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Title: The Natural History of Pliny, Volume 1 (of 6)

Author: the Elder Pliny

Translator: John Bostock
Henry T. Riley

Release date: July 12, 2018 [eBook #57493]

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE
NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY, VOLUME 1 (OF 6) ***

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BOHN’S CLASSICAL LIBRARY.

PLINY’S
NATURAL HISTORY.

THE
NATURAL HISTORY
OF

PLINY.
TRANSLATED,

WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

BY THE LATE

JOHN BOSTOCK, M.D., F.R.S.

AND

H. T. RILEY, Esq., B.A.,
LATE SCHOLAR OF CLARE HALL, CAMBRIDGE.

VOL. I.

LONDON:
HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.
MDCCCLV.

PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

PREFACE

The only translation of Pliny’s Natural History which has
hitherto appeared in the English language is that by Philemon
Holland, published in the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth. It is
no disparagement to Holland’s merits, as a diligent and generally
faithful translator, to say that his work is unsuited to the
requirements of the nineteenth century.
In the present translation, the principal editions of Pliny have
been carefully consulted, and no pains have been spared, as a
reference to the Notes will show, to present to the reader the
labours of recent Commentators, among whom stands pre-eminent
the celebrated Cuvier. It has been a primary object to bring to the
illustration of the work whatever was afforded by the progress of
knowledge and modern discoveries in science and art. Without
ample illustration, Pliny’s valuable work would want much of the
interest which belongs to it, and present difficulties scarcely
surmountable by any one who has not made the Author his especial
study.
In the first two Books, the text of Hardouin, as given in
Lemaire’s edition (Paris, 1827), has been followed; in the
remainder that of Sillig (Gotha, 1851-3), excepting in some few
instances, where, for reasons given in the Notes, it has been
deemed advisable to depart from it. The first two Books, and
portions of others, are the performance of the late Dr. Bostock, who
contemplated a translation of the entire work; but, unfortunately for
the interests of science, he was not permitted to carry his design
into execution.

Upwards of a hundred pages had been printed off before the
present Translator entered on his duties; and as they had not the
advantage of Dr. Bostock’s superintendence through the press,
some trifling oversights have occurred. These are, for the most part,
corrected in a short Appendix.

THE

LIFE AND WRITINGS OF PLINY.

Caius Plinius Secundus was born either at Verona or Novum
Comum1, now Como, in Cisalpine Gaul, in the year a.u.c. 776, and
a.d. 23. It is supposed that his earlier years were spent in his native
province; and that he was still a youth when he removed to Rome,
and attended the lectures of the grammarian Apion. It was in about
his sixteenth year that he there saw Lollia Paulina2, as in the
following she was divorced by Caligula, and it was probably in his
twentieth that he witnessed the capture of a large fish at Ostia, by
Claudius and his attendants3, and in his twenty-second that he
visited Africa4, Egypt, and Greece.
In his twenty-third year Pliny served in Germany under the
legatus Pomponius Secundus, whose friendship he soon acquired,
and was in consequence promoted to the command of an ala, or
troop of cavalry. During his military career he wrote a treatise (now
lost) “On the Use of the Javelin by Cavalry,” and travelled over that
country5 as far as the shores of the German Ocean, besides visiting
Belgic Gaul. In his twenty-ninth year he returned to Rome, and
applied himself for a time to forensic pursuits, which however he
appears soon to have abandoned. About this time he wrote the life
of his friend Pomponius, and an account of the “Wars in Germany,”
in twenty books, neither of which are extant. Though employed in
writing a continuation of the “Roman History” of Aufidius Bassus,
from the time of Tiberius, he judiciously suspended its publication
during the reign of Nero, who appointed him his procurator in
Nearer Spain, and not improbably honoured him with equestrian
rank. It was during his sojourn in Spain that the death of his

brother-in-law, C. Cæcilius, left his nephew C. Plinius Cæcilius
Secundus (the author of the Letters) an orphan; whom immediately
upon his return to Rome, a.d. 70, he adopted, receiving him and his
widowed mother under his roof.
Having been previously known to Vespasian in the German
wars, he was admitted into the number of his most intimate friends,
and obtained an appointment at court, the nature of which is not
known, but Rezzonico conjectures that it was in connexion with the
imperial treasury. Though Pliny was on intimate terms also with
Titus, to whom he dedicated his Natural History, there is little
ground for the assertion, sometimes made, that he served under him
in the Jewish wars. His account of Palestine clearly shows that he
had never visited that country. It was at this period that he
published his Continuation of the History of Aufidius Bassus.
From the titles which he gives to Titus in the dedicatory preface,
it is pretty clear that his Natural History was published a.d. 77, two
years before his death.
In a.d. 73 or 74, he had been appointed by Vespasian præfect of
the Roman fleet at Misenum, on the western coast of Italy. It was to
this elevation that he owed his romantic death, somewhat similar, it
has been remarked, to that of Empedocles, who perished in the
crater of Mount Ætna. The closing scene of his active life,
simultaneously with the destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii,
cannot be better described than in the language employed by his
nephew in an Epistle to his friend Tacitus the historian6:—“My
uncle was at Misenum, where he was in personal command of the
fleet. On the ninth7 day before the calends of September, at about
the seventh hour, 1 p.m., my mother, observing the appearance of a
cloud of unusual size and shape, mentioned it to him. After
reclining in the sun he had taken his cold bath; he had then again

lain down and, after a slight repast, applied himself to his studies.
Immediately upon hearing this, he called for his shoes, and
ascended a spot from which he could more easily observe this
remarkable phænomenon. The cloud was to be seen gradually
rising upwards; though, from the great distance, it was uncertain
from which of the mountains it arose; it was afterwards, however,
ascertained to be Vesuvius. In appearance and shape it strongly
resembled a tree; perhaps it was more like a pine than anything
else, with a stem of enormous length reaching upwards to the
heavens, and then spreading out in a number of branches in every
direction. I have little doubt that either it had been carried upwards
by a violent gust of wind, and that the wind dying away, it had lost
its compactness, or else, that being overcome by its own weight, it
had decreased in density and become extended over a large surface:
at one moment it was white, at another dingy and spotted, just as it
was more or less charged with earth or with ashes.
“To a man so eager as he was in the pursuit of knowledge, this
appeared to be a most singular phænomenon, and one that deserved
to be viewed more closely; accordingly he gave orders for a light
Liburnian vessel to be got ready, and left it at my option to
accompany him. To this however I made answer, that I should
prefer continuing my studies; and as it so happened, he himself had
just given me something to write. Taking his tablets with him, he
left the house. The sailors stationed at Retina, alarmed at the
imminence of the danger—for the village lay at the foot of the
mountain, and the sole escape was by sea—sent to entreat his
assistance in rescuing them from this frightful peril. Upon this he
instantly changed his plans, and what he had already begun from a
desire for knowledge, he determined to carry out as a matter of
duty. He had the gallies put to sea at once, and went on board
himself, with the intention of rendering assistance, not only to

Retina, but to many other places as well; for the whole of this
charming coast was thickly populated. Accordingly he made all
possible haste towards the spot, from which others were flying, and
steered straight onwards into the very midst of the danger: so far
indeed was he from every sensation of fear, that he remarked and
had noted down every movement and every change that was to be
observed in the appearance of this ominous eruption. The ashes
were now falling fast upon the vessels, hotter and more and more
thickly the nearer they approached the shore; showers of pumice
too, intermingled with black stones, calcined and broken by the
action of the flames: the sea suddenly retreated from the shore,
where the debris of the mountain rendered landing quite
impossible. After hesitating for a moment whether or not to turn
back, upon the pilot strongly advising him to do so:—“Fortune
favours the bold8,” said he, “conduct me to Pomponianus.”
Pomponianus was then at Stabiæ, a place that lay on the other side
of the bay, for in those parts the shores are winding, and as they
gradually trend away, the sea forms a number of little creeks. At
this spot the danger at present was not imminent, but still it could
be seen, and as it appeared to be approaching nearer and nearer,
Pomponianus had ordered his baggage on board the ships,
determined to take to flight, if the wind, which happened to be
blowing the other way, should chance to lull. The wind, being in
this quarter, was extremely favourable to his passage, and my uncle
soon arriving at Stabiæ, embraced his anxious friend, and did his
best to restore his courage; and the better to re-assure him by
evidence of his own sense of their safety, he requested the servants
to conduct him to the bath. After bathing he took his place at table,
and dined, and that too in high spirits, or at all events, what equally
shows his strength of mind, with every outward appearance of
being so. In the mean time vast sheets of flame and large bodies of

fire were to be seen arising from Mount Vesuvius; the glare and
brilliancy of which were beheld in bolder relief as the shades of
night came on apace. My uncle however, in order to calm their
fears, persisted in saying that this was only the light given by some
villages which had been abandoned by the rustics in their alarm to
the flames: after which he retired to rest, and soon fell fast asleep:
for his respiration, which with him was heavy and loud, in
consequence of his corpulence, was distinctly heard by the servants
who were keeping watch at the door of the apartment. The
courtyard which led to his apartment had now become filled with
cinders and pumice-stones, to such a degree, that if he had
remained any longer in the room, it would have been quite
impossible for him to leave it. On being awoke he immediately
arose, and rejoined Pomponianus and the others who had in the
meanwhile been sitting up. They then consulted together whether it
would be better to remain in the house or take their chance in the
open air; as the building was now rocking to and fro from the
violent and repeated shocks, while the walls, as though rooted up
from their very foundations, seemed to be at one moment carried in
this direction, at another in that. Having adopted the latter
alternative, they were now alarmed at the showers of light calcined
pumice-stones that were falling thick about them, a risk however to
which as a choice of evils they had to submit. In taking this step I
must remark that, while with my uncle it was reason triumphing
over reason, with the rest it was only one fear getting the better of
the other. Taking the precaution of placing pillows on their heads,
they tied them on with towels, by way of protection against the
falling stones and ashes. It was now day in other places, though
there it was still night, more dark and more profound than any
ordinary night; torches however and various lights in some measure
served to dispel the gloom. It was then determined to make for the
shore, and to ascertain whether the sea would now admit of their

embarking; it was found however to be still too stormy and too
boisterous to allow of their making the attempt. Upon this my uncle
lay down on a sail which had been spread for him, and more than
once asked for some cold water, which he drank; very soon
however, they were alarmed by the flames and the sulphurous
smell which announced their approach, upon which the others at
once took to flight, while my uncle arose leaning upon two of the
servants for support. Upon making this effort, he instantly fell to
the ground; the dense vapour having, I imagine, stopped the
respiration and suffocated him; for his chest was naturally weak
and contracted, and often troubled with violent palpitations. When
day was at last restored, the third after the closing one of his
existence, his body was found untouched and without a wound;
there was no change to be perceived in the clothes, and its
appearance was rather that of a person asleep than of a corpse. In
the meantime my mother and myself were at Misenum—that
however has nothing to do with the story, as it was only your wish
to know the details connected with his death. I shall therefore draw
to a conclusion. The only thing that I shall add is the assurance that
I have truthfully related all these facts, of which I was either an
eye-witness myself, or heard them at the time of their occurrence, a
period when they were most likely to be correctly related. You of
course will select such points as you may think the most important.
For it is one thing to write a letter, another to write history;—one
thing to write for a friend, another to write for the public.
Farewell.”
Of the mode of life pursued by Pliny, and of the rest of his
works, an equally interesting account has been preserved by his
nephew, in an Epistle addressed to Macer9. We cannot more
appropriately conclude than by presenting this Epistle to the reader:
—“I am highly gratified to find that you read the works of my

uncle with such a degree of attention as to feel a desire to possess
them all, and that with this view you inquire, What are their names?
I will perform the duties of an index then: and not content with
that, will state in what order they were written: for even that is a
kind of information which is by no means undesirable to those who
are devoted to literary pursuits. His first composition was a treatise
‘on the use of the Javelin by Cavalry,’ in one Book. This he
composed, with equal diligence and ingenuity, while he was in
command of a troop of horse. His second work was the ‘Life of Q.
Pomponius Secundus,’ in two Books, a person by whom he had
been particularly beloved.—These books he composed as a tribute
which was justly due to the memory of his deceased friend. His
next work was twenty Books on ‘the Wars in Germany,’ in which
he has compiled an account of all the wars in which we have been
engaged with the people of that country. This he had begun while
serving in Germany, having been recommended to do so in a
dream. For in his sleep he thought that the figure of Drusus Nero10
stood by him—the same Drusus, who after the most extensive
conquests in that country, there met his death. Commending his
memory to Pliny’s attentive care, Drusus conjured him to rescue it
from the decaying effect of oblivion. Next to these came his three
books entitled ‘The Student’11, divided, on account of their great
size, into six volumes. In these he has given instructions for the
training of the orator, from the cradle to his entrance on public life.
In the latter years of Nero’s reign, he wrote eight books, ‘On
Difficulties in the Latin Language12;’ that being a period at which
every kind of study, in any way free-spoken or even of elevated
style, would have been rendered dangerous by the tyranny that was
exercised. His next work was his ‘Continuation of the History of
Aufidius Bassus,’ in thirty-one books; after which came his
‘Natural History,’ in thirty-seven books, a work remarkable for its

comprehensiveness and erudition, and not less varied than Nature
herself. You will wonder how a man so occupied with business
could possibly find time to write such a number of volumes, many
of them on subjects of a nature so difficult to be treated of. You will
be even more astonished when you learn, that for some time he
pleaded at the bar as an advocate, that he was only in his fifty-sixth
year at the time of his death, and that the time that intervened was
equally trenched upon and frittered away by the most weighty
duties of business, and the marks of favour shewn him by princes.
His genius, however, was truly quite incredible, his zeal
indefatigable, and his power of application wonderful in the
extreme. At the festival of the Vulcanalia13, he began to sit up to a
late hour by candle-light, not for the purpose of consulting14 the
stars, but with the object of pursuing his studies; while, in the
winter, he would set to work at the seventh hour of the night, or the
eighth at the very latest, often indeed at the sixth15. By nature he
had the faculty of being able to fall asleep in a moment; indeed,
slumber would sometimes overtake him in his studies, and then
leave him just as suddenly. Before daybreak, he was in the habit of
attending the Emperor Vespasian,—for he, too, was one who made
an excellent use of his nights,—and then betook himself to the
duties with which he was charged. On his return home, he devoted
all the time which was still remaining to study. Taking an early
repast, after the old fashion, light, and easy of digestion, in the
summer time, if he had any leisure to spare, he would lie down in
the sun-shine, while some book was read to him, he himself
making notes and extracts in the meanwhile; for it was his habit
never to read anything without making extracts, it being a maxim
of his, that there is no book so bad but that some good may be got
out of it. After thus enjoying the sunshine, he generally took a cold
bath; after which he would sit down to a slight repast, and then take

a short nap. On awaking, as though another day had now
commenced, he would study till the hour for the evening meal,
during which some book was generally read to him, he making
comments on it in a cursory manner. I remember, on one occasion,
a friend of his interrupting the reader, who had given the wrong
pronunciation to some words, and making him go over them again.
“You understood him, didn’t you?” said my uncle. “Yes,” said the
other. “Why, then, did you make him go over it again? Through this
interruption of yours, we have lost more than ten lines.” So thrifty a
manager was he of time! In summer he rose from the evening meal
by daylight; and, in winter, during the first hour of the night16, just
as though there had been some law which made it compulsory on
him to do so. This is how he lived in the midst of his employments,
and the bustle of the city. When in retirement in the country, the
time spent in the bath was the only portion that was not allotted by
him to study. When I say in the bath, I mean while he was in the
water; for while his body was being scraped with the strigil and
rubbed, he either had some book read to him, or else would dictate
himself. While upon a journey, as though relieved from every other
care, he devoted himself to study, and nothing else. By his side was
his secretary, with a book and tablets; and, in the winter time, the
secretary’s hands were protected by gloves, that the severity of the
weather might not deprive his master for a single moment of his
services. It was for this reason also that, when at Rome, he would
never move about except in a litter. I remember that on one
occasion he found fault with me for walking—“You might have
avoided losing all those hours,” said he; for he looked upon every
moment as lost which was not devoted to study. It was by means of
such unremitting industry as this that he completed so many works,
and left me 160 volumes of notes17, written extremely small on
both sides, which in fact renders the collection doubly voluminous.

He himself used to relate, that when he was procurator in Spain, he
might have parted with his common-place book to Largius Licinius
for 400,000 sesterces; and at that time the collection was not so
extensive as afterwards. When you come to think of how much he
must have read, of how much he has written, would you not really
suppose that he had never been engaged in business, and had never
enjoyed the favour of princes? And yet, on the other hand, when
you hear what labour he expended upon his studies, does it not
almost seem that he has neither written nor read enough? For, in
fact, what pursuits are those that would not have been interrupted
by occupations such as his? While, again, what is there that such
unremitting perseverance as his could not have effected? I am in
the habit, therefore, of laughing at it when people call me a
studious man,—me who, in comparison with him, am a downright
idler; and yet I devote to study as much time as my public
engagements on the one hand, and my duties to my friends on the
other, will admit of. Who is there, then, out of all those who have
devoted their whole life to literature, that ought not, when put in
comparison with him, to quite blush at a life that would almost
appear to have been devoted to slothfulness and inactivity? But my
letter has already exceeded its proper limits, for I had originally
intended to write only upon the subject as to which you made
inquiry, the books of his composition that he left. I trust, however,
that these particulars will prove no less pleasing to you than the
writings themselves; and that they will not only induce you to
peruse them, but excite you, by a feeling of generous emulation, to
produce some work of a similar nature.—Farewell.”
Of all the works written by Pliny, one only, the ‘Historia
Naturalis’ has survived to our times. This work, however, is not a
‘Natural History’ in the modern acceptation of the term, but rather a
vast Encyclopædia of ancient knowledge and belief upon almost

every known subject—“not less varied than Nature herself,” as his
nephew says. It comprises, within the compass of thirty-seven
books, 20,000 matters of importance, collected from about 2000
volumes (nearly all of which have now perished), the works, as
Pliny himself states, of 100 writers of authority; together with a
vast number of additional matters unknown to those authorities,
and many of them the results of his own experience and
observation. Hardouin has drawn up a catalogue of the authors
quoted by Pliny; they amount in number to between 400 and 500.
The following is a brief sketch of the plan of this wonderful
monument of human industry. After a dedicatory Epistle to Titus,
followed by a table of contents of the other Books, which together
form the First Book, the author proceeds to give an account of the
prevailing notions as to the universe, the earth, the sun, the moon,
the stars, and the more remarkable properties of the elements
(partes naturæ). He then passes on to a geographical description of
the face of the earth as known to the ancients. After the Geography
comes what may in strict propriety be termed “Natural History,”
including a history of man, replete indeed with marvels, but
interesting in the highest degree. Having mentioned at considerable
length the land, animals, fishes, birds, and insects, he passes on to
Botany, which in its various aspects occupies the larger portion of
the work. At the same time, in accordance with his comprehensive
plan, this part includes a vast amount of information on numerous
subjects, the culture of the cereals and the manufacture of oil, wine,
paper (papyrus), and numerous other articles of daily use. After
treating at considerable length of Medical Botany, he proceeds to
speak of medicaments derived from the human body, from which
he branches off into discussions on the history of medicine, and
magic, which last he looks upon as an offshoot from the medical
art; and he takes this opportunity of touching upon many of the

then current superstitions and notions on astrology. He concludes
this portion of his work with an account of the medicinal properties
of various waters, and of those of fishes and other aquatic animals.
He then presents us with a treatise on Mineralogy, in which he has
accumulated every possible kind of information relative to the use
of gold, silver, bronze, and other metals; a subject which not
unnaturally leads him into repeated digressions relative to money,
jewels, plate, statues, and statuaries. Mineral pigments next occupy
his attention, with many interesting notices of the great painters of
Greece; from which he passes on to the various kinds of stone and
materials employed in building, and the use of marble for the
purposes of sculpture, including a notice of that art and of the most
eminent sculptors. The last Book is devoted to an account of gems
and precious stones, and concludes with an eulogium on his native
country, as alike distinguished for its fertility, its picturesque
beauties, and the natural endowments and high destinies of its
people.
From the writings of Pliny we gather of course a large amount of
information as to his opinions and the constitution of his mind. His
credulity, it must be admitted, is great in the extreme; though,
singularly enough, he severely taxes the Greeks with the same
failing18. Were we not assured from other sources that he was
eminently successful in life, was in the enjoyment of opulence, and
honoured with the favour and confidence of princes19, the remarks
which he frequently makes on human life, in the Seventh Book
more especially, would have led us to the conclusion that he was a
disappointed man, embittered against his fellow-creatures, and
dissatisfied with the terms on which the tenure of life is granted to
us. He opens that Book with a preface replete with querulous
dissatisfaction and repinings at the lot of man—the only ‘tearful’
animal—he says20. He repines at the helpless and wretched

condition of the infant at the moment it is ushered into life, and the
numerous pains and vices to which it is doomed to be subject.—
Man’s liability to disease is with him a blemish in the economy of
nature:—“life,” he says, “this gift of nature, however long it may
be, is but too uncertain and too frail; to those even to whom it is
most largely granted, it is dealt out with a sparing and niggardly
hand, if we only think of eternity21.” As we cannot have life on our
own terms, he does not think it worthy of our acceptance, and more
than once expresses his opinion that the sooner we are rid of it the
better. Sudden death he looks upon as a remarkable phænomenon,
but, at the same time, as the greatest blessing that can be granted to
us22: and when he mentions cases of resuscitation, it is only to
indulge in the querulous complaint, that, “exposed as he is by his
birth to the caprices of fortune, man can be certain of nothing; no,
not even his own death23.” Though anything but24 an Epicurean, in
the modern acceptation of the word, he seems to have held some, at
least, of the tenets of Epicurus, in reference to the immortality of
the soul. Whether he supposed that the soul, at the moment of
death, is resolved into its previous atoms or constituent elements,
he does not inform us; but he states it as his belief, that after death
the soul has no more existence than it had before birth; that all
notions of immortality are a mere delusion25; and that the very idea
of a future existence is ridiculous, and spoils that greatest26 blessing
of nature—death. He certainly speaks of ghosts or apparitions, seen
after death; but these he probably looked upon as exceptional cases,
if indeed he believed27 in the stories which he quotes, of which we
have no proofs, or rather, indeed, presumptive proofs to the
contrary; for some of them he calls “magna28 fabulosetas,” “most
fabulous tales.”
In relation to human inventions, it is worthy of remark, that he
states that the first29 thing in which mankind agreed, was the use of

the Ionian alphabet; the second, the practice of shaving30 the beard,
and the employment of barbers; and the third, the division of time
into hours.
We cannot more appropriately conclude this review of the Life
and Works of Pliny, than by quoting the opinions of two of the
most eminent philosophers of modern times, Buffon and Cuvier;
though the former, it must be admitted, has spoken of him in
somewhat too high terms of commendation, and in instituting a
comparison between Pliny’s work and those of Aristotle, has placed
in juxtaposition the names of two men who, beyond an ardent thirst
for knowledge, had no characteristics in common.
“Pliny,” says Buffon31, “has worked upon a plan which is much
more extensive than that of Aristotle, and not improbably too
extensive. He has made it his object to embrace every subject;
indeed he would appear to have taken the measure of Nature, and
to have found her too contracted for his expansive genius. His
‘Natural History,’ independently of that of animals, plants, and
minerals, includes an account of the heavens and the earth, of
medicine, commerce, navigation, the liberal and mechanical arts,
the origin of usages and customs, in a word, the history of all the
natural sciences and all the arts of human invention. What, too, is
still more astonishing, in each of these departments Pliny shows
himself equally great. The grandeur of his ideas and the dignity of
his style confer an additional lustre on the profoundness of his
erudition; not only did he know all that was known in his time, but
he was also gifted with that comprehensiveness of view which in
some measure multiplies knowledge. He had all that delicacy of
perception upon which depend so materially both elegance and
taste, and he communicates to his readers that freedom of thought
and that boldness of sentiment, which constitute the true germ of
philosophy. His work, as varied as Nature herself, always paints her

in her most attractive colours. It is, so to say, a compilation from all
that had been written before his time: a record of all that was
excellent or useful; but this record has in it features so grand, this
compilation contains matter grouped in a manner so novel, that it is
preferable to most of the original works that treat upon similar
subjects.”
The judgment pronounced by Cuvier on Pliny’s work, though
somewhat less highly coloured, awards to it a high rank among the
most valuable productions of antiquity. “The work of Pliny32,” says
he, “is one of the most precious monuments that have come down
to us from ancient times, and affords proof of an astonishing
amount of erudition in one who was a warrior and a statesman. To
appreciate with justice this vast and celebrated composition, it is
necessary to regard it in several points of view—with reference to
the plan proposed, the facts stated, and the style employed. The
plan proposed by the writer is of immense extent—it is his object
to write not merely a Natural History in our restricted sense of the
term, not an account merely, more or less detailed, of animals,
plants, and minerals, but a work which embraces astronomy,
physics, geography, agriculture, commerce, medicine, and the fine
arts—and all these in addition to natural history properly so called;
while at the same time he continually interweaves with his
narrative information upon the arts which bear relation to man
considered metaphysically, and the history of nations,—so much so
indeed, that in many respects this work was the Encyclopædia of its
age. It was impossible in running over, however cursorily, such a
prodigious number of subjects, that the writer should not have
made us acquainted with a multitude of facts, which, while
remarkable in themselves, are the more precious from the
circumstance that at the present day he is the only author extant
who relates them. It is to be regretted however that the manner in

which he has collected and grouped this mass of matter, has caused
it to lose some portion of its value, from his mixture of fable with
truth, and more especially from the difficulty, and in some cases,
the impossibility, of discovering exactly of what object33 he is
speaking. But if Pliny possesses little merit as a critic, it is far
otherwise with his talent as a writer, and the immense treasury
which he opens to us of Latin terms and forms of expression: these,
from the very abundance of the subjects upon which he treats,
render his work one of the richest repositories of the Roman
language. Wherever he finds it possible to give expression to
general ideas or to philosophical views, his language assumes
considerable energy and vivacity, and his thoughts present to us a
certain novelty and boldness which tend in a very great degree to
relieve the dryness of his enumerations, and, with the majority of
his readers, excuse the insufficiency of his scientific indications.
He is always noble and serious, full of the love of justice and
virtue, detestation of cruelty and baseness, of which he had such
frightful instances before his eyes, and contempt for that unbridled
luxury which in his time had so deeply corrupted the Roman
people. For these great merits Pliny cannot be too highly praised,
and despite the faults which we are obliged to admit in him when
viewed as a naturalist, we are bound to regard him as one of the
most meritorious of the Roman writers, and among those most
worthy to be reckoned in the number of the classics who wrote
after the reign of Augustus.”

