring that the two sides of the blade be exactly in a
plane at right angles to the axis, and that the slide carrying the cutter-arbor
shall move in a direction parallel to this plane. And even when this double
condition is satisfied, there will be friction of the two sides above the dotted
line i j, Fig. 199, against the sides of the teeth; and if the above named
conditions are not satisfied, the cutter, being presented edgeways, will be
choked with brass, and the results will be unsatisfactory.
413. In order to ascertain whether such a fault exists, it is only necessary
to notice whether the cutter becomes brass-colored on one side towards the
point, and on the other more inwards, and the sides of the teeth exhibit striæ
or scores in opposite directions, as indicated at e, Fig. 207. The white strip,
1, 1, corresponds to the bottom of a space between two teeth; 2, 2, and 3, 3,
the two sides of this space, spread out like an open book.
By examining the marks with care, and noticing the direction
in which they are inclined, it will be possible to ascertain both
whether the separate cutters are out of place, and in which
direction the arbor should be moved in order to correct any error.
We must, then, repeat that all the cutters must satisfy this
condition, because if only one is wrong it will produce the scores
here referred to.
Fig.
207. The necessity of these precautions in the use of such a
composite cutter, and the fact that the friction of the portion
above the line i j, Fig. 199, renders it difficult to obtain a polished
Fig. 206, are not undercut from the
acting edge backward; they are
merely reversed, so that this acting
edge is towards the front, in other
words it lies along the radius.
Fig. 206. These separate pieces possess a
special advantage in that they can
be used until the steel is quite worn
out by the setting; in this respect differing from the undercut cutters, for
they are not altered either in form or thickness by setting.
As a set-off against this important advantage, they are characterized by
the inconvenience of requiring that the two sides of the blade be exactly in a
plane at right angles to the axis, and that the slide carrying the cutter-arbor
shall move in a direction parallel to this plane. And even when this double
condition is satisfied, there will be friction of the two sides above the dotted
line i j, Fig. 199, against the sides of the teeth; and if the above named
conditions are not satisfied, the cutter, being presented edgeways, will be
choked with brass, and the results will be unsatisfactory.
413. In order to ascertain whether such a fault exists, it is only necessary
to notice whether the cutter becomes brass-colored on one side towards the
point, and on the other more inwards, and the sides of the teeth exhibit striæ
or scores in opposite directions, as indicated at e, Fig. 207. The white strip,
1, 1, corresponds to the bottom of a space between two teeth; 2, 2, and 3, 3,
the two sides of this space, spread out like an open book.
By examining the marks with care, and noticing the direction
in which they are inclined, it will be possible to ascertain both
whether the separate cutters are out of place, and in which
direction the arbor should be moved in order to correct any error.
We must, then, repeat that all the cutters must satisfy this
condition, because if only one is wrong it will produce the scores
here referred to.
Fig.
207. The necessity of these precautions in the use of such a
composite cutter, and the fact that the friction of the portion
above the line i j, Fig. 199, renders it difficult to obtain a polished
Page 321
cut (which is essential for such delicate depths as those of watches), have
doubtless prevented its use becoming general. For work that is somewhat
larger or rough, it will be found to give satisfactory results and will last
longer than a single cutter. A lubricant, such as glycerine or oil, should be
applied to it.
414. Composite Cutters with the Cutting Edges Undercut. An old
Paris clockmaker, Brisson, used a cutter of the form f, Fig. 200, for the
teeth of his wheels. He undercut the two sides of the blades by means of a
small special tool. Strictly speaking, the operation can be performed by
hand.
In order to ensure that the curves that form the ogives of teeth are alike
on the two sides of a cutter, he made a series of templates or standards of
the form c, Fig. 206, in which were two holes, c and c, of equal diameter.
The upper one, which might be funnel-shaped so as to give a cutting edge,
was half cut away, and, after being hardened and set, could be used to give a
final stroke to the circumference of two discs of equal diameter. These two
discs, or one cut through a diameter would suffice, having been brought by
a file to the form h, and joined as shown at r s, can be mounted
eccentrically so as to present a cutting edge to the roughed out cutter a; the
two sides can thus be made even. The disc may then be finished by cutting
away the metal so as to give the form shown at f, Fig. 200.
By the aid of the standards he could easily reproduce the same forms of
teeth when required.
Fig. 200 comprises, at j, a cutter for the teeth of watch wheels of the form
employed successfully by M. A. Phillippe. The figure will explain itself.
We have known a Geneva wheel cutter who employed these composite
cutters with advantage in making duplex wheels. The principal difficulty he
experienced arose from the distortion of the metal in hardening, because the
acting portion naturally lengthened a little. This form of composite cutter
certainly demands careful workmanship, but, if the construction, hardening
and polishing are good, it will produce fine work and will last a long time.
415. General Observations on Cutting the Teeth of Brass Wheels
with a Single or Compound Cutter. High-class English watches, the
movements for which are made at Prescot, in Lancashire, have the wheel
doubtless prevented its use becoming general. For work that is somewhat
larger or rough, it will be found to give satisfactory results and will last
longer than a single cutter. A lubricant, such as glycerine or oil, should be
applied to it.
414. Composite Cutters with the Cutting Edges Undercut. An old
Paris clockmaker, Brisson, used a cutter of the form f, Fig. 200, for the
teeth of his wheels. He undercut the two sides of the blades by means of a
small special tool. Strictly speaking, the operation can be performed by
hand.
In order to ensure that the curves that form the ogives of teeth are alike
on the two sides of a cutter, he made a series of templates or standards of
the form c, Fig. 206, in which were two holes, c and c, of equal diameter.
The upper one, which might be funnel-shaped so as to give a cutting edge,
was half cut away, and, after being hardened and set, could be used to give a
final stroke to the circumference of two discs of equal diameter. These two
discs, or one cut through a diameter would suffice, having been brought by
a file to the form h, and joined as shown at r s, can be mounted
eccentrically so as to present a cutting edge to the roughed out cutter a; the
two sides can thus be made even. The disc may then be finished by cutting
away the metal so as to give the form shown at f, Fig. 200.
By the aid of the standards he could easily reproduce the same forms of
teeth when required.
Fig. 200 comprises, at j, a cutter for the teeth of watch wheels of the form
employed successfully by M. A. Phillippe. The figure will explain itself.
We have known a Geneva wheel cutter who employed these composite
cutters with advantage in making duplex wheels. The principal difficulty he
experienced arose from the distortion of the metal in hardening, because the
acting portion naturally lengthened a little. This form of composite cutter
certainly demands careful workmanship, but, if the construction, hardening
and polishing are good, it will produce fine work and will last a long time.
415. General Observations on Cutting the Teeth of Brass Wheels
with a Single or Compound Cutter. High-class English watches, the
movements for which are made at Prescot, in Lancashire, have the wheel
Page 322
teeth made by a composite cutter after the wheels are riveted to their
pinions. We have remarked that these watches make less noise when
running down than those in which the teeth have been formed with a mill or
continuous action cutter.
Success in forming teeth with cutters depends mainly on the securing of a
good form as regards the cutting edge, and on its being maintained in good
condition; on the steadiness of the entire machine, so as to avoid vibration;
on the weight of the wheel, and on the velocity of the cutter being
sufficient. A cutter ought never to assume a brassy color except when it
requires setting; if it does so, and this is not the case, it proves that the metal
is being strained or scraped with friction. The velocity must be very
considerable; greater with a single cutter than with one that is composite.
The velocity is limited by that point at which the heat generated would
cause the oil to evaporate, soften the cutter, distort, and sometimes even
displace, the wheel operated on. The engagement of the cutter with the
metal must be very slight, and should never be increased suddenly.
Attempts have been made to enclose the arbor bearings in horn, but it is
liable to be distorted by the heat.
Before dividing the disc into cutters it is essential that the two edges be
carefully smoothed, and this without their being distorted. This can easily
be done in an old depthing tool, using an arrangement like that shown in
Fig. 208. The lap must be of hard wood, and its right-hand corner rounded
off so as to resemble the side of a tooth; it is set to engage with one side of
the cutter. We say the right-hand corner, because a lateral pressure can then
be applied. It is important that the surface as left by the graver be clean cut,
because if the smoothing is too much prolonged, it will deform the cutter.
416. In some factories it is usual to use
discs about 2½ inches in diameter, for
cutting the teeth of brass wheels in
timepieces. The single cutters are arranged
round the circumference as follows: One
forms a space between two teeth; the one
immediately preceding forms the right-
hand side of the ogive, and that which
Fig. 208. follows forms the left-hand side. By
pinions. We have remarked that these watches make less noise when
running down than those in which the teeth have been formed with a mill or
continuous action cutter.
Success in forming teeth with cutters depends mainly on the securing of a
good form as regards the cutting edge, and on its being maintained in good
condition; on the steadiness of the entire machine, so as to avoid vibration;
on the weight of the wheel, and on the velocity of the cutter being
sufficient. A cutter ought never to assume a brassy color except when it
requires setting; if it does so, and this is not the case, it proves that the metal
is being strained or scraped with friction. The velocity must be very
considerable; greater with a single cutter than with one that is composite.
The velocity is limited by that point at which the heat generated would
cause the oil to evaporate, soften the cutter, distort, and sometimes even
displace, the wheel operated on. The engagement of the cutter with the
metal must be very slight, and should never be increased suddenly.
Attempts have been made to enclose the arbor bearings in horn, but it is
liable to be distorted by the heat.
Before dividing the disc into cutters it is essential that the two edges be
carefully smoothed, and this without their being distorted. This can easily
be done in an old depthing tool, using an arrangement like that shown in
Fig. 208. The lap must be of hard wood, and its right-hand corner rounded
off so as to resemble the side of a tooth; it is set to engage with one side of
the cutter. We say the right-hand corner, because a lateral pressure can then
be applied. It is important that the surface as left by the graver be clean cut,
because if the smoothing is too much prolonged, it will deform the cutter.
416. In some factories it is usual to use
discs about 2½ inches in diameter, for
cutting the teeth of brass wheels in
timepieces. The single cutters are arranged
round the circumference as follows: One
forms a space between two teeth; the one
immediately preceding forms the right-
hand side of the ogive, and that which
Fig. 208. follows forms the left-hand side. By
Page 323
adopting such an arrangement of separate cutters, if their side that lies
against the disc is slightly inclined backwards it is no longer necessary to
bevel off the cutting edge.
MIL L CUT T E RS F O R S T EE L .
417. Pinions, Keyless Wheels, Etc. The cutters that last for the longest
period when used for cutting steel are those formed like a file; but a
watchmaker is not always in a position to make them himself; we will,
therefore, here only speak of those he can make, the description of the first
few being taken from a work by M. A. Phillippe, of Geneva, Les montres
sans clefs (keyless watches).
418. Cutter for Forming the Inclined Teeth of Winding Pinions. Fig.
201 shows at s a section along the axis of such a cutter, and at p a side view.
When it is believed to be of the required form, rest a piece of lead on the T-
rest of the lathe and press it against the rotating disc. The impression made
in the lead will afford a means of ascertaining both whether the form is
correct, and whether the surfaces are smooth enough. This last point is
important.
The cutting edges are formed by merely making a number of notches
around the circumference with a tool for cutting ratchet teeth. Then advance
this ratchet cutter so that it may engage with the convex edge of the cutter
operated upon, and against the back of the teeth of this cutter; the ratchet
cutter is then in a position to form a second face, o i, by which the teeth of
the cutter are undercut at the back, but in such a manner that a small flat
surface o a is left in order to retain the form. When a cutter made in this
way will no longer bite, it may be set by passing a hard slip of whetstone
over the faces of the teeth.
The ratchet cutter employed for making this cutter should never be
pressed against it heavily.
419. Cutter for Ordinary Wheel Teeth. We will now pass to the
consideration of cutters for forming teeth of the usual shape, of intermediate
steel wheels, set-hands wheels, pinions, etc. They may be made as follows:
against the disc is slightly inclined backwards it is no longer necessary to
bevel off the cutting edge.
MIL L CUT T E RS F O R S T EE L .
417. Pinions, Keyless Wheels, Etc. The cutters that last for the longest
period when used for cutting steel are those formed like a file; but a
watchmaker is not always in a position to make them himself; we will,
therefore, here only speak of those he can make, the description of the first
few being taken from a work by M. A. Phillippe, of Geneva, Les montres
sans clefs (keyless watches).
418. Cutter for Forming the Inclined Teeth of Winding Pinions. Fig.
201 shows at s a section along the axis of such a cutter, and at p a side view.
When it is believed to be of the required form, rest a piece of lead on the T-
rest of the lathe and press it against the rotating disc. The impression made
in the lead will afford a means of ascertaining both whether the form is
correct, and whether the surfaces are smooth enough. This last point is
important.
The cutting edges are formed by merely making a number of notches
around the circumference with a tool for cutting ratchet teeth. Then advance
this ratchet cutter so that it may engage with the convex edge of the cutter
operated upon, and against the back of the teeth of this cutter; the ratchet
cutter is then in a position to form a second face, o i, by which the teeth of
the cutter are undercut at the back, but in such a manner that a small flat
surface o a is left in order to retain the form. When a cutter made in this
way will no longer bite, it may be set by passing a hard slip of whetstone
over the faces of the teeth.
The ratchet cutter employed for making this cutter should never be
pressed against it heavily.
419. Cutter for Ordinary Wheel Teeth. We will now pass to the
consideration of cutters for forming teeth of the usual shape, of intermediate
steel wheels, set-hands wheels, pinions, etc. They may be made as follows:
Page 324
The rim is indented with small fine ratchet teeth, b d, Fig. 202. Any burr
produced on the sides is then carefully removed, and the cutter is placed in
the wheel-cutting engine, and notches, c, c′, c′′, c′′′, etc., are formed on
either side with a flat square-edged cutter of such a thickness that the
circumference is about equally divided into hollows and prominences. It is
important to note that the right side of the teeth must be but slightly
roughed, not more than is required in order to raise a slight burr, all that is
necessary to form the cutting edge of this portion of the disc. In roughing
these sides, at least one out of every two of the small ratchet teeth on the
circumference should be left untouched, so as to ensure the required
thickness being maintained.
The cutter shown in section and elevation at s and p, Fig. 201, might be
cut on the side n in the manner here explained, and the convex portion k
might be indented with a fine ratchet-toothed cutter, carried in the hinged
cutter-frame of the wheel-cutting engine. The degree of penetration may be
determined by fixing an ivory disc against the cutter and concentric with it,
the two differing in diameter by the depth the cuts are to be made. The teeth
will be rather too square towards the circumference, but their form can be
carefully corrected by hand. It is obvious that the very greatest caution is
necessary in hardening cutters.
420. Rose-Cutters or Forming Pinion Cutters. As the edges of pinion
cutters are rounded, they can be made in the manner suggested by
Thevenin. Supporting the roughed out cutter in the cutter-frame of a wheel-
cutting engine, he fitted in the axis of the division-plate a kind of rose-
cutter, n, Fig. 205. Its extremity, n, instead of being flat, is hollowed out as
indicated by the dotted line, and, by presenting the cutting edge thus
obtained endwise to the grooved edge of the cutter, the correct form can be
given to it. With a mushroom-headed piece of steel and oilstone dust, the
cutting edge of the rose-cutter can be made more or less acute by modifying
the angle of this steel lap.
421. Other Forms of Pinion Cutter. When a cutter is merely required
for a special piece of work, and not for continuous use, it will often be
sufficient to make it as shown at a, Fig. 203; this is made by grooving the
disc (c), or forming its edges as at d, after which a series of teeth are cut on
the periphery with a revolving cutter, taking care to leave no more burr on
one side than on the other. Then pass a smooth worn file (or a worn flat
produced on the sides is then carefully removed, and the cutter is placed in
the wheel-cutting engine, and notches, c, c′, c′′, c′′′, etc., are formed on
either side with a flat square-edged cutter of such a thickness that the
circumference is about equally divided into hollows and prominences. It is
important to note that the right side of the teeth must be but slightly
roughed, not more than is required in order to raise a slight burr, all that is
necessary to form the cutting edge of this portion of the disc. In roughing
these sides, at least one out of every two of the small ratchet teeth on the
circumference should be left untouched, so as to ensure the required
thickness being maintained.
The cutter shown in section and elevation at s and p, Fig. 201, might be
cut on the side n in the manner here explained, and the convex portion k
might be indented with a fine ratchet-toothed cutter, carried in the hinged
cutter-frame of the wheel-cutting engine. The degree of penetration may be
determined by fixing an ivory disc against the cutter and concentric with it,
the two differing in diameter by the depth the cuts are to be made. The teeth
will be rather too square towards the circumference, but their form can be
carefully corrected by hand. It is obvious that the very greatest caution is
necessary in hardening cutters.
420. Rose-Cutters or Forming Pinion Cutters. As the edges of pinion
cutters are rounded, they can be made in the manner suggested by
Thevenin. Supporting the roughed out cutter in the cutter-frame of a wheel-
cutting engine, he fitted in the axis of the division-plate a kind of rose-
cutter, n, Fig. 205. Its extremity, n, instead of being flat, is hollowed out as
indicated by the dotted line, and, by presenting the cutting edge thus
obtained endwise to the grooved edge of the cutter, the correct form can be
given to it. With a mushroom-headed piece of steel and oilstone dust, the
cutting edge of the rose-cutter can be made more or less acute by modifying
the angle of this steel lap.
421. Other Forms of Pinion Cutter. When a cutter is merely required
for a special piece of work, and not for continuous use, it will often be
sufficient to make it as shown at a, Fig. 203; this is made by grooving the
disc (c), or forming its edges as at d, after which a series of teeth are cut on
the periphery with a revolving cutter, taking care to leave no more burr on
one side than on the other. Then pass a smooth worn file (or a worn flat
Page 325
cutter) over the faces of the teeth, applying oil at the same time, so as to
produce a slight burr on the edges; if the file is not allowed to bite too much
and is well managed, these minute ridges will be uniform. After hardening,
the cutter is ready for use.
If the faces were smoothed without subsequently applying the file, the
cutter would not bite; for its action depends on the slight projection of metal
that corresponds to the file-cuts. The cutter is nothing more than a circular
file, with two cuts per tooth. If the corners are turned over evenly by means
of a very hard burnisher the same effect will be produced; but this operation
is delicate, as the amount of metal turned over must be the same in every
case.
When a cutter does not bite, it must be softened and restored to its initial
condition.
422. Or the following method may be adopted when it is required to
make a cutter for a special purpose.
Proceed at first in the manner just described, but the periphery is divided
into a greater number of teeth with a flat cutter, and to a rather greater
depth, as at e, Fig. 203. Bend backward each tooth to a distance equal to
about half a space by any convenient method; for example, by a lever
resting at the bottom of each space and pressing against the corner of the
tooth, etc. Before bending the first tooth introduce a piece of brass into the
space behind it, of a thickness equal to about half this space, so as to avoid
bending too far; for succeeding teeth the thickness must be about equal to a
space; thus e will become e′. An inspection of Fig. 203 will suffice to make
the operation evident; it amounts to bending back a series of separate
cutters. The disc is then hardened, and the faces of the teeth are smoothed
when they do not cut well; or merely smooth those that are the first to
become dull.
It is important to employ soft steel that has previously been well
annealed.
423. Cutter for Making Square Spaces. The teeth of such a cutter can
be easily formed with a file, as shown at l, Fig. 209, the edge of the cutter,
f, being passed backwards and forwards in the direction of the arrows,
applying considerable pressure and at the same time slowly rolling f around.
produce a slight burr on the edges; if the file is not allowed to bite too much
and is well managed, these minute ridges will be uniform. After hardening,
the cutter is ready for use.
If the faces were smoothed without subsequently applying the file, the
cutter would not bite; for its action depends on the slight projection of metal
that corresponds to the file-cuts. The cutter is nothing more than a circular
file, with two cuts per tooth. If the corners are turned over evenly by means
of a very hard burnisher the same effect will be produced; but this operation
is delicate, as the amount of metal turned over must be the same in every
case.
When a cutter does not bite, it must be softened and restored to its initial
condition.
422. Or the following method may be adopted when it is required to
make a cutter for a special purpose.
Proceed at first in the manner just described, but the periphery is divided
into a greater number of teeth with a flat cutter, and to a rather greater
depth, as at e, Fig. 203. Bend backward each tooth to a distance equal to
about half a space by any convenient method; for example, by a lever
resting at the bottom of each space and pressing against the corner of the
tooth, etc. Before bending the first tooth introduce a piece of brass into the
space behind it, of a thickness equal to about half this space, so as to avoid
bending too far; for succeeding teeth the thickness must be about equal to a
space; thus e will become e′. An inspection of Fig. 203 will suffice to make
the operation evident; it amounts to bending back a series of separate
cutters. The disc is then hardened, and the faces of the teeth are smoothed
when they do not cut well; or merely smooth those that are the first to
become dull.
It is important to employ soft steel that has previously been well
annealed.
423. Cutter for Making Square Spaces. The teeth of such a cutter can
be easily formed with a file, as shown at l, Fig. 209, the edge of the cutter,
f, being passed backwards and forwards in the direction of the arrows,
applying considerable pressure and at the same time slowly rolling f around.
Page 326
Or the cutter may be set up on a short arbor between the centers of the
lathe; then pass the file backwards and forwards across the edge until the
cuts are formed, slowly advancing the file in the meanwhile, so as to form
the cuts around the circumference without once raising the file. The cutter
must then, of course, be hardened.
424. Forming Cutters with a Milling Tool. The
roughing of a round-edged, or even of a square cutter,
can also be effected with the aid of a milling or
“nurling” tool, proceeding in the same manner as
when milling the heads of screws, etc. The tool must
be in good condition, well provided with oil, and
applied with considerable pressure against very soft
steel.
Fig. 209. If necessary, the workman can make the mill for
himself; it is shown at m, Fig. 210. f shows the
method of applying it to the cutter, and by partly turning the mill (of course
carried in a strong holder) around its point of contact with the cutter, as
indicated by the dotted lines, the rim of f will be evenly roughed all around.
With good steel fairly satisfactory results are
obtained in this manner, but it is needless to observe
that such cutters never bite as well as those made in
the usual manner.
425. General Observations. When cutters are used
with steel they must be driven at a less velocity than
when cutting brass, and, as M. A. Phillippe has
observed, it is best to make the cutters for steel of
Fig. 210. small diameter (about half an inch). They are more
easily made and are less distorted in the hardening.
The velocity should diminish as the diameter increases; for too great a
velocity, especially when the diameter is great, will dull the cutter and
soften it, owing to the heat produced.
Cutters must be turned very true: it is advisable to give them a last stroke
with the graver after they are fitted to the cutter-arbor that will subsequently
carry them.
lathe; then pass the file backwards and forwards across the edge until the
cuts are formed, slowly advancing the file in the meanwhile, so as to form
the cuts around the circumference without once raising the file. The cutter
must then, of course, be hardened.
424. Forming Cutters with a Milling Tool. The
roughing of a round-edged, or even of a square cutter,
can also be effected with the aid of a milling or
“nurling” tool, proceeding in the same manner as
when milling the heads of screws, etc. The tool must
be in good condition, well provided with oil, and
applied with considerable pressure against very soft
steel.
Fig. 209. If necessary, the workman can make the mill for
himself; it is shown at m, Fig. 210. f shows the
method of applying it to the cutter, and by partly turning the mill (of course
carried in a strong holder) around its point of contact with the cutter, as
indicated by the dotted lines, the rim of f will be evenly roughed all around.
With good steel fairly satisfactory results are
obtained in this manner, but it is needless to observe
that such cutters never bite as well as those made in
the usual manner.
425. General Observations. When cutters are used
with steel they must be driven at a less velocity than
when cutting brass, and, as M. A. Phillippe has
observed, it is best to make the cutters for steel of
Fig. 210. small diameter (about half an inch). They are more
easily made and are less distorted in the hardening.
The velocity should diminish as the diameter increases; for too great a
velocity, especially when the diameter is great, will dull the cutter and
soften it, owing to the heat produced.
Cutters must be turned very true: it is advisable to give them a last stroke
with the graver after they are fitted to the cutter-arbor that will subsequently
carry them.
Page 327
When operating on steel it is best that the cutter frame of the wheel-
cutting engine be advanced by a screw so as to give it a slow and easy
motion; the results obtained are more satisfactory than when it is advanced
by hand or with a lever.
The following practice is not uncommon in factories when it is desired to
reproduce the exact form of a cutter. A notch is made with the cutter in the
edge of a piece of steel, x, Fig. 211, or a series of notches o o′, etc., can be
made by several cutters in the circumference of a disc z (same figure). After
being hardened and sharpened at the cutting edge, this disc is fixed at the
center of the division-plate of a wheel-cutting engine, and can then be used
to complete the grooving of any cutter that is set in position on the cutter-
arbor before hardening. The positions opposite to which the notches were
cut should be marked on the chuck, so that they may always be set-square
to the cutter.
426. Besides the forms of cutter above described
for operating on steel, we may mention that circular
cutters may be used in which all the notches around
the circumference have been polished, thus removing
the burr, and preventing them from acting in the
Fig. 211. manner of a file. But while, with the former kind, a
somewhat rapid rotation is necessary (although not so
rapid as when cutting brass), with this latter class the movement must be
comparatively slow, and produced by means of a hand-wheel; otherwise
they will not cut, since the action depends rather on the application of
pressure, and resembles that of a slide-rest cutter. The distance apart and
width of the teeth of the cutter, as well as their inclination, are of
importance; if too far apart they occasion a waste of time; if too large the
machine will act in a jerky manner, and when too narrow, an excessive
pressure will be needed in order to make the cutter bite the steel, which, it is
to be observed, must always be thoroughly annealed. The edge must be well
supplied with oil or soapy water when in action.
It is generally found best to advance the cutter against the edge of the
steel rather than across it.
cutting engine be advanced by a screw so as to give it a slow and easy
motion; the results obtained are more satisfactory than when it is advanced
by hand or with a lever.
The following practice is not uncommon in factories when it is desired to
reproduce the exact form of a cutter. A notch is made with the cutter in the
edge of a piece of steel, x, Fig. 211, or a series of notches o o′, etc., can be
made by several cutters in the circumference of a disc z (same figure). After
being hardened and sharpened at the cutting edge, this disc is fixed at the
center of the division-plate of a wheel-cutting engine, and can then be used
to complete the grooving of any cutter that is set in position on the cutter-
arbor before hardening. The positions opposite to which the notches were
cut should be marked on the chuck, so that they may always be set-square
to the cutter.
426. Besides the forms of cutter above described
for operating on steel, we may mention that circular
cutters may be used in which all the notches around
the circumference have been polished, thus removing
the burr, and preventing them from acting in the
Fig. 211. manner of a file. But while, with the former kind, a
somewhat rapid rotation is necessary (although not so
rapid as when cutting brass), with this latter class the movement must be
comparatively slow, and produced by means of a hand-wheel; otherwise
they will not cut, since the action depends rather on the application of
pressure, and resembles that of a slide-rest cutter. The distance apart and
width of the teeth of the cutter, as well as their inclination, are of
importance; if too far apart they occasion a waste of time; if too large the
machine will act in a jerky manner, and when too narrow, an excessive
pressure will be needed in order to make the cutter bite the steel, which, it is
to be observed, must always be thoroughly annealed. The edge must be well
supplied with oil or soapy water when in action.
It is generally found best to advance the cutter against the edge of the
steel rather than across it.
Page 328
TO O L F O R MA KI NG CU T T ER S.
Fig. 212.
427. The instruments usually employed for making cutters for the teeth of
wheels and pinions are complicated and expensive, but the author has
designed one for his own use that is comparatively simple, and can be made
by any watchmaker. When the reader has grasped the principle on which it
acts he will be able, without difficulty, to modify it so as to suit his
requirements.
Fig. 212.
427. The instruments usually employed for making cutters for the teeth of
wheels and pinions are complicated and expensive, but the author has
designed one for his own use that is comparatively simple, and can be made
by any watchmaker. When the reader has grasped the principle on which it
acts he will be able, without difficulty, to modify it so as to suit his
requirements.
Page 329
Fig. 213.
The frame b b b, Figs. 212 and 213, consists of the body of the tool, b b,
and a bar b b, which is attached to it by screws. Between the two the
division-plate p rotates on an axis e r. The end e of this axis is formed as a
chuck to receive the cutter f, which is clamped by a screw t.
The support s s j is held with friction in the lower part of this frame, to
carry the cutter-holder a l m. This cutter-holder is hinged at n, so that it can
receive a double motion, revolving about a horizontal axis j, and about an
inclined axis n.
The frame b b b, Figs. 212 and 213, consists of the body of the tool, b b,
and a bar b b, which is attached to it by screws. Between the two the
division-plate p rotates on an axis e r. The end e of this axis is formed as a
chuck to receive the cutter f, which is clamped by a screw t.
The support s s j is held with friction in the lower part of this frame, to
carry the cutter-holder a l m. This cutter-holder is hinged at n, so that it can
receive a double motion, revolving about a horizontal axis j, and about an
inclined axis n.
Page 330
The portion a l of the cutter-holder carries a perforated arbor a c, with a
ferrule c that receives the tail of the small rose-cutter, which will presently
be described.
The end m rests against a guide g, held by a vane o z, which is pivoted on
a pillar z, and can be clamped in either of the directions z y, z x, or by one of
the screws o, o.
428. We will now consider the mode of action of the machine. Having set
the little arbor c a in rotation, rest the end m of the arm against the guide,
and gradually advance the rose-cutter towards f; the edge of d will form the
first notch in the grooved rim of the cutter, and then will be raised from
contact with it, owing to the influence of the guide g. After moving the tool-
holder back to its initial position, advance the wheel p by a tooth, repeat the
operation, and so on.
429. If the cutter f has to be notched on both sides, it must be reversed on
the chuck; turn the guide so as to point in the direction z x, corresponding
exactly to z y; then having set the cutter-holder in the line z h, recommence
operations. The two grooves of the cutter will then necessarily be of similar
form.
Teeth can be cut on the rim of f by using a cutter of the form f, Fig. 214,
and holding m against a straight vertical guide.
With a given divided wheel, p, the teeth can be brought nearer together by
reducing the diameter of the cutter, and vice versa. It is well to have some
change wheels, but a better plan is to advance the division plate by the aid
of a tangent screw.
430. To Make the Several Accessories. Form of the rose
or star-cutter. The rose-cutter is formed of a mushroom-
headed piece of steel. Such a conical cutter is shown at c and
r, Fig. 215, and at f, Fig. 214. f and c are cut in the same way
that conical cutters are always made, and r is a small
triangular prism that only cuts by its three corners, a, a, a. As
it is necessarily very small when employed in making the Fig. 214.
cutters for watch pinions, it must, in such a case, be supported
at the neck by a little fork. Moreover, it must be brought gradually against
the steel to be operated upon, so as only to engage a very little at a time.
ferrule c that receives the tail of the small rose-cutter, which will presently
be described.
The end m rests against a guide g, held by a vane o z, which is pivoted on
a pillar z, and can be clamped in either of the directions z y, z x, or by one of
the screws o, o.
428. We will now consider the mode of action of the machine. Having set
the little arbor c a in rotation, rest the end m of the arm against the guide,
and gradually advance the rose-cutter towards f; the edge of d will form the
first notch in the grooved rim of the cutter, and then will be raised from
contact with it, owing to the influence of the guide g. After moving the tool-
holder back to its initial position, advance the wheel p by a tooth, repeat the
operation, and so on.
429. If the cutter f has to be notched on both sides, it must be reversed on
the chuck; turn the guide so as to point in the direction z x, corresponding
exactly to z y; then having set the cutter-holder in the line z h, recommence
operations. The two grooves of the cutter will then necessarily be of similar
form.
Teeth can be cut on the rim of f by using a cutter of the form f, Fig. 214,
and holding m against a straight vertical guide.
With a given divided wheel, p, the teeth can be brought nearer together by
reducing the diameter of the cutter, and vice versa. It is well to have some
change wheels, but a better plan is to advance the division plate by the aid
of a tangent screw.
430. To Make the Several Accessories. Form of the rose
or star-cutter. The rose-cutter is formed of a mushroom-
headed piece of steel. Such a conical cutter is shown at c and
r, Fig. 215, and at f, Fig. 214. f and c are cut in the same way
that conical cutters are always made, and r is a small
triangular prism that only cuts by its three corners, a, a, a. As
it is necessarily very small when employed in making the Fig. 214.
cutters for watch pinions, it must, in such a case, be supported
at the neck by a little fork. Moreover, it must be brought gradually against
the steel to be operated upon, so as only to engage a very little at a time.
Page 331
With a view to this, it is advisable that the cutter-holder be advanced by a
screw.
The star-cutter, shown at e, Fig. 216, is at times
substituted for the rose-cutter. It cuts with the corners e, e,
etc., whether it be going to the right or left indifferently.
Or a triangular cutter like t, Fig. 216, can be used in its
place; but its angles are fewer and less acute, so that they
become dull more rapidly.
A few trials will be needed in order to determine the
Fig. 215. most convenient rate of movement of the several parts;
and the edge of the cutter f must always be liberally
supplied with oil. A little can may be so arranged as to allow oil to fall drop
by drop on to the cutter d, Fig. 213.
431. To make the guide. Having mounted a plate, g,
on the vane o z, trace out the approximate form of the
cutter with the point of m; then cut off the superfluous
metal, leaving a slight margin. This excess is
necessary because the curvature of the guide is not the
same as that of the cutter, for the indentations as they
spread out from the center (t) become gradually
deeper. The guide should be tested from time to time
by operating on a blank brass disc fixed in place of the
cutter f and the guide must be modified as experience Fig. 216.
shows to be requisite. Its edge must be saddle-shaped
so that the middle may correspond exactly with the two dotted lines z x, z y,
Fig. 213.
The position of the disc on the chuck t must be brought to correspond
with the guide by carefully turned washers placed behind it.
432. Driving attachment. Fig. 217 shows one system that may be adopted
for connecting the ferrule c with a driving wheel. All that is required is that
the instrument be set in such a position that this ferrule is placed as
indicated in the figure with reference to the distributor.
433. Cutters of uneven thickness at the circumference. It is well-known
that the edges of the cutters of rounding-up tools (435) are made to taper off
screw.
The star-cutter, shown at e, Fig. 216, is at times
substituted for the rose-cutter. It cuts with the corners e, e,
etc., whether it be going to the right or left indifferently.
Or a triangular cutter like t, Fig. 216, can be used in its
place; but its angles are fewer and less acute, so that they
become dull more rapidly.
A few trials will be needed in order to determine the
Fig. 215. most convenient rate of movement of the several parts;
and the edge of the cutter f must always be liberally
supplied with oil. A little can may be so arranged as to allow oil to fall drop
by drop on to the cutter d, Fig. 213.
431. To make the guide. Having mounted a plate, g,
on the vane o z, trace out the approximate form of the
cutter with the point of m; then cut off the superfluous
metal, leaving a slight margin. This excess is
necessary because the curvature of the guide is not the
same as that of the cutter, for the indentations as they
spread out from the center (t) become gradually
deeper. The guide should be tested from time to time
by operating on a blank brass disc fixed in place of the
cutter f and the guide must be modified as experience Fig. 216.
shows to be requisite. Its edge must be saddle-shaped
so that the middle may correspond exactly with the two dotted lines z x, z y,
Fig. 213.
The position of the disc on the chuck t must be brought to correspond
with the guide by carefully turned washers placed behind it.
432. Driving attachment. Fig. 217 shows one system that may be adopted
for connecting the ferrule c with a driving wheel. All that is required is that
the instrument be set in such a position that this ferrule is placed as
indicated in the figure with reference to the distributor.
433. Cutters of uneven thickness at the circumference. It is well-known
that the edges of the cutters of rounding-up tools (435) are made to taper off
Page 332
around the periphery. In order to indent such a cutter,
the guide must be mounted on a slide, so that it may
be gradually displaced while the operation is in
progress, by an amount previously determined upon.
The desired result can be obtained with sufficient
accuracy by moving the guide backwards by
successive stages with a screw. The end k of the arm
m, Fig. 213, is slightly tapered, so that a gradual
depression of m occurs, and each cut is deeper than
that which preceded it. Fig. 217.
434. Modification
in the construction. This instrument may
be modified as follows: The disc to be
operated upon is fitted to the chuck of the
division-plate d, Fig. 218, which is
vertical, and the entire system is capable of
a movement of rotation round the axis of
the base p. Having set the disc in the plane
a b, as shown in the figure, clamp p; then,
by traversing the cutter-holder, the teeth on
the side of the cutter towards a b are made.
This cutter frame having now been
removed, the base p is turned until the
cutter is in the plane c n, such that it is
Fig. 218.
equally inclined on the opposite side of the
axis of the cutter frame; the teeth on that
side may then be made, the star-cutter being rotated in an opposite
direction.
It is unnecessary to prolong our explanations of the instrument, as the
details already given will suffice for any intelligent workman.
TO O L S F O R CO RRE CT I NG T H E F O RM O F T E ET H.
the guide must be mounted on a slide, so that it may
be gradually displaced while the operation is in
progress, by an amount previously determined upon.
The desired result can be obtained with sufficient
accuracy by moving the guide backwards by
successive stages with a screw. The end k of the arm
m, Fig. 213, is slightly tapered, so that a gradual
depression of m occurs, and each cut is deeper than
that which preceded it. Fig. 217.
434. Modification
in the construction. This instrument may
be modified as follows: The disc to be
operated upon is fitted to the chuck of the
division-plate d, Fig. 218, which is
vertical, and the entire system is capable of
a movement of rotation round the axis of
the base p. Having set the disc in the plane
a b, as shown in the figure, clamp p; then,
by traversing the cutter-holder, the teeth on
the side of the cutter towards a b are made.
This cutter frame having now been
removed, the base p is turned until the
cutter is in the plane c n, such that it is
Fig. 218.
equally inclined on the opposite side of the
axis of the cutter frame; the teeth on that
side may then be made, the star-cutter being rotated in an opposite
direction.
It is unnecessary to prolong our explanations of the instrument, as the
details already given will suffice for any intelligent workman.
TO O L S F O R CO RRE CT I NG T H E F O RM O F T E ET H.
Page 333
435. Rounding-up Tools. In Europe it is the practice, in making watch
wheels, to first notch the circumference by means of a flat circular cutter in
a wheel cutting engine, thus forming a number of square teeth. They are
subsequently rounded off to the usual form, after the wheels are riveted to
their pinions, in a special tool.
The apparatus employed for this purpose is termed a rounding up tool,
and its principal feature is a mill cutter f, Fig. 219, the portion a b of whose
circumference is cut away and replaced by a guide g f made of steel spring,
and so fixed as to coincide with the edge of the cutter at f, and incline at g in
order to compel the cutter to pass, at each rotation, into consecutive spaces
of the wheel. Two screws are provided, the one f for setting the guide
opposite the edge of the cutter, and g for placing the free end of the guide
opposite to a space.
This tool acts with great rapidity, a fact which has led to its being very
extensively used in the factories of France and Switzerland, although the
ordinary system of wheel cutting is preferred in England for all the better
class of work. For it should be noted that the rounding up tool does not
correct any errors that are due to bad dividing; for example, if a wheel is
found to have some of its teeth larger than others, the tool can not be relied
upon to correct them; on the other hand, if a wheel is exactly divided it is
improbable that the employment of this tool will occasion irregularity.
The instrument we are discussing is, however, not
much used by watch repairers, although they are
frequently called upon to touch up the teeth of wheels,
or to slightly reduce the diameters of their pitch
circles, operations which cannot be done by hand with
much chance of success. The limited use to which
rounding-up tools have been put is owing, in great Fig. 219.
part, to their high price, but cheaper tools on this
principle are now coming into use.
436. One of these is shown in Fig. 220. The wheel to be operated upon is
held against a small table at d between two vertical runners with guard-
pivot centers, and a cutter of the form shown at Fig. 219, is fixed at c to a
suitable chuck of a small lathe-head b; this is caused to revolve by the hand-
wheel a, a supplementary pulley k taking all strain off the axis. The three
wheels, to first notch the circumference by means of a flat circular cutter in
a wheel cutting engine, thus forming a number of square teeth. They are
subsequently rounded off to the usual form, after the wheels are riveted to
their pinions, in a special tool.
The apparatus employed for this purpose is termed a rounding up tool,
and its principal feature is a mill cutter f, Fig. 219, the portion a b of whose
circumference is cut away and replaced by a guide g f made of steel spring,
and so fixed as to coincide with the edge of the cutter at f, and incline at g in
order to compel the cutter to pass, at each rotation, into consecutive spaces
of the wheel. Two screws are provided, the one f for setting the guide
opposite the edge of the cutter, and g for placing the free end of the guide
opposite to a space.
This tool acts with great rapidity, a fact which has led to its being very
extensively used in the factories of France and Switzerland, although the
ordinary system of wheel cutting is preferred in England for all the better
class of work. For it should be noted that the rounding up tool does not
correct any errors that are due to bad dividing; for example, if a wheel is
found to have some of its teeth larger than others, the tool can not be relied
upon to correct them; on the other hand, if a wheel is exactly divided it is
improbable that the employment of this tool will occasion irregularity.
The instrument we are discussing is, however, not
much used by watch repairers, although they are
frequently called upon to touch up the teeth of wheels,
or to slightly reduce the diameters of their pitch
circles, operations which cannot be done by hand with
much chance of success. The limited use to which
rounding-up tools have been put is owing, in great Fig. 219.
part, to their high price, but cheaper tools on this
principle are now coming into use.
436. One of these is shown in Fig. 220. The wheel to be operated upon is
held against a small table at d between two vertical runners with guard-
pivot centers, and a cutter of the form shown at Fig. 219, is fixed at c to a
suitable chuck of a small lathe-head b; this is caused to revolve by the hand-
wheel a, a supplementary pulley k taking all strain off the axis. The three
Page 334
milled-headed nuts seen at e, f, and g are for adjusting the instrument; e for
moving the lathe-head, so that the cutter is in the same plane as the axis of
the runners, a position which is determined by the pointer i; f for advancing
the wheel against this cutter; and g for setting the plane of the wheel to pass
through the axis of the lathe-head as indicated by the index h. The
instrument is accompanied by a number of cutters to suit the various sizes
of teeth ordinarily met with, as well as of tables to support wheels of
different dimensions.
Fig. 220.
437. Ingold Fraise or Cutter. Rounding-up Cones. Either the cutters
devised by M. Ingold, or the rounding-up cones of M. Berlioz, may be used
for correcting the form of wheel teeth.
The Ingold fraise is a small steel cylinder perforated through the axis so
as to be mounted on an arbor, and having a number of longitudinal notches
on its circumference which makes it resemble a pinion, the points of whose
leaves have been ground off. The spaces of the fraise are of the exact form
moving the lathe-head, so that the cutter is in the same plane as the axis of
the runners, a position which is determined by the pointer i; f for advancing
the wheel against this cutter; and g for setting the plane of the wheel to pass
through the axis of the lathe-head as indicated by the index h. The
instrument is accompanied by a number of cutters to suit the various sizes
of teeth ordinarily met with, as well as of tables to support wheels of
different dimensions.
Fig. 220.
437. Ingold Fraise or Cutter. Rounding-up Cones. Either the cutters
devised by M. Ingold, or the rounding-up cones of M. Berlioz, may be used
for correcting the form of wheel teeth.
The Ingold fraise is a small steel cylinder perforated through the axis so
as to be mounted on an arbor, and having a number of longitudinal notches
on its circumference which makes it resemble a pinion, the points of whose
leaves have been ground off. The spaces of the fraise are of the exact form
Page 335
required to be given to the teeth of the wheel, and their surfaces are covered
with fine file cuts so as to enable them to remove metal from the wheel
operated on.
Having mounted the arbor that carries it between two centers of a
depthing tool (made especially strong for the purpose), the wheel is
supported by its axis between the second pair of centers (with guard-pivot
points). If now the fraise be advanced by the screw until its teeth engage
with those of the wheel, and either be caused to rotate, it will drive the
other, and the fraise will thus shape the teeth to a pre-determined form, the
faces of each notch acting the part of a minute file introduced between the
teeth.
It will be observed that such an instrument is preferable to the ordinary
rounding-up tool, in that it may be relied upon to bring all the teeth to the
same shape, but, on the other hand, the latter tool has an advantage in being
available for slightly reducing the diameter of a wheel when a depth is
found to be too strong.
438. An objection has been urged against the Ingold fraises on the ground
of expense, as each dimension of tooth evidently requires a cylinder
specially adapted to it. This fact has led to the introduction of “rounding-up
cones” the invention of M. Berlioz, which act on precisely the same
principle, but are conical instead of cylindrical, so that each fraise evidently
takes the place of a number of Ingold fraises. The total number being
proportionately reduced. But great dexterity is required in their use, so that
they cannot be successfully employed until after numerous trials.
439. Exact Rounding-up Tool. The author has devised an instrument for
giving to the teeth of wheels the exact form determined upon by theory, but
as it is of too elaborate a nature to come into general use, we shall not do
more than here refer to it. It is rather of a nature to be used for scientific
work, but might be found of considerable value for accurately forming the
blades of cutters that are used in grooving the circular cutters employed for
cutting the teeth of wheels.
440. To Round Up Teeth By Hand. We have seen a country watchmaker
proceed somewhat as follows: His method was only effective, however, for
ensuring the verticality of the file, and did not maintain it straight, nor could
with fine file cuts so as to enable them to remove metal from the wheel
operated on.
Having mounted the arbor that carries it between two centers of a
depthing tool (made especially strong for the purpose), the wheel is
supported by its axis between the second pair of centers (with guard-pivot
points). If now the fraise be advanced by the screw until its teeth engage
with those of the wheel, and either be caused to rotate, it will drive the
other, and the fraise will thus shape the teeth to a pre-determined form, the
faces of each notch acting the part of a minute file introduced between the
teeth.
It will be observed that such an instrument is preferable to the ordinary
rounding-up tool, in that it may be relied upon to bring all the teeth to the
same shape, but, on the other hand, the latter tool has an advantage in being
available for slightly reducing the diameter of a wheel when a depth is
found to be too strong.
438. An objection has been urged against the Ingold fraises on the ground
of expense, as each dimension of tooth evidently requires a cylinder
specially adapted to it. This fact has led to the introduction of “rounding-up
cones” the invention of M. Berlioz, which act on precisely the same
principle, but are conical instead of cylindrical, so that each fraise evidently
takes the place of a number of Ingold fraises. The total number being
proportionately reduced. But great dexterity is required in their use, so that
they cannot be successfully employed until after numerous trials.
439. Exact Rounding-up Tool. The author has devised an instrument for
giving to the teeth of wheels the exact form determined upon by theory, but
as it is of too elaborate a nature to come into general use, we shall not do
more than here refer to it. It is rather of a nature to be used for scientific
work, but might be found of considerable value for accurately forming the
blades of cutters that are used in grooving the circular cutters employed for
cutting the teeth of wheels.
440. To Round Up Teeth By Hand. We have seen a country watchmaker
proceed somewhat as follows: His method was only effective, however, for
ensuring the verticality of the file, and did not maintain it straight, nor could
Page 336
the curvature of all the teeth be relied upon to be the same; these two
conditions are satisfied by the system here explained.
Formerly watchmakers possessed very considerable skill in this kind of
work, as the teeth were always formed by hand; but at the present day, for
want of practice, there is not one to be found in a hundred competent to
round up a wheel properly by hand alone. Recourse may be had to the
following expedient in an emergency; it necessitates the construction of a
small special tool, but this is so simple that it can be made in a few hours by
an apprentice.
441. Take a bar of metal or hard wood, made smooth on its faces and
square at the corners (r, Fig. 221), and adapt to it a slide, c c, through the
center of which a slot is cut to receive a clamping screw; it slides between
the four pins indicated in the figure. An arbor a is supported by c c, parallel
to r, having a plate at its end on which a wheel to be operated on can be
fixed by three screws and a loose plate. It is centered by the circumference
before clamping these screws, rotating a with a bow, and it may be well to
place a piece of tissue paper under and over the wheel in order to avoid
scratches. v is a tongue that can be introduced into the space between two
teeth in order to prevent the wheel from moving.
Two arms, p p, screwed to the bar r r,
support the handle of the rounding-up file
l, which consists of a large cylinder t, t,
that slides in the arms p, p. The cylinder t
must be exactly parallel to the arbor a, and
the longer it is the better. The file-holder s,
also shown detached at y, Fig. 222, is
merely driven onto the rod t. The distance
between the center of the axis t and the
face of the file (b b′, Fig. 222) is equal to
the radius of the circle that embraces the
external curves of two or more teeth, as
will be explained.
The several parts being arranged as
shown in Fig. 221, and the bar clamped in Fig. 221.
a vise at e, it will be obvious that, if the
conditions are satisfied by the system here explained.
Formerly watchmakers possessed very considerable skill in this kind of
work, as the teeth were always formed by hand; but at the present day, for
want of practice, there is not one to be found in a hundred competent to
round up a wheel properly by hand alone. Recourse may be had to the
following expedient in an emergency; it necessitates the construction of a
small special tool, but this is so simple that it can be made in a few hours by
an apprentice.
441. Take a bar of metal or hard wood, made smooth on its faces and
square at the corners (r, Fig. 221), and adapt to it a slide, c c, through the
center of which a slot is cut to receive a clamping screw; it slides between
the four pins indicated in the figure. An arbor a is supported by c c, parallel
to r, having a plate at its end on which a wheel to be operated on can be
fixed by three screws and a loose plate. It is centered by the circumference
before clamping these screws, rotating a with a bow, and it may be well to
place a piece of tissue paper under and over the wheel in order to avoid
scratches. v is a tongue that can be introduced into the space between two
teeth in order to prevent the wheel from moving.
Two arms, p p, screwed to the bar r r,
support the handle of the rounding-up file
l, which consists of a large cylinder t, t,
that slides in the arms p, p. The cylinder t
must be exactly parallel to the arbor a, and
the longer it is the better. The file-holder s,
also shown detached at y, Fig. 222, is
merely driven onto the rod t. The distance
between the center of the axis t and the
face of the file (b b′, Fig. 222) is equal to
the radius of the circle that embraces the
external curves of two or more teeth, as
will be explained.
The several parts being arranged as
shown in Fig. 221, and the bar clamped in Fig. 221.
a vise at e, it will be obvious that, if the
Page 337
wheel is held in two fingers of the left-hand so as to prevent it
from being displaced, while the rod t is moved up and down,
at the same time rotating it with the right-hand, the curves of
two teeth will be adjusted to correspond with the arc o o o (z,
Fig. 223), and, by transferring the tongue v to the next
succeeding space, the curve i i i can be struck.
442. Observations. The curvature of the point
of a tooth coincides very closely with a circular
arc described from a certain definite center, and
comprising either two or three teeth. In order to
realize these conditions in practice, the slide c c
is so adjusted that the axis of t passes just
within the circle that passes through o, o, o, etc.
(z, Fig. 223), at which the points of the teeth
Fig. 222. commence; by making trials with two or three
file-holders that differ in regard to the distance
b b′ (y, Fig. 223), it will be easy to select the most suitable for
producing the required curve. After operating on all the teeth
Fig. 223.
in succession, advance the wheel by means of the screw d,
and again work around the circumference, and so on. The
progress of the work should be frequently examined with the glass.
It is possible to dispense with the tongue v, and to merely steady the
wheel by hand; the work is thus done more rapidly, but must be examined
with very great care.
We would insist that the lengths of the two axes are an element of
success. In operating on watch wheels t should not be less than six inches
long.
By suppressing the tongue the motion of the two axes may be co-
ordinated so as to form any theoretical curve; This is the case in the exact
rounding-up tool already referred to, but it of course renders the instrument
more complicated.
443. To Ease a Train of Wheels. In very many of the cheaper watches
and timepieces now met with in commerce the teeth are rough and badly
cut, and the pinions but little polished, so that watchmakers are constantly
complaining of the difficulty of securing even a moderately good depth. In
from being displaced, while the rod t is moved up and down,
at the same time rotating it with the right-hand, the curves of
two teeth will be adjusted to correspond with the arc o o o (z,
Fig. 223), and, by transferring the tongue v to the next
succeeding space, the curve i i i can be struck.
442. Observations. The curvature of the point
of a tooth coincides very closely with a circular
arc described from a certain definite center, and
comprising either two or three teeth. In order to
realize these conditions in practice, the slide c c
is so adjusted that the axis of t passes just
within the circle that passes through o, o, o, etc.
(z, Fig. 223), at which the points of the teeth
Fig. 222. commence; by making trials with two or three
file-holders that differ in regard to the distance
b b′ (y, Fig. 223), it will be easy to select the most suitable for
producing the required curve. After operating on all the teeth
Fig. 223.
in succession, advance the wheel by means of the screw d,
and again work around the circumference, and so on. The
progress of the work should be frequently examined with the glass.
It is possible to dispense with the tongue v, and to merely steady the
wheel by hand; the work is thus done more rapidly, but must be examined
with very great care.
We would insist that the lengths of the two axes are an element of
success. In operating on watch wheels t should not be less than six inches
long.
By suppressing the tongue the motion of the two axes may be co-
ordinated so as to form any theoretical curve; This is the case in the exact
rounding-up tool already referred to, but it of course renders the instrument
more complicated.
443. To Ease a Train of Wheels. In very many of the cheaper watches
and timepieces now met with in commerce the teeth are rough and badly
cut, and the pinions but little polished, so that watchmakers are constantly
complaining of the difficulty of securing even a moderately good depth. In
Page 338
such cases they have a simple method to adopt in addition to those already
referred to, namely, to polish the teeth with a piece of charcoal.
A piece of smooth, even charcoal, with regular fibre, is moistened with
oil or water, and passed across the teeth individually; first with the fibres
lying in the direction of motion, and afterwards with them at right angles to
that direction.
If the charcoal is carefully selected and lightly applied for a sufficient
length of time and no more, the ogives will be found to be nicely smoothed,
and the depth will run far more easily than it did previously. It is dangerous
to use quick-cutting charcoal, as it is apt to deform the teeth.
Smoothing with a brush charged with charcoal powder cannot be
regarded as anything more than cleaning; if the action is too much
prolonged the form of the teeth will be spoilt.
TO T ES T T HE ACCURACY O F CER TAIN TO O L S .
444. Drilling Tool. First center the runner in the lathe, and ascertain that
it is straight, cylindrical, and exactly centered; then fit a ring to it so as to
slide with friction to (temporarily) limit the descent of this runner in the
vertical stock of the tool.
After placing it in position, adapt to its lower end a collar, provided with
a long index of soft brass, which is bent so as almost to touch the plate at its
circumference. Rotate the runner and it will be shown to be perpendicular to
the plate if the point of the index remains at the same distance from the
plate.
As a confirmatory test the runner may be drawn up in the stock, and the
trial repeated after bending the index nearly to touch the plate.
445. Uprighting Tool. If the two stocks or tubes that receive the runners
are exactly in line, a runner should move easily through the two at once.
Setting the points in contact in various positions in a vertical line,
observe whether they coincide, both when at rest and when rotated together
or independently.
referred to, namely, to polish the teeth with a piece of charcoal.
A piece of smooth, even charcoal, with regular fibre, is moistened with
oil or water, and passed across the teeth individually; first with the fibres
lying in the direction of motion, and afterwards with them at right angles to
that direction.
