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Title: The Geographical Distribution of Animals, Volume 2

Author: Alfred Russel Wallace

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Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS, VOLUME 2 ***

Transcriber's The Errata (after the List of Plates) have been worked
note: into the main text and appear like this. All other
apparent mistakes have been retained as printed.

THE GEOGRAPHICAL

DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS

WITH A STUDY OF
THE RELATIONS OF LIVING AND EXTINCT FAUNAS
AS ELUCIDATING THE
PAST CHANGES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE.

BY

ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE,
AUTHOR OF "THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO," ETC.

WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

IN TWO VOLUMES.—VOLUME II.

London:
MACMILLAN AND CO.
1876.

[The Right of Translation and Reproduction is Reserved.]

LONDON:
R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,
BREAD STREET HILL.

CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.

PART III. (continued).

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY: A
REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS
OF ANIMAL LIFE IN THE
SEVERAL REGIONS AND SUB-
REGIONS, WITH THE
INDICATIONS THEY AFFORD OF
GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS.

CHAPTER XIV.
THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.
1-113
General Zoological Features of the
Neotropical Region (p. 5)—
Distinctive Characters of Neotropical
Mammalia (p. 6)—Of Neotropical
Birds (p. 7)—Neotropical Reptiles (p.
9)—Fresh-water Fishes (p. 12)—
Insects (p. 13)—Coleoptera (p. 15)—
Land Shells (p. 19)—Marine Shells
(p. 20)—Brazilian Sub-region (p. 21)
—Its Mammalia (p. 23)—Its Birds (p.
24)—Islands of Tropical South
America, Galapagos (p. 29)—Chilian
Sub-region (p. 36)—Birds (p. 38)—
Reptiles and Amphibia (p. 40)—
Fresh-water Fishes (p. 42)—
Lepidoptera (p. 42)—Coleoptera (p.
44)—Islands of South Temperate
America (p. 49)—Mexican Sub-
region (p. 51)—Mammalia and Birds

(p. 52)—Reptiles and Fishes (p. 54)
—Insects (p. 55)—Relations of the
Mexican Sub-region to the North and
South American Continents (p. 57)—
Islands of the Mexican Sub-region (p.
59)—The Antillean Sub-region (p.
60)—Its Mammalia (p. 62)—Its Birds
(p. 64)—Table of the Resident Land
Birds of the Antilles (p. 68)—Reptiles
(p. 72)—Insects (p. 73)—Land Shells
(p. 75)—Past History of the Antilles
(p. 78)—Summary of the Past History
of the Neotropical Region (p. 80)—
Table I. Families of Animals
inhabiting the Neotropical Region (p.
85)—Table II. Genera of Terrestrial
Mammalia and Birds of the
Neotropical Region (p. 91)

CHAPTER XV.
THE NEARCTIC REGION.
114-153
Zoological Characteristics of the
Nearctic Region (p. 115)—List of
Typical Nearctic Genera of Land
Birds (p. 118)—Summary of Nearctic
Vertebrata (p. 120)—Insects (p. 122)
—Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca
(p. 124)—The Californian Sub-region
(p. 127)—The Rocky Mountain Sub-
region (p. 129)—The Alleghany Sub-
region (p. 131)—The Bermudas (p.
134)—The Canadian Sub-region (p.
135)—Greenland (p. 138)—Table I.
Families of Animals inhabiting the
Nearctic Region (p. 140)—Table II.

Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia and
Birds of the Nearctic Region (p. 145)

CHAPTER XVI.
SUMMARY OF THE PAST CHANGES AND
GENERAL RELATIONS OF THE SEVERAL
REGIONS

PART IV.

GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY: A
SYSTEMATIC SKETCH OF THE
CHIEF FAMILIES OF LAND
ANIMALS IN THEIR
GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS.

Introduction 167-169

CHAPTER XVII.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND
GENERA OF MAMMALIA.
170-254
Primates (p. 170)—General Remarks on
the Distribution of Primates (p. 179)
—Chiroptera (p. 181)—Remarks on
the Distribution of Chiroptera (p.
185)—Insectivora (p. 186)—General
Remarks on the Distribution of
Insectivora (p. 191)—Carnivora (p.
192)—General Remarks on the
Distribution of the Carnivora (p. 204)
—Cetacea (p. 207)—Sirenia (p. 210)
—Ungulata (p. 211)—General
Remarks on the Distribution of the
Ungulata (p. 226)—Proboscidea (p.

227)—Hyracoidea (p. 228)—
Rodentia (p. 229)—General Remarks
on the Distribution of the Rodentia (p.
243)—Edentata (p. 244)—General
Remarks on the Distribution of the
Edentata (p. 247)—Marsupialia (p.
248)—General Remarks on the
Distribution of Marsupialia (p. 253)
—Monotremata (p. 253)

CHAPTER XVII.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND
GENERA OF BIRDS.
255-371
Passeres (p. 255)—General Remarks on
the Distribution of the Passeres (p.
299)—Picariæ (p. 302)—General
Remarks on the Distribution of the
Picariæ (p. 322)—Psittaci (p. 324)—
General Remarks on the Distribution
of the Psittaci (p. 329)—Columbæ (p.
331)—General Remarks on the
Distribution of the Columbæ (p. 335)
—Gallinæ (p. 337)—General
Remarks on the Distribution of
Gallinæ (p. 344)—Opisthocomi (p.
345)—Accipitres (p. 345)—General
Remarks on the Distribution of the
Accipitres (p. 351)—Grallæ (p. 351)
—General Remarks on the
Distribution of the Grallæ (p. 362)—
Anseres (p. 363)—General Remarks
on the Distribution of the Anseres (p.
367)—Struthiones (p. 368)—
Struthious Birds recently Extinct (p.
369)—General Remarks on the

Distribution of the Struthiones (p.
370)

CHAPTER XIX.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND
GENERA OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA.

Ophidia (p. 372)—General Remarks on
the Distribution of Ophidia (p. 386)—
Lacertilia (p. 388)—General Remarks
on the Distribution of Lacertilia (p.
403)—Rhyncocephalina (p. 405)—
Crocodilia (p. 405)—General
Remarks on the Distribution of
Crocodilia (p. 406)—Chelonia (p.
407)—Remarks on the Distribution of
Chelonia (p. 410)—Amphibia,
Pseudophidia (p. 411)—Urodela (p.
411)—Anura (p. 414)—General
Remarks on the Distribution of
Amphibia (p. 422) 372-423

CHAPTER XX.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES OF
FISHES, WITH THE RANGE OF SUCH
GENERA AS INHABIT FRESH WATER.
424-467
Acanthopterygii (p. 424)—-
Acanthopterygii Pharyngognathi (p.
437)—Anacanthini (p. 439)—
Physostomi (p. 441)—Lophobranchii
(p. 456)—Plectognathi (p. 457)—
Sirenoidei (p. 458)—Ganoidei (p.
458)—Chondropterygii (p. 460)—
Cyclostomata (p. 463)—Leptocardii

(p. 464)—Remarks on the
Distribution of Fishes (p. 464)

CHAPTER XXI.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME OF THE MORE
IMPORTANT FAMILIES AND GENERA OF
INSECTS.

Lepidoptera (p. 470)—General Remarks
on the Distribution of the Diurnal
Lepidoptera and Sphingidea (p. 483)
—Coleoptera (p. 486)—Cicindelidæ
(p. 486)—Carabidæ (p. 488)—
Lucanidæ (p. 492)—Cetoniidæ (p.
494)—Buprestidæ (p. 495)—
Longicornia (p. 498)—General
Observations on the Distribution of
Coleoptera (p. 502) 468-503

CHAPTER XXII.
AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL
DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA.

Cephalopoda (p. 505)—Gasteropoda (p.
507)—Pulmonifera (p. 512)—
General Observations on the
Distribution of Land Mollusca (p.
522)—Pteropoda (p. 531)—
Brachiopoda (p. 532)—Conchifera (p.
533)—General Remarks on the
Distribution of Marine Mollusca (p.
537) 504-539

CHAPTER XXIII.

SUMMARY OF THE DISTRIBUTION AND
LINES OF MIGRATION OF THE SEVERAL
CLASSES OF ANIMALS.

Mammalia (p. 540)—Lines of Migration
of the Mammalia (p. 544)—Birds (p.
545)—Reptiles (p. 547)—Amphibia
(p. 548)—Fresh-water Fishes (p. 549)
—Insects (p. 550)—Terrestrial
Mollusca (p. 551)—Conclusion (p.
552) 540-553

General Index 557

MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. II.

To face
page

1. Map of the Neotropical Region 3

Plate XIV. A Brazilian Forest with Characteristic 24
2. Mammalia

Plate XV. A Scene on the Upper Amazon, with some 28
3. Characteristic Birds

Plate XVI. The Chilian Andes, with Characteristic 40
4. Animals

Plate XVII. A Scene in Cuba, with Characteristic 67
5. Animals

6. Map of the Nearctic Region 115

Plate XVIII. Scene in California with some 128
7. Characteristic Birds

Plate XIX. The North American Prairies with 130
8. Characteristic Mammalia

Plate XX. A Canadian Forest with Characteristic 136
9. Mammalia

ERRATA IN VOL. II.

As in Vol. I. mis-spellings are not given here, being mostly corrected in the
Index.

Page 111, No. 642, for 1 read 2.
" 111, No. 643, for 15 read 9.
" 267, line 7, add Borneo.
" 276, line 10, for 16 Genera read 11 Genera.
" " 8 lines from foot, for Drepanornis read Neodrepanis.
" 291, 5 lines from foot, for Sayornis read Empidias.

THE

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
OF ANIMALS.

PART III. (continued.)

ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY:

A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS AND SUB-
REGIONS, WITH THE INDICATIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS.

CHAPTER XIV.

THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

This region, comprehending not only South America but Tropical North
America and the Antilles, may be compared as to extent with the Ethiopian
region; but it is distinguished from all the other great zoological divisions of
the globe, by the small proportion of its surface occupied by deserts, by the
large proportion of its lowlands, and by the altogether unequalled extent and
luxuriance of its tropical forests. It further possesses a grand mountain
range, rivalling the Himalayas in altitude and far surpassing them in extent,
and which, being wholly situated within the region and running through
eighty degrees of latitude, offers a variety of conditions and an extent of
mountain slopes, of lofty plateaus and of deep valleys, which no other
tropical region can approach. It has a further advantage in a southward
prolongation far into the temperate zone, equivalent to a still greater
extension of its lofty plateaus; and this has, no doubt, aided the
development of the peculiar alpine forms of life which abound in the
southern Andes. The climate of this region is exceptionally favourable.
Owing to the lofty mountain range situated along its western margin, the
moisture-laden trade winds from the Atlantic have free access to the
interior. A sufficient proportion of this moisture reaches the higher slopes of
the Andes, where its condensation gives rise to innumerable streams, which
cut deep ravines and carry down such an amount of sediment, that they
have formed the vast plains of the Amazon, of Paraguay, and of the
Orinooko out of what were once, no doubt, arms of the sea, separating the
large islands of Guiana, Brazil, and the Andes. From these concurrent
favourable conditions, there has resulted that inexhaustible variety of
generic and specific forms with a somewhat limited range of family and
ordinal types, which characterise neotropical zoology to a degree nowhere
else to be met with.

Together with this variety and richness, there is a remarkable uniformity of
animal life over all the tropical continental portions of the region, so that its
division into sub-regions is a matter of some difficulty. There is, however,
no doubt about separating the West Indian islands as forming a well-marked
subdivision; characterised, not only by that poverty of forms which is a

general feature of ancient insular groups, but also by a number of peculiar
generic types, some of which are quite foreign to the remainder of the
region. We must exclude, however, the islands of Trinidad, Tobago, and a
few other small islands near the coast, which zoologically form a part of the
main land. Again, the South Temperate portion of the continent, together
with the high plateaus of the Andes to near the equator, form a well-marked
subdivision, characterised by a peculiar fauna, very distinct both positively
and negatively from that of the tropical lowland districts. The rest of
Tropical South America is so homogeneous in its forms of life that it cannot
be conveniently subdivided for the purposes of a work like the present.
There are, no doubt, considerable differences in various parts of its vast
area, due partly to its having been once separated into three or more islands,
in part to existing diversities of physical conditions; and more exact
knowledge may enable us to form several provinces or perhaps additional
sub-regions. A large proportion of the genera, however, when sufficiently
numerous in species, range over almost the whole extent of this sub-region
wherever the conditions are favourable. Even the Andes do not seem to
form such a barrier as has been supposed. North of the equator, where its
western slopes are moist and forest-clad, most of the genera are found on
both sides. To the south of this line its western valleys are arid and its lower
plains almost deserts; and thus the absence of a number of groups to which
verdant forests are essential, can be traced to the unsuitable conditions
rather than to the existence of the mountain barrier. All Tropical South
America, therefore, is here considered to form but one sub-region.

The portion of North America that lies within the tropics, closely resembles
the last sub-region in general zoological features. It possesses hardly any
positive distinctions; but there are several of a negative character, many
important groups being wholly confined to South America. On the other
hand many genera range into Mexico and Guatemala from the north, which
never reach South America; so that it is convenient to separate this district
as a sub-region, which forms, to some extent, a transition to the Nearctic
region.

General Zoological Features of the Neotropical Region.—Richness
combined with isolation is the predominant feature of Neotropical zoology,
and no other region can approach it in the number of its peculiar family and

generic types. It has eight families of Mammalia absolutely confined to it,
besides several others which are rare elsewhere. These consist of two
families of monkeys, Cebidæ and Hapalidæ, both abounding in genera and
species; the Phyllostomidæ, or blood-sucking bats; Chinchillidæ and
Caviidæ among rodents; besides the greater part of the Octodontidæ,
Echimyidæ and Cercolabidæ. Among edentata, it has Bradypodidæ, or
sloths, Dasypodidæ, or armadillos, and Myrmecophagidæ, or anteaters,
constituting nearly the entire order; while Procyonidæ, belonging to the
carnivora, and Didelphyidæ, a family of marsupials, only extend into the
Nearctic region. It has also many peculiar groups of carnivora and of
Muridæ, making a total of full a hundred genera confined to the region.
Hardly less remarkable is the absence of many wide-spread groups. With
the exception of one genus in the West Indian islands and a Sorex which
reaches Guatemala and Costa Rica, the Insectivora are wholly wanting; as
is also the extensive and wide-spread family of the Viverridæ. It has no
oxen or sheep, and indeed no form of ruminant except deer and llamas;
neither do its vast forests and grassy plains support a single form of non-
ruminant ungulate, except the tapir and the peccary.

Birds.—In birds, the Neotropical region is even richer and more isolated. It
possesses no less than 23 families wholly confined within its limits, with 7
others which only extend into the Nearctic region. The names of the
peculiar families are: Cærebidæ, or sugar-birds; Phytotomidæ, or plant-
cutters; Pipridæ, or manakins; Cotingidæ, or chatterers; Formicariidæ, or
ant-thrushes; Dendrocolaptidæ, or tree-creepers; Pteroptochidæ;
Rhamphastidæ, or toucans; Bucconidæ, or puff-birds; Galbulidæ, or
jacamas; Todidæ, or todies; Momotidæ, or motmots; Steatornithidæ, the
guacharo, or oil-bird; Cracidæ, or curassows; Tinamidæ, or tinamous;
Opisthocomidæ, the hoazin; Thinocoridæ; Cariamidæ; Aramidæ;
Psophiidæ, or trumpeters; Eurypygidæ, or sun-bitterns; and Palamedeidæ,
or horned-screamers. The seven which it possesses in common with North
America are: Vireonidæ, or greenlets; Mniotiltidæ, or wood-warblers;
Tanagridæ, or tanagers; Icteridæ, or hang-nests; Tyrannidæ, or tyrant-
shrikes; Trochilidæ, or humming-birds; and Conuridæ, or macaws. Most of
these families abound in genera and species, and many are of immense
extent; such as Trochilidæ, with 115 genera, and nearly 400 species;
Tyrannidæ, with more than 60 genera and nearly 300 species; Tanagridæ,

with 43 genera and 300 species; Dendrocolaptidæ with 43 genera and more
than 200 species; and many other very large groups. There are nearly 600
genera peculiar to the Neotropical region; but in using this number as a
basis of comparison with other regions we must remember, that owing to
several ornithologists having made the birds of South America a special
study, they have perhaps been more minutely subdivided than in the case of
other entire tropical regions.

Distinctive Characters of Neotropical Mammalia.—It is important also to
consider the kind and amount of difference between the various animal
forms of this region and of the Old World. To begin with the Quadrumana,
all the larger American monkeys (Cebidæ) differ from every Old World
group in the possession of an additional molar tooth in each jaw; and it is in
this group alone that the tail is developed into a prehensile organ of
wonderful power, adapting the animals to a purely arboreal life. Four of the
genera, comprising more than half the species, have the prehensile tail, the
remainder having this organ either short, or lax as in the Old World
monkeys. Other differences from Old World apes, are the possession of a
broad nasal septum, and a less opposable thumb; and the absence of cheek-
pouches, ischial callosities, and a bony ear-tube. The Hapalidæ, or
marmozets, agree with the Cebidæ in all these characters, but have others in
addition which still more widely separate them from the Simiidæ; such as
an additional premolar tooth, acute claws, and thumb not at all opposable;
so that the whole group of American monkeys are radically different from
the remainder of the order.

The Procyonidæ are a distinct family of Carnivora, which make up for the
scarcity of Mustelidæ in South America. The Suidæ are represented by the
very distinct genus Dicotyles (Peccary) forming a separate sub-family, and
differing from all other genera in their dentition, the absence of tail and of
one of the toes of the hind feet, the possession of a dorsal gland, and only
two mammæ. The rodents are represented by the Chinchillidæ and Caviidæ,
the latter comprising the largest animals in the order. The Edentata are
almost wholly confined to this region; and the three families of the sloths
(Bradypodidæ), armadillos (Dasypodidæ), and ant-eaters
(Myrmecophagidæ), are widely separated in structure from any Old World
animals. Lastly, we have the opossums (Didelphyidæ), a family of

marsupials, but having no close affinity to any of the numerous Australian
forms of that order. We have already arrived at the conclusion that the
presence of marsupials in South America is not due to any direct
transference from Australia, but that their introduction is comparatively
recent, and that they came from the Old World by way of North America
(vol. i., p. 155). But the numerous and deep-seated peculiarities of many
other of its mammalia, would indicate a very remote origin; and a long-
continued isolation of South America from the rest of the world is required,
in order to account for the preservation and development of so many
distinct groups of comparatively low-type quadrupeds.

Distinctive Characters of Neotropical Birds.—The birds which are
especially characteristic of this region, present similar distinctive features.
In the enormous group of Passerine birds which, though comprising nearly
three-fourths of the entire class, yet presents hardly any well-marked
differences of structure by which it can be subdivided—the families
confined to America are, for the most part, more closely related to each
other than to the Old World groups. The ten families forming the group of
"Formicaroid Passeres," in our arrangement (vol. i., p. 94), are characterised
by the absence of singing muscles in the larynx, and also by an unusual
development of the first primary quill; and seven of this series of families
(which are considered to be less perfectly developed than the great mass of
Old World passeres) are exclusively American, the three belonging to the
Eastern hemisphere being of small extent. Another group of ten families—
our "Tanagroid Passeres," are characterised by the abortion or very
rudimentary condition of the first quill; and of these, five are exclusively
American, and have numerous genera and species, while only two are non-
American, and these are of small extent. On the other hand the "Turdoid
Passeres," consisting of 23 families and comprising all the true "singing-
birds," is poorly represented in America; no family being exclusively
Neotropical, and only three being at all fully represented in South America,
though they comprise the great mass of the Old World passeres. These
peculiarities, which group together whole series of families of American
birds, point to early separation and long isolation, no less surely than the
more remarkable structural divergences presented by the Neotropical
mammalia.

In the Picariæ, we have first, the toucans (Rhamphastidæ); an extraordinary
and beautiful family, whose enormous gaily-coloured bills and long
feathered tongues, separate them widely from all other birds. The Galbulidæ
or jacamars, the motmots (Momotidæ), and the curious little todies
(Todidæ) of the Antilles, are also isolated groups. But most remarkable of
all is the wonderful family of the humming-birds, which ranges over all
America from Tierra del Fuego to Sitka, and from the level plains of the
Amazon to above the snow-line on the Andes; which abounds both in
genera, species, and individuals, and is yet strictly confined to this continent
alone! How vast must have been the time required to develop those
beautiful and highly specialized forms out of some ancestral swift-like type;
how complete and long continued the isolation of their birthplace to have
allowed of their modification and adaptation to such divergent climates and
conditions, yet never to have permitted them to establish themselves in the
other continents. No naturalist can study in detail this single family of birds,
without being profoundly impressed with the vast antiquity of the South
American continent, its long isolation from the rest of the land surface of
the globe, and the persistence through countless ages of all the conditions
requisite for the development and increase of varied forms of animal life.

Passing on to the parrot tribe, we find the peculiar family of the Conuridæ,
of which the macaws are the highest development, very largely represented.
It is in the gallinaceous birds however that we again meet with wholly
isolated groups. The Cracidæ, including the curassows and guans, have no
immediate relations with any of the Old World families. Professor Huxley
considers them to approach nearest to (though still very remote from) the
Australian megapodes; and here, as in the case of the marsupials, we
probably have divergent modifications of an ancient type once widely
distributed, not a direct communication between the southern continents.
The Tinamidæ or tinamous, point to a still more remote antiquity, since
their nearest allies are believed to be the Struthiones or ostrich tribe, of
which a few representatives are scattered widely over the globe. The hoazin
of Guiana (Opisthocomus) is another isolated form, not only the type of a
family, but perhaps of an extinct order of birds. Passing on to the waders,
we have a number of peculiar family types, all indicative of antiquity and
isolation. The Cariama of the plains of Brazil, a bird somewhat
intermediate between a bustard and a hawk, is one of these; the elegant

Psophia or trumpeter of the Amazonian forests; the beautiful little sun-
bittern of the river banks (Eurypyga); and the horned screamers
(Palamedea), all form distinct and isolated families of birds, to which the
Old World offers nothing directly comparable.

Reptiles.—The Neotropical region is very rich in varied forms of reptile
life, and the species are very abundant. It has six altogether peculiar
families, and several others which only range into the Nearctic region, as
well as a very large number of peculiar or characteristic genera. As the
orders of reptiles differ considerably in their distributional features, they
must be considered separately.

The snakes (Ophidia) differ from all other reptiles, and from most other
orders of vertebrates, in the wide average distribution of the families; so
that such an isolated region as the Neotropical possesses no peculiar family,
nor even one confined to the American continent. The families of most
restricted range are—the Scytalidæ, only found elsewhere in the Philippine
islands; the Amblycephalidæ, common to the Oriental and Neotropical
regions; and the Tortricidæ, most abundant in the Oriental region, but found
also in the Austro-Malay islands and Tropical South America. Sixteen of the
families of snakes occur in the region, the Colubridæ, Amblycephalidæ, and
Pythonidæ, being those which are best represented by peculiar forms. There
are 25 peculiar or characteristic genera, the most important being Dromicus
(Colubridæ); Boa, Epicrates, and Ungalia (Pythonidæ); Elaps (Elapidæ);
and Craspedocephalus (Crotalidæ).

The lizards (Lacertilia) are generally more restricted in their range; hence
we find that out of 15 families which inhabit the region, 5 are altogether
peculiar, and 4 more extend only to N. America. The peculiar families are
Helodermidæ, Anadiadæ, Chirocolidæ, Iphisiadæ, and Cercosauridæ; but it
must be noted that these all possess but a single genus each, and only two of
them (Chirocolidæ and Cercosauridæ) have more than a single species. The
families which range over both South and North America are Chirotidæ,
Chalcidæ, Teidæ, and Iguanidæ; the first and second are of small extent, but
the other two are very large groups, the Teidæ possessing 12 genera and
near 80 species; the Iguanidæ 40 genera and near 150 species; the greater

part of which are Neotropical. There are more than 50 peculiar or highly
characteristic genera of lizards, about 40 of which belong to the Teidæ and
Iguanidæ, which thus especially characterize the region. The most
important and characteristic genera are the following; Ameiva (Teidæ);
Gymnopthalmus (Gymnopthalmidæ); Celestus and Diploglossus
(Scincidæ); Sphærodactylus (Geckotidæ); Liocephalus, Liolæmus,
Proctotretus, and many smaller genera (Iguanidæ). The three extensive Old
World families Varanidæ, Lacertidæ, and Agamidæ, are absent from the
entire American continent.

In the order Crocodilia, America has the peculiar family of the alligators
(Alligatoridæ), as well as several species of true crocodiles (Crocodilidæ).
The Chelonia (tortoises) are represented by the families Testudinidæ and
Chelydidæ, both of wide range; but there are six peculiar genera,—
Dermatemys and Staurotypus belonging to the former family,—
Peltocephalus, Podocnemis, Hydromedusa, and Chelys, to the latter. Some
of the Amazon river-turtles of the genus Podocnemys rival in size the
largest species of true marine turtles (Cheloniidæ), and are equally good for
food.

Amphibia.—The Neotropical region possesses representatives of sixteen
families of Amphibia of which four are peculiar; all belonging to Anoura or
tail-less Batrachians. The Cæciliadæ or snake-like amphibia, are
represented by two peculiar genera, Siphonopsis and Rhinatrema. Tailed
Batrachians are almost unknown, only a few species of Spelerpes
(Salamandridæ) entering Central America, and one extending as far south as
the Andes of Bogota in South America. Tail-less Batrachians on the other
hand, are abundant; there being 14 families represented, of which 4,—
Rhinophryndæ, Hylaplesidæ, Plectromantidæ, and Pipidæ are peculiar.
None of these families contain more than a single genus, and only the
second more than a single species; so that it is not these which give a
character to the South American Amphibia-fauna. The most important and
best represented families are, Ranidæ (true frogs), with eleven genera and
more than 50 species; Polypedatidæ (tree-frogs) with seven genera and
about 40 species; Hylidæ (tree-frogs) with eight genera and nearly 30
species; Engystomidæ (toads) (5 genera), Bombinatoridæ (frogs), (4
genera), Phryniscidæ and Bufonidæ (toads), (each with 2 genera), are also

fairly represented. All these families are widely distributed, but the
Neotropical genera are, in almost every case, peculiar.

Fresh-water fishes.—The great rivers of Tropical America abound in fish of
many strange forms and peculiar types. Three families, and three sub-family
groups are peculiar, while the number of peculiar genera is about 120. The
peculiar families are Polycentridæ, with two genera; Gymnotidæ, a family
which includes the electric eels, (5 genera); and Trygonidæ, the rays, which
are everywhere marine except in the great rivers of South America, where
many species are found, belonging to two genera. Of the extensive family
Siluridæ, three sub-families Siluridæ anomalopteræ, S. olisthopteræ, and S.
branchiolæ, are confined to this region. The larger and more important of
the peculiar genera are the following: Percilia, inhabiting Chilian and
Percichthys South Temperate rivers, belong to the Perch family (Percidæ);
Acharnes, found only in Guiana, belongs to the Nandidæ, a family of wide
range in the tropics; the Chromidæ, a family of exclusively fresh-water
fishes found in the tropics of the Ethiopian, Oriental and Neotropical
regions, are here represented by 15 genera, the more important being Acara
(17 sp.), Heros (26 sp.), Crenicichla (9 sp.), Satanoperca (7 sp.). Many of
these fishes are beautifully marked and coloured. The Siluridæ proteropteræ
are represented by 14 genera, of which Pimelodus (42 sp.), and Platystoma
(11 sp.), are the most important; the Siluridæ stenobranchiæ by 11 genera,
the chief being Doras (13 sp.), Auchenipterus (9 sp.), and Oxydoras (7 sp.).
The Siluridæ proteropodes are represented by 16 genera, many of them
being among the most singular of fresh-water fishes, clothed in coats of
mail, and armed with hooks and serrated spines. The following are the most
important,—Chætostomus (25 sp.), Loricaria (17 sp.), Plecostonus (15 sp.)
and Callichthys (11 sp.). The Characinidæ are divided between Tropical
America and Tropical Africa, the former possessing about 40 genera and
200 species. The Haplochitonidæ are confined to South America and
Australia; the American genus being Haplochiton. The Cyprinodontidæ are
represented by 18 genera, the most important being, Pæcilia (16 sp.),
Girardinus (10 sp.), and Gambusia (8 sp.) The Osteoglossidæ, found in
Australian and African rivers, are represented in South America by the
peculiar Arapaima, the "pirarucu" of the Amazon. The ancient Sirenoidei,
also found in Australia and Africa, have the Lepidosiren as their American
representative. Lastly, Ellipisurus is a genus of rays peculiar to the fresh

waters of South America. We may expect these numbers to be largely
increased and many new genera to be added, when the extensive collections
made by Agassiz in Brazil are described.

Summary of Neotropical Vertebrates.—Summarizing the preceding facts,
we find that the Neotropical region possesses no less than 45 families and
more than 900 genera of Vertebrata which are altogether peculiar to it;
while it has representatives of 168 families out of a total of 330, showing
that 162 families are altogether absent. It has also representatives of 131
genera of Mammalia of which 103 are peculiar to it, a proportion of 4⁄5;
while of 683 genera of land-birds no less than 576 are peculiar, being
almost exactly 5⁄6 of the whole. These numbers and proportions are far
higher than in the case of any other region.

Insects.

The Neotropical region is so excessively rich in insect life, it so abounds in
peculiar groups, in forms of exquisite beauty, and in an endless profusion of
species, that no adequate idea of this branch of its fauna can be conveyed by
the mere enumeration of peculiar and characteristic groups, to which we are
here compelled to limit ourselves. Our facts and figures will, however,
furnish data for comparison; and will thus enable those who have some
knowledge of the entomology of any other country, to form a better notion
of the vast wealth of insect life in this region, than a more general and
picturesque description could afford them.

Lepidoptera.—The Butterflies of South America surpass those of all other
regions in numbers, variety and beauty; and we find here, not only more
peculiar genera and families than elsewhere, but, what is very remarkable, a
fuller representation of the whole series of families. Out of the 16 families
of butterflies in all parts of the world, 13 are found here, and 3 of these are
wholly peculiar—Brassolidæ, Heliconidæ, and Eurygonidæ, with a fourth,
Erycinidæ, which only extends into the Nearctic region; so that there are 4
families peculiar to America. These four families comprise 68 genera and
more than 800 species; alone constituting a very important feature in the
entomology of the region. But in almost all the other families there are

numbers of peculiar genera, amounting in all to about 200, or not far short
of half the total number of genera in the world—(431). We must briefly
notice some of the peculiarities of the several families, as represented in this
region. The Danaidæ consist of 15 genera, all peculiar, and differing widely
from the generally sombre-tinted forms of the rest of the world. The
delicate transparent-winged Ithomias of which 160 species are described,
are the most remarkable. Melinæa, Napeogenes, Ceratina and Dircenna are
more gaily coloured, and are among the chief ornaments of the forests. The
Satyridæ are represented by 25 peculiar genera, many of great beauty; the
most remarkable and elegant being the genus Hætera and its allies, whose
transparent wings are delicately marked with patches of orange, pink, or
violet. The genus Morpho is perhaps the grandest development of the
butterfly type, being of immense size and adorned with the most brilliant
azure tints, which in some species attain a splendour of metallic lustre
unsurpassed in nature. The Brassolidæ are even larger, but are crepuscular
insects, with rich though sober colouring. The true Heliconii are
magnificent insects, most elegantly marked with brilliant and strongly
contrasted tints. The Nymphalidæ are represented by such a variety of
gorgeous insects that it is difficult to select examples. Prominent are the
genera Catagramma and Callithea, whose exquisite colours and
symmetrical markings are unique and indescribable; and these are in some
cases rivalled by Agrias and Prepona, which reproduce their style of
coloration although not closely allied to them. The Erycinidæ, consisting of
59 genera and 560 species, comprise the most varied and beautiful of small
butterflies; and it would be useless to attempt to indicate the unimaginable
combinations of form and colour they present. It must be sufficient to say
that nothing elsewhere on the globe at all resembles them. In Lycænidæ the
world-wide genus Thecla is wonderfully developed, and the South
American species not only surpass all others in size and beauty, but some of
them are so gorgeous on the under surface of their wings, as to exceed
almost all the combinations of metallic tints we meet with in nature. The
last family, Hesperidæ, is also wonderfully developed here, the species
being excessively numerous, while some of them redeem the character of
this generally sober family, by their rich and elegant coloration.

In the only other group of Lepidoptera we can here notice, the Sphingina,
the Neotropical region possesses some peculiar forms. The magnificent

diurnal butterfly-like moths, Urania, are the most remarkable; and they are
rendered more interesting by the occurrence of a species closely resembling
them in Madagascar. Another family of day-flying moths, the Castniidæ, is
almost equally divided between the Neotropical and Australian regions,
although the genera are more numerous in the latter. The American Castnias
are large, thick-bodied insects, with a coarse scaly surface and rich dull
colours; differing widely from the glossy and gaily coloured Agaristas,
which are typical of the family in the East.

Coleoptera.—This is so vast a subject that, as in the case of the regions
already treated, we must confine our attention to a few of the more
important and best known families as representatives of the entire order.

Cicindelidæ.—We find here examples of 15 out of the 35 genera of these
insects; and 10 of these genera are peculiar. The most important are
Oxychila (11 sp.), Hiresia (14 sp.), and Ctenostoma (26 sp.). Odontochila
(57 sp.) is the most abundant and characteristic of all, but is not wholly
peculiar, there being a species in the Malay archipelago. Tetracha, another
large genus, has species in Australia and a few in North America and
Europe. The small genus Peridexia is divided between Brazil and
Madagascar,—a somewhat similar distribution to that of Urania noticed
above. One genus, Agrius, is confined to the southern extremity of the
continent.

Carabidæ.—Besides a considerable number of cosmopolitan or wide-spread
genera, this family is represented by more than 100 genera which are
peculiar to the Neotropical region. The most important of these are Agra
(150 sp.), Ardistonus (44 sp.), Schizogenius (25 sp.), Pelecium (24 sp.),
Calophena (22 sp.), Aspidoglossa (21 sp.), and Lia, Camptodonotus,
Stenocrepis, and Lachnophorus, with each more than 12 species. These are
all tropical; but there are also a number of genera (26) peculiar to Chili and
South Temperate America. The most important of these are Antarctia (29
sp,), all except two or three confined to South Temperate America;
Scelodontis (10 sp.), mostly Chilian; Feronomorpha (6 sp.) all Chilian; and
Tropidopterus (4 sp.), all Chilian. Helluomorpha (18 sp.), is confined to
North and South America; Galerita, Callida, and Tetragonoderus, are large

genera which are chiefly South American but with a few species scattered
over the other tropical regions, Casnonia and Lebia are cosmopolite, but
most abundant in South America. Pachyteles is mostly South American but
with a few species in West Africa; while Lobodonotus has one species in
South America and two in Africa.

Lucanidæ.—The Neotropical species of this family almost all belong to
peculiar genera. Those common to other regions are Syndesus, confined to
Tropical South America and Australia, and Platycerus which is Palæarctic
and Nearctic, with one species in Brazil. The most remarkable genus is
undoubtedly Chiasognathus, confined to Chili. These are large insects of
metallic green colours, and armed with enormous serrated mandibles. The
allied genera, Pholidotus and Sphenognathus, inhabit Tropical South
America. Streptocerus confined to Chili, is interesting, as being allied to the
Australian Lamprima. The other genera present no remarkable features; but
Sclerognathus and Leptinoptera are the most extensive.

Cetoniidæ.—These magnificent insects are but poorly represented in
America; the species being mostly of sombre colours. There are 14 genera,
12 of which are peculiar. The most extensive genus is Gymnetis, which,
with its allies Cotinis and Allorhina, form a group which comprehends two-
thirds of the Neotropical species of the family. The only other genera of
importance are, Inca (7 sp.), remarkable for their large size, and being the
only American group in which horns are developed on the head; and
Trigonopeltastes (6 sp.), allied to the European Trichius. The non-peculiar
genera are, Stethodesma, of which half the species are African and half
tropical American; and Euphoria, confined to America both North and
South.

Buprestidæ.—In this fine group the Neotropical region is tolerably rich,
having examples of 39 genera, 18 of which are peculiar to it. Of these, the
most extensive are Conognatha and Halecia, which have a wide range over
most parts of the region; and Dactylozodes, confined to the south temperate
zone. Of important genera which range beyond the region, Dicerca is
mainly Nearctic and Palæarctic; Cinyra has a species in North America and
one in Australia; Curis is divided between Chili and Australia; the

Australian genus Stigmodera has a species in Chili; Polycesta has a species
in Madagascar, two in the Mediterranean region, and a few in North
America; Acherusia is divided between Australia and Brazil; Ptosima has
one species in south temperate America, the rest widely scattered from
North America to the Philippines; Actenodes has a single species in North
America and another in West Africa; Colobogaster has two in West Africa,
one in Java and one in the Moluccas. The relations of South America and
Australia as indicated by these insects has already been sufficiently noticed
under the latter region.

Longicornia.—The Neotropical Longicorn Coleoptera are overwhelming in
their numbers and variety, their singularity and their beauty. In the recent
Catalogue of Gemminger and Harold, it is credited with 516 genera, 489 of
which are peculiar to it; while it has only 5 genera in common (exclusively)
with the Nearctic, and 4 (in the same way) with the Australian region. Only
the more important genera can be here referred to, under the three great
families into which these insects are divided.