CONTENTS.

OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

BOOK I.

DEDICATION.
Page
C. Plinius Secundus to his friend Titus Vespasian 1

BOOK II.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD AND THE ELEMENTS.
Chap.
1. Whether the world be finite, and whether there be
more than one world 13
2. Of the form of the world 16
3. Of its nature; whence the name is derived ib.
4. Of the elements and the planets 18
5. Of God 20
6. Of the nature of the stars; of the motion of the
planets 25
7. Of the eclipses of the moon and the sun 34
8. Of the magnitude of the stars 35
9. An account of the observations that have been
made on the heavens by different individuals 36

10. On the recurrence of the eclipses of the sun and the
moon 38
11. Of the motion of the moon 40
12. Of the motions of the planets and the general laws
of their aspects ib.
13. Why the same stars appear at some times more
lofty and at other times more near 42
14. Why the same stars have different motions 47
15. General laws of the planets 48
16. The reason why the stars are of different colours 49
17. Of the motion of the sun and the cause of the
irregularity of the days 50
18. Why thunder is ascribed to Jupiter 51
19. Of the distances of the stars 52
20. Of the harmony of the stars ib.
21. Of the dimensions of the world 53
22. Of the stars which appear suddenly, or of comets 55
23. Their nature, situation, and species 56
24. The doctrine of Hipparchus about the stars 59
25. Examples from history of celestial prodigies;
Faces, Lampades, and Bolides ib.
26. Trabes Cælestes; Chasma Cæli 60
27. Of the colours of the sky and of celestial flame ib.
28. Of celestial coronæ 61
29. Of sudden circles 62
30. Of unusually long eclipses of the sun ib.
31. Many suns ib.
32. Many moons 63
33. Daylight in the night ib.
34. Burning shields ib.

35. An ominous appearance in the heavens, that was
seen once only ib.
36. Of stars which move about in various directions 64
37. Of the stars which are named Castor and Pollux ib.
38. Of the air, and on the cause of the showers of
stones 65
39. Of the stated seasons 66
40. Of the rising of the dog-star 67
41. Of the regular influence of the different seasons ib.
42. Of uncertain states of the weather 69
43. Of thunder and lightning ib.
44. The origin of winds 70
45. Various observations respecting winds 71
46. The different kinds of winds 73
47. The periods of the winds 75
48. Nature of the winds 77
49. Ecnephias and Typhon 79
50. Tornadoes; blasting winds; whirlwinds, and other
wonderful kinds of tempests 80
51. Of thunder; in what countries it does not fall, and
for what reason ib.
52. Of the different kinds of lightning and their
wonderful effects 81
53. The Etrurian and the Roman observations on these
points 82
54. Of conjuring up thunder 83
55. General laws of lightning 84
56. Objects which are never struck 86
57. Showers of milk, blood, flesh, iron, wool, and
baked tiles 87

58. Rattling of arms and the sound of trumpets heard in
the sky 88
59. Of stones that have fallen from the clouds. The
opinion of Anaxagoras respecting them ib.
60. The rainbow 89
61. The nature of hail, snow, hoar, mist, dew; the forms
of clouds 90
62. The peculiarities of the weather in different places 91
63. Nature of the earth ib.
64. Of the form of the earth 94
65. Whether there be antipodes? ib.
66. How the water is connected with the earth. Of the
navigation of the sea and the rivers 97
67. Whether the ocean surrounds the earth 98
68. What part of the earth is inhabited 100
69. That the earth is in the middle of the world 102
70. Of the obliquity of the zones ib.
71. Of the inequality of climates ib.
72. In what places eclipses are invisible, and why this
is the case 104
73. What regulates the daylight on the earth 105
74. Remarks on dials, as connected with this subject 106
75. When and where there are no shadows 107
76. Where this takes place twice in the year and where
the shadows fall in opposite directions 108
77. Where the days are the longest and where the
shortest ib.
78. Of the first dial 109
79. Of the mode in which the days are computed 110

80. Of the difference of nations as depending on the
nature of the world ib.
81. Of earthquakes 111
82. Of clefts of the earth 112
83. Signs of an approaching earthquake 114
84. Preservatives against future earthquakes ib.
85. Prodigies of the earth which have occurred once
only 115
86. Wonderful circumstances attending earthquakes 116
87. In what places the sea has receded ib.
88. The mode in which islands rise up 117
89. What islands have been formed, and at what
periods 118
90. Lands which have been separated by the sea 119
91. Islands which have been united to the main land ib.
92. Lands which have been totally changed into seas ib.
93. Lands which have been swallowed up 120
94. Cities which have been absorbed by the sea ib.
95. Of vents in the earth 121
96. Of certain lands which are always shaking, and of
floating islands 122
97. Places in which it never rains 123
98. The wonders of various countries collected
together ib.
99. Concerning the cause of the flowing and ebbing of
the sea 124
100. Where the tides rise and fall in an unusual manner 127
101. Wonders of the sea 128
102. The power of the moon over the land and the sea ib.
103. The power of the sun 129

104. Why the sea is salt ib.
105. Where the sea is the deepest 130
106. The wonders of fountains and rivers 131
107. The wonders of fire and water united 138
108. Of Maltha 138
109. Of naphtha 139
110. Places which are always burning ib.
111. Wonders of fire alone 141
112. The dimensions of the earth 143
113. The harmonical proportion of the universe 147

BOOK III.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS,
HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND
PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.
Introduction 151
1. The boundaries and gulfs of Europe first set forth
in a general way 153
2. Of Spain generally ib.
3. Of Bætica 154
4. Of Nearer Spain 164
5. Of the province of Gallia Narbonensis 174
6. Of Italy 180
7. Of the ninth region of Italy 184
8. The seventh region of Italy 186
9. The first region of Italy; the Tiber; Rome 191
10. The third region of Italy 207
11. Sixty-four islands, among which are the Baleares 210

12. Corsica 213
13. Sardinia 215
14. Sicily 216
15. Magna Græcia, beginning at Locri 222
16. The second region of Italy 225
17. The fourth region of Italy 231
18. The fifth region of Italy 235
19. The sixth region of Italy 237
20. The eighth region of Italy; the Padus 241
21. The eleventh region of Italy; Italia Transpadana 246
22. The tenth region of Italy 248
23. Istria, its people and locality 251
24. The Alps, and the Alpine nations 254
25. Liburnia and Illyricum 257
26. Dalmatia 259
27. The Norici 262
28. Pannonia 263
29. Mœsia 264
30. Islands of the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic 265

BOOK IV.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS,
HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND
PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.
1. Epirus 271
2. Acarnania 273
3. Ætolia 275
4. Locris and Phocis 276

5. The Peloponnesus 278
6. Achaia 280
7. Messenia 282
8. Laconia 283
9. Argolis 284
10. Arcadia 285
11. Attica 288
12. Bœotia 290
13. Doris 293
14. Phthiotis 293
15. Thessaly Proper 294
16. Magnesia 296
17. Macedonia 297
18. Thrace; the Ægean Sea 302
19. The islands which lie before the lands already
mentioned 310
20. Crete 313
21. Eubœa 316
22. The Cyclades 317
23. The Sporades 320
24. The Hellespont.—The lake Mæotis 326
25. Dacia, Sarmatia 329
26. Scythia 330
27. The islands of the Euxine. The islands of the
northern ocean 338
28. Germany 345
29. Ninety-six islands of the Gallic ocean 349
30. Britannia 350
31. Gallia Belgica 353

32. Gallia Lugdunensis 355
33. Gallia Aquitanica 357
34. Nearer Spain, its coast along the Gallic ocean 360
35. Lusitania 363
36. The islands in the Atlantic ocean 367
37. The general measurement of Europe 369

BOOK V.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS,
HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND
PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.
1. The two Mauritanias 374
2. Numidia 387
3. Africa 388
4. The Syrtes 391
5. Cyrenaica 395
6. Libya Mareotis 401
7. The islands in the vicinity of Africa 402
8. Countries on the other side of Africa 403
9. Egypt and Thebais 406
10. The River Nile 410
11. The cities of Egypt 416
12. The coasts of Arabia, situate on the Egyptian Sea 422
13. Syria 423
14. Idumæa, Palæstina, and Samaria 424
15. Judæa 427
16. Decapolis 431
17. Phœnice 433

18. Syria Antiochia 436
19. The remaining parts of Syria 438
20. The Euphrates 441
21. Syria upon the Euphrates 443
22. Cilicia and the adjoining nations 446
23. Isauria and the Homonades 450
24. Pisidia 451
25. Lycaonia ib.
26. Pamphylia 452
27. Mount Taurus 453
28. Lycia 455
29. Caria 458
30. Lydia 465
31. Ionia 466
32. Æolis 472
33. Troas and the adjoining nations 476
34. The islands which lie in front of Asia 479
35. Cyprus 480
36. Rhodes 483
37. Samos 485
38. Chios 486
39. Lesbos 487
40. The Hellespont and Mysia 488
41. Phrygia 490
42. Galatia and the adjoining nations 491
43. Bithynia 493
44. The islands of the Propontis 496

NATURAL HISTORY OF PLINY

BOOK I.34

DEDICATION.

C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS TO HIS FRIEND TITUS VESPASIAN.

This treatise on Natural History, a novel work in Roman literature,
which I have just completed, I have taken the liberty to dedicate to
you, most gracious35 Emperor, an appellation peculiarly suitable to
you, while, on account of his age, that of great is more appropriate
to your Father;—

“For still thou ne’er wouldst quite despise
The trifles that I write36;”

if I may be allowed to shelter myself under the example of
Catullus, my fellow-countryman37, a military term, which you well
understand. For he, as you know, when his napkins had been
changed38, expressed himself a little harshly, from his anxiety to
show his friendship for his dear little Veranius and Fabius39. At the
same time this my importunity may effect, what you complained of
my not having done in another too forward epistle of mine; it will
put upon record, and let all the world know, with what kindness
you exercise the imperial dignity. You, who have had the honour of
a triumph, and of the censorship, have been six times consul, and
have shared in the tribunate; and, what is still more honourable,
whilst you held them in conjunction with your Father, you have
presided over the Equestrian order, and been the Prefect of the
Prætorians40: all this you have done for the service of the Republic,
and, at the same time, have regarded me as a fellow-soldier and a

messmate. Nor has the extent of your prosperity produced any
change in you, except that it has given you the power of doing
good to the utmost of your wishes. And whilst all these
circumstances increase the veneration which other persons feel for
you, with respect to myself, they have made me so bold, as to wish
to become more familiar. You must, therefore, place this to your
own account, and blame yourself for any fault of this kind that I
may commit.
But, although I have laid aside my blushes41, I have not gained
my object; for you still awe me, and keep me at a distance, by the
majesty of your understanding. In no one does the force of
eloquence and of tribunitian oratory blaze out more powerfully!
With what glowing language do you thunder forth the praises of
your Father! How dearly do you love your Brother! How admirable
is your talent for poetry! What a fertility of genius do you possess,
so as to enable you to imitate your Brother42! But who is there that
is bold enough to form an estimate on these points, if he is to be
judged by you, and, more especially, if you are challenged to do
so? For the case of those who merely publish their works is very
different from that of those who expressly dedicate them to you. In
the former case I might say, Emperor! why do you read these
things? They are written only for the common people, for farmers
or mechanics, or for those who have nothing else to do; why do
you trouble yourself with them? Indeed, when I undertook this
work, I did not expect that you would sit in judgement upon me43; I
considered your situation much too elevated for you to descend to
such an office. Besides, we possess the right of openly rejecting the
opinion of men of learning. M. Tullius himself, whose genius is
beyond all competition, uses this privilege; and, remarkable as it
may appear, employs an advocate in his own defence:—“I do not
write for very learned people; I do not wish my works to be read by

Manius Persius, but by Junius Congus44.” And if Lucilius, who first
introduced the satirical style45, applied such a remark to himself,
and if Cicero thought proper to borrow it, and that more especially
in his treatise “De Republica,” how much reason have I to do so,
who have such a judge to defend myself against! And by this
dedication I have deprived myself of the benefit of challenge46; for
it is a very different thing whether a person has a judge given him
by lot, or whether he voluntarily selects one; and we always make
more preparation for an invited guest, than for one that comes in
unexpectedly.
When the candidates for office, during the heat of the canvass,
deposited the fine47 in the hands of Cato, that determined opposer
of bribery, rejoicing as he did in his being rejected from what he
considered to be foolish honours, they professed to do this out of
respect to his integrity; the greatest glory which a man could attain.
It was on this occasion that Cicero uttered the noble ejaculation,
“How happy are you, Marcus Porcius, of whom no one dares to ask
what is dishonourable48!” When L. Scipio Asiaticus appealed to the
tribunes, among whom was Gracchus, he expressed full confidence
that he should obtain an acquittal, even from a judge who was his
enemy. Hence it follows, that he who appoints his own judge must
absolutely submit to the decision; this choice is therefore termed an
appeal49.
I am well aware, that, placed as you are in the highest station,
and gifted with the most splendid eloquence and the most
accomplished mind, even those who come to pay their respects to
you, do it with a kind of veneration: on this account I ought to be
careful that what is dedicated to you should be worthy of you. But
the country people, and, indeed, some whole nations offer milk to
the Gods50, and those who cannot procure frankincense substitute

in its place salted cakes; for the Gods are not dissatisfied when they
are worshiped by every one to the best of his ability. But my
temerity will appear the greater by the consideration, that these
volumes, which I dedicate to you, are of such inferior importance.
For they do not admit of the display of genius, nor, indeed, is mine
one of the highest order; they admit of no excursions, nor orations,
nor discussions, nor of any wonderful adventures, nor any variety
of transactions, nor, from the barrenness of the matter, of anything
particularly pleasant in the narration, or agreeable to the reader. The
nature of things, and life as it actually exists, are described in them;
and often the lowest department of it; so that, in very many cases, I
am obliged to use rude and foreign, or even barbarous terms, and
these often require to be introduced by a kind of preface. And,
besides this, my road is not a beaten track, nor one which the mind
is much disposed to travel over. There is no one among us who has
ever attempted it, nor is there any one individual among the Greeks
who has treated of all the topics. Most of us seek for nothing but
amusement in our studies, while others are fond of subjects that are
of excessive subtilty, and completely involved in obscurity. My
object is to treat of all those things which the Greeks include in the
Encyclopædia51, which, however, are either not generally known or
are rendered dubious from our ingenious conceits. And there are
other matters which many writers have given so much in detail that
we quite loathe them. It is, indeed, no easy task to give novelty to
what is old, and authority to what is new; brightness to what is
become tarnished, and light to what is obscure; to render what is
slighted acceptable, and what is doubtful worthy of our confidence;
to give to all a natural manner, and to each its peculiar nature. It is
sufficiently honourable and glorious to have been willing even to
make the attempt, although it should prove unsuccessful. And,
indeed, I am of opinion, that the studies of those are more

especially worthy of our regard, who, after having overcome all
difficulties, prefer the useful office of assisting others to the mere
gratification of giving pleasure; and this is what I have already
done in some of my former works. I confess it surprises me, that T.
Livius, so celebrated an author as he is, in one of the books of his
history of the city from its origin, should begin with this remark, “I
have now obtained a sufficient reputation, so that I might put an
end to my work, did not my restless mind require to be supported
by employment52.” Certainly he ought to have composed this work,
not for his own glory, but for that of the Roman name, and of the
people who were the conquerors of all other nations. It would have
been more meritorious to have persevered in his labours from his
love of the work, than from the gratification which it afforded
himself, and to have accomplished it, not for his own sake, but for
that of the Roman people.
I have included in thirty-six53 books 20,000 topics, all worthy of
attention, (for, as Domitius Piso54 says, we ought to make not
merely books, but valuable collections,) gained by the perusal of
about 2000 volumes, of which a few only are in the hands of the
studious, on account of the obscurity of the subjects, procured by
the careful perusal of 100 select authors55; and to these I have made
considerable additions of things, which were either not known to
my predecessors, or which have been lately discovered. Nor can I
doubt but that there still remain many things which I have omitted;
for I am a mere mortal, and one that has many occupations. I have,
therefore, been obliged to compose this work at interrupted
intervals, indeed during the night, so that you will find that I have
not been idle even during this period. The day I devote to you,
exactly portioning out my sleep to the necessity of my health, and
contenting myself with this reward, that while we are musing56 on

these subjects (according to the remark of Varro), we are adding to
the length of our lives; for life properly consists in being awake.
In consideration of these circumstances and these difficulties, I
dare promise nothing; but you have done me the most essential
service in permitting me to dedicate my work to you. Nor does this
merely give a sanction to it, but it determines its value; for things
are often conceived to be of great value, solely because they are
consecrated in temples.
I have given a full account of all your family—your Father,
yourself, and your Brother, in a history of our own times, beginning
where Aufidius Bassus concludes57. You will ask, Where is it? It
has been long completed and its accuracy confirmed58; but I have
determined to commit the charge of it to my heirs, lest I should
have been suspected, during my lifetime, of having been unduly
influenced by ambition. By this means I confer an obligation on
those who occupy the same ground with myself; and also on
posterity, who, I am aware, will contend with me, as I have done
with my predecessors.
You may judge of my taste from my having inserted, in the
beginning of my book, the names of the authors that I have
consulted. For I consider it to be courteous and to indicate an
ingenuous modesty, to acknowledge the sources whence we have
derived assistance, and not to act as most of those have done whom
I have examined. For I must inform you, that in comparing various
authors with each other, I have discovered, that some of the most
grave and of the latest writers have transcribed, word for word,
from former works, without making any acknowledgement; not
avowedly rivalling them, in the manner of Virgil, or with the
candour of Cicero, who, in his treatise “De Republica59,” professes
to coincide in opinion with Plato, and in his Essay on Consolation

for his Daughter, says that he follows Crantor, and, in his Offices60,
Panæcius; volumes, which, as you well know, ought not merely to
be always in our hands, but to be learned by heart. For it is indeed
the mark of a perverted mind and a bad disposition, to prefer being
caught in a theft to returning what we have borrowed, especially
when we have acquired capital, by usurious interest61.
The Greeks were wonderfully happy in their titles. One work
they called Κηρίον, which means that it was as sweet as a
honeycomb; another Κέρας Ἀμαλθείας, or Cornu copiæ, so that
you might expect to get even a draught of pigeon’s milk from it62.
Then they have their Flowers, their Muses, Magazines, Manuals,
Gardens, Pictures, and Sketches63, all of them titles for which a
man might be tempted even to forfeit his bail. But when you enter
upon the works, O ye Gods and Goddesses! how full of emptiness!
Our duller countrymen have merely their Antiquities, or their
Examples, or their Arts. I think one of the most humorous of them
has his Nocturnal Studies64, a term employed by Bibaculus; a name
which he richly deserved65. Varro, indeed, is not much behind him,
when he calls one of his satires A Trick and a Half, and another
Turning the Tables66. Diodorus was the first among the Greeks who
laid aside this trifling manner and named his history The Library67.
Apion, the grammarian, indeed—he whom Tiberius Cæsar called
the Trumpeter of the World, but would rather seem to be the Bell of
the Town-crier68,—supposed that every one to whom he inscribed
any work would thence acquire immortality. I do not regret not
having given my work a more fanciful title.
That I may not, however, appear to inveigh so completely
against the Greeks, I should wish to be considered under the same
point of view with those inventors of the arts of painting and
sculpture, of whom you will find an account in these volumes,

whose works, although they are so perfect that we are never
satisfied with admiring them, are inscribed with a temporary title69,
such as “Apelles, or Polycletus, was doing this;” implying that the
work was only commenced and still imperfect, and that the artist
might benefit by the criticisms that were made on it and alter any
part that required it, if he had not been prevented by death. It is also
a great mark of their modesty, that they inscribed their works as if
they were the last which they had executed, and as still in hand at
the time of their death. I think there are but three works of art
which are inscribed positively with the words “such a one executed
this;” of these I shall give an account in the proper place. In these
cases it appears, that the artist felt the most perfect satisfaction with
his work, and hence these pieces have excited the envy of every
one.
I, indeed, freely admit, that much may be added to my works;
not only to this, but to all which I have published. By this
admission I hope to escape from the carping critics70, and I have
the more reason to say this, because I hear that there are certain
Stoics and Logicians71, and also Epicureans (from the
Grammarians72 I expected as much), who are big with something
against the little work I published on Grammar73; and that they
have been carrying these abortions for ten years together—a longer
pregnancy this than the elephant’s74. But I well know, that even a
woman once wrote against Theophrastus, a man so eminent for his
eloquence that he obtained his name, which signifies the Divine
speaker75, and that from this circumstance originated the proverb of
choosing a tree to hang oneself76.
I cannot refrain from quoting the words of Cato the censor,
which are so pertinent to this point. It appears from them, that even
Cato, who wrote commentaries on military discipline77, and who

had learned the military art under Africanus, or rather under
Hannibal (for he could not endure Africanus78, who, when he was
his general, had borne away the triumph from him), that Cato, I
say, was open to the attacks of such as caught at reputation for
themselves by detracting from the merits of others. And what does
he say in his book? “I know, that when I shall publish what I have
written, there will be many who will do all they can to depreciate it,
and, especially, such as are themselves void of all merit; but I let
their harangues glide by me.” Nor was the remark of Plancus79 a
bad one, when Asinius Pollio80 was said to be preparing an oration
against him, which was to be published either by himself or his
children, after the death of Plancus, in order that he might not be
able to answer it: “It is only ghosts that fight with the dead.” This
gave such a blow to the oration, that in the opinion of the learned
generally, nothing was ever thought more scandalous. Feeling
myself, therefore, secure against these vile slanderers81, a name
elegantly composed by Cato, to express their slanderous and vile
disposition (for what other object have they, but to wrangle and
breed quarrels?), I will proceed with my projected work.
And because the public good requires that you should be spared
as much as possible from all trouble, I have subjoined to this epistle
the contents of each of the following books82, and have used my
best endeavours to prevent your being obliged to read them all
through. And this, which was done for your benefit, will also serve
the same purpose for others, so that any one may search for what
he wishes, and may know where to find it. This has been already
done among us by Valerius Soranus, in his work which he entitled
“On Mysteries83.”
The 1st book is the Preface of the Work, dedicated to Titus
Vespasian Cæsar.