If the charcoal is carefully selected and lightly applied for a sufficient
length of time and no more, the ogives will be found to be nicely smoothed,
and the depth will run far more easily than it did previously. It is dangerous
to use quick-cutting charcoal, as it is apt to deform the teeth.
Smoothing with a brush charged with charcoal powder cannot be
regarded as anything more than cleaning; if the action is too much
prolonged the form of the teeth will be spoilt.
TO T ES T T HE ACCURACY O F CER TAIN TO O L S .
444. Drilling Tool. First center the runner in the lathe, and ascertain that
it is straight, cylindrical, and exactly centered; then fit a ring to it so as to
slide with friction to (temporarily) limit the descent of this runner in the
vertical stock of the tool.
After placing it in position, adapt to its lower end a collar, provided with
a long index of soft brass, which is bent so as almost to touch the plate at its
circumference. Rotate the runner and it will be shown to be perpendicular to
the plate if the point of the index remains at the same distance from the
plate.
As a confirmatory test the runner may be drawn up in the stock, and the
trial repeated after bending the index nearly to touch the plate.
445. Uprighting Tool. If the two stocks or tubes that receive the runners
are exactly in line, a runner should move easily through the two at once.
Setting the points in contact in various positions in a vertical line,
observe whether they coincide, both when at rest and when rotated together
or independently.
Page 339
First ascertain that the table is at right angles to the axis in the manner
already explained for the drilling tool, making the necessary tests with the
two runners independently. Then support between their points a short arbor
carrying a soft brass index. The position of the lower runner being
maintained constant by means of a collar as above explained, rotate the
upper one by hand; its friction will carry the index and arbor around, the
point of this latter being set close to the plate. Repeat the operation by
raising the pair of runners and bending the index down to the same amount.
If in these various positions the point remains at the same distance from
the table, it affords evidence that the tool is accurate.
An uprighting tool consists of two parts: the table carrying the lower
stock, and the bridge that forms the upper stock. The base of this latter is a
ring turned flat and co-axial with the stock, and is fitted accurately into a
square groove surrounding the table, where it is fixed by screws.
Any watchmaker understanding this mode of construction will easily
perceive when he has tested the tool in the manner above indicated, both
what are its faults and how far he can correct them.
446. The English uprighting and drilling tools, and some of foreign
construction, are combined on the same stand, and a good arrangement,
made by Boley, is shown in Fig. 224. It will be seen that the drill can be set
in motion by a hand or foot-wheel; the table is fixed in a vise and provided
with two dogs for clamping the object. The drilling spindle is perforated
throughout its length so that the drill can be held by an American split
chuck.
already explained for the drilling tool, making the necessary tests with the
two runners independently. Then support between their points a short arbor
carrying a soft brass index. The position of the lower runner being
maintained constant by means of a collar as above explained, rotate the
upper one by hand; its friction will carry the index and arbor around, the
point of this latter being set close to the plate. Repeat the operation by
raising the pair of runners and bending the index down to the same amount.
If in these various positions the point remains at the same distance from
the table, it affords evidence that the tool is accurate.
An uprighting tool consists of two parts: the table carrying the lower
stock, and the bridge that forms the upper stock. The base of this latter is a
ring turned flat and co-axial with the stock, and is fitted accurately into a
square groove surrounding the table, where it is fixed by screws.
Any watchmaker understanding this mode of construction will easily
perceive when he has tested the tool in the manner above indicated, both
what are its faults and how far he can correct them.
446. The English uprighting and drilling tools, and some of foreign
construction, are combined on the same stand, and a good arrangement,
made by Boley, is shown in Fig. 224. It will be seen that the drill can be set
in motion by a hand or foot-wheel; the table is fixed in a vise and provided
with two dogs for clamping the object. The drilling spindle is perforated
throughout its length so that the drill can be held by an American split
chuck.
Page 340
Fig. 224.
447. Depthing Tool. As the value of a depth depends essentially on the
overlapping of the teeth being the exact amount required by theory, it is
specially important that the tool used for determining the distance between
the centers of the wheels and pinions should be of the utmost attainable
accuracy.
First ascertain that the spindle which serves as an axis for the two halves
of the tool does not change position when they have been several times
separated and brought together. For, if this were to happen, and a runner
were uneven or the hinge not smoothed within, the parallelism of the two
pairs of runners would be impaired.
The runners must be of equal thickness throughout, and should pass with
ease from one head to that opposite. Their points and center holes must be
447. Depthing Tool. As the value of a depth depends essentially on the
overlapping of the teeth being the exact amount required by theory, it is
specially important that the tool used for determining the distance between
the centers of the wheels and pinions should be of the utmost attainable
accuracy.
First ascertain that the spindle which serves as an axis for the two halves
of the tool does not change position when they have been several times
separated and brought together. For, if this were to happen, and a runner
were uneven or the hinge not smoothed within, the parallelism of the two
pairs of runners would be impaired.
The runners must be of equal thickness throughout, and should pass with
ease from one head to that opposite. Their points and center holes must be
Page 341
seen to be in good condition, and, on placing them in their turns, they must
be found to be both true and cylindrical. Having restored them to their
places with the points together, move the pair lengthwise from one head to
the other, examining the points in successive positions to ascertain that they
coincide accurately, both when the runners are loose and when clamped.
When the adjustment has been carelessly done the runners will be found to
bend under pressure, causing the points to be displaced.
Having set two runners side by side and level, describe with them
circular arcs on a smooth piece of brass from centers previously marked,
first with the points just projecting from the heads and then projecting more
and more. These tests may be made both within and without the tool; so that
there will be four sets of tests in all.
It is very important in making the last-named trials, that the tool be
maintained at right angles to the plate on which the circular arcs are traced;
this condition can easily be satisfied by a special device, or by merely
causing the compass to slide along a set-square. It may be added that the
series of arcs should be drawn end to end, in order that it may be easier to
observe their agreement or difference when examining with the glass.
448. When this series of tests has been gone through, and the points have
been examined so as to make sure that there is no burr which bends over
while tracing the arcs, it is possible to determine the value of the tool; we
know whether it is perfect or not, and what corrections are required. As a
rule there are two points mainly at fault; the holes in the heads are not
exactly continuations the one of the other, so that they need to be broached
out afresh and new runners have to be made. A careful and intelligent
workman who is provided with suitable tools will be able, from the
information given in this work, to correct, or at least improve, a defective
depthing tool; but, as a rule, it will be better done by the maker.
be found to be both true and cylindrical. Having restored them to their
places with the points together, move the pair lengthwise from one head to
the other, examining the points in successive positions to ascertain that they
coincide accurately, both when the runners are loose and when clamped.
When the adjustment has been carelessly done the runners will be found to
bend under pressure, causing the points to be displaced.
Having set two runners side by side and level, describe with them
circular arcs on a smooth piece of brass from centers previously marked,
first with the points just projecting from the heads and then projecting more
and more. These tests may be made both within and without the tool; so that
there will be four sets of tests in all.
It is very important in making the last-named trials, that the tool be
maintained at right angles to the plate on which the circular arcs are traced;
this condition can easily be satisfied by a special device, or by merely
causing the compass to slide along a set-square. It may be added that the
series of arcs should be drawn end to end, in order that it may be easier to
observe their agreement or difference when examining with the glass.
448. When this series of tests has been gone through, and the points have
been examined so as to make sure that there is no burr which bends over
while tracing the arcs, it is possible to determine the value of the tool; we
know whether it is perfect or not, and what corrections are required. As a
rule there are two points mainly at fault; the holes in the heads are not
exactly continuations the one of the other, so that they need to be broached
out afresh and new runners have to be made. A careful and intelligent
workman who is provided with suitable tools will be able, from the
information given in this work, to correct, or at least improve, a defective
depthing tool; but, as a rule, it will be better done by the maker.
Page 342
PART V.
REPAIRING AND EXAMINING WATCHES.
MET HO D.
449. Expedition and certainty in watchmaking and repairing are primarily
secured by proceeding on a definite system, both in details of construction
or repairing.
The best watchmakers, and practical men generally, take their work in a
certain order, from which any departure is exceptional. By this means they
avoid the necessity of doing work twice over and of frequently taking up
the same piece; a circumstance that often occurs with young watchmakers,
owing to forgetfulness or to a want of sequence in their ideas.
They should from the first exercise themselves in working methodically
on a definite system.
It must, however, be understood that no method can be inflexible, nor can
it be equally advantageous for different individuals, because men differ in
regard to manual dexterity, goodness of eyesight and of memory, power of
associating their ideas, etc. A system that is suitable to a person of
unexcitable temperament will have to be modified by one is oppositely
disposed. Everyone will be able to decide for himself as to the best system
to adopt and the order in which to take his daily work.
REPAIRING AND EXAMINING WATCHES.
MET HO D.
449. Expedition and certainty in watchmaking and repairing are primarily
secured by proceeding on a definite system, both in details of construction
or repairing.
The best watchmakers, and practical men generally, take their work in a
certain order, from which any departure is exceptional. By this means they
avoid the necessity of doing work twice over and of frequently taking up
the same piece; a circumstance that often occurs with young watchmakers,
owing to forgetfulness or to a want of sequence in their ideas.
They should from the first exercise themselves in working methodically
on a definite system.
It must, however, be understood that no method can be inflexible, nor can
it be equally advantageous for different individuals, because men differ in
regard to manual dexterity, goodness of eyesight and of memory, power of
associating their ideas, etc. A system that is suitable to a person of
unexcitable temperament will have to be modified by one is oppositely
disposed. Everyone will be able to decide for himself as to the best system
to adopt and the order in which to take his daily work.
Page 343
These preliminary observations appear necessary because the method
explained below of examining a Geneva watch has been regarded by some
as too long and minute. We would urge any young watchmaker that hears
such ideas advanced to assure himself that it is a mistake, because the
system here explained is only put forward subject to the modifications that
experience suggests; and it is to be observed that many of the operations
given can be performed more rapidly than they are described.
When a watchmaker experiences a great loss of time, does it not usually
arise from the fact that he is obliged to take a watch to pieces, or nearly so,
after its repairing and examination were thought to have been completed; or
when a watch that has been repaired is brought back to be examined before
the ordinary period of cleaning has elapsed?
Let him add together the numerous hours spent in this kind of thankless
work, let him sum up the worries experienced, and the discredit, etc., to
which he has been subjected, and he will see that systematic work would
have saved him both loss of money and loss of credit.
E XT E RNAL E X AMINAT I O N O F T HE WAT C H .
450. In the following paragraphs, when the manner in which a given fault
manifests itself is not indicated at once, it should be sought in the index of
this volume, either under the name of the operation or under that of the
object to which it relates. The reader will see for himself which passages
refer exclusively to the English or American and which to the Geneva
watch.
451. Case, Glass, Dial, Dome. Glance at the case in order to ascertain
that it has not received a blow or been subjected to pressure; that the joints
and fly springs work well; and that the hands in rotating touch neither the
glass nor dial. By laying the nail on the surface of the glass, it will be easy
to see whether there is sufficient freedom between the socket of the hand
and the glass. In case of doubt, place a small piece of paper on the hand,
close the bezel and tap the glass with the finger while the watch is in an
inclined position. If free, the paper will be displaced.
explained below of examining a Geneva watch has been regarded by some
as too long and minute. We would urge any young watchmaker that hears
such ideas advanced to assure himself that it is a mistake, because the
system here explained is only put forward subject to the modifications that
experience suggests; and it is to be observed that many of the operations
given can be performed more rapidly than they are described.
When a watchmaker experiences a great loss of time, does it not usually
arise from the fact that he is obliged to take a watch to pieces, or nearly so,
after its repairing and examination were thought to have been completed; or
when a watch that has been repaired is brought back to be examined before
the ordinary period of cleaning has elapsed?
Let him add together the numerous hours spent in this kind of thankless
work, let him sum up the worries experienced, and the discredit, etc., to
which he has been subjected, and he will see that systematic work would
have saved him both loss of money and loss of credit.
E XT E RNAL E X AMINAT I O N O F T HE WAT C H .
450. In the following paragraphs, when the manner in which a given fault
manifests itself is not indicated at once, it should be sought in the index of
this volume, either under the name of the operation or under that of the
object to which it relates. The reader will see for himself which passages
refer exclusively to the English or American and which to the Geneva
watch.
451. Case, Glass, Dial, Dome. Glance at the case in order to ascertain
that it has not received a blow or been subjected to pressure; that the joints
and fly springs work well; and that the hands in rotating touch neither the
glass nor dial. By laying the nail on the surface of the glass, it will be easy
to see whether there is sufficient freedom between the socket of the hand
and the glass. In case of doubt, place a small piece of paper on the hand,
close the bezel and tap the glass with the finger while the watch is in an
inclined position. If free, the paper will be displaced.
Page 344
The set-hands square should be rounded at the end and a trifle below the
level of any accidental bending of the back of the watch, and the dome must
not press on the balance-cock wing or the central dust cap (if present). The
above remark also applies to the winding square of a fusee watch.
There must also be sufficient freedom between the going-barrel teeth and
the banking-pin of the balance on the one hand, and the internal rim of the
case, the fly-springs, and the joints on the other. Otherwise there is danger
of contacts when the case is closed which occasion irregularity and
stoppage often difficult to detect.
452. The dome must be at a sufficient distance from all parts of the
movement, more especially the balance-cock. If there is any occasion for
doubt on this point put a thin layer of rouge on the parts that are most
prominent. Close the case and holding it in one hand to the ear, apply a
pressure at all parts of the back with a finger of the other hand, listening
attentively in order to ascertain whether the vibrations are interfered with. If
the interval is insufficient, a trace of rouge will be found on the inside of the
dome. In such a case, if the dome cannot be raised nor hollowed slightly in
the lathe (when formed of metal), lower as far as possible the index work
and the balance-cock wing and fix in the plate, close to the balance, one or
two screws with mushroom heads that will serve to raise the dome.
Ascertain that the hands stand sufficiently far apart; that the hour hand
does not rub against the hole in the dial; and that the minute hand does not
come nearer to the dial in one place than in another, a fault which may arise
either from the dial not being flat or from the center-wheel being badly
planted.
Remove the movement from its case, after making sure that it is held
steadily by the locking screws; take off the hands, and see that the hour
wheel has the right amount of play; this freedom may be diminished if
required by laying on the wheel small discs of tinsel cut out with a punch. If
the dial presses against any part of the movement, or is not flat or comes so
near to any of the pivot-holes as to draw off the oil, it must be ground away
until a sufficient amount of freedom is obtained.
TO EX AMINE A G E NE VA MO V EMENT.
level of any accidental bending of the back of the watch, and the dome must
not press on the balance-cock wing or the central dust cap (if present). The
above remark also applies to the winding square of a fusee watch.
There must also be sufficient freedom between the going-barrel teeth and
the banking-pin of the balance on the one hand, and the internal rim of the
case, the fly-springs, and the joints on the other. Otherwise there is danger
of contacts when the case is closed which occasion irregularity and
stoppage often difficult to detect.
452. The dome must be at a sufficient distance from all parts of the
movement, more especially the balance-cock. If there is any occasion for
doubt on this point put a thin layer of rouge on the parts that are most
prominent. Close the case and holding it in one hand to the ear, apply a
pressure at all parts of the back with a finger of the other hand, listening
attentively in order to ascertain whether the vibrations are interfered with. If
the interval is insufficient, a trace of rouge will be found on the inside of the
dome. In such a case, if the dome cannot be raised nor hollowed slightly in
the lathe (when formed of metal), lower as far as possible the index work
and the balance-cock wing and fix in the plate, close to the balance, one or
two screws with mushroom heads that will serve to raise the dome.
Ascertain that the hands stand sufficiently far apart; that the hour hand
does not rub against the hole in the dial; and that the minute hand does not
come nearer to the dial in one place than in another, a fault which may arise
either from the dial not being flat or from the center-wheel being badly
planted.
Remove the movement from its case, after making sure that it is held
steadily by the locking screws; take off the hands, and see that the hour
wheel has the right amount of play; this freedom may be diminished if
required by laying on the wheel small discs of tinsel cut out with a punch. If
the dial presses against any part of the movement, or is not flat or comes so
near to any of the pivot-holes as to draw off the oil, it must be ground away
until a sufficient amount of freedom is obtained.
TO EX AMINE A G E NE VA MO V EMENT.
Page 345
453. Although the following remarks refer in the main to foreign watches
with a Lepine movement, very many are also applicable to the English and
American watches; further observations specially bearing on them will be
found in articles 477-80.
454. The Motion Work and Hands. Rotate the wheels connecting the
hour and minute-hands by the aid of a key and a glance will suffice to show
whether the several depths, which should be light, are satisfactory. The
wheels should not rub against one another, the plate, barrel, or stopwork.
The barrel should have been previously examined to ascertain that it is not
inclined to one side, as if it were, an error would probably be made in
estimating the degree of freedom.
The set-hands arbor (the square of which should be a trifle smaller than
that of the barrel-arbor) must turn rather stiffly in the center pinion, and the
cannon pinion must be held on the arbor sufficiently tight to avoid all
chance of its rising and so becoming loose; for this would alter the play of
the hands and motion work. If any fault is found in the adjustment correct it
at once, so as to avoid doing so after the movement has been cleaned.
If it has not been already done, slightly round the lower end of cannon
pinion and the steel shield, care being taken to avoid forming a burr on the
pinion leaves. These two pieces ought to rest on the ends of the center
pinion pivots, and at the same time be some distance removed from the
plate and bar respectively.
455. Freedom and Endshake. Observe that there is sufficient clearance
between the plate and barrel; the barrel and center-wheel; the several
wheels in succession both between themselves, their cocks, and sinks;
between the balance on the one hand and its cock, the center-wheel, fourth
wheel cock, the balance-spring coils and stud on the other. The fourth wheel
is frequently found to pass too near to the jewel forming the lower pivot-
hole of the escape-wheel.
The end-shake of the wheels may be tested by taking hold of an arm of
each with tweezers and lifting it. This may also be done in the case of the
escape-wheel, but, when the cock is slight, it will be sufficient to press
gently upon it with a pegwood stick, then releasing it, and observing the
apparent increase in the length of pivot. At the same time ascertain that the
with a Lepine movement, very many are also applicable to the English and
American watches; further observations specially bearing on them will be
found in articles 477-80.
454. The Motion Work and Hands. Rotate the wheels connecting the
hour and minute-hands by the aid of a key and a glance will suffice to show
whether the several depths, which should be light, are satisfactory. The
wheels should not rub against one another, the plate, barrel, or stopwork.
The barrel should have been previously examined to ascertain that it is not
inclined to one side, as if it were, an error would probably be made in
estimating the degree of freedom.
The set-hands arbor (the square of which should be a trifle smaller than
that of the barrel-arbor) must turn rather stiffly in the center pinion, and the
cannon pinion must be held on the arbor sufficiently tight to avoid all
chance of its rising and so becoming loose; for this would alter the play of
the hands and motion work. If any fault is found in the adjustment correct it
at once, so as to avoid doing so after the movement has been cleaned.
If it has not been already done, slightly round the lower end of cannon
pinion and the steel shield, care being taken to avoid forming a burr on the
pinion leaves. These two pieces ought to rest on the ends of the center
pinion pivots, and at the same time be some distance removed from the
plate and bar respectively.
455. Freedom and Endshake. Observe that there is sufficient clearance
between the plate and barrel; the barrel and center-wheel; the several
wheels in succession both between themselves, their cocks, and sinks;
between the balance on the one hand and its cock, the center-wheel, fourth
wheel cock, the balance-spring coils and stud on the other. The fourth wheel
is frequently found to pass too near to the jewel forming the lower pivot-
hole of the escape-wheel.
The end-shake of the wheels may be tested by taking hold of an arm of
each with tweezers and lifting it. This may also be done in the case of the
escape-wheel, but, when the cock is slight, it will be sufficient to press
gently upon it with a pegwood stick, then releasing it, and observing the
apparent increase in the length of pivot. At the same time ascertain that the
Page 346
width and height of the passage in the cock is enough to allow the teeth,
when carrying oil, to pass with the requisite freedom.
Holding the watch on a level with the eyes, lightly raise the balance with
a pegwood point several times, each time allowing it to fall. The variation
observed in the space between the collet and cock will indicate the end-
shake of the balance-staff.
456. Action of the Escapement. The side play of the balance pivots in
their holes can be easily estimated by touch, or this may be done by the eye,
attentively watching the upper pivot through the end-stone with a powerful
glass, while the watch lies flat and the lower pivot in the same manner with
the watch inverted. If the end-stones are not clear enough, although such a
case is rare, remove first one end-stone and examine the pivot; then replace
it and remove the other.
It should be possible to rotate the balance until the banking pin comes
against its stop, without causing the escape wheel to recoil at all, or
allowing a tooth to catch outside the cylinder behind the small lip. The
banking-pin sometimes passes too near to the fourth wheel staff. The U-
arms should rest nearly in the middle of the banking slot of the cylinder:
they should be as far from the upper as from the under edge of this slot, so
that the end-shakes may have free play in all positions of the watch.
Ascertain that the balance-spring is flat; that it coils and uncoils regularly
without constraint; that it does not touch the center wheel, the stud, or the
inner curb-pin (with its second coil). The rapid examination of the
escapement may now be regarded as completed if the watch in hand is
merely being cleaned after having previously gone well.
But if engaged on a watch that has not gone well previously, or if
examining a new one, the action of the escapement must be thoroughly
tested.
457. Visible Depths. While the train is in motion through the force of the
mainspring or the pressure of a finger against the barrel teeth, examine with
a glass all the depths that are visible. That of the escapement, for example,
can be easily seen through the jeweled pivot-hole when this is flat, the
watch being laid horizontal and a powerful glass used. When the action
cannot be seen in this manner with sufficient distinctness, hold the watch up
when carrying oil, to pass with the requisite freedom.
Holding the watch on a level with the eyes, lightly raise the balance with
a pegwood point several times, each time allowing it to fall. The variation
observed in the space between the collet and cock will indicate the end-
shake of the balance-staff.
456. Action of the Escapement. The side play of the balance pivots in
their holes can be easily estimated by touch, or this may be done by the eye,
attentively watching the upper pivot through the end-stone with a powerful
glass, while the watch lies flat and the lower pivot in the same manner with
the watch inverted. If the end-stones are not clear enough, although such a
case is rare, remove first one end-stone and examine the pivot; then replace
it and remove the other.
It should be possible to rotate the balance until the banking pin comes
against its stop, without causing the escape wheel to recoil at all, or
allowing a tooth to catch outside the cylinder behind the small lip. The
banking-pin sometimes passes too near to the fourth wheel staff. The U-
arms should rest nearly in the middle of the banking slot of the cylinder:
they should be as far from the upper as from the under edge of this slot, so
that the end-shakes may have free play in all positions of the watch.
Ascertain that the balance-spring is flat; that it coils and uncoils regularly
without constraint; that it does not touch the center wheel, the stud, or the
inner curb-pin (with its second coil). The rapid examination of the
escapement may now be regarded as completed if the watch in hand is
merely being cleaned after having previously gone well.
But if engaged on a watch that has not gone well previously, or if
examining a new one, the action of the escapement must be thoroughly
tested.
457. Visible Depths. While the train is in motion through the force of the
mainspring or the pressure of a finger against the barrel teeth, examine with
a glass all the depths that are visible. That of the escapement, for example,
can be easily seen through the jeweled pivot-hole when this is flat, the
watch being laid horizontal and a powerful glass used. When the action
cannot be seen in this manner with sufficient distinctness, hold the watch up
Page 347
against the light and look through it. Depths that cannot be clearly seen, or
about which any doubt exists, must be subsequently verified by touch.
(458.)
If examining a new watch, it may be found necessary to form inclined
notches at the edge of the cocks or near the center hole of the plate so to see
the action of the depths. But it is important that the settings of the jewels are
not disturbed, and indeed that enough metal is left around these holes to
admit of their being re-bushed if necessary.
458. Invisible and Doubtful Depths. These must be tested by touch, and
the requisite corrections applied after having re-polished the pivots, etc., as
may be necessary. We would observe that holes a trifle large are less
inconvenient than those which afford too little play; providing the depths
are in good condition.
459. Length of Balance Pivots: Centering the Balance-Spring.
Remove the end-stone from the chariot and see that the pivot projects
enough beyond the pivot-hole when the plate is inverted. Then remove the
cock and detach it from the balance. Take off the balance-spring with its
collet from this latter and place it on the cock inverted, so as to see whether
the collet is central when the outer coil is midway between the curb-pins.
Remove the cock end-stone and end-stone cap, place the top balance pivot
in its hole and see that it projects a little beyond the pivot-hole.
Place the balance in the figure-of-8 calliper to test its truth, and, at the
same time, to see that it is sufficiently in poise; it must be remembered,
however, that the balance is sometimes put out of poise intentionally.
460. Play of Train-Wheel Pivots. Allow the train to run down: if it does
so noisily or by jerks, it may be assumed that some of the depths are bad in
consequence either of the teeth being badly formed, or the holes too large,
etc. To test the latter point, cause the wheels to revolve alternately in
opposite directions by applying a finger to the barrel or center-wheel teeth,
at the same time noting the movement of each pivot in turn in its hole; a
little practice, comparing several watches together, will soon enable the
workman to judge whether the play is correct. The running down of the
train will also indicate whether any pivots are bent. Now remove the barrel-
bar with its several attachments.
about which any doubt exists, must be subsequently verified by touch.
(458.)
If examining a new watch, it may be found necessary to form inclined
notches at the edge of the cocks or near the center hole of the plate so to see
the action of the depths. But it is important that the settings of the jewels are
not disturbed, and indeed that enough metal is left around these holes to
admit of their being re-bushed if necessary.
458. Invisible and Doubtful Depths. These must be tested by touch, and
the requisite corrections applied after having re-polished the pivots, etc., as
may be necessary. We would observe that holes a trifle large are less
inconvenient than those which afford too little play; providing the depths
are in good condition.
459. Length of Balance Pivots: Centering the Balance-Spring.
Remove the end-stone from the chariot and see that the pivot projects
enough beyond the pivot-hole when the plate is inverted. Then remove the
cock and detach it from the balance. Take off the balance-spring with its
collet from this latter and place it on the cock inverted, so as to see whether
the collet is central when the outer coil is midway between the curb-pins.
Remove the cock end-stone and end-stone cap, place the top balance pivot
in its hole and see that it projects a little beyond the pivot-hole.
Place the balance in the figure-of-8 calliper to test its truth, and, at the
same time, to see that it is sufficiently in poise; it must be remembered,
however, that the balance is sometimes put out of poise intentionally.
460. Play of Train-Wheel Pivots. Allow the train to run down: if it does
so noisily or by jerks, it may be assumed that some of the depths are bad in
consequence either of the teeth being badly formed, or the holes too large,
etc. To test the latter point, cause the wheels to revolve alternately in
opposite directions by applying a finger to the barrel or center-wheel teeth,
at the same time noting the movement of each pivot in turn in its hole; a
little practice, comparing several watches together, will soon enable the
workman to judge whether the play is correct. The running down of the
train will also indicate whether any pivots are bent. Now remove the barrel-
bar with its several attachments.
Page 348
461. Center-Wheel: Bad Uprighting. Remove the third wheel, and, if
necessary, test the uprighting of the center-wheel by passing a round broach
or taper arbor through it, and setting the plate in rotation about this axis,
holding a card near the edge while doing so. This will indicate at once
whether the axis of the wheel is at right angles to the plate.
When a marked deviation is detected, or the holes are found to be too
large, they must be re-bushed and uprighted again. When, however, the
error is but slight the axes may be set vertical by bending the steady pins a
little, in doing which proceed as follows:
Set the bar in its place alone, the screw or screws being a little
unscrewed, and rest the side of the bar opposite to that towards which it is
to be bent against a piece of brass held in the vise, and strike the farther
edge of the plate one or two sharp blows with a small wooden mallet.
Experience alone can teach the workman to proportion the blow so as to
obtain a given amount of deviation, and must enable him to ascertain
whether it is desirable or not to pass a broach through the steady-pin holes
before operating as above explained. Some discretion is essential in
practising the method.
It is important that the center pivots project beyond the holes in the plate
and bar. A circular recess is turned around the outer end of each of these
holes so as to form reservoirs for oil. Owing to the neglect of these simple
precautions, which are so easy to take, many watches, especially those that
are thin, come back for repair with their center pivots in a bad state, because
the oil could not be applied in sufficient quantity, and has been drawn away
by the cannon pinion or the steel shield.
If the watch has a seconds hand, ascertain by means of the calliper that its
wheel is upright. Finally, examine each jewel to see that it is neither cracked
nor rough at the edges of the hole.
462. The Barrel: to Take Down and Repair. The side spring, which
must not be too strong, should reach with certainty to the bottom of the
spaces between the teeth of the ratchet, and this latter should be held
steadily in position by the cap. It is a good plan after making the extensive
repairs here spoken of to again test the barrel and center pinion depth, either
by touch of by drilling a hole for observation.
necessary, test the uprighting of the center-wheel by passing a round broach
or taper arbor through it, and setting the plate in rotation about this axis,
holding a card near the edge while doing so. This will indicate at once
whether the axis of the wheel is at right angles to the plate.
When a marked deviation is detected, or the holes are found to be too
large, they must be re-bushed and uprighted again. When, however, the
error is but slight the axes may be set vertical by bending the steady pins a
little, in doing which proceed as follows:
Set the bar in its place alone, the screw or screws being a little
unscrewed, and rest the side of the bar opposite to that towards which it is
to be bent against a piece of brass held in the vise, and strike the farther
edge of the plate one or two sharp blows with a small wooden mallet.
Experience alone can teach the workman to proportion the blow so as to
obtain a given amount of deviation, and must enable him to ascertain
whether it is desirable or not to pass a broach through the steady-pin holes
before operating as above explained. Some discretion is essential in
practising the method.
It is important that the center pivots project beyond the holes in the plate
and bar. A circular recess is turned around the outer end of each of these
holes so as to form reservoirs for oil. Owing to the neglect of these simple
precautions, which are so easy to take, many watches, especially those that
are thin, come back for repair with their center pivots in a bad state, because
the oil could not be applied in sufficient quantity, and has been drawn away
by the cannon pinion or the steel shield.
If the watch has a seconds hand, ascertain by means of the calliper that its
wheel is upright. Finally, examine each jewel to see that it is neither cracked
nor rough at the edges of the hole.
462. The Barrel: to Take Down and Repair. The side spring, which
must not be too strong, should reach with certainty to the bottom of the
spaces between the teeth of the ratchet, and this latter should be held
steadily in position by the cap. It is a good plan after making the extensive
repairs here spoken of to again test the barrel and center pinion depth, either
by touch of by drilling a hole for observation.
Page 349
The screw of the star-wheel must not project within the cover nor rub
against the dial; it must be reduced if either case presents itself. The action
of the stopwork must be well assured, especially when the actual stop
occurs. It is a good plan to, as it were, “round-up” the star-wheel and finger-
piece, with an emery stick, supporting them on arbors. There must be no
possibility of friction between the finger and the bottom of its sink.
Fig. 225.
463. To Test the Stopwork. Take up the winding square of an arbor, with
the barrel, etc., in position, in a pair of sliding tongs or a Birch key; hold the
tongs between the last three fingers and the palm of the left hand, the first
finger and thumb being applied to the circumference of the barrel so as to
rotate it, first in one direction and then in the other. During this movement,
take a pegwood point in the right-hand, and try to turn the star-wheel
against the direction in which it would be impelled by the finger; the
position is indicated by B in Fig. 225. The tooth that is just going to engage
with the finger will thus be caused to take up the worst possible position for
being turned, and thus, if the action proves to be satisfactory for each tooth,
we may rest content as to the future; providing, of course, that the
engagement takes place square, and there is no tendency to cause distortion
of the metal. When the corner of c is stopped against the convex tooth of
the star-wheel, the finger should be free in a space, and directed towards the
center of a. By holding the sliding tongs in a vise both hands can be kept at
liberty.
For details in regard to the examination and repair of keyless mechanism,
see article 481.
against the dial; it must be reduced if either case presents itself. The action
of the stopwork must be well assured, especially when the actual stop
occurs. It is a good plan to, as it were, “round-up” the star-wheel and finger-
piece, with an emery stick, supporting them on arbors. There must be no
possibility of friction between the finger and the bottom of its sink.
Fig. 225.
463. To Test the Stopwork. Take up the winding square of an arbor, with
the barrel, etc., in position, in a pair of sliding tongs or a Birch key; hold the
tongs between the last three fingers and the palm of the left hand, the first
finger and thumb being applied to the circumference of the barrel so as to
rotate it, first in one direction and then in the other. During this movement,
take a pegwood point in the right-hand, and try to turn the star-wheel
against the direction in which it would be impelled by the finger; the
position is indicated by B in Fig. 225. The tooth that is just going to engage
with the finger will thus be caused to take up the worst possible position for
being turned, and thus, if the action proves to be satisfactory for each tooth,
we may rest content as to the future; providing, of course, that the
engagement takes place square, and there is no tendency to cause distortion
of the metal. When the corner of c is stopped against the convex tooth of
the star-wheel, the finger should be free in a space, and directed towards the
center of a. By holding the sliding tongs in a vise both hands can be kept at
liberty.
For details in regard to the examination and repair of keyless mechanism,
see article 481.
Page 350
ACCE S S O RI E S F O R BE G INN ER S.
464. To facilitate the work by securing order in taking to pieces and
cleaning, preventing the screws from being mixed, etc., it is a good practice
to prepare beforehand one or more boards, in which grooves and holes are
made in positions to correspond with those of the several pieces on the plate
of the watch, as indicated by Fig. 226.
Fig. 226.
The round holes receive the cock and bar screws, which may be cleaned
while the other parts are in the benzine solution. (Two holes are shown side
by side for each bar and cock, so that the same plate will serve for a large
and small watch). The oval or circular hollows at a and around m receive
the cap screws, and m the shield; c, c, c, hold the screws of the side spring
and star-wheel and the finger-piece pin; j is for the screws of the top end-
stone, and n for those of the bottom end-stone, etc.
It may be well here to mention the very convenient divided boxes for
holding the several parts of a watch when taken to pieces that are in general
use by watchmakers. They measure about six inches by four, and one inch
in depth, thus being large enough to contain all the parts of any ordinary
watch.
At first every young watchmaker will find the advantage of noting on
paper, bearing the number of the watch, the successive operations that have
to be done. He will then merely have to strike them out one by one as the
work progresses. As he becomes more practiced he can dispense with this
auxiliary.
464. To facilitate the work by securing order in taking to pieces and
cleaning, preventing the screws from being mixed, etc., it is a good practice
to prepare beforehand one or more boards, in which grooves and holes are
made in positions to correspond with those of the several pieces on the plate
of the watch, as indicated by Fig. 226.
Fig. 226.
The round holes receive the cock and bar screws, which may be cleaned
while the other parts are in the benzine solution. (Two holes are shown side
by side for each bar and cock, so that the same plate will serve for a large
and small watch). The oval or circular hollows at a and around m receive
the cap screws, and m the shield; c, c, c, hold the screws of the side spring
and star-wheel and the finger-piece pin; j is for the screws of the top end-
stone, and n for those of the bottom end-stone, etc.
It may be well here to mention the very convenient divided boxes for
holding the several parts of a watch when taken to pieces that are in general
use by watchmakers. They measure about six inches by four, and one inch
in depth, thus being large enough to contain all the parts of any ordinary
watch.
At first every young watchmaker will find the advantage of noting on
paper, bearing the number of the watch, the successive operations that have
to be done. He will then merely have to strike them out one by one as the
work progresses. As he becomes more practiced he can dispense with this
auxiliary.
Page 351
CL E ANI NG T HE WAT CH .
465. Whatever system of cleaning is adopted it is essential that it be
concluded by passing a pegwood point into each of the holes.
Brilliancy is given to the surfaces of cleaned pieces by passing a
carefully kept fine brush over them. A brush that is greasy can only be
cleaned by soap and water, and a new brush is prepared for use by passing
an inclined cutting edge over the ends of its bristles so as to taper them off
to fine points, and to remove knots due either to hard parts or to bristles
becoming united. This preliminary treatment is completed by charging the
brush with French chalk, and rubbing it vigorously on a dry crust of bread
until the brush can be passed over a gilded surface without scratching it.
The bristles are maintained in good condition by the same treatment.
Billiard chalk is also very effective for this purpose, and the greater number
of cavities there are in the crust the better it will act. A burnt bone is an
excellent substitute for the crust, and has the advantage of causing the brush
to impart a very brilliant appearance to objects to which it is applied.
466. To Clean with a Brush. This method is less used now than
formerly, as it can be adopted with safety with the old-fashioned gilding,
but is too severe for the thin galvanic coats that are applied at the present
day. It may, however, be resorted to for getting up the surface of polished
brass wheels, for example.
Put some French chalk or powdered sal-ammoniac (which can be bought
at a chemist’s) in pure alcohol. Shake the mixture, and with a fine paint
brush coat the object with a small quantity of it, subsequently brushing the
surface with a brush that is in very good condition. Polished wheels may be
made to present a very brilliant appearance by this means, but their teeth
and the leaves of pinions must be afterwards carefully cleaned.
The French chalk and sal-ammoniac are all the more effective according
as they have remained a longer time in the alcohol; doubtless owing to the
fact that the hard grains met with in them are then more completely
dissolved.
467. Soaping. It is advisable to use a soap that quickly produces a good
lather; and the object is held in the hand and cleaned by rubbing with a soft
465. Whatever system of cleaning is adopted it is essential that it be
concluded by passing a pegwood point into each of the holes.
Brilliancy is given to the surfaces of cleaned pieces by passing a
carefully kept fine brush over them. A brush that is greasy can only be
cleaned by soap and water, and a new brush is prepared for use by passing
an inclined cutting edge over the ends of its bristles so as to taper them off
to fine points, and to remove knots due either to hard parts or to bristles
becoming united. This preliminary treatment is completed by charging the
brush with French chalk, and rubbing it vigorously on a dry crust of bread
until the brush can be passed over a gilded surface without scratching it.
The bristles are maintained in good condition by the same treatment.
Billiard chalk is also very effective for this purpose, and the greater number
of cavities there are in the crust the better it will act. A burnt bone is an
excellent substitute for the crust, and has the advantage of causing the brush
to impart a very brilliant appearance to objects to which it is applied.
466. To Clean with a Brush. This method is less used now than
formerly, as it can be adopted with safety with the old-fashioned gilding,
but is too severe for the thin galvanic coats that are applied at the present
day. It may, however, be resorted to for getting up the surface of polished
brass wheels, for example.
Put some French chalk or powdered sal-ammoniac (which can be bought
at a chemist’s) in pure alcohol. Shake the mixture, and with a fine paint
brush coat the object with a small quantity of it, subsequently brushing the
surface with a brush that is in very good condition. Polished wheels may be
made to present a very brilliant appearance by this means, but their teeth
and the leaves of pinions must be afterwards carefully cleaned.
The French chalk and sal-ammoniac are all the more effective according
as they have remained a longer time in the alcohol; doubtless owing to the
fact that the hard grains met with in them are then more completely
dissolved.
467. Soaping. It is advisable to use a soap that quickly produces a good
lather; and the object is held in the hand and cleaned by rubbing with a soft
Page 352
brush charged with this lather; then immerse first in clean water, and
subsequently in alcohol, moving it about in each: it may be left for a few
seconds in this latter, and, on being removed, is dried with a fine linen rag
or soft muslin. A stroke with a soft brush in good condition will give
brilliancy to the surface. As water sometimes dissolves the soap very
slowly, it is desirable that it be employed warm. If about to soap polished
wheels, the surface must be first got up with a buffstick and rouge, or by
brushing with sal-ammoniac.
The balance spring may be cleaned by laying it on a linen rag doubled,
and tapping it gently with a brush charged with lather; then dipping in water
and alcohol in succession.
The alcohol may be used hot or cold; its action is, however, more rapid
and effective in the former case. But there is no occasion to use hot alcohol
except when dealing with substances such as wax, that resist its action.
468. Essences and Benzine. The employment of essences in cleaning
watches is becoming more general every day. They are to be obtained at all
material dealers, together with full instructions in regard to their use. A few
observations may nevertheless not be out of place here.
The objects are left in the solution for a few minutes in order to allow all
adhering matter to dissolve, but they must not remain too long, as certain
qualities of benzine, etc., are apt to leave stains. Dry the pieces on removing
them, and finish by passing over a fine brush that has been charged with
chalk and subsequently been rubbed on a hard crust or burnt bone; as has
already been observed, this will produce a brilliant surface on either gilding
or polished brass.
The following composition, the ingredients of which can be obtained at
any chemist’s, has been strongly recommended to us by a clever
watchmaker:
90 parts by weight of refined petroleum.
25 ” ” sulphuric ether.
The objects are immersed for several minutes; indeed, they may remain
for a longer period without danger, and on removal from the bath are found
subsequently in alcohol, moving it about in each: it may be left for a few
seconds in this latter, and, on being removed, is dried with a fine linen rag
or soft muslin. A stroke with a soft brush in good condition will give
brilliancy to the surface. As water sometimes dissolves the soap very
slowly, it is desirable that it be employed warm. If about to soap polished
wheels, the surface must be first got up with a buffstick and rouge, or by
brushing with sal-ammoniac.
The balance spring may be cleaned by laying it on a linen rag doubled,
and tapping it gently with a brush charged with lather; then dipping in water
and alcohol in succession.
The alcohol may be used hot or cold; its action is, however, more rapid
and effective in the former case. But there is no occasion to use hot alcohol
except when dealing with substances such as wax, that resist its action.
468. Essences and Benzine. The employment of essences in cleaning
watches is becoming more general every day. They are to be obtained at all
material dealers, together with full instructions in regard to their use. A few
observations may nevertheless not be out of place here.
The objects are left in the solution for a few minutes in order to allow all
adhering matter to dissolve, but they must not remain too long, as certain
qualities of benzine, etc., are apt to leave stains. Dry the pieces on removing
them, and finish by passing over a fine brush that has been charged with
chalk and subsequently been rubbed on a hard crust or burnt bone; as has
already been observed, this will produce a brilliant surface on either gilding
or polished brass.
The following composition, the ingredients of which can be obtained at
any chemist’s, has been strongly recommended to us by a clever
watchmaker:
90 parts by weight of refined petroleum.
25 ” ” sulphuric ether.
The objects are immersed for several minutes; indeed, they may remain
for a longer period without danger, and on removal from the bath are found
Page 353
to be clean and bright. It must not be forgotten that many of these essences
are liable to ignite with the mere proximity of a lamp.
PU T T I NG T HE WAT CH TO G ET HE R.
469. The three following rules must be observed in arranging a system of
putting the watch together: (1) avoid taking up the same piece two or more
times; (2) hold it lightly, as any pressure will produce a mark; (3) keep it as
short a time as possible in the fingers. Any linen rags used must be free
from fluff, but rags of all kinds should as far as possible be replaced by
certain kinds of tissue paper. The best kind will be that which, while
securing a given degree of pliability, will best prevent heat and moisture
from passing through. Blue-shaded tissue paper should be avoided, as it is
often found to encourage the formation of rust on steel work.
470. The following order is adopted by some excellent watchmakers in
putting together the ordinary form of Geneva watch; it may be adopted
exactly or modified as experience dictates.
Commence by putting the several parts of the barrel together, attaching it
to the bar and observing the directions given farther on (474) in regard to
the distribution of oil. Owing to the position of the stop-finger, it is
sometimes found that the mainspring must be set up either one-quarter or
three-quarters of a turn. Very often one-quarter is not sufficient, and in such
cases it is necessary, before putting together, to ascertain that the spring
admits of at least 5 or 5¼ turns in the barrel. If it will not allow this amount,
and yet has to be set up three-quarters of a turn, too great a strain will come
upon the eye of the spring in winding. Fix the chariot with its end-stone on
the under side of the plate.
Replace the fourth wheel, making sure that it is free and has no more than
the requisite end-shake and is upright. Then the escape-wheel, testing it in a
similar manner. See that the teeth have sufficient freedom on both sides of
the cock passage, then make the two wheels run together with a pair of
tweezers of pegwood, in all positions of the plate, to make sure of
everything being free.
are liable to ignite with the mere proximity of a lamp.
PU T T I NG T HE WAT CH TO G ET HE R.
469. The three following rules must be observed in arranging a system of
putting the watch together: (1) avoid taking up the same piece two or more
times; (2) hold it lightly, as any pressure will produce a mark; (3) keep it as
short a time as possible in the fingers. Any linen rags used must be free
from fluff, but rags of all kinds should as far as possible be replaced by
certain kinds of tissue paper. The best kind will be that which, while
securing a given degree of pliability, will best prevent heat and moisture
from passing through. Blue-shaded tissue paper should be avoided, as it is
often found to encourage the formation of rust on steel work.
470. The following order is adopted by some excellent watchmakers in
putting together the ordinary form of Geneva watch; it may be adopted
exactly or modified as experience dictates.
Commence by putting the several parts of the barrel together, attaching it
to the bar and observing the directions given farther on (474) in regard to
the distribution of oil. Owing to the position of the stop-finger, it is
sometimes found that the mainspring must be set up either one-quarter or
three-quarters of a turn. Very often one-quarter is not sufficient, and in such
cases it is necessary, before putting together, to ascertain that the spring
admits of at least 5 or 5¼ turns in the barrel. If it will not allow this amount,
and yet has to be set up three-quarters of a turn, too great a strain will come
upon the eye of the spring in winding. Fix the chariot with its end-stone on
the under side of the plate.
Replace the fourth wheel, making sure that it is free and has no more than
the requisite end-shake and is upright. Then the escape-wheel, testing it in a
similar manner. See that the teeth have sufficient freedom on both sides of
the cock passage, then make the two wheels run together with a pair of
tweezers of pegwood, in all positions of the plate, to make sure of
everything being free.
Page 354
471. After attaching the index and end-stone to the balance-cock and the
balance-spring to the balance (observing that the center of the stud is
against the dot on the balance rim), place some oil in both the balance
pivot-holes (476); adjust the balance to the cock after placing a drop of oil
in the cylinder (though a much better plan is that given in article 476), and
set in position on the plate. Some workmen apply a drop of oil to the top of
the escape-wheel pivot-hole before setting the balance-cock in its place, but
others prefer only to add the oil after the escapement has been tested.
Placing a small piece of paper first between the balance and cock, and
then between the balance and plate, ascertain whether the escape-wheel
occupies its correct position in reference to the cylinder, in order that the
escapement may act properly. This test is especially necessary in dealing
with very thin watches or those in which the cylinder banking slot is
exceptionally narrow. The barrel bar is now fixed to the plate.
472. Set the third wheel in its place, and lastly the center wheel, after
putting a little oil on the shoulder of its bottom pivot. Before putting the bar
over it, apply oil to the top pivot in a similar manner; then screw it down.
After this is done screw on the third wheel cock.
Now apply a small quantity of oil to the two center pivots, and very
lightly to the others that have not already been oiled; give a turn to the key
and listen to the tick of the watch in all positions. This should always be
done before replacing it in the case.
After passing the slightly-oiled set-hands arbor through the center pinion,
and adapting the cannon pinion to its end, reverse the watch, passing the
end of the center arbor through a hole in the riveting stake, so that the watch
is supported on the end of the cannon pinion; a light blow of the hammer on
the square end of this arbor will then suffice to drive the cannon pinion
home. Some do this before replacing the movement in its case, and some
after.
Add a little oil to such pivots as have not already received enough, and
fix in their places the remaining parts of the motion work, the dial and
hands: the watch then only requires to be timed.
473. Precautions to be Observed in Applying Oil. The method of
distributing and applying the oil is of more importance than might be
balance-spring to the balance (observing that the center of the stud is
against the dot on the balance rim), place some oil in both the balance
pivot-holes (476); adjust the balance to the cock after placing a drop of oil
in the cylinder (though a much better plan is that given in article 476), and
set in position on the plate. Some workmen apply a drop of oil to the top of
the escape-wheel pivot-hole before setting the balance-cock in its place, but
others prefer only to add the oil after the escapement has been tested.
Placing a small piece of paper first between the balance and cock, and
then between the balance and plate, ascertain whether the escape-wheel
occupies its correct position in reference to the cylinder, in order that the
escapement may act properly. This test is especially necessary in dealing
with very thin watches or those in which the cylinder banking slot is
exceptionally narrow. The barrel bar is now fixed to the plate.
472. Set the third wheel in its place, and lastly the center wheel, after
putting a little oil on the shoulder of its bottom pivot. Before putting the bar
over it, apply oil to the top pivot in a similar manner; then screw it down.
After this is done screw on the third wheel cock.
Now apply a small quantity of oil to the two center pivots, and very
lightly to the others that have not already been oiled; give a turn to the key
and listen to the tick of the watch in all positions. This should always be
done before replacing it in the case.
After passing the slightly-oiled set-hands arbor through the center pinion,
and adapting the cannon pinion to its end, reverse the watch, passing the
end of the center arbor through a hole in the riveting stake, so that the watch
is supported on the end of the cannon pinion; a light blow of the hammer on
the square end of this arbor will then suffice to drive the cannon pinion
home. Some do this before replacing the movement in its case, and some
after.
Add a little oil to such pivots as have not already received enough, and
fix in their places the remaining parts of the motion work, the dial and
hands: the watch then only requires to be timed.
473. Precautions to be Observed in Applying Oil. The method of
distributing and applying the oil is of more importance than might be
Page 355
thought, and has a very marked influence on both the time of going and the
rate.
Oil that is very fluid may be used for the escapement and fine pivots,
where only a small quantity is needed and the pressure is slight; but it is not
suitable in other places on account of its tendency to spread, and thus leave
the rubbing surfaces.
If too much oil is applied the effect is the same as if there had been too
little; it runs away, and only a minute quantity is left where it is wanted.
474. Barrel. It is not enough to apply oil to the coils of the spring; some
must also be placed on the bottom of the barrel. Before putting on the cover,
moisten the shoulder of the arbor-nut that comes in contact with it with oil;
by doing so, when oil is applied to the pivot, after the cover is in its place,
this oil will be retained at the center of the boss in the cover. Moreover, it
will not then be drawn away by the finger-piece, passing from this to the
star-wheel.
The oil applied to the upper surface of the ratchet to reduce its friction
against the cap must not be in such quantity as to spread on to the winding
square. It is a good plan to round off the lower corner of this cover.
475. Center-wheel. The observation made above in reference to the oil
applied to the barrel-cover may be repeated here. By proceeding as
explained in article 472, and adopting the precautions mentioned at the end
of article 461, it is possible to make sure of the pivots lasting for a long
period.
476. Escapement pivots: Cylinder. When the drop of oil is introduced into
the oil-cup of the balance pivot-hole, insert a very fine pegwood point, so as
to cause the descent of the oil; a small additional quantity may then be
applied. When this precaution is not taken, it frequently happens that in
inserting the balance pivot its conical shoulder draws away some of the oil,
and there is a deficiency both in the hole and on the end-stone.
As has been already noticed (471), some workmen place a single drop of
oil within the cylinder, and when the escape-wheel advances each tooth
takes some up. This method is unsatisfactory, because the earlier teeth
receive such a quantity of oil that it runs down the pillars, where it is
useless and merely tends to increase the weight of the wheel. A much better
rate.
Oil that is very fluid may be used for the escapement and fine pivots,
where only a small quantity is needed and the pressure is slight; but it is not
suitable in other places on account of its tendency to spread, and thus leave
the rubbing surfaces.
If too much oil is applied the effect is the same as if there had been too
little; it runs away, and only a minute quantity is left where it is wanted.
474. Barrel. It is not enough to apply oil to the coils of the spring; some
must also be placed on the bottom of the barrel. Before putting on the cover,
moisten the shoulder of the arbor-nut that comes in contact with it with oil;
by doing so, when oil is applied to the pivot, after the cover is in its place,
this oil will be retained at the center of the boss in the cover. Moreover, it
will not then be drawn away by the finger-piece, passing from this to the
star-wheel.
The oil applied to the upper surface of the ratchet to reduce its friction
against the cap must not be in such quantity as to spread on to the winding
square. It is a good plan to round off the lower corner of this cover.
475. Center-wheel. The observation made above in reference to the oil
applied to the barrel-cover may be repeated here. By proceeding as
explained in article 472, and adopting the precautions mentioned at the end
of article 461, it is possible to make sure of the pivots lasting for a long
period.
476. Escapement pivots: Cylinder. When the drop of oil is introduced into
the oil-cup of the balance pivot-hole, insert a very fine pegwood point, so as
to cause the descent of the oil; a small additional quantity may then be
applied. When this precaution is not taken, it frequently happens that in
inserting the balance pivot its conical shoulder draws away some of the oil,
and there is a deficiency both in the hole and on the end-stone.
As has been already noticed (471), some workmen place a single drop of
oil within the cylinder, and when the escape-wheel advances each tooth
takes some up. This method is unsatisfactory, because the earlier teeth
receive such a quantity of oil that it runs down the pillars, where it is
useless and merely tends to increase the weight of the wheel. A much better
Page 356
plan is to put a very small quantity in the cylinder, and on the flat of each
tooth or every second or third tooth. It will thus be evenly distributed, and
will not tend to flow away.
The escape-wheel pivots require but a small quantity of oil. It often
happens, however, that, owing to carelessness, the workman applies too
much, and it runs down to the pinion. The leaves will thus become greasy
and stick, while the pivots are running dry.
TO E X A MI N E E NG L IS H O R AME RI CAN MO V EME NT S .
477. As has been already observed in article 453, many of the remarks
made in speaking of the Geneva movement are equally applicable to that of
English or American construction, and any intelligent watchmaker, on
reading articles 450-463, will be able to select for himself whatever has a
bearing on the English watch, without difficulty. It will be well, however, to
supplement it by the special directions contained in the four following
articles:
478. Case, Glass, Dial, Cap, Dome. In addition to the points specified in
articles 451-452, the following require attention. See that the position of
dial is not altered by closing down the bezel, that the fuzee dust cap does
not touch the dome or cap, and that the diamond end-stone or other
jeweling of the balance-cock is free of the case. In ¾-plate watches the
chain is occasionally found to rub against the edge of the case, or the top-
plate to press against the bottom edge of the same, causing the train to bind.
See that the balance and chain and the fuzee great wheel are free of the cap,
where one exists; the chain is especially liable to rub after the breaking of a
strong spring, which may cause the barrel to bulge, when it may also rub
against the potence. Ascertain that none of the dial-plate feet or pins touch
the train, that the hour wheel is clear of the third and fourth wheel bar, and
the minute wheel out of contact with the dial-plate and not pressed by the
dial. See that the third wheel is free in its hollow, and that the balance, more
especially in oversprung watches, is clear of the barrel.
479. Movement. The regulator or index must be tested, especially in
watches that are undersprung, at several points between “fast” and “slow,”
tooth or every second or third tooth. It will thus be evenly distributed, and
will not tend to flow away.
The escape-wheel pivots require but a small quantity of oil. It often
happens, however, that, owing to carelessness, the workman applies too
much, and it runs down to the pinion. The leaves will thus become greasy
and stick, while the pivots are running dry.
TO E X A MI N E E NG L IS H O R AME RI CAN MO V EME NT S .