The Prionidæ are excessively numerous, being grouped in 64 genera, more
than double the number possessed by any other region; and 61 of these are
peculiar. The three, common to other regions, are, Parandra and Mallodon,
which are widely distributed; and Ergates, found also in California and
Europe. The most remarkable genera are, the magnificently-coloured
Psalidognathus and Pyrodes; the large and strangely marked Macrodontia;
and Titanus, the largest insect of the entire family.

Of the Cerambycidæ there are 233 genera, exceeding by one-half, the
number in any other region; and 225 of these are peculiar. Only 2 are
common to the Neotropical and Nearctic regions exclusively, and 3 to the
Neotropical and Australian. The most extensive genera are the elegant
Ibidion (80 sp.); the richly-coloured Chrysoprasis (47 sp.); the prettily-
marked Trachyderes (53 sp.); with Odontocera (25 sp.); Criodon (22 sp.);
and a host of others of less extent, but often of surpassing interest and
beauty. The noteworthy genera of wide range are, Oeme and Cyrtomerus,
which have each a species in West Africa, and Hammatocerus, which has
one in Australia.

The Lamiidæ have 219 genera, and this is the only tropical region in which
they do not exceed the Cerambycidæ. This number is almost exactly the
same as that of the Oriental genera, but here there are more peculiar groups,
203 against 160 in the other region. The most extensive genera are
Hemilophus (80 sp.), Colobothea (70 sp.), Acanthoderes (56 sp.),
Oncoderes (48 sp.), Lepturgus (40 sp.), Hypsioma (32 sp.), and Tæniotes
(20 sp.). Macropus longimanus, commonly called the harlequin beetle, is
one of the largest and most singularly-marked insects in the whole family.
Leptostylus has a single species in New Zealand; Acanthoderes has one
species in Europe, W. Africa, and Australia, respectively; Spalacopsis has a
species in W. Africa; Pachypeza is common to S. America and the
Philippines; Mesosa is Oriental and Palæarctic, but has one species on the
Amazon; Apomecyna ranges through the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere,
but has two species in S. America; Acanthocinus has one species in
Tasmania, and the rest in South America, North America, and Europe; Phæa
is wholly Neotropical, except two species in the Philippine Islands.

General Conclusions as to the Neotropical Insect-fauna.—Looking at the
insects of the Neotropical region as a whole, we are struck with the vast
amount of specialty they present; and, considering how many causes there
are which must lead to the dispersal of insects, the number of its groups
which are scattered over the globe is not nearly so great as we might expect.
This points to a long period of isolation, during which the various forms of
life have acted and reacted on each other, leading to such a complex yet
harmoniously-balanced result as to defy the competition of the chance
immigrants that from time to time must have arrived. This is quite in
accordance with the very high antiquity we have shown most insect-forms
to possess; and it is no doubt owing to this antiquity, that such a complete
diversity of generic forms has been here brought about, without any
important deviation from the great family types which prevail over the rest
of the globe.

Land Shells.—The Neotropical region is probably the richest on the globe
in Terrestrial Mollusca, but this is owing, not to any extreme productiveness
of the equatorial parts of the continent, where almost all other forms of life
are so largely developed, but to the altogether exceptional riches of the West

India Islands. The most recent estimates show that the Antilles contain more
species of land shells than all the rest of the region, and almost exactly as
many as all continental America, north and south.

Mr. Thomas Bland, who has long studied American land shells, points out a
remarkable difference in the distribution of the Operculated and
Inoperculated groups, the former being predominant on the islands, the
latter on the continent. The Antilles possess over 600 species of Operculata,
to about 150 on the whole American continent, the genera being as 22 to 14.
Of Inoperculata the Antilles have 740, the Continent 1,250, the genera
being 18 and 22. The proportions of the two groups in each country are,
therefore:

West India Islands. American Continent.
Operculata Gen. 22 Sp. 608 14 151
Inoperculata " 18 " 737 22 1251

The extensive family of the Helicidæ is represented by 22 genera, of which
6 are peculiar. Spiraxis is confined to Central America and the Antilles;
Stenopus and Sagda are Antillean only; Orthalicus, Macroceramus, and
Bulimulus have a wider range, the last two extending into the southern
United States. Important and characteristic genera are, Glandina, in all the
tropical parts of the region; Cylindrella, in Central America and the
Antilles; Bulimus, containing many large and handsome species in South
America; Stenogyra, widely spread in the tropics; and Streptaxis, in
Tropical South America.

Among the Operculata, the Aciculidæ are mostly Antillean, two genera
being peculiar there, and one, Truncatella, of wide distribution, but most
abundant in the West Indian Islands. The Cyclostomidæ are represented by
15 genera, 9 being peculiar to the region, and 5 of these (belonging to the
sub-family Licinidæ) to the Antilles only. Of these peculiar genera Cistula
and Chondropoma are the most important, ranging over all the tropical parts
of the region. Other important genera are Cyclotus and Megalomastoma;
while Cyclophorus also occurs all over the region. The Helicinidæ are

mostly Neotropical, six out of the seven genera being found here, and four
are peculiar. Stoastoma, is one of the largest genera; and, with Trochatella
and Alcadia, is confined to the Antilles, while the wide-spread Helicina is
most abundant there.

The Limacidæ, or Old World slugs, are absent from the region, their place
being taken by the allied family, Oncidiadæ.

Marine Shells.—We go out of our usual course to say a few words about the
marine shells of this region, because their distribution on the two sides of
the continent is important, as an indication of the former separation of
North and South America, and the connection of the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans. It was once thought that no species of shells were common to the
two sides of the Central American Isthmus, and Dr. Mörch still holds that
opinion; but Dr. Philip Carpenter, who has paid special attention to the
subject, considers that there are at least 35 species absolutely identical,
while as many others are so close that they may be only varieties. Nearly 70
others are distinct but representative species. The genera of marine
mollusca are very largely common to the east and west coasts, more than 40
being so named in the lists published by Mr. Woodward. The West Indian
Islands being a rich shell district, produce a number of peculiar forms, and
the west coast of South America is, to some extent, peopled by Oriental and
Pacific genera of shells. On the west coast there is hardly any coral, while
on the east it is abundant, showing a difference of physical conditions that
must have greatly influenced the development of mollusca. When these
various counteracting influences are taken into consideration, the identity or
close affinity of about 140 species and 40 genera on the two sides of the
Isthmus of Panama becomes very important; and, combined with the fact of
48 species of fish (or 30 per cent. of those known) being identical on the
adjacent coasts of the two oceans (as determined by Dr. Günther), render it
probable that Central America has been partially submerged up to
comparatively recent geological times. Yet another proof of this former
union of two oceans is to be found in the fossil corals of the Antilles of the
Miocene age, which Dr. Duncan finds to be more allied to existing Pacific
forms, than to those of the Atlantic or even of the Caribbean Sea.

Neotropical Sub-regions.

In the concluding part of this work devoted to geographical zoology, the
sub-regions are arranged in the order best adapted to exhibit them in a
tabular form, and to show the affinities of the several regions; but for our
present purpose it will be best to take first in order that which is the most
important and most extensive, and which exhibits all the peculiar
characteristics of the region in their fullest development. We begin therefore
with our second division.

II. Tropical South-America, or the Brazilian Sub-region.

This extensive district may be defined as consisting of all the tropical
forest-region of South America, including all the open plains and pasture
lands, surrounded by, or intimately associated with, the forests. Its central
mass consists of the great forest-plain of the Amazons, extending from
Paranaiba on the north coast of Brazil (long. 42° W.) to Zamora, in the
province of Loja (lat. 4° S., long. 79° W.), high up in the Andes, on the
west;—a distance in a straight line of more than 2,500 English miles, along
the whole of which there is (almost certainly) one continuous virgin forest.
Its greatest extent from north to south, is from the mouths of the Orinooko
to the eastern slopes of the Andes near La Paz in Bolivia and a little north of
Sta. Cruz de la Sierra (lat. 18° S.), a distance of about 1,900 miles. Within
this area of continuous forests, are included some open "campos," or
patches of pasture lands, the most important being,—the Campos of the
Upper Rio Branco on the northern boundary of Brazil; a tract in the interior
of British Guiana; and another on the northern bank of the Amazon near its
mouth, and extending some little distance on its south bank at Santarem. On
the northern bank of the Orinooko are the Llanos, or flat open plains, partly
flooded in the rainy season; but much of the interior of Venezuela appears
to be forest country. The forest again prevails from Panama to Maracaybo,
and southwards in the Magdalena valley; and on all the western side of the
Andes to about 100 miles south of Guayaquil. On the N.E. coast of Brazil is
a tract of open country, in some parts of which (as near Ceara) rain does not
fall for years together; but south of Cape St. Roque the coast-forests of
Brazil commence, extending to lat. 30° S., clothing all the valleys and hill

sides as far inland as the higher mountain ranges, and even penetrating up
the great valleys far into the interior. To the south-west the forest country
reappears in Paraguay, and extends in patches and partially wooded country,
till it almost reaches the southern extension of the Amazonian forests. The
interior of Brazil is thus in the position of a great island-plateau, rising out
of, and surrounded by, a lowland region of ever-verdant forest. The
Brazilian sub-region comprises all this forest-country and its included open
tracts, and so far beyond it as there exists sufficient woody vegetation to
support its peculiar forms of life. It thus extends considerably beyond the
tropic in Paraguay and south Brazil; while the great desert of Chaco,
extending from 25° to 30° S., lat. between the Parana and the Andes, as well
as the high plateaus of the Andean range, with the strip of sandy desert on
the Pacific coast as far as to about 5° of south latitude, belong to south
temperate America, or the sub-region of the Andes.

Having already given a sketch, of the zoological features of the Neotropical
region as a whole, the greater part of which will apply to this sub-region,
we must here confine ourselves to an indication of the more important
groups which, on the one hand, are confined to it, and on the other are
absent; together with a notice of its special relations to other regions.

Mammalia.—Many of the most remarkable of the American monkeys are
limited to this sub-region; as Lagothrix, Pithecia, and Brachyurus, limited
to the great Amazonian forests; Eriodes to south-east Brazil; and Callithrix
to tropical South America. All the marmosets (Hapalidæ) are also confined
to this sub-region, one only being found at Panama, and perhaps extending
a little beyond it. Among other peculiar forms, are 8 genera of bats; 3
peculiar forms of wild dog; Pteronura, a genus of otters; Inia, a peculiar
form of dolphin inhabiting the upper waters of the Amazon; tapirs of the
genus Tapirus (a distinct genus being found north of Panama); 4 genera of
Muridæ; Ctenomys, a genus of Octodontidæ; the whole family of
Echimyidæ, or spiny rats, (as far as the American continent is concerned)
consisting of 8 genera and 28 species; Chætomys, a genus of Cercolabidæ;
the capybara (Hydrochœrus) the largest known rodent, belonging to the
Caviidæ; the larger ant-eaters (Myrmecophaga); sloths of the genus
Bradypus; 2 genera of armadillos (Dasypodidæ); and two peculiar forms of
the opossum family (Didelphyidæ). No group that is typically Neotropical

is absent from this sub-region, except such as are peculiar to other single
sub-regions and which will be noticed accordingly. The occurrence of a
solitary species of hare (Lepus braziliensis) in central Brazil and the Andes,
is remarkable, as it is cut off from all its allies, the genus not being known
to occur elsewhere on the continent further south than Costa Rica. The only
important external relation indicated by the Mammalia of this sub-region is
towards the Ethiopian region, 2 genera of Echimyidæ, Aulacodes and
Petromys, occurring in South and South-east Africa.

Plate IV. Characteristic Neotropical Mammalia.—Our illustration
represents a mountainous forest in Brazil, the part of South America where
the Neotropical Mammalia are perhaps best developed. The central and
most conspicuous figure is the collared ant-eater, (Tamandua tetradactyla),
one of the handsomest of the family, in its conspicuous livery of black and
white. To the left are a pair of sloths (Arctopithecus flaccidus) showing the
curious black spot on the back with which many of the species are marked,
and which looks like a hole in the trunk of a tree; but this mark seems to be
only found on the male animal. The fur of many of the sloths has a greenish
tinge, and Dr. Seemann remarked its resemblance to the Tillandsia
usneoides, or "vegetable horsehair," which clothes many of the trees in
Central America; and this probably conceals them from their enemies, the
harpy-eagles. On the right are a pair of opossums (Didelphys azaræ), one of
them swinging by its prehensile tail. Overhead in the foreground are a
group of howling monkeys (Mycetes ursinus) the largest of the American
Quadrumana, and the noisiest of monkeys. The large hollow vessel into
which the hyoid bone is transformed, and which assists in producing their
tremendous howling, is altogether unique in the animal kingdom. Below
them, in the distance, are a group of Sapajou monkeys (Cebus sp.); while
gaudy screaming macaws complete the picture of Brazilian forest life.

Birds.—A very large number of genera of birds, and some entire families,
are confined to this sub-region, as will be seen by looking over the list of
genera at the end of this chapter. We can here only notice the more
important, and summarize the results. More than 120 genera of Passeres are
thus limited, belonging to the following 12 families: Sylviidæ (1),
Troglodytidæ (2), Cœrebidæ (4), Tanagridæ (26), Fringillidæ (8), Icteridæ
(5), Pteroptochidæ (3), Dendrocolaptidæ (12), Formicariidæ (16),

Tyrannidæ (22), Cotingidæ (16), Pipridæ (10). Of the Picariæ there are 76
peculiar genera belonging to 9 families, viz., Picidæ (2), Rhamphastidæ (1),
Cuculidæ (1), Bucconidæ (2), Galbulidæ (5), Momotidæ (2), Podargidæ (1),
Caprimalgidæ (4), Trochilidæ (58). There are 3 peculiar genera of Psittaci, 8
of Gallinæ, the only genus of Opisthocomidæ, 3 of Accipitres, 1 of Rallidæ,
Psophia and Eurypyga types of distinct families, and 1 genus of Ardeidæ,
Palamedeidæ, and Anatidæ respectively. The preceding enumeration shows
how very rich this sub-region is in peculiar types of all the most
characteristic American families, such as the Tanagridæ, Tyrannidæ,
Cotingidæ, Formicariidæ, Trochilidæ, and Galbulidæ. A considerable
proportion of the genera of the Chilian and Mexican sub-regions also occur
here, so that out of about 680 genera of Neotropical land-birds more than
500 are represented in this sub-region.

Plate XIV.

A BRAZILIAN FOREST, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.

Without entering minutely into the distribution of species it is difficult to
sub-divide this extensive territory with any satisfactory result.[1] The upland
tract between the Amazon and Orinooko, which may be termed Guiana, was
evidently once an island, yet it possesses few marked distinctive features.
Brazil, which must have formed another great island, has more speciality,
but the intermediate Amazonian forests form a perfect transition between
them. The northern portion of the continent west of the Orinooko has more

character; and there are indications that this has received many forms from
Central and North America, and thus blended two faunas once more distinct
than they are now. The family of wood-warblers (Mniotiltidæ) seems to
have belonged to this more northern fauna; for out of 18 genera only 5
extend south of the equator, while 6 range from Mexico or the Antilles into
Columbia, some of these being only winter immigrants and no genus being
exclusively South American. The eastern slopes of the Andes constitute,
however, the richest and best marked province of this sub-region. At least
12 genera of tanagers (Tanagridæ) are found here only, with an immense
number of Fringillidæ,—the former confined to the forests; the latter
ranging to the upland plains. The ant-thrushes (Formicariidæ) on the other
hand seem more abundant in the lowlands, many genera being peculiar to
the Amazonian forests. The superb chatterers (Cotingidæ) also seem to have
their head-quarters in the forests of Brazil and Guiana, and to have thence
spread into the Amazonian valley. Guiana still boasts such remarkable
forms as the cardinal chatterer (Phœnicocercus), the military chatterer
(Hæmatoderus), as well as Querula, Gymnoderus, and Gymnocephalus; but
the first three pass to the south side of the Lower Amazon. Here also belong
the cock of the rock (Rupicola), which ranges from Guiana to the Andes,
and the marvellous umbrella-birds of the Rio Nigro and Upper Amazon
(Cephalopterus), which extends across the Ecuadorean Andes and into
Costa Rica. Brazil has Ptilochloris, Casiornis, Tijuca, Phibalura, and
Calyptura; while not a single genus of this family, except perhaps
Heliochæra, is confined to the extensive range of the Andes. Almost the
same phenomena are presented by the allied Pipridæ or manakins, the
greater part of the genera and species occurring in Eastern South America,
that is in Brazil, Guiana, and the surrounding lowlands rather than in the
Andean valleys. The same may be said of the jacamars (Galbulidæ) and
puff-birds (Bucconidæ); but the humming-birds (Trochilidæ) have their
greatest development in the Andean district. Brazil and Guiana have each a
peculiar genus of parrots; Guiana has three peculiar genera of Cracidæ,
while the Andes north of the equator have two. The Tinamidæ on the other
hand have their metropolis in Brazil, which has two or three peculiar
genera, while two others seem confined to the Andes south of the equator.
The elegant trumpeters (Psophiidæ) are almost restricted to the Amazonian
valley.

Somewhat similar facts occur among the Mammalia. At least 3 genera of
monkeys are confined to the great lowland equatorial forests and 1 to
Brazil; Icticyon (Canidæ) and Pteronura (Mustelidæ) belong to Guiana and
Brazil; and most of the Echimyidæ are found in the same districts. The
sloths, ant-eaters, and armadillos all seem more characteristic of the eastern
districts than of the Andean; while the opossums are perhaps equally
plentiful in the Andes.

The preceding facts of distribution lead us to conclude that the highlands of
Brazil and of Guiana represent very ancient lands, dating back to a period
long anterior to the elevation of the Andean range (which is by no means of
great geological antiquity) and perhaps even to the elevation of the
continuous land which forms the base of the mountains. It was, no doubt,
during their slow elevation and the consequent loosening of the surface, that
the vast masses of debris were carried down which filled up the sea
separating the Andean chain from the great islands of Brazil and Guiana,
and formed that enormous extent of fertile lowland forest, which has
created a great continent; given space for the free interaction of the distinct
faunas which here met together, and thus greatly assisted in the marvellous
development of animal and vegetable life, which no other continent can
match. But this development, and the fusion of the various faunas into one
homogeneous assemblage must have been a work of time; and it is probable
that most of the existing continent was dry land before the Andes had
acquired their present altitude. The blending of the originally distinct sub-
faunas has been no doubt assisted by elevations and depressions of the land
or of the ocean, which have alternately diminished and increased the land-
area. This would lead to a crowding together at one time, and a dispersion at
others, which would evidently afford opportunity for many previously
restricted forms to enter fresh areas and become adapted to new modes of
life.

From the preceding sketch it will appear, that the great sub-region of
Tropical South America as here defined, is really formed of three originally
distinct lands, fused together by the vast lowland Amazonian forests. In the
class of birds sufficient materials exist for separating these districts; and
that of the Andes contains a larger series of peculiar genera than either of
the other sub-regions here adopted. But there are many objections to

making such a sub-division here. It is absolutely impossible to define even
approximate limits to these divisions—to say for example where the
"Andes" ends and where "Brazil" or "Amazonia" or "Guiana" begins; and
the unknown border lands separating these are so vast, that many groups,
now apparently limited in their distribution, may prove to have a very much
wider range. In mammalia, reptiles, and insects, it is even more difficult to
maintain such divisions, so that on the whole it seems better to treat the
entire area as one sub-region, although recognizing the fact of its zoological
and geographical diversity, as well as its vast superiority over every other
sub-region in the number and variety of its animal forms.

The reptiles, fishes, mollusca, and insects of this sub-region have been
sufficiently discussed in treating of the entire region, as by far the larger
proportion of them, except in the case of land-shells, are found here.

Plate XV. Characteristic Neotropical Birds.—To illustrate the ornithology
of South America we place our scene on one of the tributaries of the Upper
Amazon, a district where this class of animals is the most prominent
zoological feature, and where a number of the most remarkable and
interesting birds are to be found. On the left we have the umbrella-bird
(Cephalopterus ornatus), so called from its wonderful crest, which, when
expanded, completely overshadows its head like an umbrella. It is also
adorned with a long tassel of plumes hanging from its breast, which is
formed by a slender fleshy tube clothed with broad feathers. The bird is as
large as a crow, of a glossy blue-black colour, and belongs to the same
family as the exquisitely tinted blue-and-purple chatterers. Flying towards
us are a pair of curl-crested toucans (Pteroglossus beauharnaisii),
distinguished among all other toucans by a crest composed of small black
and shining barbless plumes, resembling curled whalebone. The general
plumage is green above, yellow and red beneath, like many of its allies. To
the right are two of the exquisite little whiskered hummers, or "frill-necked
coquettes," as they are called by Mr. Gould, (Lophornis gouldi). These
diminutive birds are adorned with green-tipped plumes springing from each
side of the throat, as well as with beautiful crests, and are among the most
elegant of the great American family of humming-birds, now numbering
about 400 known species. Overhead are perched a pair of curassows (Crax
globulosa), which represent in America the pheasants of the Old World.

There are about a dozen species of these fine birds, most of which are
adorned with handsome curled crests. That figured, is distinguished by the
yellow caruncular swellings at the base of the bill. The tall crane-like bird
near the water is one of the trumpeters, (Psophia leucoptera), elegant birds
with silky plumage peculiar to the Amazon valley. They are often kept in
houses, where they get very tame and affectionate; and they are useful in
catching flies and other house insects, which they do with great
perseverance and dexterity.

Plate XV.

A FOREST SCENE ON THE UPPER AMAZON, WITH SOME CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS.

Islands of Tropical South America.

These are few in number, and, with one exception, not of much interest.
Such islands as Trinidad and Sta. Catherina form parts of South America,
and have no peculiar groups of animals. The small islands of Fernando
Noronha, Trinidad, and Martin Vaz, off the coast of Brazil, are the only
Atlantic islands somewhat remote from land; while the Galapagos
Archipelago in the Pacific is the only group whose productions have been
carefully examined, or which present features of special interest.

Galapagos Islands.—These are situated on the equator, about 500 miles
from the coast of Ecuador. They consist of the large Albemarle island, 70
miles long; four much smaller (18 to 25 miles long), named Narborough,
James, Indefatigable, and Chatham Islands; four smaller still (9 to 12 miles
long), named Abingdon, Bindloes, Hood's, and Charles Islands. All are
volcanic, and consist of fields of black basaltic lava, with great numbers of
extinct craters, a few which are still active. The islands vary in height from
1,700 to 5,000 feet, and they all rise sufficiently high to enter the region of
moist currents of air, so that while the lower parts are parched and
excessively sterile, above 800 or 1,000 feet there is a belt of comparatively
green and fertile country.

These islands are known to support 58 species of Vertebrates,—1
quadruped, 52 birds and 5 reptiles, the greater part of which are found
nowhere else, while a considerable number belong to peculiar and very
remarkable genera. We must therefore notice them in some detail.

Mammalia.—This class is represented by a mouse belonging to the
American genus Hesperomys, but slightly different from any found on the
continent. A true rat (Mus), slightly differing from any European species,
also occurs; and as there can be little doubt that this is an escape from a
ship, somewhat changed under its new conditions of life (the genus Mus not
being indigenous to the American continent), it is not improbable, as Mr.
Darwin remarks, that the American mouse may also have been imported by
man, and have become similarly changed.

Birds.[2]—Recent researches in the islands have increased the number of
land-birds to thirty-two, and of wading and aquatic birds to twenty-three.
All the land birds but two or three are peculiar to the islands, and eighteen,
or considerably more than half, belong to peculiar genera. Of the waders 4
are peculiar, and of the swimmers 2. These are a rail (Porzana spilonota);
two herons (Butorides plumbea and Nycticorax pauper); a flamingo
(Phœnicopterus glyphorhynchus); while the new aquatics are a gull (Larus
fuliginosus), and a penguin (Spheniscus mendiculus).

The land-birds are much more interesting. All except the birds of prey
belong to American genera which abound on the opposite coast or on that of
Chili a little further south, or to peculiar genera allied to South American
forms. The only species not peculiar are, Dolichonyx oryzivorus, a bird of
very wide range in America and of migratory habits, which often visits the
Bermudas 600 miles from North America,—and Asio accipitrinus, an owl
which is found almost all over the world. The only genera not exclusively
American are Buteo and Strix, of each of which a peculiar species occurs in
the Galapagos, although very closely allied to South American species.
There remain 10 genera, all either American or peculiar to the Galapagos;
and on these we will remark in systematic order.

1. Mimus, the group of American mocking-thrushes, is represented by three
distinct and well-marked species. 2. Dendrœca, an extensive and wide-
spread genus of the wood-warblers (Mniotiltidæ), is represented by one
species, which ranges over the greater part of the archipelago. The genus is
especially abundant in Mexico, the Antilles, and the northern parts of
tropical America, only one species extending south as far as Chili. 3.
Certhidea, a peculiar genus originally classed among the finches, but which
Mr. Sclater, who has made South American birds his special study,
considers to belong to the Cœrebidæ, or sugar-birds, a family which is
wholly tropical. Two species of this genus inhabit separate islands. 4.
Progne, the American martins (Hirundinidæ), is represented by a peculiar
species. 5. Geospiza, a peculiar genus of finches, of which no less than
eight species occur in the archipelago, but not more than four in any one
island. 6. Camarhynchus (6 sp.) and 7. Cactornis (4 sp.) are two other
peculiar genera of finches; some of the species of which are confined to
single islands, while others inhabit several. 8. Pyrocephalus, a genus of the
American family of tyrant-flycatchers (Tyrannidæ), has one peculiar species
closely allied to T. rubineus, which has a wide range in South America. 9.
Myiarchus, another genus of the same family which does not range further
south than western Ecuador, has also a representative species found in
several of the islands. 10. Zenaida, an American genus of pigeons, has a
species in James Island and probably in some of the others, closely allied to
a species from the west coast of America.

It has been already stated that some of the islands possess peculiar species
of birds distinct from the allied forms in other islands, but unfortunately our
knowledge of the different islands is so unequal and of some so imperfect,
that we can form no useful generalizations as to the distribution of birds
among the islands themselves. The largest island is the least known; only
one bird being recorded from it, one of the mocking-thrushes found
nowhere else. Combining the observations of Mr. Darwin with those of Dr.
Habel and Prof. Sundevall, we have species recorded as occurring in seven
of the islands. Albemarle island has but one definitely known species;
Chatham and Bindloe islands have 11 each; Abingdon and Charles islands
12 each; Indefatigable island and James island have each 18 species. This
shows that birds are very fairly distributed over all the islands, one of the
smallest and most remote (Abingdon) furnishing as many as the much
larger Chatham Island, which is also the nearest to the mainland. Taking the
six islands which seem tolerably explored, we find that two of the species
(Dendrœca aureola and Geospiza fortis) occur in all of them; two others
(Geospiza strenua and Myiarchus magnirostris) in five; four (Mimus
melanotis, Geospiza fuliginosa, G. parvula, and Camarhynchus
prosthemelas) in four islands; five (Certhidea olivacea, Cactornis scandens,
Pyrocephalus nanus), and two of the birds of prey, in three islands; nine
(Certhidea fusca, Progne concolor, Geospiza nebulosa, G. magnirostris,
Camarhynchus psittaculus, C. variegatus, C. habeli and Asio accipitrinus)
in two islands; while the remaining ten species are confined to one island
each. These peculiar species are distributed among the islands as follows.
James, Charles and Abingdon islands, have 2 each; Bindloes, Chatham, and
Indefatigable, 1 each. The amount of speciality of James Island is perhaps
only apparent, owing to our ignorance of the fauna of the adjacent large
Albemarle island; the most remote islands north and south, Abingdon and
Charles, have no doubt in reality most peculiar species, as they appear to
have. The scarcity of peculiar species in Chatham Island is remarkable, it
being large, very isolated, and the nearest to the mainland. There is still
room for exploration in these islands, especially in Albemarle, Narborough,
and Hood's islands of which we know nothing.

Reptiles.—The few reptiles found in these islands are very interesting.
There are two snakes, a species of the American genus Herpetodryas, and
another which was at first thought to be a Chilian species (Psammophis

Temminckii), but which is now considered to be distinct. Of lizards there are
four at least, belonging to as many genera. One is a species of
Phyllodactylus, a wide-spread genus of Geckotidæ; the rest belong to the
American family of the Iguanas, one being a species of the Neotropical
genus Leiocephalus, the other two very remarkable forms, Trachycephalus
and Oreocephalus (formerly united in the genus Amblyrhynchus). The first
is a land, the second a marine, lizard; both are of large size and very
abundant on all the islands; and they are quite distinct from any of the very
numerous genera of Iguanidæ, spread all over the American continent. The
last reptile is a land tortoise (Testudo nigra) of immense size, and also
abundant in all the islands. Its nearest ally is the equally large species of the
Mascarene Islands; an unusual development due, in both cases, to the
absence of enemies permitting these slow but continually growing animals
to attain an immense age. It is believed that each island has a distinct
variety or species of tortoise.

Insects.—Almost the only insects known from these islands are some
Coleoptera, chiefly collected by Mr. Darwin. They consist of a few peculiar
species of American or wide-ranging genera, the most important being, a
Calosoma, Pœcilus, Solenophorus, and Notaphus, among the Carabidæ; an
Oryctes among the Lamellicornes; two new genera of obscure Heteromera;
two Curculionidæ of wide-spread genera; a Longicorn of the South
American genus Eburia; and two small Phytophaga,—a set of species
highly suggestive of accidental immigrations at rare and distant intervals.

Land-Shells.—These consist of small and obscure species, forming two
peculiar sub-genera of Bulimulus, a genus greatly developed on the whole
West coast of America; and a single species of Buliminus, a genus which
ranges over all the world except America. As in the case of the birds, most
of the islands have two or three peculiar species.

General Conclusions.—These islands are wholly volcanic and surrounded
by very deep sea; and Mr. Darwin is of opinion, not only that the islands
have never been more nearly connected with the mainland than at present,
but that they have never been connected among themselves. They are
situated on the Equator, in a sea where gales and storms are almost

unknown. The main currents are from the south-west, an extension of the
Peruvian drift along the west coast of South America. From their great
extent, and their volcanoes being now almost extinct, we may assume that
they are of considerable antiquity. These facts exactly harmonize with the
theory, that they have been peopled by rare accidental immigrations at very
remote intervals. The only peculiar genera consist of birds and lizards,
which must therefore have been the earliest immigrants. We know that
small Passerine birds annually reach the Bermudas from America, and the
Azores from Europe, the former travelling over 600, the latter over 1000
miles of ocean. These groups of islands are both situated in stormy seas,
and the immigrants are so numerous that hardly any specific change in the
resident birds has taken place. The Galapagos receive no such annual
visitants; hence, when by some rare accident a few individuals of a species
did arrive, they remained isolated, probably for thousands of generations,
and became gradually modified through natural selection under completely
new conditions of existence. Less rare and violent storms would suffice to
carry some of these to other islands, and thus the archipelago would in time
become stocked. It would appear probable, that those which have
undergone most change were the earliest to arrive; so that we might look
upon the three peculiar genera of finches, and Certhidea, the peculiar form
of Cœrebidæ, as among the most ancient inhabitants of the islands, since
they have become so modified as to have apparently no near allies on the
mainland. But other birds may have arrived nearly at the same time, and yet
not have been much changed. A species of very wide range, already adapted
to live under very varied conditions and to compete with varied forms of
life, might not need to become modified so much as a bird of more
restricted range, and more specialized constitution. And if, before any
considerable change had been effected, a second immigration of the same
species occurred, crossing the breed would tend to bring back the original
type of form. While, therefore, we may be sure that birds like the finches,
which are profoundly modified and adapted to the special conditions of the
climate and vegetation, are among the most ancient of the colonists; we
cannot be sure that the less modified form of tyrant-flycatcher or mocking-
thrush, or even the unchanged but cosmopolitan owl, were not of coeval
date; since even if the parent form on the continent has been changed,
successive immigrations may have communicated the same change to the
colonists.

The reptiles are somewhat more difficult to account for. We know, however,
that lizards have some means of dispersal over the sea, because we find
existing species with an enormous range. The ancestors of the
Amblyrhynchi must have come as early, probably, as the earliest birds; and
the same powers of dispersal have spread them over every island. The two
American genera of lizards, and the tortoises, are perhaps later immigrants.
Latest of all were the snakes, which hardly differ from continental forms;
but it is not at all improbable that these latter, as well as the peculiar
American mouse, have been early human importations. Snakes are
continually found on board native canoes whose cabins are thatched with
palm leaves; and a few centuries would probably suffice to produce some
modification of a species completely isolated, under conditions widely
different from those of its native country. Land-shells, being so few and
small, and almost all modifications of one type, are a clear indication of
how rare are the conditions which lead to their dispersal over a wide extent
of ocean; since two or three individuals, arriving on two or three occasions
only during the whole period of the existence of the islands, would suffice
to account for the present fauna. Insects have arrived much more
frequently; and this is in accordance with their habits, their lower specific
gravity, their power of flight, and their capacity for resisting for some time
the effects of salt water.

We learn, then, from the fauna of these islands, some very important facts.
We are taught that tropical land-birds, unless blown out of their usual
course by storms, rarely or never venture out to sea, or if they do so, can
seldom pass safely over a distance of 500 miles. The immigrants to the
Galapagos can hardly have averaged a bird in a thousand years. We learn,
that of all reptiles lizards alone have some tolerably effective mode of
transmission across the sea; and this is probably by means of currents, and
in connection with floating vegetation. Yet their transmission is a far rarer
event than that of land-birds; for, whereas three female immigrants will
account for the lizard population, at least eight or ten ancestors are required
for the birds. Land serpents can pass over still more rarely, as two such
transmissions would have sufficed to stock the islands with their snakes;
and it is not certain that either of these occurred without the aid of man. It is
doubtful whether mammals or batrachians have any means of passing,
independently of man's assistance; the former having but one doubtfully

indigenous representative, the latter none at all. The remarkable absence of
all gay or conspicuous flowers in these tropical islands, though possessing a
zone of fairly luxuriant shrubby vegetation, and the dependence of this
phenomenon on the extreme scarcity of insects, has been already noticed at
Vol. I. p. 461, when treating of a somewhat similar peculiarity of the New
Zealand fauna and flora.

I. South Temperate America, or the Chilian Sub-region.

This sub-region may be generally defined as the temperate portion of South
America. On the south, it commences with the cold damp forests of Tierra
del Fuego, and their continuation up the west coast to Chiloe and northward
to near Santiago. To the east we have the barren plains of Patagonia,
gradually changing towards the north into the more fertile, but still treeless,
pampas of La Plata. Whether this sub-region should be continued across the
Rio de la Plata into Uruguay and Entre-rios, is somewhat doubtful. To the
west of the Parana it extends northward over the Chaco desert, till we
approach the border of the great forests near St. Cruz de la Sierra. On the
plateau of the Andes, however, it must be continued still further north,
along the "paramos" or alpine pastures, till we reach 5° of South latitude.
Beyond this the Andes are very narrow, having no double range with an
intervening plateau; and although some of the peculiar forms of the
temperate zone pass on to the equator or even beyond it, these are not
sufficiently numerous to warrant our extending the sub-region to include
them. Along with the high Andes it seems necessary to include the western
strip of arid country, which is mostly peopled by forms derived from Chili
and the south temperate regions.

Mammalia.—This sub-region is well characterised by the possession of an
entire family of mammalia having Neotropical affinities—the Chinchillidæ.
It consists of 3 genera—Chinchilla (2 sp.), inhabiting the Andes of Chili
and Peru as far as 9° south latitude, and at from 8,000 to 12,000 feet
altitude; Lagidium (3 sp.), ranging over the Andes of Chili, Peru, and South
Ecuador, from 11,000 to 16,000 feet altitude; and Lagostomus (1 sp.), the
"viscacha," confined to the pampas between the Uruguay and Rio Negro.
Many important genera are also confined to this sub-region. Auchenia (4

sp.), including the domesticated llamas and alpacas, the vicugna which
inhabits the Andes of Peru and Chili, and the guanaco which ranges over
the plains of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Although this genus is allied
to the Old World camels, it is a very distinct form, and its introduction from
North America, where the family appear to have originated, may date back
to a remote epoch. Ursus ornatus, the "spectacled bear" of the Chilian
Andes, is a remarkable form, supposed to be most allied to the Malay bear,
and probably forming a distinct genus, which has been named Tremarctos.
Four genera of Octodontidæ are also peculiar to this sub-region, or almost
so; Habrocomus (1 sp.) is Chilian; Spalacopus (2 sp.) is found in Chili and
on the east side of the southern Andes; Octodon (3 sp.) ranges from Chili
into Peru and Bolivia; Ctenomys (6 sp.) from the Straits of Magellan to
Bolivia, with one species in South Brazil. Dolichotis, one of the Cavies,
ranges from Patagonia to Mendoza, and on the east coast to 37½° S.
latitude. Myopotamus (1 sp.), the coypu (Echimyidæ), ranges from 33° to
48° S. latitude on the west side of the Andes, and from the frontiers of Peru
to 42° S. on the east side. Reithrodon and Acodon, genera of Muridæ, are
also confined to Temperate South America; Tolypeutes and
Chlamydophorus, two genera of armadillos, the latter very peculiar in its
organization and sometimes placed in a distinct family, are found only in La
Plata and the highlands of Bolivia, and so belong to this sub-region. Otaria,
one of the "eared seals" (Otariidæ), is confined to the coasts of this sub-
region and the antarctic islands. Deer of American groups extend as far as
Chiloe on the west, and the Straits of Magellan on the east coast. Mice of
the South American genera Hesperomys and Reithrodon, are abundant down
to the Straits of Magellan and into Tierra del Fuego, Mr. Darwin having
collected more than 20 distinct species. The following are the genera of
Mammalia which have been observed on the shores of the Straits of
Magellan, those marked * extending into Tierra del Fuego: *Pseudalopex
(two wolf-like foxes), Felis (the puma), Mephitis (skunks), Cervus (deer),
*Auchenia (guanaco), *Ctenomys (tucu-tucu), *Reithrodon and
*Hesperomys (American mice).