The 2nd is on the World, the Elements, and the Heavenly
Bodies84.
The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th books are on Geography, in which is
contained an account of the situation of the different countries, the
inhabitants, the seas, towns, harbours, mountains, rivers, and
dimensions, and the various tribes, some of which still exist and
others have disappeared.
The 7th is on Man, and the Inventions of Man.
The 8th on the various kinds of Land Animals.
The 9th on Aquatic Animals.
The 10th on the various kinds of Birds.
The 11th on Insects.
The 12th on Odoriferous Plants.
The 13th on Exotic Trees.
The 14th on Vines.
The 15th on Fruit Trees.
The 16th on Forest Trees.
The 17th on Plants raised in nurseries or gardens.
The 18th on the nature of Fruits and the Cerealia, and the
pursuits of the Husbandman.
The 19th on Flax, Broom85, and Gardening.
The 20th on the Cultivated Plants that are proper for food and for
medicine.
The 21st on Flowers and Plants that are used for making
Garlands.

The 22nd on Garlands, and Medicines made from Plants.
The 23rd on Medicines made from Wine and from cultivated
Trees.
The 24th on Medicines made from Forest Trees.
The 25th on Medicines made from Wild Plants.
The 26th on New Diseases, and Medicines made, for certain
Diseases, from Plants.
The 27th on some other Plants and Medicines.
The 28th on Medicines procured from Man and from large
Animals.
The 29th on Medical Authors, and on Medicines from other
Animals.
The 30th on Magic, and Medicines for certain parts of the Body.
The 31st on Medicines from Aquatic Animals.
The 32nd on the other properties of Aquatic Animals.
The 33rd on Gold and Silver.
The 34th on Copper and Lead, and the workers of Copper.
The 35th on Painting, Colours, and Painters.
The 36th on Marbles and Stones.
The 37th on Gems.

BOOK II.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE WORLD AND THE ELEMENTS.
[I have adopted the division of the chapters from Hardouin, as
given in the editions of Valpy, Lemaire, Ajasson, and Sillig; the
Roman figures, enclosed between brackets, are the numbers of the
chapters in Dalechamps, De Laët, Gronovius, Holland, and
Poinsinet. The titles of the chapters are nearly the same with those
in Valpy, Lemaire, and Ajasson.]

CHAP. 1. (1.)—WHETHER THE WORLD BE FINITE, AND
WHETHER THERE BE MORE THAN ONE WORLD.

The world86, and whatever that be which we otherwise call the
heavens87, by the vault of which all things are enclosed, we must
conceive to be a Deity88, to be eternal, without bounds, neither
created, nor subject, at any time, to destruction89. To inquire what is
beyond it is no concern of man, nor can the human mind form any
conjecture respecting it. It is sacred, eternal, and without bounds,
all in all; indeed including everything in itself; finite, yet like what
is infinite; the most certain of all things, yet like what is uncertain,
externally and internally embracing all things in itself; it is the
work of nature, and itself constitutes nature90.
It is madness to harass the mind, as some have done, with
attempts to measure the world, and to publish these attempts; or,
like others, to argue from what they have made out, that there are
innumerable other worlds, and that we must believe there to be so
many other natures, or that, if only one nature produced the whole,
there will be so many suns and so many moons, and that each of
them will have immense trains of other heavenly bodies. As if the
same question would not recur at every step of our inquiry, anxious
as we must be to arrive at some termination; or, as if this infinity,
which we ascribe to nature, the former of all things, cannot be more
easily comprehended by one single formation, especially when that
is so extensive. It is madness, perfect madness, to go out of this
world and to search for what is beyond it, as if one who is ignorant
of his own dimensions could ascertain the measure of any thing
else, or as if the human mind could see what the world itself cannot
contain.

CHAP. 2. (2.)—OF THE FORM OF THE WORLD91.

That it has the form of a perfect globe we learn from the name
which has been uniformly given to it, as well as from numerous
natural arguments. For not only does a figure of this kind return
everywhere into itself92 and sustain itself, also including itself,
requiring no adjustments, not sensible of either end or beginning in
any of its parts, and is best fitted for that motion, with which, as
will appear hereafter, it is continually turning round; but still more,
because we perceive it, by the evidence of the sight, to be, in every
part, convex and central, which could not be the case were it of any
other figure.

CHAP. 3. (3.)—OF ITS NATURE; WHENCE THE NAME IS
DERIVED.

The rising and the setting of the sun clearly prove, that this globe
is carried round in the space of twenty-four hours, in an eternal and
never-ceasing circuit, and with incredible swiftness93. I am not able
to say, whether the sound caused by the whirling about of so great a
mass be excessive, and, therefore, far beyond what our ears can
perceive, nor, indeed, whether the resounding of so many stars, all
carried along at the same time and revolving in their orbits, may
not produce a kind of delightful harmony of incredible sweetness94.
To us, who are in the interior, the world appears to glide silently
along, both by day and by night.
Various circumstances in nature prove to us, that there are
impressed on the heavens innumerable figures of animals and of all
kinds of objects, and that its surface is not perfectly polished like
the eggs of birds, as some celebrated authors assert95. For we find
that the seeds of all bodies fall down from it, principally into the
ocean, and, being mixed together, that a variety of monstrous forms
are in this way frequently produced. And, indeed, this is evident to
the eye; for, in one part, we have the figure of a wain, in another of
a bear, of a bull, and of a letter96; while, in the middle of them, over
our heads, there is a white circle97.
(4.) With respect to the name, I am influenced by the unanimous
opinions of all nations. For what the Greeks, from its being
ornamented, have termed κόσμος, we, from its perfect and
complete elegance, have termed mundus. The name cœlum, no
doubt, refers to its being engraven, as it were, with the stars, as
Varro suggests98. In confirmation of this idea we may adduce the

Zodiac99, in which are twelve figures of animals; through them it is
that the sun has continued its course for so many ages.

CHAP. 4. (5.)—OF THE ELEMENTS100 AND THE PLANETS101.

I do not find that any one has doubted that there are four
elements. The highest of these is supposed to be fire, and hence
proceed the eyes of so many glittering stars. The next is that spirit,
which both the Greeks and ourselves call by the same name, air102.
It is by the force of this vital principle, pervading all things and
mingling with all, that the earth, together with the fourth element,
water, is balanced in the middle of space. These are mutually bound
together, the lighter being restrained by the heavier, so that they
cannot fly off; while, on the contrary, from the lighter tending
upwards, the heavier are so suspended, that they cannot fall down.
Thus, by an equal tendency in an opposite direction, each of them
remains in its appropriate place, bound together by the never-
ceasing revolution of the world, which always turning on itself, the
earth falls to the lowest part and is in the middle of the whole,
while it remains suspended in the centre103, and, as it were,
balancing this centre, in which it is suspended. So that it alone
remains immoveable, whilst all things revolve round it, being
connected with every other part, whilst they all rest upon it.
(6.) Between this body and the heavens there are suspended, in
this aërial spirit, seven stars104, separated by determinate spaces,
which, on account of their motion, we call wandering, although, in
reality, none are less so105. The sun is carried along in the midst of
these, a body of great size and power, the ruler, not only of the
seasons and of the different climates, but also of the stars
themselves and of the heavens106. When we consider his
operations, we must regard him as the life, or rather the mind of the
universe, the chief regulator and the God of nature; he also lends
his light to the other stars107. He is most illustrious and excellent,

beholding all things and hearing all things, which, I perceive, is
ascribed to him exclusively by the prince of poets, Homer108.

CHAP. 5. (7.)—OF GOD109.

I consider it, therefore, an indication of human weakness to
inquire into the figure and form of God. For whatever God be, if
there be any other God110, and wherever he exists, he is all sense,
all sight, all hearing, all life, all mind111, and all within himself. To
believe that there are a number of Gods, derived from the virtues
and vices of man112, as Chastity, Concord, Understanding, Hope,
Honour, Clemency, and Fidelity; or, according to the opinion of
Democritus, that there are only two, Punishment and Reward113,
indicates still greater folly. Human nature, weak and frail as it is,
mindful of its own infirmity, has made these divisions, so that
every one might have recourse to that which he supposed himself
to stand more particularly in need of114. Hence we find different
names employed by different nations; the inferior deities are
arranged in classes, and diseases and plagues are deified, in
consequence of our anxious wish to propitiate them. It was from
this cause that a temple was dedicated to Fever, at the public
expense, on the Palatine Hill115, and to Orbona116, near the Temple
of the Lares, and that an altar was elected to Good Fortune on the
Esquiline. Hence we may understand how it comes to pass that
there is a greater population of the Celestials than of human beings,
since each individual makes a separate God for himself, adopting
his own Juno and his own Genius117. And there are nations who
make Gods of certain animals, and even certain obscene things118,
which are not to be spoken of, swearing by stinking meats and such
like. To suppose that marriages are contracted between the Gods,
and that, during so long a period, there should have been no issue
from them, that some of them should be old and always grey-
headed and others young and like children, some of a dark,

complexion, winged, lame, produced from eggs, living and dying
on alternate days, is sufficiently puerile and foolish. But it is the
height of impudence to imagine, that adultery takes place between
them, that they have contests and quarrels, and that there are Gods
of theft and of various crimes119. To assist man is to be a God; this
is the path to eternal glory. This is the path which the Roman
nobles formerly pursued, and this is the path which is now pursued
by the greatest ruler of our age, Vespasian Augustus, he who has
come to the relief of an exhausted empire, as well as by his sons.
This was the ancient mode of remunerating those who deserved it,
to regard them as Gods120. For the names of all the Gods, as well as
of the stars that I have mentioned above121, have been derived from
their services to mankind. And with respect to Jupiter and Mercury,
and the rest of the celestial nomenclature, who does not admit that
they have reference to certain natural phenomena122?
But it is ridiculous to suppose, that the great head of all things,
whatever it be, pays any regard to human affairs123. Can we
believe, or rather can there be any doubt, that it is not polluted by
such a disagreeable and complicated office? It is not easy to
determine which opinion would be most for the advantage of
mankind, since we observe some who have no respect for the Gods,
and others who carry it to a scandalous excess. They are slaves to
foreign ceremonies; they carry on their fingers the Gods and the
monsters whom they worship124; they condemn and they lay great
stress on certain kinds of food; they impose on themselves dreadful
ordinances, not even sleeping quietly. They do not marry or adopt
children, or indeed do anything else, without the sanction of their
sacred rites. There are others, on the contrary, who will cheat in the
very Capitol, and will forswear themselves even by Jupiter
Tonans125, and while these thrive in their crimes, the others torment
themselves with their superstitions to no purpose.

Among these discordant opinions mankind have discovered for
themselves a kind of intermediate deity, by which our scepticism
concerning God is still increased. For all over the world, in all
places, and at all times, Fortune is the only god whom every one
invokes; she alone is spoken of, she alone is accused and is
supposed to be guilty; she alone is in our thoughts, is praised and
blamed, and is loaded with reproaches; wavering as she is,
conceived by the generality of mankind to be blind, wandering,
inconstant, uncertain, variable, and often favouring the unworthy.
To her are referred all our losses and all our gains, and in casting up
the accounts of mortals she alone balances the two pages of our
sheet126. We are so much in the power of chance, that chance itself
is considered as a God, and the existence of God becomes doubtful.
But there are others who reject this principle and assign events to
the influence of the stars127, and to the laws of our nativity; they
suppose that God, once for all, issues his decrees and never
afterwards interferes. This opinion begins to gain ground, and both
the learned and the unlearned vulgar are falling into it. Hence we
have the admonitions of thunder, the warnings of oracles, the
predictions of soothsayers, and things too trifling to be mentioned,
as sneezing and stumbling with the feet reckoned among omens128.
The late Emperor Augustus129 relates, that he put the left shoe on
the wrong foot, the day when he was near being assaulted by his
soldiers130. And such things as these so embarrass improvident
mortals, that among all of them this alone is certain, that there is
nothing certain, and that there is nothing more proud or more
wretched than man. For other animals have no care but to provide
for their subsistence, for which the spontaneous kindness of nature
is all-sufficient; and this one circumstance renders their lot more
especially preferable, that they never think about glory, or money,
or ambition, and, above all, that they never reflect on death.

The belief, however, that on these points the Gods superintend
human affairs is useful to us, as well as that the punishment of
crimes, although sometimes tardy, from the Deity being occupied
with such a mass of business, is never entirely remitted, and that
the human race was not made the next in rank to himself, in order
that they might be degraded like brutes. And indeed this constitutes
the great comfort in this imperfect state of man, that even the Deity
cannot do everything. For he cannot procure death for himself,
even if he wished it, which, so numerous are the evils of life, has
been granted to man as our chief good. Nor can he make mortals
immortal, or recall to life those who are dead; nor can he effect,
that he who has once lived shall not have lived, or that he who has
enjoyed honours shall not have enjoyed them; nor has he any
influence over past events but to cause them to be forgotten. And, if
we illustrate the nature of our connexion with God by a less serious
argument, he cannot make twice ten not to be twenty, and many
other things of this kind. By these considerations the power of
Nature is clearly proved, and is shown to be what we call God. It is
not foreign to the subject to have digressed into these matters,
familiar as they are to every one, from the continual discussions
that take place respecting God131.

CHAP. 6. (8.)—OF THE NATURE OF THE STARS; OF THE
MOTION OF THE PLANETS.

Let us return from this digression to the other parts of nature.
The stars which are described as fixed in the heavens132, are not, as
the vulgar suppose, attached each of them to different
individuals133, the brighter to the rich, those that are less so to the
poor, and the dim to the aged, shining according to the lot of the
individual, and separately assigned to mortals; for they have neither
come into existence, nor do they perish in connexion with
particular persons, nor does a falling star indicate that any one is
dead. We are not so closely connected with the heavens as that the
shining of the stars is affected by our death134. When they are
supposed to shoot or fall135, they throw out, by the force of their
fire, as if from an excess of nutriment, the superabundance of the
humour which they have absorbed, as we observe to take place
from the oil in our lamps, when they are burning136. The nature of
the celestial bodies is eternal, being interwoven, as it were, with the
world, and, by this union, rendering it solid; but they exert their
most powerful influence on the earth. This, notwithstanding its
subtilty, may be known by the clearness and the magnitude of the
effect, as we shall point out in the proper place137. The account of
the circles of the heavens will be better understood when we come
to speak of the earth, since they have all a reference to it; except
what has been discovered respecting the Zodiac, which I shall now
detail.
Anaximander the Milesian, in the 58th olympiad138, is said to
have been the first who understood its obliquity, and thus opened
the road to a correct knowledge of the subject139. Afterwards
Cleostratus made the signs in it, first marking those of Aries and

Sagittarius; Atlas had formed the sphere long before this time140.
But now, leaving the further consideration of this subject, we must
treat of the bodies that are situated between the earth and the
heavens141.
It is certain that the star called Saturn is the highest, and
therefore appears the smallest, that he passes through the largest
circuit, and that he is at least thirty years in completing it142. The
course of all the planets, and among others of the Sun, and the
Moon, is in the contrary direction to that of the heavens143, that is
towards the left, while the heavens are rapidly carried about to the
right144. And although, by the stars constantly revolving with
immense velocity, they are raised up, and hurried on to the part
where they set, yet they are all forced, by a motion of their own, in
an opposite direction145; and this is so ordered, lest the air, being
always moved in the same direction, by the constant whirling of the
heavens, should accumulate into one mass, whereas now it is
divided and separated and beaten into small pieces, by the opposite
motion of the different stars. Saturn is a star of a cold and rigid
nature, while the orbit of Jupiter is much lower, and is carried
round in twelve years146. The next star, Mars, which some persons
call Hercules147, is of a fiery and burning nature, and from its
nearness to the sun is carried round in little less than two years148.
In consequence of the excessive heat of this star and the rigidity of
Saturn, Jupiter, which is interposed between the two, is tempered
by both of them, and is thus rendered salutary. The path of the Sun
consists of 360 degrees; but, in order that the shadow may return to
the same point of the dial149, we are obliged to add, in each year,
five days and the fourth part of a day. On this account an
intercalary day is given to every fifth year150, that the period of the
seasons may agree with that of the Sun.

Below the Sun151 revolves the great star called Venus, wandering
with an alternate motion152, and, even in its surnames, rivalling the
Sun and the Moon. For when it precedes the day and rises in the
morning, it receives the name of Lucifer, as if it were another sun,
hastening on the day. On the contrary, when it shines in the west, it
is named Vesper, as prolonging the light, and performing the office
of the moon. Pythagoras, the Samian, was the first who discovered
its nature153, about the 62nd olympiad, in the 222nd year of the
City154. It excels all the other stars in size, and its brilliancy is so
considerable, that it is the only star which produces a shadow by its
rays. There has, consequently, been great interest made for its
name; some have called it the star of Juno155, others of Isis, and
others of the Mother of the Gods. By its influence everything in the
earth is generated. For, as it rises in either direction, it sprinkles
everything with its genial dew, and not only matures the
productions of the earth, but stimulates all living things156. It
completes the circuit of the zodiac in 348 days, never receding
from the sun more than 46 degrees, according to Timæus157.
Similarly circumstanced, but by no means equal in size and in
power, next to it, is the star Mercury, by some called Apollo158; it is
carried in a lower orbit, and moves in a course which is quicker by
nine days, shining sometimes before the rising of the sun, and at
other times after its setting, but never going farther from it than 23
degrees159, as we learn from Timæus and Sosigenes160. The nature
of these two stars is peculiar, and is not the same with those
mentioned above, for those are seen to recede from the sun through
one-third or one-fourth part of the heavens, and are often seen
opposite to it. They have also other larger circuits, in which they
make their complete revolutions, as will be described in the
account of the great year161.

(9.) But the Moon162, which is the last of the stars, and the one
the most connected with the earth, the remedy provided by nature
for darkness, excels all the others in its admirable qualities. By the
variety of appearances which it assumes, it puzzles the observers,
mortified that they should be the most ignorant concerning that star
which is the nearest to them. She is always either waxing or
waning; sometimes her disc is curved into horns, sometimes it is
divided into two equal portions, and at other times it is swelled out
into a full orb; sometimes she appears spotted163 and suddenly
becomes very bright; she appears very large with her full orb and
suddenly becomes invisible; now continuing during all the night,
now rising late, and now aiding the light of the sun during a part of
the day; becoming eclipsed and yet being visible while she is
eclipsed; concealing herself at the end of the month and yet not
supposed to be eclipsed164. Sometimes she is low down, sometimes
she is high up, and that not according to one uniform course, being
at one time raised up to the heavens, at other times almost
contiguous to the mountains; now elevated in the north, now
depressed in the south; all which circumstances having been
noticed by Endymion, a report was spread about, that he was in
love with the moon165. We are not indeed sufficiently grateful to
those, who, with so much labour and care, have enlightened us with
this light166; while, so diseased is the human mind, that we take
pleasure in writing the annals of blood and slaughter, in order that
the crimes of men may be made known to those who are ignorant
of the constitution of the world itself.
Being nearest to the axis167, and therefore having the smallest
orbit, the Moon passes in twenty-seven days and the one-third part
of a day168, through the same space for which Saturn, the highest of
the planets, as was stated above, requires thirty years. After
remaining for two days in conjunction with the sun, on the thirtieth

day she again very slowly emerges to pursue her accustomed
course169. I know not whether she ought not to be considered as our
instructress in everything that can be known respecting the
heavens; as that the year is divided into the twelve divisions of the
months, since she follows the sun for the same number of times,
until he returns to the commencement of his course; and that her
brightness, as well as that of the other stars, is regulated by that of
the sun, if indeed they all of them shine by light borrowed from
him, such as we see floating about, when it is reflected from the
surface of water. On this account it is that she dissolves so much
moisture, by a gentle and less perfect force, and adds to the
quantity of that which the rays of the sun consume170. On this
account she appears with an unequal light, because being full only
when she is in opposition, on all the remaining days she shows only
so much of herself to the earth as she receives light from the sun171.
She is not seen in conjunction, because, at that time, she sends back
the whole stream of light to the source whence she has derived it.
That the stars generally are nourished by the terrestrial moisture is
evident, because, when the moon is only half visible she is
sometimes seen spotted, her power of absorbing moisture not
having been powerful enough; for the spots are nothing else than
the dregs of the earth drawn up along with the moisture172. (10.)
But her eclipses and those of the sun, the most wonderful of all the
phenomena of nature, and which are like prodigies, serve to
indicate the magnitude of these bodies and the shadow173 which
they cast.

CHAP. 7.—OF THE ECLIPSES OF THE MOON AND THE SUN.

For it is evident that the sun is hid by the intervention174 of the
moon, and the moon by the opposition174 of the earth, and that
these changes are mutual, the moon, by her interposition174, taking
the rays of the sun from the earth, and the earth from the moon. As
she advances darkness is suddenly produced, and again the sun is
obscured by her shade; for night is nothing more than the shade of
the earth. The figure of this shade is like that of a pyramid or an
inverted top175; and the moon enters it only near its point, and it
does not exceed the height of the moon, for there is no other star
which is obscured in the same manner, while a figure of this kind
always terminates in a point. The flight of birds, when very lofty,
shows that shadows do not extend beyond a certain distance; their
limit appears to be the termination of the air and the
commencement of the æther. Above the moon everything is pure
and full of an eternal light. The stars are visible to us in the night,
in the same way that other luminous bodies are seen in the dark. It
is from these causes that the moon is eclipsed during the night176.
The two kinds of eclipses are not, however, at the stated monthly
periods, on account of the obliquity of the zodiac, and the
irregularly wandering course of the moon, as stated above; besides
that the motions of these stars do not always occur exactly at the
same points177.

CHAP. 8. (11.)—OF THE MAGNITUDE OF THE STARS.

This kind of reasoning carries the human mind to the heavens,
and by contemplating the world as it were from thence, it discloses
to us the magnitude of the three greatest bodies in nature178. For the
sun could not be entirely concealed from the earth, by the
intervention of the moon, if the earth were greater than the
moon179. And the vast size of the third body, the sun, is manifest
from that of the other two, so that it is not necessary to scrutinize
its size, by arguing from its visible appearance, or from any
conjectures of the mind; it must be immense, because the shadows
of rows of trees, extending for any number of miles, are disposed in
right lines180, as if the sun were in the middle of space. Also,
because, at the equinox, he is vertical to all the inhabitants of the
southern districts at the same time181; also, because the shadows of
all the people who live on this side of the tropic fall, at noon,
towards the north, and, at sunrise, point to the west. But this could
not be the case unless the sun were much greater than the earth;
nor, unless it much exceeded Mount Ida in breadth, could he be
seen when he rises, passing considerably beyond it to the right and
to the left, especially, considering that it is separated by so great an
interval182.
The eclipse of the moon affords an undoubted argument of the
sun’s magnitude, as it also does of the small size of the earth183. For
there are shadows of three figures, and it is evident, that if the body
which produces the shadow be equal to the light, then it will be
thrown off in the form of a pillar, and have no termination. If the
body be greater than the light, the shadow will be in the form of an
inverted cone184 the bottom being the narrowest part, and being, at
the same time, of an infinite length. If the body be less than the

light, then we shall have the figure of a pyramid185, terminating in a
point. Now of this last kind is the shadow which produces the
eclipse of the moon, and this is so manifest that there can be no
doubt remaining, that the earth is exceeded in magnitude by the
sun, a circumstance which is indeed indicated by the silent
declaration of nature herself. For why does he recede from us at the
winter half of the year186? That by the darkness of the nights the
earth may be refreshed, which otherwise would be burned up, as
indeed it is in certain parts; so great is his size.