477. As has been already observed in article 453, many of the remarks
made in speaking of the Geneva movement are equally applicable to that of
English or American construction, and any intelligent watchmaker, on
reading articles 450-463, will be able to select for himself whatever has a
bearing on the English watch, without difficulty. It will be well, however, to
supplement it by the special directions contained in the four following
articles:
478. Case, Glass, Dial, Cap, Dome. In addition to the points specified in
articles 451-452, the following require attention. See that the position of
dial is not altered by closing down the bezel, that the fuzee dust cap does
not touch the dome or cap, and that the diamond end-stone or other
jeweling of the balance-cock is free of the case. In ¾-plate watches the
chain is occasionally found to rub against the edge of the case, or the top-
plate to press against the bottom edge of the same, causing the train to bind.
See that the balance and chain and the fuzee great wheel are free of the cap,
where one exists; the chain is especially liable to rub after the breaking of a
strong spring, which may cause the barrel to bulge, when it may also rub
against the potence. Ascertain that none of the dial-plate feet or pins touch
the train, that the hour wheel is clear of the third and fourth wheel bar, and
the minute wheel out of contact with the dial-plate and not pressed by the
dial. See that the third wheel is free in its hollow, and that the balance, more
especially in oversprung watches, is clear of the barrel.
479. Movement. The regulator or index must be tested, especially in
watches that are undersprung, at several points between “fast” and “slow,”
Page 357
to see that it nowhere approaches too near to the spring, is held with
sufficient firmness, and that it never comes near enough to the guard pin for
contact to occur. See that the potence screw and steady-pins do not project,
and that the barrel does not touch the name-plate, balance-cock, top-plate
hollowing or great wheel.
Before taking off the top-plate, notice the position of the detent in the
steel wheel, and the amount of its end-shake; the wear of the holes, and
freedom of the train wheels; the position of the third pinion with respect to
the center wheel, and that of the escape wheel to the lever; see that the
banking pins are not loose or bent; that the guard pin, which protects the
balance staff when the chain breaks, is near enough to the barrel and the
potence. When the watch is taken to pieces, any loose pillars or joints must
be secured, pivots examined to see whether worn or bent, and those
working on end-stones that they come through the holes. The fourth wheel
pinion must be free in the hollow of the pillar plate and the center wheel in
its hollow; a similar examination also must be made of the collet and pin
which secure the great wheel to the fusee. If a chain is broken near the
barrel end, the stopwork is probably defective or the spring too strong.
The following faults may be met with in the English stopwork. The stop
may come opposite the fusee snail too soon or too late, allowing one turn
too few or too many of the fusee; or the back of the snail may butt against
the stop, and thus stop the watch after going for a few hours. Overwinding
sometimes occurs in consequence of the stop-spring being locked between
the shoulder of the stop and its brass stud; and the blade of the snail or the
end of the stop may be worn or bent in cleaning.
In ¾-plate fusee watches, see that the balance does not come too near to
the fusee, fourth wheel, center wheel, and sometimes the escape-wheel. It is
to be observed that the breaking of a mainspring sometimes causes certain
teeth of the great wheel to be strained.
480. Escapement. It may be well to note the few following particulars
that should always be attended to. See that ruby-pin and pallet stones are
firmly set, that neither pallets nor roller is loose on its staff, and that the
lever and pallets are rigidly fixed together. The guard pin must be firm, the
balance well riveted to its collet, the spring collet sufficiently tight and the
curb pins firm. If there is a compensation balance, ascertain that each
sufficient firmness, and that it never comes near enough to the guard pin for
contact to occur. See that the potence screw and steady-pins do not project,
and that the barrel does not touch the name-plate, balance-cock, top-plate
hollowing or great wheel.
Before taking off the top-plate, notice the position of the detent in the
steel wheel, and the amount of its end-shake; the wear of the holes, and
freedom of the train wheels; the position of the third pinion with respect to
the center wheel, and that of the escape wheel to the lever; see that the
banking pins are not loose or bent; that the guard pin, which protects the
balance staff when the chain breaks, is near enough to the barrel and the
potence. When the watch is taken to pieces, any loose pillars or joints must
be secured, pivots examined to see whether worn or bent, and those
working on end-stones that they come through the holes. The fourth wheel
pinion must be free in the hollow of the pillar plate and the center wheel in
its hollow; a similar examination also must be made of the collet and pin
which secure the great wheel to the fusee. If a chain is broken near the
barrel end, the stopwork is probably defective or the spring too strong.
The following faults may be met with in the English stopwork. The stop
may come opposite the fusee snail too soon or too late, allowing one turn
too few or too many of the fusee; or the back of the snail may butt against
the stop, and thus stop the watch after going for a few hours. Overwinding
sometimes occurs in consequence of the stop-spring being locked between
the shoulder of the stop and its brass stud; and the blade of the snail or the
end of the stop may be worn or bent in cleaning.
In ¾-plate fusee watches, see that the balance does not come too near to
the fusee, fourth wheel, center wheel, and sometimes the escape-wheel. It is
to be observed that the breaking of a mainspring sometimes causes certain
teeth of the great wheel to be strained.
480. Escapement. It may be well to note the few following particulars
that should always be attended to. See that ruby-pin and pallet stones are
firmly set, that neither pallets nor roller is loose on its staff, and that the
lever and pallets are rigidly fixed together. The guard pin must be firm, the
balance well riveted to its collet, the spring collet sufficiently tight and the
curb pins firm. If there is a compensation balance, ascertain that each
Page 358
screws tight. The precautions to be observed in regard to the balance-spring
are given in article 456.
481. Keyless Work. So great a variety of arrangements of the mechanism
for winding watches at the pendant is met with at the present day that it
would be impossible to give detailed directions in regard to their
examination; the following general remarks, however, mainly taken from
the work of M. A. Philippe on Keyless Watches,[6] will be found of value in
directing attention to the points which most require it, and will suffice for
any intelligent workman. Is should be observed at the outset, however, that
the adjustment of keyless work is almost entirely a question of depths, and
the workman who has thoroughly mastered this subject will rarely
experience any difficulty in dealing with keyless mechanism.
Carefully observe each depth, etc., in succession, to make sure that no
prejudicial friction occurs either between teeth or by contiguous parts
coming in contact. All springs should act solely in the direction in which
pressure is required of them. Special attention should be given to the
intermediate steel wheel for communicating motion to the cannon pinion,
when this exists, as it is permanently in gear with the train, so that any
unevenness of the depth will effect the rate: if the minute wheel have too
much end-shake or play on its stud, it is apt to ride on the intermediate steel
wheel. The friction of the cannon pinion on the set-hands arbor must not be
excessive, since it would involve too great a strain on the teeth of the
minute wheel, nor too slight, since the hands would be liable to be displaced
on releasing the set-hands stud. If the intermediate wheel has too much end-
shake, limit this by an eccentric screw overlapping its edge.
Test the spring of the set-hands stud, to see that it is not too strong nor
too weak and that it moves parallel with the plate. Failure in this latter
particular might lead to its rising on to the rocking-bar or other pieces on
which its acts.
The winding pinion depth must be examined to see that it is neither too
deep nor shallow.
The set-hands stud-spring must be strong enough to resist any accidental
pressure on the stud, but, on the other hand, the strength must not be
excessive, as the spring will then be all the more liable to break, besides
causing inconvenience when setting the hands. The course of the spring
are given in article 456.
481. Keyless Work. So great a variety of arrangements of the mechanism
for winding watches at the pendant is met with at the present day that it
would be impossible to give detailed directions in regard to their
examination; the following general remarks, however, mainly taken from
the work of M. A. Philippe on Keyless Watches,[6] will be found of value in
directing attention to the points which most require it, and will suffice for
any intelligent workman. Is should be observed at the outset, however, that
the adjustment of keyless work is almost entirely a question of depths, and
the workman who has thoroughly mastered this subject will rarely
experience any difficulty in dealing with keyless mechanism.
Carefully observe each depth, etc., in succession, to make sure that no
prejudicial friction occurs either between teeth or by contiguous parts
coming in contact. All springs should act solely in the direction in which
pressure is required of them. Special attention should be given to the
intermediate steel wheel for communicating motion to the cannon pinion,
when this exists, as it is permanently in gear with the train, so that any
unevenness of the depth will effect the rate: if the minute wheel have too
much end-shake or play on its stud, it is apt to ride on the intermediate steel
wheel. The friction of the cannon pinion on the set-hands arbor must not be
excessive, since it would involve too great a strain on the teeth of the
minute wheel, nor too slight, since the hands would be liable to be displaced
on releasing the set-hands stud. If the intermediate wheel has too much end-
shake, limit this by an eccentric screw overlapping its edge.
Test the spring of the set-hands stud, to see that it is not too strong nor
too weak and that it moves parallel with the plate. Failure in this latter
particular might lead to its rising on to the rocking-bar or other pieces on
which its acts.
The winding pinion depth must be examined to see that it is neither too
deep nor shallow.
The set-hands stud-spring must be strong enough to resist any accidental
pressure on the stud, but, on the other hand, the strength must not be
excessive, as the spring will then be all the more liable to break, besides
causing inconvenience when setting the hands. The course of the spring
Page 359
should be banked at the point which gives a good depth between the
winding and intermediate wheels. The minute-wheel stud must be firm in
the plate, as any accidental binding might otherwise unscrew it, occasioning
the breakage of the dial. When the minute hand is carried by the set-hands
arbor, and not by the cannon pinion, care is necessary in fitting this latter,
for if too loose it will rotate in setting the hands without carrying the minute
hand round, and the minute and hour hand will cease to agree.
It is important that attention be paid to the application of oil to keyless
work, as, in its absence, rust rapidly forms, and the mechanism becomes
bound. Of course, all bearing surfaces, such as the interior of the pendant,
intermediate and minute wheel studs, studs or screws of the rocking bar or
other surfaces on which wheels rotate, must be lubricated; an equally
important point is to liberally oil the teeth of the winding pinion and the
bevel or crown wheel that engages with it. The application of a little oil
inside and outside the cannon pinion must not be forgotten.
TO R API DLY T IME A WAT CH O R CL O C K .
482. It seems desirable to supplement the information here given by a
few details, since we have observed that, either from want of patience or
method, many watchmakers are not always successful in counting the
vibrations.
483. To Practice Counting Vibrations. At the outset it is to be observed
that to each vibration to the right there is a corresponding one to the left, so
that it is only necessary to observe those in one direction, or else to count
one for each two impacts of the escapement, in a minute (or half-minute), in
order to ascertain the number of vibrations.
14,400 vibrations per hour correspond to 4 per second; that is 240 per
minute, or 120 per half-minute, and the half of this number is 60.
Similarly, a 16,200 train would give 4½ vibrations per second; or 270 in
a minute, the half of which number is 135.
An 18,000 train giving 5 vibrations per second, or 150 per half-minute,
would count 75 in this interval of time.
winding and intermediate wheels. The minute-wheel stud must be firm in
the plate, as any accidental binding might otherwise unscrew it, occasioning
the breakage of the dial. When the minute hand is carried by the set-hands
arbor, and not by the cannon pinion, care is necessary in fitting this latter,
for if too loose it will rotate in setting the hands without carrying the minute
hand round, and the minute and hour hand will cease to agree.
It is important that attention be paid to the application of oil to keyless
work, as, in its absence, rust rapidly forms, and the mechanism becomes
bound. Of course, all bearing surfaces, such as the interior of the pendant,
intermediate and minute wheel studs, studs or screws of the rocking bar or
other surfaces on which wheels rotate, must be lubricated; an equally
important point is to liberally oil the teeth of the winding pinion and the
bevel or crown wheel that engages with it. The application of a little oil
inside and outside the cannon pinion must not be forgotten.
TO R API DLY T IME A WAT CH O R CL O C K .
482. It seems desirable to supplement the information here given by a
few details, since we have observed that, either from want of patience or
method, many watchmakers are not always successful in counting the
vibrations.
483. To Practice Counting Vibrations. At the outset it is to be observed
that to each vibration to the right there is a corresponding one to the left, so
that it is only necessary to observe those in one direction, or else to count
one for each two impacts of the escapement, in a minute (or half-minute), in
order to ascertain the number of vibrations.
14,400 vibrations per hour correspond to 4 per second; that is 240 per
minute, or 120 per half-minute, and the half of this number is 60.
Similarly, a 16,200 train would give 4½ vibrations per second; or 270 in
a minute, the half of which number is 135.
An 18,000 train giving 5 vibrations per second, or 150 per half-minute,
would count 75 in this interval of time.
Page 360
This being understood, the required number of vibrations is to be
ascertained as follows:
The movement is placed in such a position that the light is reflected from
an arm of the balance, so that, by reference to some fixed point, (such as the
side of the balance-cock, the stud, etc.), each return of the balance can be
noted and counted. A very little practice will remove any difficulty that may
be experienced in doing this. When the requisite skill has been acquired,
one can listen to the impacts of the escapement while continuing to count,
and in order to determine with greater facility the correspondence of the
position of the balance with successive pairs of vibrations, close the eyes
from time to time while still counting. On opening them, the accuracy of the
coincidence can be at once tested by the sight, and, with a little patience, it
is possible to count the double vibrations with certainty in this manner, both
by the eye and ear; it is only necessary when nearing the end of the minute
or half-minute to continue counting aloud, while keeping the eye on the
regulator: for the ear will guide the voice, which will thus accurately reflect
the motions of the watch.
The above explanations will be sufficient to enable any watchmaker of
average intelligence to acquire the power of counting vibrations, either in
the manner here recommended, or by modifying it in any manner that may
suit his temperament. This power, when once acquired, will be of very great
assistance in his daily work, for before taking a watch to pieces that
requires repair, he can in one or two minutes ascertain the number of
vibrations it should make; he will thus be enabled to regulate the watch
almost instantaneously when the necessary repairs have been completed.
We would again observe that the main point is to educate the ear to ignore
each alternate vibration, and thus to count only the intervals of the balance
being in the same position and the same phase of its motion.
484. Vibration Counter. Leclerre’s Vibration Counter is shown in Fig.
227. r is a ratchet wheel with 30 teeth, mounted on a vertical plate, so that it
can rotate freely. A pawl, v, prevents its movement except when forced
forward one tooth at a time by depressing the spring gathering-click, p, a
finger being applied to the button, o, each time the word “ten” is uttered.
The number of teeth advanced thus affords a record of the vibrations
without there being any necessity to go into higher figures.
ascertained as follows:
The movement is placed in such a position that the light is reflected from
an arm of the balance, so that, by reference to some fixed point, (such as the
side of the balance-cock, the stud, etc.), each return of the balance can be
noted and counted. A very little practice will remove any difficulty that may
be experienced in doing this. When the requisite skill has been acquired,
one can listen to the impacts of the escapement while continuing to count,
and in order to determine with greater facility the correspondence of the
position of the balance with successive pairs of vibrations, close the eyes
from time to time while still counting. On opening them, the accuracy of the
coincidence can be at once tested by the sight, and, with a little patience, it
is possible to count the double vibrations with certainty in this manner, both
by the eye and ear; it is only necessary when nearing the end of the minute
or half-minute to continue counting aloud, while keeping the eye on the
regulator: for the ear will guide the voice, which will thus accurately reflect
the motions of the watch.
The above explanations will be sufficient to enable any watchmaker of
average intelligence to acquire the power of counting vibrations, either in
the manner here recommended, or by modifying it in any manner that may
suit his temperament. This power, when once acquired, will be of very great
assistance in his daily work, for before taking a watch to pieces that
requires repair, he can in one or two minutes ascertain the number of
vibrations it should make; he will thus be enabled to regulate the watch
almost instantaneously when the necessary repairs have been completed.
We would again observe that the main point is to educate the ear to ignore
each alternate vibration, and thus to count only the intervals of the balance
being in the same position and the same phase of its motion.
484. Vibration Counter. Leclerre’s Vibration Counter is shown in Fig.
227. r is a ratchet wheel with 30 teeth, mounted on a vertical plate, so that it
can rotate freely. A pawl, v, prevents its movement except when forced
forward one tooth at a time by depressing the spring gathering-click, p, a
finger being applied to the button, o, each time the word “ten” is uttered.
The number of teeth advanced thus affords a record of the vibrations
without there being any necessity to go into higher figures.
Page 361
Fig. 227.
485. To Regulate a Watch. Place the movement near to a regulator or
watch indicating seconds, in such a position that the eye can easily observe
the periodical return of an arm of the balance, as already explained, and
commence to count, always starting from the instant at which the seconds
hand points to zero. Then count steadily 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., until this hand
reaches 30 seconds.
Assume, as is very commonly the case, that the balance should make
18,000 vibrations in an hour, or 150 in a half-minute, and that, on counting
its vibrations, we find 65 double vibrations, or 130 beats, whereas it should
give 150. It is thus 20 beats slow. Advance the index, and repeat the
operation; and so on till the regulation is effected.
A greater degree of accuracy will be secured by counting for a longer
period, say one, two, or three minutes; but when this is done, it is advisable,
in order to avoid confusion, to recommence at one after each 30 or 50 have
been counted, because all that is required is the final deviation.
Remarks. 1. All men are not equally quick of perception, so that, in
counting and uttering the word one, it will be found to correspond with the
end of the first beat in the case of some observers, and its commencement
with others. By practicing on a well regulated watch, a watchmaker can
determine to which of these classes he belongs. If to the second, he should
double the one at starting; in other words, he should count thus:
1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.
2. Advantage may be taken of the principle of the sounding-board by
placing the watch on a sonorous body which will make the vibrations
485. To Regulate a Watch. Place the movement near to a regulator or
watch indicating seconds, in such a position that the eye can easily observe
the periodical return of an arm of the balance, as already explained, and
commence to count, always starting from the instant at which the seconds
hand points to zero. Then count steadily 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., until this hand
reaches 30 seconds.
Assume, as is very commonly the case, that the balance should make
18,000 vibrations in an hour, or 150 in a half-minute, and that, on counting
its vibrations, we find 65 double vibrations, or 130 beats, whereas it should
give 150. It is thus 20 beats slow. Advance the index, and repeat the
operation; and so on till the regulation is effected.
A greater degree of accuracy will be secured by counting for a longer
period, say one, two, or three minutes; but when this is done, it is advisable,
in order to avoid confusion, to recommence at one after each 30 or 50 have
been counted, because all that is required is the final deviation.
Remarks. 1. All men are not equally quick of perception, so that, in
counting and uttering the word one, it will be found to correspond with the
end of the first beat in the case of some observers, and its commencement
with others. By practicing on a well regulated watch, a watchmaker can
determine to which of these classes he belongs. If to the second, he should
double the one at starting; in other words, he should count thus:
1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.
2. Advantage may be taken of the principle of the sounding-board by
placing the watch on a sonorous body which will make the vibrations
Page 362
louder, or by placing between the plate of the watch and the ear a rod that is
a good conductor of sound. By either or both of these means, the operation
is rendered very easy, especially if the vibration counter recording the tens
is employed.
486. Another Method of Regulating a Watch. When the movement is
in going order, arrest the balance and make a mark with rouge on one arm
of the escape-wheel. Release the balance when the seconds hand of the
regulator crosses 60. Observing the number of revolutions that should be
made by the escape-wheel in a given time (it would be six turns per minute
with an ordinary 18,000 train), count its revolutions while the fourth wheel
makes one complete turn; indeed, even this counting may be avoided by
making a rouge mark on its edge where it corresponds with the mark
already made on the escape-wheel. If after two or three minutes these two
marks are found to occupy similar positions at the instant the seconds hand
of the regulator crosses 60, the watch is to time. If there is any difference it
is easy to ascertain whether this indicates a gain or a loss, and the index is
moved accordingly.
487. To Regulate a Clock. The timing of timepieces by counting
vibrations is much more easy than that of watches.
Before removing the pendulum count the number of its vibrations during
two or three minutes. This time will be sufficient to afford a guide in
regulating the clock after it has been repaired.
In most modern timepieces the escape wheel makes 120 revolutions in an
hour, or two in a minute. Hence we have two modes of timing.
(1). Having made a light mark on the circumference of this wheel
opposite to a fixed point, observe if the coincidence is maintained after
intervals of two or three.
(2). Multiply the number of the escape-wheel teeth by 2, and the product
by 120. This gives the number of oscillations the pendulum should make in
an hour. Thence deduce the number it should make in two minutes, or the
number per minutes can be obtained by multiplying the first product by 2,
and it only remains to count the number actually performed in any definite
interval.
a good conductor of sound. By either or both of these means, the operation
is rendered very easy, especially if the vibration counter recording the tens
is employed.
486. Another Method of Regulating a Watch. When the movement is
in going order, arrest the balance and make a mark with rouge on one arm
of the escape-wheel. Release the balance when the seconds hand of the
regulator crosses 60. Observing the number of revolutions that should be
made by the escape-wheel in a given time (it would be six turns per minute
with an ordinary 18,000 train), count its revolutions while the fourth wheel
makes one complete turn; indeed, even this counting may be avoided by
making a rouge mark on its edge where it corresponds with the mark
already made on the escape-wheel. If after two or three minutes these two
marks are found to occupy similar positions at the instant the seconds hand
of the regulator crosses 60, the watch is to time. If there is any difference it
is easy to ascertain whether this indicates a gain or a loss, and the index is
moved accordingly.
487. To Regulate a Clock. The timing of timepieces by counting
vibrations is much more easy than that of watches.
Before removing the pendulum count the number of its vibrations during
two or three minutes. This time will be sufficient to afford a guide in
regulating the clock after it has been repaired.
In most modern timepieces the escape wheel makes 120 revolutions in an
hour, or two in a minute. Hence we have two modes of timing.
(1). Having made a light mark on the circumference of this wheel
opposite to a fixed point, observe if the coincidence is maintained after
intervals of two or three.
(2). Multiply the number of the escape-wheel teeth by 2, and the product
by 120. This gives the number of oscillations the pendulum should make in
an hour. Thence deduce the number it should make in two minutes, or the
number per minutes can be obtained by multiplying the first product by 2,
and it only remains to count the number actually performed in any definite
interval.
Page 363
488. Guilmet’s Synchrometer. When a clock is to time, its pendulum
makes a certain definite number of oscillations per minute, dependent on
the train. If, therefore, before taking it to pieces a comparison pendulum be
set to make the same number of oscillations as that of the clock, or if the
former be set to make the number which the train shows that the clock
pendulum should perform, it can be used as a term of comparison for
setting the clock to time after it has been cleaned. This is the principle on
which the synchrometer is based. A pendulum is lightly supported on a
frame, and has an adjustable rod sliding in a tube, and graduated so that it
can be firmly set without difficulty to give the various periods of oscillation
commonly met with in timepieces. The pendulum is hung freely without
any train to drive it, and continues to oscillate for two or three minutes,
quite long enough to ascertain whether agreement is maintained between
the two pendulums.
489. Other Methods of Regulating a Clock. Various plans have been
recently proposed for rapidly timing a clock, all based upon one idea:
namely, the temporary addition of a seconds hand for purposes of
observation. That suggested by M. Jacomin is recommended by its
simplicity.
Having removed the pin and washer that maintain the minute hand in
position in an ordinary timepiece, replace them by a light brass cap that can
be fixed by a screw or in any convenient manner, so that a fine steel pin
projecting from it shall be accurately in the axis of the minute wheel. Part of
a watch movement, comprising only the center, third and fourth wheels with
seconds hand attached, is supported in front of the clock dial, so that this
pin can be inserted in place of the set-hands arbor, and it is evident that, if
the clock is to time, the seconds hand should perform one revolution per
minute as it will form part of the clock train. The length of pendulum must
then be varied until this condition is found to be satisfied.
T I MING I N PO S I T I O NS .
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL.
makes a certain definite number of oscillations per minute, dependent on
the train. If, therefore, before taking it to pieces a comparison pendulum be
set to make the same number of oscillations as that of the clock, or if the
former be set to make the number which the train shows that the clock
pendulum should perform, it can be used as a term of comparison for
setting the clock to time after it has been cleaned. This is the principle on
which the synchrometer is based. A pendulum is lightly supported on a
frame, and has an adjustable rod sliding in a tube, and graduated so that it
can be firmly set without difficulty to give the various periods of oscillation
commonly met with in timepieces. The pendulum is hung freely without
any train to drive it, and continues to oscillate for two or three minutes,
quite long enough to ascertain whether agreement is maintained between
the two pendulums.
489. Other Methods of Regulating a Clock. Various plans have been
recently proposed for rapidly timing a clock, all based upon one idea:
namely, the temporary addition of a seconds hand for purposes of
observation. That suggested by M. Jacomin is recommended by its
simplicity.
Having removed the pin and washer that maintain the minute hand in
position in an ordinary timepiece, replace them by a light brass cap that can
be fixed by a screw or in any convenient manner, so that a fine steel pin
projecting from it shall be accurately in the axis of the minute wheel. Part of
a watch movement, comprising only the center, third and fourth wheels with
seconds hand attached, is supported in front of the clock dial, so that this
pin can be inserted in place of the set-hands arbor, and it is evident that, if
the clock is to time, the seconds hand should perform one revolution per
minute as it will form part of the clock train. The length of pendulum must
then be varied until this condition is found to be satisfied.
T I MING I N PO S I T I O NS .
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL.
Page 364
490. To adjust a watch so that it has the same rate when first placed in a
horizontal and then in a vertical position is a delicate and often difficult
operation; thus it is seldom found to be properly done in ordinary watches.
The rates in a vertical and horizontal position are made identical or
nearly so by equalizing the resistances that interfere with the motion of the
balance in the two cases, and by taking advantage of the displacement of
the center of gravity of the balance spring.
Satisfactory results will be obtained in most cases by employing the
following methods, either separately, or two or more together, according to
the results of experiments or the rates, the experience and the judgment of
the workman:
1. Flatten slightly the ends of the balance pivots so as to increase their
radii of friction; when the watch is lying flat the friction will thus become
greater.
2. Let the thickness of the jewel-holes be no more than is absolutely
necessary. It is sometimes thought sufficient to chamfer the jewel hole so as
to reduce the surface on which friction occurs; but this does not quite meet
the case, since an appreciable column of oil is maintained against the pivot.
3. Reduce the diameters of the pivots, of course changing the jewel-
holes. The resistance due to friction, when the watch is vertical, increases
rapidly with any increase in the diameters of pivots.
4. Let the balance spring be accurately centered, or it must usually be so
placed that the lateral pull tends to lift the balance when the watch is
hanging vertical. In this and the next succeeding case it would sometimes
be advantageous to be able to change the point at which it is fixed; but this
is seldom possible.
5. Replace the balance spring by one that is longer or shorter but of the
same strength; this is with a view to increase or diminish the lateral pressure
in accordance with the explanation given in the last paragraph.
6. Set the escapement so that the strongest impulse corresponds with the
greatest resistance of the balance.
7. Replace the balance. A balance that is much too heavy renders the
timing for position impossible.
horizontal and then in a vertical position is a delicate and often difficult
operation; thus it is seldom found to be properly done in ordinary watches.
The rates in a vertical and horizontal position are made identical or
nearly so by equalizing the resistances that interfere with the motion of the
balance in the two cases, and by taking advantage of the displacement of
the center of gravity of the balance spring.
Satisfactory results will be obtained in most cases by employing the
following methods, either separately, or two or more together, according to
the results of experiments or the rates, the experience and the judgment of
the workman:
1. Flatten slightly the ends of the balance pivots so as to increase their
radii of friction; when the watch is lying flat the friction will thus become
greater.
2. Let the thickness of the jewel-holes be no more than is absolutely
necessary. It is sometimes thought sufficient to chamfer the jewel hole so as
to reduce the surface on which friction occurs; but this does not quite meet
the case, since an appreciable column of oil is maintained against the pivot.
3. Reduce the diameters of the pivots, of course changing the jewel-
holes. The resistance due to friction, when the watch is vertical, increases
rapidly with any increase in the diameters of pivots.
4. Let the balance spring be accurately centered, or it must usually be so
placed that the lateral pull tends to lift the balance when the watch is
hanging vertical. In this and the next succeeding case it would sometimes
be advantageous to be able to change the point at which it is fixed; but this
is seldom possible.
5. Replace the balance spring by one that is longer or shorter but of the
same strength; this is with a view to increase or diminish the lateral pressure
in accordance with the explanation given in the last paragraph.
6. Set the escapement so that the strongest impulse corresponds with the
greatest resistance of the balance.
7. Replace the balance. A balance that is much too heavy renders the
timing for position impossible.
Page 365
8. Lastly, when these methods are inapplicable or insufficient, there only
remains the very common practice of setting the balance “out of poise.”
If there is a gain in the vertical hanging position of the watch, slightly
reduce the lower side of the balance; the oscillation will increase somewhat
in extent, and there will be a losing rate in this position.
The converse must be done in the opposite case.
When the vibration exceeds a whole turn, the changes will be the reverse
of those above indicated. This fact must not be forgotten, especially in
regard to the duplex and lever escapements, which may at first make a
vibration of more than a turn, and subsequently less, according to the state
of the oil.
We would again observe that the timing of a watch for position presents
some difficulty, and it will only be after making a number of trials that the
watchmaker will be able to accomplish it with certainty.
N O T E O N T HE P RO P O RT IO N S O F BAL A N CE S.
491. Two very important elements in the timing are the weight and
dimensions of the balance; it is, then, necessary that a watchmaker should
practice himself in observing their relative values, and the effect of
increasing one at the expense of the other on timing, and more especially on
timing for positions.
The sensibility of a balance to variations in the motive force, and the time
that elapses between the initial short vibration and the first that is of normal
extent, a time that is approximately constant will serve as criteria. A balance
that is very sensitive to variations in the motive force is generally too small;
and one that attains to the normal arc of vibration almost instantaneously is,
as a rule, too light. The converse effects would indicate that the size and
weight were excessive.
In order that he may be able to practically apply these remarks, the
workman should gain experience by making observations on several
watches whose rate is known to be good, in the following manner.
remains the very common practice of setting the balance “out of poise.”
If there is a gain in the vertical hanging position of the watch, slightly
reduce the lower side of the balance; the oscillation will increase somewhat
in extent, and there will be a losing rate in this position.
The converse must be done in the opposite case.
When the vibration exceeds a whole turn, the changes will be the reverse
of those above indicated. This fact must not be forgotten, especially in
regard to the duplex and lever escapements, which may at first make a
vibration of more than a turn, and subsequently less, according to the state
of the oil.
We would again observe that the timing of a watch for position presents
some difficulty, and it will only be after making a number of trials that the
watchmaker will be able to accomplish it with certainty.
N O T E O N T HE P RO P O RT IO N S O F BAL A N CE S.
491. Two very important elements in the timing are the weight and
dimensions of the balance; it is, then, necessary that a watchmaker should
practice himself in observing their relative values, and the effect of
increasing one at the expense of the other on timing, and more especially on
timing for positions.
The sensibility of a balance to variations in the motive force, and the time
that elapses between the initial short vibration and the first that is of normal
extent, a time that is approximately constant will serve as criteria. A balance
that is very sensitive to variations in the motive force is generally too small;
and one that attains to the normal arc of vibration almost instantaneously is,
as a rule, too light. The converse effects would indicate that the size and
weight were excessive.
In order that he may be able to practically apply these remarks, the
workman should gain experience by making observations on several
watches whose rate is known to be good, in the following manner.
Page 366
In regard to weight: Stop the balance at the position of rest of its spring,
then release it and count the number of vibrations up to the point at which
the normal arc is attained; the extent of this must have been previously
recorded on the plate with rouge marks.
Record the number thus obtained in a table opposite to the dimensions of
the balance, and, by comparing these dimensions with those of another
balance of equal size, the weight can be ascertained and also recorded.
In regard to size: Pass through the center pinion a kind of short screw
arbor carrying a large thin ferrule, on which a cord supporting a weight is
coiled. Fixing the movement in a movement holder, set it in a vertical plane
and observe the extent of the vibrations of the balance with different
weights attached to the cord.
These arcs should also be recorded in the table opposite to the
dimensions of the balance. With sufficient practice the watchmaker will be
enabled to judge at a glance whether the weight and size are well
proportioned.
DE MAG NE T IZ ING .
492. The following method of removing the magnetism from a watch that
has been accidentally brought under the influence of a powerful magnet is
proposed by Professor A. L. Mayer. We shall not here enter more fully into
the subject than is necessary to indicate the manner in which a watchmaker
may restore the steel work to its original condition.
Take a delicately suspended magnetic needle, say a mariner’s compass,
the length of which is about equal to the diameter of the watch, and lay it on
a table. Now place the watch to be operated on, which should not be going,
on the table close to the needle and on either the east or west side of it,
having previously turned the box around until the needle points to zero.
Taking care not to vary the distance between the centers of the watch and
compass, observe the number of graduations to which the north end of the
needle is deflected with each figure on the dial brought in succession
nearest to the compass; it is also necessary to note whether the deflection is
towards the east or west.
then release it and count the number of vibrations up to the point at which
the normal arc is attained; the extent of this must have been previously
recorded on the plate with rouge marks.
Record the number thus obtained in a table opposite to the dimensions of
the balance, and, by comparing these dimensions with those of another
balance of equal size, the weight can be ascertained and also recorded.
In regard to size: Pass through the center pinion a kind of short screw
arbor carrying a large thin ferrule, on which a cord supporting a weight is
coiled. Fixing the movement in a movement holder, set it in a vertical plane
and observe the extent of the vibrations of the balance with different
weights attached to the cord.
These arcs should also be recorded in the table opposite to the
dimensions of the balance. With sufficient practice the watchmaker will be
enabled to judge at a glance whether the weight and size are well
proportioned.
DE MAG NE T IZ ING .
492. The following method of removing the magnetism from a watch that
has been accidentally brought under the influence of a powerful magnet is
proposed by Professor A. L. Mayer. We shall not here enter more fully into
the subject than is necessary to indicate the manner in which a watchmaker
may restore the steel work to its original condition.
Take a delicately suspended magnetic needle, say a mariner’s compass,
the length of which is about equal to the diameter of the watch, and lay it on
a table. Now place the watch to be operated on, which should not be going,
on the table close to the needle and on either the east or west side of it,
having previously turned the box around until the needle points to zero.
Taking care not to vary the distance between the centers of the watch and
compass, observe the number of graduations to which the north end of the
needle is deflected with each figure on the dial brought in succession
nearest to the compass; it is also necessary to note whether the deflection is
towards the east or west.
Page 367
For example, assume that the watch is on the east side, and that, with
noon nearest to the compass, the north end of the needle is turned 12° to the
east, that is, towards the watch. This shows that some point in the watch in
the neighborhood of the number XII on the dial possesses what is known as
“north polarity,” and if the deflection had been to the west the polarity
would have been “south.”
493. To take an example. Let the results of a series of trials with the
several hours in succession towards the compass be as given in the
following table:
Hour nearest to the
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
Compass
Angle of
5° 18° 72° 56° 22° 5° 17° 16° 16° 20° 24° 20°
Deflection
Direction of
E W W W W E E E E E E E
Deflection
Hence Polarity is N S S S S N N N N N N N
Fig. 228.
It will be seen that the greatest deflection westward corresponds to three
o’clock, and, in the easterly direction, to eleven o’clock. This shows that the
strongest south and north polarity are respectively in these directions. The
first thing to be done is, then, to eliminate this particular magnetism.
Placing a bar magnet in a horizontal direction, approach the watch to its
south-seeking end in such a manner that a line X X′, Fig. 228, through the
axis of the magnet, will pass through the center c of the watch, the figure
noon nearest to the compass, the north end of the needle is turned 12° to the
east, that is, towards the watch. This shows that some point in the watch in
the neighborhood of the number XII on the dial possesses what is known as
“north polarity,” and if the deflection had been to the west the polarity
would have been “south.”
493. To take an example. Let the results of a series of trials with the
several hours in succession towards the compass be as given in the
following table:
Hour nearest to the
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
Compass
Angle of
5° 18° 72° 56° 22° 5° 17° 16° 16° 20° 24° 20°
Deflection
Direction of
E W W W W E E E E E E E
Deflection
Hence Polarity is N S S S S N N N N N N N
Fig. 228.
It will be seen that the greatest deflection westward corresponds to three
o’clock, and, in the easterly direction, to eleven o’clock. This shows that the
strongest south and north polarity are respectively in these directions. The
first thing to be done is, then, to eliminate this particular magnetism.
Placing a bar magnet in a horizontal direction, approach the watch to its
south-seeking end in such a manner that a line X X′, Fig. 228, through the
axis of the magnet, will pass through the center c of the watch, the figure
Page 368
XI, which marks the point of extreme north polarity, being nearest to the bar
magnet. Now cause the watch to oscillate so that it alternately takes up the
two positions a and b, and, when this has been several times repeated, bring
III in a similar manner near the north-seeking pole of the bar magnet,
oscillating the watch in the same way. Again try the watch with the
compass, repeating the above operations if necessary until the readings are
somewhat as follows:
Hour nearest to the
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
Compass
Angle of Deflection 5° 4° 0° 5° 8° 2° 4° 4° 2° 1° 0° 2°
Direction of Deflection E E W W W E E E E E
Hence Polarity is N N S S S N N N N N
These figures show that, in counteracting the polarity at III and XI, the
magnetic action of the watch in all other positions has, as might indeed
have been anticipated, materially diminished. Such a condition of things
will, of course, not be attained at once, and it may even happen that the
polarity at the two points III and XI is reversed; in such a case it is only
necessary to oscillate the III in front of the south-seeking pole instead of the
north.
The last table shows that a maximum south polarity is now at V, and
north at I. These points must therefore be operated upon in the same
manner, and, by proceeding in this manner, and successively eliminating the
worst points, the magnetism may be effectually removed.
As proving the efficiency of the above method, Prof. Mayer mentions a
case in which a watch lost one hour in six in consequence of magnetism,
and yet after the above treatment, it resumed its original rate of about a
second per day.
494. Another Method. A second method of procedure has recently been
described by H. S. Maxim. He employs a specially arranged apparatus,
based on the principle that if a watch or other object be subjected to rapid
alterations of magnetism, while gradually withdrawing it from the influence
of the magnetic poles, the distance ultimately becomes so great that the
reversals are inappreciable, when the watch is found to be demagnetized. A
magnet. Now cause the watch to oscillate so that it alternately takes up the
two positions a and b, and, when this has been several times repeated, bring
III in a similar manner near the north-seeking pole of the bar magnet,
oscillating the watch in the same way. Again try the watch with the
compass, repeating the above operations if necessary until the readings are
somewhat as follows:
Hour nearest to the
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII
Compass
Angle of Deflection 5° 4° 0° 5° 8° 2° 4° 4° 2° 1° 0° 2°
Direction of Deflection E E W W W E E E E E
Hence Polarity is N N S S S N N N N N
These figures show that, in counteracting the polarity at III and XI, the
magnetic action of the watch in all other positions has, as might indeed
have been anticipated, materially diminished. Such a condition of things
will, of course, not be attained at once, and it may even happen that the
polarity at the two points III and XI is reversed; in such a case it is only
necessary to oscillate the III in front of the south-seeking pole instead of the
north.
The last table shows that a maximum south polarity is now at V, and
north at I. These points must therefore be operated upon in the same
manner, and, by proceeding in this manner, and successively eliminating the
worst points, the magnetism may be effectually removed.
As proving the efficiency of the above method, Prof. Mayer mentions a
case in which a watch lost one hour in six in consequence of magnetism,
and yet after the above treatment, it resumed its original rate of about a
second per day.
494. Another Method. A second method of procedure has recently been
described by H. S. Maxim. He employs a specially arranged apparatus,
based on the principle that if a watch or other object be subjected to rapid
alterations of magnetism, while gradually withdrawing it from the influence
of the magnetic poles, the distance ultimately becomes so great that the
reversals are inappreciable, when the watch is found to be demagnetized. A
Page 369
bar magnet is arranged to revolve in a horizontal plane around a vertical
axis; the watch being placed in a small pocket opposite to the magnet, is
caused to rotate in an ever-shifting vertical plane, while the frame
supporting it rotates in a horizontal plane. While these movements continue
the watch carrier is gradually moved away from the magnet by the action of
a long horizontal screw, and it is stated that watches that have been
completely spoiled can be rendered perfectly free from magnetism by such
an apparatus.
FOOTNOTES:
[6] Les Montres sans Clefs (Geneva).
axis; the watch being placed in a small pocket opposite to the magnet, is
caused to rotate in an ever-shifting vertical plane, while the frame
supporting it rotates in a horizontal plane. While these movements continue
the watch carrier is gradually moved away from the magnet by the action of
a long horizontal screw, and it is stated that watches that have been
completely spoiled can be rendered perfectly free from magnetism by such
an apparatus.
FOOTNOTES:
[6] Les Montres sans Clefs (Geneva).
Page 370
PART VI.
PRACTICAL RECIPES.
495. The practical operations of the watchmaker are numerous and of a
very varied character. Detailed instructions in regard to the proper conduct
of a large number of them will be given in this part of the work, and
frequent references will be made to former parts of this volume, whenever
by so doing repetition can be avoided.
The operations herein discussed are often of so dissimilar a nature that it
has been found impossible to classify them in such a manner that will
always ensure the reader finding the information he requires without waste
of time; and any risk of this would seriously impair the value of such a
hand-book as the present. A very full index has therefore been added, and
when seeking for details concerning any particular operation, this should in
all cases be first consulted.
T HE P L AT E.
496. To Make a Plate. The sheet of brass having been prepared in the
manner explained in article 103, roughly rounded and smoothed on one
face, is cemented to the chuck of a lathe. Turn out the other face of the plate
very flat, and make the circumference square.
When using a lathe the face must first be roughed out, and then the plate
is to be cemented to a perforated plate, so that it can be centered and
finished. Smooth the exposed face with a well-set cutter and turn the inside
PRACTICAL RECIPES.
495. The practical operations of the watchmaker are numerous and of a
very varied character. Detailed instructions in regard to the proper conduct
of a large number of them will be given in this part of the work, and
frequent references will be made to former parts of this volume, whenever
by so doing repetition can be avoided.
The operations herein discussed are often of so dissimilar a nature that it
has been found impossible to classify them in such a manner that will
always ensure the reader finding the information he requires without waste
of time; and any risk of this would seriously impair the value of such a
hand-book as the present. A very full index has therefore been added, and
when seeking for details concerning any particular operation, this should in
all cases be first consulted.
T HE P L AT E.
496. To Make a Plate. The sheet of brass having been prepared in the
manner explained in article 103, roughly rounded and smoothed on one
face, is cemented to the chuck of a lathe. Turn out the other face of the plate
very flat, and make the circumference square.
When using a lathe the face must first be roughed out, and then the plate
is to be cemented to a perforated plate, so that it can be centered and
finished. Smooth the exposed face with a well-set cutter and turn the inside
Page 371
and outside of the edge; then make sure that the whole is concentric by a
light cut with a cylindrical drill in the center hole. After removing and
cleaning the plate it is set up in the dogs, and the face that has hitherto been
untouched is gently dressed with the graver.
There will thus be left a narrow ring at the edge that is not touched by the
graver: this may be levelled with a smooth-cut file, and the whole surface
then smoothed as explained in article 171.
If a lathe is not available, the plate must be
cemented to an arbor of the form shown at y, Fig. 229.
The heel of this is received in a runner of the turns,
while the point of the opposite runner is received by
the hole in the center of the plate, which is thereby
held in close contact with the plate of y, the revolution
being, of course, produced by a bow. While the
cement is still hot, a stick resting on the T-rest will
serve to ensure the concentricity of the plate until it is
Fig. 229.
set. This setting may be rendered more rapid by the
application of cold water.
Turn out the plate with a hooked graver made of a worn out file, and, if
the upper or under side does not run true, turn the portion that projects
beyond the chuck with a graver, and, when the plate is removed, face the
surface, taking the flat ring produced by the graver as a guide, and taking
care to avoid altering any portion of it.
The smaller sinks can also be made in the same primitive manner, to
which we have only drawn attention for the sake of watchmakers who are
ill-provided with tools. But we would at the same time point out that, at the
present day, there should not be a single one who does not know how to
extemporize a lathe-head.
497. Cocks and Bars. If it is required to make all the cocks and bars of a
watch, prepare a false plate, the thickness of which is a trifle greater than
that of the highest cock or bar; then turn on the under side a series of sinks
to correspond with the thin portions of the cocks and bars. Cut the several
parts out of this plate with a fine saw, and it only remains to shape their
contours with a file.
light cut with a cylindrical drill in the center hole. After removing and
cleaning the plate it is set up in the dogs, and the face that has hitherto been
untouched is gently dressed with the graver.
There will thus be left a narrow ring at the edge that is not touched by the
graver: this may be levelled with a smooth-cut file, and the whole surface
then smoothed as explained in article 171.
If a lathe is not available, the plate must be
cemented to an arbor of the form shown at y, Fig. 229.
The heel of this is received in a runner of the turns,
while the point of the opposite runner is received by
the hole in the center of the plate, which is thereby
held in close contact with the plate of y, the revolution
being, of course, produced by a bow. While the
cement is still hot, a stick resting on the T-rest will
serve to ensure the concentricity of the plate until it is
Fig. 229.
set. This setting may be rendered more rapid by the
application of cold water.
Turn out the plate with a hooked graver made of a worn out file, and, if
the upper or under side does not run true, turn the portion that projects
beyond the chuck with a graver, and, when the plate is removed, face the
surface, taking the flat ring produced by the graver as a guide, and taking
care to avoid altering any portion of it.
The smaller sinks can also be made in the same primitive manner, to
which we have only drawn attention for the sake of watchmakers who are
ill-provided with tools. But we would at the same time point out that, at the
present day, there should not be a single one who does not know how to
extemporize a lathe-head.
497. Cocks and Bars. If it is required to make all the cocks and bars of a
watch, prepare a false plate, the thickness of which is a trifle greater than
that of the highest cock or bar; then turn on the under side a series of sinks
to correspond with the thin portions of the cocks and bars. Cut the several
parts out of this plate with a fine saw, and it only remains to shape their
contours with a file.
Page 372
The same method may be adopted if a number of identical cocks have to
be made at a time.
T HE BAR RE L .
INCLUDING ARBOR, STOPWORK, MAINSPRING, ETC.
498. To Make a Barrel. Having trued both faces of the brass, and drilled
a central hole rather less than that finally required and exactly perpendicular
to the faces, turn away the brass from the inside (leaving a considerable
excess of metal at the center to form the shoulder), and form the ring on
which the teeth are to be cut, if it is a going-barrel, in the ordinary lathe on a
wax chuck. Then fasten the plane surface, which must be quite true, to a
smooth plate that is of uniform thickness and has a hole in the center to
permit the passage of the pump-center. Having fixed the plate by the
mandrel dogs, finish with well-set gravers: 1 the inside; 2 the external
cylindrical surface both of the barrel and of the ring left for the teeth; 3 the
barrel-cover groove; and 4 with a fine-pointed cutter slightly enlarge the
central hole. By this means it is possible to ensure that the barrel will turn
true and in the flat. Smooth the inside, more especially the groove, the
corner of which must always be carefully smoothed and polished.
The cutting of the recess in the barrel-cover (of a Swiss or French watch)
that gives freedom to the motion work, as well as the recesses for the
stopwork, will not present any difficulty when the workman is provided
with a lathe with or without a slide-rest.
When there is no slide-rest, the tool
shown at d, Fig. 230, can be used for
making the groove. A strip of metal of
rectangular section has a small cutter
Fig. 230. clamped in a slot in its surface at a slight
inclination. By releasing the two screws of
the clamp, this cutter can be advanced to
any required extent, and in the strip of metal are two or three slots having
different degrees of inclination, so that the one can be selected that
corresponds with the depth of the groove.
be made at a time.
T HE BAR RE L .
INCLUDING ARBOR, STOPWORK, MAINSPRING, ETC.
498. To Make a Barrel. Having trued both faces of the brass, and drilled
a central hole rather less than that finally required and exactly perpendicular
to the faces, turn away the brass from the inside (leaving a considerable
excess of metal at the center to form the shoulder), and form the ring on
which the teeth are to be cut, if it is a going-barrel, in the ordinary lathe on a
wax chuck. Then fasten the plane surface, which must be quite true, to a
smooth plate that is of uniform thickness and has a hole in the center to
permit the passage of the pump-center. Having fixed the plate by the
mandrel dogs, finish with well-set gravers: 1 the inside; 2 the external
cylindrical surface both of the barrel and of the ring left for the teeth; 3 the
barrel-cover groove; and 4 with a fine-pointed cutter slightly enlarge the
central hole. By this means it is possible to ensure that the barrel will turn
true and in the flat. Smooth the inside, more especially the groove, the
corner of which must always be carefully smoothed and polished.
The cutting of the recess in the barrel-cover (of a Swiss or French watch)
that gives freedom to the motion work, as well as the recesses for the
stopwork, will not present any difficulty when the workman is provided
with a lathe with or without a slide-rest.
When there is no slide-rest, the tool
shown at d, Fig. 230, can be used for
making the groove. A strip of metal of
rectangular section has a small cutter
Fig. 230. clamped in a slot in its surface at a slight
inclination. By releasing the two screws of
the clamp, this cutter can be advanced to
any required extent, and in the strip of metal are two or three slots having
different degrees of inclination, so that the one can be selected that
corresponds with the depth of the groove.
Page 373
499. To Make the Star-Wheel Sink. This is easy on the lathe, the
requisite degree of eccentricity being given to the barrel-cover by means of
the pump-center.
500. The Cover: Form of the Groove. As in making the barrel, a thick
ring must be left at the middle of the cover to be afterwards removed.
Fig. 231 is an enlarged figure to show the mode in which a
cover is held in its groove. The two are so formed that the
cover shall pass into the recess with the least possible
resistance, and yet be held firmly without a risk of rotation. It
is, nevertheless, a good precaution to fix a pin in the rim so
that it shall prevent such an accident.
501. Barrel Hook. It is necessary to observe that a certain Fig. 231.
amount of caution must be exercised in regard to the barrel
hook, for at least three-quarters of those met with are badly made. A large
hook, projecting far into the barrel, as often occurs, occupies a needless
amount of space, and at times occasions the breaking of the spring. One that
is badly formed or does not project sufficiently allows the spring to escape.
A hook should project rather beyond the thickness of the spring; if too thick
the spring will be weakened at its eye; if too thin, it is liable to give when
the pull of the mainspring is exerted on it.
The circumference of the barrel must be drilled through exactly midway
between the bottom and the groove, in a direction that is slightly inclined,
so as to resist the pull of the mainspring. A thread is cut in this hole with a
conical tap, arresting its advance just before the full threads are reached, in
order to make sure that the brass screw to be subsequently inserted shall
hold firmly. Then tap the brass wire from which a hook is to be made.
Allowing a length to project beyond the screw-plate equal to about one and
a half times the thickness of the mainspring, file the two sides flat, round off
the point, inclining it slightly backwards, and form the hook with a fine
screw-head slitting or other suitable file; then remove the wire from the
screw-plate and hold it in a pin vise.
The angle a (c′, Fig. 232) is now filed down so as not to project within
the barrel; any burr that might interfere with its introduction is also
removed and the hook is then screwed into its place. It will be easy to
ascertain whether the various heights, etc., are correct before screwing it
requisite degree of eccentricity being given to the barrel-cover by means of
the pump-center.
500. The Cover: Form of the Groove. As in making the barrel, a thick
ring must be left at the middle of the cover to be afterwards removed.
Fig. 231 is an enlarged figure to show the mode in which a
cover is held in its groove. The two are so formed that the
cover shall pass into the recess with the least possible
resistance, and yet be held firmly without a risk of rotation. It
is, nevertheless, a good precaution to fix a pin in the rim so
that it shall prevent such an accident.
501. Barrel Hook. It is necessary to observe that a certain Fig. 231.
amount of caution must be exercised in regard to the barrel
hook, for at least three-quarters of those met with are badly made. A large
hook, projecting far into the barrel, as often occurs, occupies a needless
amount of space, and at times occasions the breaking of the spring. One that
is badly formed or does not project sufficiently allows the spring to escape.
A hook should project rather beyond the thickness of the spring; if too thick
the spring will be weakened at its eye; if too thin, it is liable to give when
the pull of the mainspring is exerted on it.
The circumference of the barrel must be drilled through exactly midway
between the bottom and the groove, in a direction that is slightly inclined,
so as to resist the pull of the mainspring. A thread is cut in this hole with a
conical tap, arresting its advance just before the full threads are reached, in
order to make sure that the brass screw to be subsequently inserted shall
hold firmly. Then tap the brass wire from which a hook is to be made.
Allowing a length to project beyond the screw-plate equal to about one and
a half times the thickness of the mainspring, file the two sides flat, round off
the point, inclining it slightly backwards, and form the hook with a fine
screw-head slitting or other suitable file; then remove the wire from the
screw-plate and hold it in a pin vise.
The angle a (c′, Fig. 232) is now filed down so as not to project within
the barrel; any burr that might interfere with its introduction is also
removed and the hook is then screwed into its place. It will be easy to
ascertain whether the various heights, etc., are correct before screwing it
Page 374
tight home. Then screw the hook into position so that
it requires the application of some force in doing so
and cut off the external portion level with the surface
of the barrel, employing a sharp cutting file. But if it
appears necessary to withdraw the hook to make any
alteration, this should be done before bringing it to the
final position.
Some watchmakers do not take such precautions;
they fit a piece of hard brass wire to the hole, beveling
off the end that is to form the hook, then cut off the
wire nearly flush with the outer surface of the drum
and, resting the back of the hook against a piece of
steel, give a blow with the hammer so as to bend the
point of the hook. But this method, although
expeditious, is not the best and it does not always
succeed. Fig. 232.
502. To Repair a Barrel. When the play or the end
shake of the pivots is considerable, bush the holes with bushings turned on
a smooth taper arbor. They must not be riveted roughly, as there is a danger
of distorting the bushing or of causing the bottom of the barrel to “cockle.”
If there is any fear that the bushing will be thus distorted or that the barrel
will not run true after the operation, it will be well to employ large bushings
in which the hole is less than that ultimately required. Then center from the
circumference and enlarge the hole, at the same time truing it.
Some practical watchmakers, if the bottom of the barrel is thin, or if
special solidity is requisite, fear that the bushing may become loose; they,
therefore, enlarge the barrel-hole and make it square; then bush it with a
piece of plain brass, and having centered the barrel by its circumference in
the lathe, drill a central hole.
It is hardly necessary to observe that, when the holes in both barrel and
cover require to be operated upon, a pin should be fixed so as to prevent the
latter from rotating in its groove; so that before finally removing the barrel
from the lathe, the cover can be put in position to have its center accurately
adjusted with a long pointed graver.
it requires the application of some force in doing so
and cut off the external portion level with the surface
of the barrel, employing a sharp cutting file. But if it
appears necessary to withdraw the hook to make any
alteration, this should be done before bringing it to the
final position.
Some watchmakers do not take such precautions;
they fit a piece of hard brass wire to the hole, beveling
off the end that is to form the hook, then cut off the
wire nearly flush with the outer surface of the drum
and, resting the back of the hook against a piece of
steel, give a blow with the hammer so as to bend the
point of the hook. But this method, although
expeditious, is not the best and it does not always
succeed. Fig. 232.