Birds.—Three families of Birds are confined to this sub-region,—
Phytotomidæ (1 genus, 3 sp.), inhabiting Chili, La Plata, and Bolivia;
Chionididæ (1 genus, 2 sp.) the "sheath-bills," found only at the southern
extremity of the continent and in Kerguelen's Island, which with the other

antarctic lands perhaps comes best here; Thinocoridæ (2 genera, 6 species)
an isolated family of waders, ranging over the whole sub-region and
extending northward to the equatorial Andes. Many genera are also
peculiar: 3 of Fringillidæ, and 1 of Icteridæ; 9 of Dendrocolaptidæ, 6 of
Tyrannidæ, 3 of Trochilidæ, and 4 of Pteroptochidæ,—the last four South
American families. There is also a peculiar genus of parrots
(Henicognathus) in Chili; two of pigeons (Metriopelia and Gymnopelia)
confined to the Andes and west coast from Peru to Chili; two of Tinamous,
Tinamotes in the Andes, and Calodromus in La Plata; three of Charadriidæ,
Phægornis, Pluvianellus, and Oreophilus; and Rhea, the American
ostriches, inhabiting all Patagonia and the pampas. Perhaps the Cariamidæ
have almost as much right here as in the last sub-region, inhabiting as they
do, the "pampas" of La Plata and the upland "campos" of Brazil; and even
among the wide-ranging aquatic birds, we have a peculiar genus,
Merganetta, one of the duck family, which is confined to the temperate
plateau of the Andes.

Against this extensive series of characteristic groups, all either of American
type or very distinct forms of Old World families, and therefore implying
great antiquity, we find, in mammalia and birds, very scanty evidence of
that direct affinity with the north temperate zone, on which some naturalists
lay so much stress. We cannot point to a single terrestrial genus, which is
characteristic of the north and reappears in this south temperate region
without also occurring over much of the intervening land. Mustela seems
only to have reached Peru; Lepus is isolated in Brazil; true Ursus does not
pass south of Mexico. In birds, the northern groups rarely go further south
than Mexico or the Columbian Andes; and the only case of discontinuous
distribution we can find recorded is that of the genus of ducks,
Camptolæmus, which has a species on the east side of North America and
another in Chili and the Falkland Islands, but these, Professor Newton
assures me, do not properly belong to the same genus. Out of 30 genera of
land-birds collected on the Rio Negro in Patagonia, by Mr. Hudson, only
four extend beyond the American continent, and the same exclusively
American character applies equally to its southern extremity. No list
appears to have been yet published of the land-birds of the Straits of
Magellan and Tierra del Fuego. The following is compiled from the

observations of Mr. Darwin, the recent voyage of Professor Cunningham,
and other sources; and will be useful for comparison.

Turdidæ. Picidæ.
1. Turdus falklandicus. *23. Campephilus magellanicus.
24. Picus lignarius.
Troglodytidæ.
2. Troglodytes magellanicus. Alcedinidæ.
25. Ceryle stellata.
Fringillidæ.
3. Chrysomitris barbata. Trochilidæ.
*4. Phrygilus gayi. 26. Eustephanus galeritus.
*5. " aldunatii
6. " fruticeti Conuridæ.
*7. " xanthogrammus 27. Conurus patagonus.
8. Zonotrichia pileata.
Vulturidæ.
Icteridæ. 28. Cathartes aura.
9. Sturnella militaris. 29. Sarcorhamphus gryphus.
10. Curæus aterrimus.
Falconidæ.
Hirundinidæ. 30. Circus macropterus.
11. Hirundo meyeni. 31. Buteo erythronotus.
32. Geranoaëtus melanolencus.
Tyrannidæ. 33. Accipiter chilensis.
12. Tænioptera pyrope. 34. Cerchneis sparverius.
13. Myiotheretes rufiventris. 35. Milvago albogularis.
14. Muscisaxicola mentalis. 36. Polyborus tharus.
15. Centrites niger.
16. Anæretes parulus. Strigidæ.
17. Elainea griseogularis. 37. Asio accipitrinus.
38. Bubo magellanicus.
Dendrocolaptidæ. 39. Pholeoptynx cunicularia.
18. Upucerthia dumetoria. 40. Glaucidium nana.
*19. Cinclodes patagonicus. 41. Syrnium rufipes.
*20. " fuscus

*21. Oxyurus spinicauda. Struthionidæ.
42. Rhea darwinii.
Pteroptochidæ.
*22. Scytalopus magellanicus.

In the above list the species marked * extend to Tierra del Fuego. It is a
remarkable fact that so many of the species belong to genera which are
wholly Neotropical, and that the specially South American families of
Icteridæ, Tyrannidæ, Dendrocolaptidæ, Pteroptochidæ, Trochilidæ, and
Conuridæ, should supply more than one-third of the species; while the
purely South American genus Phrygilus, should be represented by four
species, three of which abound in Tierra del Fuego.

Plate XVI. A Scene in the Andes of Chili, with characteristic Animals.—The
fauna of South Temperate America being most fully developed in Chili, we
place the scene of our illustration in that country. In the foreground we have
a pair of the beautiful little chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera), belonging to a
family of animals peculiar to the sub-region. There are only two species of
this group, both confined to the higher Andes, at about 8000 feet elevation.
Coming round a projecting ridge of the mountain, are a herd of vicunas
(Auchenia vicugna), one of that peculiar form of the camel tribe found in
South America and confined to its temperate and alpine regions. The upper
bird is a plant-cutter (Phytotoma rara), of sober plumage but allied to the
beautiful chatterers, though forming a separate family. Below, standing on a
rock, is a plover-like bird, the Thinocorus orbignianus, which is considered
to belong to a separate family, though allied to the plovers and sheath-bills.
Its habits are, however, more those of the quails or partridges, living inland
in dry and desert places, and feeding on plants, roots, and insects. Above is
a condor, the most characteristic bird of the high Andes.

Reptiles and Amphibia.—These groups show, for the most part, similar
modifications of American and Neotropical forms, as those we have seen to
prevail among the birds. Snakes do not seem to go very far south, but
several South American genera of Colubridæ and Dendrophidæ occur in
Chili; while Enophrys is peculiar to La Plata, and Callorhinus to Patagonia,
both belonging to the Colubridæ. The Elapidæ do not extend into the

temperate zone; but Craspedocephalus, one of the Crotalidæ, occurs at
Bahia Blanca in Patagonia (Lat. 40° S.)

Plate XVI.

THE CHILIAN ANDES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

Lizards are much more numerous, and there are several peculiar and
interesting forms. Three families are represented; Teidæ by two genera—
Callopistes peculiar to Chili, and Ameiva which ranges over almost the
whole American continent and is found in Patagonia; Geckotidæ by four
genera, two of which,—Caudiverbera and Homonota—are peculiar to
Chili, while Sphærodactylus and Cubina are Neotropical, the former
ranging to Patagonia, the latter to Chili; and lastly the American family
Iguanidæ represented by eight genera, no less than six being peculiar, (or
almost so,) to the South temperate region. These are Leiodera, Diplolæmus
and Proctrotretus, ranging from Chili to Patagonia; Leiolæmus, from Peru
to Patagonia; Phrymaturus, confined to Chili, and Ptygoderus peculiar to

Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. The other two genera, Oplurus and
Leiosaurus, are common to Chili and tropical South America.

Tortoises appear to be scarce, a species of Hydromedusa only being
recorded. Of the Amphibia, batrachia (frogs and toads) alone are
represented, and appear to be tolerably abundant, seventeen species having
been collected by Mr. Darwin in this sub-region. Species of the South
American genera Phryniscus, Hylaplesia, Telmatobius, Cacotus, Hylodes,
Cyclorhamphus, Pleurodema, Cystignathus, and Leiuperus, are found in
various localities, some extending even to the Straits of Magellan,—-the
extreme southern limit of both Reptilia and Amphibia, except one lizard
(Ptygoderus) found by Professor Cunningham in Tierra del Fuego. There
are also four peculiar genera, Rhinoderma belonging to the Engystomidæ;
Alsodes and Nannophryne to the Bombinatoridæ; Opisthodelphys to the
Hylidæ; and Calyptocephalus to the Discoglossidæ.

It thus appears, that in the Reptiles all the groups are typically American,
and that most of the peculiar genera belong to families which are
exclusively American. The Amphibia, on the other hand, present some
interesting external relations, but these are as much with Australia as with
the North temperate regions. The Bombinatoridæ are indeed Palæarctic, but
a larger proportion are Neotropical, and one genus inhabits New Zealand.
The Chilian genus Calyptocephalus is allied to Australian tropical genera.
The Neotropical genera of Ranidæ, five of which extend to Chili and
Patagonia, belong to a division which is Australian and Neotropical, and
which has species in the Oriental and Ethiopian regions.

Fresh-water Fishes.—These present some peculiar forms, and some very
interesting phenomena of distribution. The genus Percilia has been found
only in the Rio de Maypu in Chili; and Percichthys, also belonging to the
perch family, has five species confined to the fresh waters of South
Temperate America, and one far away in Java. Nematogenys (1 sp.) is
peculiar to Chili; Trichomycterus reaches 15,000 feet elevation in the
Andes,—both belonging to the Siluridæ; Chirodon (2 sp.), belonging to the
Characinidæ, is peculiar to Chili; and several other genera of the same
family extend into this sub-region from Brazil. The family Haplochitonidæ

has a remarkable distribution; one of its genera, Haplochiton (2 sp.),
inhabiting Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands, while the other,
Prototroctes, is found only in South Australia and New Zealand. Still more
remarkable is Galaxias (forming the family Galaxidæ), the species of which
are divided between Temperate South America, and Australia, Tasmania,
and New Zealand; and there is even one species (Galaxias attenuatus)
which is found in the Chatham Islands, New Zealand, and Tasmania, as
well as in the Falkland Islands and Patagonia. Fitzroya (1 sp.) is found only
at Montevideo; Orestias (6 sp.) is peculiar to Lake Titicaca in the high
Andes of Bolivia; Jenynsia (1 sp.) in the Rio de la Plata—all belonging to
the characteristic South American family of the Cyprinodontidæ.

Insects.—It is in insects more than in any other class of animals, that we
find clear indications of a not very remote migration of northern forms,
along the great mountain range to South Temperate America, where they
have established themselves as a prominent feature in the entomology of the
country. The several orders and families, however, differ greatly in this
respect; and there are some groups which are only represented by
modifications of tropical forms, as we have seen to be almost entirely the
case in birds and reptiles.

Lepidoptera.—The butterflies of the South Temperate Sub-region are not
numerous, only about 29 genera and 80 species being recorded. Most of
these are from Chili, which is sufficiently accounted for by the general
absence of wood on the east side of the Andes from Buenos Ayres to South
Patagonia. The families represented are as follows: Satyridæ, with 11
genera and 27 species, are the most abundant; Nymphalidæ, 2 genera and 8
species; Lemoniidæ, 1 genus, 1 species; Lycænidæ, 3 genera, 8 species;
Pieridæ, 6 genera, 14 species; Papilionidæ, 2 genera, 8 species; Hesperidæ,
4 genera, 13 species. One genus of Satyridæ (Elina) and 2 of Pieridæ
(Eroessa and Phulia) are peculiar to Chili. The following are the genera
whose derivation must be traced to the north temperate zone:—
Tetraphlybia, Neosatyrus, and 3 allied genera of 1 species each, were
formerly included under Erebia, a northern and arctic form, yet having a
few species in South Africa; Argyrophorus, allied to Æneis, a northern
genus; Hipparchia, a northern genus yet having a species in Brazil;—all
Satyridæ. The Nymphalidæ are represented by the typical north temperate

genus Argynnis, with 7 species in Chili; Colias, among the Pieridæ, is
usually considered to be a northern genus, but it possesses representatives
in South Africa, the Sandwich Islands, Malabar, New Grenada, and Peru, as
well as Chili, and must rather be classed as cosmopolitan. These form a
sufficiently remarkable group of northern forms, but they are accompanied
by others of a wholly Neotropical origin. Such are Stibomorpha with 6
species, ranging through South America to Guatemala, and Eteona,
common to Chili and Brazil (Satyridæ); Apodemia (Lemoniidæ) confined to
Tropical America and Chili. Hesperocharis and Callidryas (Pieridæ), both
tropical; and Thracides (Hesperidæ) confined to Tropical America and
Chili. Other genera are widely scattered; as, Epinephile found also in
Mexico and Australia; Cupido, widely spread in the tropics; Euryades,
found only in La Plata and Paraguay, allied to South American forms of
Papilio, to the Australian Eurycus, and the northern Parnassius; and
Heteropterus, scattered in Chili, North America, and Tropical Africa. We
find then, among butterflies, a large north-temperate element, intermingled
in nearly equal proportions with forms derived from Tropical America; and
the varying degrees of resemblances of the Chilian to the northern species,
seems to indicate successive immigrations at remote intervals.

Coleoptera.—It is among the beetles of South Temperate America that we
find some of the most curious examples of remote affinities, and traces of
ancient migrations. The Carabidæ are very well represented, and having
been more extensively collected than most other families, offer us perhaps
the most complete materials. Including the Cicindelidæ, about 50 genera are
known from the South Temperate Sub-region, the greater part from Chili,
but a good number also from Patagonia and the Straits of Magellan. Of
these more than 30 are peculiar, and most of them are so isolated that it is
impossible to determine with precision their nearest allies.

The only remarkable form of Cicindelidæ is Agrius, a genus allied to the
Amblycheila and Omus of N.W. America. Two genera of Carabidæ,
Cascellius and Baripus, are closely allied to Promecoderus, an Australian
genus; and another, Lecanomerus, has one species in Chili and the other in
Australia. Five or six of the peculiar genera are undoubtedly allied to
characteristic Palæarctic forms; and such northern genera as Carabus,
Pristonychus, Anchomenus, Pterostichus, Percus, Bradycellus, Trechus, and

Bembidium, all absent from Tropical America, give great support to the
view that there is a close relation between the insects of the northern
regions and South Temperate America. A decided tropical element is,
however, present. Tropopterus is near Colpodes, a Tropical and South
American genus; Mimodromius and Plagiotelium are near Calleida, a South
American genus; while Pachyteles, Pericompsus, Variopalpus, and Calleida
are widely spread American groups. The preponderance of northern forms
seems, however, to be undoubted.

Six Carabidæ are known from Juan Fernandez, 3 being identical with
Chilian species and 3 peculiar. As the island is 350 miles from the
mainland, we have here a proof of how readily insects may be transported
great distances.

The Palæarctic affinity of the South Temperate Carabidæ may be readily
understood, if we bear in mind the great antiquity of the group, and the
known long persistence of generic and specific forms of Coleoptera; the
facility with which they may be transported to great distances by gales and
hurricanes, either on land or over the sea; and, therefore, the probability that
suitable stations would be rapidly occupied by species already adapted to
them, to the exclusion of those of the adjacent tracts which had been
specialised under different conditions. If, for example, we carry ourselves
back to the time when the Andes had only risen to half their present altitude,
and Patagonia had not emerged from the ocean (an epoch not very remote
geologically), we should find nearly all the Carabidæ of South America,
adapted to a warm, and probably forest-covered country. If, then, a further
considerable elevation of the land took place, a large temperate and cold
area would be formed, without any suitable insect inhabitants. During the
necessarily slow process of elevation, many of the tropical Carabidæ would
spread upwards, and some would become adapted to the new conditions;
while the majority would probably only maintain themselves by continued
fresh immigrations. But, as the mountains rose, another set of organisms
would make their way along the highest ridges. The abundance and variety
of the North Temperate Carabidæ, and their complete adaptation to a life on
barren plains and rock-strewn mountains, would enable them rapidly to
extend into any newly-raised land suitable to them; and thus the whole
range of the Rocky Mountains and Andes would obtain a population of

northern forms, which would overflow into Patagonia, and there, finding no
competitors, would develope into a variety of modified groups. This
migration was no doubt effected mainly, during successive glacial epochs,
when the mountain-range of the Isthmus of Panama, if moderately
increased in height, might become adapted for the passage of northern
forms, while storms would often carry insects from peak to peak over
intervening forest lowlands or narrow straits of sea. If this is the true
explanation, we ought to find no such preponderant northern element in
groups which are proportionally less developed in cold and temperate
climates. Our further examination will show how far this is the case.

Lucanidæ.—Only four genera are known in the sub-region. Two are
peculiar, Chiasognathus and Streptocerus, the former allied to Tropical
American, the latter to Australian genera; the other two genera are
exclusively South American.

Cetoniidæ.—These seem very scarce, only a few species of the Neotropical
genus Gymnetis reaching Patagonia.

Buprestidæ.—These are rather numerous, many very beautiful species
being found in Chili. Nineteen genera are represented in South Temperate
America, and 5 of these are peculiar to it; 3 others are South American
genera; 2 are Australian, and the remainder are wide-spread, but all are
found also in Tropical America. The only north-temperate genus is Dicerca,
and even this occurs also in the Antilles, Brazil, and Peru. Of the peculiar
genera, the largest, Dactylozodes (26 sp.), has one species in South Brazil,
and is closely allied to Hyperantha, a genus of Tropical America;
Epistomentis is allied to Nascis, an Australian genus; Tyndaris is close to
Acmœodera, a genus of wide range and preferring desert or dry countries.
The other two are single species of cosmopolitan affinities. On the whole,
therefore, the Buprestidæ are unmistakeably Neotropical in character.

Longicorns.—Almost the whole of the South Temperate Longicorns inhabit
Chili, which is very rich in this beautiful tribe. About 75 genera and 160
species are known, and nearly half of the genera are peculiar. Many of the
species are large and handsome, rivalling in beauty those of the most

favoured tropical lands. Of the 8 genera of Prionidæ 6 are peculiar, but all
are allied to Tropical American forms except Microplophorus, which
belongs to a group of genera spread over Australia, Europe, and Mexico.
The Cerambycidæ are much more abundant, and their affinities more
interesting. Two (Syllitus and Pseudocephalus) are common to Australia
and Chili. Twenty-three are Neotropical; and among these Ibidion,
Compsocerus, Callideriphus, Trachyderes, and Xylocharis, are best
represented. Twenty are altogether peculiar, but most of them are more or
less closely allied to genera inhabiting Tropical America. Some, as the
handsome Cheloderus and Oxypeltus, have no close allies in any part of the
world. Holopterus, though very peculiar, shows most resemblance to a New
Zealand insect. Sibylla, Adalbus, and Phantagoderus, have Australian
affinities; while Calydon alone shows an affinity for north-temperate forms.
One species of the northern genus, Leptura, is said to have been found at
Buenos Ayres.

The Lamiidæ are less abundant. Nine of the genera are Neotropical. Two
(Apomecyna and Exocentrus) are spread over all tropical regions. Ten
genera are peculiar; and most of these are related to Neotropical groups or
are of doubtful affinities. Only one, Aconopterus, is decidedly allied to a
northern genus, Pogonochærus. It thus appears, that none of the Lamiidæ
exhibit Australian affinities, although these are a prominent feature in the
relations of the Cerambycidæ.

It is evident, from the foregoing outline, that the insects of South Temperate
America, more than any other class of animals, exhibit a connection with
the north temperate regions, yet this connection is only seen in certain
groups. In Diurnal Lepidoptera and in Carabidæ, the northern element is
fully equal to the tropical, or even preponderates over it. We have already
suggested an explanation of this fact in the case of the Carabidæ, and with
the butterflies it is not more difficult. The great mass of Neotropical
butterflies are forest species, and have been developed for countless ages in
a forest-clad tropical country. The north temperate butterflies, on the other
hand, are very largely open-country species, frequenting pastures,

mountains, and open plains, and often wandering over an extensive area.
These would find, on the higher slopes of mountains, a vegetation and
conditions suited to them, and would occupy such stations in less time than
would be required to adapt and modify the forest-haunting groups of the
American lowlands. In those groups of insects, however, in which the
conditions of life are nearly the same as regards both temperate and tropical
species, the superior number and variety of the tropical forms has given
them the advantage. Thus we find that among the Lucanidæ, Buprestidæ,
and Longicorns, the northern element is hardly perceptible. Most of these
are either purely Neotropical, or allied to Neotropical genera, with the
admixture, however, of a decided Australian element. As in the case of the
Amphibia and fresh-water fishes, the Australian affinity, as shown by
insects, is of two kinds, near and remote. We have a few genera common to
the two countries; but more commonly the genera are very distinct, and the
affinity is shown by the genera of both countries belonging to a group
peculiar to them, but which may be of very great age. In the former case,
we must impute some of the resemblance of the two faunas to an actual
interchange of forms within the epoch of existing genera—a period of vast
and unknown duration in the class of insects; while in the latter case, and
perhaps also in many of the former, it seems more in accordance with the
whole of the phenomena, to look upon most of the instances as survivals, in
the two southern temperate areas, of the relics of groups which had once a
much wider distribution. That this is the true explanation, is suggested by
the numerous cases of discontinuous and scattered distribution we have had
to notice, in which every part of the globe, without exception, is implicated;
and there is a reason why these survivals should be rather more frequent in
Australia and temperate South America, inasmuch as these two areas agree
in the absence of a considerable number of otherwise cosmopolitan
vertebrate types, and are also in many respects very similar in climatic and
other physical conditions. The preponderating influence of the organic over
the physical environment, as taught by Mr. Darwin, leads us to give most
weight to the first of the above-mentioned causes; to which we may also
impute such undoubted cases of survival of ancient types as the Centetidæ
of the Antilles and Madagascar—both areas strikingly deficient in the
higher vertebrate forms. The probable mode and time of the cross migration
between Australia and South America, has been sufficiently discussed in

our chapter on the Australian region, when treating of the origin and
affinities of the New Zealand fauna.

Islands of the South Temperate Sub-region.

These are few, and of not much zoological interest. Tierra del Fuego,
although really an island, is divided from the mainland by so narrow a
channel that it may be considered as forming part of the continent. The
guanaco (Auchenia huanaco) ranges over it, and even to small islands
further south.

The Falkland Islands.—These are more important, being situated about 350
miles to the east of Southern Patagonia; but the intervening sea is shallow,
the 100 fathom line of soundings passing outside the islands. We have
therefore reason to believe that they have been connected with South
America at a not distant epoch; and in agreement with this view we find
most of their productions identical, while the few that are peculiar are
closely allied to the forms of the mainland.

The only indigenous Mammals are a wolf-like fox (Pseudalopex
antarcticus) said to be found nowhere else, but allied to two other species
inhabiting Southern Patagonia; and a species of mouse, probably one of the
American genera Hesperomys or Reithrodon.

Sixty-seven species of Birds have been obtained in these islands, but only
18 are land-birds; and even of these 7 are birds of prey, leaving only 11
Passeres. The former are all common South American forms, but one
species, Milvago australis, seems peculiar. The 11 Passeres belong to 9
genera, all found on the adjacent mainland. Three, or perhaps four, of the
species are however peculiar. These are Phrygilus melanoderus, P.
xanthogrammus, Cinclodes antarcticus, and Muscisaxicola macloviana.
The wading and swimming birds are of little interest, except the penguins,
which are greatly developed; no less than eight species being found, five as
residents and three as accidental visitors.

No reptiles are known to inhabit these islands.

Juan Fernandez.—This island is situated in the Pacific Ocean, about 400
miles west of Valparaiso in Chili. It is only a few miles in extent, yet it

possesses four land-birds, excluding the powerful Accipitres. These are
Turdus falklandicus; Anæretes fernandensis, one of the Tyrannidæ; and two
humming-birds, Eustephanus fernandensis and E. galeritus. The first is a
widespread South Temperate species, the two next are peculiar to the island,
while the last is a Chilian species which ranges south to Tierra del Fuego.
But ninety miles beyond this island lies another, called "Mas-a-fuero," very
much smaller; yet this, too, contains four species of similar birds; one,
Oxyurus mas-a-fueræ, allied to the wide-spread South Temperate O.
spinicauda, and Cinclodes fusus, a South Temperate species—both
Dendrocolaptidæ; with a humming-bird, Eustephanus leyboldi, allied to the
species in the larger island. The preceding facts are taken from papers by
Mr. Sclater in the Ibis for 1871, and a later one in the same journal by Mr.
Salvin (1875). The former author has some interesting remarks on the three
species of humming-birds of the genus Eustephanus, above referred to. The
Chilian species, E. galeritus, is green in both sexes. E. fernandensis has the
male of a fine red colour and the female green, though differently marked
from the female of E. galeritus. E. leyboldi (of Mas-a-fuera) has the male
also red and the female green, but the female is more like that of E.
galeritus, than it is like the female of its nearer ally in Juan Fernandez. Mr.
Sclater supposes, that the ancient parent form of these three birds had the
sexes alike, as in the present Chilian bird; that a pair (or a female having
fertilised ova) reached Juan Fernandez and colonised it. Under the action of
sexual selection (unchecked by some conditions which had impaired its
efficacy on the continent) the male gradually assumed a brilliant plumage,
and the female also slightly changed its markings. Before this change was
completed the bird had established an isolated colony on Mas-a-fuera; and
here the process of change was continued in the male, but from some
unknown cause checked in the female, which thus remains nearer the parent
form. Lastly the slightly modified Chilian bird again reached Juan
Fernandez and exists there side by side with its strangely altered cousin.

All the phenomena can thus be accounted for by known laws, on the theory
of very rare accidental immigrations from the mainland. The species are
here so very few, that the greatest advocate for continental extensions would
hardly call such vast causes into action, to account for the presence of these
three birds on so small and so remote an island, especially as the union must
have continued down to the time of existing species. But if accidental

immigration has sufficed here, it will also assuredly have sufficed where the
islands are larger, and the chances of reaching them proportionately greater;
and it is because an important principle is here illustrated on so small a
scale, and in so simple a manner as to be almost undeniable, that we have
devoted a paragraph to its elucidation.

A few Coleoptera from Juan Fernandez present analogous phenomena. All
belong to Chilian genera, while a portion of them constitute peculiar
species.

Land-shells are rather plentiful, there being about twenty species belonging
to seven genera, all found in the adjacent parts of South America; but all the
species are peculiar, as well as four others found on the island of Mas-a-
fuera.

III. Tropical North America, or the Mexican Sub-region.

This sub-region is of comparatively small extent, consisting of the irregular
neck of land, about 1,800 miles long, which connects the North and South
American continents. Almost the whole of its area is mountainous, being in
fact a continuation of the great range of the Rocky Mountains. In Mexico it
forms an extensive table-land, from 6,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea, with
numerous volcanic peaks from 12,000 to 18,000 feet high; but in Yucatan
and Honduras, the country is less elevated, though still mountainous. On the
shores of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, there is a margin of low
land from 50 to 100 miles wide, beyond which the mountains rise abruptly;
but on the Pacific side this is almost entirely wanting, the mountains rising
almost immediately from the sea shore. With the exception of the elevated
plateaus of Mexico and Guatemala, and the extremity of the peninsula of
Yucatan, the whole of Central America is clothed with forests; and as its
surface is much broken up into hill and valley, and the volcanic soil of a
large portion of it is very fertile, it is altogether well adapted to support a
varied fauna, as it does a most luxuriant vegetation. Although many peculiar
Neotropical types are absent, it yet possesses an ample supply of generic
and specific forms; and, as far as concerns birds and insects, is not perhaps

inferior to the richest portions of South America in the number of species to
be found in equal areas.

Owing to the fact that the former Republic of Mexico comprised much
territory that belongs to the Nearctic region, and that many Nearctic groups
extend along the high-lands to the capital city of Mexico itself, and even
considerably further south, there is much difficulty in determining what
animals really belong to this sub-region. On the low-lands, tropical forms
predominate as far as 28° N. latitude; while on the cordilleras, temperate
forms prevail down to 20°, and are found even much farther within the
tropics.

Mammalia.—Very few peculiar forms of Mammalia are restricted to
tropical North America; which is not to be wondered at when we consider
the small extent of the country, and the facility of communication with
adjacent sub-regions. A peculiar form of tapir (Elasmognathus bairdi)
inhabits Central America, from Panama to Guatemala, and, with Myxomys,
a genus of Muridæ, are all at present discovered. Bassaris, a remarkable
form of Procyonidæ, has been included in the Nearctic region, but it
extends to the high-lands of Guatemala. Heteromys, a peculiar genus of
Saccomyidæ or pouched rats, inhabits Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica, and
Trinidad. Five genera of monkeys extend here,—Ateles, Mycetes, Cebus,
Nyctipithecus, and Saimiris; the two former alone reaching Mexico, the last
only going as far as Costa Rica. Other typical Neotropical forms are
Galera, the tayra, belonging to the weasel family; Nasua, the coatimundi;
Dicotyles, the peccary; Cercolabes, the tree porcupine; Dasyprocta, the
agouti; Cælogenys, the paca; Cholœpus, and Arctopithecus, sloths;
Cyclothurus, an ant-eater; Tatusia, an armadillo; and Didelphys, oppossum.
Of Northern forms, Sorex, Vulpes, Lepus, and Pteromys reach Guatemala.

Birds.—The productiveness of this district in bird life, may be estimated
from the fact, that Messrs. Salvin and Sclater have catalogued more than
600 species from the comparatively small territory of Guatemala, or the
portion of Central America between Mexico and Honduras. The great mass
of the birds of this sub-region are of Neotropical families and genera, but
these are intermingled with a number of migrants from temperate North

America, which pass the winter here; with some northern forms on the
high-lands; and with a considerable number of peculiar genera, mostly of
Neotropical affinities.

The genera of birds peculiar to this sub-region belong to the following
families:—Turdidæ (2 genera); Troglodytidæ (1 gen.); Vireonidæ (1 gen.);
Corvidæ (2 gen.); Ampelidæ (1 gen.); Tanagridæ (1 gen.); Fringillidæ (2
gen.); Icteridæ (1 gen.); Formicariidæ (2 gen.); Tyrannidæ (2 gen.);
Cotingidæ (1 gen.); Momotidæ (1 gen.); Trogonidæ (1 gen.); Trochilidæ (14
gen.); Conuridæ (1 gen.); Cracidæ (2 gen.); Strigidæ (1 gen.); in all 37
genera of land-birds. The Neotropical families that do not extend into this
sub-region are, Pteroptochidæ; the sub-family Furnariinæ of the
Dendrocolaptidæ; the sub-family Conophaginæ of the Tyrannidæ; the sub-
family Rupicolinæ of the Cotingidæ; Phytotomidæ; Todidæ;
Opisthocomidæ; Chionididæ; Thinocoridæ; Cariamidæ; Psophiidæ;
Eurypygidæ; Palamedeidæ; and Struthionidæ. On the other hand Paridæ,
Certhiidæ, Ampelidæ, and Phasianidæ, are northern families represented
here, but which do not reach South America; and there are also several
northern genera and species, of Turdidæ, Troglodytidæ, Mniotiltidæ,
Vireonidæ, Fringillidæ, Corvidæ, Tetraonidæ, and Strigidæ, which are
similarly restricted. Some of the most remarkable of the Neotropical genera
only extend as far as Costa Rica and Veragua,—countries which possess a
rich and remarkable fauna. Here only are found an umbrella bird,
(Cephalopterus glabricollis); a bell bird (Chasmorhynchus
tricarunculatus); and species of Dacnis (Cerœbidæ), Buthraupis,
Eucometis, Tachyphonus (Tanagridæ), Xiphorhynchus (Dendrocolaptidæ);
Hypocnemis (Formicariidæ); Euscarthmus (Tyrannidæ); Attila (Cotingidæ);
Piprites (Pipridæ); Capito, Tetragonops (Megalæmidæ); Selenidera
(Rhamphastidæ); Neomorphus (Cuculidæ); Monasa (Bucconidæ); many
genera of Trochilidæ; and Nothocercus (Tinamidæ); none of which extend
further north. A considerable number of the peculiar genera noted above,
are also found in this restricted area, which is probably one of the richest
ornithological districts on the globe.

Reptiles.—These are much less known than the preceding classes, but they
afford several peculiar and interesting forms. Snakes are perhaps the least
remarkable; yet there are recorded 4 peculiar genera of Calamariidæ, 1 of

Colubridæ, 1 of Homalopsidæ, 3 of Dipsadidæ; while Boa and Elaps are in
common with South America. Lizards are much more specially developed.
Chirotes, one of the Amphisbænians, is confined to Mexico and the
southern part of the Nearctic region; Heloderma forming a peculiar family,
Helodermidæ, is Mexican only; Abronia and Barissia (Zonuridæ) are also
Mexican, as is Siderolampus belonging to the Scincidæ, while
Blepharactitis (same family) inhabits Nicaragua; Brachydactylus, one of the
geckoes, is from Costa Rica; while Phymatolepis, Lamanctus, Corytheolus,
Cachrix, Corythophanes and Chamæleopsis, all belonging to the Iguanidæ,
are confined to various parts of the sub-region. In the same family we have
also the Antillean, Cyclura, and the Nearctic Phrynosoma and Tropidolepis,
as well as the wide-spread American genus Anolius.

Among the tortoises, Staurotypus, allied to Chelydra, is found in Mexico
and Guatemala; and another genus, Claudius, has been lately described
from Mexico.

Amphibia.—These are chiefly Batrachians; Rhinophryna (forming a
peculiar family) being confined to Mexico; Triprion, a genus of Hylidæ,
inhabiting Yucatan, with Leyla and Strabomantis (Polypedatidæ) found only
in Costa Rica and Veragua, are peculiar genera. The Salamandridæ, so
abundant in the Nearctic region, are represented by a few species of
Amblystoma and Spelerpes.

Fresh-water fish.—Since the British Museum catalogue was published, a
valuable paper by Dr. Günther, in the Transactions of the Zoological
Society for 1868, furnishes much additional information on the fishes of
Central America. In that part of the region south of Mexico, 106 species of
fresh-water fishes are enumerated; and 17 of these are found in streams
flowing into both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. On the whole, 11
families are represented among the fresh-water fish, and about 38 genera.
Of these, 14 are specially Nearctic,—Amiurus (Siluridæ); Fundulus
(Cyprinodontidæ); Sclerognathus (Cyprinidæ); and Lepidosteus (Ganoidei).
A much larger number are Neotropical; and several Neotropical genera, as
Heros and Pœcilia, are more largely developed here than in any other part
of the region. There are also a considerable number of peculiar genera;—

Petenia, Theraps, and Neotrophus (Chromides); Ælurichthys (Siluridæ);
Chalcinopsis (Characniidæ); Characodon, Belonesox, Pseudoxiphophorus,
Platypœcilus, Mollienesia, and Xiphophorus (Cyprinodontidæ). A few
peculiar Antillean forms are also present; as Agonostoma (Mugilidæ);
Gambusia and Girardinuus (Cyprinodontidæ). The other families
represented are Percidæ (1 genus); Pristopomatidæ (2 gen.); Gobiidæ (1
gen.); Clupeidæ (2 gen.); and Gymnotidæ (1 genus).

On the whole the fish-fauna is typically Neotropical, but with a small
infusion of Nearctic forms. There are a considerable proportion of peculiar
genera, and almost all the species are distinct from those of other countries.
The predominant family is that of the Cyprinodontidæ, represented by 12
genera; and the genus Heros (Chromidæ) has here its maximum
development, containing between thirty and forty species. Dr. Günther
considers that a number of sub-faunas can be distinguished, corresponding
to some extent, with the islands into which the country would be divided by
a subsidence of about 2,000 feet. The most important of these divisions is
that separating Honduras from Costa Rica, and as it also divides a very
marked ornithological fauna we have every reason to believe that such a
division must have existed during the latter portion of the tertiary epoch. We
shall find some farther evidence of this division in the next class.

Insects.—The butterflies of various parts of Central America and Mexico,
having been largely collected, offer us some valuable evidence as to the
relations of this sub-region. Their general character is wholly Neotropical,
about one half of the South American genera being found here. There are
also a few peculiar genera, as, Drucina (Satyridæ); Microtia (Nymphalidæ);
Eumæus (Lycænidæ); and Eucheira (Pieridæ). Clothilda (Nymphalidæ) is
confined to this sub-region and the Antilles. The majority of the genera
range over the whole sub-region from Panama to Mexico, but there are a
considerable number, comprising many of the most characteristic South
American forms, which do not pass north of Costa Rica or Nicaragua. Such
are Lycorea, Ituna, Thyridia, Callithomia, Oleria and Ceratina,—all
characteristic South American groups of Danaidæ; Pronophila and
Dynastor (Satyridæ); Protogonius, Pycina, Prepona, Nica, Ectima and
Colænis (Nymphalidæ); Eurybia and Methonella (Nemeobiidæ); Hades,
and Panthemos (Erycinidæ).