CHAP. 9. (12.)—AN ACCOUNT OF THE OBSERVATIONS
THAT HAVE BEEN MADE ON THE HEAVENS BY
DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS.

The first among the Romans, who explained to the people at
large the cause of the two kinds of eclipses, was Sulpicius Gallus,
who was consul along with Marcellus; and when he was only a
military tribune he relieved the army from great anxiety the day
before king Perseus was conquered by Paulus187; for he was
brought by the general into a public assembly, in order to predict
the eclipse, of which he afterwards gave an account in a separate
treatise. Among the Greeks, Thales the Milesian first investigated
the subject, in the fourth year of the forty-eighth olympiad,
predicting the eclipse of the sun which took place in the reign of
Alyattes, in the 170th year of the City188. After them Hipparchus
calculated the course of both these stars for the term of 600
years189, including the months, days, and hours, the situation of the
different places and the aspects adapted to each of them; all this has
been confirmed by experience, and could only be acquired by
partaking, as it were, in the councils of nature. These were indeed
great men, superior to ordinary mortals, who having discovered the
laws of these divine bodies, relieved the miserable mind of man
from the fear which he had of eclipses, as foretelling some dreadful
events or the destruction of the stars. This alarm is freely
acknowledged in the sublime strains of Stesichorus and Pindar, as
being produced by an eclipse of the sun190. And with respect to the
eclipse of the moon, mortals impute it to witchcraft, and therefore
endeavour to aid her by producing discordant sounds. In
consequence of this kind of terror it was that Nicias, the general of
the Athenians, being ignorant of the cause, was afraid to lead out
the fleet, and brought great distress on his troops191. Hail to your

genius, ye interpreters of heaven! ye who comprehend the nature of
things, and who have discovered a mode of reasoning by which ye
have conquered both gods and men192! For who is there, in
observing these things and seeing the labours193 which the stars are
compelled to undergo (since we have chosen to apply this term to
them), that would not cheerfully submit to his fate, as one born to
die? I shall now, in a brief and summary manner, touch on those
points in which we are agreed, giving the reasons where it is
necessary to do so; for this is not a work of profound argument, nor
is it less wonderful to be able to suggest a probable cause for
everything, than to give a complete account of a few of them only.

CHAP. 10. (13.)—ON THE RECURRENCE OF THE ECLIPSES
OF THE SUN AND THE MOON.

It is ascertained that the eclipses complete their whole revolution
in the space of 223 months194, that the eclipse of the sun takes place
only at the conclusion or the commencement of a lunation, which is
termed conjunction195, while an eclipse of the moon takes place
only when she is at the full, and is always a little farther advanced
than the preceding eclipse196. Now there are eclipses of both these
stars in every year, which take place below the earth, at stated days
and hours; and when they are above it197 they are not always
visible, sometimes on account of the clouds, but more frequently,
from the globe of the earth being opposed to the vault of the
heavens198. It was discovered two hundred years ago, by the
sagacity of Hipparchus, that the moon is sometimes eclipsed after
an interval of five months, and the sun after an interval of seven199;
also, that he becomes invisible, while above the horizon, twice in
every thirty days, but that this is seen in different places at different
times. But the most wonderful circumstance is, that while it is
admitted that the moon is darkened by the shadow of the earth, this
occurs at one time on its western, and at another time on its eastern
side. And farther, that although, after the rising of the sun, that
darkening shadow ought to be below the earth, yet it has once
happened, that the moon has been eclipsed in the west, while both
the luminaries have been above the horizon200. And as to their both
being invisible in the space of fifteen days, this very thing
happened while the Vespasians were emperors, the father being
consul for the third time, and the son for the second201.

CHAP. 11. (14.)—OF THE MOTION OF THE MOON.

It is certain that the moon, having her horns always turned from
the sun, when she is waxing, looks towards the east; when she is
waning, towards the west. Also, that, from the second day after the
change, she adds 471⁄2 minutes202 each day, until she is full, and
again decreases at the same rate, and that she always becomes
invisible when she is within 14 degrees of the sun. This is an
argument of the greater size of the planets than of the moon, since
these emerge when they are at the distance of 7 degrees only203.
But their altitude causes them to appear much smaller, as we
observe that, during the day, the brightness of the sun prevents
those bodies from being seen which are fixed in the firmament,
although they shine then as well as in the night: that this is the case
is proved by eclipses, and by descending into very deep wells.

CHAP. 12. (15.)—OF THE MOTIONS OF THE PLANETS AND
THE GENERAL LAWS OF THEIR ASPECTS204.

The three planets, which, as we have said, are situated above the
sun205, are visible when they come into conjunction with him. They
rise visibly206 in the morning, when they are not more than 11
degrees from the sun207; they are afterwards directed by the contact
of his rays208, and when they attain the trine aspect, at the distance
of 120 degrees, they take their morning stationary positions209,
which are termed primary; afterwards, when they are in opposition
to the sun, they rise at the distance of 180 degrees from him. And
again advancing on the other side to the 120th degree, they attain
their evening stations, which are termed secondary, until the sun
having arrived within 12 degrees of them, what is called their
evening setting becomes no longer visible210. Mars, as being nearer
to the sun, feels the influence of his rays in the quadrature, at the
distance of 90 degrees, whence that motion receives its name,
being termed, from the two risings, respectively the first and the
second nonagenarian211. This planet passes from one station to
another in six months, or is two months in each sign; the two other
planets do not spend more than four months in passing from station
to station.
The two inferior planets are, in like manner, concealed in their
evening conjunction, and, when they have left the sun, they rise in
the morning the same number of degrees distant from him. After
having arrived at their point of greatest elongation212, they then
follow the sun, and having overtaken him at their morning setting,
they become invisible and pass beyond him. They then rise in the
evening, at the distances which were mentioned above. After this
they return back to the sun and are concealed in their evening

setting. The star Venus becomes stationary when at its two points of
greatest elongation, that of the morning and of the evening,
according to their respective risings. The stationary points of
Mercury are so very brief, that they cannot be correctly observed.

CHAP. 13.—WHY THE SAME STARS APPEAR AT SOME
TIMES MORE LOFTY AND AT OTHER TIMES MORE NEAR.

The above is an account of the aspects and the occultations of
the planets, a subject which is rendered very complicated by their
motions, and is involved in much that is wonderful; especially,
when we observe that they change their size and colour, and that
the same stars at one time approach the north, and then go to the
south, and are now seen near the earth, and then suddenly approach
the heavens. If on this subject I deliver opinions different from my
predecessors, I acknowledge that I am indebted for them to those
individuals who first pointed out to us the proper mode of inquiry;
let no one then ever despair of benefiting future ages.
But these things depend upon many different causes. The first
cause is the nature of the circles described by the stars, which the
Greeks term apsides213, for we are obliged to use Greek terms.
Now each of the planets has its own circle, and this a different one
from that of the world214; because the earth is placed in the centre
of the heavens, with respect to the two extremities, which are called
the poles, and also in that of the zodiac, which is situated obliquely
between them. And all these things are made evident by the
infallible results which we obtain by the use of the compasses215.
Hence the apsides of the planets have each of them different
centres, and consequently they have different orbits and motions,
since it necessarily follows, that the interior apsides are the
shortest.
(16.) The apsides which are the highest from the centre of the
earth are, for Saturn, when he is in Scorpio, for Jupiter in Virgo, for
Mars in Leo, for the Sun in Gemini, for Venus in Sagittarius, and
for Mercury in Capricorn, each of them in the middle of these

signs; while in the opposite signs, they are the lowest and nearest to
the centre of the earth216. Hence it is that they appear to move more
slowly when they are carried along the highest circuit; not that their
actual motions are accelerated or retarded, these being fixed and
determinate for each of them; but because it necessarily follows,
that lines drawn from the highest apsis must approach nearer to
each other at the centre, like the spokes of a wheel; and that the
same motion seems to be at one time greater, and at another time
less, according to the distance from the centre.
Another cause of the altitudes of the planets is, that their highest
apsides, with relation to their own centres, are in different signs
from those mentioned above217. Saturn is in the 20th degree of
Libra, Jupiter in the 15th of Cancer, Mars in the 28th of Capricorn,
the Sun in the 19th of Aries, Venus in the 27th of Pisces, Mercury
in the 15th of Virgo, and the Moon in the 3rd of Taurus.
The third cause of the altitude depends on the form of the
heavens, not on that of the orbits; the stars appearing to the eye to
mount up and to descend through the depth of the air218. With this
cause is connected that which depends on the latitude of the planets
and the obliquity of the zodiac. It is through this belt that the stars
which I have spoken of are carried, nor is there any part of the
world habitable, except what lies under it219; the remainder, which
is at the poles, being in a wild desert state. The planet Venus alone
exceeds it by 2 degrees, which we may suppose to be the cause
why some animals are produced even in these desert regions of the
earth. The moon also wanders the whole breadth of the zodiac, but
never exceeds it. Next to these the planet Mercury moves through
the greatest space; yet out of the 12 degrees (for there are so many
degrees of latitude in the zodiac220), it does not pass through more
than 8, nor does it go equally through these, 2 of them being in the

middle of the zodiac, 4 in the upper part, and 2 in the lower part221.
Next to these the Sun is carried through the middle of the zodiac,
winding unequally through the two parts of his tortuous circuit222.
The star Mars occupies the four middle degrees; Jupiter the middle
degree and the two above it; Saturn, like the sun, occupies two223.
The above is an account of the latitudes as they descend to the
south or ascend to the north224. Hence it is plain that the generality
of persons are mistaken in supposing the third cause of the apparent
altitude to depend on the stars rising from the earth and climbing
up the heavens. But to refute this opinion it is necessary to consider
the subject with very great minuteness, and to embrace all the
causes.
It is generally admitted, that the stars225, at the time of their
evening setting, are nearest to the earth, both with respect to
latitude and altitude226, that they are at the commencement of both
at their morning risings, and that they become stationary at the
middle points of their latitudes, what are called the ecliptics227. It
is, moreover, acknowledged, that their motion is increased when
they are in the vicinity of the earth, and diminished when they are
removed to a greater altitude228; a point which is most clearly
proved by the different altitudes of the moon. There is no doubt
that it is also increased at the morning risings229, and that the three
superior planets are retarded, as they advance from the first station
to the second. And since this is the case, it is evident, that the
latitudes are increased from the time of their morning risings, since
the motions afterwards appear to receive less addition; but they
gain their altitude in the first station, since the rate of their motion
then begins to diminish230, and the stars to recede.
And the reason of this must be particularly set forth. When the
planets are struck by the rays of the sun, in the situation which I

have described, i. e. in their quadrature, they are prevented from
holding on their straight forward course, and are raised on high by
the force of the fire231. This cannot be immediately perceived by
the eye, and therefore they seem to be stationary, and hence the
term station is derived. Afterwards the violence of the rays
increases, and the vapour being beaten back forces them to recede.
This exists in a greater degree in their evening risings, the sun
being then turned entirely from them, when they are drawn into the
highest apsides; and they are then the least visible, since they are at
their greatest altitude and are carried along with the least motion, as
much less indeed as this takes place in the highest signs of the
apsides. At the time of the evening rising the latitude decreases and
becomes less as the motion is diminished, and it does not increase
again until they arrive at the second station, when the altitude is
also diminished; the sun’s rays then coming from the other side, the
same force now therefore propels them towards the earth which
before raised them into the heavens, from their former triangular
aspect232. So different is the effect whether the rays strike the
planets from below or come to them from above. And all these
circumstances produce much more effect when they occur in the
evening setting. This is the doctrine of the superior planets; that of
the others is more difficult, and has never been laid down by any
one before me233.

CHAP. 14. (17.)—WHY THE SAME STARS HAVE DIFFERENT
MOTIONS.

I must first state the cause, why the star Venus never recedes
from the sun more than 46 degrees, nor Mercury more than 23234,
while they frequently return to the sun within this distance235. As
they are situated below the sun, they have both of them their
apsides turned in the contrary direction; their orbits are as much
below the earth as those of the stars above mentioned are above it,
and therefore they cannot recede any farther, since the curve of
their apsides has no greater longitude236. The extreme parts of their
apsides therefore assign the limits to each of them in the same
manner, and compensate, as it were, for the small extent of their
longitudes, by the great divergence of their latitudes237. It may be
asked, why do they not always proceed as far as the 46th and the
23rd degrees respectively? They in reality do so, but the theory
fails us here. For it would appear that the apsides are themselves
moved, as they never pass over the sun238. When therefore they
have arrived at the extremities of their orbits on either side, the
stars are then supposed to have proceeded to their greatest distance;
when they have been a certain number of degrees within their
orbits, they are then supposed to return more rapidly, since the
extreme point in each is the same. And on this account it is that the
direction of their motion appears to be changed. For the superior
planets are carried along the most quickly in their evening setting,
while these move the most slowly; the former are at their greatest
distance from the earth when they move the most slowly, the latter
when they move the most quickly. The former are accelerated when
nearest to the earth, the latter when at the extremity of the circle; in
the former the rapidity of the motion begins to diminish at their
morning risings, in the latter it begins to increase; the former are

retrograde from their morning to their evening station, while Venus
is retrograde from the evening to the morning station. She begins to
increase her latitude from her morning rising, her altitude follows
the sun from her morning station, her motion being the quickest
and her altitude the greatest in her morning setting. Her latitude
decreases and her altitude diminishes from her evening rising, she
becomes retrograde, and at the same time decreases in her altitude
from her evening station.
Again, the star Mercury, in the same way, mounts up in both
directions239 from his morning rising, and having followed the sun
through a space of 15 degrees, he becomes almost stationary for
four days. Presently he diminishes his altitude, and recedes from
his evening setting to his morning rising. Mercury and the Moon
are the only planets which descend for the same number of days
that they ascend. Venus ascends for fifteen days and somewhat
more; Saturn and Jupiter descend in twice that number of days, and
Mars in four times. So great is the variety of nature! The reason of
it is, however, evident; for those planets which are forced up by the
vapour of the sun likewise descend with difficulty.

CHAP. 15.—GENERAL LAWS240 OF THE PLANETS.

There are many other secrets of nature in these points, as well as
the laws to which they are subject, which might be mentioned. For
example, the planet Mars, whose course is the most difficult to
observe241, never becomes stationary when Jupiter is in the trine
aspect, very rarely when he is 60 degrees from the sun, which
number is one-sixth of the circuit of the heavens242; nor does he
ever rise in the same sign with Jupiter, except in Cancer and Leo.
The star Mercury seldom has his evening risings in Pisces, but very
frequently in Virgo, and his morning risings in Libra; he has also
his morning rising in Aquarius, very rarely in Leo. He never
becomes retrograde either in Taurus or in Gemini, nor until the 25th
degree of Cancer. The Moon makes her double conjunction with
the sun in no other sign except Gemini, while Sagittarius is the only
sign in which she has sometimes no conjunction at all. The old and
the new moon are visible on the same day or night in no other sign
except Aries, and indeed it has happened very seldom to any one to
have witnessed it. Prom this circumstance it was that the tale of
Lynceus’s quick-sightedness originated243. Saturn and Mars are
invisible at most for 170 days; Jupiter for 36, or, at the least, for 10
days less than this; Venus for 69, or, at the least, for 52; Mercury
for 13, or, at the most, for 18244.

CHAP. 16. (18.)—THE REASON WHY THE STARS ARE OF
DIFFERENT COLOURS.

The difference of their colour depends on the difference in their
altitudes; for they acquire a resemblance to those planets into the
vapour of which they are carried, the orbit of each tinging those
that approach it in each direction. A colder planet renders one that
approaches it paler, one more hot renders it redder, a windy planet
gives it a lowering aspect, while the sun, at the union of their
apsides, or the extremity of their orbits, completely obscures them.
Each of the planets has its peculiar colour245; Saturn is white,
Jupiter brilliant, Mars fiery, Lucifer is glowing, Vesper refulgent,
Mercury sparkling, the Moon mild; the Sun, when he rises, is
blazing, afterwards he becomes radiating. The appearance of the
stars, which are fixed in the firmament, is also affected by these
causes. At one time we see a dense cluster of stars around the
moon, when she is only half-enlightened, and when they are
viewed in a serene evening; while, at another time, when the moon
is full, there are so few to be seen, that we wonder whither they are
fled; and this is also the case when the rays of the sun, or of any of
the above-mentioned bodies246, have dazzled our sight. And,
indeed, the moon herself is, without doubt, differently affected at
different times by the rays of the sun; when she is entering them,
the convexity of the heavens247 rendering them more feeble than
when they fall upon her more directly248. Hence, when she is at a
right angle to the sun, she is half-enlightened; when in the trine
aspect, she presents an imperfect orb249, while, in opposition, she is
full. Again, when she is waning, she goes through the same
gradations, and in the same order, as the three stars that are superior
to the sun250.

CHAP. 17. (19.)—OF THE MOTION OF THE SUN AND THE
CAUSE OF THE IRREGULARITY OF THE DAYS.

The Sun himself is in four different states; twice the night is
equal to the day, in the Spring and in the Autumn, when he is
opposed to the centre of the earth251, in the 8th degree of Aries and
Libra252. The length of the day and the night is then twice changed,
when the day increases in length, from the winter solstice in the 8th
degree of Capricorn, and afterwards, when the night increases in
length from the summer solstice in the 8th degree of Cancer253. The
cause of this inequality is the obliquity of the zodiac, since there is,
at every moment of time, an equal portion of the firmament above
and below the horizon. But the signs which mount directly
upwards, when they rise, retain the light for a longer space, while
those that are more oblique pass along more quickly.

CHAP. 18. (20.)—WHY THUNDER IS ASCRIBED TO JUPITER.

It is not generally known, what has been discovered by men who
are the most eminent for their learning, in consequence of their
assiduous observations of the heavens, that the fires which fall
upon the earth, and receive the name of thunder-bolts, proceed
from the three superior stars254, but principally from the one which
is situated in the middle. It may perhaps depend on the
superabundance of moisture from the superior orbit communicating
with the heat from the inferior, which are expelled in this
manner255; and hence it is commonly said, the thunder-bolts are
darted by Jupiter. And as, in burning wood, the burnt part is cast off
with a crackling noise, so does the star throw off this celestial fire,
bearing the omens of future events, even the part which is thrown
off not losing its divine operation. And this takes place more
particularly when the air is in an unsettled state, either because the
moisture which is then collected excites the greatest quantity of
fire, or because the air is disturbed, as if by the parturition of the
pregnant star.

CHAP. 19. (21.)—OF THE DISTANCES OF THE STARS.

Many persons have attempted to discover the distance of the
stars from the earth, and they have published as the result, that the
sun is nineteen times as far from the moon, as the moon herself is
from the earth256. Pythagoras, who was a man of a very sagacious
mind, computed the distance from the earth to the moon to be
126,000 furlongs, that from her to the sun is double this distance,
and that it is three times this distance to the twelve signs257; and
this was also the opinion of our countryman, Gallus Sulpicius258.

CHAP. 20. (22.)—OF THE HARMONY OF THE STARS.

Pythagoras, employing the terms that are used in music,
sometimes names the distance between the Earth and the Moon a
tone; from her to Mercury he supposes to be half this space, and
about the same from him to Venus. From her to the Sun is a tone
and a half; from the Sun to Mars is a tone, the same as from the
Earth to the Moon; from him there is half a tone to Jupiter, from
Jupiter to Saturn also half a tone, and thence a tone and a half to the
zodiac. Hence there are seven tones, which he terms the diapason
harmony259, meaning the whole compass of the notes. In this,
Saturn is said to move in the Doric time, Jupiter in the Phrygian260,
and so forth of the rest; but this is a refinement rather amusing than
useful.

CHAP. 21. (23.)—OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE WORLD.

The stadium is equal to 125 of our Roman paces, or 625 feet261.
Posidonius262 supposes that there is a space of not less than 40
stadia around the earth, whence mists263, winds and clouds263
proceed; beyond this he supposes that the air is pure and liquid,
consisting of uninterrupted light; from the clouded region to the
moon there is a space of 2,000,000 of stadia, and thence to the sun
of 500,000,000264. It is in consequence of this space that the sun,
notwithstanding his immense magnitude, does not burn the earth.
Many persons have imagined that the clouds rise to the height of
900 stadia. These points are not completely made out, and are
difficult to explain; but we have given the best account of them that
has been published, and if we may be allowed, in any degree, to
pursue these investigations, there is one infallible geometrical
principle, which we cannot reject. Not that we can ascertain the
exact dimensions (for to profess to do this would be almost the act
of a madman), but that the mind may have some estimate to direct
its conjectures. Now it is evident that the orbit through which the
sun passes consists of nearly 366 degrees, and that the diameter is
always the third part and a little less than the seventh of the
circumference265. Then taking the half of this (for the earth is
placed in the centre) it will follow, that nearly one-sixth part of the
immense space, which the mind conceives as constituting the orbit
of the sun round the earth, will compose his altitude. That of the
moon will be one-twelfth part, since her course is so much shorter
than that of the sun; she is therefore carried along midway between
the sun and the earth266. It is astonishing to what an extent the
weakness of the mind will proceed, urged on by a little success, as
in the above-mentioned instance, to give full scope to its
impudence! Thus, having ventured to guess at the space between

the sun and the earth, we do the same with respect to the heavens,
because he is situated midway between them; so that we may come
to know the measure of the whole world in inches. For if the
diameter consist of seven parts, there will be twenty-two of the
same parts in the circumference; as if we could measure the
heavens by a plumb-line!
The Egyptian calculation, which was made out by Petosiris and
Necepsos, supposes that each degree of the lunar orbit (which, as I
have said, is the least) consists of little more than 33 stadia; in the
very large orbit of Saturn the number is double; in that of the sun,
which, as we have said, is in the middle267, we have the half of the
sum of these numbers. And this is indeed a very modest
calculation268, since if we add to the orbit of Saturn the distance
from him to the zodiac, we shall have an infinite number of
degrees269.

CHAP. 22. (24.)—OF THE STARS WHICH APPEAR
SUDDENLY, OR OF COMETS270.

A few things still remain to be said concerning the world; for
stars are suddenly formed in the heavens themselves; of these there
are various kinds.
(25.) The Greeks name these stars comets271; we name them
Crinitæ, as if shaggy with bloody locks, and surrounded with
bristles like hair. Those stars, which have a mane hanging down
from their lower part, like a long beard, are named Pogoniæ272.
Those that are named Acontiæ273 vibrate like a dart with a very
quick motion. It was one of this kind which the Emperor Titus
described in his very excellent poem, as having been seen in his
fifth consulship; and this was the last of these bodies which has
been observed. When they are short and pointed they are named
Xiphiæ274; these are the pale kind; they shine like a sword and are
without any rays; while we name those Discei275, which, being of
an amber colour, in conformity with their name, emit a few rays
from their margin only. A kind named Pitheus276 exhibits the figure
of a cask, appearing convex and emitting a smoky light. The kind
named Cerastias277 has the appearance of a horn; it is like the one
which was visible when the Greeks fought at Salamis.
Lampadias278 is like a burning torch; Hippias279 is like a horse’s
mane; it has a very rapid motion, like a circle revolving on itself.
There is also a white comet, with silver hair, so brilliant that it can
scarcely be looked at, exhibiting, as it were, the aspect of the Deity
in a human form. There are some also that are shaggy, having the
appearance of a fleece, surrounded by a kind of crown. There was
one, where the appearance of a mane was changed into that of a
spear; it happened in the 109th olympiad, in the 398th year of the

City280. The shortest time during which any one of them has been
observed to be visible is 7 days, the longest 180 days.