502. To Repair a Barrel. When the play or the end
shake of the pivots is considerable, bush the holes with bushings turned on
a smooth taper arbor. They must not be riveted roughly, as there is a danger
of distorting the bushing or of causing the bottom of the barrel to “cockle.”
If there is any fear that the bushing will be thus distorted or that the barrel
will not run true after the operation, it will be well to employ large bushings
in which the hole is less than that ultimately required. Then center from the
circumference and enlarge the hole, at the same time truing it.
Some practical watchmakers, if the bottom of the barrel is thin, or if
special solidity is requisite, fear that the bushing may become loose; they,
therefore, enlarge the barrel-hole and make it square; then bush it with a
piece of plain brass, and having centered the barrel by its circumference in
the lathe, drill a central hole.
It is hardly necessary to observe that, when the holes in both barrel and
cover require to be operated upon, a pin should be fixed so as to prevent the
latter from rotating in its groove; so that before finally removing the barrel
from the lathe, the cover can be put in position to have its center accurately
adjusted with a long pointed graver.
Page 375
503. A Barrel That Does Not Run True. The remedy for this has just
been indicated: enlarge the holes and rivet in them bushings that are either
plain or have only very small holes. The two holes can then be accurately
centered with a slide-rest and cutter of the requisite form.
It is a very simple process, and yet there
are some workmen who, either from not
possessing a lathe or ignorance as to how
it should be used, set the barrel on a screw
arbor, and, after having topped the teeth,
round by hand those teeth which have been
touched. This method of procedure is
longer than the former and gives results
that are worse; moreover, since the screw-
arbors are rarely themselves true,
especially in regard to the cones, which Fig. 233.
will be found to have a play on the axis, it
is far better to set the barrel in cement on an arbor of the form c, Fig. 233,
on the center pin of which the barrel-hole fits without play; the middle of
plate c must not be too thickly coated with cement.
504. Barrel Out of Upright. Several methods may be resorted to for
adjusting a barrel that does not turn flat on its axis. Assume that the holes
are not too large, for it has just been shown that by bushing the holes and
truing them on the lathe, it is always possible to ensure that a barrel shall be
true on its axis.
To true it without renewing the holes, first try turning the cover round in
its groove by successive short stages, and test its truth each time; the arbor
being clamped in a pair of sliding tongs and a card held close to the teeth.
If, after the entire circumference has been tested, no point is found that
satisfies the requisite conditions, the edge of the cover must be gently
hammered (a piece of silver paper being first laid on the anvil so as to avoid
marking the gilding) on the side at which the teeth pass farthest from the
card and the effect of the operation must be tested. This hammering should
be done very carefully and little at a time, and if too great a strain is put on
the cover to force it into the groove, some metal must be removed from the
side opposite to that at which the hammering occurred. Hence, if the one
side is too much extended in the first instance, so that a large amount of
been indicated: enlarge the holes and rivet in them bushings that are either
plain or have only very small holes. The two holes can then be accurately
centered with a slide-rest and cutter of the requisite form.
It is a very simple process, and yet there
are some workmen who, either from not
possessing a lathe or ignorance as to how
it should be used, set the barrel on a screw
arbor, and, after having topped the teeth,
round by hand those teeth which have been
touched. This method of procedure is
longer than the former and gives results
that are worse; moreover, since the screw-
arbors are rarely themselves true,
especially in regard to the cones, which Fig. 233.
will be found to have a play on the axis, it
is far better to set the barrel in cement on an arbor of the form c, Fig. 233,
on the center pin of which the barrel-hole fits without play; the middle of
plate c must not be too thickly coated with cement.
504. Barrel Out of Upright. Several methods may be resorted to for
adjusting a barrel that does not turn flat on its axis. Assume that the holes
are not too large, for it has just been shown that by bushing the holes and
truing them on the lathe, it is always possible to ensure that a barrel shall be
true on its axis.
To true it without renewing the holes, first try turning the cover round in
its groove by successive short stages, and test its truth each time; the arbor
being clamped in a pair of sliding tongs and a card held close to the teeth.
If, after the entire circumference has been tested, no point is found that
satisfies the requisite conditions, the edge of the cover must be gently
hammered (a piece of silver paper being first laid on the anvil so as to avoid
marking the gilding) on the side at which the teeth pass farthest from the
card and the effect of the operation must be tested. This hammering should
be done very carefully and little at a time, and if too great a strain is put on
the cover to force it into the groove, some metal must be removed from the
side opposite to that at which the hammering occurred. Hence, if the one
side is too much extended in the first instance, so that a large amount of
Page 376
metal has to be removed from the opposite side, the operation is liable to be
unnecessarily long and difficult. It is hardly necessary to observe that we
are here referring to the modern form of going-barrel, in which the cover is
on the opposite side to the teeth; in the older form, where the reverse is the
case, the opposite edge of the cover must be hammered.
Sometimes a barrel that runs true on its arbor is found to incline when
mounted on the plate: such a fault is due either to the barrel holes being too
large or to the sink that receives the ratchet not being parallel to the plate.
This sink must be trued in the lathe while in position, screwed to the plate
of the watch.
505. To Adjust a Post or Curb in Position.
Make a small punch, a front and side elevation of
which are shown at p p, Fig. 234; harden it and let
it down to a yellow temper at the point. Now fix a
flattened ball of lead in the vise, the upper surface
of which is so formed that the portion of the barrel Fig. 234.
that is to receive the hole for the post may rest
securely. There is no necessity for the entire barrel
to rest on the lead. Place a small piece of mainspring, q, within the barrel
against the circumference, where it will be maintained by the punch p,
which will also hold the barrel steady on the lead block. Then give a
moderate blow with a heavy hammer on the head of the punch, forcing its
point through the barrel.
A burr will be produced outside the barrel, while there will be a
corresponding depression within, especially in front of the hole. To secure
clean edges, pass a file over the external projection, but only sufficiently to
remove its crest, and, resting the inside of the barrel on a lead block, drive
inwards the metal that projects; then pass the punch through in a direction
opposite to the first and of course with less force. Remove the burrs and
repeat the operation first on one side and then on the other with gentle
blows of the hammer, removing the punch by hand. Finish with a very fine
file, which will entirely remove any external burr round the hole, and one
cut with a slide-rest cutter in the inside, followed by charcoal and oil.
A watchmaker that has never performed this operation will do well to
experiment with the punch on a small plate of brass, or, still better, on a
unnecessarily long and difficult. It is hardly necessary to observe that we
are here referring to the modern form of going-barrel, in which the cover is
on the opposite side to the teeth; in the older form, where the reverse is the
case, the opposite edge of the cover must be hammered.
Sometimes a barrel that runs true on its arbor is found to incline when
mounted on the plate: such a fault is due either to the barrel holes being too
large or to the sink that receives the ratchet not being parallel to the plate.
This sink must be trued in the lathe while in position, screwed to the plate
of the watch.
505. To Adjust a Post or Curb in Position.
Make a small punch, a front and side elevation of
which are shown at p p, Fig. 234; harden it and let
it down to a yellow temper at the point. Now fix a
flattened ball of lead in the vise, the upper surface
of which is so formed that the portion of the barrel Fig. 234.
that is to receive the hole for the post may rest
securely. There is no necessity for the entire barrel
to rest on the lead. Place a small piece of mainspring, q, within the barrel
against the circumference, where it will be maintained by the punch p,
which will also hold the barrel steady on the lead block. Then give a
moderate blow with a heavy hammer on the head of the punch, forcing its
point through the barrel.
A burr will be produced outside the barrel, while there will be a
corresponding depression within, especially in front of the hole. To secure
clean edges, pass a file over the external projection, but only sufficiently to
remove its crest, and, resting the inside of the barrel on a lead block, drive
inwards the metal that projects; then pass the punch through in a direction
opposite to the first and of course with less force. Remove the burrs and
repeat the operation first on one side and then on the other with gentle
blows of the hammer, removing the punch by hand. Finish with a very fine
file, which will entirely remove any external burr round the hole, and one
cut with a slide-rest cutter in the inside, followed by charcoal and oil.
A watchmaker that has never performed this operation will do well to
experiment with the punch on a small plate of brass, or, still better, on a
Page 377
worn-out barrel.
To insert the post, coil up the mainspring in the winder so as to be able to
introduce a slightly conical piece of steel or brass between the two last turns
of the spring and near to the hole. Place the post in position and hold it and
the spring while the wedge that keeps the coils apart is removed. If the
opening thus secured was found to be insufficient, it might be increased by
introducing a screwdriver, which is held down until the post is inserted. The
making of this curb, shown at b, Fig. 234, will offer no difficulty.
506. Stopwork. If the pitch circles of
the finger-piece and star-wheel of several
Geneva stops be measured, it will be seen
that three different proportions may exist
(Fig. 235), in which the former is less than,
equal to, and greater than the latter
respectively. Fig. 235.
When the finger-piece has a greater
diameter, as at d, it will oppose an increased resistance to the hand in
winding, but the direction of its pressure against the stop will be much
below the center of rotation of the star-wheel, because the finger is
necessarily very short.
When the finger-piece is very small, as at a, there will be less resistance
opposed owing to any want of freedom of the star-wheel, and the pressure
against the stop will be more nearly tangential, the finger being relatively
long; but more care will be required in the construction and, for a given
force applied to the key in winding, there will be a proportionately
increased pressure against the star-wheel axis.
Inconveniences thus increase in proportion as either piece is enlarged as
compared with the other, and the best proportion is secured by making the
two diameters equal, as shown at c b.
The stud on which the star-wheel rotates should be cut square or,
preferably, slightly conical downwards.
507. To True a Star-Wheel. The form of a star-wheel can be adjusted on
the lathe, on the tool shown in Fig. 208, using a cylindrical mill-cutter and
To insert the post, coil up the mainspring in the winder so as to be able to
introduce a slightly conical piece of steel or brass between the two last turns
of the spring and near to the hole. Place the post in position and hold it and
the spring while the wedge that keeps the coils apart is removed. If the
opening thus secured was found to be insufficient, it might be increased by
introducing a screwdriver, which is held down until the post is inserted. The
making of this curb, shown at b, Fig. 234, will offer no difficulty.
506. Stopwork. If the pitch circles of
the finger-piece and star-wheel of several
Geneva stops be measured, it will be seen
that three different proportions may exist
(Fig. 235), in which the former is less than,
equal to, and greater than the latter
respectively. Fig. 235.
When the finger-piece has a greater
diameter, as at d, it will oppose an increased resistance to the hand in
winding, but the direction of its pressure against the stop will be much
below the center of rotation of the star-wheel, because the finger is
necessarily very short.
When the finger-piece is very small, as at a, there will be less resistance
opposed owing to any want of freedom of the star-wheel, and the pressure
against the stop will be more nearly tangential, the finger being relatively
long; but more care will be required in the construction and, for a given
force applied to the key in winding, there will be a proportionately
increased pressure against the star-wheel axis.
Inconveniences thus increase in proportion as either piece is enlarged as
compared with the other, and the best proportion is secured by making the
two diameters equal, as shown at c b.
The stud on which the star-wheel rotates should be cut square or,
preferably, slightly conical downwards.
507. To True a Star-Wheel. The form of a star-wheel can be adjusted on
the lathe, on the tool shown in Fig. 208, using a cylindrical mill-cutter and
Page 378
adding a stop so that the branches of the tool are always brought to the same
distance apart.
Star-wheels can be bought of the material dealers, but they are not always
equally divided; indeed, some exist that have been merely punched in the
punching press. Hence it follows that many of them are characterized by at
least one of the following faults: teeth of unequal length, or with their
concavities of unequal form.
When the teeth are well formed and finished at their
ends, but of unequal length, this arises from the star-
wheel having been badly centered during the
operation of cutting; it must then be re-centered. Take
a small brass plate h, Fig. 236, and drill a hole at its
center, with a notch at the edge, a, to receive the Fig. 236.
convex tooth without shake. Now place the plate in
the lathe and turn out a sink to receive the star-wheel
and hold it firmly. The convex tooth will then drop into the notch and the
wheel should project a little above the face of the plate. Now release one
dog, and, having gripped with it one tooth of the wheel, take a fine-pointed
graver and true the central hole and the sink that receives the screw head,
taking care only to remove a small quantity of metal at a time.
If the workman has not considerable experience in using the lathe and
fears a derangement in releasing and again tightening the dog, he had better
remove the plate, cement the star-wheel in position and replace it, when it
can be re-centered with the pump-center.
508. To Make a Finger-Piece. After having drifted the square hole in the
center of a steel disc of suitable dimensions, and traced out a line to mark
the circumference of the disc and the end of the finger, drill two holes a
little beyond this line, leaving such a space between them as to ensure that
the base of the finger shall possess sufficient strength; but these holes
should be drilled so far in towards the center of the disc that freedom is left
for the corners of the star-wheel teeth during its rotation. The head of the
finger is at first left so as to exactly fit the spaces of the wheel without play,
this being subsequently given with a fine file and in the smoothing.
File the circumference all round so as just not to touch the line traced out;
then, putting the disc on an arbor, hold a fine barrette file against the edge,
distance apart.
Star-wheels can be bought of the material dealers, but they are not always
equally divided; indeed, some exist that have been merely punched in the
punching press. Hence it follows that many of them are characterized by at
least one of the following faults: teeth of unequal length, or with their
concavities of unequal form.
When the teeth are well formed and finished at their
ends, but of unequal length, this arises from the star-
wheel having been badly centered during the
operation of cutting; it must then be re-centered. Take
a small brass plate h, Fig. 236, and drill a hole at its
center, with a notch at the edge, a, to receive the Fig. 236.
convex tooth without shake. Now place the plate in
the lathe and turn out a sink to receive the star-wheel
and hold it firmly. The convex tooth will then drop into the notch and the
wheel should project a little above the face of the plate. Now release one
dog, and, having gripped with it one tooth of the wheel, take a fine-pointed
graver and true the central hole and the sink that receives the screw head,
taking care only to remove a small quantity of metal at a time.
If the workman has not considerable experience in using the lathe and
fears a derangement in releasing and again tightening the dog, he had better
remove the plate, cement the star-wheel in position and replace it, when it
can be re-centered with the pump-center.
508. To Make a Finger-Piece. After having drifted the square hole in the
center of a steel disc of suitable dimensions, and traced out a line to mark
the circumference of the disc and the end of the finger, drill two holes a
little beyond this line, leaving such a space between them as to ensure that
the base of the finger shall possess sufficient strength; but these holes
should be drilled so far in towards the center of the disc that freedom is left
for the corners of the star-wheel teeth during its rotation. The head of the
finger is at first left so as to exactly fit the spaces of the wheel without play,
this being subsequently given with a fine file and in the smoothing.
File the circumference all round so as just not to touch the line traced out;
then, putting the disc on an arbor, hold a fine barrette file against the edge,
Page 379
and cause the arbor to oscillate backwards and forwards, the file coming in
contact alternately with each side of the finger. This smoothing of the rim
will materially facilitate and abridge the final work with the graver. The
corner of the rim on one side of the finger having been finished off with the
graver edge, reverse the arbor between its centers to treat the other corner in
a similar manner. A finger-piece made as here explained will be found to be
very true.
Some watchmakers, when it is possible, finish the circumference after it
has been adjusted on the barrel-arbor itself; but as a rule this is not
necessary.
The slit that receives the pin may be cut as follows: File a square piece of
brass to fit the hole in the finger-piece, cut a notch across the end with a
screw-head file, and insert it in the square hole. Having centered a flat
cutter, the thickness of which is equal to that of the slit to be cut, on a taper
arbor, place this in the lathe; resting the brass horizontally on the T-rest
(which had better be at the back of the lathe, so that the progress of the
operation may be more easily observed) and present the notch to the cutter.
509. It will be understood that the foregoing details relate to the method
to be adopted in making the finger-piece by hand, but it is very easy to
arrange an addition to the ordinary lathe, with or without a throw, for
rounding or truing the circumference with great rapidity.
Having mounted a circular mill-cutter on an arbor in a chuck, as seen at
r, Fig. 233, replace the T-rest by an upright that has a shoulder, and is truly
cylindrical, and of a diameter to fit the support without shake; the finger-
piece, d, is fixed to its upper end by a cone and nut, as in the screw-arbor, or
by any other means. A lever l is adapted to the vertical rod, so that it can be
rotated between two stops on the lathe-bed; such stops are, however, not
always needed, because by employing a thick cutter that is smooth on the
face there is no danger of damage to the finger. At the same time, if there
are no stops, considerable care is requisite in the smoothing and polishing to
prevent the sides of the lap touching the finger. This can be polished
afterwards in a very short time by using a lap that has been turned on the
edge to fit the notch. It is useless to enter into further particulars, as the little
appliance or one of an analogous description can be easily made.
contact alternately with each side of the finger. This smoothing of the rim
will materially facilitate and abridge the final work with the graver. The
corner of the rim on one side of the finger having been finished off with the
graver edge, reverse the arbor between its centers to treat the other corner in
a similar manner. A finger-piece made as here explained will be found to be
very true.
Some watchmakers, when it is possible, finish the circumference after it
has been adjusted on the barrel-arbor itself; but as a rule this is not
necessary.
The slit that receives the pin may be cut as follows: File a square piece of
brass to fit the hole in the finger-piece, cut a notch across the end with a
screw-head file, and insert it in the square hole. Having centered a flat
cutter, the thickness of which is equal to that of the slit to be cut, on a taper
arbor, place this in the lathe; resting the brass horizontally on the T-rest
(which had better be at the back of the lathe, so that the progress of the
operation may be more easily observed) and present the notch to the cutter.
509. It will be understood that the foregoing details relate to the method
to be adopted in making the finger-piece by hand, but it is very easy to
arrange an addition to the ordinary lathe, with or without a throw, for
rounding or truing the circumference with great rapidity.
Having mounted a circular mill-cutter on an arbor in a chuck, as seen at
r, Fig. 233, replace the T-rest by an upright that has a shoulder, and is truly
cylindrical, and of a diameter to fit the support without shake; the finger-
piece, d, is fixed to its upper end by a cone and nut, as in the screw-arbor, or
by any other means. A lever l is adapted to the vertical rod, so that it can be
rotated between two stops on the lathe-bed; such stops are, however, not
always needed, because by employing a thick cutter that is smooth on the
face there is no danger of damage to the finger. At the same time, if there
are no stops, considerable care is requisite in the smoothing and polishing to
prevent the sides of the lap touching the finger. This can be polished
afterwards in a very short time by using a lap that has been turned on the
edge to fit the notch. It is useless to enter into further particulars, as the little
appliance or one of an analogous description can be easily made.
Page 380
The apparatus shown in Fig. 195, and described in article 402, could be
employed for such a purpose.
510. To Make a Clock Barrel. A strip of soft brass, thicker than the
circumference of the drum is intended to be, is coiled into a circle rather
less in diameter than the required barrel, on a cylinder of hard wood, either
by pressure between the jaws of a vise, or with a mallet or hammer. The two
edges, after being carefully cleaned, are soldered with silver solder or
brazed, while they are held in position by a piece of binding wire wound
round the drum.
Placing this ring on the nose of a beak-iron, harden it by gentle blows, so
as not only to harden the brass, but also to increase the diameter and make a
true cylinder.
Chuck it on a cylinder of hard wood in order to turn the two ends square,
and form the edge that is received in a groove cut in the bottom of the
barrel; the bottom is then soft soldered in position. In the older barrels that
contained very strong springs, it was often the practice to leave tongues
projecting round the drum that entered holes in the bottom and were riveted
on the other side.
The barrel may be cemented to a large wax chuck that has as its center a
short arbor tapped and provided with a washer and nut, or it may be gripped
by its base in the universal head, and the surfaces, etc., finished.
Some of the details given in regard to a watch barrel are applicable here.
The drum is now no longer made by bending a strip of brass, except in
country towns, because brass tubing is always to be obtained in cities at
metal warehouses, which only needs to be cut into rings of the requisite
length.
511. To Make a Barrel-Arbor. If the metal is in the rough and has the
scale on, it must be cleaned either on the stone or with acid. The following
method of procedure has been proved in practice to be expeditious:
When the arbor has been turned to shape with the graver, smoothed, and
almost polished, it is placed in the barrel and should rotate when in position,
but with considerable friction. Then make the two squares as explained
below (513); and, after smoothing that which receives the finger-piece, set
this latter in position on the arbor and see that it does not descend quite to
employed for such a purpose.
510. To Make a Clock Barrel. A strip of soft brass, thicker than the
circumference of the drum is intended to be, is coiled into a circle rather
less in diameter than the required barrel, on a cylinder of hard wood, either
by pressure between the jaws of a vise, or with a mallet or hammer. The two
edges, after being carefully cleaned, are soldered with silver solder or
brazed, while they are held in position by a piece of binding wire wound
round the drum.
Placing this ring on the nose of a beak-iron, harden it by gentle blows, so
as not only to harden the brass, but also to increase the diameter and make a
true cylinder.
Chuck it on a cylinder of hard wood in order to turn the two ends square,
and form the edge that is received in a groove cut in the bottom of the
barrel; the bottom is then soft soldered in position. In the older barrels that
contained very strong springs, it was often the practice to leave tongues
projecting round the drum that entered holes in the bottom and were riveted
on the other side.
The barrel may be cemented to a large wax chuck that has as its center a
short arbor tapped and provided with a washer and nut, or it may be gripped
by its base in the universal head, and the surfaces, etc., finished.
Some of the details given in regard to a watch barrel are applicable here.
The drum is now no longer made by bending a strip of brass, except in
country towns, because brass tubing is always to be obtained in cities at
metal warehouses, which only needs to be cut into rings of the requisite
length.
511. To Make a Barrel-Arbor. If the metal is in the rough and has the
scale on, it must be cleaned either on the stone or with acid. The following
method of procedure has been proved in practice to be expeditious:
When the arbor has been turned to shape with the graver, smoothed, and
almost polished, it is placed in the barrel and should rotate when in position,
but with considerable friction. Then make the two squares as explained
below (513); and, after smoothing that which receives the finger-piece, set
this latter in position on the arbor and see that it does not descend quite to
Page 381
the shoulder. Then replace it by a worn out finger-piece, or by a copper disc
that is cut so as to allow of the insertion of the pin in exactly the same
position as is required by the finger-piece to be definitively used. It is then
easy to drill the pin-hole from either side of the square and to smooth it with
a fine broach. Each time that the arbor has to be inserted in the barrel, great
care must be taken to remove any burr, as it might damage the barrel holes.
Before hardening the arbor, cut in it two grooves of moderate depth at the
points at which the ends must be broken off. Such a practice has two
advantages: 1. The two waste points of the arbor can be removed and each
end partly formed without employing a file, an arrangement whereby it is
possible to maintain in the arbor a maximum of hardness, at least at the
winding end. 2. If the arbor is distorted, it will not be in the body, but from
the points at which these cuts are made. If any distortion occurs, the blow-
pipe jet can be directed on the points, which are then removed with a file
before the final polishing.
512. To harden the arbor, place it in an iron tube and surround it with
powdered charcoal which is pressed down, having previously been well
dried. When the whole has been heated to the requisite temperature, throw it
into water, and, if the precautions already explained under hardening are
adopted, the arbor will be found to be smooth and clean and without either
scales or blisters on its surface. Clean and polish it; this latter operation will
give the proper freedom to the pivots, although it often happens that a touch
with a broach is required in the two holes.
The bevelled groove within the ratchet teeth is polished by
rotating the arbor while a small steel plate, perforated at its
center and of the form shown in plan and section at z, Fig.
237, is held by the hand against the groove. The shoulders can
Fig. 237. be easily and rapidly polished in the tool represented in Fig.
44.
513. To Make the Squares. To Make Drifts. The tool shown in Fig. 238
is used. On the plate p, which is at right angles to the foot s, is fixed a frame
that carries two hard steel rollers, c and d, the edges of which are extended
to form a guide.
A bent finger b is hinged on a screw on the side of the plate, and has a
hole j drilled in it, which is continued for a short distance into the plate p.
that is cut so as to allow of the insertion of the pin in exactly the same
position as is required by the finger-piece to be definitively used. It is then
easy to drill the pin-hole from either side of the square and to smooth it with
a fine broach. Each time that the arbor has to be inserted in the barrel, great
care must be taken to remove any burr, as it might damage the barrel holes.
Before hardening the arbor, cut in it two grooves of moderate depth at the
points at which the ends must be broken off. Such a practice has two
advantages: 1. The two waste points of the arbor can be removed and each
end partly formed without employing a file, an arrangement whereby it is
possible to maintain in the arbor a maximum of hardness, at least at the
winding end. 2. If the arbor is distorted, it will not be in the body, but from
the points at which these cuts are made. If any distortion occurs, the blow-
pipe jet can be directed on the points, which are then removed with a file
before the final polishing.
512. To harden the arbor, place it in an iron tube and surround it with
powdered charcoal which is pressed down, having previously been well
dried. When the whole has been heated to the requisite temperature, throw it
into water, and, if the precautions already explained under hardening are
adopted, the arbor will be found to be smooth and clean and without either
scales or blisters on its surface. Clean and polish it; this latter operation will
give the proper freedom to the pivots, although it often happens that a touch
with a broach is required in the two holes.
The bevelled groove within the ratchet teeth is polished by
rotating the arbor while a small steel plate, perforated at its
center and of the form shown in plan and section at z, Fig.
237, is held by the hand against the groove. The shoulders can
Fig. 237. be easily and rapidly polished in the tool represented in Fig.
44.
513. To Make the Squares. To Make Drifts. The tool shown in Fig. 238
is used. On the plate p, which is at right angles to the foot s, is fixed a frame
that carries two hard steel rollers, c and d, the edges of which are extended
to form a guide.
A bent finger b is hinged on a screw on the side of the plate, and has a
hole j drilled in it, which is continued for a short distance into the plate p.
Page 382
The following is the method of
using the appliance: Fix to the
arbor a disc, indicated by dotted
lines, in the circumference of
which are four equidistant notches
to receive the nose of the finger b.
The rod S takes the place of the T-
rest and the arbor is placed
between the centers of the lathe. As
s can be raised or lowered to any
position and the runners can be Fig. 238.
moved laterally, it is easy to bring
the point at which the square
should commence to correspond with the line n n. The finger b having been
inserted in one of the notches of the division-plate, reduce the arbor with
the file l. Move b to the next notch, and repeat the operation, and so on with
the other two sides.
If there is any danger of the finger not maintaining a sufficiently firm
hold of the plate, a tight-fitting pin can be inserted in the hole j.
At first the arbor should be filed away less than is actually required, and
the only adjustment necessary to ensure this is the raising of S to a suitable
height. No difficulty need be experienced in this, but, if any doubt is
entertained, a screw may be supported from the bed of the lathe,
terminating in a rod that passes through the plate p, as indicated at t for
example, thus securing perfect regularity in the upward and downward
motion of the system.
If a tapered square is required, it will be sufficient to slightly incline the
frame by means of two screws v i, placed near its left-hand edge with their
ends resting on the plate p.
514. To Drill Exactly Through the Center of the Arbor. Of course, if
the old arbor-nut is available, it will afford the best guide for performing
this operation, and, if the arbor is tapped, such a hole will not be required.
But when neither of these conditions is satisfied, the workman will have
two slight difficulties to overcome: the drilling of the arbor and its nut
using the appliance: Fix to the
arbor a disc, indicated by dotted
lines, in the circumference of
which are four equidistant notches
to receive the nose of the finger b.
The rod S takes the place of the T-
rest and the arbor is placed
between the centers of the lathe. As
s can be raised or lowered to any
position and the runners can be Fig. 238.
moved laterally, it is easy to bring
the point at which the square
should commence to correspond with the line n n. The finger b having been
inserted in one of the notches of the division-plate, reduce the arbor with
the file l. Move b to the next notch, and repeat the operation, and so on with
the other two sides.
If there is any danger of the finger not maintaining a sufficiently firm
hold of the plate, a tight-fitting pin can be inserted in the hole j.
At first the arbor should be filed away less than is actually required, and
the only adjustment necessary to ensure this is the raising of S to a suitable
height. No difficulty need be experienced in this, but, if any doubt is
entertained, a screw may be supported from the bed of the lathe,
terminating in a rod that passes through the plate p, as indicated at t for
example, thus securing perfect regularity in the upward and downward
motion of the system.
If a tapered square is required, it will be sufficient to slightly incline the
frame by means of two screws v i, placed near its left-hand edge with their
ends resting on the plate p.
514. To Drill Exactly Through the Center of the Arbor. Of course, if
the old arbor-nut is available, it will afford the best guide for performing
this operation, and, if the arbor is tapped, such a hole will not be required.
But when neither of these conditions is satisfied, the workman will have
two slight difficulties to overcome: the drilling of the arbor and its nut
Page 383
exactly in the center and parallel to the plane of the ratchet. By adopting the
following method, he can easily satisfy these conditions:
515. Take a brass disc d, Fig. 239,
turned smooth on its two faces. Enlarge its
central hole until the barrel-arbor enters it
to such a distance that a blow of a mallet
will drive it up against the ratchet where it
should hold firmly. This disc is chucked on Fig. 239.
the lathe and a groove is formed that
passes exactly through the center. Ascertain by means of a douzieme or a
thickness gauge whether the thickness of the disc, measuring from the
bottom of the groove to the under side, is equal to the space between the
shoulder of the arbor that corresponds to the outside edge of the barrel hole,
and the point at which the hole should be drilled. If the thickness is
excessive, diminish it from the under side; if, on the other hand, it is not
sufficient, fit some thin discs on the arbor, and then force the brass disc to
the position thus determined upon. It is hardly necessary to add that when
this is done, holes must be drilled to some depth on either side of the arbor,
using a drill that does not shake about in the groove although quite free and
inclining slightly downwards so that the hole shall not be above the point
determined upon, namely, the bottom of the groove. Continue the drilling
until the two holes meet, the drill being maintained, during this part of the
operation, parallel to the face of the ratchet.
516. If the workman is not provided
with a tool for cutting the groove exactly
in the axis of the disc, the accuracy that is
so essential can be ensured as follows: A
brass rod g, Fig. 240, is divided into four Fig. 240.
at the end as near the center as possible by
means of a fine saw or a file that only cuts
with its edge, which will be used to form the groove. Set the rod g in the
lathe, a center of the form f being inserted at b where the slits cross, and
turn down the rod g b, although only a little metal should need to be
removed, until it enters the hole in the brass disc and projects a short
distance on the other side. It then only remains to insert in one of the
notches of g b the cutting file or the saw previously used, to form a groove
following method, he can easily satisfy these conditions:
515. Take a brass disc d, Fig. 239,
turned smooth on its two faces. Enlarge its
central hole until the barrel-arbor enters it
to such a distance that a blow of a mallet
will drive it up against the ratchet where it
should hold firmly. This disc is chucked on Fig. 239.
the lathe and a groove is formed that
passes exactly through the center. Ascertain by means of a douzieme or a
thickness gauge whether the thickness of the disc, measuring from the
bottom of the groove to the under side, is equal to the space between the
shoulder of the arbor that corresponds to the outside edge of the barrel hole,
and the point at which the hole should be drilled. If the thickness is
excessive, diminish it from the under side; if, on the other hand, it is not
sufficient, fit some thin discs on the arbor, and then force the brass disc to
the position thus determined upon. It is hardly necessary to add that when
this is done, holes must be drilled to some depth on either side of the arbor,
using a drill that does not shake about in the groove although quite free and
inclining slightly downwards so that the hole shall not be above the point
determined upon, namely, the bottom of the groove. Continue the drilling
until the two holes meet, the drill being maintained, during this part of the
operation, parallel to the face of the ratchet.
516. If the workman is not provided
with a tool for cutting the groove exactly
in the axis of the disc, the accuracy that is
so essential can be ensured as follows: A
brass rod g, Fig. 240, is divided into four Fig. 240.
at the end as near the center as possible by
means of a fine saw or a file that only cuts
with its edge, which will be used to form the groove. Set the rod g in the
lathe, a center of the form f being inserted at b where the slits cross, and
turn down the rod g b, although only a little metal should need to be
removed, until it enters the hole in the brass disc and projects a short
distance on the other side. It then only remains to insert in one of the
notches of g b the cutting file or the saw previously used, to form a groove
Page 384
on the surface of the disc that passes exactly through its center; it is to be
remembered that the saw, etc., must only cut with its edge, and should enter
the notch with a very slight friction, sufficient to indicate that it fits without
play.
517. The Arbor-Nut. The usual practice is to make the diameter of the
nut equal to one-third that of the inside of the barrel. With thick springs of
but slight flexibility it must be larger so as to avoid overstraining the
innermost coil, and, conversely, with a very thin spring it is diminished,
rendering the employment of a longer spring possible. When the nut is too
small the spring must be made long, and, by setting up the stopwork, a coil
of the spring can be maintained always on the nut.
518. To drill the nut along a diameter. By means of the rod g, Fig. 240,
draw a straight line to indicate a diameter of the nut. This line will serve as
a guide for marking two points opposite to one another on the
circumference, round which a circle has previously been traced with a
graver. The points should be marked so deeply as to ensure that the drill
does not displace itself in the initial stages of the drilling; with a little
caution, and using a glass, very little difficulty will be experienced in
ensuring that the points are in a right line. One of the two following
methods may be employed for drilling the nut:
Fig. 241.
1. Prepare a brass block of the form shown at f p f′, Fig. 241, the space a
being cut away, and the end p provided with large-headed screws, shown at
v, v, in the plan. The two faces, f, f′, must be parallel to each other, and at
right angles with the face p, a condition which can be easily satisfied by
means of the lathe, the face f′, for example, being turned towards the
headstock, and the dogs introduced into the space a; the opposite face f is
then trued with the slide rest. In the vertical face a a make a round hole,
through which a pointed center passes, being pressed forward by a spiral or
other spring, and the point corresponding exactly with the line a a traced on
remembered that the saw, etc., must only cut with its edge, and should enter
the notch with a very slight friction, sufficient to indicate that it fits without
play.
517. The Arbor-Nut. The usual practice is to make the diameter of the
nut equal to one-third that of the inside of the barrel. With thick springs of
but slight flexibility it must be larger so as to avoid overstraining the
innermost coil, and, conversely, with a very thin spring it is diminished,
rendering the employment of a longer spring possible. When the nut is too
small the spring must be made long, and, by setting up the stopwork, a coil
of the spring can be maintained always on the nut.
518. To drill the nut along a diameter. By means of the rod g, Fig. 240,
draw a straight line to indicate a diameter of the nut. This line will serve as
a guide for marking two points opposite to one another on the
circumference, round which a circle has previously been traced with a
graver. The points should be marked so deeply as to ensure that the drill
does not displace itself in the initial stages of the drilling; with a little
caution, and using a glass, very little difficulty will be experienced in
ensuring that the points are in a right line. One of the two following
methods may be employed for drilling the nut:
Fig. 241.
1. Prepare a brass block of the form shown at f p f′, Fig. 241, the space a
being cut away, and the end p provided with large-headed screws, shown at
v, v, in the plan. The two faces, f, f′, must be parallel to each other, and at
right angles with the face p, a condition which can be easily satisfied by
means of the lathe, the face f′, for example, being turned towards the
headstock, and the dogs introduced into the space a; the opposite face f is
then trued with the slide rest. In the vertical face a a make a round hole,
through which a pointed center passes, being pressed forward by a spiral or
other spring, and the point corresponding exactly with the line a a traced on
Page 385
the face of the brass; of course the axis of this center must be at right angles
to the same line. A small block may be inserted within the space a to
prevent any flexure of the arms.
An inspection of the figure will make clear the manner in which this little
tool is to be used. Having fixed the nut on the face p by the screws v v, so
that the two points on its circumference coincide with the line a a, the
whole is placed in the drilling tool with the dogs pressing either on the
upper external face or in the space a. After the block is fixed, ascertain by
rotating the uprighting spindle that its point coincides in all positions with
the top mark on the edge of the nut, and drill as usual. Drill one side, invert
the block, and proceed in a similar manner to drill the other.
The little appliance above described might be simplified by being made
of the form shown at e, which would require to be reversed when the
second hole is about to be drilled.
519. To Polish the Inclined Faces of Ratchet Teeth. Set the ratchet in
slow rotation by means of the foot-wheel, and bring a strip of spring
covered with coarse rouge and oil against it from the side, resting the strip
on the T-rest. In a very short time the teeth will be rounded and polished.
This process is similar to that adopted at the present day for polishing the
inclines of cylinder escape wheels in the lathe. The position of the polishing
spring and its inclination must be determined upon by trial, so as to make
sure that the entire surface of the tooth is acted on.
520. Another method is to make
a small boxwood lap, and arrange
it as shown at m, Fig. 242, so that,
when caused to revolve on its axis,
which may be more or less
inclined, it is brought into contact
with the ratchet wheel with its axis,
as indicated by the figure. The Fig. 242.
teeth will cut into the wood, and
trace out a helix, as seen at m′, and
the lap, passing successively into the ratchet teeth, will cause it to revolve
rapidly. When the groove is deep enough, apply some coarse polishing
to the same line. A small block may be inserted within the space a to
prevent any flexure of the arms.
An inspection of the figure will make clear the manner in which this little
tool is to be used. Having fixed the nut on the face p by the screws v v, so
that the two points on its circumference coincide with the line a a, the
whole is placed in the drilling tool with the dogs pressing either on the
upper external face or in the space a. After the block is fixed, ascertain by
rotating the uprighting spindle that its point coincides in all positions with
the top mark on the edge of the nut, and drill as usual. Drill one side, invert
the block, and proceed in a similar manner to drill the other.
The little appliance above described might be simplified by being made
of the form shown at e, which would require to be reversed when the
second hole is about to be drilled.
519. To Polish the Inclined Faces of Ratchet Teeth. Set the ratchet in
slow rotation by means of the foot-wheel, and bring a strip of spring
covered with coarse rouge and oil against it from the side, resting the strip
on the T-rest. In a very short time the teeth will be rounded and polished.
This process is similar to that adopted at the present day for polishing the
inclines of cylinder escape wheels in the lathe. The position of the polishing
spring and its inclination must be determined upon by trial, so as to make
sure that the entire surface of the tooth is acted on.
520. Another method is to make
a small boxwood lap, and arrange
it as shown at m, Fig. 242, so that,
when caused to revolve on its axis,
which may be more or less
inclined, it is brought into contact
with the ratchet wheel with its axis,
as indicated by the figure. The Fig. 242.
teeth will cut into the wood, and
trace out a helix, as seen at m′, and
the lap, passing successively into the ratchet teeth, will cause it to revolve
rapidly. When the groove is deep enough, apply some coarse polishing
Page 386
rouge to the surface of the drum; after a few rotations the faces will be
found to be polished.
The arbor and lap may be arranged in either of two ways.
Mount the lap between the centers that carry the cutter in a wheel-cutting
engine and support the barrel-arbor opposite to it in a vertical direction
between the chuck and the bent arm or “gallows” used to fix a wheel while
cutting its teeth.
A watchmaker who is not provided with this tool must chuck the lap in
the lathe, then mount the barrel-arbor in such a carrier as is shown at p p,
Fig. 242, and, resting its base on the T-rest, hold the ratchet against the lap,
determining the most suitable height and inclination by trial; this, he will
find, can be easily done.
521. To Polish the Circular Groove in the Ratchet. It takes a long time
to accomplish this by using first, an iron polisher with oilstone dust, then
one of copper with rouge and oil. The operation can be performed more
expeditiously by using an iron runner, as shown at b, Fig. 243. The end is
rounded to correspond with the groove; and the hole, which is indicated by
dotted lines, should be large and funnel-shaped, so as to avoid contact with
the corners of the winding square when a see-saw motion is given to b in
the polishing.
The arbor being cemented to a chuck in
a lathe, hold the end o, charged with
oilstone dust or rouge, in the groove, and,
while the arbor revolves, rotate the spindle
Fig. 243. b in the hand, at the same time giving it a
see-saw motion as above mentioned. A
very little practice will be required to do
this.
522. Repairing a Barrel-Arbor. Cement the arbor a a, Fig. 244, to the
lathe chuck, turn down the ratchet, removing its teeth and thus diminishing
its diameter by about a third, as shown at n n; then reduce the thickness to a
half, turning it down on the side next to the winding square, and continue
this square down to the flat disc that remains, taking care that no shoulder is
found to be polished.
The arbor and lap may be arranged in either of two ways.
Mount the lap between the centers that carry the cutter in a wheel-cutting
engine and support the barrel-arbor opposite to it in a vertical direction
between the chuck and the bent arm or “gallows” used to fix a wheel while
cutting its teeth.
A watchmaker who is not provided with this tool must chuck the lap in
the lathe, then mount the barrel-arbor in such a carrier as is shown at p p,
Fig. 242, and, resting its base on the T-rest, hold the ratchet against the lap,
determining the most suitable height and inclination by trial; this, he will
find, can be easily done.
521. To Polish the Circular Groove in the Ratchet. It takes a long time
to accomplish this by using first, an iron polisher with oilstone dust, then
one of copper with rouge and oil. The operation can be performed more
expeditiously by using an iron runner, as shown at b, Fig. 243. The end is
rounded to correspond with the groove; and the hole, which is indicated by
dotted lines, should be large and funnel-shaped, so as to avoid contact with
the corners of the winding square when a see-saw motion is given to b in
the polishing.
The arbor being cemented to a chuck in
a lathe, hold the end o, charged with
oilstone dust or rouge, in the groove, and,
while the arbor revolves, rotate the spindle
Fig. 243. b in the hand, at the same time giving it a
see-saw motion as above mentioned. A
very little practice will be required to do
this.
522. Repairing a Barrel-Arbor. Cement the arbor a a, Fig. 244, to the
lathe chuck, turn down the ratchet, removing its teeth and thus diminishing
its diameter by about a third, as shown at n n; then reduce the thickness to a
half, turning it down on the side next to the winding square, and continue
this square down to the flat disc that remains, taking care that no shoulder is
Page 387
left at the angle between the two. The arbor is now in a condition to receive
the new ratchet which has to be fitted.
Adjust a flat ratchet r r like those used on
the barrel-arbor of a fusee watch, which must
be of the thickness and diameter of the original
ratchet, so that it exactly fits the winding
square; turn a sink in it, as shown by the
dotted line, to receive the disc already formed;
and, if the hole fits the winding square freely
but without play, and this square is carried
down to the disc, the dust cap c c will maintain Fig. 244.
the ratchet in its position as effectually as
though it formed one with the arbor.
By adopting the above method, which does not occupy much time, it is
often possible to avoid making a new arbor when all but the ratchet is
sound; and if this portion should again wear out, the necessary repair is still
further simplified.
We are assured that arbors repaired in the above manner showed no signs
of wear after fifteen years, except that the square in the ratchet was a trifle
enlarged, though not sufficiently to interfere in any way with the efficiency;
moreover, in modern watches, the winding square is generally long, so that
the ratchet can be left somewhat thicker at the center and a corresponding
sink cut in the under side of the dust cap to receive it.
523. To True a Barrel-Arbor that is Coned Inwards or too Large.
Cement the arbor firmly to a chuck as shown at c, Fig. 245. With care it will
be easy to make the part e run true. As a rule, but very little metal requires
to be removed to make e cylindrical or conical in any desired direction, and
it will generally be sufficient to finish by polishing with an iron polisher
and oilstone dust or coarse rouge and oil. Use a narrow polisher that only
bears on the end of e, giving it a double movement, straight forward and in
a half circle towards one side; or else use a broader polisher, supporting it
on the T-rest. By inclining this, the iron can be prevented from touching e,
except near its extremity. It is unnecessary to add that when the arbor has
been made cylindrical or coned in a given direction a suitable polisher,
bearing on the entire length of e, can be used.
the new ratchet which has to be fitted.
Adjust a flat ratchet r r like those used on
the barrel-arbor of a fusee watch, which must
be of the thickness and diameter of the original
ratchet, so that it exactly fits the winding
square; turn a sink in it, as shown by the
dotted line, to receive the disc already formed;
and, if the hole fits the winding square freely
but without play, and this square is carried
down to the disc, the dust cap c c will maintain Fig. 244.
the ratchet in its position as effectually as
though it formed one with the arbor.
By adopting the above method, which does not occupy much time, it is
often possible to avoid making a new arbor when all but the ratchet is
sound; and if this portion should again wear out, the necessary repair is still
further simplified.
We are assured that arbors repaired in the above manner showed no signs
of wear after fifteen years, except that the square in the ratchet was a trifle
enlarged, though not sufficiently to interfere in any way with the efficiency;
moreover, in modern watches, the winding square is generally long, so that
the ratchet can be left somewhat thicker at the center and a corresponding
sink cut in the under side of the dust cap to receive it.
523. To True a Barrel-Arbor that is Coned Inwards or too Large.
Cement the arbor firmly to a chuck as shown at c, Fig. 245. With care it will
be easy to make the part e run true. As a rule, but very little metal requires
to be removed to make e cylindrical or conical in any desired direction, and
it will generally be sufficient to finish by polishing with an iron polisher
and oilstone dust or coarse rouge and oil. Use a narrow polisher that only
bears on the end of e, giving it a double movement, straight forward and in
a half circle towards one side; or else use a broader polisher, supporting it
on the T-rest. By inclining this, the iron can be prevented from touching e,
except near its extremity. It is unnecessary to add that when the arbor has
been made cylindrical or coned in a given direction a suitable polisher,
bearing on the entire length of e, can be used.
Page 388
Either of the two following methods can be adopted
in the place of that above explained: Support the
winding square end of the barrel-arbor in an eccentric
runner; let the opposite end run in a small coned hole
in the end of a steel runner, which must be polished
and hardened so as to prevent the corners of the
Fig. 245. square that receives the stop-finger from wearing it
away; now apply coarse rouge until the fault no longer
exists and follow with fine rouge to complete the polishing.
If not provided with an eccentric runner, it will be sufficient to take a
tight-fitting key, drive it on with a blow of a hammer and file a point at the
tapped end so as to be in the axis of the barrel-arbor. Having attached a
ferrule to this key, place the whole between the runners and proceed as
explained above.
524. To Renew a Worn Winding Square. The best plan is to make an
entirely new arbor; but when this cannot be done, as, for example, on the
ground of expense, the following method of repair may be attempted:
Direct the blow-pipe flame on to the square while holding the body of the
arbor in a pair of pliers, so as to prevent its being over-heated; and round off
the corners of the square, leaving the diameter no greater than is necessary
for strength, and tap it with a screw-plate. Now drill a hole at the end of a
piece of round steel of somewhat greater diameter than the original square,
and form an internal screw by means of a tap made in the same hole of the
screw-plate as was used for the arbor; the end of the tap should be tapered
and with good cutting edges.
If the arbor is the full length allowed by the case, reduce the length
slightly and screw on the small steel spindle, tapped to the right depth. It
must not be screwed quite down to the ratchet, although intended ultimately
to come into actual contact. After having thus tested it, form the square,
which will naturally be rather larger than the original, and cut a deep groove
with the graver at the point where the square is to be broken off, but, before
breaking it, harden and let down to a blue or violet temper; then smooth,
polish, and screw finally on to the arbor. If this last operation does not result
in the square breaking away, grip the spindle in a vise, and, taking the
square in a pair of long-nosed pliers, break it with a sharp blow. It only
remains to finish off the end in a screw-head tool.
in the place of that above explained: Support the
winding square end of the barrel-arbor in an eccentric
runner; let the opposite end run in a small coned hole
in the end of a steel runner, which must be polished
and hardened so as to prevent the corners of the
Fig. 245. square that receives the stop-finger from wearing it
away; now apply coarse rouge until the fault no longer
exists and follow with fine rouge to complete the polishing.
If not provided with an eccentric runner, it will be sufficient to take a
tight-fitting key, drive it on with a blow of a hammer and file a point at the
tapped end so as to be in the axis of the barrel-arbor. Having attached a
ferrule to this key, place the whole between the runners and proceed as
explained above.
524. To Renew a Worn Winding Square. The best plan is to make an
entirely new arbor; but when this cannot be done, as, for example, on the
ground of expense, the following method of repair may be attempted:
Direct the blow-pipe flame on to the square while holding the body of the
arbor in a pair of pliers, so as to prevent its being over-heated; and round off
the corners of the square, leaving the diameter no greater than is necessary
for strength, and tap it with a screw-plate. Now drill a hole at the end of a
piece of round steel of somewhat greater diameter than the original square,
and form an internal screw by means of a tap made in the same hole of the
screw-plate as was used for the arbor; the end of the tap should be tapered
and with good cutting edges.
If the arbor is the full length allowed by the case, reduce the length
slightly and screw on the small steel spindle, tapped to the right depth. It
must not be screwed quite down to the ratchet, although intended ultimately
to come into actual contact. After having thus tested it, form the square,
which will naturally be rather larger than the original, and cut a deep groove
with the graver at the point where the square is to be broken off, but, before
breaking it, harden and let down to a blue or violet temper; then smooth,
polish, and screw finally on to the arbor. If this last operation does not result
in the square breaking away, grip the spindle in a vise, and, taking the
square in a pair of long-nosed pliers, break it with a sharp blow. It only
remains to finish off the end in a screw-head tool.
Page 389
T HE MAINS PRIN G .
525. A free and uniform action of the mainspring is one of the primary
conditions that have to be satisfied for ensuring a continuously good rate.
526. To make the eye in a Mainspring. Every watchmaker knows that this
is commonly done by means of a mainspring punch; but in its absence a
hole can be made by hammering a pointed punch one or more times through
the end of the spring after it has been softened, and, after filing away the
projecting metal, the hole is broached out or enlarged with the point of a
graver and finished with a rat-tail file, taking care that the corners are
rounded off so as to avoid the risk of cracks.
527. To reduce the height of a Mainspring. This and the following
method are only to be resorted to when a new spring cannot be obtained.
Introduce the spring into a barrel of less height than itself and wear the
steel away by rubbing it on a hard surface charged with oilstone dust,
keeping it constantly rotated between the fingers. When the reduction is
sufficient remove the spring and draw-file it, so as to round off the two
edges; then clean the entire surface.
528. Selecting a Mainspring: Adapting it to a Fusee. The spring that is
characterized by the most uniform uncoiling and the least difference
between the force exerted when fully and only partially wound up will
generally secure the most constant rate. In selecting one for a going-barrel
watch, or in adapting to a fusee, the adjusting rod, shown in Fig. 246, and
described in article 530, is used.
T HE F US EE .
529. At the outset, we would state the three characteristic properties of a
fusee that have led to its adoption and retention in high-class watches and
marine chronometers: 1, it equalizes the motive force; 2, it enables us to use
a tapered mainspring, in which the uncoiling takes place in the most
advantageous manner possible; and, 3, it secures a longer period of going.
525. A free and uniform action of the mainspring is one of the primary
conditions that have to be satisfied for ensuring a continuously good rate.
526. To make the eye in a Mainspring. Every watchmaker knows that this
is commonly done by means of a mainspring punch; but in its absence a
hole can be made by hammering a pointed punch one or more times through
the end of the spring after it has been softened, and, after filing away the
projecting metal, the hole is broached out or enlarged with the point of a
graver and finished with a rat-tail file, taking care that the corners are
rounded off so as to avoid the risk of cracks.
527. To reduce the height of a Mainspring. This and the following
method are only to be resorted to when a new spring cannot be obtained.
Introduce the spring into a barrel of less height than itself and wear the
steel away by rubbing it on a hard surface charged with oilstone dust,
keeping it constantly rotated between the fingers. When the reduction is
sufficient remove the spring and draw-file it, so as to round off the two
edges; then clean the entire surface.
528. Selecting a Mainspring: Adapting it to a Fusee. The spring that is
characterized by the most uniform uncoiling and the least difference
between the force exerted when fully and only partially wound up will
generally secure the most constant rate. In selecting one for a going-barrel
watch, or in adapting to a fusee, the adjusting rod, shown in Fig. 246, and
described in article 530, is used.
T HE F US EE .
529. At the outset, we would state the three characteristic properties of a
fusee that have led to its adoption and retention in high-class watches and
marine chronometers: 1, it equalizes the motive force; 2, it enables us to use
a tapered mainspring, in which the uncoiling takes place in the most
advantageous manner possible; and, 3, it secures a longer period of going.
Page 390
Fig. 246.
530. To Adjust a Fusee to Its Mainspring. Set the barrel and fusee in
position in the frame, with the mainspring and chain carefully hooked in
their places, and the former set up about half a turn, and grip the fusee
square in the clamp, d n, of the adjusting rod, shown in Fig. 246; then wind
up the mainspring by rotating this lever with the hand until arrested by the
stopwork. Now slide the weight m, which is held by friction and a light
spring, along the rod until a point is reached at which the lever just
neutralizes the force of the mainspring, so that the whole rests in
equilibrium when left to itself. Rotate the rod backwards by half turns at a
time. If equilibrium is maintained to the end, the fusee is well adjusted. But
when this is not the case, it will be found that the weight of the lever is too
great or too small; showing that the radius of the fusee is either too small or
too great. Adjust the lever so that it balances with the radius of the fusee,
which is thus shown to be most deficient, and at all other points along the
thread of the fusee more metal must be removed to an extent indicated by
the experiment.
When not provided with a fusee engine, it is a common practice to use
the ordinary lathe, and an equaling file smoothed on its two faces; or a
templet might be adapted to the T-rest of such lathe.
If the irregularity observed is but slight, it is advisable not to touch the
fusee; because, in the great majority of cases, an equipoise can be arrived at
by altering the degree to which the spring is set up. Thus, if the weight is
too heavy for the lower coils of the spring, set it up more, so as to increase
its tension; in the converse case, of course, it must be let down. By trying
several springs, especially if they are of different manufacture, it will very
often be found possible to secure a sufficient degree of uniformity without
there being any occasion to re-cut the fusee.
C HA IN.
530. To Adjust a Fusee to Its Mainspring. Set the barrel and fusee in
position in the frame, with the mainspring and chain carefully hooked in
their places, and the former set up about half a turn, and grip the fusee
square in the clamp, d n, of the adjusting rod, shown in Fig. 246; then wind
up the mainspring by rotating this lever with the hand until arrested by the
stopwork. Now slide the weight m, which is held by friction and a light
spring, along the rod until a point is reached at which the lever just
neutralizes the force of the mainspring, so that the whole rests in
equilibrium when left to itself. Rotate the rod backwards by half turns at a
time. If equilibrium is maintained to the end, the fusee is well adjusted. But
when this is not the case, it will be found that the weight of the lever is too
great or too small; showing that the radius of the fusee is either too small or
too great. Adjust the lever so that it balances with the radius of the fusee,
which is thus shown to be most deficient, and at all other points along the
thread of the fusee more metal must be removed to an extent indicated by
the experiment.
When not provided with a fusee engine, it is a common practice to use
the ordinary lathe, and an equaling file smoothed on its two faces; or a
templet might be adapted to the T-rest of such lathe.
If the irregularity observed is but slight, it is advisable not to touch the
fusee; because, in the great majority of cases, an equipoise can be arrived at
by altering the degree to which the spring is set up. Thus, if the weight is
too heavy for the lower coils of the spring, set it up more, so as to increase
its tension; in the converse case, of course, it must be let down. By trying
several springs, especially if they are of different manufacture, it will very
often be found possible to secure a sufficient degree of uniformity without
there being any occasion to re-cut the fusee.
