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Title: Scientific American, Volume 40, No. 13, March 29, 1879

Author: Various

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN, VOLUME 40, NO. 13, MARCH 29, 1879 ***

SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

A WEEKLY JOURNAL OF PRACTICAL
INFORMATION, ART, SCIENCE,
MECHANICS, CHEMISTRY, AND
MANUFACTURES.

NEW YORK, MARCH 29, 1879.
Vol. XL., No. 13. [New Series.]

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VOL. XL., No. 13. [New Series.] Thirty-fourth
Year.
NEW YORK, SATURDAY, MARCH 29, 1879.

Contents.

(Illustrated articles are marked with an asterisk.)

Africa crossed again 193
Aluminum 197
Barometer, aneroid 201
Bolt, door, improved* 198
Bread, snow-raised 199
Buffalo, domestication of the 197
Carpet beetle, remedy for the 195
Chimney flues 198
Clocks, pneumatic 196
Cooper, Peter, as an inventor 193
Crusher, ore, novel* 194
Electricity, statical, phenom. in. 194
Flour, banana 195
Furnace, imp., for burn'g garbage* 198
Hardware, English & American 201
Ice cave of Decorah, Iowa 196
Inventions, new agricultural 199
Iron, advance in 201
Light, albo-carbon 201
Magnetism, curious facts in 194
Motor, Gary, the* 196

Natural science, charms of 200
Neutral line, Gary's 196
Notes and queries 203
Patent laws 192
Patents, American, recent 194
Pen, stencil, new* 195
People, a strange 195
Phosphorescence 199
Plants protected by insects 201
Pleuro-pneumonia 192
Railway, Vesuvius 200
Reading and eyesight 199
Reading, taste for 193
Regulator, engine, novel* 195
Spain a field for machinery 193
Specimen, a rare geological 196
Sponges, glass* 200
Steamship, ocean, large 196
Table, ironing, new* 194
Telegraph, writing 196
Telegraph, writing, Cowper's 197
Telegraphy, ocean, progress of 195
Tiller, steam, new* 191
Tree, pottery 200
Vase, Greek, ancient* 199

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF
THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT
No. 169,
For the Week ending March 29, 1879.
Price 10 cents. For sale by all newsdealers.

I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.—The Herreshoff Torpedo Boat,
recently built at Bristol, R. I., for the British Government. The novelties
in the placing of the screw, etc. The Peculiar Boiler. 4 figures.—
Improved Hopper Steam Dredger. 2 figures.—The St. Gothard Tunnel.—
The Beacon Tower of Lavezzi. 3 figures.

II. ARCHITECTURE.—Bath Abbey Church. Full page illustration.

III. TECHNOLOGY.—The Achison Stone Cutting Machine. 1 engraving.
—The Deep Mines of the World.—Shoemakers' Wax.—Gruber's New
Method of Germination. 1 engraving.—Improved Process for Treating
Wood, etc., for Paper Manufacture.—Bronzing Plaster of Paris Casts.—
Sal Soda for Unhairing Hides and Skins.—Sieburger's Paste.—To Tan
Lace Leather with Softsoap.

Practical Dyeing Recipes: Blue white zephyr, Scotch blue on worsted,
Scotch green on worsted, jacquineaux on worsted, drab on worsted, gold
on venetian carpet yarn, red brown slubbing, scarlet braid, slate braid,
light drab on cotton, blue on cotton, brown on cotton, chrome orange on
cotton carpet yarn, black on common mixed carpet yarn for filling, black
on cotton and wool mixed yarn.

Damar Varnish for Negatives.—To Make Vignetters by Means of
Gelatino-Chromate.—Resorcine Colors.—Phosphate Soaps.—
Substitution of Different Metals in Ultramarine Colors.—A Harmless
Green for Paper Hangings.—Siegwart's Bath for Etching Glass.—
Composition of French Bronzes.—A New Enemy to the Tea Plant.—The
Bradford Oil Sand.

IV. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.—Apparatus for Titration, 1
figure.—Palladium.—Hæmocyanin.—Test for Alcohol in Ethereal Oils
and Chloroform.—Reaction of Tartaric and Citric Acid.—A Peculiar
Observation.—Insolubility of Iodate of Lead.—Mode of Preventing the
Contamination of Water with Lead.—Separating Phosphorus from Iron
and Steel.—Production of Alcohol without Fermentation.

V. ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, HEAT, ETC.—Some Facts in regard to
Telescopic and Stereoscopic Vision.—The Centenary of the Birth of Sir

Humphry Davy. His boyish days. His first chemical experiments. His
first lecture at the Royal Institution. A very entertaining biographical
sketch.—Light and Heat in Gas Flames.—Nickel Needles for
Compasses.—The Nature of the Elements.—A New Compound Prism
for Direct Vision Spectroscopes.

VI. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.—Filaria in the Eye. By Chas. S.
Turnbull, M. D.—The Species of Tapeworm now Prevalent.—Nitrous
Oxide under Pressure.

VII. NATURAL HISTORY, GEOLOGY, ETC.—A Gigantic American
Deep-sea Crustacean, 1 engraving.—Glaciers in the United States.—The
Toulomne Cave.—Achæological Explorations in Tennessee. By F. W.
Putnam. 6 figures.—Memorably Cold Winters.—Life at Timber Line. By
Professor C. E. Robins, Summit, Colorado.—The Walled Lake in Iowa.

VIII. ASTRONOMY.—Is the Moon Inhabited? By Camille Flammarion.
The various opinions that have been held in regard to the moon. The best
we can do with our present telescopes. The means we possess for judging
of the condition of the moon. Recent changes on the moon. Photographs
of the moon and their defects. Facts that have been observed by the
persevering eyes of astronomers.

A NEW STEAM TILLER.
Steam is now made to perform almost everything in the way of heavy labor,
to the saving of muscle and energy that may be more profitably employed;
and since inventive genius has devised means of governing steam with
absolute accuracy, there seems to be no limit to its economical application.

A recent invention in steam engineering, which exhibits in a marked degree
the controllability and adaptability of steam, is Mr. Herbert Wadsworth's
steam tiller, an engraving of which we present herewith.

This machine (Fig. 1) is provided with a steam cylinder, similar to the
cylinder of a steam engine, containing a piston, the rod of which is attached
to a crosshead, A, that slides on ways, B, secured to the bed supporting the
cylinder.

The tiller, D, as it is carried to starboard or port, slides through a socket, E,
pivoted to the crosshead.

The motion of the rudder is communicated to the steam cut-off by means of
the shaft, C, crank, J, rod, K, crank, I, and the hollow valve spindle. When
the tiller is amidships the valve handle, H, is at right angles to the cylinder,
and parallel to the tiller. By moving the lever, H, to right or left, steam is

admitted to one end or the other of the cylinder, which, acting on the tiller
through the piston, piston rod, and crosshead, moves the rudder; and when
the rudder reaches the desired position the cut-off will have been moved the
amount necessary to prevent further entrance of steam. When the rudder is
influenced by the waves or by the expansion or contraction of steam, the
cut-off alters its position in relation to the valve and automatically arranges
the steam passages so that the piston is returned to its proper position. The
details of the cut-off are shown in Fig. 2; the valve, G, which covers the cut-
off, F, acts like a four way cock. The spindle of the cut-off, F, is connected
with the lever, I, and is moved by the rudder, as already described. By
enlarging or gradually narrowing the ends of the steam ports great rigidity
or elasticity may be given to the hold of this engine, according to the
requirements of the particular vessel.

Few and simple as are the parts of this machine it is possible, by balancing
the valves and suiting the diameter of the cylinder to the work to be
performed, to overcome great resistances with a slight effort. The inventor
says that this system of valves is considered by experts to be novel and very
valuable.

In Fig. 3 is shown a pattern of a slide valve suited to special purposes. Its
working is essentially the same as that of the valve already described. The
ports are set side by side, parallel with the sides of the valve. The supply
port is in the middle, the other ports lead to opposite ends of the cylinder.

In Fig. 4 is shown another application of the controlling valve and cut-off
described above. Two oscillating steam cylinders are employed in working
the rudder. They are placed on opposite sides of the chest, A, and are
supplied with steam through the controlling valve, B. The piston rods of the
two cylinders are connected with cranks placed on opposite ends of the
shaft, C, at right angles to each other. Upon this shaft, half-way between the
pillow blocks which support it, there is a worm which engages a toothed
sector, D, on the rudder-post, E. To an extension of the rudder-post is
secured an arm, F, which is connected with the arm, G, of the controlling
valve. By shifting the lever, H, the supply of steam to the two cylinders may
be increased or diminished, or its direction may be changed, so that the
engines will be reversed or stopped. This engine is remarkable for its
simplicity. The cylinders may be detached and changed if required, one size
of bed answering for three different sizes of cylinder, which may vary only
in diameter, the stroke being the same, so that the castings for engines of
different power are the same except in the matter of the cylinders and
pistons, and all the parts are interchangeable—a feature of modern engine
building that cannot be too highly valued.

Further information may be obtained from Herbert Wadsworth, 26
Merchants' Bank Building, 28 State street, Boston, Mass.

HOW OUR PATENT LAWS PROMOTE AND
IMPROVE AMERICAN INDUSTRIES.
On another page we print in full a most suggestive paper recently read
before the Manchester (Eng.) Scientific and Mechanical Society, by Mr.
Frederick Smith, a prominent builder of that city, contrasting the qualities,
styles, and prices of American and English builders' hardware—a paper
which the Ironmonger pronounces one of the most serious indictments yet
preferred against British workmanship in that department.

The field covered by the paper—the supplying of house builders' hardware
—embraces a multitude of conveniences, but no real necessities. Why is it
that America has been prolific in novel devices and clever improvements in
this department of manufacture as in so many others, while England has
gone on stolidly copying ancient forms, changing only to cheapen by the
introduction of poor material and sham construction? Mr. Smith mentions
several reasons that English manufacturers have given him for the state of
things he, as an Englishman, so greatly deplores; but evidently he is not
satisfied with any of them, and very justly; for none of them touches the
real cause—the radically different attitude of the public mind toward
inventions, characteristic of the two countries.

In England the user of household inconveniences accepts them as matters of
fact; or if he grumbles at them he never thinks of trying to change them. It
is not his business; and if he should devise an improvement, ten to one he
could not get it made. To patent it is practically out of the question, for if it
were not condemned off-hand as trivial, the patent fees would make it cost
more than it was likely to be worth. The mechanic who makes such things
is trained to work to pattern, and not waste his time on experiments.
Besides, if he should make a clever invention he would not be able to raise
the necessary fees for a patent, or to get any one to help him thereto. The
manufacturer "makes what his customers call for." Why should he spend his
money and spoil his plant to introduce improvements? So things go, until
some pestilent Yankees flood the markets with better articles at a lower

price; and British consumers suddenly discover that they want something
that the native manufacturer cannot make. The need was there; but
invention did not follow. How happened it that the American manufacturer
did not pursue the same uninventive course? What produced the radically
different attitude of the American mind toward newfangled notions out of
which inventions proceeded and flourished?

No doubt several causes have been at work: freedom of thought and action;
popular education; a blending of races; and the tide of adventurous spirits
naturally resorting to a new and free land. These have had their influence
undoubtedly; but all these have existed, more or less completely, in other
new lands, without that outburst of creative energy which has made
America the nursery of inventions, great and small. The determining cause,
the one condition that prevailed here and not elsewhere, was the
circumstance that almost from the start new ideas were given a market
value in this country. Unlike all others, the American patent law directly
encouraged independent thinking in all classes. The fees were low and the
protection offered fairly good. Men soon found that it paid to invent; that
one of the surest roads to competency was a patented improvement on
something of general use. If a household utensil or appliance went wrong or
worked badly, every user was directly interested in devising something
better; and, more than that, he was interested in making his invention
known and in securing its adoption. The workman at his bench had an ever-
present inducement to contrive something at once cheaper and better than
the article he was hired to make. He could patent his improvement, or the
wholly original device he might hit upon, for a few dollars; and his patent
would count as capital. It would make him his own master, possibly bring
him a fortune. The manufacturer could not rest contented with the thing he
set out to make, for the meanest hired man in his employ might suddenly
become a competitor. He must be constantly alert for possible
improvements, or his rivals would get ahead of him. The result is a nation
of inventors, at whose hands the newest of lands has leaped to the
leadership in the arts, almost at a bound.

There is talk of changing all this; of emulating the conservative spirit of the
Old World; of putting inventors under bonds; of stopping the rush of
industrial improvement—to enable a few short-sighted yet grasping

corporations to get along without paying license fees for such inventions as
they happen to approve of. They profess to want inventors to go on making
improvements. They are willing to ascribe all honor to the successful
inventor; but they are determined not to pay him for his work. Still more
they are determined to change the attitude of the public mind toward
inventors and inventions, if such a change can be wrought by plausible
misrepresentations. The fact that they were able to inveigle one branch of
the American Congress into assenting to their unjust and mischievous
scheme is one of the anomalies of our recent history. It should be taken as a
timely warning of impending danger to all the industrial interests of the
country. It is outrageous that the inventors of the land, after having raised
their country to the first rank among industrial nations, should have to
defend their constitutional rights against Congressional invasion; but the
fact exists; and the defense should be made a matter of personal interest and
effort not only by every inventor and manufacturer, but by every honest
citizen.

PLEURO-PNEUMONIA.
The cattle plague, which is creating so much anxiety throughout the Eastern
States, is a contagious fever, affecting cows chiefly, characterized by
extensive exudations into the respiratory organs, and attended by a low
typhus inflammation of the lungs, pluræ, and bronchia. It has prevailed in
Europe for ages, at times developing into wide-spread scourges, causing
incalculable loss. It was imported into England in 1839, and again three
years later; and it was estimated that within twenty-five years thereafter the
losses by deaths alone in England had amounted to $450,000,000. In 1858
the disease was carried to Australia by an English cow, and, spreading to the
cattle ranges, almost depopulated them.

In 1843 an infected Dutch cow brought the disease to Brooklyn, where it
has since lingered, slowly spreading among the cattle in Kings and Queens
counties. In 1847 several head of infected English cattle were imported into
New Jersey, and, spreading among a herd of valuable cattle, made it
necessary for them all to be slaughtered, the only certain method of
stamping out the disease. In 1859 four infected cows were imported into
Massachusetts from Holland; the plague spread rapidly, and was stamped
out only by persistent effort, the State paying for over 1,000 slaughtered
cattle. Since 1867 the disease has not been known there. Meantime the pest
had invaded Eastern Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland, where it has
since prevailed in isolated localities. The absence of large herds of moving
cattle in these districts, except for speedy slaughter, has prevented the
disease from developing into a general plague.

The recent action of the British Council in forbidding the importation of
American live cattle is likely to prove of inestimable benefit to this country,
in forcibly calling attention to the grave risk that the presence of the disease
on Long Island and elsewhere constantly entails. Fortunately the drift of the
cattle traffic is eastward, and as yet there has been no propagation of the
poison in the great cattle ranges of the West. Unless summarily arrested,
however, the disease will surely reach those sources of our cattle supply,

and occasion losses that can be estimated only in hundreds of millions of
dollars.

The experience of all countries into which this disease has gained access
appears to prove that there is only one way of getting rid of it—namely, the
immediate killing of all infected cattle, and the thorough disinfection of the
premises in which they are found.

The disease is purely infectious, and is never found in regions where it has
not gained a foothold by importation. Palliative measures have in every
instance failed to eradicate the disease, and are only justifiable, as in
Australia, after the plague has reached dimensions utterly beyond the reach
of any process of extermination.

Professor Law, of Cornell University, one of our best informed veterinary
surgeons, most emphatically opposes every attempt to control the disease
by quarantining the sick or by the inoculation of the healthy. "We may
quarantine the sick," he says, "but we cannot quarantine the air." To
establish quarantine yards is simply to maintain prolific manufacturers of
the poison, which is given off by the breath of the sick, and by their
excretions, to such an extent that no watchfulness can insure against its
dissemination. Besides, the expense of thorough quarantining operations
would amount to more than the value of the infected animals whose lives
might be saved thereby. Inoculation is still less to be tolerated at this stage
of the pest.

The Professor says: "Germany, Holland, Belgium, France, and England,
have been treating the victims of this plague for nearly half a century, but
the result has only been the increase of disease and death. Our own infected
States have been treating it for a third of a century, and to-day it exists over
a wider area than ever before. Contrast this with the results in
Massachusetts and Connecticut, where the disease has been repeatedly
crushed out at small expense, and there can be no doubt as to which is the
wisest course. As all the plagues are alike in the propagation of the poison
in the bodies of the sick, I may be allowed to adduce the experience of two
adjacent counties in Scotland when invaded by the rinderpest. Aberdeen
raised a fund of £2,000, and though she suffered several successive
invasions, she speedily crushed out the poison wherever it appeared by

slaughtering the sick beasts and disinfecting the premises. The result was
that little more than half the fund was wanted to reimburse the owners for
their losses, and the splendid herds of the county were preserved. Forfar, on
the other hand, set herself to cure the plague, with the result of a universal
infection, the loss of many thousands of cattle, and the ruin of hundreds of
farmers. Finally the malady was crushed out in the entire island by the
method adopted by Aberdeen and other well advised counties at the outset."

And again, "Cattle have been inoculated by the tens of thousands in
Belgium and Holland, and of all Europe these are the countries now most
extensively infected. France, Prussia, Italy, Austria, and England have each
practiced it on a large scale, and each remains a home of the plague.
Australia has followed the practice, and is now and must continue an
infected country. Our own infected States have inoculated, and the disease
has survived and spread in spite of it, and even by its aid. Whatever country
has definitively exterminated the plague (Norway, Sweden, Denmark,
Holstein, Mecklenburg, Switzerland, Massachusetts, and Connecticut), that
country has prohibited inoculation and all other methods that prevail on the
principle of preserving the sick, and has relied on the slaughter of the
infected and the thorough disinfection of their surroundings. So will it be
with us. If any State adopts or allows any of these temporizing measures,
that State will only repeat the experience of the past alike in the Old World
and the New, will perpetuate the disease in the country, will entail great
losses on its citizens, will keep up the need for constant watchfulness and
great expense by the adjoining States for their own protection, and will
indefinitely postpone the resumption of the foreign live stock trade, which,
a few months ago, promised to be one of the most valuable branches of our
international commerce."

We are persuaded that the position taken by Professor Law, and other
similar-minded veterinary surgeons, is the only safe one. The disease can be
stamped out now with comparatively small loss. If trifled with, and
tolerated, it cannot but result in a great national calamity.

SPAIN A FIELD FOR MACHINERY AND
PATENTS.
From a too lengthy communication to admit in full to our columns, a
resident of Madrid communicates to the Scientific American some facts
relative to the fertility of the soil of Spain, her necessity for improved
agricultural and other implements, and closes with the assertion that it is a
good field withal for patents. We cull from the letter as follows:

I have lived, says the writer, for a number of years in this beautiful country,
so little understood by foreigners, so little appreciated by its own
inhabitants. The Spain of romance, poetry, and song, is the garden as well
as the California of Europe. But it stands in great need of the health-giving
touch of the North American enterprise. We have here the same mineral
treasures, the same unrivaled advantages of climate, that made Spain once
the industrial and commercial emporium of the world.

But Spain is awakening. She is endeavoring to shake off her lethargy. The
late Exhibition of Paris has proved this; and those who are familiar with the
past history and present condition of Spain have been astonished at the
result of this effort. A new era has commenced for the country, and it is
everywhere evident that a strong current of enterprise and industry has set
in. But it is with nations, as with individuals, when they have remained long
in complete inaction, brain and muscles are torpid and cannot at first obey
the will. Spain needs the assistance of other nations hardened and inured to
toil.

The plows now used to till the land are precisely such as were those left by
the Moors in the unfinished furrow, when with tears and sighs they bade
farewell to their broad fields, their mosques and palaces, whose ideal
architecture is still the wonder of the world, to go forth as outcasts and
exiles in obedience to the cruel edict that drove them away to the deserts of
Africa.

I doubt whether there is an American plow in Spain, much less a steam
plow. Sowing and reaping machines are here unknown, and grain is tread
out by oxen and mules just as it was in Scripture times, and cleaned by
women, who toss it in the air to scatter the chaff. Everything is primitive
and Oriental here as yet.

Spain could supply all Europe with butter and cheese, and, on the contrary,
these articles are imported in large quantities from England, Holland, and
Switzerland. The traveler crosses leagues and leagues of meadow land
where

not a tree is to be seen, nor one sheep pasture, and which are nevertheless
watered by broad rivers that carry away to the ocean the water that would,
by irrigation, convert these fields into productive farms. There are many
places in Spain where the wine is thrown away for want of purchasers and
vats in which to keep it. In the Upper Aragon, the mortar with which the
houses are built is made with wine instead of water, the former being the
most plentiful. Aragon needs an enterprising American company to convert
into wholesome table wine the infinite varieties there produced, and which
our neighbors the French buy and carry away to convert into Bordeaux.

We want American enterprise in Galicia and Asturias, where milk is almost
given away, to convert it into the best of butter and cheese; and also in those
same provinces, where delicious fruit is grown in such abundance that it is
left on the ground for the swine.

Spain needs many more railroads and canals, all of which, when
constructed, are subsidized by the government; the railroads at the rate of
$12,000 a kilometer, and many more additional advantages are offered for
canals.

With regard to commerce with Spain, we have to lament the same
indifference on the part of the Americans. I have, for instance, an American
double-burner petroleum lamp. All who see it admire and covet it, but they
are not to be had here. If we except one American in Madrid, who brings
mostly pumps and similar articles on a very small scale, we have no dealers
in American goods here. Wooden clothes pins, lemon squeezers, clothes
horses, potato peelers, and the hundreds of domestic appliances of

American invention, elsewhere considered indispensable, are in Spain
unknown.

We had confidently expected that the new Spanish law on patents would
draw the attention of American inventors toward this country, that to-day
offers a wide field for every new practical invention, but I am sorry to see
that, with the exception of Edison and a few others, the Americans have not
yet availed themselves of the easy facility for taking patents for Spain,
where new inventions and new industries are now eagerly accepted and
adopted. And while the Americans are thus careless as to their own
interests, the French take out and negotiate, in Spain, American patents with
insignificant variations.

Let American inventors be assured that any new invention, useful and
practical, and above all, requiring but little capital to establish it as an
industry, will find a ready sale in Spain.

I could enlarge to a much greater extent upon the indifference of American
inventors, merchants, manufacturers, and business men, as to the market
they have in Spain in their respective lines, and upon the importance of
building up a trade with this country, but to do so would require more space
than I think you would feel justified in occupying in your columns.

PETER COOPER AS AN INVENTOR.
The successes of Peter Cooper's long and useful life are well known. Not so
many are aware of his varied experience in the direction of failure,
particularly in the field of invention. More than once he has found his best
devices profitless because ahead of his time, or because of conditions,
political or otherwise, which no one could foresee. He possessed the rare
qualities, however, of pluck and perseverance, and when one thing failed he
lost no time in trying something else. Before he was of age he had learned
three trades—and he did not make his fortune at either.

In a familiar conversation with a Herald writer recently, Mr. Cooper related
some of his early experiences, particularly with reference to enterprises
which did not succeed. His father was a hatter, and as a boy young Cooper
learned how to make a hat in all its parts. The father was not successful in
business, and the hatter's trade seems to have offered little encouragement
to the son. Accordingly he learned the art of making ale. Why he did not
stick to that calling and become a millionaire brewer, Mr. Cooper does not
say. Most probably the national taste for stronger tipple could not at that
time be overcome, and ale could not compete with New England rum and
apple-jack. The young mechanic next essayed the art of coachmaking, at
which he served a full apprenticeship. At the end of his time his employer
offered to set him up in business, but the offer was not accepted, through
fear of losing another's money. He felt that if he took the money and lost it
he would have to be a slave for life. So he quit coachmaking and went to
work for a man at Hempstead, L. I., making machines for shearing cloth. In
three years, on $1.50 a day, Cooper had saved enough money to buy his
employer's patent. Immediately he introduced improvements in the
manufacture and in the machine, which the war with England made a great
demand for by excluding foreign cloths. At this time Cooper married. In
due time the family numbered three, and the young father's inventive
faculty was again called upon.