CHAP. 23.—THEIR NATURE, SITUATION, AND SPECIES.

Some of them move about in the manner of planets281, others
remain stationary. They are almost all of them seen towards the
north282, not indeed in any particular portion of it, but generally in
that white part of it which has obtained the name of the Milky Way.
Aristotle informs us that several of them are to be seen at the same
time283, but this, as far as I know, has not been observed by any one
else; also that they prognosticate high winds and great heat284. They
are also visible in the winter months, and about the south pole, but
they have no rays proceeding from them. There was a dreadful one
observed by the Æthiopians and the Egyptians, to which Typhon, a
king of that period, gave his own name; it had a fiery appearance,
and was twisted like a spiral; its aspect was hideous, nor was it like
a star, but rather like a knot of fire285. Sometimes there are hairs
attached to the planets and the other stars. Comets are never seen in
the western part of the heavens. It is generally regarded as a terrific
star, and one not easily expiated; as was the case with the civil
commotions in the consulship of Octavius, and also in the war of
Pompey and Cæsar286. And in our own age, about the time when
Claudius Cæsar was poisoned and left the Empire to Domitius
Nero, and afterwards, while the latter was Emperor287, there was
one which was almost constantly seen and was very frightful. It is
thought important to notice towards what part it darts its beams, or
from what star it receives its influence, what it resembles, and in
what places it shines. If it resembles a flute, it portends something
unfavourable respecting music; if it appears in the parts of the signs
referred to the secret members, something respecting lewdness of
manners; something respecting wit and learning, if they form a
triangular or quadrangular figure with the position of some of the

fixed stars; and that some one will be poisoned, if they appear in
the head of either the northern or the southern serpent.
Rome is the only place in the whole world where there is a
temple dedicated to a comet; it was thought by the late Emperor
Augustus to be auspicious to him, from its appearing during the
games which he was celebrating in honour of Venus Genetrix, not
long after the death of his father Cæsar, in the College which was
founded by him288. He expressed his joy in these terms: “During
the very time of these games of mine, a hairy star was seen during
seven days, in the part of the heavens which is under the Great
Bear. It rose about the eleventh hour of the day289, was very bright,
and was conspicuous in all parts of the earth. The common people
supposed the star to indicate, that the soul of Cæsar was admitted
among the immortal Gods; under which designation it was that the
star was placed on the bust which was lately consecrated in the
forum290.” This is what he proclaimed in public, but, in secret, he
rejoiced at this auspicious omen, interpreting it as produced for
himself; and, to confess the truth, it really proved a salutary omen
for the world at large291.
Some persons suppose that these stars are permanent, and that
they move through their proper orbits, but that they are only visible
when they recede from the sun. Others suppose that they are
produced by an accidental vapour together with the force of fire,
and that, from this circumstance, they are liable to be dissipated292.

CHAP. 24. (26.)—THE DOCTRINE OF HIPPARCHUS293
ABOUT THE STARS.

This same Hipparchus, who can never be sufficiently
commended, as one who more especially proved the relation of the
stars to man, and that our souls are a portion of heaven, discovered
a new star that was produced in his own age, and, by observing its
motions on the day in which it shone, he was led to doubt whether
it does not often happen, that those stars have motion which we
suppose to be fixed. And the same individual attempted, what
might seem presumptuous even in a deity, viz. to number the stars
for posterity and to express their relations by appropriate names;
having previously devised instruments294, by which he might mark
the places and the magnitudes of each individual star. In this way it
might be easily discovered, not only whether they were destroyed
or produced, but whether they changed their relative positions, and
likewise, whether they were increased or diminished; the heavens
being thus left as an inheritance to any one, who might be found
competent to complete his plan.

CHAP. 25.—EXAMPLES FROM HISTORY OF CELESTIAL
PRODIGIES; FACES, LAMPADES, AND BOLIDES295.

The faces shine brilliantly, but they are never seen excepting
when they are falling296; one of these darted across the heavens, in
the sight of all the people, at noon-day, when Germanicus Cæsar
was exhibiting a show of gladiators297. There are two kinds of
them; those which are called lampades and those which are called
bolides, one of which latter was seen during the troubles at
Mutina298. They differ from each other in this respect, that the faces
produce a long train of light, the fore-part only being on fire; while
the bolides, being entirely in a state of combustion, leave a still
longer track behind them.

CHAP. 26.—TRABES CELESTES; CHASMA CŒLI.

The trabes also, which are named δοκοὶ299, shine in the same
manner; one of these was seen at the time when the
Lacedæmonians, by being conquered at sea, lost their influence in
Greece. An opening sometimes takes place in the firmament, which
is named chasma300.

CHAP. 27. (27.)—OF THE COLOURS OF THE SKY AND OF
CELESTIAL FLAME.

There is a flame of a bloody appearance (and nothing is more
dreaded by mortals) which falls down upon the earth301, such as
was seen in the third year of the 103rd olympiad, when King Philip
was disturbing Greece. But my opinion is, that these, like
everything else, occur at stated, natural periods, and are not
produced, as some persons imagine, from a variety of causes, such
as their fine genius may suggest. They have indeed been the
precursors of great evils, but I conceive that the evils occurred, not
because the prodigies took place, but that these took place because
the evils were appointed to occur at that period302. Their cause is
obscure in consequence of their rarity, and therefore we are not as
well acquainted with them as we are with the rising of the stars,
which I have mentioned, and with eclipses and many other things.

CHAP. 28. (28.)—OF CELESTIAL CORONÆ.

Stars are occasionally seen along with the sun, for whole days
together, and generally round its orb, like wreaths made of the ears
of corn, or circles of various colours303; such as occurred when
Augustus, while a very young man, was entering the city, after the
death of his father, in order to take upon himself the great name
which he assumed304. (29.) The same coronæ occur about the moon
and also about the principal stars, which are stationary in the
heavens.

CHAP. 29.—OF SUDDEN CIRCLES.

A bow appeared round the sun in the consulship of L. Opimius
and L. Fabius305, and a circle in that of C. Porcius and M. Acilius.
(30.) There was a little circle of a red colour in the consulship of L.
Julius and P. Rutilius.

CHAP. 30.—OF UNUSUALLY LONG ECLIPSES OF THE SUN.

Eclipses of the sun also take place which are portentous and
unusually long, such as occurred when Cæsar the Dictator was
slain, and in the war against Antony, the sun remained dim for
almost a whole year306.

CHAP. 31. (31.)—MANY SUNS.

And again, many suns have been seen at the same time307; not
above or below the real sun, but in an oblique direction, never near
nor opposite to the earth, nor in the night, but either in the east or in
the west. They are said to have been seen once at noon in the
Bosphorus, and to have continued from morning until sunset. Our
ancestors have frequently seen three suns at the same time308, as
was the case in the consulship of Sp. Postumius and L. Mucius, of
L. Marcius and M. Portius, that of M. Antony and Dolabella, and
that of M. Lepidus and L. Plancus. And we have ourselves seen one
during the reign of the late Emperor Claudius, when he was consul
along with Corn. Orfitus. We have no account transmitted to us of
more than three having been seen at the same time.

CHAP. 32. (32.)—MANY MOONS.

Three moons have also been seen, as was the case in the
consulship of Cn. Domitius and C. Fannius; they have generally
been named nocturnal suns309.

CHAP. 33. (33.)—DAYLIGHT IN THE NIGHT.

A bright light has been seen proceeding from the heavens in the
night time, as was the case in the consulship of C. Cæcilius and Cn.
Papirius, and at many other times, so that there has been a kind of
daylight in the night310.

CHAP. 34. (34.)—BURNING SHIELDS311.

A burning shield darted across at sunset, from west to east,
throwing out sparks, in the consulship of L. Valerius and C.
Marius312.

CHAP. 35. (35.)—AN OMINOUS APPEARANCE IN THE
HEAVENS, THAT WAS SEEN ONCE ONLY.

We have an account of a spark falling from a star, and increasing
as it approached the earth, until it became of the size of the moon,
shining as through a cloud313; it afterwards returned into the
heavens and was converted into a lampas; this occurred in the
consulship of Cn. Octavius and C. Scribonius. It was seen by
Silanus, the proconsul, and his attendants314.

CHAP. 36. (36.)—OF STARS WHICH MOVE ABOUT IN
VARIOUS DIRECTIONS.

Stars are seen to move about in various directions, but never
without some cause, nor without violent winds proceeding from the
same quarter315.

CHAP. 37. (37.)—OF THE STARS WHICH ARE NAMED
CASTOR AND POLLUX316.

These stars occur both at sea and at land. I have seen, during the
night-watches of the soldiers, a luminous appearance, like a star,
attached to the javelins on the ramparts. They also settle on the
yard-arms and other parts of ships while sailing, producing a kind
of vocal sound, like that of birds flitting about. When they occur
singly they are mischievous, so as even to sink the vessels, and if
they strike on the lower part of the keel, setting them on fire317.
When there are two of them they are considered auspicious, and are
thought to predict a prosperous voyage, as it is said that they drive
away that dreadful and terrific meteor named Helena. On this
account their efficacy is ascribed to Castor and Pollux, and they are
invoked as gods. They also occasionally shine round the heads of
men in the evening318, which is considered as predicting something
very important. But there is great uncertainty respecting the cause
of all these things, and they are concealed in the majesty of nature.

CHAP. 38. (38.)—OF THE AIR AND ON THE CAUSE OF THE
SHOWERS OF STONES.

So far I have spoken of the world itself and of the stars. I must
now give an account of the other remarkable phænomena of the
heavens. For our ancestors have given the name of heavens, or,
sometimes, another name, air, to all the seemingly void space,
which diffuses around us this vital spirit. It is situated beneath the
moon, indeed much lower, as is admitted by every one who has
made observations on it, and is composed of a great quantity of air
from the upper regions, mixed with a great quantity of terrestrial
vapour, the two forming a compound. Hence proceed clouds,
thunder and lightning of all kinds; hence also hail, frost, showers,
storms and whirlwinds; hence proceed many of the evils incident to
mortals, and the mutual contests of the various parts of nature. The
force of the stars keeps down all terrestrial things which tend
towards the heavens, and the same force attracts to itself those
things which do not go there spontaneously. The showers fall, mists
rise up, rivers are dried up, hail-storms rush down, the rays of the
sun parch the earth, and impel it from all quarters towards the
centre. The same rays, still unbroken, dart back again, and carry
with them whatever they can take up. Vapour falls from on high
and returns again to the same place. Winds arise which contain
nothing, but which return loaded with spoils. The breathing of so
many animals draws down the spirit from the higher regions; but
this tends to go in a contrary direction, and the earth pours out its
spirit into the void space of the heavens. Thus nature moving to and
fro, as if impelled by some machine319, discord is kindled by the
rapid motion of the world. Nor is the contest allowed to cease, for
she is continually whirled round and lays open the causes of all
things, forming an immense globe about the earth, while she again,

from time to time, covers this other firmament with clouds320. This
is the region of the winds. Here their nature principally originates,
as well as the causes of almost all other things321; since most
persons ascribe the darting of thunder and lightning to their
violence. And to the same cause are assigned the showers of stones,
these having been previously taken up by the wind, as well as many
other bodies in the same way. On this account we must enter more
at large on this subject.

CHAP. 39. (39.)—OF THE STATED SEASONS.

It is obvious that there are causes of the seasons and of other
things which have been stated, while there are some things which
are casual, or of which the reason has not yet been discovered. For
who can doubt that summer and winter, and the annual revolution
of the seasons are caused by the motion of the stars322? As therefore
the nature of the sun is understood to influence the temperature of
the year, so each of the other stars has its specific power, which
produces its appropriate effects. Some abound in a fluid retaining
its liquid state, others, in the same fluid concreted into hoar frost,
compressed into snow, or frozen into hail; some are prolific in
winds, some in heat, some in vapours, some in dew, some in cold.
But these bodies must not be supposed to be actually of the size
which they appear, since the consideration of their immense height
clearly proves, that none of them are less than the moon. Each of
them exercises its influence over us by its own motions; this is
particularly observable with respect to Saturn, which produces a
great quantity of rain in its transits. Nor is this power confined to
the stars which change their situations, but is found to exist in
many of the fixed stars, whenever they are impelled by the force of
any of the planets, or excited by the impulse of their rays; as we
find to be the case with respect to the Suculæ323, which the Greeks,
in reference to their rainy nature, have termed the Hyades324. There
are also certain events which occur spontaneously, and at stated
periods, as the rising of the Kids325. The star Arcturus scarcely ever
rises without storms of hail occurring.

CHAP. 40. (40.)—OF THE RISING OF THE DOG-STAR.

Who is there that does not know that the vapour of the sun is
kindled by the rising of the Dog-star? The most powerful effects
are felt on the earth from this star. When it rises, the seas are
troubled, the wines in our cellars ferment, and stagnant waters are
set in motion. There is a wild beast, named by the Egyptians Oryx,
which, when the star rises, is said to stand opposite to it, to look
steadfastly at it, and then to sneeze, as if it were worshiping it326.
There is no doubt that dogs, during the whole of this period, are
peculiarly disposed to become rabid327.

CHAP. 41. (41.)—OF THE REGULAR INFLUENCE OF THE
DIFFERENT SEASONS.

There is moreover a peculiar influence in the different degrees of
certain signs, as in the autumnal equinox, and also in the winter
solstice, when we find that a particular star is connected with the
state of the weather328. It is not so much the recurrence of showers
and storms, as of various circumstances, which act both upon
animals and vegetables. Some are planet-struck329, and others, at
stated times, are affected in the bowels, the sinews, the head, or the
intellect. The olive, the white poplar, and the willow turn their
leaves round at the summer solstice. The herb pulegium, when
dried and hanging up in a house, blossoms on the very day of the
winter solstice, and bladders burst in consequence of their being
distended with air330. One might wonder at this, did we not observe
every day, that the plant named heliotrope always looks towards the
setting sun, and is, at all hours, turned towards him, even when he
is obscured by clouds331. It is certain that the bodies of oysters and
of whelks332, and of shell-fish generally, are increased in size and
again diminished by the influence of the moon. Certain accurate
observers have found out, that the entrails of the field-mouse333
correspond in number to the moon’s age, and that the very small
animal, the ant, feels the power of this luminary, always resting
from her labours at the change of the moon. And so much the more
disgraceful is our ignorance, as every one acknowledges that the
diseases in the eyes of certain beasts of burden increase and
diminish according to the age of the moon. But the immensity of
the heavens, divided as they are into seventy-two334 constellations,
may serve as an excuse. These are the resemblances of certain
things, animate and inanimate, into which the learned have divided

the heavens. In these they have announced 1600 stars, as being
remarkable either for their effects or their appearance; for example,
in the tail of the Bull there are seven stars, which are named
Vergiliæ335; in his forehead are the Suculæ; there is also Bootes,
which follows the seven northern stars336.

CHAP. 42. (42.)—OF UNCERTAIN STATES OF THE
WEATHER.

But I would not deny, that there may exist showers and winds,
independent of these causes, since it is certain that an exhalation
proceeds from the earth, which is sometimes moist, and at other
times, in consequence of the vapours, like dense smoke; and also,
that clouds are formed, either from the fluid rising up on high, or
from the air being compressed into a fluid337. Their density and
their substance is very clearly proved from their intercepting the
sun’s rays, which are visible by divers, even in the deepest
waters338.

CHAP. 43. (43.)—OF THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.

It cannot therefore be denied, that fire proceeding from the stars
which are above the clouds, may fall on them, as we frequently
observe on serene evenings, and that the air is agitated by the
impulse, as darts when they are hurled whiz through the air. And
when it arrives at the cloud, a discordant kind of vapour is
produced, as when hot iron is plunged into water, and a wreath of
smoke is evolved. Hence arise squalls. And if wind or vapour be
struggling in the cloud, thunder is discharged; if it bursts out with a
flame, there is a thunderbolt; if it be long in forcing out its way, it is
simply a flash of lightning339. By the latter the cloud is simply rent,
by the former it is shattered. Thunder is produced by the stroke
given to the condensed air, and hence it is that the fire darts from
the chinks of the clouds. It is possible also that the vapour, which
has risen from the earth, being repelled by the stars, may produce
thunder, when it is pent up in a cloud; nature restraining the sound
whilst the vapour is struggling to escape, but when it does escape,
the sound bursting forth, as is the case with bladders that are
distended with air. It is possible also that the spirit, whatever it be,
may be kindled by friction, when it is so violently projected. It is
possible that, by the dashing of the two clouds, the lightning may
flash out, as is the case when two stones are struck against each
other. But all these things appear to be casual. Hence there are
thunderbolts which produce no effect, and proceed from no
immediate actual cause; by these mountains and seas are struck,
and no injury is done. Those which prognosticate future events
proceed from on high and from stated causes, and they come from
their peculiar stars340.

CHAP. 44.—THE ORIGIN OF WINDS.

In like manner I would not deny that winds, or rather sudden
gusts, are produced by the arid and dry vapours of the earth; that air
may also be exhaled from water, which can neither be condensed
into a mist, nor compressed into a cloud; that it may be also driven
forward by the impulse of the sun, since by the term ‘wind’ we
mean nothing more than a current of air, by whatever means it may
be produced341. For we observe winds to proceed from rivers and
bays, and from the sea, even when it is tranquil; while others,
which are named Altani, rise up from the earth; when they come
back from the sea they are named Tropæi, but if they go straight on,
Apogæi342.
(44.) The windings and the numerous peaks of mountains, their
ridges, bent into angles or broken into defiles, with the hollow
valleys, by their irregular forms, cleaving the air which rebounds
from them (which is also the cause why voices are, in many cases,
repeated several times in succession), give rise to winds.
(45.) There are certain caves, such as that on the coast of
Dalmatia, with a vast perpendicular chasm, into which, if a light
weight only be let down, and although the day be calm, a squall
issues from it like a whirlwind. The name of the place is Senta. And
also, in the province of Cyrenaica, there is a certain rock, said to be
sacred to the south wind, which it is profane for a human hand to
touch, as the south wind immediately rolls forwards clouds of
sand343. There are also, in many houses, artificial cavities, formed
in the walls344, which produce currents of air; none of these are
without their appropriate cause.

CHAP. 45.—VARIOUS OBSERVATIONS RESPECTING
WINDS.

But there is a great difference between a gale and a wind345. The
former are uniform and appear to rush forth346; they are felt, not in
certain spots only, but over whole countries, not forming breezes or
squalls, but violent storms347. Whether they be produced by the
constant revolution of the world and the opposite motion of the
stars, or whether they both of them depend on the generative spirit
of the nature of things, wandering, as it were, up and down in her
womb, or whether the air be scourged by the irregular strokes of
the wandering stars348, or the various projections of their rays, or
whether they, each of them, proceed from their own stars, among
which are those that are nearest to us, or whether they descend
from those that are fixed in the heavens, it is manifest that they are
all governed by a law of nature, which is not altogether unknown,
although it be not completely ascertained.
(46.) More than twenty old Greek writers have published their
observations upon this subject. And this is the more remarkable,
seeing that there is so much discord in the world, and that it is
divided into different kingdoms, that is into separate members, that
there should have been so many who have paid attention to these
subjects, which are so difficult to investigate. Especially when we
consider the wars and the treachery which everywhere prevail;
while pirates, the enemies of the human race, have possession of all
the modes of communication, so that, at this time, a person may
acquire more correct information about a country from the writings
of those who have never been there, than from the inhabitants
themselves. Whereas, at this day, in the blessed peace which we
enjoy, under a prince who so greatly encourages the advancement

of the arts, no new inquiries are set on foot, nor do we even make
ourselves thoroughly masters of the discoveries of the ancients. Not
that there were greater rewards held out, from the advantages being
distributed to a greater number of persons, but that there were more
individuals who diligently scrutinized these matters, with no other
prospect but that of benefiting posterity. It is that the manners of
men are degenerated, not that the advantages are diminished. All
the seas, as many as there are, being laid open, and a hospitable
reception being given us at every shore, an immense number of
people undertake voyages; but it is for the sake of gain, not of
science. Nor does their understanding, which is blinded and bent
only on avarice, perceive that this very thing might be more safely
done by means of science. Seeing, therefore, that there are so many
thousands of persons on the seas, I will treat of the winds with
more minuteness than perhaps might otherwise appear suitable to
my undertaking.

CHAP. 46. (47.)—THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF WINDS349.

The ancients reckoned only four winds (nor indeed does Homer
mention more350) corresponding to the four parts of the world; a
very poor reason, as we now consider it. The next generation added
eight others, but this was too refined and minute a division; the
moderns have taken a middle course, and, out of this great number,
have added four to the original set. There are, therefore, two in
each of the four quarters of the heavens. From the equinoctial
rising of the sun351 proceeds Subsolanus352, and, from his brumal
rising, Vulturnus353; the former is named by the Greeks
Apeliotes354, the latter Eurus. From the south we have Auster, and
from the brumal setting of the sun, Africus; these were named
Notos and Libs. From the equinoctial setting proceeds Favonius355,
and from the solstitial setting, Corus356; these were named
Zephyrus and Argestes. From the seven stars comes Septemtrio,
between which and the solstitial rising we have Aquilo, named
Aparctias and Boreas357. By a more minute subdivision we
interpose four others, Thrascias, between Septemtrio and the
solstitial setting; Cæcias, between Aquilo and the equinoctial
rising; and Phœnices, between the brumal rising and the south. And
also, at an equal distance from the south and the winter setting,
between Libs and Notos, and compounded of the two, is Libonotos.
Nor is this all. For some persons have added a wind, which they
have named Meses, between Boreas and Cæcias, and one between
Eurus and Notos, named Euronotus358.
There are also certain winds peculiar to certain countries, which
do not extend beyond certain districts, as Sciron in Attica, deviating
a little from Argestes, and not known in the other parts of Greece.
In other places it is a little higher on the card and is named

Olympias; but all these have gone by the name of Argestes. In
some places Cæcias is named Hellespontia, and the same is done in
other cases. In the province of Narbonne the most noted wind is
Circius; it is not inferior to any of the winds in violence, frequently
driving the waves before it, to Ostia359, straight across the Ligurian
sea. Yet this same wind is unknown in other parts, not even
reaching Vienne, a city in the same province; for meeting with a
high ridge of hills, just before it arrives at that district, it is
checked, although it be the most violent of all the winds. Fabius
also asserts, that the south winds never penetrate into Egypt. Hence
this law of nature is obvious, that winds have their stated seasons
and limits.

CHAP. 47.—THE PERIODS OF THE WINDS360.