C HA IN.
Page 391
531. To Ease a Chain. When the links are rusty or not sufficiently
supple, the chain should be placed in oil and left there for some hours at
least. Round off the edge of a boxwood block, cut a groove across this edge,
and clamp the block in a vise; then place the chain like a saddle in the
groove, so that it hangs down on either side. Applying oil liberally to the
wood, take an end of the chain in each hand, and pull it backwards and
forwards in the groove, renewing the supply of oil at intervals. When
perfectly flexible, the chain must be cleaned with benzine, or, after soaping,
wash it in water and leave for some minutes in alcohol. After being dried, it
is dipped in fine oil and dried in a clean linen rag free from fluff, pressing
the rag against the edge. A chain treated in this manner will be found to
remain supple for a long time, and it will not be liable to rust.
532. Riveting a Hook, Etc. When riveting either a hook or link to a
chain, it is very necessary that the end of the rivet be cut or filed quite
square; for, otherwise, the blow of the hammer will bend the rivet, so that
the chain will not be square on the barrel, neither will the riveting be firm.
WHE EL S .
533. To Rough Out a Wheel. The sheet brass having been prepared in
the manner indicated in article 103, one face is smoothed with a file,
followed by oilstone dust; the plate is then set up in the lathe, to true the
other face with the slide rest. On the smoothed face trace out the rim and
the crossings. These latter can best be marked out on the dividing plate, or
grammaire, already explained in article 343.
After drilling the small holes, a, c, etc., Fig. 247, at
the corners, cement the wheel to a plate that is
perforated to permit the use of the pump center, and
remove the metal between the crossings by first
turning the sinks indicated by the shaded disc s with
the slide rest, and subsequently cut the groove i i.
Now center the wheel in the lathe, and trace the arcs a Fig. 247.
c with a fine graver, moving the face-plate backwards
and forwards in the manner referred to in article 364.
supple, the chain should be placed in oil and left there for some hours at
least. Round off the edge of a boxwood block, cut a groove across this edge,
and clamp the block in a vise; then place the chain like a saddle in the
groove, so that it hangs down on either side. Applying oil liberally to the
wood, take an end of the chain in each hand, and pull it backwards and
forwards in the groove, renewing the supply of oil at intervals. When
perfectly flexible, the chain must be cleaned with benzine, or, after soaping,
wash it in water and leave for some minutes in alcohol. After being dried, it
is dipped in fine oil and dried in a clean linen rag free from fluff, pressing
the rag against the edge. A chain treated in this manner will be found to
remain supple for a long time, and it will not be liable to rust.
532. Riveting a Hook, Etc. When riveting either a hook or link to a
chain, it is very necessary that the end of the rivet be cut or filed quite
square; for, otherwise, the blow of the hammer will bend the rivet, so that
the chain will not be square on the barrel, neither will the riveting be firm.
WHE EL S .
533. To Rough Out a Wheel. The sheet brass having been prepared in
the manner indicated in article 103, one face is smoothed with a file,
followed by oilstone dust; the plate is then set up in the lathe, to true the
other face with the slide rest. On the smoothed face trace out the rim and
the crossings. These latter can best be marked out on the dividing plate, or
grammaire, already explained in article 343.
After drilling the small holes, a, c, etc., Fig. 247, at
the corners, cement the wheel to a plate that is
perforated to permit the use of the pump center, and
remove the metal between the crossings by first
turning the sinks indicated by the shaded disc s with
the slide rest, and subsequently cut the groove i i.
Now center the wheel in the lathe, and trace the arcs a Fig. 247.
c with a fine graver, moving the face-plate backwards
and forwards in the manner referred to in article 364.
Page 392
Remove the wheel from the plate, and finish off the spaces with a file.
Two files will be needed for forming the angles; one a flat barrette file, with
the corner beveled off and smoothed to nearly a right angle, to go against
the rim of the wheel; and the other a taper file, with faces of the same
curvature as the inside of the rim, its two edges being inclined at rather
more than a right angle and smoothed carefully. If these simple precautions
are not taken, there is a risk of cutting through the arms or making them too
narrow.
Many of the details in the following article, although specially relating to
a balance, will be found applicable to the construction of other wheels.
534. To Make a Plain Balance. The round plate of which the balance is
to be made must be hammered with the greatest possible care, and of a
thickness but little greater than that of the finished balance (103). Smooth
one face and cement it either to a perforated plate through which the pump
center can reach the balance (if the universal head is to be used), or on the
chuck of an ordinary lathe, or on the wax chuck c, Fig. 233. Hollow the
middle portion with the slide rest cutter or hook tool, according to the kind
of lathe used; but, whichever it be, it must be very well set, and only
remove a small portion at a time. The application of an excessive pressure
will produce a kind of rolling action, which will induce a tendency in the
arms to bend. Remove the metal between the rim and boss until its
thickness is diminished by about a third; smooth this surface carefully,
finishing with a piece of charcoal. The disc is now ready for crossing out.
Place it on the dividing plate (see article 343) to mark out the three arms,
and remove the metal between them, either in the lathe, as explained above,
or by drilling a series of holes parallel to the arms and rim. These holes
should be so arranged that they can be enlarged with a fine-pointed graver
(while the balance rests on a flat wooden block or is cemented to it), and a
turn with a sharp edged broach, or the passage of a thin rat-tail file should
be sufficient to separate the useless metal. As a rule, the series of holes is
drilled with the disc held against a wooden block, but the burrs produced on
the under side by the drill prevent it from being maintained flat, unless they
are removed after each hole is drilled, and this might occasion a distortion
of the disc. It would, perhaps, be better to cement the rough balance to a
sheet of zinc; the color of the shavings would suffice to indicate whether the
hole was through.
Two files will be needed for forming the angles; one a flat barrette file, with
the corner beveled off and smoothed to nearly a right angle, to go against
the rim of the wheel; and the other a taper file, with faces of the same
curvature as the inside of the rim, its two edges being inclined at rather
more than a right angle and smoothed carefully. If these simple precautions
are not taken, there is a risk of cutting through the arms or making them too
narrow.
Many of the details in the following article, although specially relating to
a balance, will be found applicable to the construction of other wheels.
534. To Make a Plain Balance. The round plate of which the balance is
to be made must be hammered with the greatest possible care, and of a
thickness but little greater than that of the finished balance (103). Smooth
one face and cement it either to a perforated plate through which the pump
center can reach the balance (if the universal head is to be used), or on the
chuck of an ordinary lathe, or on the wax chuck c, Fig. 233. Hollow the
middle portion with the slide rest cutter or hook tool, according to the kind
of lathe used; but, whichever it be, it must be very well set, and only
remove a small portion at a time. The application of an excessive pressure
will produce a kind of rolling action, which will induce a tendency in the
arms to bend. Remove the metal between the rim and boss until its
thickness is diminished by about a third; smooth this surface carefully,
finishing with a piece of charcoal. The disc is now ready for crossing out.
Place it on the dividing plate (see article 343) to mark out the three arms,
and remove the metal between them, either in the lathe, as explained above,
or by drilling a series of holes parallel to the arms and rim. These holes
should be so arranged that they can be enlarged with a fine-pointed graver
(while the balance rests on a flat wooden block or is cemented to it), and a
turn with a sharp edged broach, or the passage of a thin rat-tail file should
be sufficient to separate the useless metal. As a rule, the series of holes is
drilled with the disc held against a wooden block, but the burrs produced on
the under side by the drill prevent it from being maintained flat, unless they
are removed after each hole is drilled, and this might occasion a distortion
of the disc. It would, perhaps, be better to cement the rough balance to a
sheet of zinc; the color of the shavings would suffice to indicate whether the
hole was through.
Page 393
The arms and rim must be made smooth and even with nicely formed
crossing files, the edges of which are smoothed to the most convenient
angle, as already indicated.
In filing the crossings the balance should rest against a small block in the
vise, and they are rounded while resting in a groove at the edge of a similar
block, specially shaped for the purpose. This block is also useful as a
support in finishing the angles between crossings and rim.
The under face of the balance is smoothed with oilstone dust; and the
arms by drawing the polisher along them while the balance rests on a flat
block; it is then cleaned and fitted on a very true arbor, as a, Fig. 233. This
should pass through the center hole of the balance without play after a
broach has slightly enlarged it, and the balance is clamped by a cap and
three screws, j. It only remains to set the arbor in the lathe and polish the
rim, first turning it to a half oval if desired. In the latter case the rim, after
being smoothed, is polished first with coarse rouge on hard pith, and
subsequently with fine rouge on softer pith.
535. If the arms of a balance are found to be too long, so that they curve,
the rim must be lengthened by hammering with the greatest possible care;
the inside and outside of it must then be trued on an arbor of the form a.
The boss at the center will be found thicker than is desirable; its height
can be reduced with the balance merely adjusted on a smooth taper arbor,
but it is necessary to observe that the balance and arbor must not be
adjusted to each other by pressing or by rotating the balance with the rim
held in the fingers. It must be pushed on or off the arbor by applying
pressure at the center of the boss on one side or the other with a piece of
hard wood resting firmly against the T-rest, while you cause the arbor to
rotate.
Instead of the form of arbor shown at a, a screw arbor might be used,
with its cone pressing against a cap, but the balance must always be
carefully adjusted on the arbor, and this latter must run perfectly true.
536. To Make a Number of Identical Wheels. If it is desired to make a
number of brass wheels of the same size and shape, the workman will find
it much to his advantage to employ the punching machine. By adopting the
following method he can make his own punches and bed-plates.
crossing files, the edges of which are smoothed to the most convenient
angle, as already indicated.
In filing the crossings the balance should rest against a small block in the
vise, and they are rounded while resting in a groove at the edge of a similar
block, specially shaped for the purpose. This block is also useful as a
support in finishing the angles between crossings and rim.
The under face of the balance is smoothed with oilstone dust; and the
arms by drawing the polisher along them while the balance rests on a flat
block; it is then cleaned and fitted on a very true arbor, as a, Fig. 233. This
should pass through the center hole of the balance without play after a
broach has slightly enlarged it, and the balance is clamped by a cap and
three screws, j. It only remains to set the arbor in the lathe and polish the
rim, first turning it to a half oval if desired. In the latter case the rim, after
being smoothed, is polished first with coarse rouge on hard pith, and
subsequently with fine rouge on softer pith.
535. If the arms of a balance are found to be too long, so that they curve,
the rim must be lengthened by hammering with the greatest possible care;
the inside and outside of it must then be trued on an arbor of the form a.
The boss at the center will be found thicker than is desirable; its height
can be reduced with the balance merely adjusted on a smooth taper arbor,
but it is necessary to observe that the balance and arbor must not be
adjusted to each other by pressing or by rotating the balance with the rim
held in the fingers. It must be pushed on or off the arbor by applying
pressure at the center of the boss on one side or the other with a piece of
hard wood resting firmly against the T-rest, while you cause the arbor to
rotate.
Instead of the form of arbor shown at a, a screw arbor might be used,
with its cone pressing against a cap, but the balance must always be
carefully adjusted on the arbor, and this latter must run perfectly true.
536. To Make a Number of Identical Wheels. If it is desired to make a
number of brass wheels of the same size and shape, the workman will find
it much to his advantage to employ the punching machine. By adopting the
following method he can make his own punches and bed-plates.
Page 394
With a view to secure same length in the
matrices that are used for forming the
crossings, without augmenting the
difficulty of construction, proceed thus:
Each of the pieces v, v, Fig. 248, consists
of two parts: 1. The star-piece, a c b d, of
three, four, five or six arms, according to
the number of crossings of the wheel. 2.
The collar, v. The star-piece is of the same
length as the collar, and is made in the
wheel-cutting engine in the same manner
Fig. 248.
as the leaves of a pinion. The punches, of
which one is shown at p, are fitted by hand
to the recesses of the star-piece, and then cemented in position; the whole is
then chucked in the lathe and turned as one piece, so that its diameter is
slightly greater than the interior of the collar. Now harden the star-piece,
and temper it to a blue color. When cold harden the collar v v, and temper it
to the same degree, but, while expanded by the heat in tempering, introduce
the cold star-piece and drive it home. By proceeding in this manner, no
subsequent hand fitting will be required. v n must not be hardened.
Tools for punching the crossings of wheels are sometimes made on this
system in which the disc of brass is fixed to a support that can be made to
revolve by quarters of a revolution at a time, and a single punch serves to
remove the metal by four separate operations. But as a rule it is better to use
four punches together.
537. To Repair Wheels. When the teeth of a wheel are damaged, the
only possible remedy is to provide a new one. If, however, a single tooth is
broken, the following method can be adopted, on an emergency, for
inserting a new one:
538. To insert a new tooth in a wheel. Cut a small notch in the rim of the
wheel, shown at a, Fig. 249, which should be dovetailed if possible, and the
two sides spread out slightly from the upper towards the under side, as
indicated at c c. Cut a small piece of well-hammered brass, of the form b, so
that the part d d fits exactly into the notch in the rim. Now invert the wheel
and grip it near to a in a pair of long-nosed pliers, which must be held in the
vise. Moisten the inner faces of the notch with soldering fluid and, placing b
matrices that are used for forming the
crossings, without augmenting the
difficulty of construction, proceed thus:
Each of the pieces v, v, Fig. 248, consists
of two parts: 1. The star-piece, a c b d, of
three, four, five or six arms, according to
the number of crossings of the wheel. 2.
The collar, v. The star-piece is of the same
length as the collar, and is made in the
wheel-cutting engine in the same manner
Fig. 248.
as the leaves of a pinion. The punches, of
which one is shown at p, are fitted by hand
to the recesses of the star-piece, and then cemented in position; the whole is
then chucked in the lathe and turned as one piece, so that its diameter is
slightly greater than the interior of the collar. Now harden the star-piece,
and temper it to a blue color. When cold harden the collar v v, and temper it
to the same degree, but, while expanded by the heat in tempering, introduce
the cold star-piece and drive it home. By proceeding in this manner, no
subsequent hand fitting will be required. v n must not be hardened.
Tools for punching the crossings of wheels are sometimes made on this
system in which the disc of brass is fixed to a support that can be made to
revolve by quarters of a revolution at a time, and a single punch serves to
remove the metal by four separate operations. But as a rule it is better to use
four punches together.
537. To Repair Wheels. When the teeth of a wheel are damaged, the
only possible remedy is to provide a new one. If, however, a single tooth is
broken, the following method can be adopted, on an emergency, for
inserting a new one:
538. To insert a new tooth in a wheel. Cut a small notch in the rim of the
wheel, shown at a, Fig. 249, which should be dovetailed if possible, and the
two sides spread out slightly from the upper towards the under side, as
indicated at c c. Cut a small piece of well-hammered brass, of the form b, so
that the part d d fits exactly into the notch in the rim. Now invert the wheel
and grip it near to a in a pair of long-nosed pliers, which must be held in the
vise. Moisten the inner faces of the notch with soldering fluid and, placing b
Page 395
in position, put particles of solder round its edge;
holding the lamp beneath the nose of the pliers, the
solder will presently melt, and a drop of the fluid
should be added to facilitate its running into the joint.
Cool the wheel and wash thoroughly, first with water
and subsequently with alcohol.
It only remains to file both faces smooth and level
with the rim of the wheel; then shape the tooth
carefully.
Fig. 249.
By introducing b from the side opposite to that
which is visible in the watch, and sloping the faces d d, to a less degree than
a, the inverted wheel will present a recess to receive the solder; so that, on
looking at the upper surface, at which the edges fit very closely, the joint
will be scarcely visible.
539. To true a wheel. When the teeth are found to be in good condition,
but the wheel does not run true, or one or more of its arms are strained, the
fault can be corrected, in a case of absolute necessity, as follows:
Remove the pinion from its wheel. Enlarge the central hole in the lathe
and rivet or solder in it a brass ring that is slightly thicker than the wheel,
and perforated with a smaller hole than that required for the riveting. Now
center the wheel from its circumference; increase the central hole with the
slide-rest cutter, and turn down the two faces of the ring level with the
wheel. Rivet the pinion in its place, after testing the truth of its riveting
neck, when the wheel should be found to turn both true and flat.
If the wheel under repair is likely to be subjected to much force, at least
two small notches should be left in the enlarged hole in the wheel to receive
corresponding projections in the brass ring.
540. If the crossings of a wheel are broken and the wheel cannot be
replaced, it must be chucked in the lathe and the arms turned out with a
graver, the inner edge of the rim being at the same time turned circular, and
a step turned on this edge where the metal is to be left of half its original
thickness.
Take another wheel of the same size and thickness, or a plain disc, and
turn it of the same diameter as the outer ridge of the step; reduce its
holding the lamp beneath the nose of the pliers, the
solder will presently melt, and a drop of the fluid
should be added to facilitate its running into the joint.
Cool the wheel and wash thoroughly, first with water
and subsequently with alcohol.
It only remains to file both faces smooth and level
with the rim of the wheel; then shape the tooth
carefully.
Fig. 249.
By introducing b from the side opposite to that
which is visible in the watch, and sloping the faces d d, to a less degree than
a, the inverted wheel will present a recess to receive the solder; so that, on
looking at the upper surface, at which the edges fit very closely, the joint
will be scarcely visible.
539. To true a wheel. When the teeth are found to be in good condition,
but the wheel does not run true, or one or more of its arms are strained, the
fault can be corrected, in a case of absolute necessity, as follows:
Remove the pinion from its wheel. Enlarge the central hole in the lathe
and rivet or solder in it a brass ring that is slightly thicker than the wheel,
and perforated with a smaller hole than that required for the riveting. Now
center the wheel from its circumference; increase the central hole with the
slide-rest cutter, and turn down the two faces of the ring level with the
wheel. Rivet the pinion in its place, after testing the truth of its riveting
neck, when the wheel should be found to turn both true and flat.
If the wheel under repair is likely to be subjected to much force, at least
two small notches should be left in the enlarged hole in the wheel to receive
corresponding projections in the brass ring.
540. If the crossings of a wheel are broken and the wheel cannot be
replaced, it must be chucked in the lathe and the arms turned out with a
graver, the inner edge of the rim being at the same time turned circular, and
a step turned on this edge where the metal is to be left of half its original
thickness.
Take another wheel of the same size and thickness, or a plain disc, and
turn it of the same diameter as the outer ridge of the step; reduce its
Page 396
thickness at the edge by one-half and a disc will thus be obtained with a
ridge round the edge corresponding exactly with that of the wheel, and the
one will fit in the other. They are, of course, soldered in this position, care
being taken to prevent the solder from reaching the teeth, and the old wheel
will thus be provided with a new interior.
If the disc is made to fit closely on the upper side, a wedge-shaped ring
being left to receive the solder in the manner explained in article 537, the
joint will be scarcely perceptible on the exposed face, even with a glass.
In repairing delicate wheels in any way it is a good precaution to cement
the rim to the edge of a hole in a brass plate, so that only the arms or other
part to be operated upon is exposed.
541. To Make a Stem-Wind Wheel. We will suppose that the old wheel
is available as a pattern; if it is not, the several dimensions must be
ascertained by calculation in accordance with the laws of depths.
Prepare a thick plate, and drill a central hole, fitting
a steel pin into it as shown at o d, Fig. 250. The
diameter of d must be exactly the same as that of the
pump-center in the universal head. Fit the wheel-blank
r to the pin o without play, and cement it to the plate.
Remove the pump-center and insert d in its place, Fig. 250.
clamping the plate p firmly against the face-plate by
the dogs. By using well-sharpened gravers or cutters,
the wheel may be rapidly shaped.
The pin might be forced in from the under side to the level of that face of
the plate; and if it were perforated as shown by the dotted lines, it might be
centered by means of the pump. Or the plate p might be made circular and
centered from its circumference.
542. To cut the teeth on the circumference the wheel need only be fixed
on the chuck of the wheel-cutting engine as usual by means of the steel
cone. The crown teeth are cut while the wheel is firmly cemented to a pin-
chuck like that used in turning it.
Other keyless wheels can be made on the same principle, and such
modifications as may be necessary experience will suggest. Sufficient
ridge round the edge corresponding exactly with that of the wheel, and the
one will fit in the other. They are, of course, soldered in this position, care
being taken to prevent the solder from reaching the teeth, and the old wheel
will thus be provided with a new interior.
If the disc is made to fit closely on the upper side, a wedge-shaped ring
being left to receive the solder in the manner explained in article 537, the
joint will be scarcely perceptible on the exposed face, even with a glass.
In repairing delicate wheels in any way it is a good precaution to cement
the rim to the edge of a hole in a brass plate, so that only the arms or other
part to be operated upon is exposed.
541. To Make a Stem-Wind Wheel. We will suppose that the old wheel
is available as a pattern; if it is not, the several dimensions must be
ascertained by calculation in accordance with the laws of depths.
Prepare a thick plate, and drill a central hole, fitting
a steel pin into it as shown at o d, Fig. 250. The
diameter of d must be exactly the same as that of the
pump-center in the universal head. Fit the wheel-blank
r to the pin o without play, and cement it to the plate.
Remove the pump-center and insert d in its place, Fig. 250.
clamping the plate p firmly against the face-plate by
the dogs. By using well-sharpened gravers or cutters,
the wheel may be rapidly shaped.
The pin might be forced in from the under side to the level of that face of
the plate; and if it were perforated as shown by the dotted lines, it might be
centered by means of the pump. Or the plate p might be made circular and
centered from its circumference.
542. To cut the teeth on the circumference the wheel need only be fixed
on the chuck of the wheel-cutting engine as usual by means of the steel
cone. The crown teeth are cut while the wheel is firmly cemented to a pin-
chuck like that used in turning it.
Other keyless wheels can be made on the same principle, and such
modifications as may be necessary experience will suggest. Sufficient
Page 397
information in regard to wheel-cutting has already been given in 397 and
following articles.
P I NI O NS.
543. To Make a Pinion. At the present day pinions of all sizes can be
obtained of the material dealers, so that it is very seldom that a watchmaker
is obliged to make one for himself.
In an emergency, however, he can adopt the following method for
making one out of the ordinary drawn steel; but it should be added that, in
all probability, some practice will be needed before success is arrived at.
Cut a length of steel wire of suitable diameter about two-thirds as long as
the files that are to be used for shaping the teeth. Turn it down to form the
axis, leaving a block near each end equal in length to the required pinion, as
if three pinions were to be made on the same staff. Then cut and round
leaves on all, keeping the file always in contact with a leaf of each pinion.
By proceeding thus the sides and roundings of the leaves will be maintained
parallel to the axis, and there will be no risk of the pinion being barrel-
shaped, as is nearly always the case when a short pinion is held in the
fingers or rested on a block in the vise.
Proceed in the same manner in smoothing and polishing, using pieces of
some close-grained wood, such as walnut.
It is much easier to make the pinion of the required form by means of a
revolving cutter in the lathe, if the workman is not provided with a special
tool for the purpose: the arrangement of the lathe is described in article 402.
In some factories the leaves are cut in two operations: a cutter with plain
fine saw teeth divides the circumference into the requisite number of equal
parts, the leaves being subsequently made of the correct shape by a special
cutter, the method of making which has already been very fully explained in
articles 417-435.
544. To Determine the Size of a Pinion. The following table is usually
employed for this purpose. See also 562 and the following articles.
following articles.
P I NI O NS.
543. To Make a Pinion. At the present day pinions of all sizes can be
obtained of the material dealers, so that it is very seldom that a watchmaker
is obliged to make one for himself.
In an emergency, however, he can adopt the following method for
making one out of the ordinary drawn steel; but it should be added that, in
all probability, some practice will be needed before success is arrived at.
Cut a length of steel wire of suitable diameter about two-thirds as long as
the files that are to be used for shaping the teeth. Turn it down to form the
axis, leaving a block near each end equal in length to the required pinion, as
if three pinions were to be made on the same staff. Then cut and round
leaves on all, keeping the file always in contact with a leaf of each pinion.
By proceeding thus the sides and roundings of the leaves will be maintained
parallel to the axis, and there will be no risk of the pinion being barrel-
shaped, as is nearly always the case when a short pinion is held in the
fingers or rested on a block in the vise.
Proceed in the same manner in smoothing and polishing, using pieces of
some close-grained wood, such as walnut.
It is much easier to make the pinion of the required form by means of a
revolving cutter in the lathe, if the workman is not provided with a special
tool for the purpose: the arrangement of the lathe is described in article 402.
In some factories the leaves are cut in two operations: a cutter with plain
fine saw teeth divides the circumference into the requisite number of equal
parts, the leaves being subsequently made of the correct shape by a special
cutter, the method of making which has already been very fully explained in
articles 417-435.
544. To Determine the Size of a Pinion. The following table is usually
employed for this purpose. See also 562 and the following articles.
Page 398
To give the approximate diameter of a pinion, the pinion caliper should
include:
For 16 leaves, 6 full teeth; that is to say, measuring the distance between the two external faces;
” 15 ” rather less than 6 teeth, or 5 teeth, and just beyond the point of the sixth;
” 14 ” 6 teeth, measuring at the points.
” 12 ” 5 teeth, measuring at the points (or rather 4½ teeth); for a clock-wheel, 5 full teeth;
” 10 ” 4 full teeth; for a clock-wheel, 4 squared teeth;
” 9 ” rather less than 4 full teeth, or 3 full teeth to the point of the fourth;
” 8 ” 4 teeth, measured at the points, minus a quarter of a space;
” 7 ” rather less than 3 full teeth; for a clock-wheel, 3 full teeth, plus a quarter of a space;
” 6 ” 3 teeth, measured at the points, or rather more; for a clock-wheel, 3 full teeth.
It is important to notice that these measures can only be regarded as a
first approximation, and it is only by actual trial in a depth-tool that we can
be certain that a pinion is correctly sized. By taking the measures in a
micrometer, or other accurately divided gauge provided with a vernier, the
work of selecting will be much abridged; but how long will it be before the
generality of watchmakers will make use of these convenient appliances?
The well-known wheel and pinion sector, although convenient, is not equal
to them in point of accuracy, and is affected by an error in measuring a
chord, not a true diameter of the wheel or pinion.
545. To Increase or Decrease a Pinion. The pitch circle of a pinion may
be increased by reducing the thickness of the leaves in such a manner that
their flat faces are continued further on to the rounding; conversely, a pinion
may be decreased by carrying this rounding farther down towards the base
of the leaf.
546. To Decrease a Pinion Without Removing the Wheel. Some
watchmakers recommend that the wheel be removed from the pinion, and,
after the necessary reduction has been effected and the leaves re-polished,
again riveted on the pinion-neck. Very few workmen, however, can do this
well, so that after the operation the wheel is seldom found to run true. If a
new pinion cannot be procured, the old one must be reduced.
When a pinion that is too large is replaced by one that is smaller, it is
necessary to take care that the hole in the wheel is well centered and not too
include:
For 16 leaves, 6 full teeth; that is to say, measuring the distance between the two external faces;
” 15 ” rather less than 6 teeth, or 5 teeth, and just beyond the point of the sixth;
” 14 ” 6 teeth, measuring at the points.
” 12 ” 5 teeth, measuring at the points (or rather 4½ teeth); for a clock-wheel, 5 full teeth;
” 10 ” 4 full teeth; for a clock-wheel, 4 squared teeth;
” 9 ” rather less than 4 full teeth, or 3 full teeth to the point of the fourth;
” 8 ” 4 teeth, measured at the points, minus a quarter of a space;
” 7 ” rather less than 3 full teeth; for a clock-wheel, 3 full teeth, plus a quarter of a space;
” 6 ” 3 teeth, measured at the points, or rather more; for a clock-wheel, 3 full teeth.
It is important to notice that these measures can only be regarded as a
first approximation, and it is only by actual trial in a depth-tool that we can
be certain that a pinion is correctly sized. By taking the measures in a
micrometer, or other accurately divided gauge provided with a vernier, the
work of selecting will be much abridged; but how long will it be before the
generality of watchmakers will make use of these convenient appliances?
The well-known wheel and pinion sector, although convenient, is not equal
to them in point of accuracy, and is affected by an error in measuring a
chord, not a true diameter of the wheel or pinion.
545. To Increase or Decrease a Pinion. The pitch circle of a pinion may
be increased by reducing the thickness of the leaves in such a manner that
their flat faces are continued further on to the rounding; conversely, a pinion
may be decreased by carrying this rounding farther down towards the base
of the leaf.
546. To Decrease a Pinion Without Removing the Wheel. Some
watchmakers recommend that the wheel be removed from the pinion, and,
after the necessary reduction has been effected and the leaves re-polished,
again riveted on the pinion-neck. Very few workmen, however, can do this
well, so that after the operation the wheel is seldom found to run true. If a
new pinion cannot be procured, the old one must be reduced.
When a pinion that is too large is replaced by one that is smaller, it is
necessary to take care that the hole in the wheel is well centered and not too
Page 399
large; in either of these cases it must be enlarged and bushed after being
centered by the circumference.
547. To Polish Pinion Leaves Mechanically. It was formerly the custom
to polish the leaves of a pinion, holding it on a block or between two fingers
and traversing a strip of metal with oilstone dust backwards and forwards in
each space for the smoothing, and a similar strip of walnut wood (with
rouge) for polishing.
This method has long been abandoned in factories, where all pinions are
polished in a machine.
We will proceed to explain a simple arrangement for polishing pinions in
the ordinary lathe, but it is advisable first to describe one form of tool that is
actually in use on the large scale for this purpose. The two only differ in
their dimensions.
548. Pinion-polishing Machine. A frame b b, Fig. 251, supports at its
upper end an H-shaped piece, of the same form as the cutter-holder in an
ordinary wheel-cutting engine; but the arbor, instead of carrying a cutter, is
provided with a wooden drum r. On the base of the frame is a plate p, which
can be fixed by the screw e, and carries a second plate p to serve as a bed
for the slide, which supports the pinion to be polished freely between two
brackets a, a. The plate p can be set a little oblique and clamped by the
screw v.
Fig. 251.
centered by the circumference.
547. To Polish Pinion Leaves Mechanically. It was formerly the custom
to polish the leaves of a pinion, holding it on a block or between two fingers
and traversing a strip of metal with oilstone dust backwards and forwards in
each space for the smoothing, and a similar strip of walnut wood (with
rouge) for polishing.
This method has long been abandoned in factories, where all pinions are
polished in a machine.
We will proceed to explain a simple arrangement for polishing pinions in
the ordinary lathe, but it is advisable first to describe one form of tool that is
actually in use on the large scale for this purpose. The two only differ in
their dimensions.
548. Pinion-polishing Machine. A frame b b, Fig. 251, supports at its
upper end an H-shaped piece, of the same form as the cutter-holder in an
ordinary wheel-cutting engine; but the arbor, instead of carrying a cutter, is
provided with a wooden drum r. On the base of the frame is a plate p, which
can be fixed by the screw e, and carries a second plate p to serve as a bed
for the slide, which supports the pinion to be polished freely between two
brackets a, a. The plate p can be set a little oblique and clamped by the
screw v.
Fig. 251.
Page 400
The machine acts as follows: Present a corner of a pinion-leaf to the
circumference of r (which is caused to revolve by a cord passing round the
pulley n n), the axis of the pinion being not quite at right angles with that of
the drum, in order that the groove formed in the soft wood may resemble
the thread of a screw, and so cause the pinion to revolve. When the groove
is of sufficient depth, apply rouge if operating on a small pinion, and emery
for a large one: after a few turns of r, the slide carrying the pinion being at
the same time moved backwards and forwards, the pinion will be found to
be polished. A better surface can be obtained by using flour emery.
The steel wheels of keyless work can be polished in the same manner.
549. The spindle of the screw e passes through a rectangular slot in b in
order that the slide and its support can be moved parallel to the axis of r.
The grain of the wood must be at right angles to the axis of rotation of
the drum, and a wood that is non-fibrous is preferable. It must evidently not
be too hard, and, if too soft, the thread formed on its circumference will get
rough, and often will suddenly change position. When the entire surface has
been worn it must be re-turned smooth and cylindrical. The larger a roller
is, the quicker it will polish and the less it will wear. Moreover, it will
render a proportionately less amount of motion of the slide necessary. The
root of the walnut tree is especially sought after, but, when this cannot be
obtained, other woods can be used.
In factories where clock pinions are made, thin discs are employed in
place of the drums. They are at least a decimetre (4 inches) in diameter, and
very narrow at the edge, and can be re-turned with a graver when worn
without being removed from the tool, if a T-rest be fixed in some
convenient position.
The screw d is for limiting the descent of the drum, but some workmen
prefer to dispense with it, and, instead, hold the frame c c in the hand,
pressing it gently against the pinion. They urge that the wood is never of the
same degree of hardness round its circumference, and therefore must of
necessity wear irregularly; by holding c c in the hand the pressure on the
pinion can be more evenly adjusted, as it is possible to feel at once whether
the drum is polishing or scratching.
circumference of r (which is caused to revolve by a cord passing round the
pulley n n), the axis of the pinion being not quite at right angles with that of
the drum, in order that the groove formed in the soft wood may resemble
the thread of a screw, and so cause the pinion to revolve. When the groove
is of sufficient depth, apply rouge if operating on a small pinion, and emery
for a large one: after a few turns of r, the slide carrying the pinion being at
the same time moved backwards and forwards, the pinion will be found to
be polished. A better surface can be obtained by using flour emery.
The steel wheels of keyless work can be polished in the same manner.
549. The spindle of the screw e passes through a rectangular slot in b in
order that the slide and its support can be moved parallel to the axis of r.
The grain of the wood must be at right angles to the axis of rotation of
the drum, and a wood that is non-fibrous is preferable. It must evidently not
be too hard, and, if too soft, the thread formed on its circumference will get
rough, and often will suddenly change position. When the entire surface has
been worn it must be re-turned smooth and cylindrical. The larger a roller
is, the quicker it will polish and the less it will wear. Moreover, it will
render a proportionately less amount of motion of the slide necessary. The
root of the walnut tree is especially sought after, but, when this cannot be
obtained, other woods can be used.
In factories where clock pinions are made, thin discs are employed in
place of the drums. They are at least a decimetre (4 inches) in diameter, and
very narrow at the edge, and can be re-turned with a graver when worn
without being removed from the tool, if a T-rest be fixed in some
convenient position.
The screw d is for limiting the descent of the drum, but some workmen
prefer to dispense with it, and, instead, hold the frame c c in the hand,
pressing it gently against the pinion. They urge that the wood is never of the
same degree of hardness round its circumference, and therefore must of
necessity wear irregularly; by holding c c in the hand the pressure on the
pinion can be more evenly adjusted, as it is possible to feel at once whether
the drum is polishing or scratching.
Page 401
The inclination of the slide to a plane at right angles to the axis of r is
measured by the pitch of the screw formed on the drum. But in practice no
special precautions are taken, and it is only necessary to incline the slide
slightly to the right or left, until the pinion is found to revolve freely.
The drum may be from two to three inches in diameter, and, in order to
ensure the same degree of hardness throughout the entire circumference, it
is a good plan to make the drum of a series of wedges cut so that the grain
in all radiates from the center. Beautiful polished surfaces are obtained in
this manner.
550. To polish a pinion in the ordinary lathe.
Various methods may be adopted, but the following is
one of the commonest:
Support the pinion between the two centers b, d, of
the pinion-carrier shown in Fig. 252, the form of
which will be evident without explanation. Rest this
carrier by the portion m against the T-rest, pressing it
against the drum at the same time with one finger.
Rotating the drum first by hand, make the pinion cut a
groove varying the inclination until it is found to be
correct, and, when sufficiently deep, charge with
polishing material, and rotate it with wheel, at the
same time moving the pinion-carrier backwards and
forwards endwise. A little experience will give the
requisite skill.
Fig. 252.
If the pinion is not held at a sufficient inclination it
will scrape and will not revolve. If too much inclined,
only the roundings of the leaves will be polished, the sides being left
untouched. A well-formed groove will last for a long time.
551. To Tighten a Cannon Pinion. If it is simply slack it will be
sufficient to increase the diameter of the set-hands arbor as described in
article 336. But if the cannon pinion is in the habit of working off this arbor
when setting the hands, the arbor can be tapered a little downwards; or
proceed as follows:
measured by the pitch of the screw formed on the drum. But in practice no
special precautions are taken, and it is only necessary to incline the slide
slightly to the right or left, until the pinion is found to revolve freely.
The drum may be from two to three inches in diameter, and, in order to
ensure the same degree of hardness throughout the entire circumference, it
is a good plan to make the drum of a series of wedges cut so that the grain
in all radiates from the center. Beautiful polished surfaces are obtained in
this manner.
550. To polish a pinion in the ordinary lathe.
Various methods may be adopted, but the following is
one of the commonest:
Support the pinion between the two centers b, d, of
the pinion-carrier shown in Fig. 252, the form of
which will be evident without explanation. Rest this
carrier by the portion m against the T-rest, pressing it
against the drum at the same time with one finger.
Rotating the drum first by hand, make the pinion cut a
groove varying the inclination until it is found to be
correct, and, when sufficiently deep, charge with
polishing material, and rotate it with wheel, at the
same time moving the pinion-carrier backwards and
forwards endwise. A little experience will give the
requisite skill.
Fig. 252.
If the pinion is not held at a sufficient inclination it
will scrape and will not revolve. If too much inclined,
only the roundings of the leaves will be polished, the sides being left
untouched. A well-formed groove will last for a long time.
551. To Tighten a Cannon Pinion. If it is simply slack it will be
sufficient to increase the diameter of the set-hands arbor as described in
article 336. But if the cannon pinion is in the habit of working off this arbor
when setting the hands, the arbor can be tapered a little downwards; or
proceed as follows:
Page 402
Drill a hole in the square that receives the minute hand in
the position shown at a, Fig. 253, and also indicated by dotted
lines at c s; now turn a groove round the arbor, also shown by
dotted lines, at the point n, to correspond with the hole a.
Insert a pin in this hole, filing it off smooth with the surface at
the side at which it enters, and nearly level at the other side,
to be hammered over just sufficiently to prevent the pin from
working its way out. The cannon pinion will now be found to
turn with the requisite degree of friction, and without any
tendency to work up. It will last all the longer if both the pin
Fig. 253. and the groove in which it works are polished.
SE T- HAND S S Q UAR E.
552. To Make a Set-Hands Nut. This is a small square nut pinned to the
pivot of a solid cannon pinion that projects beyond the top-plate in some
watches after passing through a hollow center pinion. This construction has
been latterly discontinued, but it may be well to explain the mode in which
such a nut can be renewed when necessary.
Take a rod of soft steel of a diameter half as large
again as that of the square to be made. Drill a hole
along its axis rather less in diameter than the set-hands
arbor and cut off the ends a little longer than the
square is required to be. Put this nut on an arbor and
turn it flat on each end (although still a little long) and
truly cylindrical. Having inserted a loose fitting coned
brass wire of oval section into the nut, hold it on its
side on an anvil. With a sharp blow of the hammer
cause the cylinder to assume an oval form, so that the Fig. 254.
round hole is as seen at a, Fig. 254, this being the
section of the end of the set-hands arbor itself. If the work has been
carefully performed up to this point, the steel nut should now pass a short
distance on to the arbor on applying a moderate pressure, and it will suffice
to slightly alter the form of this latter in order to ensure a perfect fit. As
the position shown at a, Fig. 253, and also indicated by dotted
lines at c s; now turn a groove round the arbor, also shown by
dotted lines, at the point n, to correspond with the hole a.
Insert a pin in this hole, filing it off smooth with the surface at
the side at which it enters, and nearly level at the other side,
to be hammered over just sufficiently to prevent the pin from
working its way out. The cannon pinion will now be found to
turn with the requisite degree of friction, and without any
tendency to work up. It will last all the longer if both the pin
Fig. 253. and the groove in which it works are polished.
SE T- HAND S S Q UAR E.
552. To Make a Set-Hands Nut. This is a small square nut pinned to the
pivot of a solid cannon pinion that projects beyond the top-plate in some
watches after passing through a hollow center pinion. This construction has
been latterly discontinued, but it may be well to explain the mode in which
such a nut can be renewed when necessary.
Take a rod of soft steel of a diameter half as large
again as that of the square to be made. Drill a hole
along its axis rather less in diameter than the set-hands
arbor and cut off the ends a little longer than the
square is required to be. Put this nut on an arbor and
turn it flat on each end (although still a little long) and
truly cylindrical. Having inserted a loose fitting coned
brass wire of oval section into the nut, hold it on its
side on an anvil. With a sharp blow of the hammer
cause the cylinder to assume an oval form, so that the Fig. 254.
round hole is as seen at a, Fig. 254, this being the
section of the end of the set-hands arbor itself. If the work has been
carefully performed up to this point, the steel nut should now pass a short
distance on to the arbor on applying a moderate pressure, and it will suffice
to slightly alter the form of this latter in order to ensure a perfect fit. As
Page 403
there should be no shake, it is advisable that this adjustment be made after
the nut is hardened.
File the two faces d and f parallel to each other and to the axis of the
oval, reducing the total thickness very nearly to the amount ultimately
required, then holding the nut in the pincers by these two faces firmly, but
without scratching them (or it may be held by a rod fitted to the oval hole),
form the square, removing all the metal that is beyond the two vertical lines
in the figure. Then set it on an oval arbor and turn the corners down to the
exact diameter required; pass the graver over the two ends so as to adjust
the length. It will then be easy to finish off the square and round the lower
end, holding the nut on a steel rod in a pin-vise. Drill the hole for a pin after
marking its two ends on the nut as explained in article 518, then, holding
the nut so that it rests on its lower face, form a recess with a chamfering
tool held in its axis; the form of this can be modified if required with the
rounded end of a rod and oilstone dust.
Harden the square and temper it to a blue color; then smooth its faces and
ends, and fit the square to the set-hands arbor. The hole for the pin must
now be made through this arbor, taking care not to allow the square to rise
out of its place during the operation. It only remains to polish the recess
formed in the nut with a rod rounded at one end and rotated with a ferrule,
and finish off the corners with a burnisher and rouge; the lower end is
finished in the same manner as the head of a screw.
553. We have here considered the case of a new arbor, but, if fitting a nut
to one that is already drilled, proceed as follows: Make the nut rather longer
than necessary and drill a hole higher than the point at which measurement
shows it ought to be; then remove metal from the lower face until the two
holes coincide. The work is simplified if the nut be made of the correct
height at once and, instead of drilling a hole, a slit be formed as in the head
of a screw, the bottom of which must correspond with the lower edge of the
hole in the arbor.
554. To fit the Set-hands Arbor to the Center or cannon pinion. We
have pointed out in article 364, the objections to hammering the set-hands
arbor so as to secure sufficient friction to make it hold in either of the
pinions through which it passes in the ordinary form of watch. Tracing a
spiral line on its surface is not much better, as the metal thus caused to
the nut is hardened.
File the two faces d and f parallel to each other and to the axis of the
oval, reducing the total thickness very nearly to the amount ultimately
required, then holding the nut in the pincers by these two faces firmly, but
without scratching them (or it may be held by a rod fitted to the oval hole),
form the square, removing all the metal that is beyond the two vertical lines
in the figure. Then set it on an oval arbor and turn the corners down to the
exact diameter required; pass the graver over the two ends so as to adjust
the length. It will then be easy to finish off the square and round the lower
end, holding the nut on a steel rod in a pin-vise. Drill the hole for a pin after
marking its two ends on the nut as explained in article 518, then, holding
the nut so that it rests on its lower face, form a recess with a chamfering
tool held in its axis; the form of this can be modified if required with the
rounded end of a rod and oilstone dust.
Harden the square and temper it to a blue color; then smooth its faces and
ends, and fit the square to the set-hands arbor. The hole for the pin must
now be made through this arbor, taking care not to allow the square to rise
out of its place during the operation. It only remains to polish the recess
formed in the nut with a rod rounded at one end and rotated with a ferrule,
and finish off the corners with a burnisher and rouge; the lower end is
finished in the same manner as the head of a screw.
553. We have here considered the case of a new arbor, but, if fitting a nut
to one that is already drilled, proceed as follows: Make the nut rather longer
than necessary and drill a hole higher than the point at which measurement
shows it ought to be; then remove metal from the lower face until the two
holes coincide. The work is simplified if the nut be made of the correct
height at once and, instead of drilling a hole, a slit be formed as in the head
of a screw, the bottom of which must correspond with the lower edge of the
hole in the arbor.
554. To fit the Set-hands Arbor to the Center or cannon pinion. We
have pointed out in article 364, the objections to hammering the set-hands
arbor so as to secure sufficient friction to make it hold in either of the
pinions through which it passes in the ordinary form of watch. Tracing a
spiral line on its surface is not much better, as the metal thus caused to
Page 404
project soon wears off. A better method is explained in article 337, but,
when only a slight increase of diameter is needed, the following will
suffice:
Roll the arbor on a hard flat wood surface with a file of medium cut,
applying considerable pressure so that the arbor is forced against the file. If
the pressure is sufficient and maintained long enough, a dead rough surface
will be formed on it which will increase its diameter so that it will retain a
small quantity of oil. It is well to roughen the surface rather more than
necessary, subsequently passing a burnisher lightly over it until the arbor
fits the pinion with sufficient friction.
As to the making of a set-hands arbor, it will present no difficulty to a
watchmaker of even average skill in turning and filing.
P I VO T S .
555. The Play Of Pivots. It may be accepted as an approximate rule that
the play of escapement pivots in their holes should be as follows:
In the cylinder escapement, about one-sixth the diameter of pivot.
In the duplex escapement, about one-tenth the diameter of pivot.
In the lever escapement, about one-eighth the diameter of pivot.
A large hole causes the pitching of the depths to vary with position, and a
deficient play renders the escapement more sensitive to thickening of the
oil.
The depth of a pivot-hole or the length of its cylindrical acting surface
may be taken to vary inversely with its hardness. Thus a ruby hole is made
less deep than one of brass.
556. To Replace the Pivot of a Hollow Pinion. It often happens that the
pivot of a hollow center pinion is so deeply cut that it cannot be re-polished,
in consequence of the careless manner in which too many examiners finish
the center holes (461). If the pinion itself is found to be still in good
condition, it can be made serviceable as follows:
when only a slight increase of diameter is needed, the following will
suffice:
Roll the arbor on a hard flat wood surface with a file of medium cut,
applying considerable pressure so that the arbor is forced against the file. If
the pressure is sufficient and maintained long enough, a dead rough surface
will be formed on it which will increase its diameter so that it will retain a
small quantity of oil. It is well to roughen the surface rather more than
necessary, subsequently passing a burnisher lightly over it until the arbor
fits the pinion with sufficient friction.
As to the making of a set-hands arbor, it will present no difficulty to a
watchmaker of even average skill in turning and filing.
P I VO T S .
555. The Play Of Pivots. It may be accepted as an approximate rule that
the play of escapement pivots in their holes should be as follows:
In the cylinder escapement, about one-sixth the diameter of pivot.
In the duplex escapement, about one-tenth the diameter of pivot.
In the lever escapement, about one-eighth the diameter of pivot.
A large hole causes the pitching of the depths to vary with position, and a
deficient play renders the escapement more sensitive to thickening of the
oil.
The depth of a pivot-hole or the length of its cylindrical acting surface
may be taken to vary inversely with its hardness. Thus a ruby hole is made
less deep than one of brass.
556. To Replace the Pivot of a Hollow Pinion. It often happens that the
pivot of a hollow center pinion is so deeply cut that it cannot be re-polished,
in consequence of the careless manner in which too many examiners finish
the center holes (461). If the pinion itself is found to be still in good
condition, it can be made serviceable as follows:
Page 405
Cement the pinion, with its wheel attached, firmly to the chuck of a lathe
after having removed the two worn pivots, and, when it is accurately
centered, increase the hole by means of a drill that is a trifle larger than the
original pivots (see article 282); in the hole thus enlarged and carefully
smoothed insert a close fitting steel tube that has been hardened and
tempered to a blue color, which must be smoothed and run true. The portion
of this tube that projects on either side is then adjusted to the proper length,
and it only remains to polish the pivots.
If only one pivot requires renewal, ascertain whether there would be
sufficient hold with the hole enlarged through half its length, and proceed as
already explained.
We have assumed that the shoulders of the original pivots can be made to
serve again, but it often happens that the shoulders do not possess sufficient
substance, in consequence of the hollows being cut too deep. In such a case
it is hardly necessary to observe that the hole must be drilled larger, so that,
after the tube has been adjusted, new shoulders can be turned on it.
557. To Redress a Bent Pivot. For this purpose some workmen merely
use a pair of pliers or tweezers; others place the pivot in a slot of the Jacot
tool, and press on it with a burnisher that has little or no cut, at the same
time causing the staff to rotate. Either of the two following methods may be
adopted:
Drill a number of straight holes in a plate exactly at right angles to its
surface. Now introduce the pivot into a hole that it fits with very little play,
and redress it by causing the staff to rotate, at the same time holding the
plate in the hand. Caution is necessary since there is some risk of bending
the pivot too far.
558. Pivoting a Cylinder, etc. This operation will not present any
difficulty if the several heights are properly taken. See also the articles on
Beaupuy files (240), and on compasses for measuring heights, etc. (243).
559. Polishing Pivots in the Lathe. Pivots are as a rule polished by
metal polishers provided with suitable materials, and held in the hand; in
Fig. 255, however, is given the design of a machine by which this work can
be accomplished when the pivoting is done in the chuck-lathe, the pivot
itself being free and unsupported by a runner.
after having removed the two worn pivots, and, when it is accurately
centered, increase the hole by means of a drill that is a trifle larger than the
original pivots (see article 282); in the hole thus enlarged and carefully
smoothed insert a close fitting steel tube that has been hardened and
tempered to a blue color, which must be smoothed and run true. The portion
of this tube that projects on either side is then adjusted to the proper length,
and it only remains to polish the pivots.
If only one pivot requires renewal, ascertain whether there would be
sufficient hold with the hole enlarged through half its length, and proceed as
already explained.
We have assumed that the shoulders of the original pivots can be made to
serve again, but it often happens that the shoulders do not possess sufficient
substance, in consequence of the hollows being cut too deep. In such a case
it is hardly necessary to observe that the hole must be drilled larger, so that,
after the tube has been adjusted, new shoulders can be turned on it.
557. To Redress a Bent Pivot. For this purpose some workmen merely
use a pair of pliers or tweezers; others place the pivot in a slot of the Jacot
tool, and press on it with a burnisher that has little or no cut, at the same
time causing the staff to rotate. Either of the two following methods may be
adopted:
Drill a number of straight holes in a plate exactly at right angles to its
surface. Now introduce the pivot into a hole that it fits with very little play,
and redress it by causing the staff to rotate, at the same time holding the
plate in the hand. Caution is necessary since there is some risk of bending
the pivot too far.
558. Pivoting a Cylinder, etc. This operation will not present any
difficulty if the several heights are properly taken. See also the articles on
Beaupuy files (240), and on compasses for measuring heights, etc. (243).
559. Polishing Pivots in the Lathe. Pivots are as a rule polished by
metal polishers provided with suitable materials, and held in the hand; in
Fig. 255, however, is given the design of a machine by which this work can
be accomplished when the pivoting is done in the chuck-lathe, the pivot
itself being free and unsupported by a runner.
Page 406
The bed p of the instrument carries a
wheel r which engages with a pinion on
the axis of the polishing lap m. The wheel
r is mounted on a clock stud passing
through a slot and fixed by a nut, so that
the pitching of the two mobiles may be
modified; motion is communicated to the
lap by simply placing the finger against the
teeth of r. The bed can move in a vertical
plane, being pivoted on two screws, v, v,
and the block that receives the points of
these is riveted to the disc d d, which can
be made to rotate, with friction, on the
second disc n n. This latter is riveted to a
plate e fixed at the end of a cylindrical rod
Fig. 255. f.
It will be evident that if the rod f is
inserted in the T-rest support, the plate p extending towards the back of the
lathe, this plate can be raised or lowered, and moved towards the right and
left, so that the flat face of the lap can always be brought in contact with the
pivot that is to be polished. This latter is caused to rotate by a foot-wheel
while one hand holds the raised plate by the button a, and a finger of the
other hand is applied to the teeth of r, causing the lap to rotate.
The upward motion of p may be limited by the edge of the top s of the
button s k, which is tapped so as to rotate with stiff friction on the pillar h.
The stop l is to prevent the polisher from traveling too far towards the left
and thus removing too much from the shoulder that is to be polished. The
screw x, giving motion to the slide y, is for securing parallelism between the
pivot and the surface of the lap, according as the former is cylindrical or
conical in shape.
For fine pivots it is advisable to introduce an additional wheel and pinion.
The finger will then be better able to appreciate the degree of resistance
opposed, and, owing to the increased velocity, it will be useless to use
oilstone dust, but rouge can be applied directly after the turning. At e is a
steady-pin for maintaining the position of the instrument.
wheel r which engages with a pinion on
the axis of the polishing lap m. The wheel
r is mounted on a clock stud passing
through a slot and fixed by a nut, so that
the pitching of the two mobiles may be
modified; motion is communicated to the
lap by simply placing the finger against the
teeth of r. The bed can move in a vertical
plane, being pivoted on two screws, v, v,
and the block that receives the points of
these is riveted to the disc d d, which can
be made to rotate, with friction, on the
second disc n n. This latter is riveted to a
plate e fixed at the end of a cylindrical rod
Fig. 255. f.
It will be evident that if the rod f is
inserted in the T-rest support, the plate p extending towards the back of the
lathe, this plate can be raised or lowered, and moved towards the right and
left, so that the flat face of the lap can always be brought in contact with the
pivot that is to be polished. This latter is caused to rotate by a foot-wheel
while one hand holds the raised plate by the button a, and a finger of the
other hand is applied to the teeth of r, causing the lap to rotate.
The upward motion of p may be limited by the edge of the top s of the
button s k, which is tapped so as to rotate with stiff friction on the pillar h.
The stop l is to prevent the polisher from traveling too far towards the left
and thus removing too much from the shoulder that is to be polished. The
screw x, giving motion to the slide y, is for securing parallelism between the
pivot and the surface of the lap, according as the former is cylindrical or
conical in shape.
For fine pivots it is advisable to introduce an additional wheel and pinion.
The finger will then be better able to appreciate the degree of resistance
opposed, and, owing to the increased velocity, it will be useless to use
oilstone dust, but rouge can be applied directly after the turning. At e is a
steady-pin for maintaining the position of the instrument.
Page 407
B US HIN G P IV O T HO L E S , E T C.
560. Every watchmaker knows how to proceed in adjusting an ordinary
perforated bushing or stopping. We would make a few remarks on the
subject of bushings generally.
The tapped bushing is very firm, but, in order that it may be well
centered, it is essential that its thread fits exactly the tube of the tool (322),
and that the pointed rod is exactly central. A turned bushing, especially
when a broach can be passed into it after it is in position, is more easily
made central (see article 342).
When bushing holes that are rather large with solid bushings, after the
hole has been marked with the pointer it must be drilled with a small drill, a
larger one being subsequently passed through, so as to increase it.
Otherwise there is great danger of the hole turning to one side.
If a hole, such as that of the center wheel, is bushed with a perforated
bushing, it will often be found to incline towards the barrel or fusee, so that
the hole is displaced. Such an inconvenience may be avoided by using a
bushing with a hole smaller than is ultimately required, afterwards
enlarging it with the plate centered in the lathe.