"In those days," said Mr. Cooper to the reporter, smiling as the
remembrance came to his mind, "we kept no servants as they do nowadays,

and my wife and myself had to do all that was to be done. After our first
child was born I used to come into the house and find my wife rocking the
cradle, and I relieved her from that while I was there. After doing that for a
few days I thought to myself that I could make that thing go of itself. So I
went into my shop, and made a pendulous cradle that would rock the child.
Then I attached a musical instrument which would sing for it, and at the
same time the machine would keep the flies off. The latter was very simple;
by hanging something to the cross bar, as the cradle swung under it,
backward and forward, it would create wind enough to drive away the flies.
The machine was wound up by a weight, and would run for nearly half an
hour without stopping. I took out a patent for it, and one day a peddler came
along with a horse and wagon, as they do in the country, and saw the cradle.
He struck a bargain with me and bought the patent right for the State of
Connecticut, giving for it his horse and wagon and all the goods he had with
him. They afterward made some there, but nothing like as good as mine. It
was a beautiful piece of furniture," said Mr. Cooper regretfully, as he
thought of it as a thing of the past. "They afterward substituted springs for
the weight movement, but that kind was not so good."

About this time the war with England ended and the market was spoiled for
the shearing machines. Then, we believe, Mr. Cooper tried his hand at
cabinetmaking, but that failed, and he set up a grocery store where the Bible
House now stands. While selling groceries Mr. Cooper made an invention
which ought to have made his fortune, but it did not. The story is best told
in Mr. Cooper's own words:

"It was just before the Erie Canal was completed, and I conceived a plan by
which to tow boats by the use of all the elevated waters on the line of the
canal. To demonstrate that that was practicable I made with my own hands a
chain two miles long, and placed posts 200 feet apart in the East River from
Bellevue dock down town about a mile. These posts supported grooved
wheels to lay the chain in, forming an endless chain. The whole was moved
by an overshot waterwheel placed at the Bellevue dock. A reservoir twelve
feet square and three deep held the water to turn the wheel."

At the suggestion of Governor Clinton Mr. Cooper tightened his chain and
pulled up the end post just before the grand trial of his device was to come

off. He succeeded in getting stone enough to anchor the post, however, and
the experiment went off swimmingly. The boat was hooked on to the chain,
and the passage back and forward—two miles—was made in eleven
minutes.

"I ran that boat some ten days," says Mr. Cooper, "to let people see what
could be done, and carried nearly a thousand people. Part of the time I ran
two boats. Once I counted 52 people in one boat. I made the whole chain
myself and planted the posts. As I could find no wheels to suit me I made
the moulds and cast the wheels myself out of block tin and zinc. It was no
small job, I can tell you."

This was unquestionably a grand invention. In itself it was a perfect
success; but it was not used. Mr. Cooper tells why:

"It demonstrated completely that the elevated water power along the line of
the canal and every lock in the canal could be made use of to drive the
boats. Governor Clinton gave me $800 for the privilege of buying the right
to the plan in case he should want to use it on the Erie Canal. In making the
canal he had promised the people along the route that as soon as it was
finished they could sell their horses to tow the boats, their grain and fodder
to feed the horses, and their provisions for the passengers. On reflection he
thought that if he took all that away from them he would have to run the
gantlet again, and he could not afford to do that. There never was anything
done with the plan until a few years ago, when Mr. Welch, president of the
Camden and Amboy Railroad and Canal, invented exactly the same thing
and put it in practice on his locks on the canal. He found it saved half the
time and great expense. He went to Washington to take out a patent for it,
and when he got there he found that I had patented the same thing fifty-
three years before. My patent had run out, so he could use the plan on his
canal. It has also been used on one lock on the Erie Canal. If they could
have used that chain on the whole length of the Erie Canal it would have
saved many millions of dollars."

This would not be a bad place, were there room for it, to speak of
"undeveloped" and therefore worthless inventions; and the assumption that
if an inventor does not make his invention immediately profitable it must be

good for nothing, and should be dispatented. But the moral goes without
telling.

Mr. Cooper's next attempt at invention was made about the same time, but
in quite a different direction. It was during the struggle of the Greeks for
independence, and wishing to do something for their assistance, Mr. Cooper
undertook to make a torpedo boat for them. Mr. Cooper says:

"It was a small one that could be taken on board ship and used to destroy
any vessel that came to destroy them. It was fixed with a rotary steam
engine and a screw wheel to propel it. It was intended to be guided from the
ship or the shore. There were two steel wires fixed to the tiller of the rudder,
and the operator could pull on one side or the other and guide the vessel just
as a horse is guided with reins. It was so arranged that at night it would
carry a light with its dark side toward the object to be destroyed, and by
simply keeping the light in range with the vessel it would be sure to hit it.
The torpedo was carried on a little iron rod, projecting in front of the
torpedo vessel a few inches under water. Contact would discharge the
torpedo and bend this iron rod. This would reverse the action of the engine
and cause the torpedo vessel to return right back from whence it came,
ready to carry another torpedo."

Unfortunately the torpedo boat was not ready in time to go with the ship
carrying the contributions for Greece. It was stored in Mr. Cooper's factory
(he had then turned his attention to glue) and was destroyed by the burning
of the factory. It seems to have been quite a promising affair for the time.
Mr. Cooper says:

"I experimented with it at once to see how far it could be guided. I made a
steel wire ten miles long and went down to the Narrows to test the matter. I
had steel yards fastened to one end of the wire, and to the other end the
torpedo vessel as attached. It got about six miles away when a vessel
coming into the harbor crossed the wire and broke it. Although the
experiment was not complete it showed that for at least six miles I could
guide the vessel as easily as I could guide a horse."

Mr. Cooper's work as the pioneer locomotive builder in this country; his
later inventions and improvements in the manufacture of railway iron and

wrought iron beams for fireproof buildings; his application of anthracite
coal to iron puddling, and his other successes are almost as widely known
as his philanthropic efforts for the education and advancement of the
industrial classes of this city.

After all, we are not sure but the story of his long and varied and always
honorable career, told by himself, would not be worth, to young people who
have to make their way in life through many difficulties, more even than the
advantages of the noble institution which bears his name.

Taste for Reading.—Sir John Herschel has declared that "if he were to
pray for a taste which should stand under every variety of circumstance and
be a source of happiness and cheerfulness to him through life, it would be a
taste for reading." Give a man, he affirms, that taste, and the means of
gratifying it, and you cannot fail of making him good and happy; for you
bring him in contact with the best society in all ages, with the tenderest, the
bravest, and the purest men who have adorned humanity, making him a
denizen of all nations, a contemporary of all times, and giving him a
practical proof that the world has been created for him, for his solace, and
for his enjoyment.

Africa Crossed Again.

Information has been received by way of Lisbon, March 12, that the
Portuguese explorer, Pinto, has succeeded in traversing Africa from west to
east, and has reached Transvaal. The latitude of his course across is not
mentioned.

CURIOUS FACTS IN MAGNETISM.
At the meeting of the New York Academy of Sciences February 17th, the
article in the March number of Harper's Magazine, entitled "Gary's
Magnetic Motor," was incidentally alluded to, and Prof. C. A. Seeley made
the following remarks: The article claims that Mr. Gary has made a
discovery of a neutral line or surface, at which the polarity of an induced
magnet, while moving in the field of the inducing pole, is changed. The
alleged discovery appears to be an exaggerated statement of some curious
facts, which, although not new, are not commonly recognized. If a bar of
iron be brought up, end on, near a magnetic pole, the bar becomes an
induced magnet, but an induced magnet quite different from what our
elementary treatises seem to predict. On the first scrutiny it is a magnet
without a neutral point, and only one kind of magnetism—namely, that of
the inducing pole. Moreover, the single pole is pretty evenly distributed
over the whole surface, so that if iron filings be sprinkled on the bar they
will be attracted at all points and completely cover it. Now, if while the bar
is covered by filings it be moved away from the inducing pole, the filings
will gradually and progressively fall, beginning at the end nearest the
inducing pole and continuing to some point near the middle of the bar; the
filings at the remote end will generally be held permanently. When the bar
is carried beyond the field of the inducing pole it is simply a weak magnet
of ordinary properties—i. e., of two poles and a neutral point between them.

A plausible and simple explanation of this case is that the inducing pole
holds or binds the induced magnetism of opposite name, so that it has no
external influence; the two magnetisms are related to each other as are the
positive and negative electricities of the Leyden jar. Let the inducing pole
be N.; the S. of the bar will be attracted by it and bound, while the N. of the
bar becomes abnormally free and active. On moving the bar from the pole
the bound magnetism is released and a part becomes residual magnetism.
Now when the residual balances the free magnetism which is of opposite
name, we are on Gary's neutral line. In a restricted sense there is a change
of polarity over the half of the bar contiguous to the inducing pole; on the

other half there is no change of pole in any sense. Experiment with a
shingle nail in the place of the filings, à la Gary, bring the nail to the
induced bound pole, and it may be held, except at the neutral line. Now if
one will read the magazine article with such ideas as these he will feel
pretty sure that the writer of it has used words recklessly, that Gary has not
made an original discovery, and that the "neutral" line, whatever it be, has
only an imagined relation to the "principle" of the motor.

The Gary Motor as a perpetual motion scheme, of course, is not worthy of
serious notice from a society devoted to science. It has no noteworthy
novelty of construction or conception. Mr. Gary is afflicted with the very
old delusion of the cut-off or shield of magnetism, which is to cost less than
what comes from it. His cut-off is a sheet of iron, which we know acts
simply as an armature.

A New Phenomenon in Statical Electricity.
M. E. Duter, in a paper read before the French Academy in December,
showed that when a Leyden jar is charged with either positive or negative
electricity its internal volume increases, and that this effect is a new
phenomenon, unexplainable by either a theory of an increase of temperature
or of an electrical pressure. The experiment was performed by means of a
flask-shaped Leyden jar with a long tube attached to its neck, and
containing a liquid which served as the inner armature. The author's
attention had been called to the fact that this phenomenon had been
observed ten years ago by M. Gori.

His researches, just made public, leave no doubt of the accuracy of M.
Duter's view, that the glass of the jar really expands. According to the
theory of elasticity, the effect of an internal pressure in a hollow sphere is in
the inverse ratio of its thickness. M. Duter, therefore, had three flasks made
of the same volume, but of thicknesses of 4 mm., 0.8 mm., and 0.5 mm.
respectively. They were filled with water and enveloped by tin foil. Each
carried a capillary thermometer tube, in which the variations of the height
of liquid served to measure the changes in volume due to electrification. He
found that these changes were imperceptible in the thick glass, very marked
in the flask of mean thickness, and rose to 30 mm. in the thinnest. The
variations in volume were very nearly in inverse ratio of the square roots of
the thicknesses.

A NEW ORE CRUSHER.
The accompanying engravings represent an improved ore crusher, which is
said to be very effective and economical in the use of power.

Fig. 1—BROWN'S ORE CRUSHER.

Fig. 2—HORIZONTAL SECTION.

A short vertical cast iron cylinder, A, having in one side a discharge
opening, H, contains all of the movable parts.

The upper portion of the cylinder is lined with chilled iron plates, L, and an
inclined chute, X, leads to the discharge opening, H.

A rigid shaft, B, carries the circular crusher, C, and moves in a ball and
socket joint at the upper end, and extends eccentrically through the boss of
a bevel wheel, G, at its lower end, and rests on a step supported by a lever
that may be adjusted by the screw, R. The wheel, G, is driven by the pinion,
P, on whose shaft there are a pulley and a fly-wheel.

The double gyratory motion of the crusher, C, causes it to approach all
portions of the lining, L, crushing whatever lies between.

It is said that this machine is capable of crushing 10 tons of the hardest ore
per hour. Its weight is 6,500 lbs.—Musée de l'Industrie.

RECENT AMERICAN PATENTS.
Enos Richmond, of Troy, N. Y., has invented a steak tenderer, having a
plunger studded with chisel-pointed rods, and arranged in a case in
connection with an elevating spring. A blow upon the knob at the top of the
plunger forces the chisel-pointed rods through holes in the casing into the
meat, the casing resting on the surface of the steak.

Messrs. A. W. Southard and Volney R. Sears, of Falls City, Neb., have
patented an improved invalid bedstead, which is provided with ingenious
mechanism for placing the invalid in different positions.

An improved spring attachment for carriage tops, which is designed to
prevent the rear bow from being bent by the weight of the top when turned
back, has been patented by Mr. Robert E. McCormick, of Doylestown, O.

Mr. Espy Gallipher, of Schellsburg, Pa., has devised an axle journal having
a groove lengthwise upon its upper side which extends back upon the
surface of the axle and communicates with an oil cup. A sliding rod
occupies a portion of the groove; when this rod is drawn out it permits the
oil to fill the groove; when it is pushed into the groove in the axle, the oil is
ejected and a further supply is cut off.

An improved pill machine, invented by Messrs. W. N. Fort and R. R.
Moore, of Lewisville, Ark., is adapted to the manufacture of pills in large
quantities. The machine has mechanism for grinding and mixing
ingredients, a grooved wheel and trough for forming the pills, and a device
for applying powder.

An improvement in millstone adjustments has been patented by Mr.
Stephen P. Walling, of South Edmeston, N. Y. This invention consists in a
screw applied to the end of the mill spindle on which the stone is rigidly
held, so that the running stone may be forced by the screw away from the
stationary stone and held against the action of a spring at the opposite end

of the spindle, the object being to prevent the stones from becoming dulled
by contact with each other.

An improved attachment for sewing machines for soaking or waxing the
thread as it passes the needle, has been patented by Mr. Pedro F. Fernandez,
of San Juan, Porto Rico. The invention consists in a frame secured to the
arm of a sewing machine by a thumb-screw, and provided with a clamping
device for holding wax or soap.

A novel combination of a toggle and springs and levers for operating a drag
saw has been patented by Mr. Harvey Hughes, of Wheat Ridge, Ohio. The
saw, while properly guided, is free to move up or down without affecting
the leverage.

An improvement in filters, which consists in re-enforcing the felt disk with
a backing of wire cloth to enable it to resist heavy water pressure, has been
patented by Mr. B. P. Chatfield, of Aiken, S. C.

A basket having light sheet metal sides attached to a wooden bottom by
crimping the edges over a rib on the periphery of the bottom, has been
patented by Mr. Samuel Friend, of Decatur, Ill. The handle and lid may be
easily removed to permit of packing and storage.

An improved cross bar for fastening doors, patented by Mr. Richard
Condon, of La Salle, Ill., has a spring acted portion which engages a socket
on the door casing, and is retained in that position by a spring catch.

A NEW IRONING TABLE.
The accompanying engraving represents a convenient and inexpensive table
recently patented by Mr. Albert H. Hogins, of Morrisania, N. Y. It is more
especially designed for ironing, but it may be used for other purposes when
closed up. The top is made in two tapering sections, A B. The section, B, is
narrower than the other, and is pivoted at its wider end to a bar, E, which
slides into a socket formed in the table. The table has five legs, one of
which, D, is attached to a sliding rail that supports the narrower end of the
movable part of the top. The table is provided with a drawer in one end and
with a tray, C, for containing blankets, etc.

HOGINS' IMPROVED TABLE.

The convenience and practicability of this table for general laundry use,
will be apparent without further explanation. The board, B, when drawn out
will be used for ironing skirts, shirts, and other garments requiring a board
of this character, and when the table is closed together and fastened by the
hooks, it may be used in ironing larger articles. When closed it presents the
appearance of an ordinary table and may be used as such.

Further information may be obtained by addressing the inventor as above.

A NOVEL ENGINE REGULATOR.
The accompanying engraving represents two different styles of regulator,
invented by Mr. Stenberg, in which the effect of centrifugal force is utilized.
In a vessel, A, of parabolic shape is placed a disk, C, which floats on
glycerine contained by the vessel, and is attached to the walls of the vessel
by an annular membrane, so that it may rise and fall in a vertical direction
as the glycerine is carried with more or less force toward the edge of the
vessel by centrifugal action. The inner surface of the vessel, A, is provided
with radial grooves, by which the rotary motion of the vessel is
communicated to the glycerine. To the center of the disk, C, is attached a
vertical rod, which extends downward through the hollow shaft and is
connected with governor valve. An increase of speed throws the glycerine
toward the periphery of the valve, and, raising the disk, C, closes the steam
valve; a diminution of speed permits the glycerine to fall back, when the
disk descends and the valve opens.

STENBERG REGULATOR.

The disk, C, has a small aperture for the admission and escape of air, and
the apparatus is adjusted by pouring lead into the groove in the disk.

The regulator shown in Fig. 2 operates upon the same principle, but it is
adjusted by means of a spring.

This apparatus is manufactured by Blancke Bros., Magdeburg.—Musée de
l'Industrie.

A Strange People.

Botel Tobago is an island in the South Seas which has lately been visited by
a party of United States naval officers. They were surveying a rock east of
the South Cape of Formosa, and called at this island. They found a curious
race of Malay stock. These aborigines did not know what money was good
for. Nor had they ever used tobacco or rum. They gave the officers goats
and pigs for tin pots and brass buttons, and hung around the vessel all day
in their canoes waiting for a chance to dive for something which might be
thrown overboard. They wore clouts only, ate taro and yams, and had axes,
spears, and knives made of common iron. Their canoes were made without
nails, and were ornamented with geometrical lines. They wore the beards of
goats and small shells as ornaments.

Such is the account of these strange people given by Dr. Siegfried, in a
letter read at the last meeting of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural
Sciences.

REMEDY FOR THE NEW CARPET BEETLE.
Noticing a statement made by Mr. J. A. Lintner, to the effect that the Persian
insect powder would probably prove unavailing as a remedy against the
ravages of the new carpet beetle (Anthrenus), W. L. Carpenter, of the
U.S.A., was led to institute some experiments with this well known
insecticide, the results of which he communicates to the current number of
the Naturalist. A small quantity of the powder was introduced, on the point
of a penknife, under a tumbler beneath which various insects were
consecutively confined. The movements of the insects brought them in
contact with the poison, which readily adhered to their body; in
endeavoring to remove it from their appendages a few particles would be
carried to the mouth and thence to the stomach, with fatal effect. The results
were briefly thus: A honey bee became helpless in 15 minutes; a mad wasp
in 8 minutes; a small ant in 5 minutes; a large butterfly resisted the effects
for over an hour, and apparently recovered, but died the next day; a house-
fly became helpless in 10 minutes; a mosquito in 15; and a flea in 3
minutes. In experimenting on beetles, an insect was secured as nearly the
size of the carpet beetle as could be found. It was easily affected, and
became helpless in 12 minutes.

In these, and experiments with various other insects, the scent from the
powder did not produce any bad effect on those subjected to its odor where
actual contact was not possible; but when carried to the mandibles the effect
was to produce complete paralysis of the motor nerves. The experiments
prove that all insects having open mouth parts are peculiarly susceptible to
this popular insecticide. As a result, the writer does not hesitate to
recommend the powder to housekeepers as an infallible agent in destroying
the carpet beetle and preventing its ravages. The Persian insect powder
liberally sprinkled upon the floor before putting down a carpet, and
afterward freely placed around the edges, and never swept away, will
suffice to preserve a large sized carpet. No ill effects from its use need be
feared by the householder, since the drug is poisonous to no kinds of
animals except insects.

Banana Flour.

The banana has recently found a new use in Venezuela. It has the property
of keeping the soil moist round it, in a country where sometimes no rain
falls for months; so it has been employed to give freshness, as well as
shade, to the coffee plant, whose cultivation has been greatly extended
(Venezuela produced 38,000,000 kilogrammes of coffee in 1876). The
Venezuelans can consume but little of the banana fruit thus furnished, so
that attention is being given to increasing its value as an export. At the Paris
Exhibition were samples of banana flour (got by drying and pulverizing the
fruit before maturity) and brandy (from the ripe fruit) The flour has been
analyzed by MM. Marcano and Muntz. It contains 66.1 per cent of starch,
and only 2.9 of azotized matter.

NEW STENCIL PEN.
The accompanying engraving shows new form of stencil pen invented by
Mr. J. W. Brickenridge, of La Fayette, Ind. In Fig. 1 the entire apparatus is
shown in perspective; Fig. 2 is a longitudinal section of the pen; and Fig. 3
is a vertical section of a portion of the driving apparatus. In this instrument
compressed air is used as a motive force for driving the perforating needle.
The inverted cup, shown in detail in Fig. 3, has its mouth closed with a
flexible diaphragm, which is vibrated rapidly by a pitman having a convex
end attached by its center to the middle of the diaphragm. The pitman is
reciprocated by a simple treadle motion, which will be readily understood
by reference to Fig. 1.

BRICKENRIDGE'S PNEUMATIC STENCIL PEN.

The cup has a small aperture covered by a valve to admit of the entrance of
air when the diaphragm is drawn down. The pen, shown in detail in Fig. 2,

has a cup and flexible diaphragm similar to the one already described. The
diaphragm rests upon the enlarged end of a bar which carries at its lower
end a perforating needle. The pen is connected with the driving mechanism
by a flexible tube. The needle bar is pressed lightly against the diaphragm
by a spiral spring.

When the treadle motion is operated the impelling diaphragm is rapidly
vibrated, and through the medium of the air contained in the flexible tube it
communicates motion to the pen diaphragm and consequently to the needle
bar and needle. If, while the needle is reciprocated in this way, the pen is
moved over the surface of the paper, a line of fine perforations will be
made. With this instrument stencils may be made for making multiplied
copies of maps, drawings, and manuscripts.

Origin and Progress of Ocean Telegraphy.
At the celebration in this city of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the
formation of the company for laying the first Atlantic cable, Monday,
March 10, the projector of the enterprise, Mr. Cyrus W. Field, spoke as
follows:

Neighbors and Friends: Twenty-five years ago this evening, in this house,
in this room, and on this table, and at this very hour, was signed the
agreement to form the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph
Company—the first company ever formed to lay an ocean cable. It was
signed by five persons, four of whom—Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor,
Marshall O. Roberts, and myself—are here to-night. The fifth, Mr. Chandler
White, died two years after, and his place was taken by Mr. Wilson G. Hunt,
who is also present. Of my associates, it is to be said to their honor—as
might have been expected from men of their high position and character—
that they stood by the undertaking manfully for twelve long years, through
discouragements such as nobody knows but themselves. Those who applaud
our success know little through what struggles it was obtained. One
disappointment followed another, till "hope deferred made the heart sick."
We had little help from outside, for few had any faith in our enterprise. But
not a man deserted the ship: all stood by it to the end. My brother Dudley is
also here, who, as the counsel of the company, was present at the signing of
the agreement, and went with Mr. White and myself the week after to
Newfoundland, to obtain the charter, and was our legal adviser through
those anxious and troubled years, when success seemed very doubtful. At
St. John's the first man to give us a hearty welcome, and who aided us in
obtaining our charter, was Mr. Edward M. Archibald, then Prime Minister
of Newfoundland, and now for more than twenty years the honored
representative of Her Majesty's Government at this port, who is also here
to-night. It is a matter for grateful acknowledgment that we were spared to
see accomplished the work that we began; and that we meet now, at the end
of a quarter of a century, to look with wonder at what has been wrought
since in other parts of the world.

Our little company came into existence only a few weeks before the
Western Union Telegraph Company, which is entitled to share in our
congratulations, and has kindly brought a connecting wire into this room,
by which we can this evening communicate with every town and village
from the Atlantic to the Pacific; and by our sea cables, with Europe, Asia,
Africa, Australia, New Zealand, the West Indies, and South America. While
our small circle has been broken by death but once, very different has it
been with the Atlantic Telegraph Company, which was formed in London in
1856, to extend our line across the ocean. At its beginning there were
eighteen English and twelve American directors, thirty in all, of whom
twenty-nine have either died or retired from the board. I alone still remain
one of the directors.