The spring opens the seas for the navigators. In the beginning of
this season the west winds soften, as it were, the winter sky, the sun
having now gained the 25th degree of Aquarius; this is on the sixth
day before the Ides of February361. This agrees, for the most part,
with all the remarks that I shall subsequently make, only
anticipating the period by one day in the intercalary year, and
again, preserving the same order in the succeeding lustrum362. After
the eighth day before the Calends of March363, Favonius is called
by some Chelidonias364, from the swallows making their
appearance. The wind, which blows for the space of nine days,
from the seventy-first day after the winter solstice365, is sometimes
called Ornithias, from the arrival of the birds366. In the contrary
direction to Favonius is the wind which we name Subsolanus, and
this is connected with the rising of the Vergiliæ, in the 25th degree
of Taurus, six days before the Ides of May367, which is the time
when south winds prevail: these are opposite to Septemtrio. The
dog-star rises in the hottest time of the summer, when the sun is
entering the first degree of Leo368; this is fifteen days before the
Calends of August. The north winds, which are called Prodromi369,
precede its rising by about eight days. But in two days after its
rising, the same north winds, which are named Etesiæ370, blow
more constantly during this period; the vapour from the sun, being
increased twofold by the heat of this star, is supposed to render
these winds more mild; nor are there any which are more regular.
After these the south winds become more frequent, until the
appearance of Arcturus371, which rises eleven days before the
autumnal equinox. At this time Corus sets in; Corus is an autumnal
wind, and is in the opposite direction to Vulturnus. After this, and

generally for forty-four days after the equinox, at the setting of the
Vergiliæ, the winter commences, which usually happens on the
third of the Ides of November372. This is the period of the winter
north wind, which is very unlike the summer north wind, and
which is in the opposite direction to Africus. For seven days before
the winter solstice, and for the same length of time after it, the sea
becomes calm, in order that the king-fishers may rear their young;
from this circumstance they have obtained the name of the halcyon
days373; the rest of the season is winterly374. Yet the severity of the
storms does not entirely close up the sea. In former times, pirates
were compelled, by the fear of death, to rush into death, and to
brave the winter ocean; now we are driven to it by avarice375.

CHAP. 48.—NATURE OF THE WINDS376.

Those are the coldest winds which are said to blow from the
seven stars, and Corus, which is contiguous to them; these also
restrain the others and dispel the clouds. The moist winds are
Africus, and, still more, the Auster of Italy. It is said that, in Pontus,
Cæcias attracts the clouds. The dry winds are Corus and Vulturnus,
especially when they are about to cease blowing. The winds that
bring snow are Aquilo and Septemtrio; Septemtrio brings hail, and
so does Corus; Auster is sultry, Vulturnus and Zephyrus are warm.
These winds are more dry than Subsolanus, and generally those
which blow from the north and west are more dry than those which
blow from the south and east. Aquilo is the most healthy of them
all; Auster is unhealthy, and more so when dry; it is colder, perhaps
because it is moist. Animals are supposed to have less appetite for
food when this wind is blowing. The Etesiæ generally cease during
the night, and spring up at the third hour of the day377. In Spain and
in Asia these winds have an easterly direction, in Pontus a
northerly, and in other places a southerly direction. They blow also
after the winter solstice, when they are called Ornithiæ378, but they
are more gentle and continue only for a few days. There are two
winds which change their nature with their situation; in Africa
Auster is attended with a clear sky, while Aquilo collects the
clouds379. Almost all winds blow in their turn, so that when one
ceases its opposite springs up. When winds which are contiguous
succeed each other, they go from left to right, in the direction of the
sun. The fourth day of the moon generally determines their
direction for the whole of the monthly period380. We are able to sail
in opposite directions by means of the same wind, if we have the
sails properly set; hence it frequently happens that, in the night,
vessels going in different directions run against each other. Auster

produces higher winds than Aquilo, because the former blows, as it
were, from the bottom of the sea, while the latter blows on the
surface; it is therefore after south winds that the most mischievous
earthquakes have occurred. Auster is more violent during the night,
Aquilo during the day; winds from the east continue longer than
from the west. The north winds generally cease blowing on the odd
days, and we observe the prevalence of the odd numbers in many
other parts of nature; the male winds are therefore regulated by the
odd numbers381. The sun sometimes increases and sometimes
restrains winds; when rising and setting it increases them; while,
when on the meridian, it restrains them during the summer. They
are, therefore, generally lulled during the middle of the day and of
the night, because they are abated either by excessive cold or heat;
winds are also lulled by showers. We generally expect them to
come from that quarter where the clouds open and allow the clear
sky to be seen. Eudoxus382 supposes that the same succession of
changes occurs in them after a period of four years, if we observe
their minute revolutions; and this applies not only to winds, but to
whatever concerns the state of the weather. He begins his lustrum
at the rising of the dog-star, in the intercalary year. So far
concerning winds in general.

CHAP. 49. (48.)—ECNEPHIAS AND TYPHON.

And now respecting the sudden gusts383, which arising from the
exhalations of the earth, as has been said above, and falling down
again, being in the mean time covered by a thin film of clouds,
exist in a variety of forms. By their wandering about, and rushing
down like torrents, in the opinion of some persons, they produce
thunder and lightning384. But if they be urged on with greater force
and violence, so as to cause the rupture of a dry cloud, they
produce a squall385, which is named by the Greeks Ecnephias386.
But, if these are compressed, and rolled up more closely together,
and then break without any discharge of fire, i. e. without thunder,
they produce a squall, which is named Typhon387, or an Ecnephias
in a state of agitation. It carries along a portion of the cloud which
it has broken off, rolling it and turning it round, aggravating its
own destruction by the weight of it, and whirling it from place to
place. This is very much dreaded by sailors, as it not only breaks
their sail-yards, but the vessels themselves, bending them about in
various ways. This may be in a slight degree counteracted by
sprinkling it with vinegar, when it comes near us, this substance
being of a very cold nature388. This wind, when it rebounds after
the stroke, absorbs and carries up whatever it may have seized on.

CHAP. 50.—TORNADOES; BLASTING WINDS;
WHIRLWINDS389, AND OTHER WONDERFUL KINDS OF
TEMPESTS.

But if it burst from the cavity of a cloud which is more
depressed, but less capacious than what produces a squall, and is
accompanied by noise, it is called a whirlwind, and throws down
everything which is near it. The same, when it is more burning and
rages with greater heat, is called a blasting wind390, scorching and,
at the same time, throwing down everything with which it comes in
contact. (49.) Typhon never comes from the north, nor have we
Ecnephias when it snows, or when there is snow on the ground. If it
breaks the clouds, and, at the same time, catches fire or burns, but
not until it has left the cloud, it forms a thunder-bolt. It differs from
Prester as flame does from fire; the former is diffused in a gust, the
latter is condensed with a violent impulse391. The whirlwind, when
it rebounds, differs from the tornado in the same manner as a loud
noise does from a dash.
The squall differs from both of them in its extent, the clouds
being more properly rent asunder than broken into pieces. A black
cloud is formed, resembling a great animal, an appearance much
dreaded by sailors. It is also called a pillar, when the moisture is so
condensed and rigid as to be able to support itself. It is a cloud of
the same kind, which, when drawn into a tube, sucks up the
water392.

CHAP. 51. (50.)—OF THUNDER393; IN WHAT COUNTRIES IT
DOES NOT FALL, AND FOR WHAT REASON.

Thunder is rare both in winter and in summer394, but from
different causes; the air, which is condensed in the winter, is made
still more dense by a thicker covering of clouds, while the
exhalations from the earth, being all of them rigid and frozen,
extinguish whatever fiery vapour it may receive. It is this cause
which exempts Scythia and the cold districts round it from thunder.
On the other hand, the excessive heat exempts Egypt; the warm and
dry vapours of the earth being very seldom condensed, and that
only into light clouds. But, in the spring and autumn, thunder is
more frequent, the causes which produce summer and winter being,
in each season, less efficient. From this cause thunder is more
frequent in Italy, the air being more easily set in motion, in
consequence of a milder winter and a showery summer, so that it
may be said to be always spring or autumn. Also in those parts of
Italy which recede from the north and lie towards the south, as in
the district round our city, and in Campania, it lightens equally both
in winter and in summer, which is not the case in other situations.

CHAP. 52. (51.)—OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF
LIGHTNING395 AND THEIR WONDERFUL EFFECTS.

We have accounts of many different kinds of thunder-storms.
Those which are dry do not burn objects, but dissipate them; while
those which are moist do not burn, but blacken them. There is a
third kind, which is called bright lightning396, of a very wonderful
nature, by which casks are emptied, without the vessels themselves
being injured, or there being any other trace left of their
operation397. Gold, copper, and silver are melted, while the bags
which contain them are not in the least burned, nor even the wax
seal much defaced. Marcia, a lady of high rank at Rome, was struck
while pregnant; the fœtus was destroyed, while she herself survived
without suffering any injury398. Among the prognostics which took
place at the time of Catiline’s conspiracy, M. Herennius, a
magistrate of the borough of Pompeii, was struck by lightning
when the sky was without clouds399.

CHAP. 53. (52.)—THE ETRURIAN400 AND THE ROMAN
OBSERVATIONS ON THESE POINTS.

The Tuscan books inform us, that there are nine Gods who
discharge thunder-storms, that there are eleven different kinds of
them, and that three of them are darted out by Jupiter. Of these the
Romans retained only two, ascribing the diurnal kind to Jupiter,
and the nocturnal to Summanus401; this latter kind being more rare,
in consequence of the heavens being colder, as was mentioned
above. The Etrurians also suppose, that those which are named
Infernal burst out of the ground; they are produced in the winter
and are particularly fierce and direful, as all things are which
proceed from the earth, and are not generated by or proceeding
from the stars, but from a cause which is near at hand, and of a
more disorderly nature. As a proof of this it is said, that all those
which proceed from the higher regions strike obliquely, while those
which are termed terrestrial strike in a direct line. And because
these fall from matter which is nearer to us, they are supposed to
proceed from the earth, since they leave no traces of a rebound; this
being the effect of a stroke coming not from below, but from an
opposite quarter. Those who have searched into the subject more
minutely suppose, that these come from the planet Saturn, as those
that are of a burning nature do from Mars. In this way it was that
Volsinium, the most opulent town of the Tuscans, was entirely
consumed by lightning402. The first of these strokes that a man
receives, after he has come into possession of any property, is
termed Familiar403, and is supposed to prognosticate the events of
the whole of his life. But it is not generally supposed that they
predict events of a private nature for a longer space than ten years,
unless they happen at the time of a first marriage or a birth-day; nor

that public predictions extend beyond thirty years404, unless with
respect to the founding of colonies405.

CHAP. 54. (53.)—OF CONJURING UP THUNDER.

It is related in our Annals, that by certain sacred rites and
imprecations, thunder-storms may be compelled or invoked406.
There is an old report in Etruria, that thunder was invoked when the
city of Volsinium had its territory laid waste by a monster named
Volta407. Thunder was also invoked by King Porsenna. And L.
Piso408, a very respectable author, states in the first book of his
Annals, that this had been frequently done before his time by
Numa, and that Tullus Hostilius, imitating him, but not having
properly performed the ceremonies, was struck with the
lightning409. We have also groves, and altars, and sacred places,
and, among the titles of Jupiter, as Stator, Tonans, and Feretrius, we
have a Jupiter Elicius410. The opinions entertained on this point are
very various, and depend much on the dispositions of different
individuals. To believe that we can command nature is the mark of
a bold mind, nor is it less the mark of a feeble one to reject her
kindness411. Our knowledge has been so far useful to us in the
interpretation of thunder, that it enables us to predict what is to
happen on a certain day, and we learn either that our fortune is to
be entirely changed, or it discloses events which are concealed
from us; as is proved by an infinite number of examples, public and
private. Wherefore let these things remain, according to the order
of nature, to some persons certain, to others doubtful, by some
approved, by others condemned. I must not, however, omit the
other circumstances connected with them which deserve to be
related.

CHAP. 55. (54.)—GENERAL LAWS OF LIGHTNING.

It is certain that the lightning is seen before the thunder is heard,
although they both take place at the same time. Nor is this
wonderful, since light has a greater velocity than sound. Nature so
regulates it, that the stroke and the sound coincide412; the sound is,
however, produced by the discharge of the thunder, not by its
stroke. But the air is impelled quicker than the lightning413, on
which account it is that everything is shaken and blown up before it
is struck, and that a person is never injured when he has seen the
lightning and heard the thunder. Thunder on the left hand is
supposed to be lucky, because the east is on the left side of the
heavens414. We do not regard so much the mode in which it comes
to us, as that in which it leaves us, whether the fire rebounds after
the stroke, or whether the current of air returns when the operation
is concluded and the fire is consumed. In relation to this object the
Etrurians have divided the heavens into sixteen parts415. The first
great division is from north to east; the second to the south; the
third to the west, and the fourth occupies what remains from west
to north. Each of these has been subdivided into four parts, of
which the eight on the east have been called the left, and those on
the west the right divisions. Those which extend from the west to
the north have been considered the most unpropitious. It becomes
therefore very important to ascertain from what quarter the thunder
proceeds, and in what direction it falls. It is considered a very
favourable omen when it returns into the eastern divisions. But it
prognosticates the greatest felicity when the thunder proceeds from
the first-mentioned part of the heavens and falls back into it; it was
an omen of this kind which, as we have heard, was given to Sylla,
the Dictator. The remaining quarters of the heavens are less
propitious, and also less to be dreaded. There are some kinds of

thunder which it is not thought right to speak of, or even to listen
to, unless when they have been disclosed to the master of a family
or to a parent. But the futility of this observation was detected
when the temple of Juno was struck at Rome, during the consulship
of Scaurus, he who was afterwards the Prince of the Senate416.
It lightens without thunder more frequently in the night than in
the day417. Man is the only animal that is not always killed by it, all
other animals being killed instantly, nature having granted to him
this mark of distinction, while so many other animals excel him in
strength. All animals fall down on the opposite side to that which
has been struck; man, unless he be thrown down on the parts that
are struck, does not expire. Those who are struck directly from
above sink down immediately. When a man is struck while he is
awake, he is found with his eyes closed; when asleep, with them
open. It is not considered proper that a man killed in this way
should be burnt on the funeral pile; our religion enjoins us to bury
the body in the earth418. No animal is consumed by lightning unless
after having been previously killed. The parts of the animal that
have been wounded by lightning are colder than the rest of the
body.

CHAP. 56. (55.)—OBJECTS WHICH ARE NEVER STRUCK.

Among the productions of the earth, thunder never strikes the
laurel419, nor does it descend more than five feet into the earth.
Those, therefore, who are timid consider the deepest caves as the
most safe; or tents made of the skins of the animal called the sea-
calf, since this is the only marine animal which is never struck420;
as is the case, among birds, with the eagle; on this account it is
represented as the bearer of this weapon421. In Italy, between
Terracina and the temple of Feronia, the people have left off
building towers in time of war, every one of them having been
destroyed by thunderbolts.

CHAP. 57. (56.)—SHOWERS OF MILK, BLOOD, FLESH,
IRON, WOOL, AND BAKED TILES422.

Besides these, we learn from certain monuments, that from the
lower part of the atmosphere423 it rained milk and blood, in the
consulship of M’ Acilius and C. Porcius, and frequently at other
times424. This was the case with respect to flesh, in the consulship
of P. Volumnius and Servius Sulpicius, and it is said, that what was
not devoured by the birds did not become putrid. It also rained iron
among the Lucanians, the year before Crassus was slain by the
Parthians, as well as all the Lucanian soldiers, of whom there was a
great number in this army. The substance which fell had very much
the appearance of sponge425; the augurs warned the people against
wounds that might come from above. In the consulship of L. Paulus
and C. Marcellus it rained wool, round the castle of Carissanum,
near which place, a year after, T. Annius Milo was killed. It is
recorded, among the transactions of that year, that when he was
pleading his own cause, there was a shower of baked tiles.

CHAP. 58. (57.)—RATTLING OF ARMS AND THE SOUND OF
TRUMPETS HEARD IN THE SKY.

We have heard, that during the war with the Cimbri, the rattling
of arms and the sound of trumpets were heard through the sky, and
that the same thing has frequently happened before and since426.
Also, that in the third consulship of Marius, armies were seen in the
heavens by the Amerini and the Tudertes, encountering each other,
as if from the east and west, and that those from the east were
repelled427. It is not at all wonderful for the heavens themselves to
be in flames428, and it has been more frequently observed when the
clouds have taken up a great deal of fire.

CHAP. 59. (58.)—OF STONES THAT HAVE FALLEN FROM
THE CLOUDS429. THE OPINION OF ANAXAGORAS
RESPECTING THEM.

The Greeks boast that Anaxagoras430, the Clazomenian, in the
second year of the 78th Olympiad, from his knowledge of what
relates to the heavens, had predicted, that at a certain time, a stone
would fall from the sun431. And the thing accordingly happened, in
the daytime, in a part of Thrace, at the river Ægos. The stone is
now to be seen, a waggon-load in size and of a burnt appearance;
there was also a comet shining in the night at that time432. But to
believe that this had been predicted would be to admit that the
divining powers of Anaxagoras were still more wonderful, and that
our knowledge of the nature of things, and indeed every thing else,
would be thrown into confusion, were we to suppose either that the
sun is itself composed of stone, or that there was even a stone in it;
yet there can be no doubt that stones have frequently fallen from
the atmosphere. There is a stone, a small one indeed, at this time, in
the Gymnasium of Abydos, which on this account is held in
veneration, and which the same Anaxagoras predicted would fall in
the middle of the earth. There is another at Cassandria, formerly
called Potidæa433, which from this circumstance was built in that
place. I have myself seen one in the country of the Vocontii434,
which had been brought from the fields only a short time before.

CHAP. 60. (59.)—THE RAINBOW.

What we name Rainbows frequently occur, and are not
considered either wonderful or ominous; for they do not predict,
with certainty, either rain or fair weather. It is obvious, that the rays
of the sun, being projected upon a hollow cloud, the light is thrown
back to the sun and is refracted435, and that the variety of colours is
produced by a mixture of clouds, air, and fire436. The rainbow is
certainly never produced except in the part opposite to the sun, nor
even in any other form except that of a semicircle. Nor are they
ever formed at night, although Aristotle asserts that they are
sometimes seen at that time; he acknowledges, however, that it can
only be on the 14th day of the moon437. They are seen in the winter
the most frequently, when the days are shortening, after the
autumnal equinox438. They are not seen when the days increase
again, after the vernal equinox, nor on the longest days, about the
summer solstice, but frequently at the winter solstice, when the
days are the shortest. When the sun is low they are high, and when
the sun is high they are low; they are smaller when in the east or
west, but are spread out wider; in the south they are small, but of a
greater span. In the summer they are not seen at noon, but after the
autumnal equinox at any hour: there are never more than two seen
at once.

CHAP. 61.—THE NATURE OF HAIL, SNOW, HOAR, MIST,
DEW; THE FORMS OF CLOUDS.

I do not find that there is any doubt entertained respecting the
following points. (60.) Hail is produced by frozen rain, and snow
by the same fluid less firmly concreted, and hoar by frozen dew439.
During the winter snow falls, but not hail; hail itself falls more
frequently during the day than the night, and is more quickly
melted than snow. There are no mists either in the summer or
during the greatest cold of winter. There is neither dew nor hoar
formed during great heat or winds, nor unless the night be serene.
Fluids are diminished in bulk by being frozen, and, when the ice is
melted, we do not obtain the same quantity of fluid as at first440.
(61.) The clouds are varied in their colour and figure according
as the fire which they contain is in excess or is absorbed by them.

CHAP. 62. (62.)—THE PECULIARITIES OF THE WEATHER IN
DIFFERENT PLACES.

There are, moreover, certain peculiarities in certain places. In
Africa dew falls during the night in summer. In Italy, at Locri, and
at the Lake Velinum, there is never a day in which a rainbow is not
seen441. At Rhodes and at Syracuse the sky is never so covered with
clouds, but that the sun is visible at one time or another; these
things, however, will be better detailed in their proper place. So far
respecting the air.

CHAP. 63. (63.)—NATURE OF THE EARTH.

Next comes the earth, on which alone of all parts of nature we
have bestowed the name that implies maternal veneration. It is
appropriated to man as the heavens are to God. She receives us at
our birth, nourishes us when born, and ever afterwards supports us;
lastly, embracing us in her bosom when we are rejected by the rest
of nature, she then covers us with especial tenderness; rendered
sacred to us, inasmuch as she renders us sacred, bearing our
monuments and titles, continuing our names, and extending our
memory, in opposition to the shortness of life. In our anger we
imprecate her on those who are now no more442, as if we were
ignorant that she is the only being who can never be angry with
man. The water passes into showers, is concreted into hail, swells
into rivers, is precipitated in torrents; the air is condensed into
clouds, rages in squalls; but the earth, kind, mild, and indulgent as
she is, and always ministering to the wants of mortals, how many
things do we compel her to produce spontaneously! What odours
and flowers, nutritive juices, forms and colours! With what good
faith does she render back all that has been entrusted to her! It is
the vital spirit which must bear the blame of producing noxious
animals; for the earth is constrained to receive the seeds of them,
and to support them when they are produced. The fault lies in the
evil nature which generates them. The earth will no longer harbour
a serpent after it has attacked any one443, and thus she even
demands punishment in the name of those who are indifferent
about it themselves444. She pours forth a profusion of medicinal
plants, and is always producing something for the use of man. We
may even suppose, that it is out of compassion to us that she has
ordained certain substances to be poisonous, in order that when we
are weary of life, hunger, a mode of death the most foreign to the

kind disposition of the earth445, might not consume us by a slow
decay, that precipices might not lacerate our mangled bodies, that
the unseemly punishment of the halter may not torture us, by
stopping the breath of one who seeks his own destruction, or that
we may not seek our death in the ocean, and become food for our
graves, or that our bodies may not be gashed by steel. On this
account it is that nature has produced a substance which is very
easily taken, and by which life is extinguished, the body remaining
undefiled and retaining all its blood, and only causing a degree of
thirst. And when it is destroyed by this means, neither bird nor
beast will touch the body, but he who has perished by his own
hands is reserved for the earth.
But it must be acknowledged, that everything which the earth
has produced, as a remedy for our evils, we have converted into the
poison of our lives. For do we not use iron, which we cannot do
without, for this purpose? But although this cause of mischief has
been produced, we ought not to complain; we ought not to be
ungrateful to this one part of nature446. How many luxuries and
how many insults does she not bear for us! She is cast into the sea,
and, in order that we may introduce seas into her bosom, she is
washed away by the waves. She is continually tortured for her iron,
her timber, stone, fire, corn, and is even much more subservient to
our luxuries than to our mere support. What indeed she endures on
her surface might be tolerated, but we penetrate also into her
bowels, digging out the veins of gold and silver, and the ores of
copper and lead; we also search for gems and certain small pebbles,
driving our trenches to a great depth. We tear out her entrails in
order to extract the gems with which we may load our fingers. How
many hands are worn down that one little joint may be ornamented!
If the infernal regions really existed, certainly these burrows of
avarice and luxury would have penetrated into them. And truly we

wonder that this same earth should have produced anything
noxious! But, I suppose, the savage beasts protect her and keep off
our sacrilegious hands447. For do we not dig among serpents and
handle poisonous plants along with those veins of gold? But the
Goddess shows herself more propitious to us, inasmuch as all this
wealth ends in crimes, slaughter, and war, and that, while we
drench her with our blood, we cover her with unburied bones; and
being covered with these and her anger being thus appeased, she
conceals the crimes of mortals448. I consider the ignorance of her
nature as one of the evil effects of an ungrateful mind.

CHAP. 64. (64.)—OF THE FORM OF THE EARTH.

Every one agrees that it has the most perfect figure449. We
always speak of the ball of the earth, and we admit it to be a globe
bounded by the poles. It has not indeed the form of an absolute
sphere, from the number of lofty mountains and flat plains; but if
the termination of the lines be bounded by a curve450, this would
compose a perfect sphere. And this we learn from arguments drawn
from the nature of things, although not from the same
considerations which we made use of with respect to the heavens.
For in these the hollow convexity everywhere bends on itself, and
leans upon the earth as its centre. Whereas the earth rises up solid
and dense, like something that swells up and is protruded outwards.
The heavens bend towards the centre, while the earth goes from the
centre, the continual rolling of the heavens about it forcing its
immense globe into the form of a sphere451.

CHAP. 65. (65.)—WHETHER THERE BE ANTIPODES?