561. Riveting of Bushings. Some watchmakers have found considerable
advantage in replacing the sudden and irregular impacts of a hammer by
gradual pressure, without shock, obtained by a small press worked by hand
on the principle of a punching machine. With a well made bushing, the flat
end of which is slightly rounded, and the inside of the hole in the plate
finished with a rat-tail rather than with a cross file, it is found that the
riveting is always perfect. Others employ an ordinary pair of sliding tongs,
the noses of which are drilled to receive two punches, one flat and the other
rounded, as in the mainspring punch. Three pairs of punches suffice for all
sizes of bushings, and the same tool can be used for closing up screw-holes,
etc.
562. Movable Bushings. These are for use in regulator clocks and others
of large dimensions, and a few words must suffice for their description.
They are the invention of M. Alleaume, and will be understood from Fig.
256. It is always desirable, with a view to prevent wear, that when metal
560. Every watchmaker knows how to proceed in adjusting an ordinary
perforated bushing or stopping. We would make a few remarks on the
subject of bushings generally.
The tapped bushing is very firm, but, in order that it may be well
centered, it is essential that its thread fits exactly the tube of the tool (322),
and that the pointed rod is exactly central. A turned bushing, especially
when a broach can be passed into it after it is in position, is more easily
made central (see article 342).
When bushing holes that are rather large with solid bushings, after the
hole has been marked with the pointer it must be drilled with a small drill, a
larger one being subsequently passed through, so as to increase it.
Otherwise there is great danger of the hole turning to one side.
If a hole, such as that of the center wheel, is bushed with a perforated
bushing, it will often be found to incline towards the barrel or fusee, so that
the hole is displaced. Such an inconvenience may be avoided by using a
bushing with a hole smaller than is ultimately required, afterwards
enlarging it with the plate centered in the lathe.
561. Riveting of Bushings. Some watchmakers have found considerable
advantage in replacing the sudden and irregular impacts of a hammer by
gradual pressure, without shock, obtained by a small press worked by hand
on the principle of a punching machine. With a well made bushing, the flat
end of which is slightly rounded, and the inside of the hole in the plate
finished with a rat-tail rather than with a cross file, it is found that the
riveting is always perfect. Others employ an ordinary pair of sliding tongs,
the noses of which are drilled to receive two punches, one flat and the other
rounded, as in the mainspring punch. Three pairs of punches suffice for all
sizes of bushings, and the same tool can be used for closing up screw-holes,
etc.
562. Movable Bushings. These are for use in regulator clocks and others
of large dimensions, and a few words must suffice for their description.
They are the invention of M. Alleaume, and will be understood from Fig.
256. It is always desirable, with a view to prevent wear, that when metal
Page 408
pivot-holes are used, the pivot should bear on a
length equal to about three times its diameter; but
for such a condition to be satisfied, it is essential
that the axes of both holes and pivots be
absolutely parallel. The figures will at once show
in what manner such parallelism is secured. c c is
the plate, in section, in which a hole is made of the Fig. 256.
form indicated by the lines that bound the cross-
hatchings. The movable bushing a is held against a shoulder, and prevented
from rotating by a screw, the point of which enters a small hole in the
bushing. The pivot of b passes into a, and this latter is capable of such slight
motion as will insure contact between the surfaces throughout their length.
D EP T HS .
563. To Secure a Good Depth. The least skillful of watchmakers can,
without much difficulty, place a wheel in the depthing tool in conjunction
with a pinion, and change this latter until the two are found to run easily
together. But there are comparatively few that are sufficiently acquainted
with the subject of depths to be able to select a pinion whose proportions
are such as to satisfy the greatest number of the conditions to be fulfilled by
a good depth.
This unsatisfactory state of things is due in great measure to the
employment, without any correction, of tables of the sizes of pinions (544),
according to which these sizes are determined by a measurement on the
teeth of the wheel, taken with a pinion caliper. This method, although
sufficient for ascertaining the size approximately, and even for securing a
depth that runs more or less easily, cannot be accepted as an unvarying rule.
Far from resting on any mathematical law, as ignorant men urge in their
attempt to instruct others, it is only true for a particular number and form of
tooth in regard to the wheel, and a definite thickness of leaf and shape of
the rounding in regard to the pinion. It ceases to be true if applied to other
numbers of teeth, or to pinions that have their leaves thicker or thinner, or
the roundings different from those of the pinion first determined upon.
length equal to about three times its diameter; but
for such a condition to be satisfied, it is essential
that the axes of both holes and pivots be
absolutely parallel. The figures will at once show
in what manner such parallelism is secured. c c is
the plate, in section, in which a hole is made of the Fig. 256.
form indicated by the lines that bound the cross-
hatchings. The movable bushing a is held against a shoulder, and prevented
from rotating by a screw, the point of which enters a small hole in the
bushing. The pivot of b passes into a, and this latter is capable of such slight
motion as will insure contact between the surfaces throughout their length.
D EP T HS .
563. To Secure a Good Depth. The least skillful of watchmakers can,
without much difficulty, place a wheel in the depthing tool in conjunction
with a pinion, and change this latter until the two are found to run easily
together. But there are comparatively few that are sufficiently acquainted
with the subject of depths to be able to select a pinion whose proportions
are such as to satisfy the greatest number of the conditions to be fulfilled by
a good depth.
This unsatisfactory state of things is due in great measure to the
employment, without any correction, of tables of the sizes of pinions (544),
according to which these sizes are determined by a measurement on the
teeth of the wheel, taken with a pinion caliper. This method, although
sufficient for ascertaining the size approximately, and even for securing a
depth that runs more or less easily, cannot be accepted as an unvarying rule.
Far from resting on any mathematical law, as ignorant men urge in their
attempt to instruct others, it is only true for a particular number and form of
tooth in regard to the wheel, and a definite thickness of leaf and shape of
the rounding in regard to the pinion. It ceases to be true if applied to other
numbers of teeth, or to pinions that have their leaves thicker or thinner, or
the roundings different from those of the pinion first determined upon.
Page 409
564. Theoretical and practical depths. The fundamental principle of
every depth is as follows: To determine what curvature should be given to
the teeth of the wheel which drives, in order that the tooth that follows
(whether its side be straight or formed according to a pre-determined curve)
shall be driven in such a manner as to secure the best transmission of force,
a transmission which is in part influenced by the uses to be made of the
machine.
565. Teeth formed like the involute of a circle have very marked
advantages, but they cannot be adopted in practice, especially in the case of
the leaves of pinions. The epicycloid can be realized very approximately in
the teeth of wheels in horology, and such teeth can be used in conjunction
with pinion leaves having straight faces, the construction of which does not
present any difficulty. This explains why the epicycloidal form has been
adopted by watchmakers; but, although it is more easily drawn than the
majority of other curves, there are still some obstacles in the way of its
general application, mainly dependent on industrial requirements. The
difficulty is usually got over by forming the tooth according to a circular
arc, nearly identical with the epicycloidal curve, see articles (440-42).
566. When two mobiles are of the same diameter, the theoretical depth
will be characterized by having teeth and spaces of equal width; but, since
in practice the friction with such an arrangement would be excessive, owing
to its taking place on both sides of the tooth, the teeth of the wheel that are
driven are so far reduced in thickness as to secure the necessary freedom.
567. When the two mobiles are very highly numbered, the lead is short,
so that the tooth of the wheel may be a trifle broader or narrower than the
space without inconvenience.
But when using pinions of low number (from 6 to 10 leaves), this is not
the case. In proportion as the width of the wheel tooth is reduced, its ogive
becomes shorter, and the most advantageous portion of the lead (that
beyond the line of centers) becomes less. And, besides this, account must be
taken of the slipping towards the end of the lead, and the reduction in the
difference between the geometrical and the total diameters of the wheel.
568. To secure a good depth with low numbered pinions, the leaves
should not be more than half the thickness of the space. If they are thicker
than this, it may be found necessary to reduce the width of the wheel teeth,
every depth is as follows: To determine what curvature should be given to
the teeth of the wheel which drives, in order that the tooth that follows
(whether its side be straight or formed according to a pre-determined curve)
shall be driven in such a manner as to secure the best transmission of force,
a transmission which is in part influenced by the uses to be made of the
machine.
565. Teeth formed like the involute of a circle have very marked
advantages, but they cannot be adopted in practice, especially in the case of
the leaves of pinions. The epicycloid can be realized very approximately in
the teeth of wheels in horology, and such teeth can be used in conjunction
with pinion leaves having straight faces, the construction of which does not
present any difficulty. This explains why the epicycloidal form has been
adopted by watchmakers; but, although it is more easily drawn than the
majority of other curves, there are still some obstacles in the way of its
general application, mainly dependent on industrial requirements. The
difficulty is usually got over by forming the tooth according to a circular
arc, nearly identical with the epicycloidal curve, see articles (440-42).
566. When two mobiles are of the same diameter, the theoretical depth
will be characterized by having teeth and spaces of equal width; but, since
in practice the friction with such an arrangement would be excessive, owing
to its taking place on both sides of the tooth, the teeth of the wheel that are
driven are so far reduced in thickness as to secure the necessary freedom.
567. When the two mobiles are very highly numbered, the lead is short,
so that the tooth of the wheel may be a trifle broader or narrower than the
space without inconvenience.
But when using pinions of low number (from 6 to 10 leaves), this is not
the case. In proportion as the width of the wheel tooth is reduced, its ogive
becomes shorter, and the most advantageous portion of the lead (that
beyond the line of centers) becomes less. And, besides this, account must be
taken of the slipping towards the end of the lead, and the reduction in the
difference between the geometrical and the total diameters of the wheel.
568. To secure a good depth with low numbered pinions, the leaves
should not be more than half the thickness of the space. If they are thicker
than this, it may be found necessary to reduce the width of the wheel teeth,
Page 410
when the pitching is insufficient; but the most serious objection lies in the
fact that the pitch circle of the pinion will be diminished in diameter. Let
there be two pinions with circular roundings and of the same total diameter,
but having leaves of different thicknesses—that with the leaves thick will
be found to be too small, etc.
569. To Calculate the Vibrations of a Pendulum or Balance. Multiply
together the numbers of teeth of the wheels, starting with the one that
carries the minute hand (which therefore makes one revolution in an hour),
but exclude the escape-wheel.
Multiply together the numbers of leaves of the pinions, commencing with
the one that engages with the center-wheel.
If the first product be divided by the second, the number obtained gives
the number of revolutions of the escape-wheel in an hour.
Multiply this figure by twice the number of teeth of the escape-wheel,
and the product is the number of single vibrations performed by the balance
or pendulum in one hour.
O N T HE APP L I CAT I O N O F T HE G E O ME T RICA L L AWS
O F D EP T HS TO P RAC T IC E.
570. It has been urged that when the geometrical forms of the leaves and
teeth, as given in scientific treatise, are accurately carried out in practice,
the depths are found to be unsatisfactory and liable to cause occasional
stoppage; and these facts are brought forward as evidence that theory and
practice are at variance.
On the contrary, theory and practice are in perfect accord: the apparent
disagreement arises from an error in the application of the geometrical laws.
In copying the theoretical forms of the teeth of wheels and leaves of
pinions, it would be necessary to ascertain that they were mathematically
exact, and this is impracticable. Two conditions must be borne in mind:
1. Theory shows that the mobile which drives should be made a trifle
larger than the geometrical size, so as to counteract imperfections in the
fact that the pitch circle of the pinion will be diminished in diameter. Let
there be two pinions with circular roundings and of the same total diameter,
but having leaves of different thicknesses—that with the leaves thick will
be found to be too small, etc.
569. To Calculate the Vibrations of a Pendulum or Balance. Multiply
together the numbers of teeth of the wheels, starting with the one that
carries the minute hand (which therefore makes one revolution in an hour),
but exclude the escape-wheel.
Multiply together the numbers of leaves of the pinions, commencing with
the one that engages with the center-wheel.
If the first product be divided by the second, the number obtained gives
the number of revolutions of the escape-wheel in an hour.
Multiply this figure by twice the number of teeth of the escape-wheel,
and the product is the number of single vibrations performed by the balance
or pendulum in one hour.
O N T HE APP L I CAT I O N O F T HE G E O ME T RICA L L AWS
O F D EP T HS TO P RAC T IC E.
570. It has been urged that when the geometrical forms of the leaves and
teeth, as given in scientific treatise, are accurately carried out in practice,
the depths are found to be unsatisfactory and liable to cause occasional
stoppage; and these facts are brought forward as evidence that theory and
practice are at variance.
On the contrary, theory and practice are in perfect accord: the apparent
disagreement arises from an error in the application of the geometrical laws.
In copying the theoretical forms of the teeth of wheels and leaves of
pinions, it would be necessary to ascertain that they were mathematically
exact, and this is impracticable. Two conditions must be borne in mind:
1. Theory shows that the mobile which drives should be made a trifle
larger than the geometrical size, so as to counteract imperfections in the
Page 411
workmanship.
2. A pinion is never made of the exact mathematical proportions, in
consequence of the processes that have to be adopted for cutting, polishing,
centering, etc. If a number of pinions be taken, and if the several
dimensions of each be determined by means of a micrometer measuring to
hundredths of a millimeter (or from two to three-thousandths of an inch),
differences that are, comparatively speaking, large will be found in the
diameters, measuring between corresponding leaves; in the thickness of
leaves; in the diameters of the circles at which the roundings join the
straight faces, and the general truth of the pinion will nearly always leave
something to be desired. It should be added that these faults will be more
marked according as the leaves have been more quickly made.
The teeth of wheels will be found to be characterized by similar faults,
although they are less marked.
571. It follows from these facts that, in watches and timepieces, the
pinion is always a little smaller than theory would require; thus the
epicycloid should be struck with a somewhat smaller generating circle, and
the ogive of the tooth will be proportionately reduced.
The practical conclusion at which we arrive, then, is as follows: As it is
impossible to secure absolute perfection in the teeth of small horological
mechanisms, their ogives must be slightly more rounded at the points than
the designs given in scientific treatises indicate, since these latter are drawn
exactly in accordance with the geometrical laws.
These remarks are of the greatest possible importance to the
manufacturers of both watches and timepieces; they point to the fact that
not only the ogives of all wheel teeth should be lower than theory indicates,
but also that, in commoner work, they must be still lower, according as the
pinions are of more inferior quality.
572. To Alter a Stem Winding Pinion Depth. The depth of the Stem
Winding Wheel and Pinion often occasions considerable inconvenience,
and its adjustment requires to be accurately made: when the depth is too
deep, its alteration is easy, as the roundings of the pinion leaves can be
reduced, or the stud or other piece that carries the winding wheel can have
its base a little reduced on one side, so as to set the wheel a trifle out of
2. A pinion is never made of the exact mathematical proportions, in
consequence of the processes that have to be adopted for cutting, polishing,
centering, etc. If a number of pinions be taken, and if the several
dimensions of each be determined by means of a micrometer measuring to
hundredths of a millimeter (or from two to three-thousandths of an inch),
differences that are, comparatively speaking, large will be found in the
diameters, measuring between corresponding leaves; in the thickness of
leaves; in the diameters of the circles at which the roundings join the
straight faces, and the general truth of the pinion will nearly always leave
something to be desired. It should be added that these faults will be more
marked according as the leaves have been more quickly made.
The teeth of wheels will be found to be characterized by similar faults,
although they are less marked.
571. It follows from these facts that, in watches and timepieces, the
pinion is always a little smaller than theory would require; thus the
epicycloid should be struck with a somewhat smaller generating circle, and
the ogive of the tooth will be proportionately reduced.
The practical conclusion at which we arrive, then, is as follows: As it is
impossible to secure absolute perfection in the teeth of small horological
mechanisms, their ogives must be slightly more rounded at the points than
the designs given in scientific treatises indicate, since these latter are drawn
exactly in accordance with the geometrical laws.
These remarks are of the greatest possible importance to the
manufacturers of both watches and timepieces; they point to the fact that
not only the ogives of all wheel teeth should be lower than theory indicates,
but also that, in commoner work, they must be still lower, according as the
pinions are of more inferior quality.
572. To Alter a Stem Winding Pinion Depth. The depth of the Stem
Winding Wheel and Pinion often occasions considerable inconvenience,
and its adjustment requires to be accurately made: when the depth is too
deep, its alteration is easy, as the roundings of the pinion leaves can be
reduced, or the stud or other piece that carries the winding wheel can have
its base a little reduced on one side, so as to set the wheel a trifle out of
Page 412
upright (but so slightly as not to be perceptible to the eye, and taking care
that the teeth remain on a level with those of the barrel-arbor wheel). A
shallow depth is somewhat more difficult to correct. If a sufficient change
cannot be made by altering the support of the winding wheel, one of the
following methods must be resorted to:
1. Reset the pendant of the case.
2. Make a new winding pinion of greater diameter, increasing the number
of its leaves by one, to correspond to this change.
3. Alter the position of the movement in the case.
The two first methods are more especially applicable to new work, while
the third is more convenient for repairers, although of course it can only be
resorted to with advantage when the pinion has a bearing in the pendant.
The requisite change in the position of the movement can be produced by
raising the rim of the case that supports the plate, or by soldering two thin
strips of metal on this rim, producing a similar effect; one on either side of
the pendant will suffice, except when a considerable change is necessary, in
which case they should be set at intervals around the rim to avoid an
obvious inclination of the dial. Or four holes can be drilled at equal
distances apart around the edge of the plate and in its plane, so that their
edges overlap the position occupied by the rim of the case; pins are then set
in these holes and filed away until they produce the requisite amount of
elevation. Or, again, flat-headed screws may be fitted around the edge with
their axes at right angles to the plane of the plate and their heads on the dial
side.[7] The depth will then be adjusted by screwing these screws more or
less into the plate.
It is advisable to ascertain that the dial is not forced too near the glass, as
such is occasionally found to be the case, necessitating the bevelling of the
edge of the former.
PAL L E T S .
573. To Advance a (visible) Jewel in a Pallet. Workmen that have had
much experience of escapement making do this without any difficulty by
holding the pallet arm in a pair of tweezers that have been slightly warmed,
that the teeth remain on a level with those of the barrel-arbor wheel). A
shallow depth is somewhat more difficult to correct. If a sufficient change
cannot be made by altering the support of the winding wheel, one of the
following methods must be resorted to:
1. Reset the pendant of the case.
2. Make a new winding pinion of greater diameter, increasing the number
of its leaves by one, to correspond to this change.
3. Alter the position of the movement in the case.
The two first methods are more especially applicable to new work, while
the third is more convenient for repairers, although of course it can only be
resorted to with advantage when the pinion has a bearing in the pendant.
The requisite change in the position of the movement can be produced by
raising the rim of the case that supports the plate, or by soldering two thin
strips of metal on this rim, producing a similar effect; one on either side of
the pendant will suffice, except when a considerable change is necessary, in
which case they should be set at intervals around the rim to avoid an
obvious inclination of the dial. Or four holes can be drilled at equal
distances apart around the edge of the plate and in its plane, so that their
edges overlap the position occupied by the rim of the case; pins are then set
in these holes and filed away until they produce the requisite amount of
elevation. Or, again, flat-headed screws may be fitted around the edge with
their axes at right angles to the plane of the plate and their heads on the dial
side.[7] The depth will then be adjusted by screwing these screws more or
less into the plate.
It is advisable to ascertain that the dial is not forced too near the glass, as
such is occasionally found to be the case, necessitating the bevelling of the
edge of the former.
PAL L E T S .
573. To Advance a (visible) Jewel in a Pallet. Workmen that have had
much experience of escapement making do this without any difficulty by
holding the pallet arm in a pair of tweezers that have been slightly warmed,
Page 413
but ordinary repairers will not succeed with such a method: they can
however, effect the required change as follows.
Make a small brass plate, e, fig. 257, with a piece c
projecting upwards, which the screw v traverses with stiff
friction. A saddle b is fitted to the edge of the plate by
screws. A glance at the figure will suffice to show the
mode of using it; the pallet arm whose jewel is to be
adjusted is clamped under b with the jewel just opposite
the screw v. Now turn this screw until it stands at the
distance from the impulse face of a through which the
jewel is to be advanced; taking the plate in a pair of long-
nosed pliers, hold them over a small lamp flame, and
Fig. 257. press with a small screwdriver lightly against the point a
so as to advance the stone by the requisite amount as soon
as the shellac is sufficiently soft. A particle of shellac is placed at a, if any
cavity forms during the process, and the plate is laid on some cool body,
avoiding contact with the pallet-staff.
If the stone projects below the lower surface of the pallets, a small
washer must be placed underneath before clamping the screws of b, of such
a thickness that the stone is just on the level with the surface e.
574. To Alter the Form of a Pallet Face. Workmen that possess the
requisite skill and steadiness of hand can alter the form of a pallet jewel,
when it is necessary to modify the height or form of the impulse face, by
simply using a copper polisher charged with diamond powder. The
polishing material employed is always decanted in very pure oil, as
otherwise it is apt to scratch instead of polish. The coarser quality is first
used when a material change has to be effected, but if only a very slight
alteration is necessary, and the adjustment has to be very exact, only the
finest quality must be used, as there is a danger of making scratches that
would be very difficult to erase. We would also add that this operation
requires some skill and patience.
however, effect the required change as follows.
Make a small brass plate, e, fig. 257, with a piece c
projecting upwards, which the screw v traverses with stiff
friction. A saddle b is fitted to the edge of the plate by
screws. A glance at the figure will suffice to show the
mode of using it; the pallet arm whose jewel is to be
adjusted is clamped under b with the jewel just opposite
the screw v. Now turn this screw until it stands at the
distance from the impulse face of a through which the
jewel is to be advanced; taking the plate in a pair of long-
nosed pliers, hold them over a small lamp flame, and
Fig. 257. press with a small screwdriver lightly against the point a
so as to advance the stone by the requisite amount as soon
as the shellac is sufficiently soft. A particle of shellac is placed at a, if any
cavity forms during the process, and the plate is laid on some cool body,
avoiding contact with the pallet-staff.
If the stone projects below the lower surface of the pallets, a small
washer must be placed underneath before clamping the screws of b, of such
a thickness that the stone is just on the level with the surface e.
574. To Alter the Form of a Pallet Face. Workmen that possess the
requisite skill and steadiness of hand can alter the form of a pallet jewel,
when it is necessary to modify the height or form of the impulse face, by
simply using a copper polisher charged with diamond powder. The
polishing material employed is always decanted in very pure oil, as
otherwise it is apt to scratch instead of polish. The coarser quality is first
used when a material change has to be effected, but if only a very slight
alteration is necessary, and the adjustment has to be very exact, only the
finest quality must be used, as there is a danger of making scratches that
would be very difficult to erase. We would also add that this operation
requires some skill and patience.
Page 414
Fig. 258.
575. To Measure the Lift and all other Angles, etc. of the Lever
Escapement. A very simple instrument for measuring these angles was
designed by Curzon, one which any watchmaker can arrange for himself,
and is quite sufficient for all practical purposes. This is shown in Fig. 258,
and consists of an ordinary depth tool to which a scale is added. A hand
adapted to the pallet-staff supported between one pair of runners of the
depth tool gives motion to a curved rack (shown by dotted lines), and this
causes a pinion carrying a second index to rotate, the radii being so related
that the movement of the staff is magnified four times on a scale which can
be observed while the glass is at the eye examining the pallets. The index
which travels over the shorter scale to the left (divided up to 10° on either
side of zero) is connected with the pallet-staff by a fork and a short arm
passing through the circular groove; it affords a convenient means of
moving the pallets while testing them, and gives a measure, in degrees, of
their motion. The graduated arc shown at the top is for measuring the lever
and roller.
576. Verge Pallets: to Measure their Opening. The little instrument
shown in Fig. 259 may be used for this purpose; its mode of action will be
easily understood from an inspection of the figure.
575. To Measure the Lift and all other Angles, etc. of the Lever
Escapement. A very simple instrument for measuring these angles was
designed by Curzon, one which any watchmaker can arrange for himself,
and is quite sufficient for all practical purposes. This is shown in Fig. 258,
and consists of an ordinary depth tool to which a scale is added. A hand
adapted to the pallet-staff supported between one pair of runners of the
depth tool gives motion to a curved rack (shown by dotted lines), and this
causes a pinion carrying a second index to rotate, the radii being so related
that the movement of the staff is magnified four times on a scale which can
be observed while the glass is at the eye examining the pallets. The index
which travels over the shorter scale to the left (divided up to 10° on either
side of zero) is connected with the pallet-staff by a fork and a short arm
passing through the circular groove; it affords a convenient means of
moving the pallets while testing them, and gives a measure, in degrees, of
their motion. The graduated arc shown at the top is for measuring the lever
and roller.
576. Verge Pallets: to Measure their Opening. The little instrument
shown in Fig. 259 may be used for this purpose; its mode of action will be
easily understood from an inspection of the figure.
Page 415
One of the pallets being held
with its flat face against the base of
the graduated semicircle by the
lever and spring b, so that the axis
of the verge is at right angles to the
plane of the instrument through the
point n, an index previously fixed
Fig. 259. to the other pallet will show by the
graduations the number of degrees
of opening.
This index, shown at p, Fig. 160, must be very light. It is formed in two
parts, the body c d, and the small spring z z. The pallet when held in the
notch c, must have its face held flat against c d by the spring z z. The face c
d of the index must be quite smooth and straight, so as to avoid any error in
the reading of the scale.
The pressure-block c, Fig. 259 (shown in plan and
elevation at c, Fig. 260), is movable on its center, and
this center, which by an engraver’s error is
represented on the line n r, should be a little to the
right of that line.
577. To Open or Close Verge Pallets. Some
workmen cut a notch at the end of a small rod in
which the verge is inserted, the two arms of the fork Fig. 260.
being then drawn together by a screw; then, holding
each pallet in a pair of long-nosed pliers, one in each
hand, the rod is held in the flame of a lamp and, as soon as the body of the
verge becomes blue, it is gently twisted to the right or left according as the
pallets require to be opened or closed.
This method is not always convenient, and the following may be
recommended:
Support the verge by its shoulders between two cone-plate centers in a
pair of finishing turns, as seen in Fig. 261. A carrier b is screwed to the
upper pallet, and prevents the verge from rotating; c is a rod through which
heat is conducted; a, shown both in plan and elevation, is another rod,
which is much longer than c, and has a notch cut at the end, so that it can be
with its flat face against the base of
the graduated semicircle by the
lever and spring b, so that the axis
of the verge is at right angles to the
plane of the instrument through the
point n, an index previously fixed
Fig. 259. to the other pallet will show by the
graduations the number of degrees
of opening.
This index, shown at p, Fig. 160, must be very light. It is formed in two
parts, the body c d, and the small spring z z. The pallet when held in the
notch c, must have its face held flat against c d by the spring z z. The face c
d of the index must be quite smooth and straight, so as to avoid any error in
the reading of the scale.
The pressure-block c, Fig. 259 (shown in plan and
elevation at c, Fig. 260), is movable on its center, and
this center, which by an engraver’s error is
represented on the line n r, should be a little to the
right of that line.
577. To Open or Close Verge Pallets. Some
workmen cut a notch at the end of a small rod in
which the verge is inserted, the two arms of the fork Fig. 260.
being then drawn together by a screw; then, holding
each pallet in a pair of long-nosed pliers, one in each
hand, the rod is held in the flame of a lamp and, as soon as the body of the
verge becomes blue, it is gently twisted to the right or left according as the
pallets require to be opened or closed.
This method is not always convenient, and the following may be
recommended:
Support the verge by its shoulders between two cone-plate centers in a
pair of finishing turns, as seen in Fig. 261. A carrier b is screwed to the
upper pallet, and prevents the verge from rotating; c is a rod through which
heat is conducted; a, shown both in plan and elevation, is another rod,
which is much longer than c, and has a notch cut at the end, so that it can be
Page 416
forced on to the lower pallet. The end d is free,
and the T-rest shown dotted at s, must be brought
nearly into contact with it, the distance between
them corresponding to the angle to which it is
required to alter the opening of the pallets. Now
hold a lamp under the free end of c and, as soon as
the body of the verge changes color, d will
descend by its own weight until arrested by s, the
Fig. 261.
opening will thus be increased or diminished to
the requisite extent.
The operation will be accomplished more quickly by directing the blow-
pipe flame against the verge body.
Of course when diminishing the opening, the verge must be held in the
reverse direction to that shown in the figure.
CY L I NDE R.
578. To Polish the Cylinder Lips Mechanically. The polishing of the
lips of a cylinder is one of the most delicate operations that can be
undertaken by a watchmaker; we have, therefore, endeavored to devise an
instrument by which this can be done mechanically, and which should at the
same time be so simple and so easily made that any watchmaker should be
able to construct it for himself.
and the T-rest shown dotted at s, must be brought
nearly into contact with it, the distance between
them corresponding to the angle to which it is
required to alter the opening of the pallets. Now
hold a lamp under the free end of c and, as soon as
the body of the verge changes color, d will
descend by its own weight until arrested by s, the
Fig. 261.
opening will thus be increased or diminished to
the requisite extent.
The operation will be accomplished more quickly by directing the blow-
pipe flame against the verge body.
Of course when diminishing the opening, the verge must be held in the
reverse direction to that shown in the figure.
CY L I NDE R.
578. To Polish the Cylinder Lips Mechanically. The polishing of the
lips of a cylinder is one of the most delicate operations that can be
undertaken by a watchmaker; we have, therefore, endeavored to devise an
instrument by which this can be done mechanically, and which should at the
same time be so simple and so easily made that any watchmaker should be
able to construct it for himself.
Page 417
Fig. 262.
579. It consists of two distinct parts which take their place in an ordinary
pair of finishing turns. 1. The plate p, Fig. 262, supported on a rod t, to take
the place of the T-rest. 2. The frame e, whose axis replaces one of the
runners. This much being clearly understood from the figure, there will be
but little difficulty in understanding the following details.
On the plate p is mounted a bracket, b b b′, held by
a screw and washer. It has a slot cut lengthwise, so
that on loosening the screw it can be made to slide
towards the right or left. The vertical portion b′
supports a fork-shaped piece, d c, a front view of
which is given in Fig. 263, pivoted on a collet-screw,
f, and this may be fixed by a pin passing through its
end like a bolt. The upper end of the fork-piece is
provided with teeth for a purpose that will be
presently apparent.
The long spindle, g h, turns between the two
supports, k, l, fixed to the plate p, under the action of
Fig. 263.
the handle m. This axis carries two eccentric cams, q
and r. When it rotates, the eccentric r causes the fork
d c to rise and fall, thus occasioning an oscillating movement of the rack d,
at the same time the other eccentric q presses against the back of the slide i
579. It consists of two distinct parts which take their place in an ordinary
pair of finishing turns. 1. The plate p, Fig. 262, supported on a rod t, to take
the place of the T-rest. 2. The frame e, whose axis replaces one of the
runners. This much being clearly understood from the figure, there will be
but little difficulty in understanding the following details.
On the plate p is mounted a bracket, b b b′, held by
a screw and washer. It has a slot cut lengthwise, so
that on loosening the screw it can be made to slide
towards the right or left. The vertical portion b′
supports a fork-shaped piece, d c, a front view of
which is given in Fig. 263, pivoted on a collet-screw,
f, and this may be fixed by a pin passing through its
end like a bolt. The upper end of the fork-piece is
provided with teeth for a purpose that will be
presently apparent.
The long spindle, g h, turns between the two
supports, k, l, fixed to the plate p, under the action of
Fig. 263.
the handle m. This axis carries two eccentric cams, q
and r. When it rotates, the eccentric r causes the fork
d c to rise and fall, thus occasioning an oscillating movement of the rack d,
at the same time the other eccentric q presses against the back of the slide i
Page 418
n, which moves freely in the guide s, and is always held against the cam by
a helical spring j; the slide thus has an oscillating motion in the direction of
its length.
All the details in regard to the slide and its guide
will be easily gathered from the plan in Fig. 262, and
the side elevation in Fig. 264.
A small iron polisher is adapted to the slide n i.
Being pivoted on a pin at one extremity, serving as an
axis, its end u is pressed downward by the light spring
v (Figs. 262 and 264), which might be replaced by a
spiral spring below the polisher if preferred.
580. This being understood, we will pass to the
frame e.
The rod that carries it is formed of thick drawn steel
pinion wire, the diameter of which is less than that of
the hole in the poppet-head of the turns. This spindle
Fig. 264. is provided with brass collars at y and z of such an
external diameter as to be received in the poppet-head,
in which the rod can rotate freely. By adopting this
arrangement, not only is the frictional surface diminished, without reducing
the accuracy of the adjustment, but the apparatus can be easily adapted to
any pair of turns.
To the right-hand side of the
frame is fixed, by two screws, the
cylinder carrier x shown at x, Fig.
265. It must be removed in order to
set the cylinder in position by
cementing its balance to the
surface; care is necessary to make
sure that the back of the cylinder
shall be towards the side e of the
frame when the carrier is again
Fig. 265. screwed in position. After having
thus replaced it, set the rack d to
engage with the pinion wire z, in such a manner that, when the eccentric
a helical spring j; the slide thus has an oscillating motion in the direction of
its length.
All the details in regard to the slide and its guide
will be easily gathered from the plan in Fig. 262, and
the side elevation in Fig. 264.
A small iron polisher is adapted to the slide n i.
Being pivoted on a pin at one extremity, serving as an
axis, its end u is pressed downward by the light spring
v (Figs. 262 and 264), which might be replaced by a
spiral spring below the polisher if preferred.
580. This being understood, we will pass to the
frame e.
The rod that carries it is formed of thick drawn steel
pinion wire, the diameter of which is less than that of
the hole in the poppet-head of the turns. This spindle
Fig. 264. is provided with brass collars at y and z of such an
external diameter as to be received in the poppet-head,
in which the rod can rotate freely. By adopting this
arrangement, not only is the frictional surface diminished, without reducing
the accuracy of the adjustment, but the apparatus can be easily adapted to
any pair of turns.
To the right-hand side of the
frame is fixed, by two screws, the
cylinder carrier x shown at x, Fig.
265. It must be removed in order to
set the cylinder in position by
cementing its balance to the
surface; care is necessary to make
sure that the back of the cylinder
shall be towards the side e of the
frame when the carrier is again
Fig. 265. screwed in position. After having
thus replaced it, set the rack d to
engage with the pinion wire z, in such a manner that, when the eccentric
Page 419
cam r occupies the position indicated in Fig. 263, the small iron polisher
rests at the middle point of the cylinder lip. Now finally clamp the screw
that fixes the support t.
The mode of action of the machine will be easily understood. If, after
charging the polisher with polishing rouge the handle m is rotated, the cam r
will impart an oscillating angular movement to the frame e through its axis
y z, and the cam q will, at the same time, cause the polisher to move
backwards and forwards, always in contact with the surface of the lip
during its movement.
581. The work will be performed more rapidly, and the polish will be
better if the iron have a slight lateral motion as well as that in the direction
of its length. It is, however, more simple to communicate a longitudinal
oscillating movement to the cylinder, and this answers the same purpose; it
is only necessary to make two small additions, the spiral spring o and the
little cock a. The latter is fixed to d in an inclined position (as indicated at
a), and this inclination can be varied by merely turning the left-hand screw.
It will be evident that when d is ascending, the cock will push the spindle y
z forward; and when d descends, the spindle will be brought back to its
initial position by the pressure of the spring o, which is simply placed over
the end of the opposite runner. This longitudinal movement must be but
slight, and it can be made as little as desired since it depends solely on the
inclination of a.
582. Observations. 1. The angular motion of the frame E must be
sufficient to enable the polisher to act on the entire surface of the lip. The
extent of this movement is determined by the size and the degree of
eccentricity of the cam r. The greatest motion will occur when the spindle
passes through the hole 1 (Fig. 263), and it will gradually become less as
the holes 2, 3, etc., are used. The cam q should also have two or three holes
for varying its eccentricity. These cams may be made of hard wood, ivory,
etc.
2. The iron polisher may be replaced by a piece of flexible spring fixed
by a screw to the slide; but its pressure is less uniform.
3. The bent arm w, Figs. 262 and 265, is clamped to the plate p by a
screw d, and the long arm b, Fig. 265, bears against the back of the poppet-
head, and thus ensures the steadiness of p. To insure steadiness by its means,
rests at the middle point of the cylinder lip. Now finally clamp the screw
that fixes the support t.
The mode of action of the machine will be easily understood. If, after
charging the polisher with polishing rouge the handle m is rotated, the cam r
will impart an oscillating angular movement to the frame e through its axis
y z, and the cam q will, at the same time, cause the polisher to move
backwards and forwards, always in contact with the surface of the lip
during its movement.
581. The work will be performed more rapidly, and the polish will be
better if the iron have a slight lateral motion as well as that in the direction
of its length. It is, however, more simple to communicate a longitudinal
oscillating movement to the cylinder, and this answers the same purpose; it
is only necessary to make two small additions, the spiral spring o and the
little cock a. The latter is fixed to d in an inclined position (as indicated at
a), and this inclination can be varied by merely turning the left-hand screw.
It will be evident that when d is ascending, the cock will push the spindle y
z forward; and when d descends, the spindle will be brought back to its
initial position by the pressure of the spring o, which is simply placed over
the end of the opposite runner. This longitudinal movement must be but
slight, and it can be made as little as desired since it depends solely on the
inclination of a.
582. Observations. 1. The angular motion of the frame E must be
sufficient to enable the polisher to act on the entire surface of the lip. The
extent of this movement is determined by the size and the degree of
eccentricity of the cam r. The greatest motion will occur when the spindle
passes through the hole 1 (Fig. 263), and it will gradually become less as
the holes 2, 3, etc., are used. The cam q should also have two or three holes
for varying its eccentricity. These cams may be made of hard wood, ivory,
etc.
2. The iron polisher may be replaced by a piece of flexible spring fixed
by a screw to the slide; but its pressure is less uniform.
3. The bent arm w, Figs. 262 and 265, is clamped to the plate p by a
screw d, and the long arm b, Fig. 265, bears against the back of the poppet-
head, and thus ensures the steadiness of p. To insure steadiness by its means,
Page 420
b is drawn back in the direction of the arrow, then hooked behind the
poppet-head and clamped by the screw d. The firmer the support is the
better.
4. The machine may be arranged so that the two lips can be polished at
the same time, but it then becomes more complicated. In the tool here
described, as soon as one lip is polished the cylinder carrier is unscrewed,
turned around, and screwed against the left arm of the frame E, in which are
two screw-holes opposite to those in the right-hand arm. Unscrewing the
slide b b, the T-rest carrier is moved along the lathe bar until the polisher is
over the lip; b b having been set in position is clamped, and, after seeing
that w has a bearing, the second lip may be polished.
5. The cylinder carrier shown at x, Fig. 265, is used when the balance is
in position. For a plain cylinder without its balance another form of carrier
is employed that has at the edge of its central hole a small but solid
projecting shell to which the cylinder is cemented.
583. Methods of Obtaining Continuous Motion. Rapid work is not
possible when a single handle, as shown at m, is used for working the
apparatus; recourse may, however, be had to one of the following methods:
1. Mount a small pinion with a square hole at its center, and make it
engage with a large wheel driven by a handle. This wheel, having a great
number of teeth, will proportionately increase the rate of motion.
2. Take a powerful clock movement and connect up its center arbor with
the axis g h; having wound up the main spring, allow it to run down so long
as it possesses sufficient power to drive the mechanism.
3. Fix a ferule at h, and drive it by the aid of a foot-wheel.
BAL AN CE S PRI NG .
584. To Select a Balance Spring. Various methods are adopted for this
purpose. The most common, by which the strength is ascertained from the
length of cone formed by hanging the balance from the inner coil of the
spring while the outer is held in a pair of tweezers. A more exact method,
poppet-head and clamped by the screw d. The firmer the support is the
better.
4. The machine may be arranged so that the two lips can be polished at
the same time, but it then becomes more complicated. In the tool here
described, as soon as one lip is polished the cylinder carrier is unscrewed,
turned around, and screwed against the left arm of the frame E, in which are
two screw-holes opposite to those in the right-hand arm. Unscrewing the
slide b b, the T-rest carrier is moved along the lathe bar until the polisher is
over the lip; b b having been set in position is clamped, and, after seeing
that w has a bearing, the second lip may be polished.
5. The cylinder carrier shown at x, Fig. 265, is used when the balance is
in position. For a plain cylinder without its balance another form of carrier
is employed that has at the edge of its central hole a small but solid
projecting shell to which the cylinder is cemented.
583. Methods of Obtaining Continuous Motion. Rapid work is not
possible when a single handle, as shown at m, is used for working the
apparatus; recourse may, however, be had to one of the following methods:
1. Mount a small pinion with a square hole at its center, and make it
engage with a large wheel driven by a handle. This wheel, having a great
number of teeth, will proportionately increase the rate of motion.
2. Take a powerful clock movement and connect up its center arbor with
the axis g h; having wound up the main spring, allow it to run down so long
as it possesses sufficient power to drive the mechanism.
3. Fix a ferule at h, and drive it by the aid of a foot-wheel.
BAL AN CE S PRI NG .
584. To Select a Balance Spring. Various methods are adopted for this
purpose. The most common, by which the strength is ascertained from the
length of cone formed by hanging the balance from the inner coil of the
spring while the outer is held in a pair of tweezers. A more exact method,
Page 421
based on the same principle, is to employ the small gauge shown in Fig.
266.
Fig 266.
A vertical pillar n n is fixed on a smooth plate b, and the slide c is held by
friction in any position on n n. Place c so that the distance between c′ and b
is equal to the distance between the end of the lower balance-staff pivot and
the balance-spring collet. Having now fitted the spring in this collet, raise
the balance, by tweezers holding the outer coil, until the lower pivot just
rests on b. The graduations on c will then afford a measure of the extension
of the spring, and this extension should about equal the radius of the
balance measured on the same scale.
When the number of vibrations performed in an hour is known, a spring
may be selected by fitting it to the balance and, while holding the outer
coils in the tweezers, supporting the lower pivot on a hard smooth surface;
the balance is then made to vibrate and the vibrations are counted. The
spring need not be pinned into the collet, but may be attached by wax to the
top pivot.
585. To Fix a Balance-Spring to its Collet. A common way of doing
this is to put the collet on a wire or broach which is held in one hand while
the other presents the inner end of the spring, held in tweezers, to the hole
in the collet; subsequently fixing it with a pin. The following is a more
convenient method:
266.
Fig 266.
A vertical pillar n n is fixed on a smooth plate b, and the slide c is held by
friction in any position on n n. Place c so that the distance between c′ and b
is equal to the distance between the end of the lower balance-staff pivot and
the balance-spring collet. Having now fitted the spring in this collet, raise
the balance, by tweezers holding the outer coil, until the lower pivot just
rests on b. The graduations on c will then afford a measure of the extension
of the spring, and this extension should about equal the radius of the
balance measured on the same scale.
When the number of vibrations performed in an hour is known, a spring
may be selected by fitting it to the balance and, while holding the outer
coils in the tweezers, supporting the lower pivot on a hard smooth surface;
the balance is then made to vibrate and the vibrations are counted. The
spring need not be pinned into the collet, but may be attached by wax to the
top pivot.
585. To Fix a Balance-Spring to its Collet. A common way of doing
this is to put the collet on a wire or broach which is held in one hand while
the other presents the inner end of the spring, held in tweezers, to the hole
in the collet; subsequently fixing it with a pin. The following is a more
convenient method:
Page 422
At the middle of a brass plate is a boss tapped through a vertical hole in
its center to receive a small screw with flat head. When the collet is fixed by
this screw passing through it, the operation of setting the spring in position
and pinning it will be much facilitated, and the plate will at the same time
afford a means of testing its parallelism. Two or three screws with heads of
various sizes should be provided, and, in order that they may be always
available, they should be screwed into holes at a corner of the plate.
This tool might be made of further use by adding an arrangement for
holding the stud while drilling it, with a view to ensure that the hole is at the
proper height.
Fig. 267.
586. Balance-Spring Gauge. A back view and side elevation of this are
shown in Fig. 267; it can be made without difficulty by any watchmaker.
Through the middle of the plate passes a staff a b lightly pivoted between
the cock p and the plate, and projecting on the left-hand side as far as the
point a. Between the cock and plate it carries the collet of the spiral spring s
and the stop-finger d c, and at the point z is a light finger y z that passes
over the graduations on the dial.
When the stop-finger d c is free it stands in the direction of the dotted
line i; on rotating the staff, by taking hold of the pivot a, in the direction of
the arrow i, the extremity c of the finger will be brought round till it presses
against the inclined plane r, which it will force back and, on coming against
the stop near c, it will be held fast in the notch of the small bent lever that
terminates at r. A spring maintains this lever always against a pin set in the
plate. The index finger y z will now be standing over the zero of the scale,
its center to receive a small screw with flat head. When the collet is fixed by
this screw passing through it, the operation of setting the spring in position
and pinning it will be much facilitated, and the plate will at the same time
afford a means of testing its parallelism. Two or three screws with heads of
various sizes should be provided, and, in order that they may be always
available, they should be screwed into holes at a corner of the plate.
This tool might be made of further use by adding an arrangement for
holding the stud while drilling it, with a view to ensure that the hole is at the
proper height.
Fig. 267.
586. Balance-Spring Gauge. A back view and side elevation of this are
shown in Fig. 267; it can be made without difficulty by any watchmaker.
Through the middle of the plate passes a staff a b lightly pivoted between
the cock p and the plate, and projecting on the left-hand side as far as the
point a. Between the cock and plate it carries the collet of the spiral spring s
and the stop-finger d c, and at the point z is a light finger y z that passes
over the graduations on the dial.
When the stop-finger d c is free it stands in the direction of the dotted
line i; on rotating the staff, by taking hold of the pivot a, in the direction of
the arrow i, the extremity c of the finger will be brought round till it presses
against the inclined plane r, which it will force back and, on coming against
the stop near c, it will be held fast in the notch of the small bent lever that
terminates at r. A spring maintains this lever always against a pin set in the
plate. The index finger y z will now be standing over the zero of the scale,
Page 423
and will be maintained in that position until the finger d c is released by a
momentary pressure of the hand on the push-piece n, when it will fly back
to the initial position corresponding to the dotted line i.
587. The instrument is used as follows: The small sliding holder h, which
is shown in section at e, (both of these figures being much enlarged since it
is extremely fine and light), has a hole through its center that fits on to the
axis at a. Having set a balance spring in the clip as indicated at e, place h on
the pivot a, tightening the slide so that it can be used to rotate a b, and bring
the stop-finger round to the position d c. Holding the outer coil of the spring
in tweezers at v, its inner coil being held in the clip, release the bent arm by
means of the push-piece n. The point on the dial at which the finger y z is
arrested will give a measure of the force of the balance spring v.
It will be evident that a spring can now be easily selected of the same
strength as v, or stronger or weaker within definite limits which will
become well known when some use has been made of the instrument.
The entire mechanism is enclosed within a box that is covered by a glass,
through the middle of which a hole is made for the passage of a. The spring
s is of about the strength ordinarily used for 18-line watches.
588. To Set a Breguet Spring in Position. To test
the strength of a flat spiral spring that is to be formed
into a Breguet spring, it must first be attached by its
collet to the balance-staff. As the outer coil cannot be
held in the stud owing to its being so near to the pivot
hole, it must be held in the clip b of the little appliance
shown at s, Fig. 268. Holding the watch-plate between
a and c, the arm d can rise or fall on the rod h, and b
Fig. 268. can be brought to such a position that it grips the
spring at a point just beyond the stud, so that, when
the spring is turned inward, the point held may be brought up to the stud.
The springing of the watch can thus be proceeded with, and springs tried
until one of the required strength is obtained. It then only remains to give
the spring the double curvature, and to take care that the end of the overcoil
is brought sufficiently near to the center.
Since the action of a Breguet spring is more free than that of an ordinary
flat spring, the watch may be found to lose slightly; it is advisable therefore
momentary pressure of the hand on the push-piece n, when it will fly back
to the initial position corresponding to the dotted line i.
587. The instrument is used as follows: The small sliding holder h, which
is shown in section at e, (both of these figures being much enlarged since it
is extremely fine and light), has a hole through its center that fits on to the
axis at a. Having set a balance spring in the clip as indicated at e, place h on
the pivot a, tightening the slide so that it can be used to rotate a b, and bring
the stop-finger round to the position d c. Holding the outer coil of the spring
in tweezers at v, its inner coil being held in the clip, release the bent arm by
means of the push-piece n. The point on the dial at which the finger y z is
arrested will give a measure of the force of the balance spring v.
It will be evident that a spring can now be easily selected of the same
strength as v, or stronger or weaker within definite limits which will
become well known when some use has been made of the instrument.
The entire mechanism is enclosed within a box that is covered by a glass,
through the middle of which a hole is made for the passage of a. The spring
s is of about the strength ordinarily used for 18-line watches.
588. To Set a Breguet Spring in Position. To test
the strength of a flat spiral spring that is to be formed
into a Breguet spring, it must first be attached by its
collet to the balance-staff. As the outer coil cannot be
held in the stud owing to its being so near to the pivot
hole, it must be held in the clip b of the little appliance
shown at s, Fig. 268. Holding the watch-plate between
a and c, the arm d can rise or fall on the rod h, and b
Fig. 268. can be brought to such a position that it grips the
spring at a point just beyond the stud, so that, when
the spring is turned inward, the point held may be brought up to the stud.
The springing of the watch can thus be proceeded with, and springs tried
until one of the required strength is obtained. It then only remains to give
the spring the double curvature, and to take care that the end of the overcoil
is brought sufficiently near to the center.
Since the action of a Breguet spring is more free than that of an ordinary
flat spring, the watch may be found to lose slightly; it is advisable therefore
Page 424
to time the watch before making the bend, so as to show a gain. A little
experience will enable the watchmaker to avoid being much out, and any
trifling error that there may be is corrected either by a displacement of bend
or by altering the central coil. If the latter method is to be resorted to, it is
better that the watch should lose rather than gain a little.
589. To Flatten an Ordinary Balance Spring. Remove the collet and
stud, and clamp the spring by a central screw between two plates, which are
then placed on a blueing tray and gently heated. A small piece of whitened
steel is laid on the plate in order to see that the heat does not exceed what is
needed to give a blue temper. Allow the plates to cool and separate them.
Ordinary springs being made of rolled steel and subsequently coiled,
always open out on heating; it is therefore necessary before resorting to the
above method, to coil up the spring, as otherwise the outer turn will be
found to have opened beyond the stud.
590. To Diminish the Strength of a Balance Spring. Scraping the end
or the entire length always renders the spring defective. Dipping in acid is
very little better. It is preferable to embed the spring in cork or soft pith, and
work it over a ground glass plate covered with oil stone dust that is fine and
smooth. This method might be resorted to for reducing the height of a
mainspring.
If the cork or pith is hard and only a little metal
has to be removed, the operation is successful; but
it is apt to result in more metal being removed
from the edges than from the center. When much
has to be removed, the spring must be cemented to
Fig. 269. the polishing plate (shown at g, Fig. 269, and
described in article 345) with fine wax, thoroughly
liquid, so that on pressing the spring all its coils may come in contact with
the plate; it must be held thus until cold. Now adjust the leveling screws, so
that the whole surface bears flat on the glass; rub it as long as is considered
necessary, and detach the spring as soon as the plate is sufficiently heated;
boil in alcohol to clean its surface.
591. To Harden Gold Springs. Gold detent, thermometer, suspension
and balance-springs can be obtained of a high degree of elasticity. Rolling
hardens them, but renders them very brittle. They can be made supple and
experience will enable the watchmaker to avoid being much out, and any
trifling error that there may be is corrected either by a displacement of bend
or by altering the central coil. If the latter method is to be resorted to, it is
better that the watch should lose rather than gain a little.
589. To Flatten an Ordinary Balance Spring. Remove the collet and
stud, and clamp the spring by a central screw between two plates, which are
then placed on a blueing tray and gently heated. A small piece of whitened
steel is laid on the plate in order to see that the heat does not exceed what is
needed to give a blue temper. Allow the plates to cool and separate them.
Ordinary springs being made of rolled steel and subsequently coiled,
always open out on heating; it is therefore necessary before resorting to the
above method, to coil up the spring, as otherwise the outer turn will be
found to have opened beyond the stud.
590. To Diminish the Strength of a Balance Spring. Scraping the end
or the entire length always renders the spring defective. Dipping in acid is
very little better. It is preferable to embed the spring in cork or soft pith, and
work it over a ground glass plate covered with oil stone dust that is fine and
smooth. This method might be resorted to for reducing the height of a
mainspring.
If the cork or pith is hard and only a little metal
has to be removed, the operation is successful; but
it is apt to result in more metal being removed
from the edges than from the center. When much
has to be removed, the spring must be cemented to
Fig. 269. the polishing plate (shown at g, Fig. 269, and
described in article 345) with fine wax, thoroughly
liquid, so that on pressing the spring all its coils may come in contact with
the plate; it must be held thus until cold. Now adjust the leveling screws, so
that the whole surface bears flat on the glass; rub it as long as is considered
necessary, and detach the spring as soon as the plate is sufficiently heated;
boil in alcohol to clean its surface.
591. To Harden Gold Springs. Gold detent, thermometer, suspension
and balance-springs can be obtained of a high degree of elasticity. Rolling
hardens them, but renders them very brittle. They can be made supple and
Page 425
elastic, not by hardening, as in the case of steel, but by annealing, care
being taken not to exceed a certain degree of heat. The spring may be coiled
on a block and placed in a tube that has a smooth steel lid, then heat the
tube in the flame of a spirit lamp, and as soon as the steel is of a blue
temper, remove the flame and allow the whole to cool.
Others anneal by keeping the spring in boiling oil for a definite period.
The hardness of a gold spring increases with the proportions of alloy it
contains, and, if well annealed, it will be very elastic and will break when
bent too far, as in the case of steel.
592. To Ease an Index on Its Endstone Cap. It is a common but bad
practice among watchmakers to scrape the inside of the ring of the index or
to cut it through. A better method is as follows: Resting the index on a cork,
cover the inside of its ring with oil stone dust and make the cap rotate in its
seat by means of a pinion calliper, the two points of which are inserted in
the screw-holes. The operation is repeated as often as may be required.
DIA L P L AT E.
593. To Cut the Large Hole in the Timepiece Dial Plate. Some
workmen cut the hole in the dial-plate of a timepiece by means of a strong
pair of compasses, one leg of which terminates in a bullet-nose that is
supported in a central hole, while the other is provided with a hardened
cutting point that serves to scrape out a groove.
Others use a rule that revolves on a conical point and carries a slide with
a tracing point which can be replaced by a sharp-pointed cutter. Proceed in
exactly the same manner as when using the compass, but a greater force can
be applied, because, while one hand steadies the center, the full force of the
other is applied to the cutter.
A third and still simpler plan is adopted by some clockmakers. A rod of
the diameter of the central hole, and a cutter of which only the cutting point
projects, are gripped in a vise at a distance apart equal to the radius of the
hole to be made. Then passing the rod through the central hole and holding
the plate in both hands, rotate it, at the same time applying pressure so as to
cause the cutter to form a groove. When a moderate depth has been
being taken not to exceed a certain degree of heat. The spring may be coiled
on a block and placed in a tube that has a smooth steel lid, then heat the
tube in the flame of a spirit lamp, and as soon as the steel is of a blue
temper, remove the flame and allow the whole to cool.