Many of the great men of science on both sides of the Atlantic, who
inspired us by their knowledge and their enthusiasm, have passed away. We
have lost Bache, whose Coast Survey mapped out the whole line of the
American shores; and Maury, who first taught us to find a path through the
depths of the seas; and Berryman, who sounded across the Atlantic; and
Morse; and last, but not least, Henry. Across the water we miss some who
did as much as any men in their generation to make the name of England
great—Faraday and Wheatstone, Stephenson and Brunel—all of whom
gave us freely of their invaluable counsel, refusing all compensation,
because of the interest which they felt in the solution of a great problem of
science and engineering skill. It is a proud satisfaction to remember that
while the two Governments aided us so generously with their ships, making
surveys of the ocean, and even carrying our cables in the first expeditions,
such men as these gave their support to an enterprise which was to unite the
two countries, and in the end to bring the whole world together.

Others there are, among the living and the dead, to whom we are under
great obligations. But I cannot repeat the long roll of illustrious names. Yet I
must pay a passing tribute to one who was my friend, as he was the
steadfast friend of my country—Richard Cobden. He was one of the first to
look forward with the eye of faith to what has since come to pass. As long
ago as 1851 he had a sort of prophet's dream that the ocean might yet be
crossed, and advised Prince Albert to devote the profits of the great London

Exhibition of that year to an attempt thus to unite England with America.
He did not live to see his dream fulfilled.

But though men die, their works, their discoveries, and their inventions live.
From that small beginning under this roof, arose an art till then scarcely
known, that of telegraphing through the depths of the sea. Twenty-five
years ago there was not an ocean cable in the world. A few short lines had
been laid across the channel from England to the Continent, but all were in
shallow water. Even science hardly dared to conceive of the possibility of
sending human intelligence through the abysses of the ocean. But when we
struck out to cross the Atlantic, we had to lay a cable over 2,000 miles long,
in water over 2 miles deep. That great success gave an immense impulse to
submarine telegraphy then in its infancy, but which has since grown till it
has stretched out its fingers tipped with fire into all the waters of the globe.
"Its lines have gone into all the earth, and its words to the ends of the
world." To-day there are over 70,000 miles of cable, crossing the seas and
the oceans. And, as if it were not enough to have messages sent with the
speed of lightning, they must be sent in opposite directions at the same
moment. I have just received a telegram from Valentia, Ireland, which
reads, "This anniversary witnesses duplex working across the Atlantic as an
accomplished fact"—by which the capacity of all our ocean cables is
doubled.

Who can measure the effect of this swift intelligence passing to and fro?
Already it regulates the markets of the world. But better still is the new
relation into which it brings the different kindreds of mankind. Nations are
made enemies by their ignorance of each other. A better acquaintance leads
to a better understanding; the sense of nearness, the relation of
neighborhood, awakens the feeling of brotherhood. Is it not a sign that a
better age is coming, when along the ocean beds strewn with the wrecks of
war, now glide the messages of peace?

One thing only remains which I still hope to be spared to see, and in which
to take a part, the laying of a cable from San Francisco to the Sandwich
Islands—for which I have received this very day a concession from King
Kalakaua, by his Minister, who is here to night—and from thence to Japan,
by which the island groups of the Pacific may be brought into

communication with the continents on either side—Asia and America—
thus completing the circuit of the globe.

But life is passing, and perhaps that is to be left to other hands. Many of our
old companions have fallen, and we must soon give place to our successors.
But though we shall pass away, it is a satisfaction to have been able to do
something that shall remain when we are gone. If in what I have done to
advance this enterprise, I have done something for the honor of my country
and the good of the world, I am devoutly grateful to my Creator. This has
been the great ambition of my life, and is the chief inheritance which I leave
to my children.

Correspondence.

The Gary Motor.

To the Editor of the Scientific American:

In your article on the "Gary Motor,"
issue of March 8, page 144, you say:
"There is no neutral line in the sense
that polarity changes when Mr. Gary
moves his piece of sheet iron with its
attached shingle nail across the pole
or near the pole of a magnet." "The
most delicate instruments fail to
detect such a change of polarity," etc.
Mr. Gary's claim of a neutral line is
of course absurd, but you are wrong
in saying that the polarity does not
change under the conditions
described in the Harper's Monthly
article. Mr. Gary is perfectly correct
in claiming a change of polarity in that experiment, although his other claim
of deriving from this change of polarity a continuous motion without
consuming energy are manifestly absurd.

The change of polarity is easily explained. If a bar of soft iron, whose
length is two or three times the distance between the poles of the horseshoe
magnet, be placed in front of the latter as in the sketch, and at some
distance, poles will be induced, as shown by the letters N S. Now let the bar
approach the magnet. When within a short distance consequent points will
be formed and the polarity at the ends will be reversed, the bar having four
poles, as in the second sketch. The bar of soft iron must have certain
dimensions depending on the size and power of the horseshoe magnet. By

using a powerful electro-magnet in
place of a permanent one, a soft iron bar
of considerable size may be used, and
the change of polarity exhibited by
showing the repulsion in one case for
the south pole and in the other for the
north pole of a heavy permanent
magnet. When in the proper position a
very small movement of the soft iron
bar is sufficient to produce the change.

Wm. A. Anthony.

Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., March
2, 1879.

Gary's Neutral Line.

To the Editor of the Scientific American:

I have just read the article in the issue of March 8,
on the Gary Motor, and cannot refrain from offering
a suggestion on the subject. When I read the article
referred to in Harper's, I formed the same opinion
of the so-called invention that the writer in the
Scientific American has expressed, and, in the main,
such is my opinion still. I, however, tried the
experiment by which Gary claims to prove the
existence of his neutral line, and soon found the
same explanation that the writer in the American has
given. I then, curiously enough, modified the
experiment in precisely the manner he suggests, placing the magnet in a
vertical position, and using first a piece of sheet iron and then an iron wire
under it. This was before seeing the article in the Scientific American. My
experiment is well illustrated by the writer's diagram, except that the nail
should be at the end of the iron wire, where its polarity is of course most

strongly marked. But the result is not as he states it. For, as the wire is
brought up toward the magnet, the nail drops off before the wire touches the
magnet. When the sheet iron is used, the point at which the nail drops off is
farther from the magnet than in the case of the wire, and when it is brought
nearer it will again pick up the nail, which then continues to cling until the
iron touches the magnet and afterwards. Thus the existence of a line in
which the soft iron, or induced magnet, does not attract the nail, and above
and below which it does attract it, is demonstrated. That the polarity of the
induced magnet is reversed when it crosses this line may be demonstrated
as follows: When it is held beyond (or below) this line (Fig. 1), the negative
pole of the permanent magnet, the positive being kept at a distance, may be
made to approach the iron and touch it, without causing the nail to drop.
(Fig. 3.) But when contact occurs, the whole of the iron must possess the
polarity of that part of the magnet which it touches, namely, negative.
Hence in the position indicated in Fig. 1, the polarity of the induced magnet
does not correspond with that of the permanent magnet, but is as indicated
by the letters. On the other hand, if the positive pole alone be made to
approach, the nail will drop; but when it is very near, or in contact, it again
holds the nail, and the iron is now positive; and if the negative pole also be
now brought into contact, the polarity of the soft iron will correspond with
that of the magnet, as shown in Fig. 2.

These experiments
should be performed
with the soft iron
under both poles of the
magnet, and the ends
of the former should
extend somewhat
beyond the poles of
the latter, or the nail is
liable to jump to the magnet as the "neutral" line
is crossed. The position of the letters in Fig. 1, of
the previous article, represents the polarity of the induced magnet to be the
same as that of the permanent, which is true only within (or above) the line
described; and this, together with his statement that no such line can be
discovered, appears to indicate that the writer relied upon his knowledge of

the laws of magnetism to state what would be the result, without testing it
experimentally. It is probable that this reversal of polarity is susceptible of
explanation by the known laws of magnetic currents, but if it has hitherto
escaped observation, its discovery is certainly deserving of notice, and may
lead to valuable results. Of the fact, any one may easily convince himself by
the simple experiments above described.

G. H. FELTON, M.D.

Haverhill, Mass., February 28, 1879.

Pneumatic Clocks.

To the Editor of the Scientific American:

In the description of the pneumatic clock, copied from La Nature, and
published in your journal of date 1st of March, the invention is credited to
me. Such is not the case. By an arrangement between Mr. Wenzel, Mr.
Brandon of Paris, and myself, patents have been obtained in France,
England, etc., for the clock, and issued in my name; but the honor of the
invention belongs exclusively to Hermann J. Wenzel, of San Francisco.

Yours faithfully,

E. J. Muybridge.

San Francisco, Cal., February 27, 1879.

The Ice Cave of Decorah, Iowa.

To the Editor of the Scientific American:

Some years ago I visited the "Ice Cave" of Decorah, Winneshiek county,
Iowa, and having since been unable to receive any explanation of the
wonderful phenomenon exhibited by it, I write, hoping that you or some
correspondent may explain the paradox.

The thriving town of Decorah lies in a romantic valley of the Upper Iowa
River, and the cave is almost within its corporate limits. Following the left
bank of the stream, one soon reaches the vicinity, and with a hard scramble
through a loose shale, up the side of a precipitous hill, forming the
immediate bank of the river, the entrance is gained—an opening 5 feet wide
and 8 feet high. These dimensions generally describe the cave's section.
From the entrance the course is a steep decline—seldom less than 40°. At
times the ceiling is so low that progress on hands and knees is necessary.
About 125 feet from the entrance the "Ice Chamber" is reached. At this spot
the cave widens into a well proportioned room, 8 by 12 feet. The floor is
solid ice of unknown thickness, and on the right hand wall of the room a
curtain of ice drops to the floor, from a crevice extending horizontally in the
rock at the height of one's eyes. Close examination discovers the water
oozing from this crevice, and as it finds its way down the side it freezes in
the low temperature of the chamber. Singularly this one crevice, and that no
wider than a knife edge, furnishes this, nature's ice house, with the
necessary water. It was a hot day in August, the thermometer marking 80°
in the shade when the visit was made, and comparatively the cold was
intense. In common with all visitors, we detached some large pieces of ice
and with them hurriedly departed, glad to regain the warmth of the outside
world.

The most remarkable fact in connection with this wonder is that the water
only freezes in the summer. As the cold of actual winter comes on the ice of
the cave gradually melts, and when the river below is frozen by the fierce
cold of Northern Iowa, the ice has disappeared and a muddy slush has taken
the place of the frigid floor. I would add that the ice chamber forms the
terminus of the cave. Beyond a shallow crevice in the crumbling rock
forbids further advance. The rock formation of this region is the Portland
sandstone.

Why should the temperature of the ice chamber be such as to freeze the
water trickling into it? And above all, why should the ice disappear with the
cold of winter?

Mansfield, O. H. M. W.

THE WRITING TELEGRAPH.
On the evening of February 26, 1879, the writing telegraph of Mr. E. A.
Cowper, of London, was exhibited in operation before the Society of
Telegraph Engineers, in that city. It is a curious and remarkable invention.
By its use the handwriting of the operator may be transmitted, but a double
circuit, that is, two telegraph wires, are used. The operator moves with his
hand an upright pointer or stylus, with which he writes the message on
paper. The stylus has two arms connected with it, one of which arms, when
the stylus makes an upward movement, causes a current to be sent over one
wire, while the other arm causes a current to pass over the other wire when
the stylus is moved laterally. These two motions are, at the receiving end of
the line, made to operate on the needles of galvanometers, and the latter are
by silk threads combined or connected with a delicately suspended ink tube,
from which a minute stream of ink falls upon the strip of paper below it; the
arrangement being such that the combined motions of the galvanometers so
move the ink pen as to make it correspond to the motion of the stylus at the
sending end. The apparatus is said to work very well, and it is expected that
it will form a useful adjunct to the art of telegraphy. We present herewith a
facsimile of writing done by this new instrument, which has been worked
with success over a line of forty miles length. It is hardly probable that it
can compete in rapidity with some of the telegraph instruments now in use;
but for many purposes it is likely to become important, while in point of
ingenuity it is certainly a great achievement, and the author is deserving of
the highest credit.

A Rare Geological Specimen.
Rev. R. M. Luther, while absent in attendance upon the Missionary
Convention, held in Addison, Vt., obtained through the kindness of the Rev.
Mr. Nott a rare and curious geological specimen from the shores of Lake
Champlain. It is a slab of limestone, about eleven inches long by six inches
wide, which seems to be composed almost entirely of fossils. There is not
half an inch square of the surface which does not show a fossil. There are
many varieties, some of which have not been identified, but among those
which have been are many remains of the Trinucleus conceniricus, some
specimens of Petraia, fragments of the Orthis, a number of Discinæ, several
well preserved specimens of Leptenæ, and impressions of Lingula. The
latter is the only shell which has existed from the first dawn of life until the
present time without change. The specimens of existing Lingula are
precisely similar to those found in the earliest geological formations. There
are also in the slab several rare specimens of seaweed, remains of which are
seldom found at so early an age in the geological history of the world. The
slab belongs to the lower Silurian formation, the first in which organic
remains are found. It is probably from the Trenton epoch of that age. If
geologists can be trusted, at the time the little animals, whose remains are
thus preserved, were living, the only part of this continent which had
appeared above the primeval ocean was a strip of land along the present St.
Lawrence River and the northern shores of the great lakes, with a
promontory reaching out toward the Adirondacks, and a few islands along
what is now the Atlantic coast line.—Bennington (Vt.) Banner.

COWPER'S WRITING TELEGRAPH.
The most recent of the brilliant series of telegraphic marvels which has
from time to time, and especially of late, engaged the attention of the world,
is the "telegraphic pen" of Mr. E. A. Cowper, the well known engineer of
Great George street, Westminster. This ingenious apparatus, which
constitutes the first real telegraph, was publicly shown by its inventor at the
meeting of the Society of Telegraph Engineers on Wednesday, February 26.

There had been no lack of copying telegraphs hitherto. We have Bakewell's,
Casselli's, Meyer's, and D'Arlincourt's, so recently tried at our General Post
Office by Mr. Preece. All of these instruments telegraph an almost perfect
copy of the writing or sketch submitted to them by means of synchronous
mechanism. But the process is necessarily complex and slow; whereas by
the new device a person may take the writing pencil in his hand, and
himself transmit his message in the act of writing it.

The principle which guided Mr. Cowper to a solution of the problem which
he has successfully overcome, is the well known mathematical fact that the
position of any point in a curve can be determined by its distance from two
rectangular co-ordinates. It follows, then, that every position of the point of
a pencil, stylus, or pen, as it forms a letter, can be determined by its distance
from two fixed lines, say the adjacent edges of the paper. Moreover it is
obvious that if these distances could be transmitted by telegraph and
recombined so as to give a resultant motion to a duplicate pen, a duplicate
copy of the original writing would be produced. But inasmuch as the
writing stylus moves continuously over the paper, the process of
transmission would require to be a continuous one; that is to say, the current
traversing the telegraph line, and conveying the distances in question (or
what comes to the same thing, the up and down, and direct sidelong ranges
of the stylus) would require to vary continuously in accordance with the
range to be transmitted.

Mr. Cowper effects this by employing two separate telegraphic circuits,
each with its own wire, battery, sending, and receiving apparatus. One of

these circuits is made to transmit the up and down component writing of the
pencil's motion, while the other simultaneously transmits its sidelong
component. At the receiving station these two components are then
recomposed by a pantograph arrangement of taut cords, or levers, and the
resultant motion is communicated to the duplicate pen at that place. The
plan adopted by Mr. Cowper to transmit each continuously varying
component is to cause the resistance of the circuit to vary very closely with
the component in question. Fig. 5 shows how the apparatus is theoretically
arranged for this purpose. P is the writing style, which is held in the writer's
hand in the ordinary way, while he shapes the letters one by one on paper
pulled uniformly underneath by means of clockwork. To P are attached, at
right angles, two arms, a a, one for each circuit; but as it is only necessary
to consider one of the circuits, say that sending up and down motions, we
will confine our attention for the present to the arm, a. One pole of the
sending battery, B, is connected to the arm, a, the other pole being
connected to earth. Now the arm, a, is fitted with a sliding contact at its free
extremity, and as the pencil, P, is moved in writing, a slides lengthwise
across the edges of a series of thin metal contact plates, C, insulated from
each other by paraffined paper. Between each pair of these plates there is a
resistance coil, C, and the last of these is connected through the last plate to
the line, L. It will be seen that as a slides outward across the plates the
current from the battery has to pass through fewer coils, since a short-
circuits a number of coils proportional to its motion. But the fewer of these
coils in circuit the stronger will be the current in the line; so that the extent
of the motion of the arm, a, in the direction of its length, that is to say, the
direct component of the motion of the pencil along the line of the arm, a, is
attended by a corresponding change in the current traversing the line. If the
pencil makes a long up and down stroke there will be a strong current in the
line, if a short one there will be a weak current, and so on. A precisely
similar arrangement is used to transmit the sidelong motion of the pencil
along the line, L.

Fig. 5.

The current from the line, L, flows at the receiving station through a
powerful galvanometer, G, to earth. The galvanometer has a stout needle,
one tip of which is connected to a duplicate pen, P, by a thread, t, which is
kept taut by a second thread stretched by a spring, s'. The current from the
line, L', flows through a similar galvanometer, G', to earth. The needle of G'
is also connected to the pen, P, by a taut thread, t', stretched by means of the
spring, s. Now, since the needle of each of these galvanometers deflects in
proportion to the strength of the current flowing through its coil, the points
of these two needles keep moving with the varying currents. But since these
currents vary the motions of the sending pen, the receiving pen controlled
by the united movements of the needles will trace out a close copy of the
original writing. We give on another page a facsimile of a sentence written
by Mr. Cowper's telegraph.

THE COWPER WRITING TELEGRAPH.

The receiving pen is a fine glass siphon, drawing off aniline ink from a
small glass holder. There are thirty-two coils, C, in each circuit, with a
corresponding number of contact plates, c, so as to get accuracy of working.
A few Daniell's cells are sufficient to operate the apparatus, and writing has
been already sent successfully over a line 40 miles in length. The writing
may be received either of the same size or larger or smaller than the
original, as the case may be. At present the writing must not be too hurried,
that is, unless the characters are bold and well formed; but further
improvement will, of course, quicken the working of the apparatus.

The engravings, Figs. 1 to 4, illustrate the actual apparatus. Fig. 4 is a plan
of the sending instrument, with the writing pencil, a, the traveling paper, b,
the light connecting rods or arms, d (which correspond to a in the
theoretical diagram above), the series of metal contact plates over which
these arms slide, the resistance coils connected to these plates, and the
battery and line wires. It will be seen that each arm, d, is connected to its
particular battery, and each set of contact plates to its particular line. Fig. 3
is an elevation of the sending instrument, in which a is the pencil as before,
c c the contact plates over which the arms, d d, slide, f f the coils, and b the
traveling slip of paper.

Fig. 2 is a plan of the receiving instrument, in which h h are the light
pivoted needles surrounded by coils of fine insulated copper wires, i i, and
controlled in their zero position by the electro-magnets, j j j j, placed
underneath, the whole forming a pair of galvanoscopes or current detecters,
one for each line. It will be understood that the varying currents from the
lines are allowed to flow through the coils, i i, so as to deflect the needles,
and that the deflections of the needles follow, so to speak, the variations of
the currents. The electro-magnets are magnetized by a local battery;
permanent magnets might, however, take their place with a gain in
simplicity.

Now the writing pen, k, is connected to the nearest tip of the needle, h, of
each galvanoscope by threads, n n, which are kept taut by the fibers, o1 o2
o3, the springs, o, and the pins, o4. In this way the motions of the needles
are recombined in the motion of the duplicate pen upon the paper, p.

Fig. 1 is an elevation of the receiving instrument, in which i i are the coils
as before, j j j j the controlling electro-magnets, k is the writing siphon
dipping with its short leg into the ink well, m, and l is the bridge from
which the writing siphon is suspended by means of a thread and spring. The
long leg of the siphon reaches down to the surface of the paper, p, which is
pulled along beneath it in contact with the film of ink filling the point of the
tube. When the siphon is at rest its point marks a zero line along the middle
of the paper, but when the receiver is working, the siphon point forms each
letter of the message upon the paper as it passes.—Engineering.

ALUMINUM.
The splendid exhibit of the French aluminum manufacturers at the late
Exhibition has again called attention to that metal, which is so admirably
adapted to many purposes on account of its great lightness and its stability
under the influence of the atmosphere. While aluminum industry has
heretofore been thought to be confined to France solely, we are now told by
Mr. C. Bambery, in the Annual Report of the Society of Berlin Instrument
Makers, that for some years past aluminum has been extensively
manufactured in Berlin.

Three firms especially (Stückradt, Häcke, and Schultze) are engaged in this
branch of industry.

The articles manufactured principally are nautical instruments, as sextants,
compasses, etc. The German navy is supplied throughout with aluminum
instruments. As a proof of the superiority of German aluminum, it may here
be mentioned that the normal sets of weights and balances used by the
International Commission for the regulation of weights and measures,
which lately was in session at Paris, were obtained from Stückradt, in
Berlin, and not from any of the firms at Paris, the reputed seat of aluminum
industry.

Aluminum is, in Berlin, generally used pure, and cast pieces only are
composed of aluminum containing about 5 per cent of silver.

Nevertheless the use of aluminum will remain limited, even in case the cost
of manufacturing it could be materially reduced, until some method shall
have been discovered by which aluminum may be soldered.

This difficulty has, in spite of all efforts, not yet been overcome, and for
some purposes, to which the metal would otherwise be well adapted, it
remains so far unavailable. Here then is a chance for some ingenious mind.

AN IMPROVED DOOR BOLT.
The accompanying engraving represents, in perspective and in section, an
improved door bolt, recently patented by Mr. Thomas Hoesly, of New
Glaras, Wis.

HOESLY'S DOOR BOLT.

The principal features of this bolt will be understood by reference to the
engraving. On the plate or body are cast two loops or guides for the bolt,
and the plate is slotted under the bolt, and a lug projects into the slot and
bears against a spring contained by a small casing riveted to the back of the
plate. The end of the bolt is beveled, and its operation is similar to that of
the ordinary door latch. Two handles are provided, one of which is of
sufficient length to reach through the door, and a pawl or dog accompanies
the bolt, which may be attached to the door with a single screw, and is to be
used in locking the door. The bolt is very simple and strong, suitable for

shops, out-buildings such as barns, stables, etc., and some of the doors of
dwellings.

Further information may be obtained by addressing the inventor, as above.

Chimney Flues.
Messrs. W. H. Jackson & Co., of this city, whose long experience in treating
refractory flues gives weight to their opinion, communicate to the American
Architect the following useful information:

To secure a good draught the chimney should be of sufficient size, should
be carried up above surrounding objects, should be as straight as possible
throughout its length, and should be as smooth as possible inside, to avoid
friction. As a draught is caused by unequal temperatures, the chimney
should be so arranged as to avoid a rapid radiation of heat. If in an exterior
wall there should be at least 8 inches of brickwork between the flue and the
exterior surface. For country houses it is much better to have the chimneys
run up through the interior, as the flue is more easily kept warm, and the
heat that is radiated helps to warm the house. The most frequent cause of a
"smoky chimney" is the insufficient size of the flue for the grate or fireplace
connected therewith. The flue should not be less than one eighth the
capacity of the square of the width and height of the grate or fireplace. That
is, if the grate has a front opening 20 inches wide and 26 inches high, the
flue should be 8 in. x 8 in.; or, with an opening 36 inches wide and 32
inches high, the flue should be 12 in. x 12 in.; and, to get the best result, the
opening into the flue from the grate or fireplace should be of a less number
of square inches than the square of the flue, and never larger, as no more air
should be admitted at the inlet than can be carried through the flue. Where
there is more than one inlet to the same flue, the sum of all the inlets should
not more than equal the size of the flue. A number of stoves may be
connected with the same flue, one above another, if this rule is observed.