Coleoptera.—These present some interesting features, but owing to their
vast number only a few of the more important families can be noticed.

Cicindelidæ.—The only specially Neotropical genera recorded as occurring
in this sub-region, are Ctenostoma and Hiresia, both reaching Mexico.

Carabidæ.—Several genera are peculiar. Molobrus is found in all parts of
the sub-region, while Onychopterygia, Phymatocephalus, and Anisotarsus
are Mexican only. There are about 20 South American genera, most of
which extend to Mexico, and include such characteristic Neotropical forms
as Agra, Callida, Coptodera, Pachyteles, Ardistomus, Aspidoglossa,
Stenocrepis, and Pelecium.

Lucanidæ.—Of this important family there is, strange to say, not a single
species recorded in Gemminger and Harold's catalogue up to 1868! It is
almost impossible that they can be really absent; yet their place seems to he,
to some extent, supplied by an unusual development of the allied Passalidæ,
of which there are five South American and six peculiar genera.

Cetoniidæ.—All the larger South American genera extend to Mexico, which
country possesses 3 peculiar forms, Ischnoscelis, Psilocnemis, and
Dialithus; while Trigonopeltastes is characteristic, having 4 Mexican, 1
Brazilian, and 1 North American species.

Buprestidæ.—In this family there are no peculiar genera. All the large
South American groups are absent, the only important and characteristic
genus being Stenogaster.

Longicorns.—This important group is largely developed, the country being
well adapted to them; and their distribution presents some features of
interest.

In the Prionidæ there are 6 peculiar genera, the largest being Holonotus
with 3 species; two others, Derotrachus and Mallaspis, are characteristic; 3
more are common to South America, and 1 to Cuba. The Cerambycidæ are
much more numerous, and there are 24 peculiar genera, the most important

being Sphenothecus, Entomosterna, and Cyphosterna; while Crioprosopus
and Metaleptus are characteristic of the sub-region, although extending into
South America; about 12 Neotropical genera extend to Mexico or
Guatemala, while 12 more stop short, as far as yet known, at Nicaragua.
Lamiidæ have a very similar distribution; 13 genera are peculiar, the most
important being Monilema, Hamatoderus, and Carneades, while Phæa and
Lagochirus are characteristic. About sixteen typical Neotropical genera
extend to Mexico, and 15 more only reach Nicaragua, among which are
such important genera as Anisopus, Lepturgus, and Callia.

The land-shells are not sufficiently known to furnish any corresponding
results. They are however mostly of South American genera, and have
comparatively little affinity for those of the Antilles.

Relations of the Mexican sub-region to the North and South American
Continents.—The sudden appearance of numerous South American forms
of Edentata in temperate North America, in Post-Tertiary times, as narrated
in Chapter VII., together with such facts as the occurrence of a considerable
number of identical species of sea fish on the two sides of the Central
American isthmus, render it almost certain that the union of North and
South America is comparatively a recent occurrance, and that during the
Miocene and Pliocene periods, they were separated by a wide arm of the
sea. The low country of Nicaragua was probably the part submerged,
leaving the highlands of Mexico and Guatemala still united with the North
American continent, and forming part of the Tertiary "Nearctic region."
This is clearly indicated both by the many Nearctic forms which do not pass
south of Nicaragua, of which the turkeys (Meleagris) are a striking
example, and by the comparative poverty of this area in typical Neotropical
groups. During the Miocene period there was not that marked diversity of
climate between North and South America that now prevails; for when a
luxuriant vegetation covered what are now the shores of the Arctic Ocean,
the country south of the great lakes must have been almost or quite tropical.
At an early Tertiary period, the zoological differences of the Nearctic and
Neotropical regions were probably more radical than they are now, South
America being a huge island, or group of islands—a kind of Australia of the
New World, chiefly inhabited by the imperfectly organized Edentata; while
North America abounded in Ungulata and Carnivora, and perhaps formed a

part of the great Old World continent. There were also one or more very
ancient unions (in Eocene or Miocene times) of the two continents,
admitting of the entrance of the ancestral types of Quadrumana into South
America, and, somewhat later, of the Camelidæ; while the isthmus south of
Nicaragua was at one time united to the southern continent, at another made
insular by subsidence near Panama, and thus obtained that rich variety of
Neotropical types that still characterises it. When the final union of the two
continents took place, the tropical climate of the lower portions of
Guatemala and Mexico would invite rapid immigration from the south;
while some northern forms would extend their range into and beyond the
newly elevated territory. The Mexican sub-region has therefore a composite
character, and we must not endeavour too rigidly to determine its northern
limits, nor claim as exclusively Neotropical, forms which are perhaps
comparatively recent immigrants; and it would perhaps be a more accurate
representation of the facts, if we were to consider all the highlands of
Mexico and Guatemala above the limits of the tropical forests, as still
belonging to the Nearctic region, of which the whole country so recently
formed a part.

The long-continued separation of North and South America by one or more
arms of the sea, as above indicated, is further rendered necessary by the
character of the molluscan fauna of the Pacific shores of tropical America,
which is much more closely allied to that of the Caribbean sea, and even of
West Africa, than to that of the Pacific islands. The families and many of
the genera are the same, and a certain proportion of very closely allied or
identical species, shows that the union of the two oceans continued into late
Tertiary times. When the evidence of both land and sea animals support
each other as they do here, the conclusions arrived at are almost as certain
as if we had (as we no doubt some day shall have) geological proof of these
successive subsidences.

Islands of the Mexican Sub-region.—The only islands of interest belonging
to this sub-region, are Tres Marias and Socorro, recently investigated by
Col. Grayson for some of the American Natural History societies.

Tres Marias consist of four small islands lying off the coast of north-
western Mexico, about 70 miles from San Blas. The largest is about 15
miles long by 10 wide. They are of horizontally stratified deposits, of
moderate height and flat-topped, and everywhere covered with luxuriant
virgin forests. They appear to lie within the 100 fathom line of soundings.
Fifty-two species of birds, of which 45 were land-birds, were collected on
these islands. They consisted of 19 Passeres; 11 Picariæ (7 being humming-
birds); 10 Accipitres; 2 parrots, and 3 pigeons. All were Mexican species
except 4, which were new, and presumably peculiar to the islands, and one
tolerably marked variety. The new species belong to the following genera;
—Parula and Granatellus (Mniotiltidæ); Icterus (Icteridæ); and Amazilia
(Trochilidæ). A small Psittacula differs somewhat from the same species on
the mainland.

There are a few mammalia on the islands; a rabbit (Lepus) supposed to be
new; a very small opossum (Didelphys), and a racoon (Procyon). There are
also several tree-snakes, a Boa, and many lizards. The occurrence of so
many mammalia and snakes is a proof that these islands have been once
joined to the mainland; but the fact that some of the species of both birds
and mammals are peculiar, indicates that the separation is not a very recent
one. At the same time, as all the species are very closely allied to those of
the opposite coasts when not identical, we may be sure that the subsidence
which isolated them is not geologically remote.

Socorro, the largest of the Revillagigedo Islands, is altogether different
from the Tres Marias. It is situated a little further south (19 S. Latitude), and
about 300 miles from the coast, in deep water. It is about 2,000 feet high,
very rugged and bare, and wholly volcanic. No mammalia were observed,
and no reptiles but a small lizard, a new species of a genus (Uta)
characteristic of the deserts of N.-Western Mexico. The only observed land-
shell (Orthalicus undatus) also inhabits N.-W. Mexico. Only 14 species of
birds were obtained, of which 9 were land-birds; but of these 4 were new
species, one a peculiar variety, and another (Parula insularis) a species first
found in the Tres Marias. With the exception of this bird and a Buteo, all the
land-birds belonged to different genera from any found on the Tres Marias,
though all were Mexican forms. The peculiar species belonged to the genera
Harporhynchus (Turdidæ); Troglodytes (Troglodytidæ); Pipilo

(Fringillidæ); Zenaidura (Columbidæ); and a variety of Conurus
holochrous (Psittacidæ).

The absence of mammals and snakes, the large proportion of peculiar
species, the wholly volcanic nature of these islands, and their situation in
deep water 300 miles from land,—all indicate that they have not formed
part of the continent, but have been raised in the ocean; and the close
relation of their peculiar species to those living in N.-Western Mexico,
renders it probable that their antiquity is not geologically great.

The Cocos Islands, about 300 miles S.-W. of the Isthmus of Panama, are
known to possess one peculiar bird, a cuckoo of the Coccyzus type, which is
considered by some ornithologists to constitute a peculiar genus,
Nesococcyx.

IV. The West Indian Islands, or Antillean Sub-region.

The West Indian islands are, in many respects, one of the most interesting of
zoological sub-regions. In position they form an unbroken chain uniting
North and South America, in a line parallel to the great Central American
isthmus; yet instead of exhibiting an intermixture of the productions of
Florida and Venezuela, they differ widely from both these countries,
possessing in some groups a degree of speciality only to be found elsewhere
in islands far removed from any continent. They consist of two very large
islands, Cuba and Hayti;[3] two of moderate size, Jamaica and Portorico;
and a chain of much smaller islands, St. Croix, Anguilla, Barbuda, Antigua,
Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Barbadoes, and
Grenada, with a host of intervening islets. Tobago, Trinidad, Margarita, and
Curaçao, are situated in shallow water near the coast of South America, of
which they form part zoologically. To the north of Cuba and Hayti are the
Bahamas, an extensive group of coral reefs and islands, 700 miles long, and
although very poor in animal life, belonging zoologically to the Antilles. All
the larger islands, and most of the smaller ones (except those of coral
formation) are very mountainous and rocky, the chains rising to about 8,000
feet in Hayti and Jamaica, and to nearly the same height in Cuba. All,
except where they have been cleared by man, are covered with a luxuriant

forest vegetation; the temperature is high and uniform; the rains ample; the
soil, derived from granitic and limestone rocks, exceedingly fertile; and as
the four larger islands together are larger than Great Britain, we might
expect an ample and luxuriant fauna. The reverse is however the case; and
there are probably no land areas on the globe, so highly favoured by nature
in all the essentials for supporting animal life, and at the same time so poor
in all the more highly organised groups of animals. Before entering upon
our sketch of the main features of this peculiar but limited fauna, it will be
well to note a few peculiarities in the physical structure of the islands,
which have an important bearing on their past history, and will enable us to
account for much that is peculiar in the general character of their natural
productions.

If we draw a line immediately south of St. Croix and St. Bartholomew, we
shall divide the Archipelago into two very different groups. The southern
range of islands, or the Lesser Antilles, are, almost without exception,
volcanic; beginning with the small detached volcanoes of Saba and St.
Eustatius, and ending with the old volcano of Grenada. Barbuda and
Antigua are low islands of Tertiary or recent formation, connected with the
volcanic islands by a submerged bank at no great depth. The islands to the
north and west are none of them volcanic; many are very large, and these
have all a central nucleus of ancient or granitic rocks. We must also note,
that the channels between these islands are not of excessive depth, and that
their outlines, as well as the direction of their mountain ranges, point to a
former union. Thus, the northern range of Hayti is continued westward in
Cuba, and eastward in Portorico; while the south-western peninsula extends
in a direct line towards Jamaica, the depth between them being 600
fathoms. Between Portorico and Hayti there is only 250 fathoms; while
close to the south of all these islands the sea is enormously deep, from more
than 1,000 fathoms south of Cuba and Jamaica, to 2,000 south of Hayti, and
2,600 fathoms near the south-east extremity of Portorico. The importance of
the division here pointed out will be seen, when we state, that indigenous
mammalia of peculiar genera are found on the western group of islands
only; and it is on these that all the chief peculiarities of Antillian zoology
are developed.

Mammalia.—The mammals of the West Indian Islands are exceedingly few,
but very interesting. Almost all the orders most characteristic of South
America are absent. There are no monkeys, no carnivora, no edentata.
Besides bats, which are abundant, only two orders are represented; rodents,
by peculiar forms of a South American family; and insectivora (an order
entirely wanting in South America) by a genus belonging to a family largely
developed in Madagascar and found nowhere else. The early voyagers
mention "Coatis" and "Agoutis" as being found in Hayti and the other large
islands, and it is not improbable that species allied to Nasua and
Dasyprocta did exist, and have been destroyed by the dogs of the invaders;
though, on the other hand, these names may have been applied to the
existing species, which do bear some general resemblance to these two
forms.

The Chiroptera, or bats, are represented by a large number of species and by
several peculiar genera. The American family of Phyllostomidæ or
vampires, has six genera in the Antilles, of which three, Lonchorina,
Brachyphylla, and Phyllonycteris, are peculiar, the latter being found only
in Cuba. The Vespertilionidæ have four genera, of which one, Nycticellus, is
confined to Cuba. There are six genera of Noctilionidæ, of which one,
Phyllodia, is confined to Jamaica.

The Insectivora are represented by the genus Solenodon, of which two
species are known, one inhabiting Cuba the other Hayti. These are small
animals about the size of a cat, with long shrew-like snout, bare rat-like tail,
and long claws. Their peculiar dentition and other points of their anatomy
shows that they belong to the family Centetidæ, of which five different
genera inhabit Madagascar; while there is nothing closely allied to them in
any other part of the world but in these two islands.

Seals are said to be found on the shores of some of the islands, but they are
very imperfectly known.

The rodents belong to the family Octodontidæ, or, according to some
authors, to the Echimyidæ, both characteristic South American groups.
They consist of two genera, Capromys, containing three or four species

inhabiting Cuba and Jamaica; while Plagiodontia (very closely allied) is
confined to Hayti. A peculiar mouse, a species of the American genus
Hesperomys, is said to inhabit Hayti and Martinique, and probably other
islands. A Dasyprocta or agouti, closely allied to, if not identical with, a
South American species, inhabits St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and Grenada, and
perhaps St. Thomas, and is the only mammal of any size indigenous to the
Lesser Antilles. All the islands in which sugar is cultivated are, however,
overrun with European rats and mice, and it is not improbable that these
may have starved out and exterminated some of the smaller native rodents.

Birds.—The birds of the Antilles, although very inferior in number and
variety to those of the mainland, are yet sufficiently abundant and
remarkable, to offer us good materials for elucidating the past history of the
country, when aided by such indications as geology and physical geography
can afford.

The total number of land-birds which are permanent residents in the West
India islands is, as nearly as can be ascertained from existing materials, 203.
There are, in addition to this number, according to Prof. Baird, 88 migrants
from North America, which either spend the winter in some of the islands
or pass on to Central or South America. These migrants belong to 55
genera, and it is an interesting fact that so many as 40 of these genera have
no resident representatives in the islands. This is important, as showing that
this northern migration is probably a recent and superficial phenomenon,
and has not produced any (or a very slight) permanent effect on the fauna.
The migratory genera which have permanent residents, and almost always
representative species, in the islands, are in most cases characteristic rather
of the Neotropical than of the Nearctic fauna, as the following list will
show; Turdus, Dendrœca, Vireo, Polioptila, Agelæus, Icterus, Contopus,
Myiarchus, Tyrannus, Antrostomus, Chordeiles, Coccyzus, Columba. By far
the larger part of these birds visit Cuba only; 81 species being recorded as
occurring in that island, while only 31 have been found in Jamacia, 12 in
Porto Rico and St. Croix, and 2 in Tobago and Trinidad. Setting aside these
migratory birds, as having no bearing on the origin of the true Antillean
fauna, we will discuss the residents somewhat in detail.

The resident land-birds (203 in number) belong to 95 genera and 26
families. Of these families 15 are cosmopolitan or nearly so—Turdidæ,
Sylviidæ, Corvidæ, Hirundinidæ, Fringillidæ, Picidæ, Cuculidæ,
Caprimulgidæ, Cypselidæ, Trogonidæ, Psittacidæ, Columbidæ, Tetraonidæ,
Falconidæ, and Strigidæ; 5 are American only—Vireonidæ, Mniotiltidæ,
Icteridæ, Tyrannidæ, Trochilidæ; 4 are Netropical only or almost
exclusively—Cœrebidæ, Tanagridæ, Cotingidæ, Conuridæ; 1 is Antillean
only—Todidæ; while 1—Ampelidæ—is confined (in the western
hemisphere) to North America, and almost to the Nearctic region. Of the 95
genera, no less than 31, or almost exactly one-third, are peculiar; while of
the 203 resident species, 177 are peculiar, the other 26 being all inhabitants
of South or Central America. Considering how closely the islands approach
the continent in several places—Florida, Yucatan, and Venezuela—this
amount of speciality in such locomotive creatures as birds, is probably
unexampled in any other part of the globe. The most interesting of these
peculiar genera are the following: 4 of Turdidæ, or thrushes—1 confined to
the large islands, 1 to the whole archipelago, while 2 are limited to the
Lesser Antilles; 2 genera of Tanagridæ, confined to the larger islands; 2 of
Trogonidæ, also confined to the larger islands; 5 of hummingbirds, 3
confined to the Greater, 1 to the Lesser Antilles; 2 of cuckoos, one
represented in all the large islands, the other in Jamaica only; 2 of owls, one
peculiar to Jamaica, the other represented in St. Croix, St. Thomas,
Portorico, and Cuba; and lastly, Todus, constituting a peculiar family, and
having representative species in each of the larger islands, is especially
interesting because it belongs to a group of families which are wholly
Neotropical—the Momotidæ, Galbulidæ, and Todidæ. The presence of this
peculiar form, with 2 trogons; 10 species of parrots, all but one peculiar; 16
peculiar humming-birds belonging to 8 genera; a genus of Cotingidæ; 10
peculiar tanagers belonging to 3 genera; 9 Cœrebidæ of 3 genera; together
with species of such exclusively Netropical genera as Cœreba, Certhiola,
Sycalis, Phonipara, Elainea, Pitangus, Campephilus, Chloronerpes,
Nyctibius, Stenopsis, Lampornis, Calypte, Ara, Chrysotis, Zenaida,
Leptoptila, and Geotrygon, sufficiently demonstrate the predominant
affinities of this fauna; although there are many cases in which it is difficult
to say, whether the ancestors of the peculiar genera or species may not have
been derived from the Nearctic rather than from the Neotropical region.

The several islands differ considerably in their apparent productiveness, but
this is, no doubt, partly due to our knowledge of Cuba and Jamaica being
much more complete than of Hayti. The species of resident land-birds at
present known are as follows:—

Cuba 68 species of which 40 are peculiar to it.
Hayti 40 " " 17 " "
Jamaica 67 " " 41 " "
Portorico 40 " " 15 " "
Lesser Antilles 45 " " 24 " "

If we count the peculiar genera of each island, and reckon as (½) when a
genus is common to two islands only, the numbers are as follows:—Cuba
7½, Hayti 3½, Jamaica 8½, Portorico 1, Lesser Antilles 3½. These figures
show us, that although Jamaica is one of the smaller and the most isolated
of the four chief islands, it yet stands in the first rank, both for the number
of its species and of its peculiar forms of birds,—and although this
superiority may be in part due to its having been more investigated, it is
probably not wholly so, since Cuba has also been well explored. This fact
indicates, that the West Indian islands have undergone great changes, and
that they were not peopled by immigration from surrounding countries
while in the condition we now see them; for in that case the smaller and
more remote islands would be very much poorer, while Cuba, which is not
only the largest, but nearest to the mainland in two directions, would be
immensely richer, just as it really is in migratory birds.

The number of birds common to the four larger islands is very small—
probably not more than half a dozen; between 20 and 30 are common to
some two of the islands (counting the Lesser Antilles as one island) and a
few to three; but the great mass of the species (at least 140) are confined
each to some one of the five islands or groups we have indicated. This is an
amount of isolation and speciality, probably not to be equalled elsewhere,
and which must have required a remarkable series of physical changes to
bring about. What those changes probably were, we shall be in a better
position to consider when we have completed our survey of the various
classes of land animals.

Plate XVII.

A SCENE IN CUBA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

In the preceding enumeration the Bahamas have been included with Cuba,
as regards the birds they have in common; but they possess some half dozen
species not found elsewhere, and even one central American genus of
humming-birds (Doricha) not found in any other part of the Antilles. We
have thus given Cuba rather more peculiar species than it really possesses,
so that the proportionate richness of Jamaica is rather greater than shown by
our figures.

The destruction of the forests and the increase of population, with, perhaps,
the use of firearms, seem to have led to the extermination of some species
of birds in the smaller islands. Professor Newton has called attention to the
work of M. Ledru, who, in 1796, described the birds of St. Thomas. He
mentions a parrot and a parroquet in the island, the latter only being now
known, and very scarce; also a green pigeon and a tody, both now
unknown. No less than six species of parrots are said to have been formerly
found in Guadeloupe and Martinique, which are now extinct.

Plate XVII. Illustrating the peculiar Mammalia and Birds of the Antilles.—
The scene of this illustration is Cuba, the largest of the West Indian islands,
and one in which all its peculiar zoological features are well developed. In
the foreground is the agouta (Solenodon cubanus), a remarkable
insectivorous animal which, with another species inhabiting Hayti, has no
allies on the American continent; nor anywhere in the world but in
Madagascar, where a group of animals are found constituting the family
Centetidæ, to which Solenodon is said undoubtedly to belong. Above it are
a pair of hutias (Capromys fournieri), rat-like animals belonging to the
South American family Octodontidæ. They live in the forests, and climb
trees readily, eating all kinds of vegetable food. Three species of the genus
are known, which are found only in Cuba and Jamaica. Just above these
animals is a white-breasted trogon (Prionoteles temnurus), confined to
Cuba, and the only species of the genus. Near the top of the picture are a
pair of todies (Todus multicolor), singular little insectivorous birds allied to
the motmots, but forming a very distinct family which is confined to the
islands of the Greater Antilles. They are beautifully-coloured birds,—green
above, red and white beneath, and are exceedingly active in their
movements. To the right are a pair of small humming-birds (Sporadinus
ricordi), not very remarkable in this beautiful family, but introduced here
because they belong to a genus which is confined to the Greater Antilles.

Table of distribution of West-Indian Birds.—As the birds of the West Indian
islands are particularly interesting and their peculiarities comparatively
little known, we give here a table of the genera of land-birds, compiled
from all available sources of information. Owing to the numerous
independent observations on which it is founded, the discrepancies of
nomenclature, and uncertainty in some cases as to the locality of species, it
can only be looked upon as an approximative summary of the existing
materials on Antillean ornithology.

TABLE OF THE RESIDENT LAND-BIRDS OF THE ANTILLES.

Note.—Genera confined to the West Indies are in Italics. An (a) after (1)
indicates a species common to two islands: but where there are two or more

species in an island, or the localities are doubtful, this indication cannot be
given. All species not otherwise noted are peculiar to the Antilles.

Key to columns:
Column 1 Cuba.
" 2 Bahamas.
" 3 Hayti.
" 4 Jamaica.
" 5 Portorico & St. Croix.
" 6 Lesser Antilles.
" 7 Total resident species.

Number of Species in each
Family and Island. 7 Remarks.
Genus.
1 2 3 4 5 6

Turdidæ.
Turdus — — — 1 — — 1 Five species
migrate to
Cuba
Mimocichla 2 1 1 1 — — 5
Margarops — — 1a — 1a 3 4 Martinique,
St. Lucia,
Guada.
Rhamphocinclus — — — — — 1 1 Martinique
and St. Lucia
Cinclocerthia — — — — — 3 3 Nevis to St.
Lucia
Mimus 1 1 — 1 (?) — 3 Another
species
migrates to
the Antilles

Sylviidæ.

Myiadestes 1 — — 1 — 1 3 St. Lucia
Polioptila 1 — — — — — 1

Vireonidæ.
Vireosylvia 1 — 1 1 1 1 2 One S.
American
species
Vireo 1 1 — 1 1 — 4 Five species
migrate to
Cuba
Laletes — — — 1 — — 1
Phœnicomanes — — — 1 — — 1

Corvidæ.
Corvus 1 — 1a 1 1a — 3
Cyanocorax — — — 1 — — 1 S. American
species

Mniotiltidæ.
Perissoglossa 1 — 1 — 1 — 1 N. American
species
Dendrœca 2 2 1 3 1 1 7 Twelve sp.
migrate to W.
I.
Teretristis 2 — — — — — 2

Cœrebidæ.
Certhiola — 1 1 1 2 2 7 Dominica
and
Martinique
Glossiptila — — — 1 — — 1
Cœreba 1 — — — — — 1 S. American
species

Ampelidæ.

Dulus (?) — 1 (?) (?) (?) 2 One species
locality
unknown

Hirundinidæ.
Progne — — 1 1 1 — 1
Pterochelidon 1 — — 1 1 — 1
Hirundo 1 — 1a 1a — — 2 One S.
American
species

Tanagridæ.
Euphonia 1a — 1a 1 1 1 4 St.
Bartholom. &
Martinique
Spindalis 2 1 1 1 1 — 5
Phænicophilus — — 1 — — — 1
Saltator — — — — — 1 1 Guadeloupe
and St. Lucia

Fringillidæ.
Loxigilla — — 1 1 — 1 3 Martinique
and
Dominica
Melopyrrha 1 — — — — — 1
Sycalis — — — 1 — — 1 S. American
species
Phonipara 3 — 3 3 2 — 4 One S.
American
species
Chrysomitris — — 1 — — — 1

Icteridæ.
Icterus 1 — 1 1 2 2 6
Agelæus 2 — — — 1 — 3

Sturnella 1 — — — — — 1 Mexican
species
Nesopsar — — — 1 — — 1
Scolecophagus 1 — — — — — 1
Quiscalus — — 1 1 2 2 4 St. Lucia,
Martinique
and
Barbadoes

Tyrannidæ.
Elainea — — — 2 — 1 3
Pitangus 1a — — 1a 1 — 2
Contopus — — — 1 — 1 2 St. Lucia
Myiarchus 2 — 1 3 1 1b 7 One S.
American
species (b)
Blacicus 1a — 1a 1 — — 2
Tyrannus 2 — — 1b 1b 2b 3 One sp. in
Cen. America
(b)

Cotingidæ.
Hadrostomus — — — 1 — — 1

Picidæ.
Campephilus 1 — — — — — 1
Xiphidiopicus 1 — — — — — 1
Melanerpes — — — — 1 — 1
Chloronerpes — — 1 — — — 1
Centurus 1 — 1 1 — — 3
Colaptes 2 — — — — — 2
Nesoceleus 1 — — — — — 1
Picumnus — — ?1 — — — 1

Cuculidæ.
Saurothera 1 — 1 1 1 — 4

Hyetornis — — 1 1 — — 2
Coccygus 1 — 2 1 1 1 3 Dominica, St.
Lucia, all
Neotropical
species
Crotophaga 1 — — 1 1 1 2 N. & Cen.
American
species

Todidæ.
Todus 1 — 1 2 1 — 5

Trogonidæ.
Prionoteles 1 — — — — — 1
Temnotrogon — — 1 — — — 1

Caprimulgidæ.
Nyctibius — — — 1 — — 1 Neotropical
species
Chordeiles — — — 1 — — 1
Antrostomus 2 — — 1 — 1 2 One
Neotropical
species
Siphonorhis — — — 1 — — 1
Stenopsis — — — — — 1 1 Martinique
(S. America
sp.)

Cypselidæ.
Cypselus 1 — — 1 — — 1
Panyptila — — 1 — — — 1 S. American
species
Hemiprocne — — 1 1 — — 1 Mexican
species
Cypseloides — — — 1 — — 1

Trochilidæ.
Lampornis — — 1a 1 2a 1a 3
Doricha — 2 — — — — 2
Eulampis — — — — 1 2 2 St. Croix,
Dominica, St.
Lucia,
Martinique
Aithurus — — — 1 — — 1
Mellisuga — — 1 1 — — 1
Calypte 1 — — — — — 1
Orthorhynchus — — — — 1 2 3 Domin.,
Martini., St.
Lucia
Sporadinus 1 — 1 — 1 — 3

Conuridæ.
Ara 1 — — — — — 1 S. American
species
Conurus 1 — — 1 1 1 1 St. Thomas

Psittacidæ.
Chrysotis 1 — 1 2 1 3 8

Columbidæ.
Columba 1 — 1 2 2 1 3 One in
Honduras
Chamæpelia — — — 1 1 1 1
Zenaida 1 — 1 1 1 2 2
Leptoptila — — — 1 — — 1
Geotrygon 2 — 1 2 1 2 5 St. Lucia,
Martinique,
one species
Mexican
Starnœnas 1 — — — — — 1

Tetraonidæ.
Ortyx 1 — — — — — 1

Falconidæ.
Accipiter 2 — — — — — 2
Hypotriorchis — — — 1 — — 1 Mexican
species
Cerchneis 2 — 1 — — 1 2
Cymindis 1 — — — — — 1
Polyborus 1 — — — — — 1 Mexican
species

Strigidæ.
Nyctalops 1 — — — — — 1 S. American
species
Pseudoscops — — — 1 — — 1
Gymnoglaux 1 — — — 1 — 2 St. Croix and
St. Thomas
Glaucidium 1 — — — — — 1

Number of families resident land- in Antilles 26
of birds the
Totals " " genera " " " 95
" " species " " "
203

Reptiles and Amphibia.—These classes not having been systematically
collected, and the numerous described genera not having undergone careful
revision, little trustworthy information can be derived from them. The
following enumeration of the chief groups hitherto noticed or described,
will, however, show very similar features to those presented by the birds—a
general relation to Neotropical forms, a more special relation to those of
Central America and Mexico, and a considerable number of peculiar types.

Snakes.—Arrhyton (Calamariidæ) from Cuba, Hypsirhynchus from
Barbadoes, Cryptodacus from Cuba, Ialtris from Hayti, and Coloragia from
Cuba (all Colubridæ), have been described as genera peculiar to the
Antilles. Phylodryas and Dromicus (Colubridæ) are Antillean and
Neotropical; Ahætulla, (Dendrophidæ) has the same distribution but extends
to tropical Africa; Epicrates and Corallus (Pythonidæ) are Neotropical and
Antillean; while Chilabothrus from Jamaica and Ungalia from Cuba and
Jamaica (both Pythonidæ) are found elsewhere only in Central America and
Mexico. There appear to be no Crotalidæ except an introduced species of
Craspedocephalus in St. Lucia.

Lizards are more numerous. Ameiva (Teidæ) is found all over America,
Gerrhonotus (Zonuridæ) is Neotropical and occurs in Cuba;
Gymnopthalmus is South American and Antillean. Of Scincidæ seven
genera are noted. Celestus (with 9 species) is peculiar to the Antilles;
Camilia (1 species) to Jamaica, Panoplus (1 species) and Embryopus (1
species) to Hayti; Diplogossus is Antillean and South American; while
Plestiodon and Mabouya are cosmopolite. Of Geckotidæ there are four
genera; Phyllodactylus and Hemidactylus which are cosmopolite;
Sphærodactylus which is wholly American; and Cubina found only in
Martinique and Brazil. Of Iguanidæ there are six genera; Anolis, which
ranges all over America; Polychrus, which is Neotropical; Iguana and
Liocephalus which are South American; Tropedurus found in Cuba and
Brazil; and Cyclura only known from Jamaica, Cuba, and Central America.

Amphibia.—The genus Trachycephalus, belonging to the Hylidæ or tropical
tree-frogs, is almost peculiar to the Antilles; Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica
possessing seven species, while only one is recorded from South America.
Other genera are, Peltaphryne (Bufonidæ) from Portorico; Phyllobates
(Polypedatidæ) from Cuba; Leiuperus (Ranidæ) from Hayti,—all
Neotropical. Of the Urodela, or tailed batrachians, no representative occurs,
although they are so characteristic a feature of the Nearctic region.

Fresh-water fish.—The same general remarks apply to these as to the
reptiles. Only one peculiar genus is noted—Lebistes, a form of
Cyprinodontidæ from Barbadoes; other genera of the same family being,

Haplochilus, Rivulus, and Girardinus, widely spread in the Neotropical
region; while Gambusia is confined to Central America, Mexico, and the
Antilles. Four other families are represented; Siluridæ by Chætostomus,
found in Portorico and South America; Chromidæ by the South American
Acara; Mugillidæ by the Central American Agonostoma; and Percidæ by
the North American Centrarchus, of which a species is recorded from Cuba.

Insects.—The various West Indian islands have not been well explored
entomologically; one reason no doubt being, that their comparative poverty
renders them little attractive to the professional collector, while the
abounding riches of Central and South America lie so near at hand. We can,
therefore, hardly tell whether the comparative poverty, or even total absence
of some families while others seem fairly represented, is a real phenomenon
of distribution, or only dependent on imperfect knowledge. Bearing this in
mind, we proceed to give a sketch of what is known of the chief groups of
Lepidoptera and Coleoptera.

Lepidoptera.—The Neotropical butterfly-fauna is but poorly represented,
the majority of the most remarkable types being entirely wanting; yet there
are a few peculiar and very characteristic forms which show great isolation,
while the majority of the species are peculiar. Four genera are exclusively
or characteristically Antillean,—Calisto belonging to the Satyridæ, with
four species, of which one ranges to South Carolina; Clothilda
(Nymphalidæ) a fine genus which has 4 Antillean species and 2 in Central
America; Lucinia (Nymphalidæ) 2 species, confined to Jamaica and Hayti;
and Kricogonia belonging to the Pieridæ, which has 2 West Indian species,
while 1 inhabits Mexico and Florida. Genera which show a special relation
to Central America are Euptoieta, Eumæus, and Nathalis. Almost all the
other genera are South American, the total number recorded in each family
as occurring in the West Indian islands, being, 3 of Danaidæ; 1 of
Heliconiidæ; 2 of Satyridæ; 18 of Nymphalidæ; 1 of Erycinidæ; 4 of
Lycænidæ; 6 of Pieridæ; 1 of Papilionidæ, and 10 of Hesperidæ. The genus
Papilio is represented by about 20 species, 2 of which are North American,
4 South American, while the rest form little characteristic groups allied to
those of Central America. The most marked feature seems to be the scarcity
of Satyridæ and the almost total absence of Erycinidæ, with a great

deficiency in characteristic Neotropical forms of Danaidæ and
Nymphalidæ.

Coleoptera.—Cicindelidæ and Carabidæ are very poorly represented, by a
few species of wide-spread groups, and hardly any peculiar genera. No
Lucanidæ are recorded. Of Cetoniidæ, Gymnetis only appears to be
represented. Buprestidæ seem to be more numerous; 15 genera being
recorded, but almost all of wide distribution. One only is peculiar—
Tetragonoschoma, found in Hayti; Halecia is the only exclusively South
American genus; Chalcophora is widely scattered over the tropical regions
but is absent from South America, yet it occurs in the Nearctic region and
extends to Jamaica and Guadeloupe. We now come to the Longicorns, the
only group of Coleoptera which seems to be well represented, or which has
been carefully collected. No less than 40 genera are known from the West
Indian islands, and 15 of these are peculiar. Prionidæ are proportionately
very numerous, there being 10 genera, 2 of which are widely distributed in
both South and North America, 1 is North American, and 1 South
American, while the following are peculiar,—Stenodontes (Hayti and
Cuba); Dendroblaptus (Cuba); Monodesmus (Cuba and Jamaica);
Prosternodes (Cuba); Solenoptera and Elateropsis, the two largest genera
found in most of the islands. Of Cerambycidæ there are 16 genera, 2 of
which range all over America, 4 are Neotropical, 1 South American only,
while the following are confined to the islands,—Merostenus, Pentomacrus,
and Eburiola (Jamaica); Bromiades (Cuba); Trichrous, Heterops, and
Pæciloderma (Antilles). One genus, Smodicum, is widely spread, having a
species in Carolina, 1 in South America, 1 in Hayti, and 1 in West Africa.
Of Lamiidæ there are 14 genera, 8 of which are Neotropical, 1 common to
Central America and Mexico, 1 to the United States and Cuba, while 2,
Proecha and Phidola, are confined to Cuba. Several of the genera are
curiously distributed;—Spalacopsis is South American, with 4 species in
Cuba and Tropical Africa; Lagocheirus is Neotropical, with a species in
Australia; while Leptostilus is characteristic of the Antilles and North
America, with a few species in South America, and one in New Zealand.
These cases of erratic distribution, so opposed to the general series of
phenomena among which they occur, must be held to be sufficiently
explained by the great antiquity of these groups and their former wide
distribution. They may be supposed to be the remnants of types, now dying

out, which were once, like Callichroma, Clytus, and many others, almost
universally distributed.

All the peculiar Antillean genera of Cerambycidæ and Lamiidæ are allied to
Neotropical forms. The peculiar Prionidæ, however, are mostly allied to
Mexican and North American groups, and one, Monodesmus, belongs to a
group all the other genera of which inhabit the East Indies and South Africa.

Land-shells.—This subject has already been generally treated under the
Region, of which, in this class of animals, the Antilles form so important a
part. We must therefore now confine ourselves mainly to the internal
distribution of the genera, and to a few remarks on the general bearing of
the facts.

The excessive and altogether unexampled productiveness of the West Indian
islands in land-shells, may be traced to two main sets of causes. The first
and least known, consist of the peculiar influences and conditions which
render islands always more productive than continents. Whatever these
conditions are, they will be more effective where the islands have been long
separated from the mainland, as is here undoubtedly the case. It seems most
probable that the great development of land-shells in islands, is due to the
absence or deficiency of the vertebrata, which on continents supply a
variety of species adapted to prey upon these molluscs. This view is
supported by the fact, that in such islands as have been united to a continent
at no very distant epoch, and still maintain a continental variety of
vertebrata, no such special development of land-shells has taken place. If
we compare the Philippine islands with the Sunda group, we find the
development of vertebrata and land-molluscs in inverse ratio to each other.
The same thing occurs if we compare New Zealand and Tasmania; and we
have a still more striking example in the Antillean group itself, continental
Trinidad having only 20 genera and 38 species, while the highly insular
Jamaica has about 30 genera and more than 500 species.