On this point there is a great contest between the learned and the
vulgar. We maintain, that there are men dispersed over every part of
the earth, that they stand with their feet turned towards each other,
that the vault of the heavens appears alike to all of them, and that
they, all of them, appear to tread equally on the middle of the earth.
If any one should ask, why those situated opposite to us do not fall,
we directly ask in return, whether those on the opposite side do not
wonder that we do not fall. But I may make a remark, that will
appear plausible even to the most unlearned, that if the earth were
of the figure of an unequal globe, like the seed of a pine452, still it
may be inhabited in every part.
But of how little moment is this, when we have another miracle
rising up to our notice! The earth itself is pendent and does not fall
with us; it is doubtful whether this be from the force of the spirit
which is contained in the universe453, or whether it would fall, did
not nature resist, by allowing of no place where it might fall. For as
the seat of fire is nowhere but in fire, nor of water except in water,
nor of air except in air, so there is no situation for the earth except
in itself, everything else repelling it. It is indeed wonderful that it
should form a globe, when there is so much flat surface of the sea
and of the plains. And this was the opinion of Dicæarchus, a
peculiarly learned man, who measured the heights of mountains,
under the direction of the kings, and estimated Pelion, which was
the highest, at 1250 paces perpendicular, and considered this as not
affecting the round figure of the globe. But this appears to me to be
doubtful, as I well know that the summits of some of the Alps rise
up by a long space of not less than 50,000 paces454. But what the
vulgar most strenuously contend against is, to be compelled to

believe that the water is forced into a rounded figure455; yet there is
nothing more obvious to the sight among the phænomena of nature.
For we see everywhere, that drops, when they hang down, assume
the form of small globes, and when they are covered with dust, or
have the down of leaves spread over them, they are observed to be
completely round; and when a cup is filled, the liquid swells up in
the middle. But on account of the subtile nature of the fluid and its
inherent softness, the fact is more easily ascertained by our reason
than by our sight. And it is even more wonderful, that if a very little
fluid only be added to a cup when it is full, the superfluous quantity
runs over, whereas the contrary happens if we add a solid body,
even as much as would weigh 20 denarii. The reason of this is, that
what is dropt in raises up the fluid at the top, while what is poured
on it slides off from the projecting surface. It is from the same
cause456 that the land is not visible from the body of a ship when it
may be seen from the mast; and that when a vessel is receding, if
any bright object be fixed to the mast, it seems gradually to
descend and finally to become invisible. And the ocean, which we
admit to be without limits, if it had any other figure, could it cohere
and exist without falling, there being no external margin to contain
it? And the same wonder still recurs, how is it that the extreme
parts of the sea, although it be in the form of a globe, do not fall
down? In opposition to which doctrine, the Greeks, to their great
joy and glory, were the first to teach us, by their subtile geometry,
that this could not happen, even if the seas were flat, and of the
figure which they appear to be. For since water always runs from a
higher to a lower level, and this is admitted to be essential to it, no
one ever doubted that the water would accumulate on any shore, as
much as its slope would allow it. It is also certain, that the lower
anything is, so much the nearer is it to the centre, and that all the
lines which are drawn from this point to the water which is the

nearest to it, are shorter than those which reach from the beginning
of the sea to its extreme parts457. Hence it follows, that all the
water, from every part, tends towards the centre, and, because it has
this tendency, does not fall.

CHAP. 66.—HOW THE WATER IS CONNECTED WITH THE
EARTH. OF THE NAVIGATION OF THE SEA AND THE
RIVERS.

We must believe, that the great artist, Nature, has so arranged it,
that as the arid and dry earth cannot subsist by itself and without
moisture, nor, on the other hand, can the water subsist unless it be
supported by the earth, they are connected by a mutual union. The
earth opens her harbours, while the water pervades the whole earth,
within, without, and above; its veins running in all directions, like
connecting links, and bursting out on even the highest ridges;
where, forced up by the air, and pressed out by the weight of the
earth, it shoots forth as from a pipe, and is so far from being in
danger of falling, that it bounds up to the highest and most lofty
places. Hence the reason is obvious, why the seas are not increased
by the daily accession of so many rivers458.
(66.) The earth has, therefore, the whole of its globe girt, on
every side, by the sea flowing round it. And this is not a point to be
investigated by arguments, but what has been ascertained by
experience.

CHAP. 67. (67.)—WHETHER THE OCEAN SURROUNDS THE
EARTH.

The whole of the western ocean is now navigated, from Gades
and the Pillars of Hercules, round Spain and Gaul. The greater part
of the northern ocean has also been navigated, under the auspices
of the Emperor Augustus, his fleet having been carried round
Germany to the promontory of the Cimbri459; from which spot they
descried an immense sea, or became acquainted with it by report,
which extends to the country of the Scythians, and the districts that
are chilled by excessive moisture460. On this account it is not at all
probable, that the ocean should be deficient in a region where
moisture so much abounds. In like manner, towards the east, from
the Indian sea, all that part which lies in the same latitude461, and
which bends round towards the Caspian462, has been explored by
the Macedonian arms, in the reigns of Seleucus and Antiochus,
who wished it to be named after themselves, the Seleucian or
Antiochian Sea. About the Caspian, too, many parts of the shores
of the ocean have been explored, so that nearly the whole of the
north has been sailed over in one direction or another. Nor can our
argument be much affected by the point that has been so much
discussed, respecting the Palus Mæotis, whether it be a bay of the
same ocean463, as is, I understand, the opinion of some persons, or
whether it be the overflowing of a narrow channel connected with a
different ocean464. On the other side of Gades, proceeding from the
same western point, a great part of the southern ocean, along
Mauritania, has now been navigated. Indeed the greater part of this
region, as well as of the east, as far as the Arabian Gulf, was
surveyed in consequence of Alexander’s victories. When Caius
Cæsar, the son of Augustus465, had the conduct of affairs in that

country, it is said that they found the remains of Spanish vessels
which had been wrecked there. While the power of Carthage was at
its height, Hanno published an account of a voyage which he made
from Gades to the extremity of Arabia466; Himilco was also sent,
about the same time, to explore the remote parts of Europe.
Besides, we learn from Corn. Nepos, that one Eudoxus, a
contemporary of his467, when he was flying from king Lathyrus, set
out from the Arabian Gulf, and was carried as far as Gades468. And
long before him, Cælius Antipater469 informs us, that he had seen a
person who had sailed from Spain to Æthiopia for the purposes of
trade. The same Cornelius Nepos, when speaking of the northern
circumnavigation, tells us that Q. Metellus Celer, the colleague of
L. Afranius in the consulship, but then a proconsul in Gaul470, had a
present made to him by the king of the Suevi, of certain Indians,
who sailing from India for the purpose of commerce, had been
driven by tempests into Germany471. Thus it appears, that the seas
which flow completely round the globe, and divide it, as it were,
into two parts472, exclude us from one part of it, as there is no way
open to it on either side. And as the contemplation of these things is
adapted to detect the vanity of mortals, it seems incumbent on me
to display, and lay open to our eyes, the whole of it, whatever it be,
in which there is nothing which can satisfy the desires of certain
individuals.

CHAP. 68. (68.)—WHAT PART OF THE EARTH IS
INHABITED.

In the first place, then, it appears, that this should be estimated at
half the globe473, as if no portion of this half was encroached upon
by the ocean. But surrounding as it does the whole of the land,
pouring out and receiving all the other waters, furnishing whatever
goes to the clouds, and feeding the stars themselves, so numerous
and of such great size as they are, what a great space must we not
suppose it to occupy! This vast mass must fill up and occupy an
infinite extent. To this we must add that portion of the remainder
which the heavens474 take from us. For the globe is divided into
five parts475, termed zones, and all that portion is subject to severe
cold and perpetual frost which is under the two extremities, about
each of the poles, the nearer of which is called the north, and the
opposite the south, pole. In all these regions there is perpetual
darkness, and, in consequence of the aspect of the milder stars
being turned from them, the light is malignant, and only like the
whiteness which is produced by hoar frost. The middle of the earth,
over which is the orbit of the sun, is parched and burned by the
flame, and is consumed by being so near the heat. There are only
two of the zones which are temperate, those which lie between the
torrid and the frigid zones, and these are separated from each other,
in consequence of the scorching heat of the heavenly bodies. It
appears, therefore, that the heavens take from us three parts of the
earth; how much the ocean steals is uncertain.
And with respect to the part which is left us, I do not know
whether that is not even in greater danger. This same ocean,
insinuating itself, as I have described it, into a number of bays,
approaches with its roaring476 so near to the inland seas, that the

Arabian Gulf is no more than 115 miles from the Egyptian Sea477,
and the Caspian only 375 miles from the Euxine. It also insinuates
itself into the numerous seas by which it separates Africa, Europe,
and Asia; hence how much space must it occupy? We must also
take into account the extent of all the rivers and the marshes, and
we must add the lakes and the pools. There are also the mountains,
raised up to the heavens, with their precipitous fronts; we must also
subtract the forests and the craggy valleys, the wildernesses, and
the places, which, from various causes, are desert. The vast
quantity which remains of the earth478, or rather, as many persons
have considered it, this speck of a world479 (for the earth is no more
in regard to the universe), this is the object, the seat of our glory—
here we bear our honours, here we exercise our power, here we
covet wealth, here we mortals create our disturbances, here we
continually carry on our wars, aye, civil wars, even, and unpeople
the earth by mutual slaughter. And not to dwell on public feuds,
entered into by nations against each other, here it is that we drive
away our neighbours, and enclose the land thus seized upon within
our own fence480; and yet the man who has most extended his
boundary, and has expelled the inhabitants for ever so great a
distance, after all, what mighty portion of the earth is he master of?
And even when his avarice has been the most completely satisfied,
what part of it can he take with him into the grave?

CHAP. 69. (69.)—THAT THE EARTH IS IN THE MIDDLE OF
THE WORLD.

It is evident from undoubted arguments, that the earth is in the
middle of the universe481, but it is the most clearly proved by the
equality of the days and the nights at the equinox482. It is
demonstrated by the quadrant483, which affords the most decisive
confirmation of the fact, that unless the earth was in the middle, the
days and nights could not be equal; for, at the time of the equinox,
the rising and setting of the sun are seen on the same line, and the
rising of the sun, at the summer solstice, is on the same line with its
setting at the winter solstice; but this could not happen if the earth
was not situated in the centre.

CHAP. 70. (70.)—OF THE OBLIQUITY OF THE ZONES484.

The three circles485, which are connected with the above-
mentioned zones, distinguish the inequalities of the seasons; these
are, the solstitial circle, which proceeds from the part of the Zodiac
the highest to us and approaching the nearest to the district of the
north; on the other side, the brumal, which is towards the south
pole; and the equinoctial, which traverses the middle of the Zodiac.

CHAP. 71.—OF THE INEQUALITY OF CLIMATES.

The cause of the other things which are worthy of our admiration
depends on the figure of the earth itself, which, together with all its
waters, is proved, by the same arguments, to be a globe. This
certainly is the cause why the stars of the northern portion of the
heavens never set to us, and why, on the other hand, those in the
south never rise, and again, why the latter can never be seen by the
former, the globe of the earth rising up and concealing them. The
Northern Wain is never seen in Troglodytice486, nor in Egypt,
which borders on it487; nor can we, in Italy, see the star Canopus488,
or Berenice’s Hair489; nor what, under the Emperor Augustus, was
named Cæsar’s Throne, although they are, there490, very brilliant
stars. The curved form of the earth is so obvious, rising up like a
ridge, that Canopus appears to a spectator at Alexandria to rise
above the horizon almost the quarter of a sign; the same star at
Rhodes appears, as it were, to graze along the earth, while in
Pontus it is not seen at all; where the Northern Wain appears
considerably elevated. This same constellation cannot be seen at
Rhodes, and still less at Alexandria. In Arabia, in the month of
November, it is concealed during the first watch of the night, but
may be seen during the second491; in Meroë it is seen, for a short
time, in the evening, at the solstice, and it is visible at day-break,
for a few days before the rising of Arcturus492. These facts have
been principally ascertained by the expeditions of navigators; the
sea appearing more elevated or depressed in certain parts493; the
stars suddenly coming into view, and, as it were, emerging from the
water, after having been concealed by the bulging out of the
globe494. But the heavens do not, as some suppose, rise higher at
one pole, otherwise495 its stars would be seen from all parts of the

world; they indeed are supposed to be higher by those who are
nearest to them, but the stars are sunk below the horizon to those
who are more remote. As this pole appears to be elevated to those
who are beneath it; so, when we have passed along the convexity of
the earth, those stars rise up, which appear elevated to the
inhabitants of those other districts; all this, however, could not
happen unless the earth had the shape of a globe.

CHAP. 72.—IN WHAT PLACES ECLIPSES ARE INVISIBLE,
AND WHY THIS IS THE CASE.

Hence it is that the inhabitants of the east do not see those
eclipses of the sun or of the moon which occur in the evening, nor
the inhabitants of the west those in the morning, while such as take
place at noon are more frequently visible496. We are told, that at the
time of the famous victory of Alexander the Great, at Arbela497, the
moon was eclipsed at the second hour of the night, while, in Sicily,
the moon was rising at the same hour. The eclipse of the sun which
occurred the day before the calends of May, in the consulship of
Vipstanus and Fonteius498, not many years ago, was seen in
Campania between the seventh and eighth hour of the day; the
general Corbulo informs us, that it was seen in Armenia, between
the eleventh and twelfth hour499; thus the curve of the globe both
reveals and conceals different objects from the inhabitants of its
different parts. If the earth had been flat, everything would have
been seen at the same time, from every part of it, and the nights
would not have been unequal; while the equal intervals of twelve
hours, which are now observed only in the middle of the earth,
would in that case have been the same everywhere.

CHAP. 73. (71.)—WHAT REGULATES THE DAYLIGHT ON
THE EARTH.

Hence it is that there is not any one night and day the same, in all
parts of the earth, at the same time; the intervention of the globe
producing night, and its turning round producing day500. This is
known by various observations. In Africa and in Spain it is made
evident by the Towers of Hannibal501, and in Asia by the beacons,
which, in consequence of their dread of pirates, the people erected
for their protection; for it has been frequently observed, that the
signals, which were lighted at the sixth hour of the day, were seen
at the third hour of the night by those who were the most remote502.
Philonides, a courier of the above-mentioned Alexander, went from
Sicyon to Elis, a distance of 1200 stadia, in nine hours, while he
seldom returned until the third hour of the night, although the road
was down-hill503. The reason is, that, in going, he followed the
course of the sun, while on his return, in the opposite direction, he
met the sun and left it behind him. For the same reason it is, that
those who sail to the west, even on the shortest day, compensate for
the difficulty of sailing in the night and go farther504, because they
sail in the same direction with the sun.

CHAP. 74. (72.)—REMARKS ON DIALS, AS CONNECTED
WITH THIS SUBJECT.

The same dial-plates505 cannot be used in all places, the shadow
of the sun being sensibly different at distances of 300, or at most of
500 stadia506. Hence the shadow of the dial-pin, which is termed
the gnomon, at noon and at the summer solstice, in Egypt, is a little
more than half the length of the gnomon itself. At the city of Rome
it is only 1⁄9 less than the gnomon, at Ancona not more than 1⁄35 less,
while in the part of Italy which is called Venetia, at the same hour,
the shadow is equal to the length of the gnomon507.

CHAP. 75. (73.)—WHEN AND WHERE THERE ARE NO
SHADOWS.

It is likewise said, that in the town of Syene, which is 5000
stadia south of Alexandria508, there is no shadow at noon, on the
day of the solstice; and that a well, which was sunk for the purpose
of the experiment, is illuminated by the sun in every part. Hence it
appears that the sun, in this place, is vertical, and Onesicritus
informs us that this is the case, about the same time, in India, at the
river Hypasis509. It is well known, that at Berenice, a city of the
Troglodytæ, and 4820 stadia beyond that city, in the same country,
at the town of Ptolemais, which was built on the Red Sea, when the
elephant was first hunted, this same thing takes place for forty-five
days before the solstice and for an equal length of time after it, and
that during these ninety days the shadows are turned towards the
south510. Again, at Meroë, an island in the Nile and the metropolis
of the Æthiopians, which is 5000 stadia511 from Syene, there are no
shadows at two periods of the year, viz. when the sun is in the 18th
degree of Taurus and in the 14th of Leo512. The Oretes, a people of
India, have a mountain named Maleus513, near which the shadows
in summer fall towards the south and in winter towards the north.
The seven stars of the Great Bear are visible there for fifteen nights
only. In India also, in the celebrated sea-port Patale514, the sun rises
to the right hand and the shadows fall towards the south. While
Alexander was staying there it was observed, that the seven
northern stars were seen only during the early part of the night515.
Onesicritus, one of his generals, informs us in his work, that in
those places in India where there are no shadows, the seven stars
are not visible516; these places, he says, are called “Ascia517,” and
the people there do not reckon the time by hours518.

CHAP. 76. (74.)—-WHERE THIS TAKES PLACE TWICE IN
THE YEAR AND WHERE THE SHADOWS FALL IN
OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS.

Eratosthenes informs us, that in the whole of Troglodytice, for
twice forty-five days in the year, the shadows fall in the contrary
direction519.

CHAP. 77. (75.)—WHERE THE DAYS ARE THE LONGEST
AND WHERE THE SHORTEST.

Hence it follows, that in consequence of the daylight increasing
in various degrees, in Meroë the longest day consists of twelve
æquinoctial hours and eight parts of an hour520, at Alexandria of
fourteen hours, in Italy of fifteen, in Britain of seventeen; where the
degree of light, which exists in the night, very clearly proves, what
the reason of the thing also obliges us to believe, that, during the
solstitial period, as the sun approaches to the pole of the world, and
his orbit is contracted, the parts of the earth that lie below him have
a day of six months long, and a night of equal length when he is
removed to the south pole. Pytheas, of Marseilles521, informs us,
that this is the case in the island of Thule522, which is six days’ sail
from the north of Britain. Some persons also affirm that this is the
case in Mona, which is about 200 miles from Camelodunum523, a
town of Britain.

CHAP. 78. (76.)—OF THE FIRST DIAL.

Anaximenes the Milesian, the disciple of Anaximander, of whom
I have spoken above524, discovered the theory of shadows and what
is called the art of dialling, and he was the first who exhibited at
Lacedæmon the dial which they call sciothericon525.

CHAP. 79. (77.)—OF THE MODE IN WHICH THE DAYS ARE
COMPUTED.

The days have been computed by different people in different
ways. The Babylonians reckoned from one sunrise to the next; the
Athenians from one sunset to the next; the Umbrians from noon to
noon; the multitude, universally, from light to darkness; the Roman
priests and those who presided over the civil day, also the
Egyptians and Hipparchus, from midnight to midnight526. It
appears that the interval from one sunrise to the next is less near the
solstices than near the equinoxes, because the position of the zodiac
is more oblique about its middle part, and more straight near the
solstice527.

CHAP. 80. (78.)—OF THE DIFFERENCE OF NATIONS AS
DEPENDING ON THE NATURE OF THE WORLD.

To these circumstances we must add those that are connected
with certain celestial causes. There can be no doubt, that the
Æthiopians are scorched by their vicinity to the sun’s heat, and they
are born, like persons who have been burned, with the beard and
hair frizzled528; while, in the opposite and frozen parts of the earth,
there are nations with white skins and long light hair. The latter are
savage from the inclemency of the climate, while the former are
dull from its variableness529. We learn, from the form of the legs,
that in the one, the fluids, like vapour, are forced into the upper
parts of the body, while in the other, being a gross humour, it is
drawn downwards into the lower parts530. In the cold regions
savage beasts are produced, and in the others, various forms of
animals, and many kinds of birds531. In both situations the body
grows tall, in the one case by the force of fire, and in the other by
the nutritive moisture.
In the middle of the earth there is a salutary mixture of the two, a
tract fruitful in all things, the habits of the body holding a mean
between the two, with a proper tempering of colours; the manners
of the people are gentle, the intellect clear532, the genius fertile and
capable of comprehending every part of nature. They have formed
empires, which has never been done by the remote nations; yet
these latter have never been subjected by the former, being severed
from them and remaining solitary, from the effect produced on
them by their savage nature.

CHAP. 81. (79.)—OF EARTHQUAKES.

According to the doctrine of the Babylonians, earthquakes and
clefts of the earth, and occurrences of this kind, are supposed to be
produced by the influence of the stars, especially of the three to
which they ascribe thunder533; and to be caused by the stars moving
with the sun, or being in conjunction with it, and, more particularly,
when they are in the quartile aspect534. If we are to credit the report,
a most admirable and immortal spirit, as it were of a divine nature,
should be ascribed to Anaximander the Milesian, who, they say,
warned the Lacedæmonians to beware of their city and their
houses535. For he predicted that an earthquake was at hand, when
both the whole of their city was destroyed and a large portion of
Mount Taygetus, which projected in the form of a ship, was broken
off, and added farther ruin to the previous destruction. Another
prediction is ascribed to Pherecydes, the master of Pythagoras, and
this was divine; by a draught of water from a well, he foresaw and
predicted that there would be an earthquake in that place536. And if
these things be true, how nearly do these individuals approach to
the Deity, even during their lifetime! But I leave every one to judge
of these matters as he pleases. I certainly conceive the winds to be
the cause of earthquakes; for the earth never trembles except when
the sea is quite calm, and when the heavens are so tranquil that the
birds cannot maintain their flight, all the air which should support
them being withdrawn537; nor does it ever happen until after great
winds, the gust being pent up, as it were, in the fissures and
concealed hollows. For the trembling of the earth resembles
thunder in the clouds; nor does the yawning of the earth differ from
the bursting of the lightning; the enclosed air struggling and
striving to escape538.

CHAP. 82. (80.)—OF CLEFTS OF THE EARTH.

The earth is shaken in various ways, and wonderful effects are
produced539; in one place the walls of cities being thrown down,
and in others swallowed up by a deep cleft540; sometimes great
masses of earth are heaped up, and rivers forced out, sometimes
even flame and hot springs541, and at others the course of rivers is
turned. A terrible noise precedes and accompanies the shock542;
sometimes a murmuring, like the lowing of cattle, or like human
voices, or the clashing of arms. This depends on the substance
which receives the sound, and the shape of the caverns or crevices
through which it issues; it being more shrill from a narrow opening,
more hoarse from one that is curved, producing a loud
reverberation from hard bodies, a sound like a boiling fluid543 from
moist substances, fluctuating in stagnant water, and roaring when
forced against solid bodies. There is, therefore, often the sound
without any motion. Nor is it a simple motion, but one that is
tremulous and vibratory. The cleft sometimes remains, displaying
what it has swallowed up; sometimes concealing it, the mouth
being closed and the soil being brought over it, so that no vestige is
left; the city being, as it were, devoured, and the tract of country
engulfed. Maritime districts are more especially subject to shocks.
Nor are mountainous tracts exempt from them; I have found, by my
inquiries, that the Alps and the Apennines are frequently shaken.
The shocks happen more frequently in the autumn and in the
spring, as is the case also with thunder. There are seldom shocks in
Gaul and in Egypt; in the latter it depends on the prevalence of
summer, in the former, of winter. They also happen more
frequently in the night than in the day. The greatest shocks are in
the morning and the evening; but they often take place at day-
break, and sometimes at noon. They also take place during eclipses

of the sun and of the moon, because at that time storms are lulled.
They are most frequent when great heat succeeds to showers, or
showers succeed to great heat544.

CHAP. 83. (81.)—SIGNS OF AN APPROACHING
EARTHQUAKE.

There is no doubt that earthquakes are felt by persons on
shipboard, as they are struck by a sudden motion of the waves,
without these being raised by any gust of wind. And things that are
in the vessels shake as they do in houses, and give notice by their
creaking; also the birds, when they settle upon the vessels, are not
without their alarms. There is also a sign in the heavens; for, when
a shock is near at hand, either in the daytime or a little after sunset,
a cloud is stretched out in the clear sky, like a long thin line545. The
water in wells is also more turbid than usual, and it emits a
disagreeable odour546.

CHAP. 84. (82.)—PRESERVATIVES AGAINST FUTURE
EARTHQUAKES.