A square flue is better than a narrow one, as in two flues containing the
same number of square inches the square flue would have the smallest
amount of wall surface, and consequently less friction for the ascending
currents, and less absorption of heat by the walls. Chimneys should be
closely built, having no cracks nor openings through which external air may
be drawn to weaken the draught. If they could be made throughout their
length as impervious to air as a tube of glass, with interior surface as

smooth, one cause of smoky chimneys would be removed. A downward
current of air is frequently caused by some contiguous object higher than
the chimney, against which the wind strikes. This higher object may
sometimes be quite a distance from the chimney, and still affect it badly. A
good chimney top constructed to prevent a down draught will remedy this
difficulty. Each grate or fireplace should have a flue to itself. Under very
favorable conditions, two grates or fireplaces might be connected with the
same flue, but it is not a good plan. We have known grates and fireplaces
connected with two flues, where they have been built under a window for
instance, and, owing to there being insufficient room for a flue of suitable
size, a flue has been run up on each side of the window. This is a very bad
plan, and never can work well; it requires too much heat to warm both
flues, and if the room in which the grate or fireplace is situated should be
pretty close, so that there was no other entrance for air, there is danger that
it would circulate down one flue and up the other, forcing smoke out of the
fireplace into the room.

IMPROVED FURNACE FOR BURNING
GARBAGE.
The refuse matter and garbage of large cities is in the main composed of
animal and vegetable offal of the kitchens; of the sweepings of warehouses,
manufactories, saloons, groceries, public and private houses; of straw,
sawdust, old bedding, tobacco stems, ashes, old boots, shoes, tin cans,
bottles, rags, and feathers; dead cats, dogs, and other small animals; of the
dust and sweepings of the streets, the condemned fruit, vegetables, meat,
and fish of the markets, all of which compose a mass of the most obnoxious
and unhealthy matter that can be deposited near human habitations.

The inventor of the furnace shown in the accompanying engravings aims to
produce a change of form and of chemical nature and a great reduction in
bulk of all such refuse and garbage within the limits of the city where it
accumulates, without screening, separating, preparing, or mixing, without
the expense of using other fuel, without any offensive odors being
generated in the operation, and to produce an entirely unobjectionable
residuum or product that may be made useful.

Fig. 1.—FOOTE'S FURNACE FOR BURNING GARBAGE.

As a rule organic matter largely preponderates in the refuse, being as high
in some instances as 94 per cent. There is always more than enough to
generate sufficient heat to fuse the earthy or inorganic portion, which is
mainly composed of sand, clay, and the alkalies from the coal and vegetable
ashes, etc.

By producing a high degree of heat in the combustion of the organic portion
of the refuse with a forced blast or forced draught, the non-combustible
elements are fused, and form a vitreous slag, which is entirely inodorous
and unobjectionable, and which may be utilized for many purposes.

The upper section or cone of the consuming furnace is built of boiler iron,
and lined with fire brick resting upon an iron plate, which is supported by
iron columns.

The hearth is made of fire brick, and is in the form of an inverted cone,
being smaller at the bottom and larger at the top, as shown in Fig. 2.

The sides of the hearth are perforated near the bottom with arches for the
tuyeres or blast pipes, and also in front for the special blast pipe and the
tapping hole. The top of the furnace is closed with an iron plate, provided
with a circular opening, through which the hopper enters the top of the
furnace.

At the left in the larger engraving is seen an elevator, operated by a steam
engine, for conveying the garbage and refuse to a platform, whence it is
projected into the furnace by an inclined plane or chute.

Gas or smoke conductors convey the gas from the top of the furnace to the
furnace of the boiler and to the heating oven, where it is used in heating air,
which is conveyed through the iron pipes passing through the heating oven
into a wind box, from which it enters the furnace at several points near the
bottom by means of the tuyere pipes.

SECTION OF FURNACE.

The consumption of the garbage is effected near the bottom of the furnace,
where the air is forced in, and is continued as long as the blast is applied,
and while burning at the base it is continually sinking down at the top, so
that it is necessary to keep filling all the time. The odoriferous gases and the
hot products of such combustion are forced upward through the
superimposed mass, and escape to the fires of the boiler and heating oven,
and, being largely composed of carbonic oxide and the hydrocarbon gases
distilled from the animal and vegetable offal of the garbage, are thoroughly
consumed; and it is said that by this means not only are all the offensive
odors destroyed, but the heat generated is utilized for making steam and
heating the air used for blast.

The refuse in its descent through the high furnace is exposed to the drying
action of the hot gases of distillation and the hot products of combustion, its
temperature increasing in its descent the nearer it approaches the tuyeres,
and becomes completely desiccated and combustible when it reaches the
blast. The high heat in this way obtained by the combustion of the organic
portion melts all of the inorganic portion, forming a vitreous slag or glass,

which may be allowed to run continuously, or by closing the tap may be
allowed to accumulate, and can be drawn off at intervals. If there is an
adequate supply of clay and sand in the refuse to combine with the ashes,
the slag will run hot and free. The combination of silex or alumina and an
alkali in proper portions always yields a fusible, easy-running compound.

The molten slag, as it runs from the furnace, may be discharged into tanks
of cold water, which will pulverize or granulate it, making it like fine sand,
or as it pours over a runner, through which it flows, if struck with a forcible
air or steam blast it will be spun into fine thread-like wool.

The furnace once lighted and started may be kept running day and night
continuously for days, months, or years, if desired; but if it becomes
necessary to stop at any time, the tuyere pipes may be removed and the
holes all stopped with clay, so as to entirely shut off the supply of air, and it
will then hold in fire for many days, and will be in readiness to start again at
any time the pipes are replaced and the blast turned on.

This furnace is the invention of Mr. Henry R. Foote, of Stamford, Conn.

AN ANCIENT GREEK VASE.
The vase shown in the accompanying engravings must not be classed with
ordinary ceramic ware, as it is a veritable work of art. It is the celebrated
cup of Arcesilaus, which is preserved in the collection of the library of
Richelieu street after having figured in the Durand Museum. It was found at
Vulsei, in Etruria. It was made by a potter of Cyrene, the capital of
Cyrenaica, founded by Greeks from the island of Thera. It is remarkable
that Cyrene, removed from the center of Grecian manufacture, should
possess a manufactory of painted vases from which have come so many
works of art. The traveler, Paul Lucas, discovered in the necropolis of
Cyrene, in 1714, many antique vases, both in the tombs and in the soil. One
of them is still preserved in the Museum at Leyden. The Arcesilaus, who is
represented on this vase, is not the celebrated skeptical philosopher of that
name; it is Arcesilaus, King of Cyrenaica, who was sung by Pindar, and
who was vanquished in the Pythian games under the 80th Olympiad (458
years B.C.).

The height of this vase is 25 centimeters, its diameter 28 centimeters. The
paste is very fine, of a pale red. It is entirely coated with a black
groundwork, which has been generally re-covered with a yellowish white
clay, baked on.

According to M. Brongniart, this piece has been subjected to the baking
process at least two or three times, thus indicating that the ceramic art had
made considerable progress in Cyrene even at that remote epoch.

The following description of this vase is given in the catalogue of the
Durand Museum: The King Arcesilaus is seated under a pavilion upon the
deck of a ship. His head is covered with a kind of hat with a large brim, and
his hair hangs down upon his shoulders. He is clothed in a white tunic and
embroidered cloak or mantle, and he carries a scepter in his left hand; under
his seat is a leopard, and his right hand he holds toward a young man, who
makes the same gesture, and he is weighing in a large scale assafœtida,
which is being let down into the hold of the ship. We know that he deals

with assafœtida because one of the personages (the one who lifts up his arm
toward the beam of the scale) holds in his right hand something resembling
that which is in the scale, and the Greek word traced near it signifies "that
which prepares silphium." Assafœtida, the resinous matter of the silphium,
is used largely by the Greeks in the preparation of their food. The Orientals
to-day make frequent use of it and call it the delight of the gods; while in
Europe, because of its repulsive odor, it has long been designated as stircus
diaboli.

Fig. 1.—ANCIENT GREEK VASE.

Fig. 2.—TOP OF GREEK VASE.

Snow-Raised Bread.
Somebody thinks he has discovered that snow, when incorporated with
dough, performs the same office as baking powder or yeast. "I have this
morning for breakfast," says a writer in the English Mechanic, "partaken of
a snow-raised bread cake, made last evening as follows: The cake when
baked weighed about three quarters of a pound. A large tablespoonful of
fine, dry, clean snow was intimately stirred with a spoon into the dry flour,
and to this was added a tablespoonful of caraways and a little butter and
salt. Then sufficient cold water was added to make the dough of the proper
usual consistence (simply stirred with the spoon, not kneaded by the warm
hands), and it was immediately put into a quick oven and baked three
quarters of an hour. It turned out both light and palatable. The reason," adds
the writer, "appears to be this: the light mass of interlaced snow crystals
hold imprisoned a large quantity of condensed atmospheric air, which,
when the snow is warmed by thawing very rapidly in the dough, expands
enormously and acts the part of the carbonic acid gas in either baking
powder or yeast. I take the precise action to be, then, not due in any way to
the snow itself, but simply to the expansion of the fixed air lodged between
the interstices of the snow crystals by application of heat. This theory, if
carefully followed out, may perchance give a clew to a simple and perfectly
innocuous method of raising bread and pastry." And stop the discussion as
to whether alum in baking powders is deleterious to health or otherwise.

NEW AGRICULTURAL INVENTIONS.
An improved gate, invented by Messrs. P. W. McKinley and George L.
Ellis, of Ripley, O., is designed for general use. It is operated by cords and
pulleys, and can be opened without dismounting from the horse. It is
constructed so that it cannot sag, and is not liable to get out of order.

An improved apparatus for pressing tobacco has been patented by Mr. F. B.
Deane, of Lynchburg, Va. It consists mainly in the construction of a
suspended jack, arranged to travel over a row of hogsheads, so that a single
jack gives successively to each hogshead the desired pressure.

An improved combined harrow and corn planter has been patented by Mr.
M. McNitt, of Hanover, Kan. In this machine the opening, pulverizing,
planting, and covering teeth are combined with a single frame.

A machine, which is adapted to the thrashing and cleaning of peas and
seeds, and for cleaning all kinds of grain, has been patented by Mr. J. J.
Sweatt, of Conyersville, Tenn.

Mr. Amos M. Gooch, of Farmington, W. Va., has patented an improved corn
planter, which drops the fertilizer simultaneously with the seed, and is
provided with a device for pressing the soil around the seed, leaving over
the seed a portion of loose earth.

An improved machine for harvesting cotton has been patented by R. H.
Pirtle, of Lowe's, Ky. This machine carries two vertical cylinders armed
with teeth or spurs, and two inclined endless belts provided with teeth. The
teeth of the cylinders and the belts remove the cotton from the plants, and
deliver it to a receptacle carried by the machine.

Messrs. Julius Fern and Samuel Bligh, of Oneonta, N. Y., have patented an
improved power for churning and other purposes where little power is
required. It consists in the combination of a drum and weight, a train of
gearing, and a pallet wheel arranged to oscillate a balanced beam.

An improvement in the class of feed cutters in which two or more knives
work between parallel bars attached to the cutter box, has been patented by
Messrs. J. N. Tatum and R. C. Harvey, of Danville, Va. The improvement
consists in arranging the knives so that one begins and finishes its cut in
advance of the other.

Mr. William Bradberry, of Darrtown, O., has invented an improvement in
reciprocating churns. The aim of this inventor is to utilize the resistance of
the milk as a source of power. To accomplish this a peculiar combination of
mechanism is required, which cannot be clearly described without an
engraving.

Reading and Eyesight.
M. Javel, in a recent lecture, tries to answer the question, "Why is reading a
specially fatiguing exercise?" and also suggests some remedies for this
fatigue. First, M. Javel says reading requires an absolutely permanent
application of eyesight, resulting in a permanent tension of the organ, which
may be measured by the amount of fatigue or by the production of
permanent myopy. Secondly, books are printed in black on a white ground;
the eye is thus in presence of the most absolute contrast which can be
imagined. The third peculiarity lies in the arrangement of the characters in
horizontal lines, over which we run our eyes. If we maintain during reading
a perfect immobility of the book and the head, the printed lines are applied
successively to the same parts of the retina, while the interspaces, more
bright, also affect certain regions of the retina, always the same. There must
result from this a fatigue analogous to that which we experience when we
make experiments in "accidental images," and physicists will admit that
there is nothing more disastrous for the sight than the prolonged
contemplation of these images. Lastly, and most important of all in M.
Javel's estimation, is the continual variation of the distance of the eye from
the point of fixation on the book. A simple calculation demonstrates that the
accommodation of the eye to the page undergoes a distinct variation in
proportion as the eye passes from the beginning to the end of each line, and
that this variation is all the greater in proportion to the nearness of the book
to the eye and the length of the line. As to the rules which M. Javel
inculcates in order that the injurious effects of reading may be avoided, with
reference to the permanent application of the eyes, he counsels to avoid
excess, to take notes in reading, to stop in order to reflect or even to roll a
cigarette; but not to go on reading for hours on end without stopping. As to
the contrast between the white of the paper and the black of the characters,
various experiments have been made in the introduction of colored papers.
M. Javel advises the adoption of a slightly yellow tint. But the nature of the
yellow to be used is not a matter of indifference; he would desire a yellow
resulting from the absence of the blue rays, analogous to that of paper made
from a wood paste, and which is often mistakenly corrected by the addition

of an ultramarine blue, which produces gray and not white. M. Javel has
been led to this conclusion both from practical observation and also
theoretically from the relation which must exist between the two eyes and
the colors of the spectrum. His third advice is to give preference to small
volumes which can be held in the hand, which obviates the necessity of the
book being kept fixed in one place, and the fatigue resulting from accidental
images. Lastly, M. Javel advises the avoidance of too long lines, and
therefore he prefers small volumes, and for the same reason those journals
which are printed in narrow columns. Of course every one knows that it is
exceedingly injurious to read with insufficient light, or to use too small
print, and other common rules. M. Javel concludes by protesting against an
invidious assertion which has recently been made "in a neighboring
country," according to which the degree of civilization of a people is
proportional to the number of the short sighted shown to exist by statistics;
the extreme economy of light, the abuse of reading to the detriment of
reflection and the observation of real facts, the employment of Gothic
characters and of a too broad column for books and journals, are the
conditions which, M. Javel believes, lead to myopy, especially if successive
generations have been subjected to these injurious influences.

Phosphorescence.
M. Nuesch records, in a recent number of the Journal de Pharmacie, some
curious observations regarding luminous bacteria in fresh meat. Some pork
cutlets, he found, illuminated his kitchen so that he could read the time on
his watch. The butcher who sent the meat told him the phosphorescence
was first observed in a cellar, where he kept scraps for making sausages. By
degrees all his meat became phosphorescent, and fresh meat from distant
towns got into the same state. On scratching the surface or wiping it
vigorously, the phosphorescence disappears for a time; and the butcher
wiped carefully the meat he sent out. All parts of the animal, except the
blood, acquired the phenomenon over their whole surface. The meat must
be fresh; when it ceases to be so, the phosphorescence ceases, and
Bacterium termo appear. None of the customers had been incommoded. It
was remarked that if a small trace of the phosphorescent matter were put at
any point on the flesh of cats, rabbits, etc., the phosphorescence gradually
spread out from the center, and in three or four days covered the piece; it
disappeared generally on the sixth or seventh day. Cooked meat did not
present the phenomenon but it could be had in a weak manner, from cooked
albumen or potatoes. No other butcher's shop in the place was affected. The
author is uncertain whether to attribute the complete disappearance of the
phenomenon to the higher temperature of the season, or to phenic acid, or to
fumigation with chlorine.

The Charms of Natural Science.
The Earl of Derby, in an address at the Edinburgh University, said: "Of the
gains derivable from natural science I do not trust myself to speak; my
personal knowledge is too limited, and the subject is too vast. But so much
as this I can say—that those who have in them a real and deep love of
scientific research, whatever their position in other respects, are so far at
least among the happiest of mankind. .... No passion is so absorbing, no
labor is so assuredly its own reward (well that it is so, for other rewards are
few); and they have the satisfaction of knowing that, while satisfying one of
the deepest wants of their own natures, they are at the same time promoting
in the most effectual manner the interests of mankind. Scientific discovery
has this advantage over almost every other form of successful human
efforts, that its results are certain, that they are permanent, that whatever
benefits grow out of them are world-wide. Not many of us can hope to
extend the range of knowledge in however minute a degree; but to know
and to apply the knowledge that has been gained by others, to have an
intelligent appreciation of what is going on around us, is in itself one of the
highest and most enduring of pleasures."

The Vesuvius Rail Way.—The Italian Ministry of Public Works, in union
with the Ministry of Finance and the Prefecture of Naples, has issued the
concession for the construction of the Vesuvius Railway. The line will run
along that part of the mountain which has been proved, after the experience
of many years, to be the least exposed to the eruptions. The work is to be
commenced immediately, and it is believed that it will come into use during
the present year. A sufficient number of carriages are being built to convey
600 persons during the day. The line is to be constructed upon an iron
bridge, built after a patented system.

The Pottery Tree.
Among the various economic products of the vegetable kingdom, scarcely
any hold a more important place than barks, whether for medicinal,
manufacturing, or other purposes. The structure and formation of all barks
are essentially very similar, being composed of cellular and fibrous tissue.
The cell contents of these tissues, however, vary much in different plants;
and, for this reason, we have fibrous or soft, woody, hard, and even stony
barks. To explain everything which relates to the structure of bark would
lead us into long details which our space will not permit. Briefly stated, the
bark of trees (considering, now, those of our own climate) consists of three
layers. The outermost, called the "cortical," is formed of cellular tissue, and
differs widely in consistency in different species; thus, in the cork oak,
which furnishes man with one of his most useful commercial products, the
cortical layer acquires extraordinary thickness. The middle layer, called the
"cellular" or "green bark," is a cellular mass of a very different nature. The
cells of which it is composed are polyhedral, thicker, and more loosely
joined, and filled with sap and chlorophyl. The inner layer (next the wood),
called the "liber," consists of fibers more or less long and tenacious. It is
from the liber that our most valuable commercial fibers are obtained. In
some plants the fibrous system prevails throughout the inner bark; but what
we wish to refer to more particularly at present is a remarkable example of
the harder and more silicious barks, and which is to be found in the "Pottery
Tree" of Para. This tree, known to the Spaniards as El Caouta, to the French
as Bois de Fer, to the Brazilians as Caraipe, is the Moquilea utilis of
botanists, and belongs to the natural order Ternstrœiaceæ. It is very large,
straight, and slender, reaching a height of 100 feet before branching; its
diameter is from 12 to 15 inches; and its wood is exceedingly hard from
containing much flinty matter. Although the wood of the tree is exceedingly
sound and durable, the great value of the tree to the natives exists in the
bark for a purpose which, to say the least, is a novel one in the application
of barks—that of the manufacture of pottery. The Indians employed in the
manufacture of pottery from this material always keep a stock of it on hand
in their huts for the purpose of drying and seasoning it, as it then burns

more freely, and the ashes can be gathered with more ease than when fresh.
In the process of manufacturing the pottery the ashes of the bark are
powdered and mixed with the purest clay that can be obtained from the beds
of the rivers; this kind being preferred, as it takes up a larger quantity of the
ash, and thus produces a stronger kind of ware. Though the proportions of
ash and clay are varied at the will of the maker, and according to the quality
of the bark, a superior kind of pottery is produced by a mixture of equal
parts of fine clay and ashes. All sorts of vessels of small or large size for
household or other purposes are made of this kind of ware, as are also vases
or ornamental articles, many of which are painted and glazed. These articles
are all very durable, and are able to stand almost any amount of heat; they
are consequently much used by the natives for boiling eggs, heating milk,
and indeed for culinary purposes generally. A brief glance at the structure of
the bark will show how it comes to be so well adapted for this purpose. The
bark seldom grows more than half an inch thick, and is covered with a skin
or epidermis; when fresh, it cuts somewhat similar to a soft sandstone, but
when dry, it is very brittle and flint like, and often difficult to break. On
examination of a section under the microscope, all the cells of the different
layers are seen to be more or less silicated, the silex forming in the cells
when the bark is still very young. In the inner bark the flint is deposited in a
very regular manner, the particles being straight and giving off branches at
right angles; that of the porous cells of the bark, however, is very much
contorted, and ramifies in all directions. In the best varieties of the tree,
those growing in rich and dry soil, the silex can be readily detected by the
naked eye; but to test the quality of the various kinds of bark, the natives
burn it and then try its strength between their fingers; if it breaks easily it is
considered of little value, but if it requires a mortar and pestle to break, its
quality is pronounced good. From an analysis of this singular bark, that of
old trees has been found to give 30.8 per cent of ash, and that of young
23.30 per cent. Of the different layers of old bark, the outer gave 17.15 per
cent, the middle 37.7, and the inner 31. The wood of the tree, in comparison
with the bark, is relatively poor in silex, the duramen of an old tree giving
only 2.5 per cent of silex.

GLASS SPONGES.
The natural history of sponges had, up to the middle of this century, been
comparatively neglected. Until 1856, when Lieberkuhn published his
treatise on sponges, very little or nothing had been written on the subject.
Later, Haeckel did much to determine their exact nature, and it is now
universally admitted that sponges form one of the connecting links between
the animal and the vegetable kingdom.

Sponges, generally considered, consist of fine porous tissue, covered,
during life, with viscid, semi-liquid protoplasm, and are held in shape and
strengthened by a more or less rigid skeleton, consisting chiefly of lime or
silica. The tissue consists of a very fine network of threads, formed
probably by gradual solidification of the threads of protoplasm. The
inorganic skeleton is formed by larger and smaller crystals and crystalline
threads. In the various families of sponges the quantity of inorganic matter
varies greatly; some sponges are nearly devoid of an inorganic skeleton,
while other families consist chiefly of lime or silica, the organic tissue
being only rudimentarily developed.

As observed in their natural state, sponges are apparently lifeless. When,
however, a live sponge is placed in water containing some finely powdered
pigment in suspension, it will be noticed that in regular, short intervals
water is absorbed through the pores of the tissue and ejected again through
larger openings, which are called "osculæ." Following up these into the
interior, we find them divided into numerous branches, the walls of which
are, under the microscope, found to be covered with minute cells, fastened
at one end only and oscillating continually. By means of these cells the
sponge receives its nourishment.

Sponges with very rigid inorganic skeletons may be divided into two
classes—calcareous and silicious—according to whether the skeleton is
chiefly composed of lime or silica.

Our engravings represent two species of the latter kind, which are, on
account of the peculiar appearance of their skeleton, called glass sponges.

Fig. 1 represents the "sprinkling pot sponge," Eucleptella aspergillum. It is
generally found in very deep water throughout the Pacific. Specimens were
found over fifty years ago, but, as they had to be brought up from depths
between 500 and 800 fathoms, they remained very scarce and sold at
fabulous prices.

Fig. 1.—SPRINKLING POT SPONGE.—(Eucleptella aspergillum.)

The skeleton is formed by small crystals and long threads of vitreous silica,
cemented together, during life, by protoplasm. They are arranged in
longitudinal and annular bands so as to form a long curved cylinder, about
nine to twelve inches long, the walls of which are about one inch in
thickness. The threads and bands are interwoven with the greatest
regularity, and when the skeleton is freed from the adhering organic matter,
it looks extremely beautiful.

The mode in which the intersecting bunches of crystals are connected is
shown in Fig. 2. The upper end of the cylinder is closed by a perforated
cover, which probably has given rise to the name of the sponge. The upper
portion of the cylinder is surrounded by a few irregular, annular masses of
organic tissue, which adheres loosely only to the skeleton. The lower end is
formed by a bunch of long threads, rooting firmly in the ground.

Fig. 2.—SPONGE CRYSTALS MAGNIFIED.

Up to about ten years ago the price of specimens of this sponge was very
high. At that time, however, a colony of Eucleptellas was found near the
cities of Cebu and Manila, in the East Indies, in a depth not exceeding 100
fathoms, and since they have appeared in larger quantities in the market. It
is remarkable that, contrary to their habits, these organisms have
immigrated into regions to which they were totally unaccustomed. Yet it
must be regarded as a greater curiosity that they have been accompanied to
their new abode by a few animals living in equally deep water and never
met with before at depths less than three or four hundred fathoms. Among
these animals is a Phormosoma (water hedgehog), noted for its long spines.