The other causes favourable to the increase and development of land-shells
are of a physical nature. A great extent of limestone-rock is one; and in the
larger West Indian islands we have a considerable proportion of the surface

consisting of this rock. But perhaps equally or more important, is the
character of the land surface, and the texture of the exposed rock itself. A
much broken surface, with numerous deep ravines, cutting up the whole
country into isolated valleys and ridges, seems very favourable to the
specialization of forms in this very sedentary class of animals. Equally
favourable is a honeycombed and highly-fissured rock-surface, affording
everywhere cracks and crannies for concealment. Now, taking Jamaica as
an example of the archipelago, we find all these conditions in a wonderful
degree. Over a large part of this island, a yard of level ground can hardly be
found; but ridges, precipices, ravines, and rock-bound valleys, succeed each
other over the whole country. At least five-sixths of the entire surface is
limestone, and under the influence of tropical rains this rock is worn,
fissured, and honeycombed, so as to afford ample shelter and concealment
for land-shells.

It is probable that the three chief islands, Cuba, Jamaica and Hayti, are
nearly equally rich in land-shells; but the last is very much less known, and
therefore, perhaps, appears to be much poorer. Cuba has rather more species
than Jamaica; but while the former has only 1 peculiar genus (Diplopoma),
the latter has 3 (Geomelania, Chittya, and Jamaicea), as well as two others
only represented in the other islands by single species. From Hayti, only
about one-third as many species are known as from the two former islands.
It has no peculiar genera, but it has some forms in common with Cuba and
others with Jamaica, which show that those islands have more connection
with it, than with each other; just as we found to be the case in birds.
Portorico and the Virgin islands have still fewer species than Hayti; and, as
many of the genera common to the other three islands are wanting, there is,
no doubt, here a real deficiency. In the islands farther south (Barbuda to
Martinique) more Antillean genera disappear or become very rare, while
some continental forms take their place. The islands from St. Lucia to
Trinidad have a still more continental character; the genus Bulimus, so
largely developed on the continent, only reaching St. Lucia. The Bahamas
contain about 80 species of land-shells, of which 25 are Antillean, the rest
peculiar; all the genera being Antillean. The affinity is chiefly with Hayti
and Cuba, but closest with the latter island.

In the West Indian islands as a whole, there are 11 peculiar genera; 9
operculate (Geomelania, Chittya, Jamaicea, Licina, Choanopoma,
Ctenopoma, Diplopoma, Stoastoma, Lucidella); and 2 inoperculate (Sagda
and Stenopus), besides Cyclostomus, which belongs to the Old World and is
not found on the American continent. Mr. Bland considers, that many of the
Antillean land-shells exhibit decided African and Asiatic, rather than South
American affinities. A species of the Asiatic genus Diplommatina has been
found in Trinidad, and an Indian species of Ennea occurs in Grenada and St.
Thomas; a clear indication that land-shells are liable to be accidentally
imported, and to become established in the less productive islands.

Although these islands are so wonderfully rich even now, there is good
reason to believe that many species have become extinct since the European
occupation of them. When small islands are much cultivated, many of these
molluscs which can only live under the shade of forests, are soon
extirpated. In St. Croix many species have become extinct at a
comparatively recent period, from the burning of forests; and as we know
that in all the islands many of the species are excessively local, being often
confined to single valleys or ridges, we may be sure that wherever the
native forests have disappeared before the hand of man, numbers of land
shells have disappeared with them. As some of the smaller islands have
been almost denuded of their wood, and in the larger ones extensive tracts
have been cleared for sugar cultivation, a very considerable number of
species have almost certainly been exterminated.

General Conclusions as to the Past History of the West Indian Islands.—
The preceding sketch of the peculiarities of the animal life of these islands,
enables us to state, that it represents the remains of an ancient fauna of
decided Neotropical type, having on the whole most resemblance to that
which now inhabits the Mexican sub-region. The number of peculiar genera
in all classes of animals is so great in proportion to those in common with
the adjacent mainland, as to lead us to conclude that, subsequent to the
original separation from the Mexican area, a very large tract of land existed,
calculated to support a rich and varied fauna, and, by the interaction of
competing types, give rise to peculiar and specially modified organisms. We
have already shown that the outline of the present islands and the depths of
the surrounding seas, give indications of the position and extent of this

ancient land; which not improbably occupied the space enclosed by uniting
Western Cuba with Yucatan, and Jamaica with the Mosquito Coast. This
land must have stretched eastward to include Anguilla, and probably
northward to include the whole of the Bahamas. At one time it perhaps
extended southward so as to unite Hayti with northern Venezuela, while
Panama and Costa Pica were sunk beneath the Pacific. At this time the
Lesser Antilles had no existence.

The only large island of whose geology we have any detailed account, is
Jamaica; and taking this as a type of what will probably be found in Cuba
and Hayti, we must place the continental period as having occurred after the
close of the Miocene, or during some part of the Pliocene epoch, since a
large portion of the surface of the former island consists of beds of marine
limestone from 2,000 to 3,000 thick, believed to be of Pliocene age. After
some time, the land between Hayti and South America subsided, and still
later that between Central America and Cuba with Jamaica; but a large tract
of land remained insulated, and no doubt supported a very much richer and
more varied fauna than now. We have evidence of this in extinct Mammalia
of large size, belonging to the peculiar South American family of the
chinchillas, which have been found in caves in the small islands of
Anguilla, and which, from the character of the land-shells associated with
them, are believed to be of Pliocene or Post-pliocene age. This discovery is
most interesting, and gives promise of very valuable results from the
exploration of the numerous caverns that undoubtedly exist in the abundant
limestone strata of the larger islands. This extensive Antillean land, after
long continuing undivided, was at length broken up by subsidence into
several islands; but as this alone would not account for the almost complete
annihilation of the mammalian fauna, it seems probable that the subsidence
was continued much farther, so as greatly to reduce the size and increase the
number of the islands. This is indicated, by the extensive alluvial plains in
Cuba and Hayti, and to a less extent in Jamaica; and by elevated beds of
Post-pliocene marls in the latter island.

The series of changes now suggested, will account for all the main features
of the Antillean fauna in its relations to that of the American continent.
There remains the affinity with Madagascar, indicated by Solenodon, and a
few cases of African and Asiatic affinity in insects and land-shells; but these

are far too scanty to call for any attempt at special explanation. Such cases
of remote affinity and discontinuous distribution, occur in all the regions,
and in almost every group of animals; and we look upon them almost all, as
cases of survival, under favourable conditions, of once wide-spread groups.
If no wild species of the genus Equus were now to be found, except in
South Africa (where they are still most abundant), and in South Temperate
America, where their fossil remains show us they did exist not very long
ago, what a strong fact it would have appeared for the advocates of
continental extensions! Yet it would have been due to no former union of
the great southern continents, but to the former extensive range of the
family or the genus to which the two isolated remnants belonged. And if
such an explanation will apply to the higher vertebrata, it is still more likely
to be applicable to similar cases occurring among insects or mollusca, the
genera of which we have every reason to believe to be usually much older
than those of vertebrates. It is in these classes that examples of widely
scattered allied species most frequently occur; and the facility with which
they are diffused under favourable conditions, renders any other explanation
than that here given altogether superfluous.

The Solenodon is a member of an order of Mammalia of low type
(Insectivora) once very extensive and wide-spread, but which has begun to
die out, and which has left a number of curious and isolated forms thinly
scattered over three-fourths of the globe. The occurrence, therefore, of an
isolated remnant of this order in the Antilles is not in itself remarkable; and
the fact that the remainder of the family to which the Antillean species
belong has found a refuge in Madagascar, where it has developed into
several distinct types, does not afford the least shred of argument on which
to found a supposed independent land connection between these two sets of
islands.

Summary of the Past History of the Neotropical Region.

We have already discussed this subject, both in our account of extinct
animals, and in various parts of the present chapter. It is therefore only
necessary here, briefly to review and summarise the conclusions we have
arrived at.

The whole character of Neotropical zoology, whether as regards its
deficiencies or its specialities, points to a long continuance of isolation from
the rest of the world, with a few very distant periods of union with the
northern continent. The latest important separation took place by the
submergence of parts of Nicaragua and Honduras, and this separation
probably continued throughout much of the Miocene and Pliocene periods;
but some time previous to the coming on of the glacial epoch, the union
between the two continents took place which has continued to our day.
Earlier submergences of the isthmus of Panama probably occurred, isolating
Costa Rica and Veragua, which then may have had a greater extension, and
have thus been able to develope their rich and peculiar fauna.

The isthmus of Tehuantepec, at the south of Mexico, may, probably, also
have been submerged; thus isolating Guatemala and Yucatan, and leading to
the specialization of some of the peculiar forms that now characterise those
countries and Mexico.

The West Indian Islands have been long isolated and have varied much in
extent. Originally, they probably formed part of Central America, and may
have been united with Yucatan and Honduras in one extensive tropical land.
But their separation from the continent took place at a remote period, and
they have since been broken up into numerous islands, which have probably
undergone much submergence in recent times. This has led to that poverty
of the higher forms of life, combined with the remarkable speciality, which
now characterises them; while their fauna still preserves a sufficient
resemblance to that of Central America to indicate its origin.

The great continent of South America, as far as we can judge from the
remarkable characteristics of its fauna and the vast depths of the oceans east
and west of it, has not during Tertiary, and probably not even during
Secondary times, been united with any other continent, except through the
intervention of North America. During some part of the Secondary epoch it
probably received the ancestral forms of its Edentates and Rodents, at a
time when these were among the highest types of Mammalia on the globe.
It appears to have remained long isolated, and to have already greatly
developed these groups of animals, before it received, in early Tertiary

times, the ancestors of its marmosets and monkeys, and, perhaps also, some
of its peculiar forms of Carnivora. Later, it received its Camelidæ,
peccaries, mastodons, and large Carnivora; and later still, just before the
Glacial epoch, its deer, tapir, opossums, antelopes, and horses, the two latter
having since become extinct. All this time its surface was undergoing
important physical changes. What its earlier condition was we cannot
conjecture, but there are clear indications that it has been broken up into at
least three large masses, and probably a number of smaller ones; and these
have no doubt undergone successive elevations and subsidences, so as at
one time to reduce their area and separate them still more widely from each
other, and at another period to unite them into continental masses. The
richness and varied development of the old fauna of South America, as still
existing, proves, however, that the country has always maintained an
extensive area; and there is reason to believe that the last great change has
been a long continued and steady increase of its surface, resulting in the
formation of the vast alluvial plains of the Amazon, Orinoko, and La Plata,
and thus greatly favouring the production of that wealth of specific forms,
which distinguishes South America above all other parts of our globe.

The southern temperate portion of the continent, has probably had a
considerable southward extension in late Tertiary times; and this, as well as
the comparatively recent elevation of the Andes, has given rise to some
degree of intermixture of two distinct faunas, with that proper to South
Temperate America itself. The most important of these, is the considerable
Australian element that appears in the insects, and even in the reptiles and
fresh-water fishes, of South Temperate America. These may be traced to
several causes. Icebergs and icefloes, and even solid fields of ice, may,
during the Glacial epoch, have afforded many opportunities for the passage
of the more cold-enduring groups; while the greater extension of southern
lands and islands during the warm periods—which there is reason to believe
prevailed in the southern as well as in the northern regions in Miocene
times—would afford facilities for the passage of the reptiles and insects of
more temperate zones. That no actual land-connection occurred, is proved
by the total absence of interchange of the mammals or land-birds of the two
countries, no less than by the very fragmentary nature of the resemblances
that do exist. The northern element consists almost wholly of insects; and is
evidently due to the migration of arctic and north temperate forms along the

ridges and plateaus of the Andes; and most likely occurred when these
organisms were driven southward at successive cold or Glacial periods.

A curious parallel exists between the past history and actual zoological
condition of South America and Africa. In both we see a very ancient land-
area extending into the South Temperate zone, isolated at a very early
period, and developing only a low grade of Mammalian life; chiefly
Edentates and Rodents on the one, Lemurs and Insectivora in the other.
Later we find an irruption into both of higher forms, including
Quadrumana, which soon acquired a large and special development in the
tropical portions of each country. Still later we have an irruption into both
of northern forms, which spread widely over the two regions, and having
become extinct in the land from whence they came, have been long held to
be the original denizens of their adopted country. Such are the various
forms of antelopes, the giraffe, the elephant, rhinoceros, and lion in Africa;
while in America we have deer and peccaries, the tapir, opossums, and the
puma.

On the whole, we cannot but consider that the broad outlines of the
zoological history of the Neotropical region can be traced with some degree
of certainty; but, owing to the absence of information as to the most
important of the geological periods—the Miocene and Eocene—we have no
clue to the character of its early fauna, or to the land connections with other
countries, which may possibly have occurred in early Tertiary times.

TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of the various classes
of animals in the Neotropical region, the following sources of information
have been relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and
catalogues used in the compilation of the Fourth Part of this work.

Mammalia.—D'Orbigny, and Burmeister, for Brazil and La Plata; Darwin,
and Cunningham, for Temperate S. America; Tschudi, for Peru; Frazer, for

Ecuador; Salvin, for Guatemala; Frantzius, for Costa Rica; Sclater, for
Quadrumana N. of Panama; Gundlach, for Cuba; and papers by Dr. J. E.
Gray, and Mr. Tomes.

Birds.—Sclater and Salvin's Nomenclator; Notes by Darwin, and
Cunningham; Gundlach, March, Bryant, Baird, Elliot, Newton, Semper, and
Sundevall, for various islands of the Antilles; and papers by Hudson,
Lawrence, Grayson, Abbott, Sclater, and Salvin.

TABLE I.

FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NEOTROPICAL REGION.

Explanation.

Names in italics show the families which are peculiar to the region.

Names enclosed thus (......) indicate families which barely enter the
region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Numbers correspond with those of the series of families in Part IV.

Sub-regions
Range beyond the
Order and Family
Region.
Chili. Brazil. Mexico. Antilles.

MAMMALIA.
Primates.
4. Cebidæ — —
5. Hapalidæ — (?)

Chiroptera.
10. Phyllostomidæ — — — — California

12. — — — — Cosmopolite
Vespertilionidæ
13. Noctilionidæ — — — — All tropical
regions

Insectivora.
18. Centetidæ — Madagascar

Carnivora.
23. Felidæ — — — All regions
but
Australian
28. Canidæ — — — All regions
but
Australian
29. Mustelidæ — — — All regions
but
Australian
30. Procyonidæ — — — N. America
32. Ursidæ — All regions
but Ethiopian
and
Australian
33. Otariidæ — S. temperate
zone
35. Phocidæ — (?) N. and S.
temperate
zones

Cetacea.
36 to 41 — Oceanic

Sirenia.
42. Manatidæ — — — Tropical
shores

Ungulata.
44. Tapiridæ — — Indo-Malaya
47. Suidæ — — Cosmopolite,
excl.
Australia
48. Camelidæ — Palæarctic
50. Cervidæ — — — All regions
but Ethiopian
and
Australian

Rodentia.
55. Muridæ — — — — Cosmopolite
59. Saccomyidæ — Nearctic
61. Sciuridæ — — All regions
but
Australian
63. Chinchillidæ —
64. Octodontidæ — — — Africa
65. Echimyidæ — — Ethiopian
66. Cercolabidæ — — Nearctic
68. Caviidæ — — — —
70. Leporidæ — — All regions
but
Australian

Edentata.
71. Bradypodidæ — —
73. Dasypodidæ — — —
75. — —
Myrmecophagidæ

Marsupialia.
76. Didelphyidæ — — — Temperate
N. America

BIRDS.
Passeres.
1. Turdidæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
2. Sylviidæ — — — Almost
cosmopolite
5. Cinclidæ — — Nearctic,
Palæarctic,
Oriental
6. Troglodytidæ — — — — Nearctic,
Palæarctic,
Oriental
8. Certhiidæ — Nearctic,
Palæarctic,
Oriental
9. Sittidæ — All regions,
excl. Africa
10. Paridæ — Nearctic,
Palæarctic,
Oriental
20. Corvidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
26. Cœrebidæ — — —
27. Mniotiltidæ — — — Nearctic
28. Vireonidæ — — — Nearctic
29. Ampelidæ — — Nearctic,
Palæarctic
30. Hirundinidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
31. Icteridæ — — — — Nearctic
32. Tanagridæ — — — — Nearctic
33. Fringillidæ — — — — All regions
but
Australian
38. Motacillidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
38a. — —
Oxyrhamphidæ

39. Tyrannidæ — — — — Nearctic
40. Pipridæ — —
41. Cotingidæ — — — —
42. Phytotomidæ —
44. — — —
Dendrocolaptidæ
45. Formicariidæ — —
46. Pteroptochidæ — —

Picariæ.
51. Picidæ — — — — All regions
but
Australian
54. Megalæmidæ — — Ethiopian,
Oriental
55. Rhamphastidæ — —
58. Cuculidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
60. Bucconidæ — —
61. Galbulidæ — —
64. Todidæ —
65. Momotidæ — —
66. Trogonidæ — — — Ethiopian,
Oriental
67. Alcedinidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
72. Steatornithidæ —
73. Caprimulgidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
74. Cypselidæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
75. Trochilidæ — — — — Nearctic

Psittaci.
80. Conuridæ — — — — S. United
States
81. Psittacidæ — — — Ethiopian

Columbæ.

84. Columbidæ — — — — Cosmopolite

Gallinæ.
87. Tetraonidæ — — — Almost
cosmopolite
88. Phasianidæ — All regions
but
Australian
91. Cracidæ — —
92. Tinamidæ — — —

Opisthocomi.
93. —
Opisthocomidæ

Accipitres.
94. Vulturidæ — — — — All regions
but
Australian
96. Falconidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
97. Pandionidæ — — — Cosmopolite
98. Strigidæ — — — — Cosmopolite

Grallæ.
99. Rallidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
100. Scolopacidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
101. Chionididæ —
102. Thinocoridæ —
103. Parridæ — — Tropical
regions
105. Charadriidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
108. Cariamidæ — —
109. Aramidæ — —
110. Psophiidæ —
111. Eurypygidæ — —
113. Ardeidæ — — — — Cosmopolite

114. Plataleidæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
115. Ciconiidæ — — — Nearly
cosmopolite
116. Palamedeidæ — —
117. — — — Ethiopian,
Phœnicopteridæ Indian

Anseres.
118. Anatidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
119. Laridæ — — — — Cosmopolite
120. Procellariidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
121. Pelecanidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
122. Spheniscidæ — S. temperate
zone
124. Podicipidæ — — — — Cosmopolite

Struthiones.
126. Struthionidæ — Ethiopian

REPTILIA.

Ophidia.
1. Typhlopidæ — — — Tropical
regions and
S. Palæarctic
2. Tortricidæ — Oriental, N.-
W. America
5. Calamariidæ — — — — All warm
countries
6. Oligodontidæ — Oriental,
Japan
7. Colubridæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
8. Homalopsidæ — — All the
regions

11. Dendrophidæ — — — — All tropical
regions
12. Dryiophidæ — — Oriental,
Ethiopian
13. Dipsadidæ — — All tropical
regions
14. Scytalidæ — — Philippine
Islands
16. — — Oriental
Amblycephalidæ
17. Pythonidæ — — — — All tropical
regions,
California
20. Elapidæ — — — Tropical
regions,
Japan, S.
Carolina
23. Hydrophidæ — Oriental,
Australian,
Madagascar
24. Crotalidæ — — — — Nearctic,
Palæarctic,
Oriental

Lacertilia.
27. Chirotidæ — Missouri
28. — — — Ethiopian, S.
Amphisbænidæ Palæarctic
29. — — Ethiopian
Lepidosternidæ
31. Helodermidæ —
32. Teidæ — — — — Nearctic
34. Zonuridæ — — — Nearctic,
Ethiopian, S.
Europe, and
N. India
35. Chalcidæ — — — Nearctic

36. Anadiadæ —
37. Chirocolidæ —
38. Iphisadæ —
39. Cercosauridæ —
41. — — Australian,
Gymnopthalmidæ Ethiopian,
Palæarctic
45. Scincidæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
49. Geckotidæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
50. Iguanidæ — — — — Nearctic

Crocodilia.
55. Crocodilidæ — — — Ethiopian,
Oriental, N.
Australian
56. Alligatoridæ — — Nearctic

Chelonia.
57. Testudinidæ — — — — All
continents
but
Australian
58. Chelydidæ — Ethiopian,
Australian
60. Cheloniidæ Marine

AMPHIBIA.
Pseudophidia.
1. Ceciliadæ — — Oriental,
Ethiopian

Urodela.

6. — — Nearctic,
(Salamandridæ) Palæarctic

Anoura.
7. —
Rhinophrynidæ
8. Phryniscidæ — — — Ethiopian,
Australian,
Java
9. Hylaplesidæ — — —
10. Bufonidæ — — — — All
continents
but Australia
12. Engystomidæ — — — All regions
but
Palæarctic
13. — — Palæarctic,
Bombinatoridæ New Zealand
14. —
Plectromantidæ
15. Alytidæ — All regions
but Oriental
16. Pelodryadæ — — Australia
17. Hylidæ — — — — All regions
but Ethiopian
18. Polypedatidæ — — — — All the
regions
19. Ranidæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
20. Discoglossidæ — — All regions
but Nearctic
21. Pipidæ —

FISHES (FRESH-
WATER).
Acanthopterygii.

3. Percidæ — — — All regions
but
Australian
11. (Trachinidæ) — Australia
12. Scienidæ (?) — — (?) All regions
but
Australian
33. Nandidæ — Oriental
34. Polycentridæ — —
38. Mugillidæ (?) — — Australian,
Ethiopian
52. Chromidæ — — — — Ethiopian,
Oriental

Physostomi.
59. Siluridæ — — — — All warm
regions
60. Characinidæ — — — — Ethiopian
61. — S. Australia
Haplochitonidæ
67. Galaxidæ — Tasmania
and New
Zealand
73. — — — — Absent from
Cyprinodontidæ Australia
78. Osteoglossidæ — All tropical
regions
84. Gymnotidæ —
85. Symbranchidæ — Oriental,
Australian,
(? marine)

Dipnoi.
92. Sirenoidei — Ethiopian,
Australian

Plagiostomata.
112. Trygonidæ —

INSECTS.
LEPIDOPTERA
(PART).
Durini
(Butterflies).
1. Danaidæ — — — — All warm
regions, and
to Canada
2. Satyridæ — — — — Cosmopolite
4. Morphidæ — — Australian,
Oriental
5. Brassolidæ — —
6. Acræidæ — — All tropical
regions
7. Heliconiidæ — — —
8. Nymphalidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
9. Libytheidæ — — Absent from
Australia
10. Nemeobiidæ — — Not in
Australia or
Nearctic
regions
11. Eurygonidæ — —
12. Erycinidæ — — — Nearctic
13. Lycænidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
14. Pieridæ — — — — Cosmopolite
15. Papilionidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
16. Hesperidæ — — — — Cosmopolite

Sphingidea.
17. Zygænidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
18. Castniidæ — — — Australian

20. Uraniidæ — — — All tropical
regions
21. Stygiidæ — Palæarctic
22. Ægeriidæ — — — — Not in
Australia
23. Sphingidæ — — — — Cosmopolite

TABLE II.

GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE
NEOTROPICAL REGION.

Explanation.

Names in italics show the genera peculiar to the region.

Names enclosed thus (......) indicate genera which barely enter the
region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Genera undoubtedly belonging to the region are numbered
consecutively.

MAMMALIA.
Order, Family, and No. of Range within the Range beyond the
Genus. Species. Region. Region.

PRIMATES.
Cebidæ.
1. Cebus 18 Costa Rica to
Paraguay
2. Lagothrix 5 Upper
Amazon

and E.
Andes
3. Eriodes 3 East Brazil, S.
of Equator
4. Ateles 14 Almost all
tropical
America
5. Mycetes 10 E. Guatemala
to Paraguay
6. Pithecia 7 Equatorial
Forests
7. Brachiurus 5 Equatorial
Forests
8. Nyctipithecus 5 Nicaragua to
Amazonia
9. Saimiris 3 Costa Rica to
Brazil and
Bolivia
10. Callithrix 11 Panama to
Paraguay
Hapalidæ.
11. Hapale 9 Brazil and
Upper
Amazon
12. Midas 24 Equatorial
America to
Panama

CHIROPTERA.
Phyllostomidæ.
13. Lonchorina 1 West Indian
Islands
14. Macrophyllum 1 Brazil

15. Vampyrus
16. Lophostoma 25 Tropical
America and
Chili
17. Phyllostoma
18. Macrotus 1 Antilles and California
Mexico
19. Schizostoma 5 South
America
20. Brachyphylla 1 Antilles
21. Glossophaga 8 Tropical
America
22. Phyllonycteris 2 Cuba
23. Artibeus 4 S. America &
Antilles,
Costa Rica
24. Stenoderma 7 The whole
region
25. Sturnira 3 Chili to
Guatemala
26. Desmodus 3 Chili to
Mexico
27. Saccopteryx 1 Ecuador
28. Diphylla 1 Brazil
29. Centurio 3 Brazil to
Mexico
Vespertilionidæ.
30. Lasiurus 2 Tropical Nearctic
America
31. Scotophilus 7 Antilles, Nearc.,
Mexico to Austral.,
S. America Orien.
32. Vespertilio 12 The whole Cosmopolite
region
33. Nycticejus 3 S. Temperate Nearctic, India,
America Tropical

Africa
34. Natalus 1 S. America
and Antilles
35. Furipterus 2 S. America
36. Thyroptera 2 S. America
37. Nycticellus 1 Cuba
38. Taphozous 5 S. America Ethiopian,
Oriental,
Austro-
Malayan
39. Diclidurus 1 Brazil
Noctilionidæ.
40. Noctilio 2 Paraguay to
W. Indies
41. Mormops 1 Antilles and
Mexico
42. Phyllodia 1 Jamaica
43. Chilonycteris 5 Brazil and
West Indies
44. Pteronotus 1 Trinidad
45. Nyctinomus 2 La Plata to S. Nearc.,
Antilles & Orien.,
Costa Rica Madag.
46. Molossus 16 Paraguay and Ethiopian, S.
Chili to Palæarc.,
Antilles Australian

INSECTIVORA.
Centetidæ.
47. Solenodon 2 Cuba and
Hayti
Soricidæ.
(Sorex 1 Guatemala All other reg.
and Costa but Austrl.
Rica)

CARNIVORA.
Felidæ.
48. Felis 13 The whole All regions but
region, Austral.
excl.
Antilles
Canidæ.
49. Icticyon 1 Brazil
50. Chrysocyon 1 S. America
(Lupus 2 Mexico to Northern genus
Costa Rica)
51. Lycalopex 2 S. America
52. Pseudalopex 5 S. America,
Falkland
Islands, &
Tierra del
Fuego
53. Thous 2 S. America to
Chili
Mustelidæ.
54. Mustela 2 Andes of Peru All other reg.
but Austrl.
55. Galictis 2 S. America to
Chili &
Patagonia
56. Lontra 3 Central and S.
America to
Chonos
Archipelago
57. Nutria 1 W. coast of W. coast of N.
America to America
Chiloe
58. Pteronura 1 Surinam and
Brazil

59. Mephitis 3 Mexico to Sts. Nearctic to
of Magellan Canada
Procyonidæ.
60. Procyon 1 Tropical Nearctic to
America Canada
61. Nasua 5 Mexico to
Paraguay &
La Plata
62. Cercoleptes 1 Mexico to
Peru and N.
Brazil
63. Bassaris 2 Mexico and California and
Guatemala Texas
Ursidæ.
64. Tremarctos 1 Andes of Peru
and Chili
Otariidæ.
65. Otaria 1 Chili, La
Plata, and
Patagonia
66. Arctocephalus 1 Falkland New Zealand
Islands &
Cape Horn
Phocidæ.
67. Stenorhynchus 1 Falkland New Zealand
Islands
68. Lobodon 1 Antarctic
shores
69. Leptonyx 1 Antarctic S. Australia
shores, E.
Patagonia
70. Ommatophoca 1 Antarctic
shores

71. Morunga 1 Falkland California, S.
Islands temp. zone
72. Cystophora 1 Antilles N. Atlantic

CETACEA.
Delphinidæ.
73. Inia 1 Upper
Amazon

SIRENIA.
Manatidæ.
74. Manatus 1 Gulf of W. Africa
Mexico to
N. Brazil,
Amazon R.

UNGULATA.
Tapiridæ.
75. Tapirus 2 Equatorial S. Indo-Malaya
America
76. Elasmognathus 1 Panama to
Guatemala
Suidæ.
77. Dicotyles 2 Mexico to Texas
Paraguay
Camelidæ.
78. Auchenia 4 Temp. S.
America,
from Cape
Horn to
Andes of
Peru

Cervidæ.
79. Cervus 12 Mexico to All regions but
Patagonia Ethiopian
and Tierra and
del Fuego Australian

RODENTIA.
Muridæ.
80. Reithrodon 4 South Temp. United States
America to
Tierra del
Fuego
81. Acodon 1 Peru, 14,000
ft. elevation
82. Myxomys 1 Guatemala
83. Hesperomys 76 The whole Nearctic
region
84. Holochilus 4 S. America
85. Oxymycterus 3 Brazil and La
Plata
86. Drymomys 1 Peru
87. Neotomys 2 S. America
(Fiber 1 Mexico) Nearctic genus
Saccomyidæ.
88. Heteromys 6 Mexico,
Honduras,
Costa Rica
& Trinidad
Sciuridæ.
89. Sciurus 30 Mexico to All reg. but
Paraguay Australian
Chinchillidæ.

90. Chinchilla 2 Andes of Chili
and Peru
91. Lagidium 3 Chili to
Ecuador
(11,000 to
16,000 ft.)
92. Lagostomus 1 Uruguay to
Rio Negro
of
Patagonia
Octodontidæ.
93. Habrocomus 2 Chili
94. Capromys 3 Cuba and
Jamaica
95. Plagiodontia 1 Hayti
96. Spalacopus 2 Chili and E. of
Andes
97. Octodon 3 Chili, Peru,
and Bolivia
98. Ctenomys 6 S. Brazil to
Tierra del
Fuego
Echimyidæ.
99. Dactylomys 2 Guiana and
Brazil
100. Cercomys 1 Central Brazil
101. Lasiuromys 1 St. Paulo,
Brazil
102. Myopotamus 1 S. half of
tropical S.
America
103. Carterodon 1 Central Brazil
104. Mesomys 1 Upper
Amazon

105. Echimys 11 Equatorial
America to
Paraguay
106. Loncheres 10 New Granada
to Brazil
Cercolabidæ.
107. Cercolabes 12 Mexico to
Paraguay
108. Chætomys 1 N. Brazil
Caviidæ.
109. Dasyprocta 9 Paraguay to
Mexico and
Lesser
Antilles
110. Cœlogenys 2 Guatemala to
Paraguay
111. Hydrochœrus 1 Guiana to La
Plata
112. Cavia 9 Brazil and
Peru to
Magellan
Sts.
113. Kerodon 6 Brazil and
Peru to
Magellan
Sts.
114. Dolichotis 1 The Pampas
and
Patagonia
Leporidæ.
115. Lepus 1 Central Brazil All regions but
and Andes, Austral.
Costa Rica
to Mexico

EDENTATA.
Bradypodidæ.
116. Cholœpus 2 Costa Rica to
Brazil
117. Bradypus 2 Amazon to
Rio de
Janeiro
118. Arctopithecus 8 Costa Rica to
Brazil and
Bolivia
Dasypodidæ.
119. Tatusia 5 Rio Grande,
Texas, to
Patagonia
120. Prionodontes 1 Surinam to
Paraguay
121. Dasypus 4 Brazil to Chili
and La
Plata, Costa
Rica?
122. Xenurus 3 Guiana to
Paraguay,
Costa Rica?
123. Tolypeutes 2 Bolivia and La
Plata
124. Chlamydophorus 2 La Plata and
Bolivia
Myrmecophagidæ.
125. Myrmecophaga 1 Costa Rica?,
& N. Braz.,
to Parag.
126. Tamandua 2 Guatemala to
Paraguay

127. Cyclothurus 2 Honduras and
Costa Rica
to Paraguay

MARSUPIALIA.
Didelphyidæ.
128. Didelphys 20 Mexico to Temperate N.
Uruguay America
and S. Chili
129. Chironectes 1 Guiana and
Brazil,
Costa Rica
130. Hyracodon 1 Ecuador

BIRDS.

PASSERES.
Turdidæ.
1. Turdus 32 The whole Almost
reg. to cosmopolite
Tierra del
Fuego
2. Rhodinocichla 1 Mexico to
Venezuela
3. Melanoptila 1 Honduras
4. Catharus 10 Mexico to
Ecuador
and
Columbia
5. Margarops 4 Hayti and
Lesser
Antilles
6. Mimus 16 Nearly the Nearctic
whole

region
7. Melanotis 2 Mexico and
Guatemala
8. Galeoscoptes 1 Mexico to Nearctic
Panama
9. Mimocichla 4 Cuba to Porto
Rico
(Harporhynchus 3 Mexico) Nearctic genus
10. Cinclocerthia 3 Lesser
Antilles
11. Ramphocinclus 1 Martinique
and St.
Lucia
Sylviidæ.
12. Myiadestes 8 Mexico and N. & W. of N.
Antilles to America
Peru and
Bolivia
13. Cichlopsis 1 Brazil
(Sialia 2 Mexico and United States
Guatemala) & Canada
14. Regulus 2 Mexico and Nearctic,
Guatemala Palæarctic
15. Polioptila 6 Mexico and Cen. and S. U.
Cuba to States
Bolivia and
La Plata
Cinclidæ.
16. Cinclus 4 Mexico to Nearctic,
Venezuela Palæarctic
and Peru
Troglodytidæ.
17. Troglodytes 5 Mexico to Nearctic,
Straits of Palæarctic

Magellan
18. Thryophilus 13 Mexico to N.-W. America
Central
Brazil
19. Thryothorus 12 Mexico to S. N. America
Brazil
20. Cistothorus 3 Mexico to N. America
Chili and
Patagonia
21. Donacobius 2 Columbia to
Brazil and
Bolivia
22. Campylorhynchus 18 Mexico to New Mexico
Brazil and
Bolivia
23. Cyphorhinus 5 Costa Rica to
Peru
24. Microcerculus 5 Mexico to
Peru
25. Henicorhina 2 Mexico to
Peru
(Salpinctes 1 Mexico and Nearctic genus
Guatemala)
(Catherpes 1 Mexico) Gila and
Colorado
26. Cinnicerthia 2 Columbia and
Ecuador
27. Uropsila 1 Mexico
Certhiidæ.
(Certhia 1 Mexico and North
Guatemala) temperate
genus
Sittidæ.
(Sitta 2 Mexico) North
temperate

genus
Paridæ.
(Parus 1 Mexico) Nearc.,
Palæarc.,
Orient.
(Lophophanes 2 Mexico) North
temperate
genus
(Psaltriparus 1 Mexico and Nearctic
Guatemala)
Corvidæ.
28. Cyanocitta 16 Mexico to Nearctic
Peru and
Bolivia
29. Cyanocorax 12 Mexico to
Paraguay,
Jamaica
30. Calocitta 2 Mexico to
Guatemala
31. Psilorhinus 3 Mexico to
Costa Rica
32. Corvus 4 Mexico to Cosmop., excl.
Guatemala, S. Amer.
Cuba to
Porto Rico
Cœrebidæ.
33. Diglossa 14 Mexico to
Guiana,
Peru, and
Bolivia
34. Diglossopis 1 Venezuela to
Ecuador
35. Oreomanes 1 Ecuador

36. Conirostrum 6 Columbia to
Bolivia
37. Hemidacnis 1 Columbia and
Upper
Amazon
38. Dacnis 13 Costa Rica to
Guiana &
S. Brazil
39. Certhidea 2 Galapagos
Islands
40. Chlorophanes 2 Brazil to
Central
America,
Cuba
41. Cœreba 4 Mexico and
Cuba to
Guiana and
Brazil
42. Certhiola 10 Antilles to Florida
Ecuador
and Brazil
43. Glossiptila 1 Jamaica
Mniotiltidæ.
44. Siurus 3 Mexico to S. & E. States
Columbia, & Canada
Antilles
45. Mniotilta 1 Columbia to Eastern United
Mexico and States
Antilles
46. Parula 5 Brazil and Eastern U. S. &
Ecuador to Canada
Mexico
47. Protonotaria 1 Venezuela to Florida to Ohio
Central
America

and W.
India
48. Helminthophaga 5 Mexico to North America
Columbia
49. Helmintherus 1 Mexico to U. States to
Veragua Canada
50. Perissoglossa 1 Cuba, Hayti, E. United
and Porto States
Rico
51. Dendrœca 25 Mexico & W. All N. America
Indies to
Ecuador
and Chili
52. Oporornis 1 Guatemala to
Panama
53. Geothlypis 10 Brazil to All N. America
Mexico
54. Setophaga 12 Mexico to E. U. States &
Brazil Canada
55. Cardellina 1 Gautemala
and Mexico
56. Ergaticus 2 Guatemala
and Mexico
57. Myioodioctes 3 Columbia to U. States and
Mexico Canada
58. Basileuterus 22 Mexico to
Brazil
59. Icteria 1 Costa Rica to E. and Central
Mexico United
States to
Canada
60. Granatellus 3 Amazon to
Mexico
61. Teretristis 2 Cuba
Vireonidæ.