Others anneal by keeping the spring in boiling oil for a definite period.
The hardness of a gold spring increases with the proportions of alloy it
contains, and, if well annealed, it will be very elastic and will break when
bent too far, as in the case of steel.
592. To Ease an Index on Its Endstone Cap. It is a common but bad
practice among watchmakers to scrape the inside of the ring of the index or
to cut it through. A better method is as follows: Resting the index on a cork,
cover the inside of its ring with oil stone dust and make the cap rotate in its
seat by means of a pinion calliper, the two points of which are inserted in
the screw-holes. The operation is repeated as often as may be required.
DIA L P L AT E.
593. To Cut the Large Hole in the Timepiece Dial Plate. Some
workmen cut the hole in the dial-plate of a timepiece by means of a strong
pair of compasses, one leg of which terminates in a bullet-nose that is
supported in a central hole, while the other is provided with a hardened
cutting point that serves to scrape out a groove.
Others use a rule that revolves on a conical point and carries a slide with
a tracing point which can be replaced by a sharp-pointed cutter. Proceed in
exactly the same manner as when using the compass, but a greater force can
be applied, because, while one hand steadies the center, the full force of the
other is applied to the cutter.
A third and still simpler plan is adopted by some clockmakers. A rod of
the diameter of the central hole, and a cutter of which only the cutting point
projects, are gripped in a vise at a distance apart equal to the radius of the
hole to be made. Then passing the rod through the central hole and holding
the plate in both hands, rotate it, at the same time applying pressure so as to
cause the cutter to form a groove. When a moderate depth has been
Page 426
attained, invert the plate and cut one on the opposite side. Care is necessary
when the grooves are on the point of uniting; on the removal of the center,
smooth the edge with a half round file. Some workmen consider it more
convenient to set the cutter and rod in a thick piece of wood that is rounded
at the top and made flat on its two sides towards the bottom, so as to be
firmly held in the vise.
594. To Drill an Enamel Dial. Take a hard, well-sharpened graver and
moisten it with turpentine or turpentine that contains camphor in solution,
or in the following mixture, which is still better:
Turpentine 62 parts by weight.
Oxalate of potassium 4 ” ”
Camphor 4 ” ”
The two latter substances are reduced to powder and dissolved in the
turpentine, and two parts by weight of sandal wood may be added.
The graver point is placed on the dial at the point at which a hole is
required and the graver is rotated backwards and forwards between the
fingers. Practice, acquired by drilling a few holes in broken dials, will soon
indicate the degree of pressure that can be applied without fear of accident.
Some workmen prefer only to apply the maximum pressure while the
graver rotates in one direction, reducing it during the opposite movement;
others hold the handle or tang in one hand and rotate the graver with the
other, always in the same direction.
The operation is continued, frequently arresting it, however, in order to
set the graver and moisten it, until the copper-plate and back enamel are
perforated.
As soon as this point is reached, take an iron or steel spindle, pointed at
one end. The point must be more obtuse than the hole already formed in the
dial. Charge this end with emery or oilstone dust, and place in the chuck in
your lathe; when the spindle is caused to revolve the enamel on the contour
of the hole will be rapidly removed. When the copper disc is reached, a
fine-pointed and sharp graver must be used to remove the metal that is
exposed as well as that which is covered with only a thin layer of enamel;
then renew the operation with the spindle, occasionally drawing a file along
when the grooves are on the point of uniting; on the removal of the center,
smooth the edge with a half round file. Some workmen consider it more
convenient to set the cutter and rod in a thick piece of wood that is rounded
at the top and made flat on its two sides towards the bottom, so as to be
firmly held in the vise.
594. To Drill an Enamel Dial. Take a hard, well-sharpened graver and
moisten it with turpentine or turpentine that contains camphor in solution,
or in the following mixture, which is still better:
Turpentine 62 parts by weight.
Oxalate of potassium 4 ” ”
Camphor 4 ” ”
The two latter substances are reduced to powder and dissolved in the
turpentine, and two parts by weight of sandal wood may be added.
The graver point is placed on the dial at the point at which a hole is
required and the graver is rotated backwards and forwards between the
fingers. Practice, acquired by drilling a few holes in broken dials, will soon
indicate the degree of pressure that can be applied without fear of accident.
Some workmen prefer only to apply the maximum pressure while the
graver rotates in one direction, reducing it during the opposite movement;
others hold the handle or tang in one hand and rotate the graver with the
other, always in the same direction.
The operation is continued, frequently arresting it, however, in order to
set the graver and moisten it, until the copper-plate and back enamel are
perforated.
As soon as this point is reached, take an iron or steel spindle, pointed at
one end. The point must be more obtuse than the hole already formed in the
dial. Charge this end with emery or oilstone dust, and place in the chuck in
your lathe; when the spindle is caused to revolve the enamel on the contour
of the hole will be rapidly removed. When the copper disc is reached, a
fine-pointed and sharp graver must be used to remove the metal that is
exposed as well as that which is covered with only a thin layer of enamel;
then renew the operation with the spindle, occasionally drawing a file along
Page 427
the surface of the acting cone. Or the cones of solid emery to be obtained at
material stores can be used for this purpose. A workman must be very
careless or unskilful to fail in rapidly drilling a hole in a dial by this method
without accident, and he may carry on the process easily until the hole is
large enough to permit the introduction of a rat-tail file.
595. To Enlarge a Dial-Hole With a Rat-Tail File. As an extra
precaution the contour of the hole on either side may be coned with a
spindle as explained above, so as to reduce the thickness of enamel to be
acted upon by the file; but a watchmaker that has had any experience can
dispense with such a preliminary, which we would at the same time
recommend.
The file must enter the hole freely. If only the point can do this, the file
must be held very short, so that the finger may come in contact with the dial
before the larger diameter of the file locks in the hole, as this would almost
certainly crack the enamel. Some workmen avoid such an accident by
forcing on to the file a rather long cork of small diameter.
With a view to avoid scratching the face of the dial in case the file is
drawn out of the hole in its backward movement, it is well to round off and
polish its point.
During the forward movement a slight circular motion is given to the file,
and in returning no pressure is to be applied; the file must merely slide over
the surface. It is dipped from time to time in the liquid mentioned in the last
article. When the hole is large enough, a conical spindle should be used to
smooth its edges as in the earlier stages of the process.
596. To Remove Enamel from the Back. To remove portions of the
enamel from the back when it touches part of the motion work, etc., various
methods are adopted.
The little spindles of solid emery that may be obtained at material stores
may be used for the purpose.
Some watchmakers use a flattened lead ball perforated at its center and
carried on a taper arbor, forming a kind of small grindstone, rounded across
its rim. The arbor is held in a chuck and the edge of the lead disc is
moistened with water, and emery powder sprinkled over it; when set in
rotation the surface to be removed is held against the lead, the necessary
material stores can be used for this purpose. A workman must be very
careless or unskilful to fail in rapidly drilling a hole in a dial by this method
without accident, and he may carry on the process easily until the hole is
large enough to permit the introduction of a rat-tail file.
595. To Enlarge a Dial-Hole With a Rat-Tail File. As an extra
precaution the contour of the hole on either side may be coned with a
spindle as explained above, so as to reduce the thickness of enamel to be
acted upon by the file; but a watchmaker that has had any experience can
dispense with such a preliminary, which we would at the same time
recommend.
The file must enter the hole freely. If only the point can do this, the file
must be held very short, so that the finger may come in contact with the dial
before the larger diameter of the file locks in the hole, as this would almost
certainly crack the enamel. Some workmen avoid such an accident by
forcing on to the file a rather long cork of small diameter.
With a view to avoid scratching the face of the dial in case the file is
drawn out of the hole in its backward movement, it is well to round off and
polish its point.
During the forward movement a slight circular motion is given to the file,
and in returning no pressure is to be applied; the file must merely slide over
the surface. It is dipped from time to time in the liquid mentioned in the last
article. When the hole is large enough, a conical spindle should be used to
smooth its edges as in the earlier stages of the process.
596. To Remove Enamel from the Back. To remove portions of the
enamel from the back when it touches part of the motion work, etc., various
methods are adopted.
The little spindles of solid emery that may be obtained at material stores
may be used for the purpose.
Some watchmakers use a flattened lead ball perforated at its center and
carried on a taper arbor, forming a kind of small grindstone, rounded across
its rim. The arbor is held in a chuck and the edge of the lead disc is
moistened with water, and emery powder sprinkled over it; when set in
rotation the surface to be removed is held against the lead, the necessary
Page 428
pressure being applied by the finger against the other face. Water must be
frequently sprinkled on the surface so as to avoid heating, and to maintain
the emery in its place, and the dial is washed occasionally to examine the
progress of the work.
In place of lead, some use emery formed into a solid block with shellac
or various kinds of cement; it is centered on a large taper arbor, and should
be at least a quarter of an inch thick and rounded at its edge. Such a disc is
very hard when cold; it is used in the manner explained in the last
paragraph, but wears more rapidly than the lead disc, if the latter is well
made and supplied with emery of the right degree of coarseness, in
sufficient abundance and evenly distributed.
597. Dials Fixed by Screws through the Edges. The screw-holes at the
edge are drilled in the manner already explained in article 594, and the
center hole is enlarged as there described, if this is found to be necessary in
order to permit the free passage of the hour wheel. The diameter of a dial
may be reduced if it is too large in the manner explained in article 600.
When it has been thus prepared, place it in position, the XII being exactly
opposite the pendant, with the movement in the case, and close the bezel. If
the dial is found to shake under the bezel it should be fixed with three or
four small wedges of pegwood, care being taken that they do not subject the
dial to much pressure. The accuracy of the position may be tested by
holding a stretched piece of cord over the dial, and observing whether it
passes at the same time through the middle of the pendant, the center hole,
the XII and the VI. When the dial is thus found to be properly placed, mark
one of screw-holes on the watch-plate through a dial-hole. Some care is
necessary in doing this lest the hole is marked eccentrically or the dial is
displaced by pressure against one side of the hole in it, which might result
in the dial being cracked by the screw. Now remove the plate from its case
and drill its screw hole in the drilling tool; tap it and fit the screw. Replace
the plate in the case, and, after fixing the dial to it with the one screw thus
fitted, carefully mark the second hole, etc.
Some workmen expedite the operation by marking and drilling the two
holes at the same time; but if at first they do not succeed in making them in
the required position they materially increase the time occupied, as one hole
at least requires to be bushed, etc.
frequently sprinkled on the surface so as to avoid heating, and to maintain
the emery in its place, and the dial is washed occasionally to examine the
progress of the work.
In place of lead, some use emery formed into a solid block with shellac
or various kinds of cement; it is centered on a large taper arbor, and should
be at least a quarter of an inch thick and rounded at its edge. Such a disc is
very hard when cold; it is used in the manner explained in the last
paragraph, but wears more rapidly than the lead disc, if the latter is well
made and supplied with emery of the right degree of coarseness, in
sufficient abundance and evenly distributed.
597. Dials Fixed by Screws through the Edges. The screw-holes at the
edge are drilled in the manner already explained in article 594, and the
center hole is enlarged as there described, if this is found to be necessary in
order to permit the free passage of the hour wheel. The diameter of a dial
may be reduced if it is too large in the manner explained in article 600.
When it has been thus prepared, place it in position, the XII being exactly
opposite the pendant, with the movement in the case, and close the bezel. If
the dial is found to shake under the bezel it should be fixed with three or
four small wedges of pegwood, care being taken that they do not subject the
dial to much pressure. The accuracy of the position may be tested by
holding a stretched piece of cord over the dial, and observing whether it
passes at the same time through the middle of the pendant, the center hole,
the XII and the VI. When the dial is thus found to be properly placed, mark
one of screw-holes on the watch-plate through a dial-hole. Some care is
necessary in doing this lest the hole is marked eccentrically or the dial is
displaced by pressure against one side of the hole in it, which might result
in the dial being cracked by the screw. Now remove the plate from its case
and drill its screw hole in the drilling tool; tap it and fit the screw. Replace
the plate in the case, and, after fixing the dial to it with the one screw thus
fitted, carefully mark the second hole, etc.
Some workmen expedite the operation by marking and drilling the two
holes at the same time; but if at first they do not succeed in making them in
the required position they materially increase the time occupied, as one hole
at least requires to be bushed, etc.
Page 429
598. Dials Held in Position by Feet. If the dial has feet, and it is
required to adapt them to the plate, they must be first carefully bent straight;
then take a piece of stiff card board of moderate thickness, and laying it on
a piece of lead, punch out with a sharp-edged punch, or other means, a
round hole of the diameter of a foot. Having inserted one foot in this hole,
and placed the card on a flat surface with the dial uppermost, apply a slight
pressure to this latter so as to mark the position of the second foot. Then
punch out a second similar hole at the point thus indicated. If the operation
has been properly conducted the two feet will enter the holes easily, but at
the same time without constraint or shake, and they should project on the
opposite side.
It now only remains to cut out the cardboard to the size of the plate, and,
after making a central hole and a mark to exactly correspond with noon, to
place it in position in the frame and under the bezel, as though it were the
actual dial. Then mark the two holes for the dial feet, using a sharp-pointed
chamferer that just fits the hole, held vertical and rotated by one hand, while
pressure is applied by a finger of the other hand.
Some workmen merely prick holes in the card with some sharp-pointed
instrument, or even force the feet through it at all risks; hence it happens
that feet are often bent out of the vertical, and, in order to be able to bend
them into the required position, it becomes necessary to enlarge the holes in
the plate and bend the dial feet.
599. To Cut a Large Hole in a
Dial. To set a Seconds Dial. This
operation is performed in the
ordinary lathe. The hole is cut by a
ring of thin iron or copper cut with
saw-like teeth round its edge, as
Fig. 270. shown at v, Fig. 270, kept in
rotation and charged with fine
emery and oil or water or, what is better, turpentine. The mixture described
in article 594 will secure a still more rapid action.
It is advisable that the thickness of the ring be made to gradually
diminish from e towards i, as indicated by the section at s, so as to prevent
it from choking and probably cracking the dial.
required to adapt them to the plate, they must be first carefully bent straight;
then take a piece of stiff card board of moderate thickness, and laying it on
a piece of lead, punch out with a sharp-edged punch, or other means, a
round hole of the diameter of a foot. Having inserted one foot in this hole,
and placed the card on a flat surface with the dial uppermost, apply a slight
pressure to this latter so as to mark the position of the second foot. Then
punch out a second similar hole at the point thus indicated. If the operation
has been properly conducted the two feet will enter the holes easily, but at
the same time without constraint or shake, and they should project on the
opposite side.
It now only remains to cut out the cardboard to the size of the plate, and,
after making a central hole and a mark to exactly correspond with noon, to
place it in position in the frame and under the bezel, as though it were the
actual dial. Then mark the two holes for the dial feet, using a sharp-pointed
chamferer that just fits the hole, held vertical and rotated by one hand, while
pressure is applied by a finger of the other hand.
Some workmen merely prick holes in the card with some sharp-pointed
instrument, or even force the feet through it at all risks; hence it happens
that feet are often bent out of the vertical, and, in order to be able to bend
them into the required position, it becomes necessary to enlarge the holes in
the plate and bend the dial feet.
599. To Cut a Large Hole in a
Dial. To set a Seconds Dial. This
operation is performed in the
ordinary lathe. The hole is cut by a
ring of thin iron or copper cut with
saw-like teeth round its edge, as
Fig. 270. shown at v, Fig. 270, kept in
rotation and charged with fine
emery and oil or water or, what is better, turpentine. The mixture described
in article 594 will secure a still more rapid action.
It is advisable that the thickness of the ring be made to gradually
diminish from e towards i, as indicated by the section at s, so as to prevent
it from choking and probably cracking the dial.
Page 430
The following arrangement may be adopted: Prepare a strong ring with a
projecting internal ridge, shown in section at a b c; cement the dial, g d, to
this ridge, or fix it by any convenient means, and attach this supporting ring
to a chuck that rotates in a direction opposite to that of the cutter, but much
less rapidly. On reaching the copper disc, reverse a b c and repeat the above
process on the back enamel. The copper is thus exposed on the two sides.
On filling the deeper groove with dilute nitric acid the metal will gradually
be eaten away, and the acid should be renewed as often as may be needed. It
then only remains to smooth the edge, beveling it on the front side, and to
cement the seconds dial in position.
The use of acid may be avoided and the cutter passed through the copper,
but greater care must be exercised, because the work is more difficult when
operating on metal. It will, however, not be difficult after a few trials.
Willis recommends that the dial be cut straight through, commencing at
the back and using emery and oil, the dial being cemented on a brass block
immediately below the cutter, and rather less in diameter than the hole
produced. He mounts the cutter on a stock that is provided with a pump
center, the point of which is maintained throughout the operation in the
small hole or point that marks the center of the hole. The great advantage of
this method is that the taper of the hole is in the required direction and no
filing is necessary.
600. To Reduce the Diameter of a Dial. Resting the dial in an inclined
position against a block, file its edge with a smooth or half-smooth file,
which must only be allowed to act while advancing, and is at the same time
displaced sideways and turned so as to follow the contour of the dial. The
file should be dipped occasionally in turpentine, and when sufficient enamel
has been removed, pass a new emery stick over it to remove the file marks.
601. To Remove a Figure or Name from a Dial. Oil of spike lavender
may be employed for erasing a letter or number.
Enamel powder made into a paste with water, oil, or turpentine, is also
used for this purpose. It should be previously decanted so as to obtain
several degrees of fineness. The powder used for re-polishing the surface
where an impression has been removed must be extremely fine. It is applied
on a piece of pegwood, although some use ivory.
projecting internal ridge, shown in section at a b c; cement the dial, g d, to
this ridge, or fix it by any convenient means, and attach this supporting ring
to a chuck that rotates in a direction opposite to that of the cutter, but much
less rapidly. On reaching the copper disc, reverse a b c and repeat the above
process on the back enamel. The copper is thus exposed on the two sides.
On filling the deeper groove with dilute nitric acid the metal will gradually
be eaten away, and the acid should be renewed as often as may be needed. It
then only remains to smooth the edge, beveling it on the front side, and to
cement the seconds dial in position.
The use of acid may be avoided and the cutter passed through the copper,
but greater care must be exercised, because the work is more difficult when
operating on metal. It will, however, not be difficult after a few trials.
Willis recommends that the dial be cut straight through, commencing at
the back and using emery and oil, the dial being cemented on a brass block
immediately below the cutter, and rather less in diameter than the hole
produced. He mounts the cutter on a stock that is provided with a pump
center, the point of which is maintained throughout the operation in the
small hole or point that marks the center of the hole. The great advantage of
this method is that the taper of the hole is in the required direction and no
filing is necessary.
600. To Reduce the Diameter of a Dial. Resting the dial in an inclined
position against a block, file its edge with a smooth or half-smooth file,
which must only be allowed to act while advancing, and is at the same time
displaced sideways and turned so as to follow the contour of the dial. The
file should be dipped occasionally in turpentine, and when sufficient enamel
has been removed, pass a new emery stick over it to remove the file marks.
601. To Remove a Figure or Name from a Dial. Oil of spike lavender
may be employed for erasing a letter or number.
Enamel powder made into a paste with water, oil, or turpentine, is also
used for this purpose. It should be previously decanted so as to obtain
several degrees of fineness. The powder used for re-polishing the surface
where an impression has been removed must be extremely fine. It is applied
on a piece of pegwood, although some use ivory.
Page 431
The last and best system is to use diamond powder. Take a little of the
powder, made into a paste with fine oil, on the end of a copper polisher, the
surface of which has been freshly filed and slightly rounded. On rubbing the
marks they will be seen to rapidly disappear.
The surface is left a little dull; it may be rendered bright by rubbing with
the same powder mixed with a greater quantity of oil and applied with a
stick of pegwood.
Watchmakers will do well to try several degrees of fineness of the
diamond powder on old dials.
METAL DIA L S .
602. To Restore a Silver Dial. We proceed to describe several methods
of doing this, but would at once observe that when the earlier ones are
adopted, the hours, if they are painted, necessarily disappear; whereas they
can be retained by resorting to the last method although great caution must
in that case be taken; moreover, it is much more difficult to accomplish than
the others.
603. First Method. This is the most expeditious system, and at the same
time the most certain of success.
If the hours are in enamel, there need be no fear; if engraved and filled
with black composition, this will disappear, but it can be replaced without
difficulty. There remains the case of painted hours to be considered.
First make thin marks with a fine point along the lines of all the figures,
taking care not to pass beyond their ends: and do the same for the dots and
lines that indicate the seconds. By using a glass and following the
instructions given in article 619, no difficulty will be experienced in doing
this, and the fine lines and dots thus made will afford sufficient guide for re-
marking the hours.
Begin by cleaning the dial with a brush and fine pumice-stone so as to
remove spots and slight scratches.
604. To Frost the Surface. In order to frost the surface of the dial, take a
spirit lamp with large wick, and direct a blow-pipe flame from it against the
powder, made into a paste with fine oil, on the end of a copper polisher, the
surface of which has been freshly filed and slightly rounded. On rubbing the
marks they will be seen to rapidly disappear.
The surface is left a little dull; it may be rendered bright by rubbing with
the same powder mixed with a greater quantity of oil and applied with a
stick of pegwood.
Watchmakers will do well to try several degrees of fineness of the
diamond powder on old dials.
METAL DIA L S .
602. To Restore a Silver Dial. We proceed to describe several methods
of doing this, but would at once observe that when the earlier ones are
adopted, the hours, if they are painted, necessarily disappear; whereas they
can be retained by resorting to the last method although great caution must
in that case be taken; moreover, it is much more difficult to accomplish than
the others.
603. First Method. This is the most expeditious system, and at the same
time the most certain of success.
If the hours are in enamel, there need be no fear; if engraved and filled
with black composition, this will disappear, but it can be replaced without
difficulty. There remains the case of painted hours to be considered.
First make thin marks with a fine point along the lines of all the figures,
taking care not to pass beyond their ends: and do the same for the dots and
lines that indicate the seconds. By using a glass and following the
instructions given in article 619, no difficulty will be experienced in doing
this, and the fine lines and dots thus made will afford sufficient guide for re-
marking the hours.
Begin by cleaning the dial with a brush and fine pumice-stone so as to
remove spots and slight scratches.
604. To Frost the Surface. In order to frost the surface of the dial, take a
spirit lamp with large wick, and direct a blow-pipe flame from it against the
Page 432
under side of the dial, which is held by one hand with a hooked support. If
the flame is gently directed over the entire surface of the back, a good dead
surface is obtained that resists a moderate degree of friction either in
soaping with a fine sponge, or washing in a large quantity of water, or in
applying soft bread and oil of spike lavender to erase irregularities or marks
made in painting the figures.
The application of the flame is several times repeated, so as to obtain a
decisive and even frosting; but it is necessary, with a view to avoid buckling
the thin metal, to place an iron or copper washer behind the dial. The flame
oxidizes the surface of the metal; that is to say, it causes the oxygen of the
air to combine with the copper which is alloyed with silver.
605. Pickling or Bleaching the Dial. Introduce sufficient warm water into
a suitable flat vessel to completely cover the dial, and gently pour into it a
few drops of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), so that the two liquids are in the
proportion of about 1 to 10; then lay the dial in this dilute acid for a period
that varies from half to one or two minutes. The frosting will first become
yellow and then of a beautiful white color. Wash it in a large quantity of
water, wipe with a fine linen rag, and apply the flame momentarily to the
back in order to prevent the formation of spots on the surface.
When several dials have to be operated upon, the acid is put in a
porcelain dish and boiled by a lamp. Then place each dial for a moment in
it, wash in an abundant suppl of water, and dry by tapping with a fine linen
rag.
606. Second Method. For the benefit of such as care to experiment with
it, we add the following method: Brush the dial with a coarse brush and
pumice-stone reduced to an impalpable powder until no scratches are
visible. Make it red-hot and allow to cool. Then dip for two or three seconds
in a porcelain vessel containing dilute sulphuric acid; on removal it will be
found to be white, but rather dull. In order to produce a clear frosted
surface, place the dial in a mixture of
6 parts by weight of nitric acid of 1.22 sp. gr.[8]
21 ” ” sulphuric acid.
50 ” ” water.
the flame is gently directed over the entire surface of the back, a good dead
surface is obtained that resists a moderate degree of friction either in
soaping with a fine sponge, or washing in a large quantity of water, or in
applying soft bread and oil of spike lavender to erase irregularities or marks
made in painting the figures.
The application of the flame is several times repeated, so as to obtain a
decisive and even frosting; but it is necessary, with a view to avoid buckling
the thin metal, to place an iron or copper washer behind the dial. The flame
oxidizes the surface of the metal; that is to say, it causes the oxygen of the
air to combine with the copper which is alloyed with silver.
605. Pickling or Bleaching the Dial. Introduce sufficient warm water into
a suitable flat vessel to completely cover the dial, and gently pour into it a
few drops of sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), so that the two liquids are in the
proportion of about 1 to 10; then lay the dial in this dilute acid for a period
that varies from half to one or two minutes. The frosting will first become
yellow and then of a beautiful white color. Wash it in a large quantity of
water, wipe with a fine linen rag, and apply the flame momentarily to the
back in order to prevent the formation of spots on the surface.
When several dials have to be operated upon, the acid is put in a
porcelain dish and boiled by a lamp. Then place each dial for a moment in
it, wash in an abundant suppl of water, and dry by tapping with a fine linen
rag.
606. Second Method. For the benefit of such as care to experiment with
it, we add the following method: Brush the dial with a coarse brush and
pumice-stone reduced to an impalpable powder until no scratches are
visible. Make it red-hot and allow to cool. Then dip for two or three seconds
in a porcelain vessel containing dilute sulphuric acid; on removal it will be
found to be white, but rather dull. In order to produce a clear frosted
surface, place the dial in a mixture of
6 parts by weight of nitric acid of 1.22 sp. gr.[8]
21 ” ” sulphuric acid.
50 ” ” water.
Page 433
Allow the metal to remain in this acid until no more globules are seen to
form on its surface, then withdraw it and immediately place in cold water.
The dial will be observed to be nearly black; it is then pickled as above
explained (605), washed well, heated red-hot and, when cold, again pickled;
the operation is concluded by thoroughly washing its surface.
607. Third Method.[9] Cover the surface of the dial with a thin layer of
soap, and brush it over, taking care to avoid touching the hours if these are
not enamelled. This can best be done with a fine brush and pumice stone
reduced to an impalpable powder. When the dial has been made as clean as
possible by this means, wash it carefully with water and tartrate of potash
(cream of tartar), then plunge it immediately in the hot solution of nitrate of
silver (608) attaching it to the silver wire which is fastened to the zinc and
copper discs 609; in two or three minutes the surface of the metal will be
perfectly frosted, and, if each operation has been cautiously performed, the
hours will remain intact.
Each time the zinc and copper discs are used they should be cleaned with
nitric acid, and rubbed over with pumice stone. As soon as the dial is clean,
immerse it in the solution; the least delay is apt to cause the surface to
become oxidized through contact with the air.
608. To Prepare the Silver Solution. Dissolve an ounce[10] of solid nitrate
of silver (lunar caustic) in a small quantity of water; filter the solution and
add twice its volume of liquid ammonia. In a separate vessel dissolve 6
ounces of yellow prussiate of potash and 4 ounces of crystallized carbonate
of soda in 60 ounces of water, contained in a vessel of enamelled iron,
which must be placed on the fire. When near the boiling point add the
concentrated solution of nitrate of silver, and allow the mixture to boil for
an hour, taking care to add hot water in sufficient quantity to make up for
that lost by evaporation; then filter the resulting solution.
609. To Prepare the Discs and to Plate. In order to use this solution for
restoring a dial or plating any other object, take two discs about the size of a
half dollar, one made of zinc and the other of copper, and, after making a
small hole in each, unite them with a copper wire, or, preferably, with one
of silver. After having attached the dial or other object to this connecting
wire, immerse the entire system in a glass or earthenware vessel, and pour
over it a sufficient quantity of the solution, previously made hot.
form on its surface, then withdraw it and immediately place in cold water.
The dial will be observed to be nearly black; it is then pickled as above
explained (605), washed well, heated red-hot and, when cold, again pickled;
the operation is concluded by thoroughly washing its surface.
607. Third Method.[9] Cover the surface of the dial with a thin layer of
soap, and brush it over, taking care to avoid touching the hours if these are
not enamelled. This can best be done with a fine brush and pumice stone
reduced to an impalpable powder. When the dial has been made as clean as
possible by this means, wash it carefully with water and tartrate of potash
(cream of tartar), then plunge it immediately in the hot solution of nitrate of
silver (608) attaching it to the silver wire which is fastened to the zinc and
copper discs 609; in two or three minutes the surface of the metal will be
perfectly frosted, and, if each operation has been cautiously performed, the
hours will remain intact.
Each time the zinc and copper discs are used they should be cleaned with
nitric acid, and rubbed over with pumice stone. As soon as the dial is clean,
immerse it in the solution; the least delay is apt to cause the surface to
become oxidized through contact with the air.
608. To Prepare the Silver Solution. Dissolve an ounce[10] of solid nitrate
of silver (lunar caustic) in a small quantity of water; filter the solution and
add twice its volume of liquid ammonia. In a separate vessel dissolve 6
ounces of yellow prussiate of potash and 4 ounces of crystallized carbonate
of soda in 60 ounces of water, contained in a vessel of enamelled iron,
which must be placed on the fire. When near the boiling point add the
concentrated solution of nitrate of silver, and allow the mixture to boil for
an hour, taking care to add hot water in sufficient quantity to make up for
that lost by evaporation; then filter the resulting solution.
609. To Prepare the Discs and to Plate. In order to use this solution for
restoring a dial or plating any other object, take two discs about the size of a
half dollar, one made of zinc and the other of copper, and, after making a
small hole in each, unite them with a copper wire, or, preferably, with one
of silver. After having attached the dial or other object to this connecting
wire, immerse the entire system in a glass or earthenware vessel, and pour
over it a sufficient quantity of the solution, previously made hot.
Page 434
If the object operated upon is perfectly clean, bright and free from all
greasy or oily matter, its surface will be found in two or three minutes to be
covered with a firmly adherent layer of silver. When only a small piece is
treated it will suffice to immerse it in the hot liquor, and rub it with the
finger; a bright silvered surface will thus be obtained.
610. To Clean Metal Dials of Clocks. When the hours are neither
enamelled nor engraved, it is necessary to first trace out the several lines
and dots in a manner similar to that explained in article 619.
611. Ordinary Mode of Cleaning the Dial. Very often it is possible to
make a silver or plated dial of either watch or clock sufficiently clean by
merely brushing with powdered cream of tartar worked into a paste with
water, carefully rubbing around any painted figures with a fine stiff brush.
Then wash with clean water, dry by gently tapping with a fine linen rag, and
expose to a slight heat. (This is in part the same method as is described in
article 607; the two may be combined). If the dial is tarnished, it must be
silvered as explained below.
612. To Plate a Brass Dial. Preparing the Silver. Place in a glass flask
from 100 to 150 grains of pure silver made into thin strips by means of a
hammer or rolling mill. Add five or six times the weight of dilute nitric acid
so as to completely cover the silver, and warm the vessel, taking care to
avoid breathing the fumes or admitting them to the workshop. The metal
will be dissolved, and, on continuing the application of heat until all the
liquid is evaporated, crystals will be found at the bottom. When cool fill the
flask with warm water and, as soon as all the crystals are dissolved, pour
the solution into a porcelain dish, previously half filled with water. Place in
it a sheet of clean copper of about the size of three fingers, and allow it to
remain for the night.
On the following day all the silver will be found attached to the plate, and
it can be collected by immersing this in water. Carefully pour off the water
from the fine powder thus obtained, and wash it once or twice with an
abundant supply of pure water; then dry thoroughly with the application of
very moderate heat. If the silver thus obtained is not required for immediate
use, it should be kept in a dark blue bottle to avoid the influence of light and
moisture.
greasy or oily matter, its surface will be found in two or three minutes to be
covered with a firmly adherent layer of silver. When only a small piece is
treated it will suffice to immerse it in the hot liquor, and rub it with the
finger; a bright silvered surface will thus be obtained.
610. To Clean Metal Dials of Clocks. When the hours are neither
enamelled nor engraved, it is necessary to first trace out the several lines
and dots in a manner similar to that explained in article 619.
611. Ordinary Mode of Cleaning the Dial. Very often it is possible to
make a silver or plated dial of either watch or clock sufficiently clean by
merely brushing with powdered cream of tartar worked into a paste with
water, carefully rubbing around any painted figures with a fine stiff brush.
Then wash with clean water, dry by gently tapping with a fine linen rag, and
expose to a slight heat. (This is in part the same method as is described in
article 607; the two may be combined). If the dial is tarnished, it must be
silvered as explained below.
612. To Plate a Brass Dial. Preparing the Silver. Place in a glass flask
from 100 to 150 grains of pure silver made into thin strips by means of a
hammer or rolling mill. Add five or six times the weight of dilute nitric acid
so as to completely cover the silver, and warm the vessel, taking care to
avoid breathing the fumes or admitting them to the workshop. The metal
will be dissolved, and, on continuing the application of heat until all the
liquid is evaporated, crystals will be found at the bottom. When cool fill the
flask with warm water and, as soon as all the crystals are dissolved, pour
the solution into a porcelain dish, previously half filled with water. Place in
it a sheet of clean copper of about the size of three fingers, and allow it to
remain for the night.
On the following day all the silver will be found attached to the plate, and
it can be collected by immersing this in water. Carefully pour off the water
from the fine powder thus obtained, and wash it once or twice with an
abundant supply of pure water; then dry thoroughly with the application of
very moderate heat. If the silver thus obtained is not required for immediate
use, it should be kept in a dark blue bottle to avoid the influence of light and
moisture.
Page 435
613. To Prepare the Surface of the Dial. It must be quite smooth,
thoroughly washed and dried. M. Robert recommends that the smoothing be
accomplished by using soft water of Ayr stone, rubbing in all directions, in
order remove scratches. Or pegwood charcoal can be used, sloped at one
end like a whistle, and applied with water. Others employ pumice-stone
powder and very fine emery paper.
614. To Apply the Silver. Take equal parts of rock-salt and cream of tartar,
pound them together, and when well mixed, take about 60 or 80 grains of
the mixture, and add to it 15 or 20 grains of silver, prepared as above
described, and add a few drops of water to form a thick paste, which must
be well mixed and worked up on a ground glass plate by means of a horn
spatula to remove all grits. A glass pestle may be used for this purpose.
The dial having been prepared, take up some of the paste with a perfectly
clean and rather stiff brush, and spread it over the surface of the dial,
rubbing quickly and somewhat harshly. The brush should be worked about
in all directions, so as to avoid scratches, until the silver is found to adhere
firmly to the dial. According to M. Robert, this rubbing is to be continued
until the required grain is obtained; but M. Fournier states that it should be
arrested when the surface possesses a lead-grey color; the dial is then well
washed, dried, and the operation re-commenced exactly as before except
that the brush used is softer. A good surface will thus be formed, and it will
be whiter if the proportion of silver in the paste is increased.
The result attained in great part depends on the skill of the operator, and
this can only be acquired by experience.
615. Observations. If the mixture contains too much of the salt or too
little silver, the latter will adhere with difficulty, and will come off in lumps
or scales; moreover, it will not have so white a color.
As the proportion of silver is increased, the white becomes gradually
better; but, on the other hand, if it is in excess the surface will be coarse and
uneven. Too much or too little water will have nearly the same effect. The
color is worse if the dial has been imperfectly smoothed, and when several
days or even hours are allowed to elapse between the cleaning and
silvering.
thoroughly washed and dried. M. Robert recommends that the smoothing be
accomplished by using soft water of Ayr stone, rubbing in all directions, in
order remove scratches. Or pegwood charcoal can be used, sloped at one
end like a whistle, and applied with water. Others employ pumice-stone
powder and very fine emery paper.
614. To Apply the Silver. Take equal parts of rock-salt and cream of tartar,
pound them together, and when well mixed, take about 60 or 80 grains of
the mixture, and add to it 15 or 20 grains of silver, prepared as above
described, and add a few drops of water to form a thick paste, which must
be well mixed and worked up on a ground glass plate by means of a horn
spatula to remove all grits. A glass pestle may be used for this purpose.
The dial having been prepared, take up some of the paste with a perfectly
clean and rather stiff brush, and spread it over the surface of the dial,
rubbing quickly and somewhat harshly. The brush should be worked about
in all directions, so as to avoid scratches, until the silver is found to adhere
firmly to the dial. According to M. Robert, this rubbing is to be continued
until the required grain is obtained; but M. Fournier states that it should be
arrested when the surface possesses a lead-grey color; the dial is then well
washed, dried, and the operation re-commenced exactly as before except
that the brush used is softer. A good surface will thus be formed, and it will
be whiter if the proportion of silver in the paste is increased.
The result attained in great part depends on the skill of the operator, and
this can only be acquired by experience.
615. Observations. If the mixture contains too much of the salt or too
little silver, the latter will adhere with difficulty, and will come off in lumps
or scales; moreover, it will not have so white a color.
As the proportion of silver is increased, the white becomes gradually
better; but, on the other hand, if it is in excess the surface will be coarse and
uneven. Too much or too little water will have nearly the same effect. The
color is worse if the dial has been imperfectly smoothed, and when several
days or even hours are allowed to elapse between the cleaning and
silvering.
Page 436
It is essential that the rock-salt and the cream of tartar be perfectly pure;
if they contain any earthy matter it will scratch the surface and impair its
whiteness.
As soon as the operation is completed, the dial must be washed in an
abundant supply of pure water; any neglect in this particular will cause it to
blacken. This washing may be performed with an ordinary watch-brush,
charged with cream of tartar. Then rinse the dial, and dry, tapping gently
with a fine linen rag, and finish by slightly warming it.
616. Gold Dials. It will not be necessary to say much on this subject. In
order to restore the color to a gold or gilt dial, it may be dipped for a few
seconds in the following mixture: Half an ounce of cyanide of potassium is
dissolved in a quart of hot water, and two ounces of strong ammonia mixed
with half an ounce of spirits of wine and added to the solution. On removal
from this bath, the dial is immediately immersed in warm water; then brush
with soap, rinse, and dry in hot boxwood dust. Or it may be simply
immersed in dilute nitric acid, but in that case any painted figures will be
destroyed.
617. Another Receipt. The following is the method ordinarily adopted for
coloring gold dials; but it is to be observed at the outset that, although
apparently characterized by extreme simplicity, a good deal of skill is
needed to ascertain when the mixture is of the right consistency, and when
the dial has been sufficiently exposed to its action.
Make a mixture of 4 oz. saltpetre, 2 oz. alum and 2 oz. common salt (the
purest attainable), with a very little water. On placing this in a blacklead
crucible over the fire it will become limpid, and must be allowed to boil
until somewhat pasty and of a pale yellow color, stirring all the while with a
stick. Now take two dials, back to back, that have been cleaned and
blackened by annealing, and pass a platinum wire through their centers so
that they hang horizontally, resting on a loop at its end; immerse the dials in
the hot color crucible, and, after holding it for a short time, withdraw them
and immediately immerse in a vessel of nearly boiling water standing close
by. The “color” will then be washed, and the progress of the work can be
observed. The dials are again dipped in the crucible if necessary, and will
probably require about three minutes’ immersion in all. It is advisable that
if they contain any earthy matter it will scratch the surface and impair its
whiteness.
As soon as the operation is completed, the dial must be washed in an
abundant supply of pure water; any neglect in this particular will cause it to
blacken. This washing may be performed with an ordinary watch-brush,
charged with cream of tartar. Then rinse the dial, and dry, tapping gently
with a fine linen rag, and finish by slightly warming it.
616. Gold Dials. It will not be necessary to say much on this subject. In
order to restore the color to a gold or gilt dial, it may be dipped for a few
seconds in the following mixture: Half an ounce of cyanide of potassium is
dissolved in a quart of hot water, and two ounces of strong ammonia mixed
with half an ounce of spirits of wine and added to the solution. On removal
from this bath, the dial is immediately immersed in warm water; then brush
with soap, rinse, and dry in hot boxwood dust. Or it may be simply
immersed in dilute nitric acid, but in that case any painted figures will be
destroyed.
617. Another Receipt. The following is the method ordinarily adopted for
coloring gold dials; but it is to be observed at the outset that, although
apparently characterized by extreme simplicity, a good deal of skill is
needed to ascertain when the mixture is of the right consistency, and when
the dial has been sufficiently exposed to its action.
Make a mixture of 4 oz. saltpetre, 2 oz. alum and 2 oz. common salt (the
purest attainable), with a very little water. On placing this in a blacklead
crucible over the fire it will become limpid, and must be allowed to boil
until somewhat pasty and of a pale yellow color, stirring all the while with a
stick. Now take two dials, back to back, that have been cleaned and
blackened by annealing, and pass a platinum wire through their centers so
that they hang horizontally, resting on a loop at its end; immerse the dials in
the hot color crucible, and, after holding it for a short time, withdraw them
and immediately immerse in a vessel of nearly boiling water standing close
by. The “color” will then be washed, and the progress of the work can be
observed. The dials are again dipped in the crucible if necessary, and will
probably require about three minutes’ immersion in all. It is advisable that
Page 437
the “color” be thick rather than thin, as in the latter case the dials are apt to
be clouded.
618. To Re-Paint the Hours on a Dial. The following system has
reference to metallic dials, but the reader will be able to select without
difficulty the parts that are applicable to altering and retouching the figures
on an enamel dial.
We can answer from experience for its being successful, but would at
once observe that it cannot be practised hastily, because some skill is
essential in addition to patience and care: with them, success is certain.
619. First Method. Before removing the hour figures and the divisions
for minutes, mark them with a fine steel point, using a lens and proceeding
with great caution. These marks will remain, so that after the dial has been
colored or otherwise treated, it will only be necessary to trace over them
with a fine brush charged with ink.
The short horizontal lines at the top and bottom of each figure, termed
serifs, as well as the two circles that enclose the minute divisions, can be
drawn with a sharpened point of the screw-bar compass.
620. Second Method. Lay on the dial to be treated, or on another of the
same dimensions that has the hours well marked, a piece of tracing paper,
so that neither it nor the dial can be displaced, and, using India ink and a
fine drawing pen, accurately trace the hour figures and the minute divisions.
When the ink is dry, invert the paper and trace the figures, etc., thus
obtained on the other side of the paper, this time using a pencil instead of
ink. Laying the paper on the dial so that neither can slip, pass with a
rounded point of some soft metal over all the figures and divisions. Now
remove the paper without permitting it to rub against the dial. If the pencil
has been selected of a suitable degree of hardness, and the operation
skilfully conducted, the marks showing the hours and minutes will be
clearly visible, although faint, and, holding the glass to the eye, the several
marks must be traced over with a fine brush or pencil. If this operation is
performed carefully, the dial will present a very good appearance.
621. Third Method. Place the dial within a kind of large barrel that has at
its center a thick pivot projecting. The three rules, d, f, j, Fig. 271, can be
fitted on to this by their central holes so as to rotate on it. Being supported
be clouded.
618. To Re-Paint the Hours on a Dial. The following system has
reference to metallic dials, but the reader will be able to select without
difficulty the parts that are applicable to altering and retouching the figures
on an enamel dial.
We can answer from experience for its being successful, but would at
once observe that it cannot be practised hastily, because some skill is
essential in addition to patience and care: with them, success is certain.
619. First Method. Before removing the hour figures and the divisions
for minutes, mark them with a fine steel point, using a lens and proceeding
with great caution. These marks will remain, so that after the dial has been
colored or otherwise treated, it will only be necessary to trace over them
with a fine brush charged with ink.
The short horizontal lines at the top and bottom of each figure, termed
serifs, as well as the two circles that enclose the minute divisions, can be
drawn with a sharpened point of the screw-bar compass.
620. Second Method. Lay on the dial to be treated, or on another of the
same dimensions that has the hours well marked, a piece of tracing paper,
so that neither it nor the dial can be displaced, and, using India ink and a
fine drawing pen, accurately trace the hour figures and the minute divisions.
When the ink is dry, invert the paper and trace the figures, etc., thus
obtained on the other side of the paper, this time using a pencil instead of
ink. Laying the paper on the dial so that neither can slip, pass with a
rounded point of some soft metal over all the figures and divisions. Now
remove the paper without permitting it to rub against the dial. If the pencil
has been selected of a suitable degree of hardness, and the operation
skilfully conducted, the marks showing the hours and minutes will be
clearly visible, although faint, and, holding the glass to the eye, the several
marks must be traced over with a fine brush or pencil. If this operation is
performed carefully, the dial will present a very good appearance.
621. Third Method. Place the dial within a kind of large barrel that has at
its center a thick pivot projecting. The three rules, d, f, j, Fig. 271, can be
fitted on to this by their central holes so as to rotate on it. Being supported
Page 438
by the rim of the barrel, they will pass very near to the surface of the dial
without rubbing against it. From an inspection of the figures it will be
evident that d is used for forming the bars of an x, f for those of a v, and j
for that of an i. Of course the serifs at either end of a numeral are made with
the compass.
It is unnecessary to observe that if the edge of the
rim be graduated, and the rules terminated by any
convenient arrangement for arresting their motion at
the graduations, the hours can be traced on a dial from
which all marks have been erased. It then only
remains to paint them in with ink.
622. Inks for Painting the Hours. Work up some
clean lampblack in oil of spike lavender. Then add a
small quantity of spirit varnish, and thoroughly mix
the whole. This is applied with a fine brush, and the
Fig. 271.
success of the operation depends very much on the
selection of this latter.
623. Another Recipe. Mix together ivory black, pure wax, and turpentine;
the more the turpentine is in excess, the more will the ink be colored. It is
best adapted for filling in the figures engraved in dials, and a gentle heat
should be applied to impart a smooth surface. Any irregularities in the
painting may be erased by the aid of oil of spike lavender and soft bread.
HANDS .
624. To Set a Watch-Hand in Position. The most delicate part of this
operation is the enlarging of the center hole of a minute hand and the
closing of the hour hand socket when necessary.
Set the hand in cement on a brass plate that has a hole passing through at
the point corresponding to the socket. The hole must then be enlarged with
a semi-cylindrical drill to a diameter such that it will only be necessary to
gently pass the broach through afterwards. The drill must not be worked too
rapidly, and the plate may require to be immersed occasionally in water, so
as to avoid heating the cement and thus loosening the hand.
without rubbing against it. From an inspection of the figures it will be
evident that d is used for forming the bars of an x, f for those of a v, and j
for that of an i. Of course the serifs at either end of a numeral are made with
the compass.
It is unnecessary to observe that if the edge of the
rim be graduated, and the rules terminated by any
convenient arrangement for arresting their motion at
the graduations, the hours can be traced on a dial from
which all marks have been erased. It then only
remains to paint them in with ink.
622. Inks for Painting the Hours. Work up some
clean lampblack in oil of spike lavender. Then add a
small quantity of spirit varnish, and thoroughly mix
the whole. This is applied with a fine brush, and the
Fig. 271.
success of the operation depends very much on the
selection of this latter.
623. Another Recipe. Mix together ivory black, pure wax, and turpentine;
the more the turpentine is in excess, the more will the ink be colored. It is
best adapted for filling in the figures engraved in dials, and a gentle heat
should be applied to impart a smooth surface. Any irregularities in the
painting may be erased by the aid of oil of spike lavender and soft bread.
HANDS .
624. To Set a Watch-Hand in Position. The most delicate part of this
operation is the enlarging of the center hole of a minute hand and the
closing of the hour hand socket when necessary.
Set the hand in cement on a brass plate that has a hole passing through at
the point corresponding to the socket. The hole must then be enlarged with
a semi-cylindrical drill to a diameter such that it will only be necessary to
gently pass the broach through afterwards. The drill must not be worked too
rapidly, and the plate may require to be immersed occasionally in water, so
as to avoid heating the cement and thus loosening the hand.
Page 439
When the hole in a watch-hand is too large, it may generally be
sufficiently reduced by means of the staking tool.
625. To Redden Watch-Hands. Make into a paste (while holding over a
lamp) a mixture of two parts carmine, two parts chloride of silver, and one
part Japan varnish. Having spread some of this over the hands, lay them
face upwards on a sheet of copper, applying heat until the desired tint is
produced.
G L AS SES .
626. To Drill Glass. A hole can be rapidly made in a piece of glass by
using a steel spindle ground at the extremity to a point with three or four
faces, and hardened in mercury. This spindle may be chucked in the lathe,
or rotated between the finger and thumb, the point being moistened from
time to time with turpentine or the mixture mentioned in article 594. The
glass operated upon should be held against the blade with the thumb or a
pad immediately behind it, and should receive a gentle rocking motion so as
to prevent the drill from choking in the hole formed; and as soon as the
point appears on the other side, the drilling should be re-commenced from
that side. It is a good precaution to mark the point at which the hole is
required with a diamond or the steel point before commencing, and the
pressure applied while drilling must be but slight.
627. To Cut Glass. It is possible to cut a sheet of glass roughly to any
required shape with an ordinary pair of scissors, if the operation is
performed under water. Of course a smooth edge cannot be obtained by
such means, but it will often be found sufficient.
A more exact method is to use a piece of ignited charcoal or the pastile
mentioned below, first making a scratch as a starting-point and holding the
heated substance a little in advance of the crack: this will follow the
direction in which the hot body is moved. The method is available for
dividing glass tubes or other objects in irregular shape.
What is known as the “Berzelius pastile” for cutting glass is formed of
the following mixture: Gum arabic, 6 parts; gum tragacanth, 2³⁄₁₀ parts;
benzoin, 2³⁄₁₀ parts; lampblack, 18 parts; and the requisite quantity of water.
sufficiently reduced by means of the staking tool.
625. To Redden Watch-Hands. Make into a paste (while holding over a
lamp) a mixture of two parts carmine, two parts chloride of silver, and one
part Japan varnish. Having spread some of this over the hands, lay them
face upwards on a sheet of copper, applying heat until the desired tint is
produced.
G L AS SES .
626. To Drill Glass. A hole can be rapidly made in a piece of glass by
using a steel spindle ground at the extremity to a point with three or four
faces, and hardened in mercury. This spindle may be chucked in the lathe,
or rotated between the finger and thumb, the point being moistened from
time to time with turpentine or the mixture mentioned in article 594. The
glass operated upon should be held against the blade with the thumb or a
pad immediately behind it, and should receive a gentle rocking motion so as
to prevent the drill from choking in the hole formed; and as soon as the
point appears on the other side, the drilling should be re-commenced from
that side. It is a good precaution to mark the point at which the hole is
required with a diamond or the steel point before commencing, and the
pressure applied while drilling must be but slight.
627. To Cut Glass. It is possible to cut a sheet of glass roughly to any
required shape with an ordinary pair of scissors, if the operation is
performed under water. Of course a smooth edge cannot be obtained by
such means, but it will often be found sufficient.
A more exact method is to use a piece of ignited charcoal or the pastile
mentioned below, first making a scratch as a starting-point and holding the
heated substance a little in advance of the crack: this will follow the
direction in which the hot body is moved. The method is available for
dividing glass tubes or other objects in irregular shape.
What is known as the “Berzelius pastile” for cutting glass is formed of
the following mixture: Gum arabic, 6 parts; gum tragacanth, 2³⁄₁₀ parts;
benzoin, 2³⁄₁₀ parts; lampblack, 18 parts; and the requisite quantity of water.
Page 440
Mix the gum tragacanth with water and leave it to swell up for some hours;
dissolve the gum arabic in a sufficiency of water, and powder the benzoin
finely. Mix the three, forming a paste of such a consistency as to be
moulded, the lampblack and a little water being also added. The pastiles are
then formed by rolling between two plates.
The diameter of a watch-glass can be reduced by centering it in a lathe,
chucking it between two pieces of cork or a pair of cork arbors, and
applying a moistened piece of glass to the edge, or an emery stick. When
the desired diameter is attained, polish the edge with pumice-stone followed
by putty powder applied on a wet cork.
BRO A CHI NG .
628. To Broach a Hole Vertically. A hole in a plate, as for example, that
in a barrel, is seldom maintained at right angles to the surface by young
watchmakers when they have occasion to employ a broach. By adopting the
following very simple method, success may be assured:
Take along cork of a diameter rather less than that of the barrel or other
object operated upon, and make a hole in the length of the cork through
which the broach can be passed. When the cork has been turned quite true
on its end and edge, the broach is pushed through and used to enlarge the
hole; by pressing against the back of the cork it is kept always against the
barrel, and the vertically of the broach is thus maintained.
629. To Broach and Maintain the Hole Round. Many workmen either
use bad broaches or work them in a jerky manner so as to make striæ within
the hole. To avoid such distortion when uncertain of the hand, draw the
broach somewhat out of the hole and insert in the space thus left one or two
pieces of hard wood, forming a kind of jacket, so that at least two cutting
edges of the broach may be prevented from acting; the broach forcing its
way into the pieces of wood, will carry them round with it. A few trials will
enable a workman to employ this method.
When operating on holes that are rather large it is a good practice to use
broaches that are semi-cylindrical or triangular, their sections being as
shown at c, a, or d, Fig. 272. c and d are excellent for smoothing a hole, but
dissolve the gum arabic in a sufficiency of water, and powder the benzoin
finely. Mix the three, forming a paste of such a consistency as to be
moulded, the lampblack and a little water being also added. The pastiles are
then formed by rolling between two plates.
The diameter of a watch-glass can be reduced by centering it in a lathe,
chucking it between two pieces of cork or a pair of cork arbors, and
applying a moistened piece of glass to the edge, or an emery stick. When
the desired diameter is attained, polish the edge with pumice-stone followed
by putty powder applied on a wet cork.
BRO A CHI NG .
628. To Broach a Hole Vertically. A hole in a plate, as for example, that
in a barrel, is seldom maintained at right angles to the surface by young
watchmakers when they have occasion to employ a broach. By adopting the
following very simple method, success may be assured:
Take along cork of a diameter rather less than that of the barrel or other
object operated upon, and make a hole in the length of the cork through
which the broach can be passed. When the cork has been turned quite true
on its end and edge, the broach is pushed through and used to enlarge the
hole; by pressing against the back of the cork it is kept always against the
barrel, and the vertically of the broach is thus maintained.
629. To Broach and Maintain the Hole Round. Many workmen either
use bad broaches or work them in a jerky manner so as to make striæ within
the hole. To avoid such distortion when uncertain of the hand, draw the
broach somewhat out of the hole and insert in the space thus left one or two
pieces of hard wood, forming a kind of jacket, so that at least two cutting
edges of the broach may be prevented from acting; the broach forcing its
way into the pieces of wood, will carry them round with it. A few trials will
enable a workman to employ this method.
When operating on holes that are rather large it is a good practice to use
broaches that are semi-cylindrical or triangular, their sections being as
shown at c, a, or d, Fig. 272. c and d are excellent for smoothing a hole, but
Page 441
remove very little metal; a does more work in a given
time and, if well handled, will maintain the hole very
round. When operating on a large hole, these broaches can
be rotated in a brace; but, in the case of small or medium
size holes, it is much better to mount them in a drilling
headstock like those used by case-makers for the joint
holes, and the tools can be revolved by the aid of a hand
or foot-wheel. Only one precaution need be noted,
namely, the necessity of avoiding the application of too
much pressure, so that the broach jams in the hole.