Glass sponges are not confined to tropical regions. They are met with in
latitudes as high as the Färöe Islands, where the beautiful Holtenia
Carpentaria abounds. It is represented in Fig. 3. Its cup-shaped skeleton is
similar in structure to that of the Eucleptella; numerous crystalline needles
protrude from the surface of the upper part. Lately some specimens of
Holtenia have been found on the coast of Florida.

Fig. 3.—HOLTENIA CARPENTERIA.

Glass sponges serve as dwellings for numerous animals, especially
crustaceæ. A small shrimp inhabits the tubes of the Eucleptella, a male and
a female generally living together. They are shut up as in a prison in their
crystalline home, as they are generally too large to pass through the meshes
formed by the bundles of crystals. It was formerly believed that these
skeletons had actually been built by the shrimps, and we can find no
explanation for this curious circumstance, other than that the shrimps
entered these habitations while very small and became too large to leave
them.

Plants Protected by Insects.
Mr. Francis Darwin, in a lecture on "Means of Self-Defense among Plants,"
delivered lately at the London Institution, said that one of the most curious
forms of defense known is afforded by a recently discovered class of plants,
which, being stingless themselves, are protected by stinging ants, which
make their home in the plant and defend it against its enemies. Of these the
most remarkable is the bull's-horn acacia (described by the late Mr. Belt in
his book "The Naturalist in Nicaragua"), a shrubby tree with gigantic
curved thorns, from which its name is derived. These horns are hollow and
tenanted by ants, which bore a hole in them, and the workers may be seen
running about over the green leaves. If a branch is shaken the ants swarm
out of the thorns and attack the aggressor with their stings. Their chief
service to the plant consists in defending it against leaf-cutting ants, which
are the great enemy of all vegetation in that part of America. The latter form
large underground nests, and their work of destruction consists in gathering
leaves, which they strip to form heaps of material, which become covered
over with a delicate white fungus, on which the larvæ of the ants are fed, so
that literally they are a colony of mushroom growers. The special province
of the little stinging ants, which live in the thorns of the acacia, is, therefore,
to protect the leaves of the shrub from being used by the leaf-cutters to
make mushroom beds. Certain varieties of the orange tree have leaves
which are distasteful to the leaf-cutters, this property of the leaves thus
forming a means of defense. Other plants are unaccountably spared by them
—grass, for example, which, if brought to the nest, is at once thrown out by
some ant in authority. The bull's-horn acacia, in return for the service
rendered by the stinging ants, not only affords them shelter in its thorns, but
provides them with nectar secreted by glands at the base of its leaves, and
also grows for them small yellow pear-shaped bodies, about one twelfth of
an inch in length, at the tip of some of its leaflets, which they use as food.
These little yellow bodies are made up of cells containing protoplasm rich
in oil, and afford the insects an excellent food. When the leaf unfolds, the
ants may be seen running from one leaflet to another, to see if these little
yellow bodies are ripe; and if they are ready to be gathered they are broken

up by the ants and carried away to the nest in the thorn. Several small birds,
also, build their nests in the bull's horn acacia, thus escaping from a
predatory ant which is capable of killing young birds. The trumpet tree,
another plant of South and Central America, is also protected by a standing
army of ants; and, like the above mentioned acacia, grows for its protectors
small food bodies containing oil, but instead of secreting nectar in its leaves
it harbors a small insect (coccus), whose sweet secretion is much relished
by the ants. Dr. Beccari mentions an epiphytal plant growing on trees in
Borneo, the seeds of which germinate, like those of the mistletoe, on the
branches of the tree; and the seedling stem, crowned by the cotyledons,
grows to about an inch in length, remaining in that condition until a certain
species of ant bites a hole in the stem, which then produces a gall-like
growth that ultimately constitutes the home of the ants. If the plant is not
fortunate enough to be bitten by an ant it dies. These ants, then, protect their
plant home by rushing out fiercely on intruders, and thus are preserved the
sessile white flowers which, in this plant, are developed on the tuber like
body.

Advance in Iron.—At a meeting of the Philadelphia Iron Merchants'
Association, March 11, prices of all descriptions of merchant iron were
advanced fully 5 per cent.

The Aneroid Barometer.
The aneroid barometer was invented by M. Vidi, of Paris. It consists
essentially of a circular box, the face of which is made of thin elastic metal,
rendered more elastic by being stamped and pressed into concentric circular
wave-like corrugations. This box is nearly exhausted of air, and its elastic
face supports the pressure of the atmosphere, and yields to it with elastic
resistance in proportion to the amount of pressure. Thus, if the atmospheric
pressure increases, the face is pressed inward; if atmospheric pressure
diminishes, the elastic reaction of the metal moves the face outward. These
movements are communicated to an index by suitable and very delicate
mechanism, and registered in largely magnified dimensions, by the
movements of this index upon the face of the dial.

Aneroid barometers are now made of pocket size, compensated for
temperature, and with double scales, one reading the height of the
barometer column, the other the elevation obtained. I have, says Prof. W.
M. Williams, used one of these during many years, and find it a very
interesting traveling companion. It is sufficiently sensitive to indicate the
ascent from the ground floor to the upper rooms of a three-storied house, or
to enable the traveler sitting in a railway train to tell, by watching its face,
whether he is ascending or descending an incline.

Such slight variations are more easily observed on the aneroid than on the
mercurial barometer, and therefore it is commonly stated that the aneroid is
the more sensitive instrument. This, however, is a fallacious conclusion. It
is not the superior sensitiveness of the movements of the instrument, but the
greater facility of reading them, that gives this advantage to the aneroid, the
index of which has a needle point traveling nearly in contact with the foot
of the divisions; the readings are further aided by a needle point register
attached to a movable rim, which may be brought point to point against the
index, thus showing the slightest movement that human vision may detect.
A magnifying lens may be easily used in such a case.

It should be understood that the aneroid barometer is not an independent
instrument; it is merely a device for representing the movements of the
mercurial barometer. It is regulated by comparison with the primary
instrument, and this comparison should be renewed from time to time, as
the elastic properties of the metal may and do vary.

An adjusting or regulating screw is attached to the back of the instrument,
and is usually movable by a watch key.

Besides this, the magnified reading of course magnifies any primary error,
and is largely dependent on the accuracy of the mechanism.

The Albo-Carbon Light.
We need hardly remind our readers that numerous unsuccessful attempts
have been made at various times to enrich ordinary coal gas by the aid of
volatile oils. Upon the present occasion we have to place before them
particulars of a process having the same object in view, but which is so far
dissimilar in that it deals with a solid substance instead of a liquid oil. The
invention has been brought into its present practical shape by Mr. James
Livesey, C. E., of No. 9 Victoria Chambers, Westminster, in conjunction
with Mr. Kidd, with whom it originated. The process consists in the
employment of a substance called albo-carbon, which is the solid residuum
of creosote. This material is moulded into the form of candles, which in
large lamps are placed in a metallic vessel or receiver near the gas burner.
The albo-carbon is warmed by the heat of the burning gas, the heat being
transmitted to the receiver by a metallic conductor. Upon the albo-carbon
being raised to the necessary temperature it volatilizes, and as the coal gas
passes over it to the burner its vapor becomes mingled with the gas, and
greatly raises its illuminating power. Of course when first lighted the coal
gas only is burned, but in a few minutes the albo-carbon communicates its
enriching vapor to it. The only alteration necessary to the present gas
fittings is the vaporizing chamber, which is of simple construction, although
at present the details of the various arrangements necessary for the different
kinds of lights have not yet been fully worked out. This invention is now
being tried experimentally in the eastern section of the Westminster
Aquarium, where we recently examined it, and found it to afford a marked
improvement upon the ordinary system of gas illumination, although a
smaller number of burners is being used. Tried alternately with ordinary
coal gas, the higher illuminating power of the albo-carbon light was very
remarkable. It appears that there are 200 burners fitted at the Aquarium with
the new light, and these successfully take the place of 500 ordinary gas
burners previously in use. The illuminating effect is stated to be doubled,
with an additional advantage as regards economy. The reduction of cost
arises from the smaller quantity of gas consumed with the albo-carbon
process than without it, and the very small cost of the enriching material.

According to our information, 1,000 cubic feet of ordinary gas as generally
used will, by the albo-carbon appliance, give as much illumination as 3,000
cubic feet without it, and the cost of the material to produce this result is
only 1s. 6d. Experiments have been made with this light by Mr. T. W.
Keates, the consulting chemist to the Metropolitan Board of Works, who
reports very favorably upon it, as does also Dr. Wallace, of Glasgow, who
has obtained some very satisfactory results with it. It is claimed for the
albo-carbon material that it is perfectly inexplosive, safe and portable, that
it causes no obstruction and leaves no residuum, and that the receivers can
be replenished almost indefinitely without any accumulation taking place,
so perfect is the evaporation of the albo-carbon. On the whole the display at
the Aquarium speaks greatly in favor of the new process of gas enrichment,
which, other things being equal, bids fair to find its way into practice.—
Engineering.

English and American Hardware.
Mr. Frederick Smith, Manager of the Union Land and Building Company
(limited), recently read a paper on the above subject before the Manchester
Scientific and Mechanical Society. Mr. H. Whiley, Superintendent of the
Manchester Health Department, presided. The following is the text of the
paper, as given in the London Ironmonger. The lecturer said:

A spectator in any of our courts of justice will generally be struck with the
amount of hard swearing which is given to the court, under the name of
evidence. He will find one set of witnesses testifying, under oath, to one
thing, and another set, also under oath, to the very opposite. Some prove too
much, some too little, some are of a totally negative character, proving
nothing, and some are of no character at all, and therefore are willing to
prove anything. To some extent the same phenomena are to be observed in
reference to the question of foreign competition. On the one hand the
manufacturers hold up to our affrighted vision the picture of our mills
stopped, our machine shops standing empty and idle, our hardware trade
slipping through our fingers, our ships rotting in our own and in foreign
ports, and our greatness as a producing nation for ever passed away. On the
other hand, the journalists who take the labor side of the question, the
trades-union leaders, and a large number of the workmen themselves, hold
that we have little or nothing to fear from our foreign rivals; that the
depression, like those atmospheric ones of which our American cousins are
constantly warning us, will pass away, and leave us with better times to
follow. I will, therefore, as far as possible, keep out of the region of
speculation, give you a few facts, show you some examples, and leave you
to draw your own inferences. Some two or three years ago ordinary axle
pulleys of English make were difficult to get; the price was scandalously
high, and the quality as scandalously low. Out of a dozen probably four
would not turn round without sticking, and the casting was—well, simply
vile. I show you a sample rather above the average, and the retail price for
this inferior article was 22s. per gross. All at once the Americans deluged
the English market with the pulley which I now show to you, and it needs

no explanation of mine to satisfy the mechanical minds present of the
superiority of the transatlantic article; but when we also bear in mind that
the price of the American was from 25 to 33 per cent less than the English
pulley, you can understand how the builders exulted, and how the Volscians
of the Birmingham district were fluttered. Then, and not till then, would the
English maker condescend to believe that it was possible to improve upon
the wretched things which he had foisted upon his customers, and he at
once commenced to copy the American pulley. He has not yet succeeded in
producing such a beautiful casting, but I venture to say that he has
improved the quality more in the last eighteen months than in the previous
eighteen years.

Now take the ordinary door furniture. For generations the English builder
and householder has had to be content with the stereotyped, with all its
aggravating propensities. First, the little screw (so small as to be scarcely
perceptible to touch or to sight) shakes loose from its countersunk
depression in the spindle, gets lost, and lets the knob go adrift; or next, the
knob itself, formed of a bit of sheet brass, turns round on its shank and the
door cannot be opened, or the shank, not having a sufficient bearing on the
spindle, works loose, and the whole thing is out of repair. It is the same
thing to-day as it was when it tormented my grandfather; for, of course, no
improvement could be made until Uncle Sam sent us his cheap, strong,
serviceable, and sensible "Mineral Knob."

The English maker says: "But look at the many devices which we have
invented for door furniture." Granted, and some of them very good, but
none of them so good as this—for the money. Plenty of them well adapted
for extraordinary use, but none of them cheap enough and strong enough to
be placed in competition with this in fitting up the dwelling of the ordinary
Englishman. The spindle and furniture of a lock is the portion which is
liable to and receives the most rough usage.

I have here an ordinary cheap set of china furniture of English make, which
I dare not drop lest I should break it, but as you see, I dare throw its Yankee
competitor the whole length of this room. The retail price of this English set
is ninepence—the price of the American is less than sixpence. The English
spindle is fitted with the usual little screw, the knob is loose, the roses are

china, and liable to break with the least strain or blow. The American set, as
you see, has a long shank; the form of the knob is a very oblate spheroid,
giving a good grip and free play for the fingers between the knob and the
door. The rose is japanned iron, and has small studs or teeth projecting on
its inner side effectually preventing it from turning round with the spindle;
the screw is strong, and is tapped through the spindle itself, insuring both
security and perfect steadiness. Several small washers are supplied with
each spindle, enabling the slack to be taken up perfectly, and at the same
time preventing the spindle from sticking with any ordinary amount of
friction.

I will now show you a cheap American rim lock. First, you will notice that
both sides are alike. Next, that by pulling the latch forward it can be turned
half round, and is thereby converted from a right hand to a left hand, or vice
versa, in an instant. This is an important point to a builder, but our
lockmakers do not seem to know it. Several attempts have been made to
introduce locks of this kind, but the fancy prices put upon every article
which departs, in ever so slight a measure, from the antediluvian patterns
mostly used, practically prohibits their adoption. The carcass of the lock is
of cast iron; the casting, like all the small American castings, is simply
perfect; bosses are cast round the follower and keyholes; the box staple is
one piece of metal, neat and strong.

But there is another point, and, to my mind, the most important one.
Whatever opinions may be held as to the relative quality of this lock,
whether it is better or worse than an English one, it is at least an honest
article. It makes no pretensions to be any better than it is. It does not entrap
the unwary purchaser by pretending to be a first-class article, when at the
same time it may be a swindle.

I will now show you an ordinary 6 inch rim-lock of English manufacture.
At a short distance it looks like a superior article; the follower and keyhole
appear as if they were bushed with brass. But let us take it to pieces, and see
what we can find. The follower is a rough casting, not turned at the
bearings, and is in no sense a fit. The screw holes are not countersunk, but
merely punched in; the key is of the roughest and worst fitting description;
the inside is as rough and cheap as possible; the key is cut so as to deceive

the purchaser into the belief that there are twice as many wards in the lock
as is really the case, and the bushes prove to be thin plates of brass riveted
on, and not bushes at all. In short, the whole article is a vile fraud, and the
maker was a swindler. This is strong language, but I think you will agree
with me when I maintain that it is not stronger than the circumstances
warrant.

But there are still its defects of bad design and useless workmanship. The
lock is of the usual form given to the English rim-lock, that is, it has a
flange which requires to be let into the edge of the door. I have fixed
hundreds of them, and have never yet been able to see a use for this flange.
It is one great obstacle to the general introduction of a reversible lock; it
adds to the labor of fixing without adding to the security of the door, for if
the door is to be forced from the outside, the box staples give way first; if
from the inside, the unscrewing of the box staple is all that is necessary to
give egress; if the door requires easing, it effectually prevents it being done
—in fact, it is a nuisance, and nothing but a nuisance. But our lockmakers
do not appear to give these things a thought; their doctrine seems to be, "As
it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be."

Again, notice that the edges of the iron which lie against the door and the
sham bushes are ground bright. Here is labor wasted, for as soon as the lock
is fixed these polished portions are hidden for ever. Next, take the box
staple. As is usual, it is fearfully and wonderfully made up of sheet iron,
square iron, and brass; the outcome of which is that the showy brass
striking piece comes unriveted, the door comes unfastened, and the tenant's
temper comes unhinged. Why, in the name of common sense, could they
not substitute a neat malleable casting? In our own houses I have long since
discarded the ordinary box staple for draw-back locks, and find it cheaper to
buy a cast iron staple, and throw away the one supplied by the English
lockmaker.

Bear in mind that I have shown neither of these locks as samples of high-
class goods, but as samples of the furniture fixed in the houses of the
working and middle classes of this country; and when I tell you that the
American lock, fitted with the mineral furniture, is at least 25 per cent

cheaper than the English abortion I have shown to you, you will begin to
realize what our English markets have to fear from the Americans.

Here is a common, cheap English mortise lock, and you will naturally ask
why the outside of this lock is ground bright, when it is buried in the door
and never seen except it has to be taken out for repairs. I have asked the
same question, and for 20 years have paused for a reply. This lock is not
reversible, the follower is not bushed, and the inside is rough and cheap.
Contrast it with this neat American lock, and notice again the bosses to
receive the wear; notice also that the bolts are brass; the latch-bolt is, of
course, reversible—I never saw an American lock which was not. The body
of the lock is cast iron; and, seeing that there are no strains upon a mortise
lock, it is quite as good as if it was of wrought iron. There is no unnecessary
grinding, but the iron is japanned, and the japan is as much superior to the
English compound as is the lacquer ware of the Japanese to that which is
executed in Birmingham and palmed upon the ignorant buyer as Japanese
work. In fact, as you can see for yourselves, the English japan looks almost
like gas tar beside the American. This American lock is a two-lever, and
there is no sham about the key, which is made of some kind of white metal
and is small and neat. This lock is only 2½ per cent higher in price than the
English.

Before leaving these locks, let me say a word or two upon the relative wear
upon their different portions, and their relative safety. The English maker
appears to ignore the fact that nineteen-twentieths of the wear of a lock is
upon the latch, spindle, and follower; the amount of actual wear upon the
rest of the lock is comparatively slight. Let any of you consider the number
of times you open and close a door, compared with the times you lock it.
Our drawbacks and large rim locks are used about once a day; the great
bulk of our mortise locks are not used, except as latches, once a week. One
argument used by our manufacturers against the American lock is that,
being made by machinery, there is necessarily a great duplication of parts,
and a consequent lowering of the standard of security; while their own
locks, being made by hand, are not alike, and therefore cannot be so easily
opened.

Let any of you put this argument to proof, by trying how many front doors
you can open with one key in a row of workmen's dwellings such as are
found in Manchester, ranging up to £25 rentals, and the result will astonish
you. If our own manufacturers made their locks sufficiently well to give this
security, there would be some force in what they say; but so far as security
is concerned, they might as well make their locks by machinery as make
them in the way they do.

I now show you two thumb latches, one of American and one of English
make. Notice the general finish of the American latch; the shape, the mode
of construction, and everything about it proves that brains were used when
it was designed and made. The English "Norfolk latch," on the other hand,
is ill designed, uncomfortable in hand, clumsily finished, the japan hangs
about it in lumps, the latch is clumsy, the catch is clumsier, and the keeper,
a rough piece of hoop iron, seems as if designed to "keep" the latch from
doing its duty. In this case the American latch is 25 per cent cheaper than
the English one; and the English latch is of the same pattern as the one that
was in use when I was a boy, only that it is a greatly inferior article.

I will now introduce you to the well known nuisance which we have been
accustomed to use for fastening our cupboard doors—the cupboard turn—
and without further comment, ask you to compare it with this neat and
simple latch of American make, costing about 5 per cent more, twice as
efficacious, and five times as durable. In this case no improvement has been
made in the English fastener. It is just as it was when I went to the trade,
about 28 years ago, and although many attempts have been made to
improve it they have added so much to its cost as to prevent the improved
articles from coming into general use.

The difference between the English and American inventor and designer
seems to consist in this—that while an Englishman devotes all his energies
to the improvement of an existing shape, the American throws the old
article under his bench and commences de novo.

I think I have made out a case against the English hardware manufacturer,
but when I have pointed these matters out to merchants and ironmongers, I
have been met with various reasons for this manifest inferiority. I do not
know how far these excuses may be valid, but one man says that the reason,

as regards locks, is somewhat as follows: The locksmiths of the district
wherein they are made in many cases work at their own homes; one man
making one part of a lock, while other men make other parts. This goes on
generation after generation, and the men become mere machines, not
knowing how the entire lock is constructed, and not caring to know.
Another attributes it to the influence of the trades-unions, and says that if a
manufacturer wants a different kind of lock, the price for the work is
immediately put higher, even though the actual labor may not be increased.
A third says it is due to the drunkenness of the hands, and their consequent
poverty and physical and social demoralization, which prevents them from
rising to such an intellectual level as will enable them to see the evils of
their system, and adopt the right means to remove them. A fourth boldly
says, "We make these goods because our customers want them." How far
the reasons assigned by the first three are correct I am unable to say, but for
the fourth, the extent to which the builders of England have patronized the
Americans is a complete answer.

This defense, "Our customers want them," is as old as the hills, and has
been used to cover every kind of deception and inferior article ever
manufactured. Our Lancashire manufacturers use it when they are charged
with sending china clay and mildew (and call it calico) for the mild Hindoo
and the Heathen Chinee to dress themselves in. Our butter merchants use it
when they make up grease and call it butter; and our hardware merchants
use it when they send us sham locks, and call them brass bushed, etc.

It is the duty of the manufacturer to invent for his customers, and it is
preposterous to say that the builder would prefer that embodiment of fraud
—the English rim-lock, which I showed to you—to the American lock,
which, at any rate, was an honest article, especially when the latter had the
great advantage of being considerably cheaper. I am afraid that the
swindling and greed of our merchants is having the effect of thrusting us
out of the markets of the world, including our home markets; and when it is
too late, these men who are making the name of English goods a byword
and a reproach, even among the Hindoos, the Chinese, and the untutored
savages of the South Sea Islands, will find that "honesty is the best policy."

We have been accustomed to hear a deal of buncombe talked about the
honesty of the Englishman, and the want of honesty of the Yankee; about
the enterprise of our manufacturers and the skill of our workmen; but if
what I have shown to you is to be taken as a specimen, it is time we set our
house in order. Since commencing the paper I have read the discussion
between Messrs. Chubb and Hill, and am at a loss to know why Messrs.
Chubb entered into the arena. If all the English makers tried to reach
Chubb's standard we should keep our markets, at least so far as high quality
is concerned; and to see Messrs. Chubb acting as champions of the English
lockmakers is something like seeing Messrs. Horrocks taking up the
cudgels for those people who manufacture china clay and call it calico, the
proportion of fiber in the material being just a little greater than that found
in hair mortar.

In conclusion, I wish it to be understood that I bring these facts before you
in no exultant spirit. I am an Englishman, and the future welfare of myself
and my children depends very much upon the future of English
manufactures; but we cannot be blind to the fact that the apathy and
conservatism of our manufacturers, the greed of our Merchants, and the
ignorance and drunkenness of our workmen, are weighing us so heavily in
the race for trade that a member of our own family, whose leading business
should be to produce food for us, is outstripping us with the greatest ease.
Our boasted supremacy as a manufacturing people is leaving us, and
leaving us under such humiliating circumstances—and if the men of
Birmingham and the district are content to dwell in their present "fools'
paradise," it is the duty of every lover of his country to speak as plainly as
possible to them.

Of course I am prepared to be told that as I am not a lockmaker my opinion
is worthless; but I have been about 28 years as man and boy, employer and
workman, in the building trade, and if I have not got to know something
about builders' hardware during that period, I have made but a poor use of
my time. I do not know if I have added to your stock of knowledge, but
deeming the subject an important one, I have done the best I could in the
time at my disposal.

In the discussion which followed the opinion of the members present was
unanimously in favor of the American articles shown to them.

A high Indian official reports that the people of Cashmere are dying of
famine like flies, and at the present rate of mortality the province will be
nearly depopulated by the end of the year.

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Power Co.'s make), as good, and in some respects better, than new. Address
H. M. Quackenbush, Herkimer, N. Y.

Wood-working Machinery, Waymouth Lathes. Specialty, Wardwell Patent
Saw Bench; it has no equal. Improved Patent Planers; Elevators; Dowel
Machines. Rollstone Machine Company, Fitchburg, Mass.