62. Vireosylvia 9 Venezuela to All N. America
Mexico &
Antilles
63. Vireo 10 Mexico to All United
Costa Rica States
& Antilles
64. Neochloe 1 Mexico
65. Hylophilus 16 Brazil to
Mexico
66. Laletes 1 Jamaica
67. Phœnicomanes 1 Jamaica
68. Vireolanius 4 Mexico to
Amazon
69. Cychloris 9 Mexico to
Paraguay
Ampelidæ.
70. Dulus 2 Hayti
(Ampelis 1 Mexico and N. temperate
Guatemala) genus
71. Ptilogonys 2 Mexico to
Costa Rica
(Phainopepla 1 Mexico) Gila and Lower
Colorado
Hirundinidæ.
72. Hirundo 9 Mexico and Almost
Antilles to cosmopolite
Chili and
La Plata
73. Petrochelidon 3 Mexico and Nearctic
Antilles to
Paraguay
74. Atticora 6 Guatemala to
Peru and
Brazil

75. Cotyle 2 Central All regions but
America to Austral.
La Plata
76. Stelgidopteryx 4 Mexico to S. United
Brazil States
77. Progne 4 The whole Nearctic
region
Icteridæ.
78. Clypeicterus 1 Upper
Amazon
79. Ostinops 8 Mexico to
Guiana,
Brazil, and
Bolivia
80. Cassiculus 1 Mexico
81. Cassicus 10 Mexico to S.
Brazil and
Bolivia
82. Icterus 33 Mexico to All U. States &
Antilles and Canada
La Plata
83. Dolichonyx 1 Mexico to E. U. States
Paraguay, and Canada
Galapagos
84. Molothrus 8 Mexico to La All U. States &
Plata and Canada
Bolivia
85. Agelæus 6 Mexico to All U. States &
Paraguay, Canada
Cuba, Porto
Rico
(Xanthocephalus 1 Mexico) Nearctic genus
86. Xanthosomus 4 Venezuela to
La Plata
87. Amblyrhamphus 1 Bolivia and La
Plata

88. Gymnomystax 1 Guiana and
Amazonia
89. Pseudoleistes 2 Brazil and La
Plata
90. Leistes 3 Venezuela to
Paraguay &
Bolivia
91. Sturnella 4 Cuba and All U. States &
Mexico to Canada
Chili,
Falkland
Islands &
Tierra del
Fuego
92. Curœus 1 Chili to
Magellan
Straits
93. Nesopsar 1 Jamaica
(Scolecophagus 1 Mexico, Cuba Nearctic genus
?)
94. Lampropsar 4 Guatemala to
Peru and
Guiana
95. Quiscalus 9 Mexico to S. and E.
Antilles & United
Venezuela States to
Labrador
96. Hypopyrrhus 1 Columbia
97. Aphobus 1 Brazil
Paraguay
and Bolivia
98. Cassidix 1 Mexico to
Brazil and
Guiana
Tanagridæ.

99. Procnias 2 Brazil and
Peru to
Columbia
100. Chlorophonia 7 Brazil to
Mexico
101. Euphonia 32 Mexico and
W. Indies to
Brazil and
Bolivia
102. Tanagrella 4 Columbia to
Guiana and
Brazil
103. Chlorochrysa 2 Columbia to
Peru
104. Pipridea 2 Venezuela to
Brazil and
Bolivia
105. Diva 1 Columbia and
Ecuador
106. Calliste 56 Guatemala to
Bolivia &
Paraguay
107. Iridornis 4 Columbia to
Peru
108. Pœcilothraupis 4 Columbia to
Bolivia
109. Stephanophorus 1 Brazil and La
Plata
110. Buthraupis 5 Veragua to
Bolivia
111. Compsocoma 5 Columbia to
Bolivia
112. Dubusia 2 Columbia and
Ecuador
113. Tanagra 12 Mexico to
Bolivia and
La Plata

114. Spindalis 5 Porto Rico to
Bahamas
115. Rhamphocœlus 11 Guatemala to
Brazil and
Bolivia
116. Phlogothraupis 1 Mexico to
Costa Rica
117. Euchætes 1 Eastern
Ecuador
118. Pyranga 11 Mexico to U. States and
Bolivia and Canada
Paraguay
119. Orthogonys 2 Brazil and
Guiana
120. Lamprotes 2 Brazil and
Columbia
121. Phænicothraupis 7 Mexico to
Paraguay
and Bolivia
122. Lanio 4 Mexico to
Bolivia
123. Eucometis 5 Costa Rica to
Bolivia
124. Trichothraupis 1 S. Brazil and
Paraguay
125. Creurgops 1 West Ecuador
126. Tachyphonus 11 Nicaragua to
Paraguay
127. Cypsnagra 1 S. Brazil and
Bolivia
128. Nemosia 11 Venezuela, W.
Ecuador, to
Brazil and
Bolivia
129. Pyrrhocoma 1 S. Brazil and
Paraguay

130. Chlorospingus 18 Mexico to
Peru and
Bolivia
131. Buarremon 20 Mexico to S.
Brazil and
Bolivia
132. Phænicophilus 1 Hayti
133. Arremon 12 Mexico to S.
Brazil
134. Oreothraupis 1 East Ecuador
135. Cissopis 3 Columbia to
Peru and
Bolivia
136. Lamprospiza 1 Guiana
137. Psittospiza 2 Columbia to
Peru
138. Saltator 17 Mexico to La
Plata and
Bolivia
139. Diucopis 2 Upper
Amazon
and S.
Brazil
140. Orchesticus 3 Tropical S.
America
141. Pitylus 8 Mexico to
Brazil and
Ecuador
Fringillidæ.
142. Chrysomitris 12 Mexico to Nearctic,
Brazil, Palæarctic
Chili and
Patagonia
143. Sycalis 9 Mexico to
Chili and

La Plata,
Jamaica
144. Coccothraustes 2 Mexico and Nearctic,
Guatemala Palæarctic
145. Geospiza 7 Galapagos
Islands
146. Camarhynchus 5 Galapagos
Islands
147. Cactornis 4 Galapagos
Islands
148. Phrygilus 10 Columbia to
Fuegia and
Falkland
Islands
149. Xenospingus 1 Peru
150. Diuca 3 Peru, Chili,
and
Patagonia
151. Emberizoides 3 Venezuela to
Paraguay
152. Doncacospiza 1 S. Brazil and
La Plata
153. Chamæospiza 1 Mexico
154. Embernagra 9 Mexico to La Rocky
Plata Mountains
155. Hæmophila 6 Mexico to
Costa Rica
156. Atlapetes 1 Mexico Nearctic?
157. Pyrgisoma 5 Mexico to
Costa Rica
158. Pipilo 4 Mexico to All Nearctic
Guatemala region
159. Junco 2 Mexico and United States
Guatemala
160. Zonotrichia 5 Mexico to Nearctic
Straits of
Magellan

(Melospiza 2 Mexico and Nearctic genus
Guatemala)
(Spizella 3 Mexico and Nearctic genus
Guatemala)
(Passerculus 1 Mexico and Nearctic genus
Guatemala)
(Poœcetes 1 Mexico) Nearctic genus
161. Ammodramus 1 Guatemala Nearctic
162. Coturniculus 4 Mexico to E. & N. of N.
Bolivia, America
Jamaica
163. Peucæa 4 Mexico S. E. States &
California
164. Tiaris 1 Brazil
165. Volatinia 1 Mexico to
Brazil
(Cyanospiza 4 Mexico and Nearctic
Central
America)
166. Paroaria 6 Trop. S.
America, E.
of Andes
167. Coryphospingus 4 Tropical S.
America
168. Porphyrospiza 1 Brazil
169. Haplospiza 2 Mexico and
Brazil
170. Phonipara 5 Mexico to
Columbia,
Greater
Antilles
171. Poospiza 12 Mexico to W. & Central
Bolivia and U. States
La Plata
172. Spodiornis 1 Ecuador
(Carpodacus 2 Mexico) Nearctic,
Palæarctic

173. Cardinalis 2 Mexico to S. & S. Cent.
Venezuela U. States
174. Guiraca 6 Mexico to Southern U.
Brazil and States
La Plata
175. Amaurospiza 2 Costa Rica
and Brazil
176. Hedymeles 2 Mexico to Nearctic
Columbia
177. Pheucticus 5 Mexico to
Peru and
Bolivia
178. Oryzoborus 6 Mexico to
Ecuador
and S.
Brazil
179. Melopyrrha 1 Cuba
180. Loxigilla 4 Antilles
181. Spermophila 44 Mexico to Texas
Bolivia and
Uruguay
182. Catamenia 4 Columbia to
Bolivia
183. Neorhynchus 1 W. Peru
184. Catamblyrhynchus 1 Columbia
(Loxia 1 Mexico) North
temperate
genus
(Calamospiza 1 Mexico) Arizona and
Texas
(Chondestes 1 Mexico) W. and Cent.
U. States
(Euspiza 1 Mexico to S.-E. U. States,
Columbia) Palæarc.
185. Gubernatrix 1 Paraguay and
La Plata

(Plectrophanes 1 Mexico) N. temp. &
Arctic genus
Alaudidæ.
186. Otocorys 1 Mexico, Nearc. &
Andes of Palæarc.
Columbia genus
Motacillidæ.
187. Anthus 4 Mexico to Cosmopolite
Patagonia
and
Falkland
Islands
Oxyrhamphidæ.
187a. Oxyrhamphus 2 Brazil to
Costa Rica
Tyrannidæ.
188. Conophaga 11 Columbia to
Bolivia and
Brazil
189. Corythopis 2 Brazil and
Guiana
190. Agriornis 5 Ecuador, Peru,
and Chili
191. Myiotheretes 3 Columbia to
Ecuador,
Patagonia
192. Tænioptepa 8 S. Brazil and
Bolivia to
Patago.
193. Ochthodiœta 1 Columbian
Andes
194. Ochthæca 17 Andes,
Bolivia to
Columbia

and
Venezuela
195. Sayornis 4 Mexico to E. United Sts.
Ecuador to Canada
196. Fluvicola 4 Guiana & W.
Ecuador to
Brazil, and
Bolivia
197. Arundinicola 1 Tropical S.
America
198. Alectorurus 2 S. Brazil and
La Plata
199. Cybernetes 1 Brazil
200. Sysopygis 1 S. Brazil and
La Plata
201. Cnipolegus 9 Amazonia to
Patagonia
202. Lichenops 1 Brazil and La
Plata
203. Muscipipra 1 S. Brazil
204. Copurus 3 Costa Rica to
S. Brazil
205. Machetornis 1 Venezuela to
Brazil
206. Muscisaxicola 11 Andes of
Ecuador to
Chili and
Patagonia
207. Centrites 2 Bolivia to
Patagonia
208. Muscigralla 1 W. Ecuador
209. Platyrhynchus 7 Mexico to
Brazil
210. Todirostrum 11 Tropical N.
and S.
America

211. Oncosotma 2 Tropical N.
America
212. Euscarthmus 12 Costa Rica to
W. Ecuador,
Brazil, and
Bolivia
213. Orchilus 2 Costa Rica to
Brazil and
Bolivia
214. Colopterus 2 Veragua to
Columbia
and Guiana
215. Hemitriccus 1 Brazil
216. Phylloscartes 1 Columbia to
Brazil
217. Hapalocercus 3 Brazil to Chili
and La
Plata
218. Habrura 1 Uruguay
219. Pogonotriccus 2 Brazil and
Columbia
220. Leptotriccus 2 Brazil and
Veragua
221. Stigmatura 2 Upper
Amazon to
La Plata
222. Serphophaga 7 Columbia to
Chili and
La Plata
223. Anæretes 4 Columbia to
Chili and
La Plata,
Magell. Sts.
& Juan
Fernand.
224. Cyanotis 1 W. Peru to La
Plata

225. Mionectes 4 Mexico to
Brazil and
Bolivia
226. Leptopogon 6 Mexico to
Peru and
Brazil
227. Capsiempis 1 Chiriqui to
Brazil
228. Phyllomyias 5 Columbia to
Brazil
229. Ornithion 4 Mexico to
Brazil
230. Tyrannulus 3 Guatemala to
Amazonia
231. Tyranniscus 9 Guatemala to
E. Peru
232. Elainea 18 Mexico to
Tierra del
Fuego,
Antilles
233. Empidagra 1 Bolivia and La
Plata
234. Legatus 2 Mexico to
Brazil
235. Sublegatus 2 Venezuela and
Lower
Amazon
236. Myiozetetes 8 Mexico to W.
Peru and
Brazil
237. Rhynchocyclus 10 Mexico to W.
Ecuador &
Brazil
238. Conopias 3 Venezuela to
Peru and
Brazil

239. Pitangus 7 Mexico to La
Plata,
Antilles
240. Sirystes 2 Panama to
Brazil
241. Myiodynastes 6 Mexico to
Bolivia and
Paraguay
242. Megarhynchus 1 Mexico to
Brazil
243. Muscivora 5 Mexico to W.
Ecuador &
Brazil
244. Hirundinea 3 Columbia &
Guiana to
Paraguay
245. Cnipodectes 1 Panama to W.
Ecuador &
Amazon
246. Myiobius 13 Mexico to W.
Peru,
Bolivia, and
La Plata
247. Pyrocephalus 3 Tropical N. Gila and Rio
and S. Grande
America
and
Galapagos
Islands
248. Empidochanes 4 Venezuela to
S. Brazil.
249. Mitrephorus 2 Mexico to
Costa Rica
250. Empidonax 12 Mexico to All N. America
Columbia
& Ecuador

251. Contopus 10 Mexico to N. & E. of
Amazonia, Rocky Mtns.
Antilles
252. Myiochanes 1 Amazonia and
Brazil
253. Myiarchus 12 Mexico to W. East and West
Ecuador & Coasts to
Brazil, Canada
Galapagos
and Antilles
254. Blacicus 2 Cuba, Hayti,
Jamaica
(Empidias 1 Mexico) Eastern United
States
255. Empidonomus 1 Guiana and
Brazil
256. Tyrannus 11 All tropical All U. States to
sub-regions Canada
257. Milvulus 2 Tropical N. Texas
and S.
America
Pipridæ.
258. Piprites 4 Costa Rica to
Brazil
259. Masius 2 Columbia and
Ecuador
260. Chloropipo 1 Columbia
261. Xenopipo 1 Guiana and
Columbia
262. Pipra 19 Trop. N. and
S. America
263. Neopipo 1 Upper
Amazon
264. Machæropterus 4 Columbia to
Brazil
265. Ilicura 1 Brazil

266. Chiroxiphia 5 Guatemala to
Brazil
267. Metopia 1 Brazil
268. Metopothrix 1 Upper
Amazon
269. Chiromachæris 6 Mexico to
Ecuador
and Brazil
270. Hetoropelma 10 Mexico to
Guiana and
Brazil
271. Heterocercus 2 Guiana and
Upper
Amazon
272. Schiffornis 2 Upper
Amazon
and Brazil
Cotingidæ.
273. Tityra 6 Tropical N.
and S.
America
274. Hadrostomus 5 Mexico to W.
Ecuador &
Brazil,
Jamaica
275. Pachyhamphus 11 Mexico to W.
Ecuador &
Brazil
276. Lathria 5 Mexico to
Brazil
277. Aulia 3 Veragua to
Brazil
278. Lipaugus 3 Guatemala to
Brazil and
Guiana
279. Ptilochloris 2 Brazil

280. Attila 8 Costa Rica to
Brazil and
Guiana
281. Casiornis 2 S. Brazil to
Paraguay
282. Rupicola 3 Guiana to W.
Ecuador &
Bolivia
283. Phœnicocercus 2 Guiana and
Amazonia
284. Tijuca 1 Brazil
285. Phibalura 1 Brazil
286. Pipreola 7 Venezuela to
Ecuador
and Peru
287. Ampelio 4 Columbia to
Peru and
Brazil
288. Carpodectes 1 Nicaragua and
Costa Rica
289. Heliochæra 2 Columbia to
Peru and
Bolivia
290. Cotinga 6 Guatemala to
Peru and
Brazil
291. Xipholena 3 Guiana to
Brazil
292. Iodopleura 3 Guiana to
Brazil
293. Calyptura 1 Brazil
294. Querula 1 Panama to
Amazonia
295. Hæmatoderus 1 Guiana and
Lower
Amazon

296. Chasmorhynchus 4 Costa Rica to
Guiana and
Brazil
297. Gymnocephalus 1 Guiana and
Rio Negro
298. Gymnoderus 1 Guiana and
Upper
Amazon
299. Pyroderus 3 Venezuela to
Brazil
300. Cephalopterus 3 Costa Rica to
W. Ecuador
& Upr.
Amazon
Phytotomidæ.
301. Phytotoma 3 Bolivia, Chili,
and La
Plata
Dendrocolaptidæ.
302. Geobates 1 South Brazil
303. Geositta 6 Peru to Chili
and
Patagonia
304. Furnarius 9 Guiana & W.
Ecuador to
La Plata
305. Clibanornis 1 S. Brazil
306. Upucerthia 4 Andes of
Ecuador to
Chili and
Patagonia
307. Cinclodes 5 Ecuador to
Chili,
Patagonia

and Tierra
del Fuego
308. Henicornis 2 Patagonia
309. Lochmias 2 Venezuela and
Brazil
310. Sclerurus 6 Mexico to
Brazil
311. Oxyurus 2 Chili to Tierra
del Fuego,
and
Masafuera
Islands
312. Sylviorthorhynchus 1 Chili
313. Phlæocryptes 1 W. Peru to La
Plata
314. Leptasthenura 5 Andes of
Ecuador to
Brazil and
Patagonia
315. Synallaxis 55 The whole
region
(excl.
Antilles)
316. Coryphistera 1 La Plata
317. Anumbius 1 Paraguay and
La Plata
318. Limnornis 1 Uruguay and
La Plata
319. Placellodomus 4 Venezuela to
Peru and La
Plata
320. Thripophaga 3 Brazil and
Columbia
321. Pseudocolaptes 1 Columbia to
Peru
322. Homorus 3 Brazil,
Bolivia, and

La Plata
323. Thripadectes 1 Columbia
324. Ancistrops 1 Upper
Amazon
325. Automolus 9 Mexico to
Amazonia
326. Philydor 14 Tropical South
America
327. Heliobletus 1 Brazil
328. Anabatoides 1 Brazil
329. Anabazenops 5 Mexico to
Brazil
330. Xenops 3 Trop. North
and South
America
331. Sittasomus 3 Mexico to
Ecuador
and Brazil
332. Margarornis 4 Costa Rica to
Peru and
Bolivia
333. Glyphorhynchus 1 Trop. North
and South
America
334. Pygarrhicus 1 Chili
335. Dendrocincla 10 Mexico to
Venezuela
and Brazil
336. Dendrocolaptes 7 Guatemala to
Peru and
Brazil
337. Nasica 1 Guiana
338. Drymornis 1 La Plata
339. Xiphocolaptes 5 Mexico to
Bolivia and
Paraguay
340. Dendrexetastes 2 Guiana

341. Dendrornis 14 Mexico, W.
Ecuador
and Brazil
342. Dendroplex 2 Columbia &
Venezuela
to Brazil
343. Picolaptes 14 Mexico to
Bolivia and
La Plata
344. Xiphorhynchus 4 Veragua to
Brazil
Formicariidæ.
345. Cymbilanius 1 Amazonia and
Guiana
346. Batara 1 S. Brazil
347. Thamnophilus 47 Trop. North
and South
America
348. Biatas 1 Brazil
349. Thamnistes 2 Central
America
and
Ecuador
350. Pygoptila 2 Amazonia
351. Neoctantes 1 Amazonia
352. Clytoctantes 1 Eastern
Ecuador
353. Dysithamnus 12 Mexico to
Bolivia and
Brazil
354. Thamnomanes 2 Ecuador,
Guiana, and
Brazil
355. Herpsilochmus 4 Venezuela to
Brazil and
Bolivia

356. Myrmotherula 21 Tropical S.
America
357. Formicivora 14 Trop. North
and South
America
358. Terenura 3 Veragua to W.
Ecuador &
Brazil
359. Psilorhamphus 1 Central Brazil
360. Microbates 1 Cayenne
361. Rhamphocænus 4 Guatemala to
Brazil
362. Cercomacra 9 Cen. America
to W.
Equador &
S. Brazil
363. Pyriglena 4 Ecuador to
Peru and
Brazil
364. Gymnocichla 2 Honduras to
Panama
365. Percnostola 3 Guiana and
Upper
Amazon
366. Heterocnemis 3 Guiana and
Upper
Amazon
367. Myrmeciza 11 Veragua to W.
Ecuador,
Bolivia, and
Brazil
368. Hypocnemis 15 Costa Rica to
W. Ecuador
& Brazil
369. Pithys 5 Nicaragua to
Amazonia
370. Rhopoterpe 1 Guiana

371. Phlogopsis 4 Nicaragua to
Guiana and
Bolivia
372. Formicarius 9 Mexico to
Brazil and
Bolivia
373. Pittasoma 1 Panama and
Veragua
374. Chamæza 4 Columbia to
Brazil
375. Grallaria 20 Mexico to W.
Ecuador &
Brazil
376. Grallaricula 5 Costa Rica to
Ecuador
Pteroptochidæ.
377. Scytalopus 8 Columbia &
Brazil to
Chili and
Tierra del
Fuego
378. Merulaxis 1 Central Brazil
379. Rhinocrypta 2 La Plata and
Patagonia
380. Liosceles 1 Madeira
Valley
381. Pteroptochus 2 Chili and
Chiloe
382. Hylactes 3 Chili
383. Acropternis 1 Columbia and
Ecuador
384. Triptorhinus 1 Chili

PICARIÆ.
Picidæ.

385. Picumnus 14 Honduras to
Brazil and
Bolivia
386. Picus 6 Mexico, Chili, All reg. but
La Plata, Austral. &
and S. Ethiopian
Patagonia
(Sphyrapicus 1 Mexico and Nearctic genus
Guatemala)
387. Campephilus 12 Mexico to Nearctic
Patagonia,
Cuba
388. Dryocopus 4 Mexico to S. Palæarctic
Brazil
389. Celeus 15 Mexico and S.
Brazil
390. Nesoceleus 1 Cuba
391. Chrysoptilus 6 Tropical S.
America
392. Centurus 10 Mexico to Nearctic
Venezuela,
Antilles
393. Chloronerpes 35 Tropical
America,
Hayti
394. Xiphidiopicus 1 Cuba
395. Melanerpes 9 Mexico to Nearctic
Brazil,
Porto Rico
396. Leuconerpes 1 Brazil, Bolivia
397. Colaptes 7 Open country Nearctic
of trop.
America,
Greater
Antilles
398. Hypoxanthus 1 Venezuela and
Ecuador

Megalæmidæ.
399. Capito 10 Costa Rica to
Peru and
Guiana
400. Tetragonops 2 Costa Rica
and
Ecuador
Rhamphastidæ.
401. Rhamphastos 12 All tropical
America
402. Pteroglossus 16 Mexico to
Guiana and
Brazil
403. Selenidera 7 Veragua to
Brazil
404. Andigena 6 Columbia to
W. Ecuador,
Bolivia and
Brazil
405. Aulacorhamphus 10 Mexico to
Venezuela
and Bolivia
Cuculidæ.
406. Crotophaga 3 Tropical Nearctic to
America Pennsylvania
and Antilles
407. Guira 1 Brazil and
Paraguay
408. Neomorphus 4 Nicaragua to
Brazil and
Upper
Amazon
409. Geococcyx 1 Guatemala Texas to
Calfornia

410. Dromococcyx 2 Mexico to
Brazil
411. Diplopterus 1 Mexico to
Ecuador
and Brazil
412. Saurothera 4 Greater
Antilles
413. Hyetornis 2 Jamaica and
Hayti
414. Piaya 3 Mexico to W.
Ecuador &
Brazil
415. Morococcyx 1 Mexico to
Costa Rica
416. Coccygus 10 Tropical Nearctic
America
and
Antilles,
Cocos
Islands
Bucconidæ.
417. Bucco 21 Guatemala to
Guiana,
Paraguay
and Bolivia
418. Malacoptila 10 Guatemala to
Guiana, W.
Ecuador
and Bolivia
419. Nonnula 5 Columbia and
Amazonia
420. Monasa 7 Costa Rica to
Brazil
421. Chelidoptera 2 Columbia to
Guiana and
Brazil

Galbrilidæ.
422. Galbula 9 Guatemala to
Brazil and
Bolivia
423. Urogalba 2 Guiana to
Lower
Amazon
424. Brachygalba 4 Columbia to
Brazil and
Bolivia
425. Jacamaralcyon 1 Brazil
426. Jacamerops 2 Columbia to
Amazonia
427. Galbalcyrhynchus 1 Upper
Amazon
Todidæ.
428. Todus 5 Greater
Antilles
Momotidæ.
429. Momotus 10 Mexico to W.
Ecuador,
Brazil and
Bolivia
430. Urospatha 1 Costa Rica to
Columbia
431. Baryphthengus 1 Brazil and
Paraguay
432. Hylomanes 2 Mexico and
Guatemala
433. Prionirhynchus 2 Guatemala to
Upper
Amazon
434. Eumomota 1 Honduras to
Chiriqui

Trogonidæ.
435. Prionoteles 1 Cuba
436. Temnotrogon 1 Hayti
437. Trogon 22 Mexico to W.
Ecuador &
Parag.
438. Euptilotis 1 Mexico
439. Pharomacrus 5 Guatemala to
Upper
Amazon
and Bolivia
Alcedinidæ.
440. Ceryle 8 Mexico to Nearc., S.
Brazil, Palæarc.,
Patagonia Orien.
and Chili
Steatornithidæ.
441. Steatornis 1 Columb.,
Venezuela,
& Trinidad
Caprimulgidæ.
442. Nyctibius 6 Brazil to
Guatemala
& Jamaica
443. Hydropsalis 8 Columbia &
Guiana to
La Plata
444. Antrostomus 10 Mexico and All U. States to
Cuba to Canada
Bolivia and
La Plata
445. Stenopsis 4 Martinique to
Columb.,

W. Peru and
Chili
446. Siphonorhis 1 Jamaica
447. Heleothreptus 1 Central Brazil
448. Nyctidromus 1 Central
America to
S. Brazil
449. Podager 1 Tropical S.
America
450. Lurocalis 2 Guiana to
Brazil
451. Chordeiles 7 Mexico to W. All U. States to
Peru and Canada
Brazil,
Jamaica and
Porto Rico
452. Nyctiprogne 1 Amazonia
Cypselidæ.
453. Cypselus 3 Antilles to The Eastern
Guiana and Hemisphere
Bolivia
454. Panyptila 3 Guatemala
and Guiana
455. Chætura 9 Mexico to Almost
Ecuador cosmopolite
and Brazil
456. Hemiprocne 3 Mexico to La
Plata,
Jamaica and
Hayti
457. Cypseloides 2 Brazil and
Peru
458. Nephœcetes 1 Jamaica
Trochilidæ.
459. Grypus 1 Brazil

460. Androdon 1 Ecuador
461. Eutoxeres 2 Costa Rica to
Ecuador
462. Glaucis 2 Panama to
Brazil
463. Phaethornis 14 Tropical N.
and S.
America
464. Pygmornis 8 Mexico to
Guiana and
Brazil
465. Threnetes 4 Costa Rica to
Amazonia
and W.
Ecuador
466. Dolerisca 1 Venezuela
467. Eupetomena 1 Guiana to
Brazil
468. Sphenoproctus 2 Mexico to
Guatemala
469. Campylopterus 9 Mexico to
Amazonia
470. Phæochroa 2 Guatemala to
Columbia
471. Aphantochroa 3 Ecuador and
Brazil
472. Urochroa 1 Ecuador
473. Sternoclyta 1 Venezuela
474. Eugenes 2 Mexico to
Costa Rica
475. Cœligena 1 Mexico
476. Lamprolæma 1 Mexico and
Guatemala
477. Delattria 2 Guatemala
478. Oreopyra 4 Costa Rica to
Chiriqui

479. Heliopædica 2 Mexico and
Guatemala
480. Topaza 2 Guiana
481. Oreotrochilus 6 Ecuador to
Peru and
Chili
482. Lampornis 7 Mexico & W.
India to
Amazonia
483. Eulampis 2 Lesser
Antilles
484. Avocettula 1 Guiana
485. Lafresnaya 2 Venezuela and
Columbia
486. Doryphora 5 Costa Rica to
Ecuador
487. Chalybura 5 Costa Rica to
Columbia
488. Heliodoxa 5 Costa Rica to
Venezue. &
Boliv.
489. Iolæma 2 Ecuador to
Peru
490. Phæolæma 2 Columbia and
Ecuador
491. Eugenia 1 Ecuador
492. Aithurus 1 Jamaica
493. Thalurania 10 Costa Rica to
Guiana,
Ecuador
and Brazil
494. Panoplites 3 Columbia and
Ecuador
495. Florisuga 2 Guatemala to
Brazil
496. Microchera 2 Nicaragua to
Veragua

497. Lophorius 7 Mexico to
Brazil,
Peru, &
Bolivia
498. Polemistria 2 Columbia to
S. Brazil
499. Discura 2 Brazil
500. Gouldia 4 Costa Rica to
Brazil &
Bolivia
501. Trochilus 2 Mexico to To Canada and
Veragua Sitka
502. Mellisuga 1 Jamaica to
Hayti
503. Calypte 3 Mexico and
Cuba
504. Selasphorus 7 Mexico to W. & Cen.
Veragua United
States
505. Atthis 1 Mexico and California and
Guatemala Colorado
506. Stellula 1 Mexico
507. Calothorax 2 Mexico
508. Acestrura 3 Venezuela to
Ecuador &
Bolivia
509. Chætocercus 3 Venezuela and
Ecuador
510. Myrtis 2 Ecuador to
Bolivia, W.
of Andes
511. Thaumastura 1 W. Peru
512. Rhodopis 2 W. Peru and
Chili
513. Doricha 5 Mexico to
Veragua,
Bahamas

514. Tilmatura 1 Guatemala
515. Calliphlox 2 Ecuador and
Brazil
516. Loddigesia 1 Peruvian
Andes
517. Steganura 6 Venezuela to
Ecuador &
Bolivia
518. Lesbia 6 Columbia to
Peru
519. Cynanthus 2 Venezuela to
Ecuador
520. Sparganura 4 Columbia to
Bolivia &
La Plata
521. Pterophanes 1 Columbia to
Peru
522. Aglæactis 4 Columbia to
Bolivia
523. Oxypogon 2 Venezuela and
Columbia
524. Oreonympha 1 Peru
525. Rhamphomicron 6 Columbia to
Bolivia
526. Urosticte 2 Ecuador
527. Metallura 6 Columbia to
Bolivia
528. Adelomia 4 Venezuela to
Peru &
Bolivia
529. Avocettinus 1 Columbia
530. Anthocephala 1 Columbia
531. Chrysolampis 1 Venezuela to
Brazil
532. Orthorhynchus 2 Lesser
Antilles
533. Cephalolepis 3 Brazil

534. Clais 1 Venezuela and
Columbia
535. Baucis 1 Mexico to
Veragua
536. Heliactin 1 Brazil
537. Heliothrix 3 Guatemala to
Ecuador &
Brazil
538. Schistes 2 Columbia and
Ecuador
539. Phlogophilus 1 Ecuador
540. Augastes 2 Brazil
541. Petasophora 5 Mexico to
Peru and
Brazil
542. Chrysobronchus 3 Venezuela to
Brazil
543. Patagona 1 Ecuador to
Bolivia and
Chili
544. Docimastes 1 Columbia and
Ecuador
545. Helianthea 7 Columbia to
Bolivia
546. Heliotrypha 2 Columbia and
Ecuador
547. Heliangelus 6 Venezuela to
Peru
548. Diphlogæna 3 Bolivia
549. Clytolæma 2 E. Ecuador
and Brazil
550. Bourcieria 5 Venezuela to
Peru
551. Lampropygia 4 Venezuela to
Bolivia
552. Heliomastes 5 Mexico to
Ecuador &

Venezuela
553. Lepidolarynx 1 Brazil
554. Calliperidia 1 Central Brazil
and
Paraguay
555. Eustephanus 3 Chili, S.
Patagonia,
and Juan
Fernandez
Island
556. Eriocnemis 14 Venezuela to
Ecuador
557. Cyanomyia 6 Mexico to
Peru
558. Hemistilbon 1 Mexico
559. Leucippus 2 Peru and
Bolivia
560. Thaumatias 15 Mexico to
Guiana,
Upr.
Amazon,
and Brazil
561. Amazilia 14 Mexico to W.
Ecuador &
Peru
562. Saucerottia 7 Costa Rica to
Columb. &
Venezue.
563. Eupherusa 3 Mexico to
Veragua
564. Chrysuronia 5 Guatemala to
Ecuador &
La Plata
565. Eucephala 7 Venezuela to
Guiana and
Brazil

566. Panterpe 1 Costa Rica
and
Chiriqui
567. Juliamyia 2 Panama to
Ecuador
568. Circe 3 Mexico
569. Phæoptila 1 Mexico
570. Damophila 1 Costa Rica to
Ecuador
571. Hylocharis 3 Amazonia and
Brazil
572. Sapphironia 2 Columbia and
Veragua
573. Sporadinus 3 Cuba,
Bahamas,
Hayti, Porto
Rico
574. Chlorostilbon 8 Mexico to
Brazil and
La Plata
575. Panychlora 3 Venezuela and
Columbia
576. Smaragdochrysis 1 Brazil

PSITTACI.
Conuridæ.
577. Ara 15 Trop. North
and South
America,
Cuba,
Jamaica
(extinct)
578. Rhyncopsitta 1 Mexico
579. Henicognathus 1 Chili
580. Conurus 30 The whole S. & S.E.
region United

States
581. Pyrrhura 16 Costa Rica to
Paraguay &
Bolivia
582. Bolborhynchus 7 Mexico to
Peru,
Central
Brazil, and
La Plata
583. Brotogerys 9 Trop. North
and South
America
Psittacidæ.
584. Caica 9 Mexico to
Amazonia
585. Chrysotis 32 All the
tropical
sub-regions
586. Triclaria 1 Brazil
587. Deroptyus 1 Guiana and
Rio Negro
588. Pionus 9 Costa Rica to
Bolivia and
Brazil
589. Urochroma 7 Venezuela to
Brazil
590. Psittacula 6 Mexico to W.
Ecuador &
Brazil

COLUMBÆ.
591. Columba 18 Trop. sub- All regions but
regions Austral.
with Chili
and La
Plata

592. Zenaidura 2 Mexico to Nearctic
Veragua
593. Chamæpelia 6 Mexico to S. Nearctic
Brazil and
Bolivia
594. Columbula 2 Brazil and La
Plata to
Chili
595. Scardafella 2 Guatemala
and Brazil
596. Zenaida 10 Antilles and S.
America to
Chili and
La Plata
597. Melopelia 2 Mexico to South & West
Chili Nearctic
598. Peristera 4 Mexico to
Brazil
599. Metriopelia 2 W. America
from
Ecuador to
Chili
600. Gymnopelia 1 West Peru and
Bolivia
601. Leptoptila 11 Tropical sub-
regions
602. Geotrygon 14 Tropical sub-
regions
603. Starnœnas 1 Cuba

GALLINÆ.
Tetraonidæ.
604. Odontophorus 17 Trop. North
and South
America

605. Dendrortyx 3 Mexico to
Costa Rica
606. Cyrtonyx 3 Mexico to S. Central
Guatemala United
States
607. Ortyx 5 Mexico to Nearctic to
Costa Rica, Canada
Cuba
608. Eupsychortyx 5 Mexico to
Columbia
and Guiana
(Callipepla 2 Mexico) California
Phasianidæ.
609. Meleagris 2 Mexico and Nearctic
Honduras
Cracidæ.
610. Crax 8 Mexico to
Venezuela
& S. Brazil
611. Nothocrax 1 Guiana and
Upper
Amazon
612. Pauxi 1 Guiana and
Venezuela
613. Mitua 2 Guiana to
Peru
614. Stegnolæma 1 Columbia and
Ecuador
615. Penelope 13 Trop. North
and South
America
616. Penelopina 1 Guatemala
617. Pipile 3 Venezuela to
Brazil and
Peru

618. Aburria 1 Columbia
619. Chamæpetes 2 Costa Rica to
Peru
620. Ortalida 18 Trop. North New Mexico
and South
America
621. Oreophasis 1 Guatemala
Tinamidæ.
622. Tinamus 7 Trop. North
and South
America
623. Nothocercus 3 Costa Rica to
Venezue. &
Ecuador
624. Crypturus 16 Trop. North
and South
America
625. Rhynchotus 2 Brazil to
Bolivia and
La Plata
626. Nothoprocta 4 Ecuador to
Bolivia and
Chili
627. Nothura 4 Brazil to
Bolivia and
La Plata
628. Taoniscus 1 Brazil and
Paraguay
629. Calodromas 1 La Plata
630. Tinamotis 1 Andes of Peru
and Bolivia

OPISTHOCOMI.
Opisthocomidæ

631. Opisthocomus 1 Guiana and
Lower
Amazon

ACCIPITRES.
Vulturidæ.
(Cathartinæ.)
632. Sarcorhamphus 2 The Andes
and S. of
41° S. Lat.
633. Cathartes 1 Mexico to 20°
S. Lat.
634. Catharista 1 Mexico to 40° S. United
S. Lat. States
635. Pseudogryphis 3 Mexico to United States
Falkland
Ids., Cuba,
Jamaica
Falconidæ.
636. Polyborus 2 The whole California and
region Florida
637. Ibycter 8 Guatemala to
Terra del
Fuego
638. Circus 3 Nearly the Almost
whole cosmopolite
region
639. Micrastur 7 Trop. North
and South
America
640. Geranospiza 2 Trop. North
and South
America
641. Antenor 1 Mexico to California and
Chili and Texas

La Plata
642. Astur 2 Trop. N. and Almost
S. America cosmopolite
643. Accipiter 9 The whole Almost
region cosmopolite
644. Heterospizias 1 Trop. S.
America, E.
of Andes
645. Tachytriorchis 2 Mexico to California
Paraguay
646. Buteo 9 Mexico to Almost
Patagonia cosmopolite
647. Buteola 1 Veragua to
Amazonia
648. Asturina 7 Mexico to S.E. United
Bolivia and States
La Plata
649. Busarellus 1 Brazil and
Guiana
650. Buteogallus 1 Columbia and
Guiana
651. Urubutinga 12 Mexico to
Brazil and
Bolivia
652. Harpyhaliæetus 1 Veragua to
Chili & N.
Patagonia
653. Morphnus 1 Panama to
Amazonia
654. Thrasaëtus 1 Mexico to
Bolivia and
Paraguay
655. Lophotriorchis 1 Bogota Indo-Malaya
656. Spiziastur 1 Guatemala to
Brazil
657. Spizaëtus 4 Mexico to Africa, India,
Paraguay Malaya

658. Herpetotheres 1 S. Mexico to
Bolivia &
Paraguay
659. Nauclerus 1 Mexico to S. United
Brazil States
660. Rostrhamus 3 Antilles to Florida
Brazil and
Peru
661. Leptodon 4 Central
America to
S. Brazil
and Bolivia
662. Elanus 1 Mexico to Califor., Old
Chili World trop.
663. Gampsonyx 1 Trinidad to
Brazil
664. Harpagus 3 Central
America to
Brazil &
Peru
665. Ictinia 2 Mexico to South United
Brazil States
666. Spiziapteryx 1 La Plata
667. Falco 3 The whole Almost
region cosmopolite
668. Cerchneis 3 The whole Almost
region cosmopolite
Pandionidæ.
669. Pandion 1 The whole Cosmopolite
region
Strigidæ.
670. Glaucidium 6 The whole W. United Sts.,
region Palæarc.
671. Micrathene 1 Mexico Arizona, New
Mexico

672. Pholeoptynx 1 The whole N. W. America
region & Texas
673. Bubo 1 The whole All regions but
region Austral.
674. Scops 6 Mexico to Almost
Brazil and cosmopolite
La Plata
675. Gymnoglaux 2 West India
Islands
676. Lophostrix 2 Guatemala to
Lower
Amazon
677. Syrnium 3 Mexico to All regions but
Patagonia Austral.
678. Ciccaba 10 Mexico to
Peru and
Paraguay
679. Nyctalatinus 1 Columbia
680. Pulsatrix 2 Guatemala to
Brazil and
Peru
681. Asio 2 The whole All regions but
region Austral.
682. Nyctalops 1 Cuba and
Mexico to
Brazil
683. Pseudoscops 1 Jamaica
(Nyctale 1 Mexico) N. Temperate
genus
684. Strix 2 The whole Almost
region cosmopolite

Peculiar or very characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming
Birds.