Fig. 272.
S O L I D AND HO L L O W SQ U AR ES .
630. To File an Arbor or Drift Square by Hand. The most expeditious
mode of making a square, as, for example, that of a barrel-arbor, is by using
the tool described in article 513, or one of analogous construction; but in
their absence the square must be made by hand.
Soften the jaws of a hand-vise and make four flat faces on them, forming
an exact square, either by filing or by attaching pieces by rivets. Having
clamped the steel on which a square is to be formed in the vise, hold this in
one hand and rest it in a recess in a wood block; with the other hand hold
the file, determining its position by laying it on the upper face of the square
before applying it to the arbor. After giving one or two strokes, test the truth
of the face formed by again laying the file on the upper face of the vise.
Then turn the vise through a quarter of a circle and proceed in the same
manner; and so on for the other two faces. Before finishing the square and
while there still remains a slight excess of metal on each face, ascertain, by
examining the end and measuring the lengths of the faces, whether the
square is accurately formed.
time and, if well handled, will maintain the hole very
round. When operating on a large hole, these broaches can
be rotated in a brace; but, in the case of small or medium
size holes, it is much better to mount them in a drilling
headstock like those used by case-makers for the joint
holes, and the tools can be revolved by the aid of a hand
or foot-wheel. Only one precaution need be noted,
namely, the necessity of avoiding the application of too
much pressure, so that the broach jams in the hole.
Fig. 272.
S O L I D AND HO L L O W SQ U AR ES .
630. To File an Arbor or Drift Square by Hand. The most expeditious
mode of making a square, as, for example, that of a barrel-arbor, is by using
the tool described in article 513, or one of analogous construction; but in
their absence the square must be made by hand.
Soften the jaws of a hand-vise and make four flat faces on them, forming
an exact square, either by filing or by attaching pieces by rivets. Having
clamped the steel on which a square is to be formed in the vise, hold this in
one hand and rest it in a recess in a wood block; with the other hand hold
the file, determining its position by laying it on the upper face of the square
before applying it to the arbor. After giving one or two strokes, test the truth
of the face formed by again laying the file on the upper face of the vise.
Then turn the vise through a quarter of a circle and proceed in the same
manner; and so on for the other two faces. Before finishing the square and
while there still remains a slight excess of metal on each face, ascertain, by
examining the end and measuring the lengths of the faces, whether the
square is accurately formed.
Page 442
Fig. 273.
Put in the lathe and draw with flat file in the direction of the axis along
each face. If the square is to be polished after hardening, proceed in the
same manner, using an iron polisher in place of the file, to which
longitudinal, transverse, and circular movements may be given.
After hardening, the square may be tempered to some shade between pale
yellow and a deep blue, according to the purpose for which it is intended.
631. Another Method. Let it be required to fit a square to the hole in a
keyless winding pinion, the diagonal of which is a′ b′, Fig. 273. Turn the
end c d of the rod down until it exactly enters the square hole. Measure with
a tapered strip of brass whose edges are filed sharp the diagonal a′ b′; this
will give the diameter a b of the larger portion of the rod, as will be
gathered from the figure a′ d b′ c.
Turn down the portions of the rod on which the square is to be made and
file four faces, each time arresting the action of the file when it is on a level
with the smaller cylindrical portion, maintaining the angles equal by
observing that the four portions of the circumference retain their equality
while gradually diminishing. By a little care and using the square-headed
hand-vise described above, success may be assured.
632. To Drift a Square Hole in Steel of Moderate Thickness. The steel
in which it is required to make a square hole must be very soft and
thoroughly annealed, otherwise it is sure to crack under the action of the
drift or when hammered.
To make the hole in the center of a stop-finger, for example, the hole
must first be drilled of a diameter less than the side of the final square: the
drift is then inserted, liberally supplied with oil. On removing the drift, the
square is enlarged by means of a fine square file acting on each of its
corners; then with slightly larger drifts the hole is gradually increased to the
required size. They are driven with a rather heavy hammer, care being taken
Put in the lathe and draw with flat file in the direction of the axis along
each face. If the square is to be polished after hardening, proceed in the
same manner, using an iron polisher in place of the file, to which
longitudinal, transverse, and circular movements may be given.
After hardening, the square may be tempered to some shade between pale
yellow and a deep blue, according to the purpose for which it is intended.
631. Another Method. Let it be required to fit a square to the hole in a
keyless winding pinion, the diagonal of which is a′ b′, Fig. 273. Turn the
end c d of the rod down until it exactly enters the square hole. Measure with
a tapered strip of brass whose edges are filed sharp the diagonal a′ b′; this
will give the diameter a b of the larger portion of the rod, as will be
gathered from the figure a′ d b′ c.
Turn down the portions of the rod on which the square is to be made and
file four faces, each time arresting the action of the file when it is on a level
with the smaller cylindrical portion, maintaining the angles equal by
observing that the four portions of the circumference retain their equality
while gradually diminishing. By a little care and using the square-headed
hand-vise described above, success may be assured.
632. To Drift a Square Hole in Steel of Moderate Thickness. The steel
in which it is required to make a square hole must be very soft and
thoroughly annealed, otherwise it is sure to crack under the action of the
drift or when hammered.
To make the hole in the center of a stop-finger, for example, the hole
must first be drilled of a diameter less than the side of the final square: the
drift is then inserted, liberally supplied with oil. On removing the drift, the
square is enlarged by means of a fine square file acting on each of its
corners; then with slightly larger drifts the hole is gradually increased to the
required size. They are driven with a rather heavy hammer, care being taken
Page 443
to maintain them vertical and with each change of drift a file should be
passed over the surface to remove the metal that collects at the corners.
633. To Drift a Stem Winding Pinion. For this purpose the methods
explained above are insufficient, on account of the great thickness of metal,
which we repeat, must always be very soft.
Nevertheless, by using drifts that are very slightly conical, short, and
roughed like a file in an inclined direction, and by using a number that
succeed one another of gradually increasing diameter, steel of considerable
thickness can be treated in the above manner; but it is far less expeditious
than the method explained below.
The piece of steel with a hole drilled through it should be from a third to
half as large again in diameter as it is finally required to be. After turning
the surface true and the two ends flat, the tube is driven on to a long drift of
suitable temper, well oiled and of nearly the diameter of the hole to be
made. Clamping this drift in a hand-vise or sliding tongs, rest the steel tube
on an anvil with its axis and one face of the drift parallel to the surface, and
forge the tube with a medium size hammer. Turn the drift through a quarter
of a circle, again forge the tube, and so on. Care should be taken that the
drift is forced further into the tube from time to time, oil being at the same
time applied.
A punching machine is also very serviceable for the purpose of drifting.
Sometimes the attempt is made to forge the metal red-hot, but this is much
more difficult on account of the rapidity that is needed in threading the hot
steel, hammering and removing it. Moreover, the steel has to be heated
several times and is apt to be burnt.
If the method above explained, in which the metal is kept cold, is
carefully performed, it succeeds very well, but it must be observed that steel
is often met with that is irregular in composition and cracks.
TO S T R A I G HT E N A R O D, P L AT E O R WHE EL .
634. A Steel Rod. When the rod is short use a large pair of sliding tongs
or a hand-vise, the jaws of which have been softened in order to make a
groove in each parallel to their edge. Placing the rod in the cylindrical
passed over the surface to remove the metal that collects at the corners.
633. To Drift a Stem Winding Pinion. For this purpose the methods
explained above are insufficient, on account of the great thickness of metal,
which we repeat, must always be very soft.
Nevertheless, by using drifts that are very slightly conical, short, and
roughed like a file in an inclined direction, and by using a number that
succeed one another of gradually increasing diameter, steel of considerable
thickness can be treated in the above manner; but it is far less expeditious
than the method explained below.
The piece of steel with a hole drilled through it should be from a third to
half as large again in diameter as it is finally required to be. After turning
the surface true and the two ends flat, the tube is driven on to a long drift of
suitable temper, well oiled and of nearly the diameter of the hole to be
made. Clamping this drift in a hand-vise or sliding tongs, rest the steel tube
on an anvil with its axis and one face of the drift parallel to the surface, and
forge the tube with a medium size hammer. Turn the drift through a quarter
of a circle, again forge the tube, and so on. Care should be taken that the
drift is forced further into the tube from time to time, oil being at the same
time applied.
A punching machine is also very serviceable for the purpose of drifting.
Sometimes the attempt is made to forge the metal red-hot, but this is much
more difficult on account of the rapidity that is needed in threading the hot
steel, hammering and removing it. Moreover, the steel has to be heated
several times and is apt to be burnt.
If the method above explained, in which the metal is kept cold, is
carefully performed, it succeeds very well, but it must be observed that steel
is often met with that is irregular in composition and cracks.
TO S T R A I G HT E N A R O D, P L AT E O R WHE EL .
634. A Steel Rod. When the rod is short use a large pair of sliding tongs
or a hand-vise, the jaws of which have been softened in order to make a
groove in each parallel to their edge. Placing the rod in the cylindrical
Page 444
recess thus formed between the jaws, fix one side of the hand-vise in a
bench vise, holding a spirit lamp near the jaws and, as the steel changes its
color, tighten the slide or screw of the former. When the metal assumes a
blue color and the jaws are as tight as possible, remove the lamp, allowing
the whole to cool slowly or by applying water.
The jaws should be formed so as to bend the rod rather more than is
ultimately required, because steel on being released is apt to partially
recover its initial curvature.
When the rod is long grip its two ends in the frame of a fret-saw, which
should be somewhat strong. Then hold a lamp under the rod, at the same
time stretching the rod more and more, and allow the steel to remain
stretched until quite cold. If it has been sufficiently stretched the metal will
be rendered perfectly straight.
635. A Plate, Escape-Wheel or Stem Wind Wheel. In the middle of a
square plate that is moderately thick, fit a strong screw with a large and
long head; this screw must pass freely through a disc that is perfectly flat
and fits easily into the upper side of the escape-wheel. Now fix the plate
between the jaws of a bench-vise, and, placing the wheel between this plate
and the disc with a moderate pressure applied by the screw, hold a lamp to
the under side, gradually tightening the screw as the steel changes color so
as to obtain a maximum pressure when a blue temper is reached. Leave the
whole to cool in position.
636. A Verge, Small Arbor or Pinion Staff. When steel is sufficiently
tempered, it may be laid flat on a smooth piece of copper held in the vise
and flattened by hammering as in the case of an ordinary rod; but if it is
hard the blade of the hammer must be used. Every watchmaker knows, for
example, that a verge is straightened by striking with the blade against its
concave side, while the convex side rests flat on a smooth anvil. By the
action of the hammer the side that is struck becomes a little longer, thus
straightening the staff, It is not usually necessary to remove the marks left
by the hammer, but if this has to be done the operation should be continued
beyond what is necessary to straighten the metal, then temper it to a blue
color and allow it to cool.
A small smooth taper arbor or pinion staff, can be straightened by resting
it on a wood block, and rubbing the concave side lengthwise with a worn
bench vise, holding a spirit lamp near the jaws and, as the steel changes its
color, tighten the slide or screw of the former. When the metal assumes a
blue color and the jaws are as tight as possible, remove the lamp, allowing
the whole to cool slowly or by applying water.
The jaws should be formed so as to bend the rod rather more than is
ultimately required, because steel on being released is apt to partially
recover its initial curvature.
When the rod is long grip its two ends in the frame of a fret-saw, which
should be somewhat strong. Then hold a lamp under the rod, at the same
time stretching the rod more and more, and allow the steel to remain
stretched until quite cold. If it has been sufficiently stretched the metal will
be rendered perfectly straight.
635. A Plate, Escape-Wheel or Stem Wind Wheel. In the middle of a
square plate that is moderately thick, fit a strong screw with a large and
long head; this screw must pass freely through a disc that is perfectly flat
and fits easily into the upper side of the escape-wheel. Now fix the plate
between the jaws of a bench-vise, and, placing the wheel between this plate
and the disc with a moderate pressure applied by the screw, hold a lamp to
the under side, gradually tightening the screw as the steel changes color so
as to obtain a maximum pressure when a blue temper is reached. Leave the
whole to cool in position.
636. A Verge, Small Arbor or Pinion Staff. When steel is sufficiently
tempered, it may be laid flat on a smooth piece of copper held in the vise
and flattened by hammering as in the case of an ordinary rod; but if it is
hard the blade of the hammer must be used. Every watchmaker knows, for
example, that a verge is straightened by striking with the blade against its
concave side, while the convex side rests flat on a smooth anvil. By the
action of the hammer the side that is struck becomes a little longer, thus
straightening the staff, It is not usually necessary to remove the marks left
by the hammer, but if this has to be done the operation should be continued
beyond what is necessary to straighten the metal, then temper it to a blue
color and allow it to cool.
A small smooth taper arbor or pinion staff, can be straightened by resting
it on a wood block, and rubbing the concave side lengthwise with a worn
Page 445
file of medium cut, applying considerable pressure, the arbor being firmly
supported below to avoid breakage. The result is the same as with the blows
of a hammer, but the marks left are barely visible.
supported below to avoid breakage. The result is the same as with the blows
of a hammer, but the marks left are barely visible.
Page 446
FOOTNOTES:
[7] It may be well to point out that the above details relate to the case in which
the stem-wind work is on the top plate. When it is under the dial, of course the
corrections here given for a deep and shallow depth will be reversed.
[8] This contains about 1 part of pure acid and 2 parts of water.
[9] Taken from M. H. Robert’s Etudes sur diverses questions d’horlogerie.
[10] If a greater or less quantity of the solution is required, all these quantities
must, of course, be increased or diminished proportionately.
[7] It may be well to point out that the above details relate to the case in which
the stem-wind work is on the top plate. When it is under the dial, of course the
corrections here given for a deep and shallow depth will be reversed.
[8] This contains about 1 part of pure acid and 2 parts of water.
[9] Taken from M. H. Robert’s Etudes sur diverses questions d’horlogerie.
[10] If a greater or less quantity of the solution is required, all these quantities
must, of course, be increased or diminished proportionately.
Page 447
CLOCK HAIRSPRINGS.
Repairers’ Assortment. Best Quality, Colletted, carefully arranged,
box containing 50, fifteen kinds, by mail, $1.50
Same Assortment, box containing 100, 2.50
One Dozen for any make of clocks, .50
One-Half Dozen for any make of clocks, .30
Single Springs, .10
If your jobber doesn’t keep them send and get them direct, postpaid.
F. N. MANROSS,
Manufacturer of every description of Clock and Gauge Hairsprings.
FORESTVILLE, CONN.
The American Jeweler
CHI CAGO, I L L .
A Monthly Journal for Watchmakers and Jewelers.
As an advertising medium it is unsurpassed. Advertising Rates mailed on
application. Has more paid subscribers than any other journal in the trade.
If in search of a situation or if you want a watchmaker, place your want
ad. in The American Jeweler.
Repairers’ Assortment. Best Quality, Colletted, carefully arranged,
box containing 50, fifteen kinds, by mail, $1.50
Same Assortment, box containing 100, 2.50
One Dozen for any make of clocks, .50
One-Half Dozen for any make of clocks, .30
Single Springs, .10
If your jobber doesn’t keep them send and get them direct, postpaid.
F. N. MANROSS,
Manufacturer of every description of Clock and Gauge Hairsprings.
FORESTVILLE, CONN.
The American Jeweler
CHI CAGO, I L L .
A Monthly Journal for Watchmakers and Jewelers.
As an advertising medium it is unsurpassed. Advertising Rates mailed on
application. Has more paid subscribers than any other journal in the trade.
If in search of a situation or if you want a watchmaker, place your want
ad. in The American Jeweler.
Page 448
$1.00 per Year. Send for Sample Copy.
GEO. K. HAZLITT & CO.
...PUBLISHERS...
91 Plymouth Place, CHICAGO, ILL.
Eureka Mainspring
Winder,
Patented May 25,
1886. F O R WAT CHM AKERS’ USE.
This instrument is always ready for use, and will
instantly wind any watch spring into coils to fit any American or Swiss
Barrel. It is simple and durable.
Price, Nickel Plated, $1.25.
The trade will find it to their advantage to send us their orders, as we
have the most experienced men, and all orders are filled with the best
quality goods, the same day as order is received, and at the lowest market
prices.
GREEN BROS.
Importers and Jobbers of Watchmakers, Jewelers and Engravers
Fine Grade Tools, Materials and General Supplies.
11 Maiden Lane, NEW YORK.
GEO. K. HAZLITT & CO.
...PUBLISHERS...
91 Plymouth Place, CHICAGO, ILL.
Eureka Mainspring
Winder,
Patented May 25,
1886. F O R WAT CHM AKERS’ USE.
This instrument is always ready for use, and will
instantly wind any watch spring into coils to fit any American or Swiss
Barrel. It is simple and durable.
Price, Nickel Plated, $1.25.
The trade will find it to their advantage to send us their orders, as we
have the most experienced men, and all orders are filled with the best
quality goods, the same day as order is received, and at the lowest market
prices.
GREEN BROS.
Importers and Jobbers of Watchmakers, Jewelers and Engravers
Fine Grade Tools, Materials and General Supplies.
11 Maiden Lane, NEW YORK.
Page 449
THE HARTUNG COMPANY,
2 11 STAT E ST. , CHI CAG O .
Watchmakers and Jewelers
FOR THE TRADE EXCLUSIVELY.
Fine Watch Repairing of all kinds our
Specialty.
Demagnetizing. Changing key wind watches to stem wind. Watch case
and jewelry repairing.
All work promptly and carefully executed. Our reputation is of a good
and long standing. We will be pleased to send price list and information on
demand.
For Manufacturing
CRUCIBLE FURNACE Jewelers....
No. 15. Crucible Furnace. This will take crucibles up to 4×3½ inches,
holding about six pounds when full, and with ½ inch gas pipe, and a
pressure of gas supplying about 50 feet per hour, will melt a crucible of
gold, silver or brass in about 30 minutes, and the same quantity of cast iron
in about 60 minutes from the time the gas is first lighted. It is made in a
very substantial manner, and is recommended as a first-rate furnace for
manufacturing jewelers, reducing photo waste, etc. The lid can be lifted
away by a handle provided for the purpose.
Prices on Application.
2 11 STAT E ST. , CHI CAG O .
Watchmakers and Jewelers
FOR THE TRADE EXCLUSIVELY.
Fine Watch Repairing of all kinds our
Specialty.
Demagnetizing. Changing key wind watches to stem wind. Watch case
and jewelry repairing.
All work promptly and carefully executed. Our reputation is of a good
and long standing. We will be pleased to send price list and information on
demand.
For Manufacturing
CRUCIBLE FURNACE Jewelers....
No. 15. Crucible Furnace. This will take crucibles up to 4×3½ inches,
holding about six pounds when full, and with ½ inch gas pipe, and a
pressure of gas supplying about 50 feet per hour, will melt a crucible of
gold, silver or brass in about 30 minutes, and the same quantity of cast iron
in about 60 minutes from the time the gas is first lighted. It is made in a
very substantial manner, and is recommended as a first-rate furnace for
manufacturing jewelers, reducing photo waste, etc. The lid can be lifted
away by a handle provided for the purpose.
Prices on Application.
Page 450
MANUFACTURED ONLY BY
BUFFALO
DENTAL
MFG. CO
587-589 Main Street,
BUFFALO, N. Y.
No. 15. Patented May 18, 1880.
BUFFALO
DENTAL
MFG. CO
587-589 Main Street,
BUFFALO, N. Y.
No. 15. Patented May 18, 1880.
Page 451
Watchmaking
If you want to become a thorough practical watchmaker, you can do so at
less expense and in less time at this school than any other place. Students
received at any time. Send for catalogue and samples of engraving.
Address:
Hutchinson’s Practical School for Watchmakers,
J. L. Hutchinson,
SUPERINTENDENT.
La Porte, Ind.
Anything and Everything in the shape
of
Dials Made to Order from our own
Design or from Yours.
Dials with Portraits, Monograms, Landscapes, Yachting, Hunting,
Fishing, Polo, Base Ball, Tennis, Cricket, or in fact any design.
If you want to become a thorough practical watchmaker, you can do so at
less expense and in less time at this school than any other place. Students
received at any time. Send for catalogue and samples of engraving.
Address:
Hutchinson’s Practical School for Watchmakers,
J. L. Hutchinson,
SUPERINTENDENT.
La Porte, Ind.
Anything and Everything in the shape
of
Dials Made to Order from our own
Design or from Yours.
Dials with Portraits, Monograms, Landscapes, Yachting, Hunting,
Fishing, Polo, Base Ball, Tennis, Cricket, or in fact any design.
Page 452
SO CI ET Y DESI G NS A SPECI ALT Y.
Complete Stock of Plain and Fancy Dials always on hand.
L H. KELLER & CO.
Watchmakers and Jewelers
Tools & and & Materials
OF EVERY DESCRIPTION.
64 Nassau Street NEW YORK.
The Chicago Watchmakers’ Institute
A Modern Trade Scientific and
School. Practical
Best in America. In all its Methods.
Watchmaking and Repairing,
TEACHES Jewelry Work and Engraving,
and gives a Thorough Course in Optics.
Call and see our school and its work, or send for catalogue.
Complete Stock of Plain and Fancy Dials always on hand.
L H. KELLER & CO.
Watchmakers and Jewelers
Tools & and & Materials
OF EVERY DESCRIPTION.
64 Nassau Street NEW YORK.
The Chicago Watchmakers’ Institute
A Modern Trade Scientific and
School. Practical
Best in America. In all its Methods.
Watchmaking and Repairing,
TEACHES Jewelry Work and Engraving,
and gives a Thorough Course in Optics.
Call and see our school and its work, or send for catalogue.
Page 453
GEO. D. PARSONS, Principal.
913 D, Masonic Temple, CHICAGO, ILL.
WHEN YOU NEED THE BEST
Pivot Polishers, Crown Chucks, Staking
Tools,
Gear Cutters, Turning Tools,
Pivot Drills,
Idler Pulleys, Roller Removers,
Pump Drills,
Hairspring Stud Index, Tempering
Compound,
Or any of the tools you need daily; and when you want the best and most
practical tools, those that have been designed by practical workmen and
proved by them; when you want the latest, best and cheapest tools; send for
circulars and prices to
A . W. JOH A N S ON ,
Manufacturer of Watchmakers’ and Jewelers’ Tools,
326 Wells Street CHICAGO, ILL.
913 D, Masonic Temple, CHICAGO, ILL.
WHEN YOU NEED THE BEST
Pivot Polishers, Crown Chucks, Staking
Tools,
Gear Cutters, Turning Tools,
Pivot Drills,
Idler Pulleys, Roller Removers,
Pump Drills,
Hairspring Stud Index, Tempering
Compound,
Or any of the tools you need daily; and when you want the best and most
practical tools, those that have been designed by practical workmen and
proved by them; when you want the latest, best and cheapest tools; send for
circulars and prices to
A . W. JOH A N S ON ,
Manufacturer of Watchmakers’ and Jewelers’ Tools,
326 Wells Street CHICAGO, ILL.
Page 454
PRACTICAL BOOKS
....FOR....
Watchmakers AND Jewelers.
FOR SALE BY
GEO. K. HAZLITT & Co.,
91 PLYMOUTH PLACE, CHICAGO.
Staff Making and Pivoting. Practical directions for making new staffs
from raw material. By Eugene E. Hall. Chapter I. The raw material; the
gravers; the roughing out; the hardening and tempering. Chapter II. Kinds
of pivots; their shape; capillarity; the requirements of a good pivot. Chapter
III. The proper measurements and how obtained. Chapter IV. The gauging
of holes; the side shake; the position of the graver. Chapter V. The grinding
and polishing; the reversal of the work; the wax chuck. Chapter VI. Another
wax chuck; the centering of the work. Chapter VII. The finishing of the
staff; pivoting; making pivot drills: hardening drills; the drilling and fitting
of new pivots. Illustrated with 24 engravings. 48 pages.
Paper covers $ 25
Watch Repairing. By N. B. Sherwood. Contents: The Bench and its
Accessories; The Vise and Oilstone; Lathe Appliances; The Jacot Lathe;
Depthing Tool; Expanding the Web of a Wheel; The Spreading Tool and its
Use; The Rounding-Up Tool; Stud Remover; Opening the Regulator; Roller
Remover; Replacing Broken Teeth; Graining Polishing Blocks; Polishing
Steel Work; Polishing Pivots; Superiority of Conical Pivots; The Cutting
Engine; To Cut ’Scape Wheels; Replacing Broken Arbors: Hardening and
Tempering. Illustrated.
Price 35
....FOR....
Watchmakers AND Jewelers.
FOR SALE BY
GEO. K. HAZLITT & Co.,
91 PLYMOUTH PLACE, CHICAGO.
Staff Making and Pivoting. Practical directions for making new staffs
from raw material. By Eugene E. Hall. Chapter I. The raw material; the
gravers; the roughing out; the hardening and tempering. Chapter II. Kinds
of pivots; their shape; capillarity; the requirements of a good pivot. Chapter
III. The proper measurements and how obtained. Chapter IV. The gauging
of holes; the side shake; the position of the graver. Chapter V. The grinding
and polishing; the reversal of the work; the wax chuck. Chapter VI. Another
wax chuck; the centering of the work. Chapter VII. The finishing of the
staff; pivoting; making pivot drills: hardening drills; the drilling and fitting
of new pivots. Illustrated with 24 engravings. 48 pages.
Paper covers $ 25
Watch Repairing. By N. B. Sherwood. Contents: The Bench and its
Accessories; The Vise and Oilstone; Lathe Appliances; The Jacot Lathe;
Depthing Tool; Expanding the Web of a Wheel; The Spreading Tool and its
Use; The Rounding-Up Tool; Stud Remover; Opening the Regulator; Roller
Remover; Replacing Broken Teeth; Graining Polishing Blocks; Polishing
Steel Work; Polishing Pivots; Superiority of Conical Pivots; The Cutting
Engine; To Cut ’Scape Wheels; Replacing Broken Arbors: Hardening and
Tempering. Illustrated.
Price 35
Page 455
The Watchmakers’ and Jewelers’ Practical Hand Book. A guide to the
student and a workshop companion for the practical watchmaker. Hundreds
of valuable suggestions from private formulas and the best authorities,
together with hints on making certain repairs. An invaluable book for the
workman. The most valuable book for the money ever offered to the trade.
Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Edited and compiled by Henry G.
Abbott. Illustrated with 154 zinc etchings. 118 Pages. Flexible muslin, 50
cents. Paper covers
35
Prize Essay on the Detached Lever Escapement for watches and
timepieces. A practical and theoretical treatise, by Moritz Grossman, to
which the first prize was awarded by adjudicators appointed by the British
Horological Institute, London. 118 pages, bound in paper covers, with 20
full page plates, bound in a separate volume. Two volumes, price,
1 50
Acme Record of Watches Bought and Sold. A complete record for
dealers in watches, by which they can at all times tell what watches have
been sold, by whom bought, price paid, profit made, etc., and in case of the
watch being imperfect, the dealer can readily ascertain from whom he
purchased it, or if stolen he has a full description of them which should
materially aid in their recovery. Books of 3,000 Entries, substantially bound
$1 00
The Acme Record of Watch Repairs. A simple and economical method
of recording watch repairs. Book of 1,000 entries, substantially bound
1 00
The Acme Record of Jewelry Repairs. A simple and economical
method of recording jewelry and miscellaneous repairs. Book of 1,000
entries, substantially bound
1 00
The Acme Watch Guarantee Book. If you desire to increase your watch
repair business, purchase an Acme Guarantee Book, and advertise the fact
that you “give a written guarantee with all work turned out.” These books
are printed with a stub so that you may keep a record of all guarantees
student and a workshop companion for the practical watchmaker. Hundreds
of valuable suggestions from private formulas and the best authorities,
together with hints on making certain repairs. An invaluable book for the
workman. The most valuable book for the money ever offered to the trade.
Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Edited and compiled by Henry G.
Abbott. Illustrated with 154 zinc etchings. 118 Pages. Flexible muslin, 50
cents. Paper covers
35
Prize Essay on the Detached Lever Escapement for watches and
timepieces. A practical and theoretical treatise, by Moritz Grossman, to
which the first prize was awarded by adjudicators appointed by the British
Horological Institute, London. 118 pages, bound in paper covers, with 20
full page plates, bound in a separate volume. Two volumes, price,
1 50
Acme Record of Watches Bought and Sold. A complete record for
dealers in watches, by which they can at all times tell what watches have
been sold, by whom bought, price paid, profit made, etc., and in case of the
watch being imperfect, the dealer can readily ascertain from whom he
purchased it, or if stolen he has a full description of them which should
materially aid in their recovery. Books of 3,000 Entries, substantially bound
$1 00
The Acme Record of Watch Repairs. A simple and economical method
of recording watch repairs. Book of 1,000 entries, substantially bound
1 00
The Acme Record of Jewelry Repairs. A simple and economical
method of recording jewelry and miscellaneous repairs. Book of 1,000
entries, substantially bound
1 00
The Acme Watch Guarantee Book. If you desire to increase your watch
repair business, purchase an Acme Guarantee Book, and advertise the fact
that you “give a written guarantee with all work turned out.” These books
are printed with a stub so that you may keep a record of all guarantees
Page 456
made, with date, name of owner, description of movement and case, repairs,
etc. They are bound in heavy, substantial covers printed on good paper and
perforated all around so they can be easily torn out.
Books of 200 Guarantees 1 00
Books of 300 Guarantees 1 50
Books of 500 Guarantees 2 52
Abbott’s Americas Watchmaker and Jeweler. By
Henry G. Abbott. An Encyclopedia for the Horologist,
Jeweler, Gold and Silversmith. Containing Hundreds
of Private Receipts and Formulas, Compiled from the
Most Reliable Sources. Complete Directions for
Using all the Latest Tools, Attachments and Devices
for Watchmakers and Jewelers.
Among other things contained in this volume may
be mentioned a thorough explanation of adjustments,
both to positions and isochronism; directions for
making all the alloys used by a watchmaker, jeweler and metalworker; a
review of all the escapements, their action, construction and proportion,
together with diagrams of each escapement; an exhaustive treatise on
balances, their expansion and contraction, auxiliaries, sizes and weights and
direction for poising; the balance staff, and full and complete directions for
making and replacing new staffs, together with the use of the graver in
turning and the manipulation of measuring instruments; directions for
making twenty different cements of great value to the watchmaker and
jeweler, including lathe wax; directions for cleansing, pickling and
polishing all kinds of metals: magnetism and the use of the various
demagnetizers; electroplating, bronzing and staining all metals; gauges of
all kinds, and directions for using; soldering and directions for making all
kinds of hard and soft solder and fluxes; steel, its treatment in annealing,
hardening, tempering, etc.; watch cleaning, repairing, etc.: a treatise on
wheels and pinions: directions for using all modern tools and appliances;
and hundreds of miscellaneous receipts, formulas and hints on all kinds of
work, of great value to every workman. This edition contains forty-four
pages more than former editions, and each page contains one-third more
matter than the pages of former editions. An alphabetical list of over five
hundred European watchmakers who manufactured watches prior to 1800,
etc. They are bound in heavy, substantial covers printed on good paper and
perforated all around so they can be easily torn out.
Books of 200 Guarantees 1 00
Books of 300 Guarantees 1 50
Books of 500 Guarantees 2 52
Abbott’s Americas Watchmaker and Jeweler. By
Henry G. Abbott. An Encyclopedia for the Horologist,
Jeweler, Gold and Silversmith. Containing Hundreds
of Private Receipts and Formulas, Compiled from the
Most Reliable Sources. Complete Directions for
Using all the Latest Tools, Attachments and Devices
for Watchmakers and Jewelers.
Among other things contained in this volume may
be mentioned a thorough explanation of adjustments,
both to positions and isochronism; directions for
making all the alloys used by a watchmaker, jeweler and metalworker; a
review of all the escapements, their action, construction and proportion,
together with diagrams of each escapement; an exhaustive treatise on
balances, their expansion and contraction, auxiliaries, sizes and weights and
direction for poising; the balance staff, and full and complete directions for
making and replacing new staffs, together with the use of the graver in
turning and the manipulation of measuring instruments; directions for
making twenty different cements of great value to the watchmaker and
jeweler, including lathe wax; directions for cleansing, pickling and
polishing all kinds of metals: magnetism and the use of the various
demagnetizers; electroplating, bronzing and staining all metals; gauges of
all kinds, and directions for using; soldering and directions for making all
kinds of hard and soft solder and fluxes; steel, its treatment in annealing,
hardening, tempering, etc.; watch cleaning, repairing, etc.: a treatise on
wheels and pinions: directions for using all modern tools and appliances;
and hundreds of miscellaneous receipts, formulas and hints on all kinds of
work, of great value to every workman. This edition contains forty-four
pages more than former editions, and each page contains one-third more
matter than the pages of former editions. An alphabetical list of over five
hundred European watchmakers who manufactured watches prior to 1800,
Page 457
with years in which they carried on business, from which the watchmaker
can easily establish the age of any movement that a customer may desire to
know about; an alphabetical list of all books on horology published in the
English or French language prior to 1850; portraits and sketches of all the
celebrated watchmakers of the world from 1600 to 1894. 354 pages.
Illustrated with 288 engravings. Paper covers, $1 25. Fine muslin
$1 50
A Simple and Mechanically Perfect Watch. By
Moritz Grossmann. A Prize Essay on the Construction
of a Simple yet Perfect Watch. Written in a masterly
manner by one of the greatest of Horological Authors.
Illustrated with many engravings. From the standpoint
of the practical man at the bench this is one of the
most exhaustive essays ever written on the subject and
no practical workman can fail to appreciate it. 96
pages 38 diagrams. Paper, 75c. Fine muslin
1 00
The Watchmakers’ Library. This book consists of a collection of the
best articles from the various trade journals of this country and Europe,
among the authors being Moritz Grossmann, M. Kessels, Chas. Spiro, Chas.
Reiss, Herman Horrman, P. M. Youlen, M. Sandoz, Herman Grosch, James
U. Poole, E. Sordet and Vincent Lauer. The papers are all of a practical
nature and of great value to the practical watchmaker, the whole forming a
volume of 290 pages and index. In Paper Covers
1 00
Prize Essay on the Balance Spring and its Technical Adjustments
(Baroness Burdett Coutt’s Prize). By M. Immisch. A description of the
invention of the balance spring, its effect upon the art of watchmaking; the
effects of inertia of the balance; resistance of the air; balance adjustment by
means of turning screws and washers; proportions of spring and balance;
nature of spirals; lengths of balance vibrations and their effect upon the
timing; pinning in equal and unequal coils; the Breguet spring; making its
curves, pinning; regulating isochronal springs, etc. Fully illustrated with
numerous engravings and diagrams. Cloth. Price
can easily establish the age of any movement that a customer may desire to
know about; an alphabetical list of all books on horology published in the
English or French language prior to 1850; portraits and sketches of all the
celebrated watchmakers of the world from 1600 to 1894. 354 pages.
Illustrated with 288 engravings. Paper covers, $1 25. Fine muslin
$1 50
A Simple and Mechanically Perfect Watch. By
Moritz Grossmann. A Prize Essay on the Construction
of a Simple yet Perfect Watch. Written in a masterly
manner by one of the greatest of Horological Authors.
Illustrated with many engravings. From the standpoint
of the practical man at the bench this is one of the
most exhaustive essays ever written on the subject and
no practical workman can fail to appreciate it. 96
pages 38 diagrams. Paper, 75c. Fine muslin
1 00
The Watchmakers’ Library. This book consists of a collection of the
best articles from the various trade journals of this country and Europe,
among the authors being Moritz Grossmann, M. Kessels, Chas. Spiro, Chas.
Reiss, Herman Horrman, P. M. Youlen, M. Sandoz, Herman Grosch, James
U. Poole, E. Sordet and Vincent Lauer. The papers are all of a practical
nature and of great value to the practical watchmaker, the whole forming a
volume of 290 pages and index. In Paper Covers
1 00
Prize Essay on the Balance Spring and its Technical Adjustments
(Baroness Burdett Coutt’s Prize). By M. Immisch. A description of the
invention of the balance spring, its effect upon the art of watchmaking; the
effects of inertia of the balance; resistance of the air; balance adjustment by
means of turning screws and washers; proportions of spring and balance;
nature of spirals; lengths of balance vibrations and their effect upon the
timing; pinning in equal and unequal coils; the Breguet spring; making its
curves, pinning; regulating isochronal springs, etc. Fully illustrated with
numerous engravings and diagrams. Cloth. Price
Page 458
1 00
Repairing Repeating Watches. By C. T. Etchells. A practical treatise on
the subject and the only one in print. Fully illustrated. The most vexatious
repairs that come to the watchmaker are those on repeating watches—and
yet they are the most profitable if you know just how to make them. Not
every watchmaker can make them, and that is just why they are profitable.
Do you know how? If not, why not? You are never too old to learn. Paper
covers
35
The Escapements. Their Action, Construction and Proportion. All watch
and clock escapements thoroughly illustrated and described Illustrated with
twenty diagrams. Paper Covers Price
$ 50
Same in cloth binding 75
Prize Essay on Watch Cleaning and Repairing. By F. C. Ries. This
work took the first prize, (offered by The American Jeweler) in competition
with thirty-six other writers. Contents: Examination of the Movement;
Taking Down; Fitting the Dial; Fitting Center Pivot and Bridge; Bushing;
Endshake; Worn Center Pinions; Truing the Barrel; Repairing the Ratchet;
Putting on Square on a Fusee; Examination of Mainspring; Stemwind
Mechanism; Examination of Train; Imitation Gilding; Pivots; Making
Balance Staff; The Hairspring; Jeweling; Cleaning in General. Price
25
Watch and Chronometer Jeweling. By N. B. Sherwood. A complete
treatise on this subject and the only one in print. Contents: Peculiarities of
Gems used in Making Jewels; Requisite Tools and How to Use Them;
Shaping and Polishing the Jewel; Opening the Jewel; Setting the Jewel; The
Endshake Tool; General Hints to the Repairer. Illustrated. Price
35
General Letter Engraving. By G. F. Whelpley, the acknowledged
authority on engraving. His latest and best work. Contents: General Hints to
Beginners; Lines and Curves; Originality; Practice Material; Position of
Graver; Treatment of Gravers; Correct Spacing; Coffin Plate Engraving;
Repairing Repeating Watches. By C. T. Etchells. A practical treatise on
the subject and the only one in print. Fully illustrated. The most vexatious
repairs that come to the watchmaker are those on repeating watches—and
yet they are the most profitable if you know just how to make them. Not
every watchmaker can make them, and that is just why they are profitable.
Do you know how? If not, why not? You are never too old to learn. Paper
covers
35
The Escapements. Their Action, Construction and Proportion. All watch
and clock escapements thoroughly illustrated and described Illustrated with
twenty diagrams. Paper Covers Price
$ 50
Same in cloth binding 75
Prize Essay on Watch Cleaning and Repairing. By F. C. Ries. This
work took the first prize, (offered by The American Jeweler) in competition
with thirty-six other writers. Contents: Examination of the Movement;
Taking Down; Fitting the Dial; Fitting Center Pivot and Bridge; Bushing;
Endshake; Worn Center Pinions; Truing the Barrel; Repairing the Ratchet;
Putting on Square on a Fusee; Examination of Mainspring; Stemwind
Mechanism; Examination of Train; Imitation Gilding; Pivots; Making
Balance Staff; The Hairspring; Jeweling; Cleaning in General. Price
25
Watch and Chronometer Jeweling. By N. B. Sherwood. A complete
treatise on this subject and the only one in print. Contents: Peculiarities of
Gems used in Making Jewels; Requisite Tools and How to Use Them;
Shaping and Polishing the Jewel; Opening the Jewel; Setting the Jewel; The
Endshake Tool; General Hints to the Repairer. Illustrated. Price
35
General Letter Engraving. By G. F. Whelpley, the acknowledged
authority on engraving. His latest and best work. Contents: General Hints to
Beginners; Lines and Curves; Originality; Practice Material; Position of
Graver; Treatment of Gravers; Correct Spacing; Coffin Plate Engraving;
Page 459
Necessary Tools; Laying out the Work Preparation of
Plate; Use of Gravers; Methods of Cutting; Slope and
Height of Letters; Inclination of Graver; Transfering;
Letters Appropriate for Long and Short Names;
Harmony in Laying Out; Touching Up; Difficult
Materials and their Treatment; Tools and Materials;
Sharpening Gravers; Choice of Tools; Engraving in
Rings; Gravers for Same: Engraving Blocks and
Stands: Ciphers, their Formation and Ornamentation;
Inscriptions; Best Manner of Cutting; Ciphers as
Compared with Monograms; Monograms and their
Treatment; Figure Monograms or Cipheroids; Intertwining, Complex
Monograms; General Treatment. Copiously Illustrated. 112 pp. Paper $1.00.
Cloth
1 25
The Watchmakers’ and Jewelers’ Practical Receipt Book. A workshop
companion, comprising full and practical formula and directions for solders
and soldering, cleaning, pickling, polishing, bronzing, coloring, staining,
cementing, etching, lacquering, varnishing, general directions for finishing
all metals, hundreds of miscellaneous receipts and processes of great value
to all practical watchmakers and jewelers. This is the only book on the
market to-day that gives full and complete directions for etching names,
portraits, etc., in the bowls of souvenir spoons and silver articles in general.
This so-called trade secret is sold by certain persons at $5.00. Dozens of
other “trade secrets” that are advertised for sale in trade papers at from
$1.00 to $5.00 can be found in this book. Worth its weight in gold to any
practical watchmaker and jeweler. 132 pages, illustrated. Paper covers,
$1.00. Fine English muslin binding
1 25
Poising the Balance. An Essay of unusual merit. By J. L. Finn 25
Hairspringing. A complete treatise on the art of hairspringing. By A. Z.
Price
25
Plate; Use of Gravers; Methods of Cutting; Slope and
Height of Letters; Inclination of Graver; Transfering;
Letters Appropriate for Long and Short Names;
Harmony in Laying Out; Touching Up; Difficult
Materials and their Treatment; Tools and Materials;
Sharpening Gravers; Choice of Tools; Engraving in
Rings; Gravers for Same: Engraving Blocks and
Stands: Ciphers, their Formation and Ornamentation;
Inscriptions; Best Manner of Cutting; Ciphers as
Compared with Monograms; Monograms and their
Treatment; Figure Monograms or Cipheroids; Intertwining, Complex
Monograms; General Treatment. Copiously Illustrated. 112 pp. Paper $1.00.
Cloth
1 25
The Watchmakers’ and Jewelers’ Practical Receipt Book. A workshop
companion, comprising full and practical formula and directions for solders
and soldering, cleaning, pickling, polishing, bronzing, coloring, staining,
cementing, etching, lacquering, varnishing, general directions for finishing
all metals, hundreds of miscellaneous receipts and processes of great value
to all practical watchmakers and jewelers. This is the only book on the
market to-day that gives full and complete directions for etching names,
portraits, etc., in the bowls of souvenir spoons and silver articles in general.
This so-called trade secret is sold by certain persons at $5.00. Dozens of
other “trade secrets” that are advertised for sale in trade papers at from
$1.00 to $5.00 can be found in this book. Worth its weight in gold to any
practical watchmaker and jeweler. 132 pages, illustrated. Paper covers,
$1.00. Fine English muslin binding
1 25
Poising the Balance. An Essay of unusual merit. By J. L. Finn 25
Hairspringing. A complete treatise on the art of hairspringing. By A. Z.
Price
25
Page 460
Adjustments to Positions, Isochronism and Compensation. The only
work on the subject in print. 50 pp. Illustrated. Price
25
Repairing Watch-Cases. A practical treatise on the subject. By W.
Schwanatus. Contents: Repairing the Pendant; Lining Pendant Holes; Work
at the Joints; Soldering the Bezel; The Closing of the Case; Taking Out the
Dents. 40 pp. Price.
25
Jewelers’ Practical Receipt Book. Contains a mass of most valuable
receipts, formulas and information, gathered from the best and most reliable
sources. Fifth edition, revised and enlarged. 48 pp. Price
15
Prize Essay on the Balance Staff and Cylinder. By P. W. Eigner. This
essay took the first prize offered by the American Horological Society.
Gives methods for turning, grinding and polishing, from staff to pivots.
Illustrated with numerous engravings. Paper covers
25
Compensating Pendulums and How to Make Them. A practical
treatise on the construction of mechanically perfect Pendulums, for the use
of watchmakers. By J. L. Finn and S. Riefler. Illustrated. Paper covers,
Price
35
work on the subject in print. 50 pp. Illustrated. Price
25
Repairing Watch-Cases. A practical treatise on the subject. By W.
Schwanatus. Contents: Repairing the Pendant; Lining Pendant Holes; Work
at the Joints; Soldering the Bezel; The Closing of the Case; Taking Out the
Dents. 40 pp. Price.
25
Jewelers’ Practical Receipt Book. Contains a mass of most valuable
receipts, formulas and information, gathered from the best and most reliable
sources. Fifth edition, revised and enlarged. 48 pp. Price
15
Prize Essay on the Balance Staff and Cylinder. By P. W. Eigner. This
essay took the first prize offered by the American Horological Society.
Gives methods for turning, grinding and polishing, from staff to pivots.
Illustrated with numerous engravings. Paper covers
25
Compensating Pendulums and How to Make Them. A practical
treatise on the construction of mechanically perfect Pendulums, for the use
of watchmakers. By J. L. Finn and S. Riefler. Illustrated. Paper covers,
Price
35
Page 461
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs. In versions of this
eBook that support hyperlinks, the references to illustrations lead to the corresponding
illustrations. Links to articles have been provided where they are referenced in other
sections.
The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.
Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful
comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.
Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, when a predominant
preference was found in the original book.
Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, and inconsistent or
archaic usage, have been retained.
Pg 15: removed redundant “to” in “Teeth, to true”.
Pg 28: “horisontal” replaced with “horizontal”.
Pg 29: “emphacise” replaced with “emphasize”.
Pg 29: “an” replaced with “in” ind “one portion removed in order”.
Pg 36: “faciliy” replaced with “facility”.
Pg 42: Caption “Fid. 20” replaced with “Fig. 20”.
Pg 58: “acqua” replaced with “aqua”.
Pg 59: “deterorated” replaced with “deteriorated”.
Duplicate section “88” appeared between sections 85 and 86. This has been
Pg 78:
renumbered “85a”.
Pg 102: “phosporus” replaced with “phosphorus”.
Pg 102: Reference to paragraph “666” replaced with “591”.
Pg 116: “cleasing” replaced with “cleansing”.
Pg 117: “cautions” replaced with “cautious”.
Pg 118: “choride” replaced with “chloride”.
Pg 124: “imposible” replaced with “impossible”.
Pg 131: “camporated” replaced with “camphorated”.
Pg 138: Added the word “be” to “The other stones may be treated in similar manner”.
Pg 139: “dimished” replaced with “diminished”.
Pg 143: “necessary” replaced with “unnecessary”.
Pg 145: “keylesss” replaced with “keyless”.
Pg 147: “expriments” replaced with “experiments”.
Pg 149: “degress” replaced with “degrees”.
Pg 150: “throughly” replaced with “thoroughly”.
Pg 152: Replaced “the” with “to” in “working up towards to the extremity”.
Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs. In versions of this
eBook that support hyperlinks, the references to illustrations lead to the corresponding
illustrations. Links to articles have been provided where they are referenced in other
sections.
The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page references.
Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful
comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.
Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, when a predominant
preference was found in the original book.
Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, and inconsistent or
archaic usage, have been retained.
Pg 15: removed redundant “to” in “Teeth, to true”.
Pg 28: “horisontal” replaced with “horizontal”.
Pg 29: “emphacise” replaced with “emphasize”.
Pg 29: “an” replaced with “in” ind “one portion removed in order”.
Pg 36: “faciliy” replaced with “facility”.
Pg 42: Caption “Fid. 20” replaced with “Fig. 20”.
Pg 58: “acqua” replaced with “aqua”.
Pg 59: “deterorated” replaced with “deteriorated”.
Duplicate section “88” appeared between sections 85 and 86. This has been
Pg 78:
renumbered “85a”.
Pg 102: “phosporus” replaced with “phosphorus”.
Pg 102: Reference to paragraph “666” replaced with “591”.
Pg 116: “cleasing” replaced with “cleansing”.
Pg 117: “cautions” replaced with “cautious”.
Pg 118: “choride” replaced with “chloride”.
Pg 124: “imposible” replaced with “impossible”.
Pg 131: “camporated” replaced with “camphorated”.
Pg 138: Added the word “be” to “The other stones may be treated in similar manner”.
Pg 139: “dimished” replaced with “diminished”.
Pg 143: “necessary” replaced with “unnecessary”.
Pg 145: “keylesss” replaced with “keyless”.
Pg 147: “expriments” replaced with “experiments”.
Pg 149: “degress” replaced with “degrees”.
Pg 150: “throughly” replaced with “thoroughly”.
Pg 152: Replaced “the” with “to” in “working up towards to the extremity”.
Page 462
Pg 153: “sucessful” replaced with “successful”.
Pg 155: “escapments” replaced with “escapements”.
Pg 155: Replaced “too” with “to” in “sealing-wax causes objects to adhere”.
Pg 156: “bebstween” replaced with “between”.
Pg 156: “especiably” replaced with “especially”.
Pg 160: “magnanese” replaced with “manganese”.
Pg 160: “iatter” replaced with “latter”.
Pg 167: Removed extra “as” in “it is known as a tourmaline”.
Pg 170: “rottten” replaced with “rotten”.
Pg 176: “dazzing” replaced with “dazzling”.
Pg 177: Original text unclear, inferred “taking” in “necessity of taking care”.
Pg 180: “aquired” replaced with “acquired”.
Pg 189: “ltttle” replaced with “little”.
Pg 197: “calliper” replaced with “caliper”.
Pg 199: “operatar” replaced with “operator”.
Pg 204: Removed extra “be” in “10 feet high may be used as a fixture”.
Pg 206: Replaced “varries” with “varies”.
Pg 208: Removed duplicate “is” in “H is a pipe”.
Pg 209: “ot” replaced with “not”.
Pg 218: Replaced “to” with “too” in “Having too much end-shake”.
Pg 234: “obstuse” replaced with “obtuse”.
Pg 237: Removed duplicate “the” in “raising the edge of a jewel”.
Pg 247: “cuting” replaced with “cutting”.
Pg 251: Replaced “ase” with “are” in “polishers are used”.
Pg 281: Replaced “Illinos” with “Illinois”.
Pg 281: Replaced “Bregeut” with “Breguet”.
Pg 334: Replaced “idex” with “index”.
Pg 341: Replaced “portio” with “portion”.
Pg 345: Replaced “templets” with “templates”.
Pg 348: Replaced “cuttter” with “cutter”.
Pg 357: Removed duplicate “is” in “It is well to have some change wheels”.
Pg 358: Replaced “It” with “Its” in “Its edge must be saddle-shaped”.
Pg 367: Replaced “late” with “plate”.
Pg 347: Replaced “appplicable” with “applicable”.
Pg 389: Replaced “make” with “made” in “remarks made in speaking”.
Pg 155: “escapments” replaced with “escapements”.
Pg 155: Replaced “too” with “to” in “sealing-wax causes objects to adhere”.
Pg 156: “bebstween” replaced with “between”.
Pg 156: “especiably” replaced with “especially”.
Pg 160: “magnanese” replaced with “manganese”.
Pg 160: “iatter” replaced with “latter”.
Pg 167: Removed extra “as” in “it is known as a tourmaline”.
Pg 170: “rottten” replaced with “rotten”.
Pg 176: “dazzing” replaced with “dazzling”.
Pg 177: Original text unclear, inferred “taking” in “necessity of taking care”.
Pg 180: “aquired” replaced with “acquired”.
Pg 189: “ltttle” replaced with “little”.
Pg 197: “calliper” replaced with “caliper”.
Pg 199: “operatar” replaced with “operator”.
Pg 204: Removed extra “be” in “10 feet high may be used as a fixture”.
Pg 206: Replaced “varries” with “varies”.
Pg 208: Removed duplicate “is” in “H is a pipe”.
Pg 209: “ot” replaced with “not”.
Pg 218: Replaced “to” with “too” in “Having too much end-shake”.
Pg 234: “obstuse” replaced with “obtuse”.
Pg 237: Removed duplicate “the” in “raising the edge of a jewel”.
Pg 247: “cuting” replaced with “cutting”.
Pg 251: Replaced “ase” with “are” in “polishers are used”.
Pg 281: Replaced “Illinos” with “Illinois”.
Pg 281: Replaced “Bregeut” with “Breguet”.
Pg 334: Replaced “idex” with “index”.
Pg 341: Replaced “portio” with “portion”.
Pg 345: Replaced “templets” with “templates”.
Pg 348: Replaced “cuttter” with “cutter”.
Pg 357: Removed duplicate “is” in “It is well to have some change wheels”.
Pg 358: Replaced “It” with “Its” in “Its edge must be saddle-shaped”.
Pg 367: Replaced “late” with “plate”.
Pg 347: Replaced “appplicable” with “applicable”.
Pg 389: Replaced “make” with “made” in “remarks made in speaking”.
Page 463
Pg 404: Replaced “mannner” with “manner”.
Pg 410: Corrected caption “Fig. 24” to “Fig. 231”.
Pg 418: Replaced end of line “dur-” with “during”.
Pg 422: Corrected caption from “Fig. 338” to “Fig. 238”.
Pg 432: Replaced “characacteristic” with “characteristic”.
Pg 433: Original text unclear, inferred “not to” in “advisable not to touch the fusee”.
Pg 454: Correction caption from “Fig. 251” to “Fig. 255”.
Pg 463: Removed duplicate “the” from “their heads on the dial side”.
Pg 463: Replaced “escapment” with “escapement”.
Pg 470: “acuracy” replaced with “accuracy”.
Pg 471: “longtitudinal” replaced with “longitudinal”.
Pg 506: “d’horologerie” replaced with “d’horlogerie”.
Pg 511: Added “know” in “Do you know how?”
Pg 512: Replaced “Fuzee” with “Fusee”.
Pg 410: Corrected caption “Fig. 24” to “Fig. 231”.
Pg 418: Replaced end of line “dur-” with “during”.
Pg 422: Corrected caption from “Fig. 338” to “Fig. 238”.
Pg 432: Replaced “characacteristic” with “characteristic”.
Pg 433: Original text unclear, inferred “not to” in “advisable not to touch the fusee”.
Pg 454: Correction caption from “Fig. 251” to “Fig. 255”.
Pg 463: Removed duplicate “the” from “their heads on the dial side”.
Pg 463: Replaced “escapment” with “escapement”.
Pg 470: “acuracy” replaced with “accuracy”.
Pg 471: “longtitudinal” replaced with “longitudinal”.
Pg 506: “d’horologerie” replaced with “d’horlogerie”.
Pg 511: Added “know” in “Do you know how?”
Pg 512: Replaced “Fuzee” with “Fusee”.
Page 464
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