Galland & Co.'s improved Hydraulic Elevators. Office 206 Broadway, N.
Y., (Evening Post Building, room 22.)

The only economical and practical Gas Engine in the market is the new
"Otto" Silent, built by Schleicher. Schumm & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. Send
for circular.

Dead Pulleys that stop the running of loose pulleys and their belts,
controlled from any point. Send for catalogue. Taper Sleeve Pulley Works,
Erie, Pa.

Vick's Illustrated Monthly Magazine is one of the most beautiful magazines
in the world. Each number contains a chromo of some group of flowers, and
many fine engravings. Published monthly at $1.25 per year. Address James
Vick, Rochester, N. Y.

Notes & Queries

HINTS TO CORRESPONDENTS.
No attention will be paid to communications unless accompanied with the
full name and address of the writer.

Names and addresses of correspondents will not be given to inquirers.

We renew our request that correspondents, in referring to former answers or
articles, will be kind enough to name the date of the paper and the page, or
the number of the question.

Correspondents whose inquiries do not appear after a reasonable time
should repeat them.

Persons desiring special information which is purely of a personal character,
and not of general interest, should remit from $1 to $5, according to the
subject, as we cannot be expected to spend time and labor to obtain such
information without remuneration.

(1) S. Q.—The speed of a circular saw at the periphery should be from
6,000 to 7,000 feet per minute. The number of revolutions per minute will
of course vary with the diameter of the saw.

(2) T. J. F. asks (1) for the best way to fasten emery on a wooden wheel, to
be used in place of a solid emery wheel. A. Cover the wheel with leather
devoid of grease, and coat the leather surface, a portion at a time, with good
glue; immediately roll the glued surface in emery spread out on a board. 2.
How can I fasten small pieces of looking glass on iron? A. Use equal parts
of pitch and gutta percha mixed together.

(3) W. C. asks: 1. What is the power of the simple electric light described in
Supplement No. 149? A. When supplied with a strong current it is equal to 5
or 6 5-foot gas burners. It is designed for temporary use only. 2. What is the

cost of manufacturing the dynamo-electric machine in Supplement No. 161?
A. The one shown in the article referred to cost about $35.

(4) L. D. asks: 1. Which is the better conductor, silver or copper? A. Silver.
2. And the comparative resistance offered to the electric current by water
and the above? A. Taking pure silver as 100,000,000, the conductivity of
distilled water would be 0.01.

(5) H. J. F. writes: In Supplement 162 a simple electric light is described. I
wish to light a room 20x20x10 feet. 1. How large is the bell glass? A. 2½
inches. 2. Can I use battery carbon? A. Use a carbon pencil made for
electric lamps. 3. How can I make tray water tight after putting wire
through? A. With gutta percha. 4. I have one large cell Bunsen and one
Smee. How many more and of what kind shall I get? A. One of the batteries
described in Supplements 157, 158, 159, will do, probably 8 or 10 Bunsen
elements would be the best.

(6) W. B. F. writes: I tried to make an electric pen, like the one described in
your Scientific American, of February 22d, 1879, using a Smee's battery, a
circuit breaker, and an induction coil, but it did not work. Is there anything
wrong, or is a condenser different from an induction coil? A. A condenser
consists of a number of sheets of tin foil separated from each other by larger
sheets of paper. One half of the tin foil sheets are connected with one
terminal of the primary coil, the other half with the other terminal; the tin
foil sheets connected with one terminal alternate with those of the other
terminal. The condenser is essential to the working of the coil. For complete
directions for making induction coils, see Scientific American Supplement
No. 160.

(7) J. De F. asks: 1. Knowing the resistance of a wire of given conductivity,
length, and diameter, will the resistance of any other wire be in proportion
inversely? A. Yes. 2. Is there heat enough developed in the secondary coil of
an induction coil to prevent the use of paraffine as an insulating material?
A. With proper battery power, no. 3. How high in the list of non-conductors
does paraffine stand? A. It is one of the best. 4. Will a cotton insulator
soaked in paraffine answer as well as silk? A. No, because it renders the
covering of the wire too thick. 5. Can you recommend any insulating
material for making induction coils which will dry rapidly? A. Alcoholic

shellac varnish. Rosin to which a little beeswax has been added is an
excellent insulator; it must be applied in a melted state. 6. What is the
composition of the black material covering the Leclanche porous cell? A.
Gutta percha. 7. Is the magneto-electric machine described in the Scientific
American Supplement patented? A. To which do you refer? Most, if not all
of them are patented.

(8) B. V. F. writes: With reference to item 8, on page 139, of Scientific
American, March 1, 1879, I think there is some mistake about the coal you
think required to heat 1,000 cubic feet space. I burn some 8 tons coal to
heat, in the whole year, such part of my house as must exceed
25x20x18=9,000 cubic feet. We keep up a moderate heat at night. Ventilate
more than most families do; take part only of the cool air, and only in part
of the coldest weather, from the cellar, which at such times is opened into
the main entries. House wood, back plastered, and stands alone. If 100 lbs.
coal would heat 1,000 feet one day, I ought to burn 900 lbs. a day, or nearly
14 tons in December and 14 more in January. A. We are glad to receive
these data, which correspond quite closely with some obtained by recent
accurate experiments. The estimate given in the Scientific American also
agrees well with experiments on the use of hot air heaters for very small
buildings or rooms. Of course, the larger the space to be heated, the more
economically it can generally be done.

(9) W. M. S. asks: Will the coil described in Supplement No. 160 do for the
electric pen described in a recent number of the Scientific American? If not
how must it be changed? A. It is too large; make it one half the size given.

(10) B. G.—In reply to your inquiry as to Mr. Stroh's telephone experiment,
we give the following, which we clip from the English Mechanic: A
singular experimental effect, of special interest just now from its possible
bearing on the theory of the source of sound in the Bell telephone, has just
been observed by Mr. Stroh, the well known mechanician. If a telephone, T,
with the circuit of its coil left open, be held to the ear, and a powerful
magnet, M, be moved gently up and down along the length of the magnet,
as shown by the arrow, and at a distance of an inch or two from it, a faint
breathing sound will be heard, the recurring pulses of sound keeping time
with the up and down motion of the magnet. The sound may be aptly
compared to the steady breathing of a child, and there is a striking
resemblance between it and the microphonic sounds of gases diffusing
through a porous septum as heard by Mr. Chandler Roberts. We understand
that Professor Hughes is investigating the cause of this curious sound by
help of the microphone.

(11) "Enterprise" asks: What part of its volume will iron expand in passing
from a temperature of 60° to melting temperature? A. The cubical
expansion of iron for each degree (C.) between 0° and 100° is 0.00003546

of its volume, its volume being 1. This ratio however, increases somewhat
at higher temperatures, since the mean coefficient of expansion for each
degree between 0° C. and 300° C. is 0.00004405. The question you ask has
probably never been settled. You may form an approximation by the use of
the above ratios, knowing the melting point of the iron.

(12) P. L. O. asks for a good chemistry for a beginner to study without a
teacher. A. Fownes' "Chemistry;" Gorup-Besanez, "Inorganic, Organic and
Physiological Chemistry."

(13) L. E. M. asks: What is the best method of keeping fine guns from
rusting, and what oil should be used? A. For the outside, clear gum copal 1
part, oil of rosemary 1 part, absolute alcohol 3 parts. Clean and heat the
metal and apply a flowing coat of the liquid by means of a camel's hair
brush. Do not handle until the coat becomes dry and hard. For the inside of
the barrel a trace of refined sperm oil is as good as anything, but an excess
should be avoided.

(14) A. H. B. asks how much weight, falling 10 feet, will be required to
produce one horse power for five hours? A. One horse power for 5 hours =
33,000 × 300 = 9,900,000 foot pounds—so that the weight required is
9,900,000 ÷ 10 = 990,000 lbs.

(15) A. D. R. asks: 1. In renewing a Leclanche battery, do the zincs have to
be amalgamated? A. They are usually amalgamated. 2. Will two cells large
size Leclanche battery give any light, using the simple lamp described in
Supplement No. 162? A. No.

(16) H. L. J. writes: In a recent issue of the Scientific American you state
that the floating of solid iron on melted iron is on the same principle as the
floating of ice in water. I do not quite understand how it can be. Please
explain. A. Solid iron, at an elevated temperature, floats upon molten iron
for the same reason that ice floats upon molten ice-water—because it is
specifically lighter. You will find the subject discussed at length in Tyndall's
"Heat as a Mode of Motion."

(17) J. W. will find full directions for canning corn, etc., on p. 394 (4), vol.
39, Scientific American.

(18) "Amateur" writes: I wish to make some small bells that have a clear
ring. What metal or metals can I use that I can melt easily? A. Use an alloy
of tin and antimony. See Scientific American Supplement No. 17.

(19) H.—A nutritious mixed diet is unquestionably the best, care being
taken to avoid an excess of meat.

(20) W. F. writes: I have made an engine, and would like to find out what
size of boiler it will require. The cylinder has 2¼ inch bore and 3 inches
stroke. A. It depends upon pressure and speed to be maintained; probably a
vertical tubular boiler, 15 inches diameter, and 32 to 36 inches high, would
suit you.

(21) R. G. (Salt Lake).—Please send full name.

(22) J. M. G. asks: If two persons each pull one hundred pounds on opposite
ends of a rope, what will be the strain on the rope? A. The strain on the rope
will be 100 lbs.

(23) W. M. M. asks: In laying off a mill stone in furrows, what draught is
given? What amount of the space of a stone is given to furrows and what to
grinding surface? A. There is considerable difference in the practice of
various millers, and we would be glad to receive communications from
those experienced in the art of dressing millstones.

Minerals, Etc.—Specimens have been received from the following
correspondents, and examined, with the results stated:

S. (New Orleans.)—The powder consists of a mixture of zinc oxide and
finely powdered resin. A quantitative analysis would be necessary to
determine the proportions.

Any numbers of the Scientific American Supplement referred to in these
columns may be had at this office. Price 10 cents each.

COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVED.

Life Preserving Stone. By J. D. W.
On Ventilation. By D. W.
What is Mental Action? By N. K.
Panama Railroad or Canal. By G. R. P.
A Problem. By K.
On the Gary Motor. By G. F. M.
Magnetic Motor. By G. W. W., W. A. A., G. H. F.
House Warming. By H. B. F.
The Injector. By M. A. B.
Columbus' Problem; Cure for Diphtheria; The Mullein
Cure for Consumption. By R. W. L.
A Visit to Tula. By L. R.
On Vacuum in Pumps and the Atwood Machine. By P. J. D.
On the Patent Bill. By R.

[OFFICIAL.]

INDEX OF INVENTIONS

FOR WHICH
Letters Patent of the United States were Granted in the Week Ending
February 18, 1879,
AND EACH BEARING THAT DATE.

[Those marked (r) are reissued patents.]

A complete copy of any patent in the annexed list, including both the
specifications and drawings, will be furnished from this office for one
dollar. In ordering, please state the number and date of the patent desired,
and remit to Munn & Co., 37 Park Row, New York city.

Air heater, W. Pickhardt 212,499
Anchor, A. F. White 212,340
Animal trap, S. J. Bennett 212,430
Axle box, vehicle, P. K. Hughes 212,382

Axle, carriage, C. H. Kendall 212,387
Axle for wagons, trussed, J. Herby 212,378
Axle, vehicle, C. H. Kendall 212,386
Barrel cover, C. Brinton 212,350
Bed bottom, J. Flinn 212,451
Bed bottom, spring, W. B. Crich 212,443
Bedstead, sofa, A. N. Hornung 212,312
Bedstead, wardrobe, H. P. Blackman 212,348
Belt hook templet, E. Card 212,353
Boot and shoe laster, L. Graf 212,460
Boot and shoe sole polisher, etc., O. Gilmore 212,372
Boot and shoe sole edge trimmer, C. H. Helms 212,311
Boot fronts, cutting in, C. H. Colburn 212,357
Boot, India-rubber, G. Watkinson (r) 8,587
Bottle filler, W. S. Paddock 212,494
Bread board, H. Van Doren 212,334
Brick, shed for drying, C. H. Roselius 212,511
Bridge gate, A. Stempel 212,329
Broom corn tabler, G. W. Foulger 212,454
Button F. E. Williams 212,418
Calculator, tax, P. F. Pettibone 212,498
Car coupling, G. R. Hamilton 212,462
Car coupling, S. A. Haydock 212,464
Car coupling, J. Worrall 212,529
Car heaters, coupling for pipes of railway, J. W. Graydon 212,376
Car heater, railway, J. W. Graydon 212,375
Car heating pipe coupling, railway, J. W. Graydon 212,374
Car ventilation, J. Knipscheer 212,475
Cars, heating, J. & J. W. Russell 212,403
Cars, supplying water to wash stands on, D. H. Jones 212,385
Carbureter feed regulator, W. H. Reed 212,502
Card machine burr conveyer, W. C. Bramwell 212,435

Carpet beater, J. L. Leach 212,476
Carriage, C. H. Palmer, Jr. 212,397
Carriage bow, F. H. Niemann 212,491
Carriage, child's, F. H. Way (r) 8,583
Carriage top prop, J. P. Simpson 212,519
Carriage canopy top, D. Gleason 212,458
Cartridge, W. W. Hubbell 212,313
Chair foot or leg rest, M. E. Keiran 212,474
Chimney, locomotive engine, H. R. Walker 212,414
Chuck, lathe, J. H. Vinton 212,413
Churn power motion, W. F. Witherington 212,527
Cigarette, C. C. Millaudon 212,392
Coat, reversible, N. H. Lund 212,479
Cock and faucet, etc., self-closing, J. Broughton 212,436
Coffee pot, teapot, etc., stand, D. H. Murphy 212,395
Coffee roaster, R. Davis 212,445
Corset, W. Thomas 212,411
Corset steel, E. M. Smith 211,520
Dental plugger, W. G. A. Bonwill 212,434
Door securer and combined tool, P. E. Rudel 212,512
Door sill and carpet strip, S. M. Stewart 212,521
Drip pan and self-oiler for bearings, R. B. Eason 212,449
Egg cup and opener, D. H. Murphy 212,394
End gate, wagon, W. H. Parkin 212,398
File, bill, E. H. Owen 212,493
Files, recutting, M. J. Murphy 212,490
Filter, J. W. Lefferts 212,477
Firearm, breech-loading, H. Goodman 212,459
Firearm lock, Kaufmann & Warnant 212,473
Fire extinguisher, D. T. Perkins 212,322
Fires in buildings, extinguishing, C. Barnes 212,346
Fluid motor, Chase & Bowker 212,356

Fountain tip, H. G. Fiske 212,368
Furnace, G. B. Field 212,366
Game apparatus, W. T. Ebert 212,304
Garter, etc., clasp, L. Lobenstein 212,390
Gate, McKinley & Ellis 212,482
Gate, G. W. Pyle 212,501
Glassware, decorating, H. Feurhake 212,365
Glassware shaper and finisher, Atterbury & Beck 212,421
Glazier's tool, W. H. G. Savage 212,515
Governor and friction brake for machinery, speed, T. A. Weston 212,337
Grain drill, C. F. Davis (r) 8,589
Harness breeching strap, H. Holt 212,467
Harrow, toothless, J. W. Mulvey 212,393
Harvester, W. A. Wood 212,528
Harvester cutter, B. Pratt 212,323
Harvester, grain binding, J. F. Appleby 212,420
Harvester reel, B. Moreland 212,318
Harvesting machine, Dutton & Tornquist 212,303
Hat formers, web tender for, R. Eickemeyer 212,450
Hay binder and elevator, P. H. Nichols 212,319
Hay elevator, H. Barlow 212,427
Hay tedder, E. J. Knowlton 212,388
Headlights, signal for locomotive, W. Kelley (r) 8,591
Heat regulator for furnaces, A. C. Norcross (r) 8,582
Hoisting bucket, F. H. C. Mey 212,317
Hoisting drums, etc., friction brake and clutch for, T. A. Weston 212,338
Hoisting machine, T. A. Weston 212,339
Horse toe weight, G. C. Clausen 212,440
Hydrant, J. Snell 212,408
Hydrant, street, G. C. Morgan 212,486
Hydraulic motor, W. S. Puckett 212,500
Injector, steam boiler, G. R. Buckman 212,438

Keg trussing machine, E. & B. Holmes 212,381
Kettle, H. C. McLean 212,483
Kitchen cabinet, C. A. Adams 212,343
Lamp, J. H. Irwin 212,470
Lamp burner, E. B. Requa 212,401
Lamp, fountain, C. Stockmann 212,522
Lamp shade holder, Brown & Taplin 212,437
Lamp, street, J. Stewart 212,410
Lamp wick, H. Halvorson 212,309
Life preserver, T. Richards 212,402
Life preserver, R. E. Rose 212,404
Lock, W. E. Forster 212,452
Lock gate, D. Risher, Jr. 212,506
Mechanical movement, C. B. Hitchcock 212,380
Metal tube maker, A. Ball 212,425
Middlings separator, J. Schoonover 212,406
Milker, cow, A. C. Baldwin 212,423
Millstone adjustment, S. P. Walling 212,525
Millstone curb or hoop, J. S. Detwiler 212,361
Miter machine, J. J. Spilker 212,409
Mop head, H. Murch 212,489
Needle eye polisher, George & Payne 212,455
Oil cup, F. Lunkenheimer 212,480
Ore concentrator, E. W. Stephens 212,330
Ore roaster, C. E. Robinson 212,508
Oven bottom and slide, J. Jewett 212,471
Oysters, board bank for fattening, F. Lang 212,389
Package or box filler, Bolton & Strieby 212,349
Paper cutter, J. M. Jones 212,384
Paper folder, R. M. Hoe 212,466
Paper machines, method and apparatus for producing a vacuum in
the suction box of, Dunn & Hollister 212,362

Paper machines, wire guide for J. W. Moore 212,485
Paper making, treating pulp stock, S. & J. Deacon 212,447
Paper scorer and cutter, G. L. Ingram 212,314
Paper scorer and cutter, W. F. Lodge 212,315
Permutation lock dial screen, Corbett & Miller 212,359
Picture exhibitor, A. L. High 212,465
Pill machine, Fort & Moore 212,453
Pipe wrench, S. W. Hudson 212,468
Pipe wrench with cutter, Franklin & Gilberds 212,369
Plant protector, E. R. Frederick 212,306
Plants, etc., poison distributer for, G. Townsend 212,412
Planter and drill, check row, G. J. Hyer 212,469
Planter, corn, J. A. Roderick 212,509
Plow, E. Walker 212,524
Plow attachment, A. O. Bement 212,429
Plow cutter, A. Aldrich 212,419
Plow, sulky, J. R. Whitney 212,341
Printer's roller, T. M. Fisher 212,367
Printing machine, L. C. Crowell 212,444
Pumping engine, duplex, G. F. Blake (r) 8,585
Radiator for steam heaters, Covert & Snyder 212,360
Railway crossing, Bernard & Perkins 212,432
Railway switch, C. F. Gessert 212,456
Ratchet mechanism and clutch for machinery, T. A. Weston 212,336
Rocking chair, J. W. Hamburger 212,461
Rotary engine, A. B. Haughey 212,463
Rubber mat, E. L. Perry 212,497
Sad iron holder, A. Failor 212,363
Safety pin, I. W. Stewart (r) 8,592
Salt cellar, W. Sellers 212,518
Sandpaper roll, O. Gilmore 212,371
Sash cord guide, Clarkson & Kesler (r) 8,586

Sash fastener, J. Benson 212,431
Sash fastener, G. W. Cary 212,354
Sash fastener, J. B. Morris 212,487
Saw, circular, G. Schleicher 212,516
Saw handle, E. R. Osgood 212,396
Saw, jig, G. W. Gary 212,355
Saw mill, gang, H. D. & E. N. Wickes 212,526
Saw mill head block, J. T. James 212,383
Sawing machine, scroll, N. P. Selden 212,326
Scales, platform, F. Fairbanks 212,364
Scales, weighing, G. L. C. Coulon 212,300
Scarf pins, etc., making ball heads of, J. N. Allen 212,297
Scythe snath fastening, P. E. Rudel 212,513
Sewer trap, J. P. Cahill 212,352
Sewing implement, A. J. Lytle 212,481
Sewing machine, C. O. Parmenter 212,495
Sewing machine attachment, J. B. Sulgrove 212,523
Sewing machine plaiter, White & Bowhannan 212,417
Sheet metal vessel bottom, F. W. Moseley 212,484
Shoe, Searl & Bly 212,517
Skate, C. T. Day (r) 8,590
Skylight, J. Friend 212,307
Slate frame, E. Butler (r) 8,588
Sled propeller, G. F. Shaver (r) 8,593
Smelting furnace, iron, P. L. Weimer 212,415
Sole edge burnisher, T. P. Young 212,342
Spoke tenoning machine, A. J. Roberts 212,507
Sprinkling can, G. F. Payne 212,321
Stamp, postage and revenue, K. Wheeler 212,416
Staple machine, W. M. Collins 212,441
Staples in paper, etc., device for inserting metallic, G. W. McGill 212,316
Stave crozer and chamferer, H. H. Dunlevy 212,448

Steak tenderer, E. Richmond 212,505
Steam boiler, fire tube, J. Cowhig 212,301
Steam brake for locomotives, etc., W. L. Card 212,439
Steam piping for heating, etc., B. F. Osborne 212,420
Steam trap, I. W. Merrill 212,391
Stove and furnace grate, S. Smyth 212,407
Stove, cooking, G. H. Hess 212,379
Stove, cooking, J. Jewett 212,472
Stove, oil, Fleming & Hamilton 212,305
Stove oven door and shelf, C. W. Brieder 212,351
Strainer, gravy, J. Scheider (r) 8,584
Strap for garments, adjusting, T. O. Potter 212,400
Street motor, J. T. Cord 212,442
Surveying instrument leveler, G. N. Saegmuller 212,405
Swing, J. Ryan 212,514
Telephone apparatus, speaking, E. Gray 212,373
Telephony, electric, Black & Rosebrugh 212,433
Telephony, electric, A. M. Rosebrugh 212,510
Thill coupling, D. C. Bacon 212,422
Thill coupling, C. E. Gillespie et al. 212,308
Thill coupling, M. F. Ten Eyck 212,333
Thill supporter, vehicle, H. O. Rector 212,325
Ticket, passenger, J. H. Purdy 212,324
Tiles for use as stands, frame for holding ornamental or fancy
pottery, C. A. Wellington 212,335
Tiles, decorative, J. G. Low 212,478
Tiles, paving blocks, etc., composition for drain, W. H. Haight 212,377
Tire upsetter, B. K. Taylor 212,332
Tobacco, curing, A. P. Poladura 212,399
Tobacco cutter, Bauer & Seitz 212,347
Tobacco flavoring compound, D. Sternberg 212,331
Tobacco manufacture, J. T. Harris 212,310

Tobacco presser, F. B. Deane 212,446
Traction engine, J. Cooper 212,358
Truss, J. R. Alexander 212,344
Type distributer, A. C. Richards 212,503
Type setter, A. C. Richards 212,504
Umbrella, M. Girbardt 212,457
Umbrella runner, W. H. Belknap 212,428
Undershoe or slipper, G. Gardner 212,370
Vehicle seat lock, W. G. Allen 212,345
Vehicle spring, M. H. Crane 212,302
Vehicle spring bolster, J. G. Snyder 212,328
Velocipede, E. C. F. Otto 212,492
Wash boiler, F. J. Boyer 212,299
Washing and bath tub, J. B O. Shevill 212,327
Washing machine, J. W. Patterson 212,496
Water meter diaphragm, W. B. Mounteney 212,488
Whip holder, Curtis & Worden (r) 8,581
Wire measurer and cutter, G. A. Baron 212,426
Wire, winding tubes and rods with, A. Ball 212,424
Wrench, C. B. Billings 212,298

TRADE MARKS.