GRALLÆ.

Rallidæ.
Aramides 23 The whole Nearctic
region
Heliornis 1 Tropical
America
Scolopacidæ.
Eureunetes 3 The whole Nearctic
region
Chionididæ.
Chionis 2 Sts. of Kerguelen's
Magellan, Island
Falkland
Ids.
Thinocoridæ.
Attagis 4 Andes to
Fuegia and
Falkland
Islands
Thinocoris 2 Peru, Chili,
and La
Plata
Charadriidæ.
Phægornis 1 Temperate S.
America
Oreophilus 1 Temperate S.
America
Pluvianellus 1 Temperate S.
America
Aphriza 1 W. coast of S. W. coast of N.
America America
Cariamidæ.

Cariama 2 S. Brazil and
La Plata
Aramidæ.
Aramus 5 Mexico and
Cuba to
Brazil
Psophiidæ.
Psophia 6 Equatorial S.
America
Eurypygidæ.
Eurypyga 2 Tropical
America
Ardeidæ.
Tigrisoma 3 The whole
region
Cancroma 1 Tropical S.
America
Palamedeidæ.
Palamedea 1 Equatorial
America
Chauna 2 Columbia,
Brazil, and
La Plata

ANSERES.
Anatidæ.
Cairina 1 Tropical S.
America
Merganetta 3 Andes
Micropterus 1 Temperate S.
America

Spheniscidæ.
Eudyptes 6 Temperate S. Antarctic
America shores
Aptenodytes 2 Falkland Antarctic
Islands shores

STRUTHIONES.
Struthionidæ.
685. Rhea 3 S. Temperate
America

CHAPTER XV.

THE NEARCTIC REGION.

This region consists almost wholly of Temperate North America as defined
by physical geographers. In area it is about equal to the Neotropical region.
It possesses a vast mountain range traversing its entire length from north to
south, comparable with, and in fact a continuation of, the Andes,—and a
smaller range near the east coast, equally comparable with the mountains of
Brazil and Guiana. These mountains supply its great river-system of the
Mississippi, second only to that of the Amazon; and in its vast group of
fresh-water lakes or inland seas, it possesses a feature unmatched by any
other region, except perhaps by the Ethiopian. It possesses every variety of
climate between arctic and tropical; extensive forests and vast prairies; a
greatly varied surface and a rich and beautiful flora. But these great
advantages are somewhat neutralized by other physical features. It extends
far towards the north, and there it reaches its greatest width; while in its
southern and warmest portion it suddenly narrows. The northern mass of
land causes its isothermal lines to bend southwards; and its winter
temperature especially, is far lower than at corresponding latitudes in
Europe. This diminishes the available area for supporting animal life; the
amount and character of which must be, to a great extent, determined by the
nature of the least favourable part of the year. Again, owing to the position
of its mountain ranges and the direction of prevalent winds, a large extent of
its interior, east of the Rocky Mountains, is bare and arid, and often almost
desert; while the most favoured districts,—those east of the Mississippi and
west of the Sierra Nevada, bear but a small proportion to its whole area.
Again, we know that at a very recent period geologically, it was subjected
to a very severe Glacial epoch, which wrapped a full half of it in a mantle of
ice, and exterminated a large number of animals which previously inhabited
it. Taking all this into account, we need not be surprised to find the Nearctic
region somewhat less rich and varied in its forms of life than the Palæarctic
or the Australian regions, with which alone it can fairly be compared. The
wonder rather is that it should be so little inferior to them in this respect,
and that it should possess such a variety of groups, and such a multitude of
forms, in every class of animals.

Zoological characteristics of the Nearctic Region.—Temperate North
America possesses representatives of 26 families of Mammalia, 48 of Birds,
18 of Reptiles, 11 of Amphibia, and 18 of Fresh-water Fish. The first three
numbers are considerably less than the corresponding numbers for the
Palæarctic region, while the last two are greater—in the case of fishes
materially so, a circumstance readily explained by the wonderful group of
fresh-water lakes and the noble southward-flowing river system of the
Mississippi, to which the Palæarctic region has nothing comparable. But
although somewhat deficient in the total number of its families, this region
possesses its full proportion of peculiar and characteristic family and
generic forms. No less than 13 families or sub-families of Vertebrata are
confined to it, or just enter the adjacent Neotropical region. These are,—
three of mammalia, Antilocaprinæ, Saccomyidæ and Haploodontidæ; one of
birds, Chamæidæ; one of reptiles, Chirotidæ; two of amphibia, Sirenidæ
and Amphiumidæ; and the remaining six of fresh-water fishes. The number
of peculiar or characteristic genera is perhaps more important for our
purpose; and these are very considerable, as the following enumeration will
show.

Mammalia.—Of the family of moles (Talpidæ) we have 3 peculiar genera:
Condylura, Scapanus, and Scalops, as well as the remarkable Urotrichus,
found only in California and Japan. In the weasel family (Mustelidæ) we
have Latax, a peculiar kind of otter; Taxidea, allied to the badgers; and one
of the remarkable and characteristic skunks is separated by Dr. J. E. Gray as
a genus—Spilogale. In the American family Procyonidæ, a peculiar genus
(Bassaris) is found in California and Texas, extending south along the
mountains of Mexico and Guatemala. Eumetopias, and Halicyon, are seals
confined to the west coast of North America. The Bovidæ, or hollow-
horned ruminants, contain three peculiar forms; Antilocapra, the
remarkable prong-buck of the Rocky Mountains; Aplocerus, a goat-like
antelope; and Ovibos, the musk-sheep, confined to Arctic America and
Greenland. Among the Rodents are many peculiar genera: Neotoma,
Sigmodon, and Fiber, belong to the Muridæ, or rats; Jaculus to the
Dipodidæ, or jerboas. The very distinct family Saccomyidæ, or pouched
rats, which have peculiar cheek pouches, or a kind of outer hairy mouth,
consists of five genera all confined to this region, with one of doubtful
affinities in Trinidad and Central America. In the squirrel family (Sciuridæ),
Cynomys, the prairie-dogs, are peculiar; and Tamias, the ground squirrel, is
very characteristic, though found also in North Asia. Haploodon, or
sewellels, consisting of two species, forms a distinct family; and Erethizon
is a peculiar form of tree porcupine (Cercolabidæ). True mice and rats of
the genus Mus are not indigenous to North America, their place being
supplied by a distinct genus (Hesperomys), confined to the American
continent.

Birds.—The genera of birds absolutely peculiar to the Nearctic region are
not very numerous, because, there being no boundary but one of climate
between it and the Neotropical region, most of its characteristic forms enter
a short distance within the limits we are obliged to concede to the latter.
Owing also to the severe winter-climate of a large part of the region (which
we know is a comparatively recent phenomenon), a large proportion of its
birds migrate southwards, to pass the winter in the West-Indian islands or
Mexico, some going as far as Guatemala, and a few even to Venezuela.

In our chapter on extinct animals, we have shown, that there is good reason
for believing that the existing union of North and South America is a quite

recent occurrence; and that the separation was effected by an arm of the sea
across what is now Nicaragua, with perhaps another at Panama. This would
leave Mexico and Guatemala joined to North America, and forming part of
the Nearctic region, although no doubt containing many Neotropical forms,
which they had received during earlier continental periods; and these
countries might at other times have been made insular by a strait at the
isthmus of Tehuantepec, and have then developed some peculiar species.
The latest climatal changes have tended to restrict these Neotropical forms
to those parts where the climate is really tropical; and thus Mexico has
attained its present strongly marked Neotropical character, although
deficient in many of the most important groups of that region.

In view of these recent changes, it seems proper not to draw any decided
line between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, but rather to apply, in
the case of each genus, a test which will show whether it was probably
derived at a comparatively recent date from one region or the other. The test
referred to, is the existence of peculiar species of the genus, in what are
undoubtedly portions of ancient North or South America. If, for example,
all the species of a genus occur in North America, some, or even all, of
them, migrating into the Neotropical region in winter, while there are no
peculiar Neotropical species, then we must class that genus as strictly
Nearctic; for if it were Neotropical it would certainly have developed some
peculiar resident forms. Again, even if there should be one or two resident
species peculiar to that part of Central America north of the ancient dividing
strait, with an equal or greater number of species ranging over a large part
of Temperate North America, the genus must still be considered Nearctic.
Examples of the former case, are Helminthophaga and Myiodioctes,
belonging to the Mniotiltidæ, or wood-warblers, which range over all
Temperate North America to Canada, where all the species are found, but in
each case one of the species is found in South America, probably as a
winter migrant. Of the latter, are Ammodramus and Junco (genera of
finches), which range over the whole United States, but each have one
peculiar species in Guatemala. These may be claimed as exclusively
Nearctic genera, on the ground that Guatemala was recently Nearctic; and is
now really a transition territory, of which the lowlands have been invaded
and taken exclusive possession of by a Neotropical fauna, while the
highlands are still (in part at least) occupied by Nearctic forms.

In his article on "Birds," in the new edition of the "Encyclopædia
Britannica" (now publishing), Professor Newton points out, that the number
of peculiar genera of Nearctic birds is much less than in each of the various
sub-divisions of the Neotropical region; and that the total number of genera
is also less, while the bulk of them are common either to the Neotropical or
Palæarctic regions. This is undoubtedly the case if any fixed geographical
boundary is taken; and it would thus seem that the "Nearctic" should, in
birds, form a sub-region only. But, if we define "Nearctic genera" as above
indicated, we find a considerable amount of speciality, as the following list
will show. The names not italicised are those which are represented in
Mexico or Guatemala by peculiar species:—

List of Typical Nearctic Genera of Land Birds.

1. Oreoscoptes 17. Phænopepla 33. Empidias
2. Harporhynchus 18. Xanthocephalus 34. Sphyrapicus
3. Sialia 19. Scolecophagus 35. Hylatomus
4. Chamæa 20. Pipilo 36. Trochilus
5. Catherpes 21. Junco 37. Atthis
6. Salpinctus 22. Melospiza 38. Ectopistes
7. Psaltriparus 23. Spizella 39. Centrocercus
8. Auriparus 24. Passerculus 40. Pediocætes
9. Gymnokitta 25. Poœcetes 41. Cupidonia
10. Picicorvus 26. Ammodromus ? Ortyx
11. Mniotilta 27. Cyanospiza 42. Oreortyx
12. Oporornis 28. Pyrrhuloxia 43. Lophortyx
13. Icteria 29. Calamospiza 44. Callipepla
14. Helmintherus 30. Chondestes 45. Cyrtonyx
15. Helminthophaga 31. Centronyx 46. Meleagris
16. Myiodioctes 32. Neocorys 47. Micrathene

The above are all groups which are either wholly Nearctic or typically so,
but entering more or less into the debatable ground of the Neotropical
region; though none possess any peculiar species in the ancient Neotropical
land south of Nicaragua. But we have, besides these, a number of genera

which we are accustomed to consider as typically European, or Palæarctic,
having representatives in North America; although in many cases it would
be more correct to say that they are Nearctic genera, represented in Europe,
since America possesses more species than Europe or North Asia. The
following is a list of genera which have as much right to be considered
typically Nearctic as Palæarctic:—

1. Regulus 9. Corvus 16. Euspiza
2. Certhia 10. Ampelis 17. Plectrophanes
3. Sitta 11. Loxia 18. Tetrao
4. Parus 12. Pinicola 19. Lagopus
5. Lophophanes 13. Linota 20. Nyctala
6. Lanius 14. Passerelia 21. Archibuteo
7. Perisoreus 15. Leucosticte 22. Haliæetus
8. Pica

The seven genera italicized have a decided preponderance of Nearctic
species, and have every right to be considered typically Nearctic; while the
remainder are so well represented by peculiar species, that it is quite
possible many of them may have originated here, rather than in the
Palæarctic region, all alike being quite foreign to the Neotropical.

On the whole, then, we have 47 in the first and 7 in the second table,
making 54 genera which we may fairly class as typically Nearctic, out of a
total of 168 genera of land-birds, or nearly one-third of the whole. This is an
amount of peculiarity which is comparable with that of either of the less
isolated regions; and, combined with the more marked and more
exclusively peculiar forms in the other orders of vertebrates, fully
establishes Temperate North America as a region, distinct alike from the
Neotropical and the Palæarctic.

Reptiles.—Although temperate climates are always comparatively poor in
reptiles, a considerable number of genera are peculiar to the Nearctic
region. Of snakes, there are, Conophis, Chilomeniscus, Pituophis, and
Ischnognathus, belonging to the Colubridæ; Farancia, and Dimodes,

Homalopsidæ; Lichanotus, one of the Pythonidæ; Cenchris, Crotalophorus,
Uropsophorus, and Crotalus, belonging to the Crotalidæ or rattlesnakes.

Of Lizards, Chirotes, forming a peculiar family; Ophisaurus, the curious
glass-snake, belonging to the Zonuridæ; with Phrynosoma (commonly
called horned toads), Callisaurus, Uta, Euphryne, Uma, and Holbrookia,
genera of Iguanidæ.

Testudinidæ, or Tortoises, show a great development of the genus Emys;
with Aromochelys and Chelydra as peculiar genera.

Amphibia.—In this class the Nearctic region is very rich, possessing
representatives of nine of the families, of which two are peculiar to the
region, and there are no less than fifteen peculiar genera. Siren forms the
family Sirenidæ; Menobranchus belongs to the Proteidæ; Amphiuma is the
only representative of the Amphiumidæ; there are nine peculiar genera of
Salamandridæ. Among the tail-less batrachians (frogs and toads) we have
Scaphiopus, belonging to the Alytidæ; Pseudacris to the Hylidæ; and Acris
to the Polypedatidæ.

Fresh-water Fishes.—The Nearctic region possesses no less than five
peculiar family types, and twenty-four peculiar genera of this class. The
families are Aphredoderidæ, consisting of a single species found in the
Eastern States; Percopsidæ, founded on a species peculiar to Lake Superior;
Heteropygii, containing two genera peculiar to the Eastern States;
Hyodontidæ and Amiidæ, each consisting of a single species. The genera
are as follows: Paralabrax, found in California; Huro, peculiar to Lake
Huron; Pileoma, Boleosoma, Bryttus and Pomotis in the Eastern States—all
belonging to the perch family. Hypodelus and Noturus, belonging to the
Siluridæ. Thaleichthys, one of the Salmonidæ peculiar to the Columbia
river. Moxostoma, Pimephales, Hyborhynchus, Rhinichthys, in the Eastern
States; Ericymba, Exoglossum, Leucosomus, and Carpiodes, more widely
distributed; Cochlognathus, in Texas; Mylaphorodon and Orthodon, in
California; Meda, in the river Gila; and Acrochilus, in the Columbia river—
all belonging to the Cyprinidæ. Scaphirhynchus, found only in the

Mississippi and its tributaries, belongs to the sturgeon family
(Accipenseridæ).

Summary of Nearctic Vertebrata.—The Nearctic region possesses 24
peculiar genera of mammalia, 49 of birds, 21 of reptiles, and 29 of fresh-
water fishes, making 123 in all. Of these 70 are mammals and land-birds,
out of a total of 242 genera of these groups, a proportion of about two-
sevenths. This is the smallest proportion of peculiar genera we have found
in any of the regions; but many of the genera are of such isolated and
exceptional forms that they constitute separate families, so that we have no
less than 12 families of vertebrata confined to the region. The Palæarctic
region has only 3 peculiar families, and even the Oriental region only 12; so
that, judged by this test, the Nearctic region is remarkably well
characterized. We must also remember that, owing to the migration of many
of its peculiar forms during the Glacial period, it has recently lost some of
its speciality; and we should therefore give some weight to the many
characteristic groups it possesses, which, though not quite peculiar to it,
form important features in its fauna, and help to separate it from the other
regions with which it has been thought to be closely allied. It is thus well
distinguished from the Palæarctic region by its Procyonidæ, or racoons,
Hesperomys, or vesper mice, and Didelphys, or opossums, among
Mammalia; by its Vireonidæ, or greenlets, Mniotiltidæ, or wood-warblers,
Icteridæ, or hang-nests, Tyrannidæ, or tyrant shrikes, and Trochilidæ, or
humming-birds, among birds, families which, extending to its extreme
northern limits must be held to be as truly characteristic of it as of the
Neotropical region; by its Teidæ, Iguanidæ, and Cinosternum, among
reptiles; and by its Siluridæ, and Lepidosteidæ, among fishes. From the
Neotropical region it is still more clearly separated, by its numerous
insectivora; by its bears; its Old World forms of ruminants; its beaver; its
numerous Arvicolæ, or voles; its Sciuropterus, or flying squirrels; Tamias,
or ground-squirrels; and Lagomys, or marmots, among mammals; its
numerous Paridæ, or tits, and Tetraonidæ, or grouse, among birds; its
Trionychidæ among reptiles; its Proteidæ, and Salamandridæ, among
Amphibia; and its Gasterosteidæ, Atherinidæ, Esocidæ, Umbridæ,
Accipenseridæ, and Polydontidæ, among fishes.

These characteristic features, taken in conjunction with the absolutely
peculiar groups before enumerated, demonstrate that the Nearctic region
cannot with propriety be combined with any other. Though not very rich,
and having many disadvantages of climate and of physical condition, it is
yet sufficiently well characterized in its zoological features to rank as one of
the well-marked primary divisions of the earth's surface.

There is one other consideration bearing on this question which should not
be lost sight of. In establishing our regions we have depended wholly upon
their now possessing a sufficient number and variety of animal forms, and a
fair proportion of peculiar types; but when the validity of our conclusion on
these grounds is disputed, we may supplement the evidence by an appeal to
the past history of the region in question. In this case we find a remarkable
support to our views. During the whole Tertiary period, North America was,
zoologically, far more strongly contrasted with South America than it is
now; while, during the same long series of ages, it was always clearly
separated from the Eastern hemisphere or the Palæarctic region by the
exclusive possession of important families and numerous genera of
Mammalia, as shown by our summary of its extinct fauna in Chapter VII.
Not only may we claim North America as now forming one of the great
zoological regions, but as having continued to be one ever since the Eocene
period.

Insects.

In describing the Palæarctic and Neotropical regions, many of the
peculiarities of the insect-fauna of this region have been incidentally
referred to; and as a tolerably full account of the distribution of the several
families is given in the Fourth Part of our work (Chapter XXI.), we shall
treat the subject very briefly here.

Lepidoptera.—The butterflies of the Nearctic region have lately been
studied with much assiduity, and we are now able to form some idea of their
nature and extent. Nearly 500 species belonging to about 100 genera have
been described; showing that the region, which a few years ago was thought
to be very poor in species of butterflies, is really much richer than Europe,

and probably about as rich as the more extensive Palæarctic region. There
is, however, very little speciality in the forms. A considerable number of
Neotropical types enter the southern States; but there are hardly any
peculiar genera, except one of the Lycænidæ and perhaps a few among the
Hesperidæ, The most conspicuous feature of the region is its fine group of
Papilios, belonging to types (P. turnus and P. troilus) which are
characteristically Nearctic. It is also as rich as the Palæarctic region in some
genera which we are accustomed to consider as pre-eminently European;
such as Argynnis, Melitæa, Grapta, Chionabas, and a few others. Still, we
must acknowledge, that if we formed our conclusions from the butterflies
alone, we could hardly separate the Nearctic from the Palæarctic region.
This identity probably dates from the Miocene period; for when our existing
arctic regions supported a luxuriant vegetation, butterflies would have been
plentiful; and as the cold came on, these would move southwards both in
America and Europe, and, owing to the long continuance of the generic
types of insects, would remain little modified till now.

Coleoptera.—Only a few indications can be given of the peculiarities of the
Nearctic coleoptera. In Cicindelidæ the region possesses, besides the
cosmopolite Cicindela, four other genera, two of which—Amblychile and
Omus—are peculiar to the West Coast and the Rocky Mountains. Of
Carabidæ it possesses Dicælus, Pasimachus, Eurytrichus, Sphæroderus,
Pinacodera, and a number of smaller genera, altogether peculiar to it;
Helluomorpha, Galerita, Callida, and Tetragonoderus, in common with
South America; and a large number of characteristic European forms.

The Lucanidæ are all of European types. The region is poor in Cetoniidæ,
but has representatives of the South American Euphoria, as well as of four
European genera. Of Buprestidæ it has the South American Actenodes; a
single species of the Ethiopian and Eastern Belionota, in California; and
about a dozen other genera of European and wide distribution.

Among Longicorns it possesses fifty-nine peculiar genera, representatives
of five Neotropical, and thirteen Palæarctic genera; as well as many of
wider distribution. Prionus is the chief representative of the Prionidæ;
Leptura and Crossidius of the Cerambycidæ; Leptostylus, Liopus,

Graphidurus, and Tetraopes, of the Lamiidæ, the latter genus being
confined to the region.

Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca.

The land-shells of temperate North America almost all belong to the
Inoperculate or Pulmoniferous division; the Operculata being represented
only by a few species of Helicina and Truncatella, chiefly in the Southern
States. According to Mr. Binney's recent "Catalogue of the Terrestrial Air-
breathing Mollusks of North America," the fauna consists of the following
genera:—Glandina (6 sp.); Macrocyclis (5 sp.); Zonites (37 sp.); Vitrina (4
sp.); Limax (5 sp.); Arion (3 sp.); Ariolimax (3 sp.); Prophysaon (1 sp.);
Binneia (1 sp.); Hemiphillia (1 sp.); Patula (16 sp.); Helix (80); Holospira
(2 sp.); Cylindrella (2 sp.); Macroceramus (2 sp.); Bulimulus (8 sp.);
Cionella (2 sp.); Stenogyra (4 sp.); Pupa (19 sp.); Strophia (1 sp.); Vertigo
(6 sp.); Liguus (1 sp.); Orthalicus (2 sp.); Punctum (1 sp.); Succinea (26
sp.); Tebennophorus (1 sp.); Pallifera (1 sp.); Veronicella (2 sp.).

All the larger genera range over the whole region, but the following have a
more restricted distribution; Macrocyclis has only one species in the East,
the rest being Californian or Central; Ariolimax, Prophysaon, Binneia, and
Hemiphillia, are confined to the Western sub-region. Lower California has
affinities with Mexico, 18 species being peculiar to it, of which two are true
Bulimi, a genus unknown in other parts of the region. The Central or Rocky
Mountain sub-region is chiefly characterised by six peculiar species of
Patula. The Eastern sub-region is by far the richest, nine-tenths of the
whole number of species being found in it. The Alleghany Mountains form
the richest portion of this sub-region, possessing nearly half the total
number of species, and at least 24 species found nowhere else. The southern
States have also several peculiar species, but they are not so productive as
the Alleghanies. The Canadian sub-region possesses 32 species, of which
nearly half are northern forms more or less common to the whole Arctic
regions, and several of this character have spread southwards all over the
United States. Species of Vitrina, Zonites, Pupa, and Succinea, are found in
Greenland; and Eastern Palæarctic species of Vitrina, Patula, and Pupa

occur in Alaska. More than 30 species of shells living in the Eastern States,
are found fossil in the Post-Pliocene deposits of the Ohio and Mississippi.

Fresh-water Shells.—North America surpasses every other part of the globe
in the number and variety of its fresh-water mollusca, both univalve and
bivalve. The numbers up to 1866 were as follows:—Melaniadæ, 380
species; Paludinidæ, 58 species; Cycladidæ, 44 species; and Unionidæ, 552
species. The last family had, however, increased to 832 species in 1874,
according to Dr. Isaac Lea, who has made them his special study; but it is
probable that many of these are such as would be considered varieties by
most conchologists. Many of the species of Unio are very large, of varied
forms, and rich internal colouring, and the group forms a prominent feature
of the Nearctic fauna. By far the larger proportion of the fresh-water shells
inhabit the Eastern or Alleghany sub-region; and their great development is
a powerful argument against any recent extensive submergence beneath the
ocean of the lowlands of North America.

The Nearctic Sub-regions.

The sub-divisions of the Nearctic region, although pretty clearly indicated
by physical features and peculiarities of climate and vegetation, are by no
means so strongly marked out in their zoology as we might expect. The
same genera, as a rule, extend over the whole region; while the species of
the several sub-regions are in most cases different. Even the vast range of
the Rocky Mountains has not been an effectual barrier against this wide
dispersal of the same forms of life; and although some important groups are
limited by it, these are exceptions to the rule. Even now, we find fertile
valleys and plateaus of moderate elevation, penetrating the range on either
side; and both to the north and south there are passes which can be freely
traversed by most animals during the summer. Previous to the glacial epoch
there was probably a warm period, when every part of the range supported
an abundant and varied fauna, which, when the cold period arrived, would
descend to the lowlands, and people the country to the east, west, and south,
with similar forms of life.

The first, and most important sub-division we can make, consists of the
Eastern United States, extending across the Mississippi and the more fertile
prairies, to about the 100°th. meridian of west longitude, where the arid and
almost desert country commences. Southwards, the boundary bends
towards the coast, near the line of the Brazos or Colorado rivers. To the
north the limits are undefined; but as a considerable number of species and
genera occur in the United States but not in Canada, it will be convenient to
draw the line somewhere near the boundary of the two countries, except
that the district between lakes Huron and Ontario, and probably Nova
Scotia, may be included in the present sub-region. As far west as the
Mississippi, this was originally a vast forest country; and it is still well
wooded, and clothed with a varied and luxuriant vegetation.

The next, or Central sub-region, consists of the dry, elevated, and often arid
district of the Rocky Mountains, with its great plateaus, and the barren
plains of its eastern slope; extending northwards to near the commencement
of the great forests north of the Saskatchewan, and southward to the Rio
Grande del Norte, the Gulf of California, and to Cape St. Lucas, as shown
on our maps. This sub-region is of an essentially desert character, although
the higher valleys of the Rocky Mountains are often well wooded, and in
these are found some northern and some western types.

The third, or Californian sub-region, is small, but very luxuriant, occupying
the comparatively narrow strip of country between the Sierra Nevada and
the Pacific. To the north it may include Vancouver's Island and the southern
part of British Columbia, while to the south it extends to the head of the
Gulf of California.

The fourth division, comprises the remainder of North America; and is a
country of pine forests, and of barren wastes towards the Arctic Ocean. It
has fewer peculiar species to characterise it than any other, but it possesses
several characteristic arctic forms, while many of those peculiar to the south
are absent; so that it is a very convenient, if it should not be considered an
altogether natural, sub-region.

We will now give an outline of the most important zoological features of
each of these divisions, taking them in the order in which they are arranged
in the Fourth Part of this work. California comes first, as it has some
tropical forms not found elsewhere, and thus forms a transition from the
Neotropical region.

I. The Western or Californian Sub-region.

This small district possesses a fruitful soil and a highly favourable climate,
and is, in proportion to its extent, perhaps the richest portion of the
continent, both zoologically and botanically. Its winters are far milder than
those of the Eastern States in corresponding latitudes; and this, perhaps, has
enabled it to support several tropical forms which give a special character to
its fauna. It is here only, in the whole region, that bats of the families
Phyllostomidæ and Noctilionidæ, and a serpent of the tropical family,
Pythonidæ, are found, as well as several Neotropical forms of birds and
reptiles.

Mammalia.—The following genera are not found in any other part of the
Nearctic region. Macrotus (Phyllostomidæ), one species in California;
Antrozous (Vespertilionidæ), one species on the West Coast; Urotrichus
(Talpidæ) one species in British Columbia; sub-genus Nesorex (Soricidæ),
one species in Oregon; Bassaris (Procyonidæ), California; Enhydra
(Mustelidæ), Pacific Coast; Morunga (Phocidæ), California; Haploodon
(Haploodontidæ) a rat-like animal, allied to the beavers and marmots, and
constituting a peculiar family found only in California and British
Columbia. The following characteristic Nearctic forms also extend into this
sub-region:—Taxidea, Procyon, Didelphys, Sciuropterus, Tamias,
Spermophilus, Dipodomys, Perognathus, Jaculus.

Birds.—Few genera of birds are quite peculiar to this sub-region, since
most of the Western forms extend into the central district, yet it has a few.
Glaucidium, a genus of Owls, is confined (in the Nearctic region) to
California; Chamæa, a singular form allied to the wrens, and forming a
distinct family, is quite peculiar; Geococcyx, a Neotropical form of cuckoo,
extends to California and Southern Texas. The following genera are very

characteristic of the sub-region, and some of them almost confined to it:
Myiadestes (Sylviidæ); Psaltriparus (Paridæ); Cyanocitta, Picicorvus
(Corvidæ); Hesperiphona, Peucæa, Chondestes (Fringillidæ); Selasphorus,
Atthis (Trochilidæ); Columba, Melopelia (Columbidæ); Oreortyx
(Tetraonidæ).

Reptiles.—The following genera are not found in any other part of the
Nearctic region: Charina (Tortricidæ); Lichanotus (Pythonidæ);
Gerrhonotus (Zonuridæ); Phyllodactylus (Geckotidæ); Anolius and
Tropidolepis (Iguanidæ). Sceloporus (Iguanidæ) is only found elsewhere in
Florida. All the larger North American groups of lizards and snakes are also
represented here; but in tortoises it is deficient, owing to the absence of
lakes and large rivers.

Amphibia.—California possesses two genera of Salamandridæ, Aneides and
Heredia, which do not extend to the other sub-regions.

Fresh-water Fish.—There are two or three peculiar genera of Cyprinidæ,
but the sub-region is comparatively poor in this group.

Plate XVIII. Illustrative of the Zoology of California and the Rocky
Mountains.—We have chosen for the subject of this illustration, the peculiar
Birds of the Western mountains. The two birds in the foreground are a
species of grouse (Pediocætes Columbianus), entirely confined to this sub-
region; while the only other species of the genus is found in the prairies
north and west of Wisconsin, so that the group is peculiar to northern and
western America. The crested birds in the middle of the picture (Oreortyx
picta), are partridges, belonging to the American sub-family
Odontophorinæ. This is the only species of the genus which is confined to
California and Oregon. The bird at the top is the blue crow (Gymnokitta
cyanocephala), confined to the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada from
New Mexico and Arizona northwards, and more properly belonging to the
Central sub-region. It is allied to the European nutcracker; but according to
the American ornithologist, Dr. Coues, has also resemblances to the jays,
and certainly forms a distinct genus. The grizzly bear (Ursus ferox) in the

background, is one of the characteristic animals of the Californian
highlands.

Plate XVIII.

SCENE IN CALIFORNIA, WITH SOME CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS.

II. The Central, or Rocky Mountain Sub-region.

This extensive district is, for the greater part of its extent, from 2,000 to
5,000 feet above the sea, and is excessively arid; and, except in the
immediate vicinity of streams and on some of the higher slopes of the
mountains, is almost wholly treeless. Its zoology is therefore peculiar. Many
of the most characteristic genera and families of the Eastern States are
absent; while a number of curious desert and alpine forms give it a
character of its own, and render it very interesting to the naturalist.

Mammalia.—The remarkable prong-horned antelope (Antilocapra), the
mountain goat (Aplocerus), the mountain sheep or bighorn (Ovis montana),
and the prairie-dog (Cynomys), one of the Rodentia, are peculiar to this sub-
region; while the family of the Saccomyidæ, or pouched rats, is represented
by many forms and is very characteristic. Here is also the chief home of the
bison. The glutton (Gulo) and marmot (Lagomys) enter it from the north;
while it has the racoon (Procyon), flying squirrel (Sciuropterus), ground
squirrel (Tamias), pouched marmot (Spermophilus) and jumping mouse
(Jaculus) in common with the countries east or west of it.

Plate XIX. Illustrative of the Zoology of the Central Plains or Prairies.—
We here introduce four of the most characteristic mammalia of the great
American plains or prairies, three of them being types confined to North
America. The graceful animals on the left are the prong-horned antelopes
(Antilocapra americana), whose small horns, though hollow like those of
the antelopes, are shed annually like those of the deer. To the right we have
the prairie-dogs of the trappers (Cynomys ludovicianus) which, as will be
easily seen, are rodents, and allied to the marmots of the European Alps.
Their burrows are numerous on the prairies, and the manner in which they
perch themselves on little mounds and gaze on intruders, is noticed by all
travellers. On the left, in the foreground, is one of the extraordinary
pouched rats of America (Geomys bursarius). These are burrowing animals,
feeding on roots; and the mouth is, as it were, double, the outer portion very
wide and hairy, behind which is the small inner mouth. Its use may be to
keep out the earth from the mouth while the animal is gnawing roots. A
mouth so constructed is found in no other animals but in these North
American rats. In the distance is a herd of bisons (Bison americanus), the
typical beast of the prairies.

Birds.—This sub-region has many peculiar forms of birds, both residents,
and migrants from the south or north. Among the peculiar resident species
we may probably reckon a dipper, (Cinclus); Salpinctes, one of the wrens;
Poospiza, Calamospiza, genera of finches; Picicorvus, Gymnokitta, genera
of the crow family; Centrocercus and Pediocætes, genera of grouse. As
winter migrants from the north it has Leucosticte and Plectrophanes, genera
of finches; Perisoreus, a genus of the crow family; Picoides, the Arctic
woodpecker; and Lagopus, ptarmigan. Its summer migrants, many of which

may be resident in the warmer districts, are more numerous. Such are,
Oreoscoptes, a genus of thrushes; Campylorhynchus and Catherpes, wrens;
Paroides, one of the tits; Phænopepla, allied to the waxwing; Embernagra
and Spermophila, genera of finches; Pyrocephalus, one of the tyrant
shrikes; Callipepla and Cyrtonyx, American partridges. Besides these, the
more widely spread genera, Harporhynchus, Lophophanes, Carpodacus,
Spizella, and Cyanocitta, are characteristic of the central district, and two
genera of humming-birds—Atthis and Selasphorus—only occur here and in
California. Prof. Baird notes 40 genera of birds which are represented by
distinct allied species in the western, central, and eastern divisions of the
United States, corresponding to our sub-regions.