Boots, shoes, and brogans, W. F. Thorne & Co. 7,037
Cigars, Sullivan & Burk 7,035
Cigars, cigarettes, and smoking and chewing tobacco, B. Hilson 7,038
Cotton gins, Printup, Brother & Pollard 7,042
Fertilizers for flowers, W. H. Bowker & Co. 7,041
Grain fans, J. Montgomery 7,032
Hair goods for ladies' wear, M. E. Thompson 7,040
Hoes, Semple & Birge Manufacturing Company 7,039

Medicine for the cure of neuralgia, and the like diseases, J. S.
Nicolds 7,033
Roofing paper, carpet paper, or paper felt, and building paper,
Watson & Janes 7,043
Soap, Gallup & Hewitt 7,036
Spool cotton, J. & J. Clark & Co 7,031
Table cutlery, John Russell Cutlery Company 7,034

DESIGNS.

Carpet, T. J. Stearns 11,029
Combined sleigh bell and terret ring, H. M. Richmond 11,027
Crocheted body for shawls, L. Howard 11,028
Oil cloth, C. T. & V. E. Meyer 11,024 to 11,026
Statue, A. Bartholdi 11,023

English Patents Issued to Americans.

From February 18 to February 21, inclusive.

Bed bottoms, etc.—C. D. Flynt, Brooklyn, N. Y.
Berth.—D. Huston, Boston, Mass.
Lead smelting furnace.—G. T. Lewis, Philadelphia, Pa.
Locks.—A. P. Thomas et al., Baltimore, Md.
Railway joint.—P. T. Madison, Indianapolis, Ind.
Spikes for railroads.—R. Bocklen, New York city.
Ventilating buildings.—F. S. Norton, New York city.

Advertisements.
Inside Page, each insertion 75 cents a line.
Back Page, each insertion $1.00 a line.

(About eight words to a line.)

Engravings may head advertisements at the same rate per line, by
measurement, as the letter press. Advertisements must be received at
publication office as early as Thursday morning to appear in next issue.

A Rare Opportunity, on Easy Terms.

To be sold at Auction, at Charleston, South Carolina, on Tuesday, the first
day of April, 1879, the Taylor Iron Works, complete and in operation,
together with all stores, stock, and work on hand on day of sale.

The above is a large, first-class engineering establishment, complete within
itself for all kinds of work, comprising iron and brass foundries, boiler
shop, machine shops, pattern and millwright shops, with a large stock of
patterns for local machinery, and Taylor presses. Connected with the works
is a large, well-stocked engineer and mill supply store. All departments
have the best of modern tools in thorough repair. Buildings comparatively
new, and conveniently arranged on large grounds. The business was
established 1844; has always done a large business and maintained a high
reputation. The present works, built since 1866, have ample facilities to
work 200 men. At present about 100 men are employed. For further
particulars apply to the works or to JOHN F. TAYLOR, Sharon Springs, N.
Y., who will meet parties at Albany, N. Y., by appointment, or New York, if
preferred.

LARGEST ASSORTMENT IN THE WORLD

of Plays, Dramas, Comedies, Farces, Ethiopian Dramas, Plays for Ladies
only, Plays for Gentlemen only. Wigs, Beards, Moustaches, Face
Preparations, Burnt Cork, Jarley's Wax Works, Tableaux, Charades,
Pantomimes, Guides to the Stage, and for Amateurs Make up Book, Make
up Boxes, New Plays. SAM'L FRENCH & SON, 38 East 14th St., Union
Square, New York.

Catalogues sent FREE!!!

50 Latest Style CARDS. Bouquet, Lawn, Floral, etc., in case, name in gold,
10c. SEAVY BROS., Northford, Ct.

☞ RARE OPPORTUNITY. ☜

The proprietor, advanced in years and desirous of retiring from active
control of business, would sell at a bargain, or convert into a joint stock
company and retain an interest himself, a Foundry and Machine Shops, with
all their machinery and fixtures complete, and now crowded with custom
work, having cost upwards of sixty thousand dollars, and the only ones of
magnitude for 120 miles on the Mississippi River, on various points of
which may be seen specimens of work of these shops at Stillwater, Winona,
McGregor. Dubuque, Fulton, Lyons, Clinton, Muscatine, and on many of
the boats. For particulars, address the proprietor at Clinton, Iowa.

A. P. HOSFORD.

FOR SALE—GEAR CUTTER.

Been in use only eighteen months; will cut gears, both Spur-Bevel-Miter
and Spiral, from four feet to one inch in diameter. Is complete with counter-
shaft and several cutters. Machine made by Pond, of Worcester. Index made
by Browne & Sharpe. Cost $900. Will sell for $250. Address J. G. STOWE,
126 Main Street, Cincinnati, O.

THE TRIUMPH NON-CONDUCTOR

weighs but 1½ lbs. to the square foot, and saves daily four pounds of coal.
(Asbestos saves but 2 lbs.) Price 15 cts.—5 cts. cash and 10 cts. after
satisfactory trial. Agents wanted. For circulars showing WHY fuel is wasted
and HOW 25 to 50 per cent., can be saved; also, HOW to construct
reduction works for mineral ores of half the present weight and cost, to do
three times the work with the fuel now used, and save 98 per cent. of assay;
also, the opinions of distinguished engineers, address B. F. SMITH, New
Orleans, La.

PHOTO VISITING CARDS—Now all the rage in Paris. One dozen
beautiful gilt edged (round cornered) Cards with your name and
photograph, only 60 cents; 2 dozen, $1. Full particulars and a 50-page book
free. E. NASON & CO., 111 Nassau St., New York.

"BELL" TELEPHONES. Any one can make in fifteen minutes. Send three
3c. stamps for "Where to get the Parts, Prices (Total $3.60 per pair), and
how put together."

A. H. DAVIS, 30 Hanover St., Boston, Mass.

CATARRH. A Sure Cure. Samples by mail, 10c. GEO. N. STODDARD,
Buffalo, N. Y. It cures others. It will cure you. Sample will prove.

ANY NUMBER OF OPPORTUNITIES

to buy what you want or sell or exchange what you don't want, in the
Property Journal. Send 5c. for copy.

ANDERSON & CO., 252 Broadway, New York.

NOVELTIES, NOTIONS,
Watches, Cheap Jewelry, Stationery Packages.

Agents and country stores supplied. Illustrated circular free. J. BRIDE &
CO., Manufacturers, Salesroom, 297 B'way, New York. Address letters to P.
O. Box 2773.

FOR UNIVERSAL LATHE DOGS, DIE DOGS, ETC.,
send for circular to C. W. LE COUNT, S. Norwalk, Ct.

ICE-HOUSE AND COLD ROOM.—BY R. G.
Hatfield. With directions for construction. Four engravings. Supplement No.
59. Price, 10 cents.

Send for our Priced and Illustrated Catalogues.

Part 1st—Mathematical Instruments, 160 pages; contains list and prices
of Drawing Instruments, Drawing Materials, Pocket Compasses, Surveying
Compasses, Engineers' Transits and Levels, Surveying Chains, Tape
Measures, Pocket Rules, and Books relating to Drawing, Engineering, and
Mechanics.

Part 2d—Optical Instruments, 144 pages; contains list and prices of
Spectacles, Eye Glasses, Lenses, Spy Glasses, Telescopes, Opera and Field
Glasses, Graphoscopes, Stereoscopes, Camera Obscuras, Camera Lucidas,
Microscopes, Microscopic Preparations, and Books on Optics and
Microscopy.

Part 3d—Magic Lanterns and Slides, 112 pages; contains list and prices or
Magic Lanterns for Toys, for Public and Private Exhibitions, Sciopticons,

Stereopticons, Scientific Lanterns, and accessory apparatus to be used with
them; Magic Lantern Slides, both colored and uncolored.

Part 4th—Physical Instruments, 188 pages; contains list and prices of
Instruments to illustrate Lectures in every department of Physics and
Chemical Science, Air Pumps, Electric Machines, Galvanic Batteries,
Barometers, Thermometers, Rain Gauges, Globes, Spectroscopes, Auzoux's
Anatomical Models, and Books relating to Scientific Subjects.

JAMES W. QUEEN & CO.,
Optical and Philosophical Instrument Makers,
924 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.

Wood-Working Machinery,

Such as Woodworth Planing, Tonguing, and Grooving Machines, Daniel's
Planers, Richardson's Patent Improved Tenon Machines, Mortising,
Moulding, and Re-Saw Machines, and Wood-Working Machinery generally.
Manufactured by

WITHERBY, RUGG & RICHARDSON,
26 Salisbury Street, Worcester, Mass.
(Shop formerly occupied by R. BALL & CO.)

THE DRIVEN WELL.

Town and County privileges for making Driven Wells and selling Licenses
under the established American Driven Well Patent, leased by the year to
responsible parties, by

WM. D. ANDREWS & BRO.,
NEW YORK.

MINING MACHINERY. Engines. Boilers, Pumps,
Coal and Ore Jigs, Dust Burning Appliances. Drawings and advice free to
customers. Jeanesville Iron Works (J. C. Haydon & Co.). Address
HOWELL GREEN, Supt., Jeanesville, Luzerne Co., Pa.

IT PAYS to sell our Rubber Hand Printing Stamps. Goods delivered in any
country. Circulars free.

G. A. HARPER & BRO., Cleveland, O.

FOR TEN DOLLARS CASH,

we will insert a seven-line advertisement one week in a list of 269 weekly
newspapers, or four lines in a different list of 337 papers, or ten lines two
weeks in a choice of either of four separate and distinct lists containing
from 70 to 100 papers each, or four lines one week in all four of the same
lists, or one line one week in all six lists combined, being more than 1,000
papers. We also have lists of papers by States, throughout the United States
and Canada. Send 10 cents for our 100 page pamphlet. Address Geo. P.
Rowell & Co., Newspaper Advertising Bureau, 10 Spruce Street, New
York.

MACHINERY AT VERY LOW PRICES.

2d hand Lathes, Drills, Planers, Hand Tools for Iron Work, new Woodworth
Planing Machines, Resawing, Tenoning, Moulding Machines, Scroll Saws,
Portable Steam Engine. Jos. R. Blossom, Ass'e, Matteawan, N. Y.

The George Place Machinery Agency
Machinery of Every Description.
121 Chambers and 103 Reade Streets, New York.

60 Chromo and Perfumed Cards [no 3 alike], Name in Gold and Jet, 10c.
Clinton Bros., Clintonville, Ct.

ROOF PAINTING. For $5, by Post Office Order or express, I will send the
recipe for making Langhorne's English Gum Coating Paint and other
mineral paints, with full instructions for roof and sidewall painting. This
paint is used by the U. S. Government. Address M. LANGHORNE, 708 E
Street, Washington, D. C.

FOR SALE.—LETTERS PATENT OF
Wilhide's Celebrated Noiseless Self-setting Rat and Mouse Traps.
Thoroughly introduced. Traps sold by all dealers. Address Owners and
Manufacturers, J. T. WILHIDE & BRO., York Road, Carroll Co., Md.

IMPORTANT FOR ALL CORPORATIONS AND MANF'G CONCERNS.
—Buerk's Watchman's Time Detector, capable of accurately controlling
the motion of a watchman or patrolman at the different stations of his beat.
Send for circular.

J. E. Buerk, P. O. Box 979. Boston, Mass

N. B.—The suit against Imhaeuser & Co., of New York, was decided in my
favor, June 10, 1874. A fine was assessed against them Nov. 11, 1876, for
selling contrary to the order of the court. Persons buying or using clocks
infringing on my patent will be dealt with according to law.

SPARE THE CROTON AND SAVE THE COST.

Driven or Tube Wells
furnished to large consumers of Croton and Ridgewood Water. WM. D.
ANDREWS & BRO., 414 Water St., N. Y., who control the patent for
Green's American Driven Well.

A New and Valuable Work for the Practical
Mechanic and Engineer.

APPLETONS'

Cyclopædia of Applied Mechanics.
A Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering and
the Mechanical Arts.
Illustrated by 5,000 Engravings.

Edited by PARK BENJAMIN, Ph.D.

This valuable work is now being published in semi-monthly parts, at fifty
cents each. Active agents wanted. For terms and territory address GEO. W.
DAVIS, care of D. APPLETON & CO., New York.

CAVEATS, COPYRIGHTS, TRADE MARKS, ETC.

Messrs. Munn & Co., in connection with the publication of the Scientific
American, continue to examine Improvements, and to act as Solicitors of
Patents for Inventors.

In this line of business they have had OVER THIRTY YEARS'
EXPERIENCE, and now have unequaled facilities for the preparation of
Patent Drawings, Specifications, and the Prosecution of Applications for
Patents in the United States, Canada, and Foreign Countries. Messrs. Munn
& Co. also attend to the preparation of Caveats, Trade Mark Regulations,
Copyrights for Books, Labels, Reissues, Assignments, and Reports on
Infringements of Patents. All business intrusted to them is done with special
care and promptness, on very moderate terms.

We send free of charge, on application, a pamphlet containing further
information about Patents and how to procure them; directions concerning
Trade Marks, Copyrights, Designs, Patents, Appeals, Reissues,
Infringements, Assignments, Rejected Cases, Hints on the Sale of Patents,
etc.

Foreign Patents.—We also send, free of charge, a Synopsis of Foreign
Patent Laws, showing the cost and method of securing patents in all the
principal countries of the world. American inventors should bear in mind
that, as a general rule, any invention that is valuable to the patentee in this
country is worth equally as much in England and some other foreign
countries. Five patents—embracing Canadian, English, German, French,
and Belgian—will secure to an inventor the exclusive monopoly to his
discovery among about ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY MILLIONS of the
most intelligent people in the world. The facilities of business and steam
communication are such that patents can be obtained abroad by our citizens
almost as easily as at home. The expense to apply for an English patent is
$75; German, $100; French, $100; Belgian, $100; Canadian, $50.

Copies of Patents.—Persons desiring any patent issued from 1836 to
November 26, 1867, can be supplied with official copies at reasonable cost,
the price depending upon the extent of drawings and length of
specifications.

Any patent issued since November 27, 1867, at which time the Patent
Office commenced printing the drawings and specifications, may be had by
remitting to this office $1.

A copy of the claims of any patent issued since 1836 will be furnished for
$1.

When ordering copies, please to remit for the same as above, and state
name of patentee, title of invention, and date of patent.

A pamphlet, containing full directions for obtaining United States patents
sent free. A handsomely bound Reference Book, gilt edges, contains 140
pages and many engravings and tables important to every patentee and
mechanic, and is a useful hand book of reference for everybody. Price 25
cents, mailed free.

Address

MUNN & CO.,
Publishers SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN,

37 Park Row, New York.

BRANCH OFFICE—Corner of F and 7th Streets, Washington, D. C.

Practical Draughtsman's Book of
INDUSTRIAL DESIGN

AND MACHINISTS' & ENGINEERS'

Drawing Companion.

Forming a Complete Course of Mechanical, Engineering, and Architectural
Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud the elder, Professor of Design
in Conservatoire of Arts and Industry, Paris, and MM. Armengaud the
younger, and Amoroux, Civil Engineers. Rewritten and arranged with
additional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the most
useful and generally employed mechanism of the day. By William Johnson,
Assoc. Inst. C. E. Illustrated by fifty folio steel plates, and fifty wood cuts.
A new edition, 4to $10

Among the contents are: Linear Drawing, Definitions, and Problems.
Sweeps, Sections, and Mouldings, Elementary Gothic Forms, and Rosettes.
Ovals, Ellipses, Parabolas, and Volutes. Rules and Principal Data. Study of
Projections. Elementary Principles. Of Prisms and other Solids. Rules and
Practical Data. On coloring Sections, with applications. Conventional
Colors, Composition or Mixture of Colors. Continuation of the Study of
Projection—Use of Sections—details of machinery. Simple applications—
spindles, shafts, couplings, wooden patterns. Method of constructing a
wooden model or pattern of a coupling. Elementary applications. Rules and
Practical Data.

The Intersection and Development of Surfaces, with Applications.—The
Intersection of Cylinders and Cones. The Delineation and Development of
Helices, Screws, and Serpentines. Application of the helix—the
construction of a staircase. The Intersection of Surfaces—applications to
stop cocks. Rules and Practical Data.

The Study and Construction of Toothed Gear.—Involute, cycloid, and
epicycloid. Involute, Cycloid. External epicycloid, described by a circle
rolling about a fixed circle inside of it. Internal epicycloid. Delineation of a
rack and pinion in gear. Gearing of a worm with a worm wheel. Cylindrical
or Spur Gearing. Practical delineation of a couple of Spur wheels. The
Delineation and Construction of Wooden Patterns for Toothed Wheels.
Rules and Practical Data.

Continuation of the Study of Toothed Gear.—Design for a pair of bevel
wheels in gear. Construction of wooden patterns for a pair of bevel wheels.
Involute and Helical Teeth. Contrivances for obtaining differential
Movements. Rules and Practical Data.

Elementary Principles of Shadows.—Shadows of Prisms, Pyramids, and
Cylinders. Principles of Shading. Continuation of the Study of Shadows.
Tuscan Order. Rules and practical data.

Application of Shadows to Toothed Gear.—Application of Shadows to
Screws. Application of Shadow to a Boiler and its Furnace. Shading in
Black—Shading in Colors.

The Cutting and Shaping of Masonry.—Rules and Practical Data.
Remarks on Machine Tools.

The Study of Machinery and Sketching.—Various applications and
combinations: The Sketching of Machinery. Drilling Machines; Motive
Machines; Water wheels. Construction and Setting up of water wheels.
Delineation of water wheels. Design of a water wheel. Sketch of a water
wheel. Overshot water wheels. Water Pumps; Steam Motors; High-pressure
expansive steam engine. Details of Construction; Movements of the
Distribution and Expansion Valves; Rules and Practical Data.

Oblique Projections.

Parallel Perspective.

True Perspective.—Elementary principles. Applications—flour mill driven
by belts. Description of the mill. Representation of the mill in perspective.

Examples of Finished Drawings of Machinery.

☞ The above, or any of our Books, sent by mail, free of postage, at the
publication price.

Our new and enlarged Catalogue of Practical and Scientific Books—96
pages, 8vo.—sent free to any one who will furnish his address.

Henry Carey Baird & Co.,
Industrial Publishers and Booksellers,
810 Walnut Street, Philadelphia.

STEAM PUMPS.
HENRY R. WORTHINGTON,
239 Broadway, N. Y. 83 Water St., Boston.

The Worthington Duplex Pumping Engines for Water Works—
Compound, Condensing or Non-Condensing. Used in over 100 Water-
Works Stations.

Steam Pumps—Duplex and Single Cylinder.

Price list issued Jan. 1, 1879, with a reduction exceeding 30 per
cent.

Water Meters. Oil Meters.

THIS NEW
ELASTIC TRUSS

Has a Pad differing from all others, is cup-shape, with Self-Adjusting Ball
in center, adapts itself to all positions of the body, while the BALL in the
cup PRESSES BACK the INTESTINES JUST AS A PERSON WOULD
WITH THE FINGER. With light pressure the Hernia is held securely day
and night, and a radical cure certain. It is easy, durable and cheap. Sent by
mail. Circulars free.

Eggleston Truss Co., Chicago, Ill.,

THE

HANCOCK
INSPIRATOR

TESTIMONIALS.

Office of the Hancock Insp. Co.,
London, Eng., Feb. 11, 1879.

I have just received an order from the English Government for 22 Number
15 Inspirators—making 24 machines in all for the Government this month.

B. H. WARREN, Agent.

Office of H. S. Manning & Co., 111 Liberty St.,
New York, Feb. 26, 1879.

Gentlemen: We have authority from Mr. Martin, Chief Engineer Union
Ferry Co., Brooklyn, to state that they have 17 Inspirators at work on 17 of
their boats, feeding their main boilers, and all giving satisfaction, and to
refer any one to him. Yours truly,

H. S. MANNING & CO., Agents.

☞ Illustrated and Descriptive Circulars sent on application to

Hancock Inspirator Co.,
52 CENTRAL WHARF,
BOSTON.

THIS NEW
MOSELEY IRON BRIDGE AND
ROOF CO.

CORRUGATED IRON

Buildings, Roofs, Shutters, Doors, Iron Sashes, Skylights, etc.

5 Dey Street, New York.

THIS NEW

BLAKE'S STONE AND ORE BREAKER AND CRUSHER.

For breaking hard and brittle substances to any size. Endorsed by the
leading Mining, Manufacturing, and Railroad corporations in the United
States and Foreign Countries. First Premium wherever exhibited, and
hundreds of testimonials of the highest character.

A NEW SIZE FOR PROSPECTING AND LABORATORY USE.

☞ All Stone Crushers not made or licensed by us, containing vibratory
convergent jaws actuated by a revolving shaft and fly-wheel, are
infringements on our patent, and makers and users of such will be held
accountable. Address

BLAKE CRUSHER CO., New Haven, Conn.

PULMOCURA

AN ABSOLUTE AND UNFAILING REMEDY FOR

CONSUMPTION

and all other diseases of the Lungs and Throat. Mailed free on receipt of
$1. A. A. MARTIN, Pulmocura Man'f'g Co., sole depot for the U. S., 60
East 12th St., cor. Broadway, New York.

Soft, Strong, and Smooth Iron or Brass

CASTINGS

Plain, Galvanized, Bronzed or Nickled to order promptly.

Also patterns and models. Light work a specialty. LIVINGSTON & CO.,
Iron Founders, Pittsburg, Pa.

NEW STEEL HORSE SHOE

With Level Spring Platform—Continuous Calk. The best in the world.
Cures Tender and Contracted Feet, Corns, Interfering, Quarter-crack
Lameness, and all evils resulting from the use of the common shoe.

Responsible men can make money selling this Shoe. Send for pamphlet.
Trial set with nails, $1.00. To measure, place foot on paper, and draw pencil
around.

The JOHN D. BILLINGS PATENT HORSE SHOE COMPANY
265 Broadway, New York.

LAP WELDED CHARCOAL IRON

Boiler Tubes, Steam Pipe, Light and Heavy Forgings, Engines, Boilers,
Cotton Presses, Rolling Mill and Blast Furnace Work.

READING IRON WORKS,
261 South Fourth St., Phila.

PHOSPHOR-BRONZE
BEARINGS,
PUMP-RODS,
AND
SPRING WIRE.

Apply to
THE PHOSPHOR-BRONZE SMELTING CO., Limited,
2038 Washington Ave., Philadelphia, Pa.

Lathes, Planers, Shapers

Drills, Bolt and Gear Cutters, Milling Machines. Special Machinery. E.
GOULD & EBERHARDT, Newark, N. J.

THE BEST STEAM PUMP in AMERICA
THE DEANE
Made by HOLYOKE MACHINE CO.

More than 4500 in use.

Send for reduced Price List.
Deane Steam Pump Works
85 LIBERTY ST.,
NEW YORK.

Small Tools of all kinds; GEAR WHEELS, parts of MODELS, and
materials of all kinds. Catalogues free. Goodnow & Wightman, 176 Wash'n
St., Boston, Mass.

Fine Pamphlets printed for 75c. a Page per 1,000. 1,000 Fine 9×12
Circulars, $2.50. Price list or estimate and samples for stamp. 250 Bill
Heads, $1.

"Local" Printing House, Silver Creek, N. Y.

$77 a Month and expenses guaranteed to Agents. Outfit free. Shaw & Co.,
Augusta, Maine.

LEFFEL WATER WHEELS.

With recent improvements.

Prices Greatly Reduced.

7000 in successful operation.

FINE NEW PAMPHLET FOR 1877

Sent free to those interested

James Leffel & Co.,
Springfield, O.

109 Liberty St., N. Y. City.

Paris, 1878
Australia, 1877
Phila., 1876
Santiago, 1875
Vienna, 1873

J. A. FAY & CO'S
WOOD WORKING MACHINERY

was awarded at the Paris Exposition over all competitors THE GOLD
MEDAL OF HONOR. Also highest award at Phila., Santiago, Australia,
and Vienna. It is

Original in Design, Simple in Construction,
Perfect in Workmanship, Saves labor,
Economizes lumber, and Increases
products of the highest standard
of Excellence.

Railroad, Furniture, and Agricultural Implement Shops, Planing Mills, etc.,
equipped at short notice, and the lowest cash prices. Send for Circulars.

J. A. FAY & CO., Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

L. F. STANDISH & CO.,
Screw Manufacturers,

Builders of Small Machinery and Fine Tools.

26 Artisan St., New Haven, Ct.

Emery Wheel.

NEW YORK BELTING AND PACKING COMP'Y.
The Oldest and Largest Manufacturers of the Original
SOLID VULCANITE
EMERY WHEELS.

All other kinds Imitations and Inferior. Our name is stamped in full upon all
our standard BELTING, PACKING, and HOSE.

Address NEW YORK BELTING AND PACKING CO.,

NEW YORK.

JOHN H. CHEEVER, Treas.

THE SEVENTH

Cincinnati
Industrial
Exposition
Opens for the reception of goods August 20th.

Opens to the public September 10th, and continues open until October
11th, in the

NEW PERMANENT BUILDINGS
ERECTED FOR THE PURPOSE.

Machinery Tested and Fully Reported upon.

Send for Rules and Premium Lists after April 1.

H. McCOLLUM, Sec'y.

THE FORSTER-FIRMIN GOLD AND SILVER AMALGAMATING
COMP'Y of Norristown, Pa., will grant state rights or licenses or easy

terms. This system works up to assay, and recovers the mercury rapidly.
Apply as above.

THOMAS'S CONCENTRATED DYE
Stuffs. (138 Recipes SENT GRATIS.) (See Scientific American
Supplement, March 15, '79.) Address

N. SPENCER THOMAS, Elmira, N. Y.

Baker Rotary Pressure Blower.

(FORCED BLAST)
Warranted superior to any other.

WILBRAHAM BROS.
2318 Frankford Ave.
PHILADELPHIA

"The 1876 Injector."
Simple, Durable, and Reliable. Requires no special valves. Send for
illustrated circular.

WM. SELLERS & CO., Phila.

The fact that this shafting has 75 per cent. greater strength, a finer finish,
and is truer to gauge, than any other in use renders it undoubtedly the most
economical. We are also the sole manufacturers of the Celebrated Collins'
Pat. Coupling, and furnish Pulleys, Hangers, etc., of the most approved
styles. Price list mailed on application to

JONES & LAUGHLINS,
Try Street, 2d and 3d Avenues, Pittsburgh, Pa.
190 S. Canal Street, Chicago, Ill., and Milwaukee. Wis.

☞ Stocks of this shafting in store and for sale by

FULLER, DANA & FITZ, Boston, Mass.
Geo. Place Machinery Agency, 121 Chambers St., N. Y.

VEGETABLE AND FLOWER SEEDS
WE SELL EVERYTHING FOR THE

GARDEN

Descriptive Catalogues of 175 pages sent Free
PETER HENDERSON & CO.
35 Cortlandt St., New York.
FLOWER AND FRUIT PLANTS

L. SMITH HOBART, President. JOHN C. MOSS, Superintendent.
TYPE-METAL RELIEF PLATES.
A SUPERIOR SUBSTITUTE FOR WOOD-CUTS
AT MUCH LOWER PRICES.

Persons desiring illustrations for Books, Newspapers, Catalogues,
Advertisements, or for any other purposes, can have their work done by us
promptly and in the best style.

Our Relief Plates are engraved by photo-chemical means; are mounted on
blocks type-high ready for use on any ordinary press, and will wear longer
than the common stereotype plates.

They have a perfectly smooth printing surface, and the lines are as deep, as
even, and as sharp as they could possibly be cut by hand.

Electrotypes may be made from them in the same manner as from wood-
cuts.

Copy. The engraving is done either from prints or pen-drawings. Almost all
kinds of prints can be re-engraved directly from the copy, provided they be
in clear, black lines or stipple, and on white or only slightly tinted paper.

Pen drawings, suitable for engraving by us, must be made with thoroughly
BLACK ink, on smooth, white paper. They should usually be made twice
the length and twice the width of the plates desired.

When such drawings cannot be furnished us, we can produce them from
photographs, pencil sketches, or designs of any kind accompanied with
proper instructions. Photographs taken in the usual way, and of any
convenient size, we can use.

Change of Size.—Wood-cut prints of the coarser kind may often be
reduced to half their lineal dimensions, while others will admit of very little
reduction, and some of none at all.

Most lithographic and steel-plate prints will admit of no reduction.

Very fine prints of any kind may be enlarged moderately without detriment.

Any prints which cannot be satisfactorily reduced or enlarged may be
redrawn and thus brought to any desired size.

In all cases of reduction and enlargement, the relative proportions remain
unchanged.

Proofs.—Whenever desired, we will furnish tintype proofs of the drawings
made by us, for approval or correction, before engraving. A printed proof is
furnished with each plate.

Time.—We cannot usually engage to fill an order for a single plate in less
than from three to six days; larger orders will require longer time.

Estimates will be promptly furnished when desired. That these may be
definite and correct, the copy to be used—whether print, photograph,
sketch, or drawing—should always be submitted for our examination,
together with a distinct statement of the size of plate wanted, and of any
other details to be observed.

Terms.—To insure attention, all orders must be accompanied by an
advance of half the price charged, the balance to be paid on delivery.

Electrotyping and Printing.—We have recently added to our
establishment excellent facilities for making electrotypes, and also three
power presses specially fitted for printing plates of all sizes in the finest
manner.

Artificial Light.—We have just introduced this most important facility,
which enables us to prosecute our work in cloudy weather, and to push
forward hurried orders in the night.

References.—Our plates are now used by the principal publishers in this
city, and by most of the leading houses in every State in the Union.

Our General Circular contains a few specimens of the various kinds of
our work, and will be sent on receipt of stamp. We have just prepared five
special circulars, as follows:

No. 1. Portraits and Figures.
No. 2. Buildings and Landscapes.
No. 3. Machinery and Apparatus.
No. 4. Maps, Autographs, and Ornamental Lettering.
No. 5. Reproductions from Wood-Cuts, Steel-Plate Prints, and Lithographs.

These will be furnished at ten cents each.

Advertisements.

Inside Page, each insertion—75 cents a line
Back Page, each insertion—$1.00 a line.
(About eight words to a line.)

Engravings may head advertisements at the same rate per line, by
measurement, as the letter press. Advertisements must be received at
publication office as early as Thursday morning to appear in next issue.

ADJUSTABLE INCLINE PRESSES.

STILES & PARKER PRESS CO., Middletown, Conn.

136 pages beautifully illustrated, mailed to all applicants inclosing 10 cents.
Regular customers free.

Bliss' Illustrated Amateur's Guide to the Flower and Kitchen Garden,
with colored chromo; 216 pages, price 35 Cents.

Address

B. K. BLISS & SONS,
P. O. Box 4129, New York City.

TO LARGE CONSUMERS OF FINE LIGHT Malleable Iron Castings,
we can offer special inducements in the way of VERY SUPERIOR
QUALITY GUARANTEED, and at fair prices. Being ourselves large
consumers and requiring the most perfect castings, other work is insured the
same attention.

MALLORY, WHEELER & CO.,
New Haven, Conn.

THE PHILADELPHIA LAWN MOWER

Stands "Head of the Class." Descriptive Circulars and Price Lists sent on
application. GRAHAM, EMLEM & PASSMORE, Patentees and
Manufacturers, 631 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

SHAFTING PULLEYS, HANGERS, etc.
a specialty. Send for Price List to
A. & F. BROWN, 57-61 Lewis Street, New York.

AIR COMPRESSORS,
HOISTING ENGINES and OTHER

MINING MACHINERY;
MANUFACTURED BY
GRIFFITH & WEDGE. ZANESVILLE, OHIO.

Mill Stones and Corn Mills.

We make Burr Millstones, Portable Mills, Smut Machines, Packers, Mill
Picks, Water Wheels, Pulleys, and Gearing, specially adapted to Flour
Mills. Send for catalogue.

J. T. NOYE & SON, Buffalo, N. Y.

HOW TO SELL PATENTS.—This little book fully explains how all patents
can be sold for good prices. Price 25 cents. L. D. SNOOK, Barrington,
Yates Co., N. Y.

Pond's Tools,
Engine Lathes, Planers, Drills, &c.,

DAVID W. POND, Worcester, Mass.

EDMUND DRAPER,
Manufacturer of First-class Engineers' Instruments.
Established in 1830. 226 Pear St., Phila., Pa.

J. LLOYD HAIGH,

Manufacturer of

every description, for Railroad and Mining Use, Elevators, Derricks, Rope
Tramways, Transmission of Power, etc. No. 81 John St., N. Y. Send for
price list. Plans and Estimates furnished for Suspension Bridges.

THE DINGEE & CONARD CO'S

BEAUTIFUL EVER-BLOOMING

ROSES
THE BEST IN THE WORLD.

Our Great Specialty is growing and distributing these Beautiful Roses.
We deliver Strong Pot Plants, suitable for immediate bloom, safely by mail
at all post-offices. 5 Splendid Varieties, your choice, all labeled, for $1; 12
for $2; 19 for $3; 26 for $4; 35 for $5; 75 for $10; 100 for $13.

☞ Send for our New Guide to Rose Culture—60 pages, elegantly
illustrated—and choose from over Five Hundred Finest Sorts. Address

THE DINGEE & CONARD CO.,
Rose Growers, West Grove, Chester Co., Pa.

HOW TO SELL PATENTS.

We send our 100 page book of instruction, containing valuable information,
free. Send us your address. Geo. C. Tracy & Co., Cleveland, O.

Manufactured only under the above Trade-Mark, by the

European Salicylic Medicine Co.,
OF PARIS AND LEIPZIG.

Immediate Relief Warranted. Permanent Cure Guaranteed. Now
exclusively used by all celebrated Physicians of Europe and America,
becoming a Staple, Harmless, and Reliable Remedy on both continents. The
Highest Medical Academy of Paris report 95 cures out of 100 cases within
three days. Secret—The only dissolver of the poisonous Uric Acid which
exists in the Blood of Rheumatic and Gouty Patients. $1.00 a Box; 6 Boxes
for $5.00. Sent to any address on receipt of price. Endorsed by Physicians.
Sold by all Druggists. Address

WASHBURNE & CO.,
Only Importers' Depot. 212 Broadway, cor.
Fulton St., New York.

19th Annual Statement of the EQUITABLE Life Assurance Society of
the U. S.

HENRY B. HYDE, President.

For the Year Ending December 31, 1878.

Amount of Ledger Assets, Jan. 1, 1878 $32,477,991.87
Less Depreciation in Government Bonds, and
Appropriation to meet any depreciation in other assets 369,553.27
————
32,108,438.60
INCOME 8,217,943.24
————
$40,326,381.84

DISBURSEMENTS.

Paid Policy Holders for Claims by Death, Dividends,
Surrender Values, Discounted and Matured Endowments
and Annuities 4,935,171.43
Other Disbursements as per extended statement 1,195,841.88

————
Net Cash Assets, December 31, 1878 $34,195,368.53

ASSETS.

Bonds and Mortgages $12,437,584.93
Real Estate 6,834,904.96
United States Stocks 5,638,768.54
State, City, and other Stocks authorized by the Laws of the
State 6,201,978.16
Loans secured by United States and other Stocks 928,000.00
Cash and other Ledger Assets as per extended statement 2,154,131.94
————
$34,195,368.53
Market Value of Stocks over Cost 129,796.41
Accrued Interest, Rents, and Premiums, as per extended
state[missing] 1,128,927.42
————
Total Assets, Dec. 31, 1878 $35,454,092.36
Total Liabilities, including legal reserve for reinsurance
of all existing policies 28,560,268.00
————
Total Undivided Surplus $6,893,824.36
————

Risks assumed in 1878, 6,115 Policies, assuring $21,440,213.00

N. B.—For the details of the above statement, see the Society's "Circular to
Policy Holders," and other publications for 1879.

JAMES W. ALEXANDER, Vice-President.
E. W. Scott, Superintendent of Agencies.
SAMUEL BORROWE, Secretary.

BOLT CUTTERS.

Send for Catalogue of
Schlenker's Automatic Bolt Cutters and
Screw Cutting Machines.

HOWARD IRON WORKS, Buffalo, N. Y.

BIG PAY to sell our Rubber Printing Stamps. Samples free. Taylor Bros. &
Co., Cleveland, O.

FIRE INSURANCE EXCLUSIVELY.

Paid Up Capital $1,458,007.78
Net Surplus, Dec. 31, 1876 530,056.86
Cash Assets in U. S. Jan. 1, 1878 427,881.28
Net Assets in U. S. Jan. 1, 1878 220,000.00

TRUSTEES IN NEW YORK:

LOUIS DE COMEAU, Esq., of De Rham & Co.
CHAS. COUDERT, Jr., Esq., of Coudert Bros.
CHAS. RENAULD, Esq., of Renauld, Francois & Co.
JULIEN LE CESNE, Resident Secretary.
T. J. TEMPLE, Manager for the Middle States.

WESTERN UNION BUILDING, N. Y.

THE
Eclipse Engine

Furnishes steam power for all Agricultural purposes, Driving Saw Mills,
and for every use where a first-class and economical Engine is required.
Eleven first-class premiums awarded, including Centennial, '76. Refer to
No. 7, issue of '77, No. 14, issue of '78, of Scientific American, for
Editorial illustrations.

FRICK & CO., Waynesboro, Franklin Co., Pa.

When you write please name this paper.

THE

CAMERON STEAM PUMP,
Also known as the "SPECIAL" PUMP, is the standard of
excellence at home and abroad. For Price Lists, address

CAMERON PUMP WORKS,

Foot East 23d Street, New York.

SHEPARD'S CELEBRATED
$50 Screw Cutting Foot Lathe.

Foot and Power Lathes, Drill Presses, Scrolls, Circular and Band Saws, Saw
Attachments, Chucks, Mandrels, Twist Drills, Dogs, Calipers, etc. Send for
catalogue of outfits for amateurs or artisans.

H. L. SHEPARD & CO.,
333, 335, & 337 West Front Street,

Cincinnati, Ohio.

Established 1844.
JOSEPH C. TODD,

Engineer and Machinist. Flax, Hemp, Jute, Rope, Oakum and Bagging
Machinery, Steam Engines, Boilers, etc. I also manufacture Baxter's New
Portable Engine of 1877. Can be seen in operation at my store. A one horse-
power portable engine, complete, $125; two horse-power, $225; two and a
half horse-power, $250; three horse-power, $275. Manufactured exclusively
by

J. C. TODD,
10 Barclay St., New York, or Paterson, N. J.

Send for Catalogue

Steel Castings,

From ¼ to 10,000 lbs. weight, true to pattern, sound and solid, of unequaled
strength, toughness and durability. An invaluable substitute for forgings or
cast-iron requiring three-fold strength. Send for circular & price list.
Chester Steel Castings Co., Evelina St., Phila, Pa.

Shafts, Pulleys, Hangers, Etc.

Full assortment in store for immediate delivery.
WM. SELLERS & CO.,

79 Liberty Street, New York.

THE LEHIGH VALLEY EMERY WHEEL CO.,
WEISSPORT, Carbon Co., Pa.

Manufacturers of Wheels and Machines.

CENTENNIAL AND PARIS MEDALS.
Mason's Friction Clutches and Elevators.
"New and Improved Patterns." 20 per cent. off list.
VOLNEY W. MASON & CO., Providence, R. I., U.S.A.

RUFFNER & DUNN, Patentees and Sole Manufacturers of the Excelsior
Steel Tube Cleaners. Price $1.00 per inch. Send for circular.

SCHUYLKILL FALLS, PHILA., PA.

WOODWORTH SURFACE PLANERS, $125. Planers and Matchers, $350.
S. C. HILLS, 78 Chambers Street, New York.

The Columbia Bicycle,
Made by THE POPE M'F'G CO.,

89 Summer Street, Boston.

A practical road machine, easy to learn to ride, and when mastered one can
beat the best horse in a day's run over an ordinary road. Send 3c. stamp for
price list and 24-page catalogue with full informat'n.

BRADFORD MILL CO.
Successors to Jas. Bradford & Co.,
MANUFACTURERS OF
French Buhr Millstones,
Portable Corn & Flour Mills,
Smu Machines, etc.

Also, dealers in Bolting Cloths and
General Mill Furnishings.

Office & Factory, 158 W. 2d St.
CINCINNATI, O.
J. R. Stewart, Pres. W. R. Dunlap, Sec.

☞ PRICE LISTS SENT ON APPLICATION.

SECOND-HAND BOILERS AND MACHINERY FOR SALE.—Boilers
from 30 to 70 horse power, 15-horse power portable Engine, one 60-inch
Lathe, two Upright Drills, Blowers, etc., etc. For prices, etc., address
JAMES F. MANN, Utica, N. Y.

WETHERILL & BROTHER,
PHILADELPHIA.
Pure White Lead

ROCK DRILLS.
National Drill and Compressor Co.,
95 LIBERTY ST., NEW YORK.
AIR COMPRESSORS to be run by Steam, Water Power, or Belt.

BARNES' FOOT POWER MACHINERY.

13 Different machines with which Builders, Cabinet Makers, Wagon
Makers, and Jobbers in miscellaneous work can compete as to Quality and
Price with steam power manufacturing; also Amateurs' supplies. Machines
sent on trial.

Say where you read this, and send for catalogue and prices.

W. F. & JOHN BARNES,
Rockford, Winnebago Co., Ill.

NAT'L BOLT & PIPE MACHINERY CO.,

Mfrs. of Hand and Power Bolt and Pipe Cutters, Bolt Pointers, Bolt
Headers, Hot and Cold Pressed Nut Machinery, Taps and Dies, etc. Send for
Cir. Cleveland, O.

BOILER COVERINGS.
WITH THE "AIR SPACE" IMPROVEMENTS.
THE CHALMERS-SPENCE CO., Foot E. 9th St., New York. Sole
owners of the Air Space Patents.

THE TANITE CO.,
STROUDSBURG, PA.
EMERY WHEELS AND GRINDERS.

LONDON—9 St. Andrews St., Holborn Viaduct, E. C.
LIVERPOOL—42 The Temple, Dale St.
GEO. PLACE, 121 Chambers St., New York Agent.

PATENTS at AUCTION.

Regular Monthly Sales. For terms, address N. Y. PATENT EXCHANGE, 67
Liberty Street, New York.

Holly's Improved Water Works.

Direct Pumping Plan. Combines, with other advantages, over older systems,
the following: 1. Secures by variable pressure a more reliable water supply
for all purposes. 2. Less cost for construction. 3. Less cost for maintenance.
4. Less cost for daily supply by the use of Holly's Improved Pumping
Machinery. 5. Affords the best fire protection in the world. 6. Largely
reduces insurance risks and premiums. 7. Dispenses with fire engines, in
whole or in part. 8. Reduces fire department expenses. For information by
descriptive pamphlet, or otherwise, address the

HOLLY MANUFACTURING CO., Lockport, N. Y.

Every Man
HIS OWN
Printer.

THE EXCELSIOR

$3 Press Prints labels, cards etc. (Self-inker $5) 9 Larger sizes For business,
pleasure, young or old Catalogue of Presses, Type, Etc., for 2 stamps.

KELSEY & Co.
Meriden, Conn.

Pyrometers. For showing heat of ovens. Hot Blast Pipes, Boiler Flues,
Superheated Steam, Oil Stills, etc.

HENRY W. BULKLEY, Sole Manufacturer,

149 Broadway, N. Y.

Machinists' Tools.

New and Improved Patterns.
Send for new illustrated catalogue.

Lathes, Planers, Drills, &c.

NEW HAVEN MANUFACTURING CO.,

New Haven, Conn.

HERMETICAL SANITARY CLOSET
GUARANTEED ABSOLUTELY WATER & GAS TIGHT
SEND FOR CIRCULAR
John S. Leng, 4 Fletcher St. N. Y.

Cigar Box Lumber,

MANUFACTURED by our NEW PATENT PROCESS.

The Best in the World.
SPANISH CEDAR,
MAHOGANY,
POPLAR.

Also thin lumber of all other kinds, 1/8 to 1/2 in., at corresponding prices.
All qualities. Equal in all respects to any made, and at prices much under
any to be obtained outside of our establishment. Send for price list.

GEO. W. READ & CO.,

186 to 200 Lewis Street, N. Y.

BOGARDUS' PATENT UNIVERSAL ECCENTRIC MILLS—For grinding
Bones, Ores, Sand, Old Crucibles, Fire Clay, Guanos, Oil Cake, Feed, Corn,
Corn and Cob, Tobacco, Snuff, Sugar, Salts, Roots, Spices, Coffee,
Cocoanut, Flaxseed, Asbestos, Mica, etc., and whatever cannot be ground
by other mills. Also for Paints, Printers' Inks, Paste Blacking, etc. JOHN W.
THOMSON, successor to JAMES BOGARDUS, corner of White and Elm
Sts., New York.

THE WATSON PUMP, FOR ARTESIAN, OR DEEPWELL PUMPING,
PISTON ROD, PLUNGER & WELL ROD IN DIRECT LINE MACHINE
SIMPLE, EFFICIENT. JAMES WATSON. 1608. S. FRONT ST. PHILA.

FARM LAW. ADDRESS OF HON. EDMUND H. Bennett, delivered
before the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. This is an essay
embracing complete and practical information, valuable not only to the
farmer but to every one. Showing how to Buy a Farm: Bargains that are not
Binding; Boundaries, and where they are in Streams, Ponds, Lakes, or on
the Seashore; what a Deed of a Farm includes; Rights in the Road. Farm
Fences: their Legal Height, etc. Railway Fences. Stray cattle; Cattle on
Railways; Impounding Cattle. The Farmer's Liability for his Animals. The
Law on the Dog. The Farmer not Liable for his Dogs. Water Rights and
Drainage; Damming; Diverting the Course of a Stream. Surface Water;
Underground Water. Trespassing, in Summer and in Winter. Hunting and

Fishing. Fruit Trees on Boundary Lines, etc., etc. Contained in Scientific
American Supplement 166. Price 10 cents.

THE UNION IRON MILLS. Pittsburgh, Pa., Manufacturers of improved
wrought iron Beams and Girders (patented).

The great fall which has taken place in the prices of Iron, and especially in
Beams used in the construction of FIRE PROOF BUILDINGS, induces us
to call the special attention of Engineers, Architects, and Builders to the
undoubted advantages of now erecting Fire Proof structures; and by
reference to pages 52 & 54 of our Book of Sections—which will be sent on
application to those contemplating the erection of fire proof buildings—
THE COST CAN BE ACCURATELY CALCULATED, the cost of
Insurance avoided, and the serious losses and interruption to business
caused by fire; these and like considerations fully justify any additional first
cost. It is believed, that, were owners fully aware of the small difference
which now exists between the use of Wood and Iron, in many cases the
latter would be adopted. We shall be pleased to furnish estimates for all the
Beams complete, for any specific structure, so that the difference in cost
may at once be ascertained. Address

CARNEGIE, BROS. & CO., Pittsburgh, Pa.

ICE AT $1.00 PER TON.
The PICTET ARTIFICIAL ICE CO.,
LIMITED,
Room 51, Coal and Iron Exchange, P. O. Box 3083, N. Y.

Liquid Paints, Roofing, Boiler Coverings,
Steam Packing, Sheathings, Fire Proof Coatings,
Cements, &c. Send for Descriptive Price List.
H. W. JOHNS M'F'G CO. 87 MAIDEN LANE, N. Y.

$10 to $1000 Invested in Wall St. Stocks makes fortunes every month.
Books sent free explaining everything.

Address BAXTER & CO., Bankers, 17 Wall St., N. Y.

The "Scientific American" is printed with CHAS. ENEU JOHNSON &
CO.'S INK. Tenth and Lombard Sts., Philadelphia, and 59 Gold St., New
York.

Transcriber's Notes:

Table of Contents: Article named "Buffalo, the domestication of" page 197
was not included in the original.

Table of Contents: Article named "Steamship, ocean, large" page 196 was
not included in the original.

Table of Contents: Article named "Specimen, a rare geological" page 196
was not included in the Table of Contents.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN, VOLUME 40, NO. 13, MARCH 29, 1879 ***

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