Plate XIX.

THE AMERICAN PRAIRIES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.

It is a curious fact that the birds of this sub-region should extend across the
Gulf of California, and that Cape St. Lucas, at the southern extremity of the
peninsula, should be decidedly more "Central" than "Californian" in its
ornithology. Prof. Baird says, that its fauna is almost identical with that of
the Gila River, and has hardly any relation to that of Upper California. It
possesses a considerable number (about twenty) of peculiar species of birds,
but all belong to genera characteristic of the present sub-region; and there is
no resemblance to the birds of Mazatlan, just across the gulf in the
Neotropical region.

Reptiles, Amphibia, and Fishes.—A large number of snakes and lizards
inhabit this sub-region, but they have not yet been classified with sufficient
precision to enable us to make much use of them. Among lizards, Iguanidæ,
Geckotidæ, Scincidæ, and Zonuridæ, appear to be numerous; and many new
genera of doubtful value have been described. Among snakes, Calamariidæ,
Colubridæ, and Crotalidæ are represented. Among Amphibia, Siredon, one
of the Proteidæ, is peculiar. The rivers and lakes of the Great Central Basin,
and the Colorado River, contain many peculiar forms of Cyprinidæ.

III. The Eastern or Alleghany Sub-region.

This sub-region contains examples of all that is most characteristic of
Nearctic zoology. It is for the most part an undulating or mountainous
forest-clad country, with a warm or temperate climate, but somewhat
extreme in character, and everywhere abounding in animal and vegetable
life. To the west, across the Mississippi, the country becomes more open,
gradually rises, becomes much drier, and at length merges into the arid
plains of the central sub-region. To the south, in Georgia, Florida, and
Louisiana, a sub-tropical climate prevails, and winter is almost unknown.
To the north, in Michigan and New England, the winters are very severe,
and streams and lakes are frozen for months together. These different
climates, however, produce little effect on the forms of animal life; the
species to some extent change as we go from north to south, but the same
types everywhere prevail. This portion of the United States, having been
longest inhabited by Europeans, has been more thoroughly explored than
other parts of North America; and to this more complete knowledge its
superior zoological richness may be to some extent due; but there can be
little doubt that it is also positively, and not merely relatively, more
productive in varied forms of animal life than either of the other sub-
regions.

Mammalia.—There seems to be only one genus absolutely peculiar to this
sub-region—the very remarkable Condylura, or star-nosed mole, only
found from Pennsylvania to Nova Scotia, and as far as about 94° west
longitude. It also has opossums (Didelphys) in common with California,
and three out of four species of Scalops, a genus of moles; as well as the

skunk (Mephitis), American badger (Taxidea), racoon (Procyon), pouched
rat (Geomys), beaver rat (Fiber), jumping mouse (Jaculus), tree porcupine
(Erethizon), and other characteristic Nearctic forms.

Birds.—The birds of this sub-region have been carefully studied by
American naturalists, and many interesting facts ascertained as to their
distribution and migrations. About 120 species of birds are peculiar to the
east coast of the United States, but only about 30 of these are residents all
the year round in any part of it; the bird population being essentially a
migratory one, coming from the north in winter and the south in summer.
The largest number of species seems to be congregated in the district of the
Alleghany mountains. A considerable proportion of the passerine birds
winter in Central America and the West Indian Islands, and go to the Middle
States or Canada to breed; so that even the luxuriant Southern States do not
possess many birds which may be called permanent residents. Thus, in East
Pennsylvania there are only 52, and in the district of Columbia 54 species,
found all the year round, out of about 130 which breed in these localities;
very much below the number which permanently reside in Great Britain.

This sub-region is well characterised by its almost exclusive possession of
Ectopistes, the celebrated passenger pigeon, whose enormous flocks and
breeding places have been so often described; and Cupidonia, a remarkable
genus of grouse. The only Nearctic parrot, Conurus carolinensis, is found in
the Southern States; as well as Crotophaga, a South American genus
usually associated with the cuckoos. Helmintherus and Oporornis, genera
of wood-warblers, may be considered to be peculiar to this sub-region,
since in each case only one of the two species migrates as far as Central
America; while two other genera of the same family, Siurus and Setophaga,
as well as the finch genus, Euspiza, do not extend to either of the western
sub-regions. Parus, a genus of tits, comes into the district from the north;
Otocorys, an alpine lark, and Coturniculus, an American finch, from the
west; and such characteristic Nearctic genera as Antrostomus (the whip-
poor-will goatsuckers); Helminthophaga, Dendræca, and Myiodioctes
(wood-warblers); Vireo (greenlets); Dolichonyx (rice-bird); Quiscalus
(troupial); Meleagris (turkey); and Ortyx (American partridge), are wide-
spread and abundant. In Mr. J. A. Allen's elaborate and interesting paper on
the birds of eastern North America, he enumerates 32 species which breed

only in the more temperate portions of this province, and may therefore be
considered to be especially characteristic of it. These belong to the
following genera:—Turdus, Galeoscoptes, Harporhynchus, Sialia,
Dendræca, Wilsonia, Pyranga, Vireo, Lanivireo, Lophophanes,
Coturniculus, Ammodromus, Spizella, Euspiza, Hedymeles, Cyanospiza,
Pipilo, Cardinalis, Icterus, Corvus, Centurus, Melanerpes, Antrostomus,
Coccyzus, Ortyx, and Cupidonia.

Reptiles.—In this class the Eastern States are rich, possessing many
peculiar forms not found in other parts of the region. Among snakes it has
the genera Farancia and Dimodes belonging to the fresh-water snakes
(Homalopsidæ); the South American genus Elaps; and 3 genera of
rattlesnakes, Cenchris, Crotalophorus, and Crotalus. The following genera
of snakes are said to occur in the State of New York:—Coluber,
Tropidonotus, Leptophis, Calamaria, Heterodon, Trigonocephalus,
Crotalus, Psammophis, Helicops, Rhinostoma, Pituophis, and Elaps.

Among lizards, Chirotes, forming a peculiar family of Amphisbenians,
inhabits Missouri and Mexico; while the remarkable glass-snake,
Ophisaurus, belonging to the family Zonuridæ, is peculiar to the Southern
States; and the South American Sphærodactylus, one of the gecko family,
reaches Florida. Other genera which extend as far north as the State of New
York are, Scincus, Tropidolepis, Plestiodon, Lygosoma, Ameiva, and
Phrynosoma.

Tortoises, especially the fresh-water kind, are very abundant; and the genera
Aromochelys, Chelydra, Terrapene, and Trionyx, are nearly, if not quite,
confined to this division of the region.

Amphibia.—Almost all the remarkable forms of Urodela, or tailed
batrachians, peculiar to the region are found here only; such as Siren and
Pseudobranchus, constituting the family Sirenidæ; Menobranchus, allied to
the Proteus of Europe; Amphiuma, an eel-like creature with four
rudimentary feet, constituting the family Amphiumidæ; Notopthalmus,
Desmognathus, and Menopoma, belonging to the Salamandridæ; together
with several other genera of wider range. Of Anura, or tail-less batrachians,

there are no peculiar genera, but the Neotropical genus of toads,
Engystoma, extends as far as South Carolina.

Fishes.—Owing to its possession of the Mississippi and the great lakes,
almost all the peculiar forms of North American fishes are confined to this
sub-region. Such are Perca, Pileoma, Huro, Bryttus, and Pomotis (Percidæ);
the families Aphredoderidæ and Percopsidæ; several genera of
Cyprinodontidæ and Cyprinidæ; and the family Polydontidæ.

Islands of the Alleghany Sub-region.

The Bermudas.—These islands, situated in the Atlantic, about 700 miles
from the coast of Carolina, are chiefly interesting for the proof they afford
of the power of a great variety of birds to cross so wide an extent of ocean.
There are only 6 or 8 species of birds which are permanent residents on the
islands, all common North American species; while no less than 140 species
have been recorded as visiting them. Most of these are stragglers, many
only noticed once; others appear frequently and in great numbers, but very
few, perhaps not a dozen, come every year, and can be considered regular
migrants. The permanent residents are, a greenlet (Vireo noveboracensis),
the catbird (Galeoscoptes carolinensis), the blue bird (Sialia sialis), the
cardinal (Cardinalis virginianus), the American crow (Corvus americanus),
and the ground dove (Chamæpelia passerina). The most regular visitants
are a kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon), the wood-wagtail (Siurus noveboracensis),
the rice-bird (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), and a moorhen (Gallinula galeata).
Besides the American species, four European birds have been taken at the
Bermudas: Saxicola œnanthe, Alauda arvensis (perhaps introduced), Crex
pratensis, and Scolopax gallinago.

A common American lizard, Plestiodon longirostris, is the only land reptile
found on the islands.

IV. The Sub-Arctic or Canadian Sub-region.

This sub-region serves to connect together the other three, since they all
merge gradually into it; while to the north it passes into the circumpolar
zone which is common to the Palæarctic and Nearctic regions. The greater
portion of it is an extensive forest-district, mostly of coniferæ; and where
these cease towards the north, barren wastes extend to the polar ocean. It
possesses several northern or arctic forms of Mammalia, such as the
glutton, lemming, reindeer, and elk, which barely enter the more southern
sub-regions; as well as the polar bear and arctic fox; but it also has some
peculiar forms, and many of the most characteristic Nearctic types. The
remarkable musk-sheep (Ovibos) is confined to this sub-region, ranging
over a considerable extent of country north of the forests, as well as
Greenland. It has been extinct in Europe and Asia since the Post-pliocene
epoch. Such purely Nearctic genera as Procyon, Latax, Erethizon, Jaculus,
Fiber, Thomomys, and Hesperomys, abound, many of them ranging to the
shores of Hudson's Bay and the barren wastes of northern Labrador. Others,
such as Blarina, Condylura, and Mephitis, are found only in Nova Scotia
and various parts of Canada. About 20 species of Mammalia seem to be
peculiar to this sub-region.

Plate XX. Illustrating the Zoology of Canada.—We have here a group of
Mammalia characteristic of Canada and the colder parts of the United
States. Conspicuous in the foreground is the skunk (Mephitis mephitica),
belonging to a genus of the weasel family found only in America. This
animal is celebrated for its power of ejecting a terribly offensive liquid, the
odour of which is almost intolerable. The skunks are nocturnal animals, and
are generally marked, as in the species represented, with conspicuous bands
and patches of white. This enables them to be easily seen at night, and thus
serves to warn larger animals not to attack them. To the left is the curious
little jumping mouse (Jaculus hudsonius), the American representative of
the Palæarctic jerboa. Climbing up a tree on the left is the tree porcupine
(Erethizon dorsatus), belonging to the family Cercolabidæ, which
represents, on the American continent, the porcupines of the Old World. In
the background is the elk or moose (Alces americanus), perhaps identical
with the European elk, and the most striking inhabitant of the northern
forests of America, as the bison is of the prairies.

Birds.—Although the Canadian sub-region possesses very few resident
birds, the numbers which breed in it are perhaps greater than in the other
sub-regions, because a large number of circumpolar species are found here
exclusively. From a comparison of Mr. Allen's tables it appears, that more
than 200 species are regular migrants to Canada in the breeding season, and
nearly half of these are land-birds. Among them are to be found a
considerable number of genera of the American families Tyrannidæ and
Mniotiltidæ, as well as the American genera Sialia, Progne, Vireo,
Cistothorus, Junco, Pipilo, Zonotrichia, Spizella, Melospiza, Molothrus,
Agelæus, Cyanura, Sphyrapicus, and many others; so that the ornithology
of these northern regions is still mainly Nearctic in character. Besides these,
it has such specially northern forms as Surnia (Strigidæ); Picoides (Picidæ);
Pinicola (Fringillidæ); as well as Leucosticte, Plectrophanes, Perisoreus,
and Lagopus, which extend further south, especially in the middle sub-
region. No less than 212 species of birds have been collected in the new
United States territory of Alaska (formerly Russian America), where a
humming-bird (Selasphorus rufus) breeds. The great majority of these are
typically American, including such forms as Colaptes, Helminthophaga,
Siurus, Dendræca, Myiodioctes, Passerculus, Zonotrichia, Junco, Spizella,
Melospizpa, Passerella, Scoleophagas, Pediocetes, and Bonasa; together
with many northern birds common to both continents. Yet a few Palæarctic
forms, not known in other parts of the sub-region, appear here. These are
Budytes flava, Phylloscopus kennicottii, and Pyrrhula coccinea, all
belonging to genera not occurring elsewhere in North America. Considering
the proximity of the district to North-east Asia, and the high probability that
there was an actual land connection at, and south of, Behring's Straits, in
late Tertiary times, it is somewhat remarkable that the admixture of
Palæarctic and Nearctic groups is not greater than it is. The Palæarctic
element, however, forms so small apportion of the whole fauna, that it may
be satisfactorily accounted for by the establishment of immigrants since the
Glacial period. The great interest felt by ornithologists in the discovery of
the three genera above-named, with a wren allied to a European species, is
an indication that the faunas even of the northern parts of the Nearctic and
Palæarctic regions are, as regards birds, radically distinct. It may be
mentioned that the birds of the Aleutian Isles are also, so far as known,
almost wholly Nearctic. The number of land-birds known from Alaska is

77; and from the Aleutian Isles 16 species, all of which, except one, are
North American.

Plate XX.

A CANADIAN FOREST, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA.

Reptiles.—These are comparatively few and unimportant. There are
however five snakes and three tortoises which are limited to Canada proper;
while further north there are only Amphibia, represented by frogs and toads,
and a salamander of the genus Plethodon.

Fishes.—Most of the groups of fresh-water fish of the Nearctic region are
represented here, especially those of the perch, salmon, and pike families;
but there seem to be few or no peculiar genera.

Insects.—These are far less numerous than in the more temperate districts,
but are still tolerably abundant. In Canada there are 53 species of

butterflies, viz., Papilionidæ, 4; Pieridæ, 2; Nymphalidæ, 21; Satyridæ, 3;
Lycænidæ 16, and Hesperidæ 7. Most of these are, no doubt, found chiefly
in the southern parts of Canada. That Coleoptera are pretty numerous is
shown, by more than 800 species having been collected on the shores of
Lake Superior; 177 being Geodephaga and 39 Longicorns.

Greenland.—This great arctic island must be considered as belonging to the
Nearctic region, since of its six land mammals, three are exclusively
American (Myodes torquatus, Lepus glacialis, and Ovibos moschatus),
while the other three (Vulpes lagopus, Ursus maritimus, and Rangifer
tarandus) are circumpolar. Only fourteen land-birds are either resident in,
or regular migrants to the country; and of these two are European
(Haliæetus albicilla, and Falco peregrinus), while three are American
(Anthus ludovicianus, Zonotrichia leucophrys, and Lagopus rupestris), the
rest being arctic species common to both continents. The waders and
aquatics (49 in number) are nearly equally divided between both continents;
but the land-birds which visit Greenland as stragglers are mostly American.
Yet although the Nearctic element somewhat preponderates, Greenland
really belongs to that circumpolar debateable land, which is common to the
two North Temperate regions.

Concluding remarks.—We have already discussed pretty fully, though
somewhat incidentally, the status and relations of the Nearctic region; first
in our chapter on Zoological regions, then in our review of extinct faunas,
and lastly in the earlier part of this chapter. It will not therefore be necessary
to go further into the question here; but we shall, in our next chapter, give a
brief summary of the general conclusions we have reached as to the past
history and mutual zoological relations of all the great divisions of the
earth.

TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION.

In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of various classes of
animals in the Nearctic region, the following sources of information have
been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and
catalogues used in the compilation of the 4th Part of this work.

Mammalia.—Professor Baird's Catalogue; Allen's List of the Bats; Mr.
Lord's List for British Columbia; Brown, for Greenland; Packard for
Labrador.

Birds.—Baird, Cassin, and Allen's Lists for United States; Richardson's
Fauna Boreali Americana; Jones, for Bermudas; and papers by Brown,
Coues, Lord, Packard, Dall, and Professor Newton.

TABLE I.

FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NEARCTIC REGION.

Explanation.

Names in italics show the families which are peculiar to the region.

Names inclosed thus (......) show families which barely enter the
region, and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Numbers correspond to the series of numbers to the families in Part IV.

Sub-regions
Range beyond
Order and Family
Rocky the Region.
California. Alleghanies. Canada.
Mntns.

MAMMALIA.
Chiroptera.
10. Phyllostomidæ — Neotropical

12. — — — — Cosmopolite
Vespertilionidæ
13. Noctilionidæ — Tropical
regions

Insectivora.
21. Talpidæ — — — — Palæarctic
22. Soricidæ — — — — The Eastern
Hemisphere,
excl.
Australia

Carnivora.
23. Felidæ — — — — All regions
but the
Australian
28. Canidæ — — — — All regions
but the
Australian
29. Mustelidæ — — — — All regions
but the
Australian
30. Procyonidæ — — — — Neotropical
32. Ursidæ — — — — Palæarctic,
Oriental
33. Otariidæ — — N. and S.
temperate
zones
34. Trichechidæ — Arctic
regions
35. Phocidæ — — N. and S.
temperate
zones

Cetacea.
36 to 41. Oceanic

Ungulata.
47. Suidæ — All other
continents
but
Australia
50. Cervidæ — — — — All regions
but
Ethiopian
and
Australian
52. Bovidæ — — — Palæarctic,
Ethiopian,
Oriental

Rodentia.
55. Muridæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
57. Dipodidæ — — — — Palæarctic,
Ethiopian
59. Saccomyidæ — — — — Mexican
sub-region
60. Castoridæ — — — — Palæarctic
61. Sciuridæ — — — — All regions
but
Australian
62. —
Haploodontidæ
66. Cercolabidæ — — — — Neotropical
69. Lagomyidæ — — Palæarctic
70. Leporidæ — — — — All regions
but
Australian

Marsupialia.
76. Didelphyidæ — — Neotropical

BIRDS.
Passeres.
1. Turdidæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
2. Sylviidæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
5. Cinclidæ — — Palæarctic,
Oriental,
Andes
6. Troglodytidæ — — — — All regions
but
Australian
7. Chamæidæ —
8. Certhiidæ — — — — Palæarctic,
Oriental,
Australian
9. Sittidæ — — — — Palæarctic,
Oriental,
Australian
10. Paridæ — — — — The Eastern
Hemisphere
19. Laniidæ — — — — The Eastern
Hemisphere
20. Corvidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
26. (Cœrebidæ) — Neotropical
family
27. Mniotiltidæ — — — — Neotropical
28. Vireonidæ — — — — Neotropical
29. Ampelidæ — — — — Palæarctic,
Antilles,
Guatemala
30. Hirundinidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
31. Icteridæ — — — — Neotropical
32. Tanagridæ — — Neotropical

33. Fringillidæ — — — — All regions
but
Australian
37. Alaudidæ — — — All regions
but
Neotropical
38. Motacillidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
39. Tyrannidæ — — — — Neotropical

Picariæ.
51. Picidæ — — — — All regions
but
Australian
58. Cuculidæ — — — Almost
cosmopolite
67. Alcedinidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
73. Caprimulgidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
74. Cypselidæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
75. Trochilidæ — — — — Neotropical

Psittaci.
80. Conuridæ — Neotropical

Columbæ.
84. Columbidæ — — — — Cosmopolite

Gallinæ.
87. Tetraonidæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
88. Phasianidæ — — Palæarctic,
Oriental,
Ethiopian,
Honduras
91. (Cracidæ) — Neotropical

Accipitres.
94. Vulturidæ — — — All regions
but
Australian
96. Falconidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
97. Pandionidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
98. Strigidæ — — — — Cosmopolite

Grallæ.
99. Rallidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
100. Scolopacidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
105. Charadriidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
107. Gruidæ — — — All regions
but
Neotropical
113. Ardeidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
114. Plataleidæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
115. Ciconiidæ — All the
regions

Anseres.
118. Anatidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
119. Laridæ — — — — Cosmopolite
120. Procellariidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
121. Pelecanidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
123. Colymbidæ — North
temperate
and arctic
zones
124. Podicipidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
125. Alcidæ — — North
temperate
and arctic
zones

REPTILIA.
Ophidia.
5. Calamariidæ — — — All the
regions
6. Oligodontidæ — Neotropical,
Oriental,
Japan
7. Colubridæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite
8. Homalopsidæ — All the
regions
17. Pythonidæ — All tropical
regions
20. Elapidæ — All tropical
regions,
Japan
24. Crotalidæ — — — — Neotropical,
Palæarctic,
Oriental

Lacertilia.
27. Chirotidæ — — Mexico
32. Teidæ — — — Neotropical
34. Zonuridæ — — — — All regions
but
Australian
35. Chalcidæ — Neotropical
45. Scincidæ — — — Almost
cosmopolite
49. Geckotidæ — — — Almost
cosmopolite
50. Iguanidæ — — — Neotropical

Crocodilia.
56. Alligatoridæ — Neotropical

Chelonia.
57. Testudinidæ — — — — All
continents
but
Australian
59. Trionychidæ — Ethiopian,
Oriental,
Japan
60. Cheloniidæ Marine

AMPHIBIA.
Urodela.
2. Sirenidæ —
3. Proteidæ — Palæarctic
4. Amphiumidæ —
5. Menopomidæ — Palæarctic
6. Salamandridæ — — — — Andes,
Palæarctic

Anoura.
10. Bufonidæ — — — — All
continents
but
Australia
12. Engystomidæ — All regions
but Nearctic
15. Alytidæ — — — All regions
but Oriental
17. Hylidæ — — — — All regions
but
Ethiopian
18. Polypedatidæ — All the
regions
19. Ranidæ — — — — Almost
cosmopolite

FISHES (FRESH-
WATER).
Acanthopterygii.
1. Gasterosteidæ — — — — Palæarctic
3. Percidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
4. —
Aphredoderidæ
12. Scienidæ — — — — All regions
but
Australian
37. Atherinidæ — — — — Palæarctic

Physostomi.
59. Siluridæ — — — — All warm
regions
65. Salmonidæ — — — — Palæarctic,
New
Zealand
66. Percopsidæ —
70. Esocidæ — — — — Palæarctic
71. Umbridæ — — — — Palæarctic
73. — — — All regions
Cyprinodontidæ but
Australian
74. Heteropygii —
75. Cyprinidæ — — — — Not in S.
America or
Australia
77. Hyodontidæ — — — —

Ganoidei.
93. Amiidæ — — — —
95. Lepidosteidæ — — — —
96. Accipenseridæ — — — — Palæarctic
97. Polydontidæ — Palæarctic

INSECTS.
LEPIDOPTERA
(PART).
Durini
(Butterflies).
1. Danaidæ — — — — All warm
regions
2. Satyridæ — — — — Cosmopolite
7. (Heliconidæ) — Neotropical
8. Nymphalidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
9. Libytheidæ — — Not in
Australia
12. Erycinidæ — — — Neotropical
13. Lycænidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
14. Pieridæ — — — — Cosmopolite
15. Papilionidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
16. Hesperidæ — — — — Cosmopolite

Sphingidea.
17. Zygænidæ — — — — Cosmopolite
18. Castniidæ — Neotropical,
Australian
22. Ægeriidæ — — — — Not in
Australia
23. Sphingidæ — — — — Cosmopolite

TABLE II.

LIST OF GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS
INHABITING THE NEARCTIC REGION.

Explanation.

Names in italics show genera peculiar to the region.

Names enclosed thus (...) indicate genera which barely enter the region,
and are not considered properly to belong to it.

Genera properly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively.

MAMMALIA.
Order, Family, and No. of Range within the Range beyond the
Genus. Species. Region. Region.

CHIROPTERA.
Phyllostomidæ.
1. Macrotus 1 California
Mexico,
Antilles
Vespertilionidæ.
2. Scotophilus 5 Universal, to Neotr., Orient.,
Hudson's Austral.
Bay
3. Vespertilio 6 Universal, to Cosmopolite.
Hudson's
Bay
4. Nycticejus 1 South and East India, Tropical
Africa,
temperate S.
America
5. Lasiurus 3 Temp. N. Tropical
Amer. to America
Nova Scotia
6. Synotus 2 S. E. and
Central
States

7. Autrozous 1 W. Coast
Noctilionidæ.
8. Nyctinomus 1 Cal. and S. Neotropical,
Central Sub- Oriental, S.
region Palæarctic

INSECTIVORA.
Talpidæ.
9. Condylura 1 Eastern N.
America
10. Scapanus 2 New York to
San
Francisco
11. Scalops 3 S. of Great
Lakes &
Brit.
Columb.
12. Urotrichus 1 British Japan
Columbia
Soricidæ.
13. Sorex 16 The whole Palæarc.,
region Ethiop.,
Orien.
14. Neosorex 1 Vancouver's
Island (a
sub-genus)
15. Blarina 7 Canada to
Mexico (a
sub-genus)

CARNIVORA.
Felidæ.
16. Felis 5 S. of 55° N. All regs. but
Latitude Australian

17. Lynx 3 S. of 56° N. Palæarctic
Latitude
Canidæ.
18. Lupus 6 All N. America Palæarctic,
Oriental
19. Vulpes 6 N. America to Palæarc.,
Arctic Ocean Ethiop.,
and Orient.
Greenland
Mustelidæ.
20. Martes 2 Pennsylvania Palæarctic,
to Paget's Oriental
Sound
21. Mustela 11 All N. America Peru,
Palæarctic,
Ethiopian,
Oriental
22. Gulo 1 Rocky N. Palæarctic
Mountains
and Canada
23. Latax 2 United States
and Canada
24. Enhydris 1 Pacific coast W. coast of S.
America
25. Taxidea 2 Arkansas to
58° N. Lat.
26. Mephitis 6 United States Neotropical
and Canada
Procyonidæ.
27. Procyon 2 Texas to Neotropical
Canada,
California
28. Bassaris 1 California and Guatemala and
Texas Mexico

Ursidæ.
29. Ursus 3 N. America and Palæarctic,
Greenland Oriental
Otariidæ.
30. Callorhinus 1 Behring's Kamschatka
Straits
31. Zalophus 1 S. California to Japan
N. Pacific
Eumetopias 1 California to
Behring's
Straits
Trichechidæ.
32. Trichechus 1 Arctic Ocean to Palæarctic
66° N. Lat.
in N.
America
Phocidæ.
33. Callocephalus 1 Greenland Palæarctic
34. Pagomys 1 N. Atlantic and Japan
N. Pacific
35. Pagophilus 1 N. Atlantic and Palæarctic
N. Pacific
36. Halicyon 1 N. W. coast of
America
37. Phoca 1 Northern Coast Palæarctic
38. Halichœrus 1 Greenland Palæarctic
39. Morunga 1 California S. temperate
shores
40. Cystophora Greenland N. Atlantic

UNGULATA.
Suidæ.

41. Dicotyles 1 Texas to Red Neotropical
River,
Arkansas
Cervidæ.
42. Alces 1 N. E. United N. Palæarctic
States &
Canada
43. Rangifer 2 Maine to Arctic Arctic zone
Ocean &
Greenl.
44. Cervus 6 N. America to Neotr.,
57° N. Lat. Palæarc.,
Orien.
Bovidæ.
45. Bison 1 Between E. Europe
Missouri &
Rocky Mtns.
46. Antilocapra 1 Central plains
from Rio
Grande to
British
Columbia
47. Aplocerus 1 Northern
Rocky
Mountains
48. Capra 1 Upper Missouri Palæarctic
and Rocky
Mountains
northwards
49. Ovibos 1 Arctic America
and
Greenland

RODENTIA.
Muridæ.

50. Reithrodon 5 N. America to Neotropical
Lat. 39° N.
51. Hesperomys 16 Temperate N. Neotropical
America
52. Neotoma 7 Temperate N.
America
53. Sigmodon 2 S. and S. E.
States
54. Arvicola 27 Texas and Palæarctic
California to
Hudson's
Bay
55. Myodes 3 N. United N. Palæarctic
States to
Arctic Reg.
and
Greenland
56. Fiber 1 All N. America Mexico
Dipodidæ.
57. Jaculus 1 Pennsylvania
to Canada
and
California
Saccomyidæ.
58. Dipodomys 5 New Mexico to
Columbia
River and
Carolina
59. Perognathus 6 New Mexico to
British
Columbia
60. Thomomys 2 Upper Missouri
to Hudson's
Bay

61. Geomys 5 New Mexico to
Alabama and
Nebraska
62. Saccomys 1 N. America
Castoridæ.
63. Castor 1 N. Mexico to Palæarctic
Labrador
Sciuridæ
64. Sciurus 18 N. America to All regs. but
Labrador Australian
65. Sciuropterus 4 California & E. Palæarctic,
States Oriental
northwds.
66. Tamias 4 Mexico and Mexico, N.
Virginia to Asia
Canada
67. Spermophilus 15 N., W., & Palæarctic
Central N.
America
68. Cynomys 2 Rio Grande to
Missouri
(Central)
69. Arctomys 4 Virginia and N. Palæarctic
Nebraska,
northws.
Haploodontidæ.
70. Haploodon 2 California and
British
Columbia
Cercolabidæ
71. Erethizon 2 Pennsylvania
to Canada, &
Pacific coast

Lagomyidæ.
72. Lagomys 1 Rocky Palæarctic
Mountains,
42° to 60° N.
Lat.
Leporidæ.
73. Lepus 15 All N. America All regs. but
to Greenland Australian

MARSUPIALIA.
Didelphyidæ.
74. Didelphys 2 From Hudson's Neotropical
River &
Lower
California,
southward

BIRDS.

PASSERES.
Turdidæ.
1. Turdus 9 The whole Almost
region cosmopolite
2. Mimus 2 All U. States Neotropical
and to
Canada
3. Galeoscoptes 1 E. of N. To Panama
America
4. Oreoscoptes 1 California and Mexico
Rocky
Mountains
5. Harporhynchus 7 N. America, Mexico
chiefly the

west
Sylviidæ.
6. Myiadestes 1 W. of Rocky Neotropical
Mountains
and to
Canada
7. Sialia 3 All United Mexico and
States and to Guatemala
Canada
8. Regulus 3 All United Palæarc., Cent.
States & to America
Labrador
9. Polioptila 3 Central and Neotropical
Southern U.
States
Cinclidæ.
10. Cinclus 1 Rocky Andes,
Mountains Palæarctic
and British
America
Troglodytidæ.
11. Troglodytes 3 N. America Neotropical,
Palæarctic
12. Thryophilus 1 N. W. America Neotropical
13. Thryothorus 3 All N. America Neotropical
14. Cistothorus 2 N. America Neotropical
(Campylorhynchus 1 Gila and Rio Neotropical
Grande) genus
15. Salpinctes 1 Rocky
Mountains to
Oregon
16. Catherpes 1 Gila and
Colorado
Chamæidæ.

17. Chamæa 1 California
Certhiidæ.
18. Certhia 2 All United Palæarctic,
States and Guatemala
Canada
Sittidæ.
19. Sitta 5 All United Palæarctic,
States and Mexico
Canada
Paridæ.
20. Parus 8 All United Palæarc.,
States and Orien.,
Canada Mexico
21. Lophophanes 4 All United Palæarctic,
States Mexico
22. Psaltriparus 3 Central & Mexico and
Western N. Guatemala
America
23. Auriparus 1 Rio Grande
Valley
Laniidæ.
24. Lanius 4 All N. America Palæarc.,
Ethio.,
Orient.
Corvidæ.
25. Perisoreus 1 Canada and Palæarctic
Rocky
Mountains
26. Cyanocitta 9 All United Neotropical
States and to
Canada
27. Gymnokitta 1 Central and N.
W. States

28. Picicorvus 1 Central and
Western
States to
Sitka
29. Pica 2 Central and Palæarctic
Western
States to
Arctic Ocean
30. Corvus 7 All N. America Cosmop., excl.
S. Amer.
Cœrebidæ.
(Certhiola 1 Florida; Neotropical
summer genus
migrant)
Mniotiltidæ.
31. Mniotilta 1 Eastern States Antilles,
Andes of
Columbia
(migrant)
32. Parula 1 Eastern States Neotropical
and Canada
33. Protonotaria 1 Ohio and Neotrop. to
southwards Venezuela
34. Helminthophaga 8 All N. America Mexico to
Columbia
35. Helmintherus 2 S. and E. States Mexico to
to Canada Veragua
36. Perissoglossa 1 Eastern United Antilles
States
37. Dendrœca 22 All N. America Mex. to
Ecuador &
Chili
38. Oporornis 2 Eastern States Guatemala and
Panama
39. Geothlypis 4 All N. America Neotropical

40. Setophaga 2 E. States & Neotropical
Canadian
sub-region
41. Myiodioctes 5 United States Mex. to
and Canada Columb.
(migr.)
42. Siurus 3 S. and E. States Mexico to
to Canada Columbia
43. Icteria 2 E. and Central Mexico to
States to Costa Rica
Canada
Vireonidæ.
44. Vireosylvia 7 All N. America Antilles and
Venezuela
45. Vireo 6 All United Antilles and
States Costa Rica
Ampelidæ.
46. Ampelis 2 All N. America Palæarctic,
Guatemala
47. Phænopepla 1 Gila and Lower Mexico
Colorado
Hirundinidæ.
48. Hirundo 3 All N. America Almost
cosmopolite
49. Petrochelidon 1 All N. America Neotropical
50. Cotyle 1 All N. America All regs. but
Australian
51. Stelgidopteryx 1 Southern States Neotropical
52. Progne 1 All N. America Neotropical
Icteridæ.
53. Icterus 7 All United Neotropical
States and
Canada

54. Dolichonyx 1 Eastern States Neotropical
and Canada
55. Molothrus 1 All United Neotropical
States and
Canada
56. Agelæus 3 All United Neotropical
Slates and
Canada
57. Xanthocephalus 1 The whole Mexico
region
58. Sturnella 2 All United Neotropical
States and
Canada
59. Scolecophagus 2 All United Mexico
States and
Canada
60. Quiscalus 4 S. and E. States Mexico to
to Labrador Venezuela
Tanagridæ.
61. Pyranga 4 United Stales Neotropical
and Canada
Fringillidæ.
62. Chrysomitris 7 The whole Neotropical,
region Palæarctic
63. Coccothraustes 1 W. and N. W. Palæarctic,
America Guatemala
64. Embernagra 1 Rocky Neotropical
Mountain
district
65. Pipilo 9 All N. America Mexico and
Guatemala
66. Junco 5 All United Mexico and
States Guatemala
67. Zonotrichia 5 The whole Neotropical
region

68. Melospiza 7 All United Mexico and
States to Guatemala
Sitka
69. Spizella 6 N. America Mexico and
Guatemala
70. Passerella 3 The whole Northern Asia
region
71. Passerculus 6 The whole Mexico and
region Guatemala
72. Poœcetes 1 All United Mexico
States
73. Ammodromus 3 All United Mexico and
States Guatemala
74. Coturniculus 3 E. and N. of N. Neotropical
America
75. Peucæa 3 S. Atlantic Mexico
States and
California
76. Cyanospiza 5 All United Central
States to American
Canada
77. Poospiza 2 California and Neotropical
S. Central
States
78. Carpodacus 5 The whole Mexico,
region Palæarctic
79. Cardinalis 1 S. and S. Mexico to
Central Venezuela
States
80. Pyrrhuloxia 1 Texas and Rio
Grande
81. Guiraca 1 Southern States Neotropical
82. Hedymeles 2 All United Mexico to
States Columbia
(Spermophila 1 Texas) Neotropical
genus

83. Loxia 2 N. of Palæarctic
Pennsylvania
84. Pinicola 1 Boreal America Palæarctic
85. Linota 2 E. and N. of N. Palæarctic
America
86. Leucosticte 4 Alaska to Utah Palæarctic
87. Calamospiza 1 Arizona and Mexico
Texas to
Mexico
88. Chondestes 1 Western, Cen., Mexico
& Southern
States
89. Euspiza 2 S. Eastern Palæarc.,
States Columb.
(mig.)
90. Plectrophanes 6 Boreal America Palæarctic
and E. side
of Rocky
Mountains
91. Centronyx 1 Mouth of
Yellowstone
River
Alaudidæ.
92. Otocorys 1 High central Palæarc.,
plains to E. Mexico,
States and Andes of
Canada Columbia
Motacillidæ.
93. Anthus 1 The whole Cosmopolite
region
94. Neocorys 1 Nebraska
Tyrannidæ.
95. Sayornis 3 E. States to Mexico to
Canada, Ecuador

California
(Pyrocephalus 1 Gila and Rio Neotropical
Grande)
96. Empidonax 7 The whole Mexico to
region Ecuador
97. Contopus 3 N. and E. of Mexico to
Rocky Amazonia
Mountains
98. Myiarchus 2 E. and W. Neotropical
coasts and
Canada
99. Empidias 1 Eastern States Mexico
100. Tyrannus 4 All United Neotropical
States to
Canada
(Milvulus 1 Texas) Neotropical
genus

PICARIÆ.
Picidæ.
101. Picoides 3 Arctic zone and Palæarctic
Rocky
Mounts.
102. Picus 6 All United All regs. but
States and Eth. & Aus.
Canada
103. Sphyrapicus 6 Brit. Columbia Mexico and
and Guatemala
Pennsylvania
southwards
104. Campephilus 2 United States Neotropical
and Canada
105. Hylatomus 1 E. and W.
States and
Canada