These same places547, however, afford protection, and this is also
the case where there is a number of caverns, for they give vent to
the confined vapour, a circumstance which has been remarked in
certain towns, which have been less shaken where they have been
excavated by many sewers. And, in the same town, those parts that
are excavated548 are safer than the other parts, as is understood to
be the case at Naples in Italy, the part of it which is solid being
more liable to injury. Arched buildings are also the most safe, also
the angles of walls, the shocks counteracting each other; walls
made of brick also suffer less from the shocks549. There is also a
great difference in the nature of the motions550, where various
motions are experienced. It is the safest when it vibrates and causes
a creaking in the building, and where it swells and rises upwards,
and settles with an alternate motion. It is also harmless when the
buildings coming together butt against each other in opposite
directions, for the motions counteract each other. A movement like
the rolling of waves is dangerous, or when the motion is impelled
in one direction. The tremors cease when the vapour bursts out551;
but if they do not soon cease, they continue for forty days;
generally, indeed, for a longer time: some have lasted even for one
or two years.

CHAP. 85. (83.)—PRODIGIES OF THE EARTH WHICH HAVE
OCCURRED ONCE ONLY.

A great prodigy of the earth, which never happened more than
once, I have found mentioned in the books of the Etruscan
ceremonies, as having taken place in the district of Mutina, during
the consulship of Lucius Martius and Sextus Julius552. Two
mountains rushed together, falling upon each other with a very loud
crash, and then receding; while in the daytime flame and smoke
issued from them; a great crowd of Roman knights, and families of
people, and travellers on the Æmilian way, being spectators of it.
All the farm-houses were thrown down by the shock, and a great
number of animals that were in them were killed; it was in the year
before the Social war; and I am in doubt whether this event or the
civil commotions were more fatal to the territory of Italy. The
prodigy which happened in our own age was no less wonderful; in
the last year of the emperor Nero553, as I have related in my history
of his times554, when certain fields and olive grounds in the district
of Marrucinum, belonging to Vectius Marcellus, a Roman knight,
the steward of Nero, changed places with each other555, although
the public highway was interposed.

CHAP. 86. (84.)—WONDERFUL CIRCUMSTANCES
ATTENDING EARTHQUAKES.

Inundations of the sea take place at the same time with
earthquakes556; the water being impregnated with the same spirit557,
and received into the bosom of the earth which subsides. The
greatest earthquake which has occurred in our memory was in the
reign of Tiberius558, by which twelve cities of Asia were laid
prostrate in one night. They occurred the most frequently during
the Punic war, when we had accounts brought to Rome of fifty-
seven earthquakes in the space of a single year. It was during this
year559 that the Carthaginians and the Romans, who were fighting
at the lake Thrasimenus, were neither of them sensible of a very
great shock during the battle560. Nor is it an evil merely consisting
in the danger which is produced by the motion; it is an equal or a
greater evil when it is considered as a prodigy561. The city of Rome
never experienced a shock, which was not the forerunner of some
great calamity.

CHAP. 87. (85.)—IN WHAT PLACES THE SEA HAS
RECEDED.

The same cause produces an increase of the land; the vapour,
when it cannot burst out forcibly lifting up the surface562. For the
land is not merely produced by what is brought down the rivers, as
the islands called Echinades are formed by the river Achelous, and
the greater part of Egypt by the Nile, where, according to Homer, it
was a day and a night’s journey from the main land to the island of
Pharos563; but, in some cases, by the receding of the sea, as,
according to the same author, was the case with the Circæan
isles564. The same thing also happened in the harbour of Ambracia,
for a space of 10,000 paces, and was also said to have taken place
for 5000 at the Piræus of Athens565, and likewise at Ephesus, where
formerly the sea washed the walls of the temple of Diana. Indeed,
if we may believe Herodotus566, the sea came beyond Memphis, as
far as the mountains of Æthiopia, and also from the plains of
Arabia. The sea also surrounded Ilium and the whole of Teuthrania,
and covered the plain through which the Mæander flows567.

CHAP. 88. (86.)—THE MODE IN WHICH ISLANDS RISE UP.

Land is sometimes formed in a different manner, rising suddenly
out of the sea, as if nature was compensating the earth for its
losses568, restoring in one place what she had swallowed up in
another.

CHAP. 89. (87.)—WHAT ISLANDS HAVE BEEN FORMED,
AND AT WHAT PERIODS.

Delos and Rhodes569, islands which have now been long famous,
are recorded to have risen up in this way. More lately there have
been some smaller islands formed; Anapha, which is beyond
Melos; Nea, between Lemnos and the Hellespont; Halone, between
Lebedos and Teos; Thera570 and Therasia, among the Cyclades, in
the fourth year of the 135th Olympiad571. And among the same
islands, 130 years afterwards, Hiera, also called Automate572, made
its appearance; also Thia, at the distance of two stadia from the
former, 110 years afterwards, in our own times, when M. Junius
Silanus and L. Balbus were consuls, on the 8th of the ides of
July573.
(88.) Opposite to us, and near to Italy, among the Æolian isles,
an island emerged from the sea; and likewise one near Crete, 2500
paces in extent, and with warm springs in it; another made its
appearance in the third year of the 163rd Olympiad574, in the
Tuscan gulf, burning with a violent explosion. There is a tradition
too that a great number of fishes were floating about the spot, and
that those who employed them for food immediately expired. It is
said that the Pithecusan isles rose up, in the same way, in the bay of
Campania, and that, shortly afterwards, the mountain Epopos, from
which flame had suddenly burst forth, was reduced to the level of
the neighbouring plain. In the same island, it is said, that a town
was sunk in the sea; that in consequence of another shock, a lake
burst out, and that, by a third, Prochytas was formed into an island,
the neighbouring mountains being rolled away from it.

CHAP 90.—LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN SEPARATED BY
THE SEA.

In the ordinary course of things islands are also formed by this
means. The sea has torn Sicily from Italy575, Cyprus from Syria,
Eubœa from Bœotia576, Atalante and Macris577 from Eubœa,
Besbycus from Bithynia, and Leucosia from the promontory of the
Sirens.

CHAP. 91. (89.)—ISLANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN UNITED TO
THE MAIN LAND.

Again, islands are taken from the sea and added to the main land;
Antissa578 to Lesbos, Zephyrium to Halicarnassus, Æthusa to
Myndus, Dromiscus and Perne to Miletus, Narthecusa to the
promontory of Parthenium. Hybanda, which was formerly an island
of Ionia, is now 200 stadia distant from the sea. Syries is now
become a part of Ephesus, and, in the same neighbourhood,
Derasidas and Sophonia form part of Magnesia; while Epidaurus
and Oricum are no longer islands579.

CHAP. 92. (90.)—LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN TOTALLY
CHANGED INTO SEAS.

The sea has totally carried off certain lands, and first of all, if we
are to believe Plato580, for an immense space where the Atlantic
ocean is now extended. More lately we see what has been produced
by our inland sea; Acarnania has been overwhelmed by the
Ambracian gulf, Achaia by the Corinthian, Europe and Asia by the
Propontis and Pontus. And besides these, the sea has rent asunder
Leucas, Antirrhium, the Hellespont, and the two Bosphori581.

CHAP. 93. (91.)—LANDS WHICH HAVE BEEN SWALLOWED
UP.

And not to speak of bays and gulfs, the earth feeds on itself; it
has devoured the very high mountain of Cybotus, with the town of
Curites; also Sipylus in Magnesia582, and formerly, in the same
place, a very celebrated city, which was called Tantalis; also the
land belonging to the cities Galanis and Gamales in Phœnicia,
together with the cities themselves; also Phegium, the most lofty
ridge in Æthiopia583. Nor are the shores of the sea more to be
depended upon.

CHAP. 94. (92.)—CITIES WHICH HAVE BEEN ABSORBED BY
THE SEA.

The sea near the Palus Mæotis has carried away Pyrrha and
Antissa, also Elice and Bura584 in the gulf of Corinth, traces of
which places are visible in the ocean. From the island Cea it has
seized on 30,000 paces, which were suddenly torn off, with many
persons on them. In Sicily also the half of the city of Tyndaris, and
all the part of Italy which is wanting585; in like manner it carried off
Eleusina in Bœotia586.

CHAP. 95. (93.)—OF VENTS587 IN THE EARTH.

But let us say no more of earthquakes and of whatever may be
regarded as the sepulchres of cities588; let us rather speak of the
wonders of the earth than of the crimes of nature. But, by Hercules!
the history of the heavens themselves would not be more difficult
to relate:—the abundance of metals, so various, so rich, so prolific,
rising up589 during so many ages; when, throughout all the world,
so much is, every day, destroyed by fire, by waste, by shipwreck,
by wars, and by frauds; and while so much is consumed by luxury
and by such a number of people:—the figures on gems, so
multiplied in their forms; the variously-coloured spots on certain
stones, and the whiteness of others, excluding everything except
light:—the virtues of medicinal springs, and the perpetual fires
bursting out in so many places, for so many ages:—the exhalation
of deadly vapours, either emitted from caverns590, or from certain
unhealthy districts; some of them fatal to birds alone, as at Soracte,
a district near the city591; others to all animals, except to man592,
while others are so to man also, as in the country of Sinuessa and
Puteoli. They are generally called vents, and, by some persons,
Charon’s sewers, from their exhaling a deadly vapour. Also at
Amsanctum, in the country of the Hirpini, at the temple of
Mephitis593, there is a place which kills all those who enter it. And
the same takes place at Hierapolis in Asia594, where no one can
enter with safety, except the priest of the great Mother of the Gods.
In other places there are prophetic caves, where those who are
intoxicated with the vapour which rises from them predict future
events595, as at the most noble of all oracles, Delphi. In which
cases, what mortal is there who can assign any other cause, than the

divine power of nature, which is everywhere diffused, and thus
bursts forth in various places?

CHAP. 96. (94.)—OF CERTAIN LANDS WHICH ARE ALWAYS
SHAKING, AND OF FLOATING ISLANDS.

There are certain lands which shake when any one passes over
them596; as in the territory of the Gabii, not far from the city of
Rome, there are about 200 acres which shake when cavalry passes
over it: the same thing takes place at Reate.
(95.) There are certain islands which are always floating597, as in
the territory of the Cæcubum598, and of the above-mentioned Reate,
of Mutina, and of Statonia. In the lake of Vadimonis and the waters
of Cutiliæ there is a dark wood, which is never seen in the same
place for a day and a night together. In Lydia, the islands named
Calaminæ are not only driven about by the wind, but may be even
pushed at pleasure from place to place, by poles: many citizens
saved themselves by this means in the Mithridatic war. There are
some small islands in the Nymphæus, called the Dancers599,
because, when choruses are sung, they are moved by the motions of
those who beat time. In the great Italian lake of Tarquinii, there are
two islands with groves on them, which are driven about by the
wind, so as at one time to exhibit the figure of a triangle and at
another of a circle; but they never form a square600.

CHAP. 97. (96.)—PLACES IN WHICH IT NEVER RAINS.

There is at Paphos a celebrated temple of Venus, in a certain
court of which it never rains; also at Nea, a town of Troas, in the
spot which surrounds the statue of Minerva: in this place also the
remains of animals that are sacrificed never putrefy601.

CHAP. 98.—THE WONDERS OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES
COLLECTED TOGETHER.

Near Harpasa, a town of Asia, there stands a terrific rock, which
may be moved by a single finger; but if it be pushed by the force of
the whole body, it resists602. In the Tauric peninsula, in the state of
the Parasini, there is a kind of earth which cures all wounds603.
About Assos, in Troas, a stone is found, by which all bodies are
consumed; it is called Sarcophagus604. There are two mountains
near the river Indus; the nature of one is to attract iron, of the other
to repel it: hence, if there be nails in the shoes, the feet cannot be
drawn off the one, or set down on the other605. It has been noticed,
that at Locris and Crotona, there has never been a pestilence, nor
have they ever suffered from an earthquake; in Lycia there are
always forty calm days before an earthquake. In the territory of
Argyripa the corn which is sown never springs up. At the altars of
Mucius, in the country of the Veii, and about Tusculum, and in the
Cimmerian Forest, there are places in which things that are pushed
into the ground cannot be pulled out again. The hay which is grown
in Crustuminium is noxious on the spot, but elsewhere it is
wholesome606.

CHAP. 99. (97.)—CONCERNING THE CAUSE OF THE
FLOWING AND EBBING OF THE SEA.

Much has been said about the nature of waters; but the most
wonderful circumstance is the alternate flowing and ebbing of the
tides, which exists, indeed, under various forms, but is caused by
the sun and the moon. The tide flows twice and ebbs twice between
each two risings of the moon, always in the space of twenty-four
hours. First, the moon rising with the stars607 swells out the tide,
and after some time, having gained the summit of the heavens, she
declines from the meridian and sets, and the tide subsides. Again,
after she has set, and moves in the heavens under the earth, as she
approaches the meridian on the opposite side, the tide flows in;
after which it recedes until she again rises to us. But the tide of the
next day is never at the same time with that of the preceding; as if
the planet was in attendance608, greedily drinking up the sea, and
continually rising in a different place from what she did the day
before. The intervals are, however, equal, being always of six
hours; not indeed in respect of any particular day or night or
place609, but equinoctial hours, and therefore they are unequal as
estimated by the length of common hours, since a greater number
of them610 fall on some certain days or nights, and they are never
equal everywhere except at the equinox. This is a great, most clear,
and even divine proof of the dullness of those, who deny that the
stars go below the earth and rise up again, and that nature presents
the same face in the same states of their rising and setting611; for
the course of the stars is equally obvious in the one case as in the
other, producing the same effect as when it is manifest to the sight.
There is a difference in the tides, depending on the moon, of a
complicated nature, and, first, as to the period of seven days. For

the tides are of moderate height from the new moon to the first
quarter; from this time they increase, and are the highest at the full:
they then decrease. On the seventh day they are equal to what they
were at the first quarter, and they again increase from the time that
she is at first quarter on the other side. At her conjunction with the
sun they are equally high as at the full. When the moon is in the
northern hemisphere, and recedes further from the earth, the tides
are lower than when, going towards the south, she exercises her
influence at a less distance612. After an interval of eight years, and
the hundredth revolution of the moon, the periods and the heights
of the tides return into the same order as at first, this planet always
acting upon them; and all these effects are likewise increased by
the annual changes of the sun613, the tides rising up higher at the
equinoxes, and more so at the autumnal than at the vernal; while
they are lower614 about the winter solstice, and still more so at the
summer solstice; not indeed precisely at the points of time which I
have mentioned, but a few days after615; for example, not exactly at
the full nor at the new moon, but after them; and not immediately
when the moon becomes visible or invisible, or has advanced to the
middle of her course, but generally about two hours later than the
equinoctial hours616; the effect of what is going on in the heavens
being felt after a short interval; as we observe with respect to
lightning, thunder, and thunderbolts.
But the tides of the ocean cover greater spaces and produce
greater inundations than the tides of the other seas; whether it be
that the whole of the universe taken together is more full of life
than its individual parts, or that the large open space feels more
sensibly the power of the planet, as it moves freely about, than
when restrained within narrow bounds. On which account neither
lakes nor rivers are moved in the same manner. Pytheas617 of
Massilia informs us, that in Britain the tide rises 80 cubits618.

Inland seas are enclosed as in a harbour, but, in some parts of them,
there is a more free space which obeys the influence619. Among
many other examples, the force of the tide will carry us in three
days from Italy to Utica, when the sea is tranquil and there is no
impulse from the sails620. But these motions are more felt about the
shores than in the deep parts of the seas, as in the body the
extremities of the veins feel the pulse, which is the vital spirit,
more than the other parts621. And in most estuaries, on account of
the unequal rising of the stars in each tract, the tides differ from
each other, but this respects the period, not the nature of them; as is
the case in the Syrtes.

CHAP. 100.—WHERE THE TIDES RISE AND FALL IN AN
UNUSUAL MANNER.

There are, however, some tides which are of a peculiar nature, as
in the Tauromenian Euripus622, where the ebb and flow is more
frequent than in other places, and in Eubœa, where it takes place
seven times during the day and the night. The tides intermit three
times during each month, being the 7th, 8th and 9th day of the
moon623. At Gades, which is very near the temple of Hercules,
there is a spring enclosed like a well, which sometimes rises and
falls with the ocean, and, at other times, in both respects contrary to
it. In the same place there is another well, which always agrees
with the ocean. On the shores of the Bætis624, there is a town where
the wells become lower when the tide rises, and fill again when it
ebbs; while at other times they remain stationary. The same thing
occurs in one well in the town of Hispalis625, while there is nothing
peculiar in the other wells. The Euxine always flows into the
Propontis, the water never flowing back into the Euxine626.

CHAP. 101. (98.)—WONDERS OF THE SEA.

All seas are purified at the full moon627; some also at stated
periods. At Messina and Mylæ a refuse matter, like dung628, is cast
up on the shore, whence originated the story of the oxen of the Sun
having had their stable at that place. To what has been said above
(not to omit anything with which I am acquainted) Aristotle adds,
that no animal dies except when the tide is ebbing. The observation
has been often made on the ocean of Gaul; but it has only been
found true with respect to man629.

CHAP. 102. (99.)—THE POWER OF THE MOON OVER THE
LAND AND THE SEA.

Hence we may certainly conjecture, that the moon is not unjustly
regarded as the star of our life630. This it is that replenishes the
earth631; when she approaches it, she fills all bodies, while, when
she recedes, she empties them. From this cause it is that shell-fish
grow with her increase632, and that those animals which are without
blood more particularly experience her influence; also, that the
blood of man is increased or diminished in proportion to the
quantity of her light; also that the leaves and vegetables generally,
as I shall describe in the proper place633, feel her influence, her
power penetrating all things.

CHAP. 103. (100.)—THE POWER OF THE SUN.

Fluids are dried up by the heat of the sun; we have therefore
regarded it as a masculine star, burning up and absorbing
everything634.

CHAP. 104.—WHY THE SEA IS SALT.

Hence it is that the widely-diffused sea is impregnated with the
flavour of salt, in consequence of what is sweet and mild being
evaporated from it, which the force of fire easily accomplishes;
while all the more acrid and thick matter is left behind; on which
account the water of the sea is less salt at some depth than at the
surface. And this is a more true cause of the acrid flavour, than that
the sea is the continued perspiration of the land635, or that the
greater part of the dry vapour is mixed with it, or that the nature of
the earth is such that it impregnates the waters, and, as it were,
medicates them636. Among the prodigies which have occurred,
there is one which happened when Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily,
was expelled from his kingdom; that, for the space of one day, the
water in the harbour became sweet.
(101.) The moon, on the contrary, is said to be a feminine and
delicate planet, and also nocturnal; also that it resolves humours
and draws them out, but does not carry them off. It is manifest that
the carcases of wild beasts are rendered putrid by its beams, that,
during sleep, it draws up the accumulated torpor into the head, that
it melts ice, and relaxes all things by its moistening spirit637. Thus
the changes of nature compensate each other, and are always
adequate to their destined purpose; some of them congealing the
elements of the stars and others dissolving them. The moon is said
to be fed by fresh, and the sun by salt water.

CHAP. 105. (102.)—WHERE THE SEA IS THE DEEPEST.

Fabianus638 informs us that the greatest depth of the sea is 15
stadia639. We learn from others, that in the Euxine, opposite to the
nation of the Coraxi, at what is called the Depths of the Euxine640,
about 300 stadia641 from the main land, the sea is immensely deep,
no bottom having been found.

CHAP. 106. (103.)—THE WONDERS OF FOUNTAINS AND
RIVERS.

It is very remarkable that fresh water should burst out close to
the sea, as from pipes. But there is no end to the wonders that are
connected with the nature of waters. Fresh water floats on sea
water, no doubt from its being lighter; and therefore sea water,
which is of a heavier nature642, supports better what floats upon it.
And, in some places, different kinds of fresh water float upon each
other; as that of the river which falls into the Fucinus; that of the
Addua into the Larius; of the Ticinus into the Verbanus; of the
Mincius into the Benacus; of the Ollius into the Sevinus; and of the
Rhone into the Leman lake643 (this last being beyond the Alps, the
others in Italy): all which rivers passing through the lakes for many
miles, generally carry off no more water than they bring with them.
The same thing is said to occur in the Orontes, a river of Syria, and
in many others.
Some rivers, from a real hatred of the sea, pass under it, as does
Arethusa, a fountain of Syracuse, in which the substances are found
that are thrown into the Alpheus; which, after flowing by Olympia,
is discharged into the sea, on the shore of the Peloponnesus644. The
Lycus in Asia645, the Erasinus in Argolis, and the Tigris646 in
Mesopotamia, sink into the earth and burst out again. Substances
which are thrown into the fountain of Æsculapius at Athens647 are
cast up at the fountain of Phalerum. The river which sinks into the
ground in the plain of Atinum648 comes up again at the distance of
twenty miles, and the Timavus does the same in Aquileia649.
In the lake Asphaltites, in Judæa, which produces bitumen, no
substance will sink, nor in the lake Arethusa650, in the Greater
Armenia: in this lake, although it contains nitre, fish are found. In

the country of the Salentini, near the town of Manduria, there is a
lake651 full to the brim, the waters of which are never diminished
by what is taken out of it, nor increased by what is added. Wood,
which is thrown into the river of the Cicones652, or into the lake
Velinus in Picenum, becomes coated with a stony crust, while in
the Surius, a river of Colchis, the whole substance becomes as hard
as stone. In the same manner, in the Silarus653, beyond Surrentum,
not only twigs which are immersed in it, but likewise leaves are
petrified; the water at the same time being proper for drinking. In
the stream which runs from the marsh of Reate654 there is a rock,
which continues to increase in size, and in the Red Sea olive-trees
and green shrubs are produced655.
There are many springs which are remarkable for their warmth.
This is the case even among the ridges of the Alps656, and in the sea
itself, between Italy and Ænaria, as in the bay of Baiæ, and in the
Liris and many other rivers657. There are many places in which
fresh water may be procured from the sea, as at the Chelidonian
Isles, and at Arados, and in the ocean at Gades. Green plants are
produced in the warm springs of Padua, frogs in those of Pisa, and
fish in those of Vetulonia in Etruria, which is not far from the sea.
In Casinas there is a cold river called Scatebra, which in summer is
more full of water658. In this, as in the river Stymphalis, in Arcadia,
small water-mice are produced. The fountain of Jupiter in Dodona,
although it is as cold as ice, and extinguishes torches that are
plunged into it, yet, if they be brought near it, it kindles them
again659. This spring always becomes dry at noon, from which
circumstance it is called Ἀναπαυόμενον660: it then increases and
becomes full at midnight, after which it again visibly decreases. In
Illyricum there is a cold spring, over which if garments are spread
they take fire. The pool of Jupiter Ammon, which is cold during the

day, is warm during the night661. In the country of the
Troglodytæ662, what they call the Fountain of the Sun, about noon
is fresh and very cold; it then gradually grows warm, and, at
midnight, becomes hot and saline663.
In the middle of the day, during summer, the source of the Po, as
if reposing itself, is always dry664. In the island of Tenedos there is
a spring, which, after the summer solstice, is full of water, from the
third hour of the night to the sixth665. The fountain Inopus, in the
island of Delos, decreases and increases in the same manner as the
Nile, and also at the same periods666. There is a small island in the
sea, opposite to the river Timavus, containing warm springs, which
increase and decrease at the same time with the tides of the sea667.
In the territory of Pitinum, on the other side of the Apennines, the
river Novanus, which during the solstice is quite a torrent, is dry in
the winter668.
In Faliscum, all the water which the oxen drink turns them
white; in Bœotia, the river Melas turns the sheep black; the
Cephissus, which flows out of a lake of the same name, turns them
white669; again, the Peneus turns them black, and the Xanthus, near
Ilium, makes them red, whence the river derives its name670. In
Pontus, the river Astaces waters certain plains, where the mares
give black milk, which the people use in diet. In Reate there is a
spring called Neminia, which rises up sometimes in one place and
sometimes in another, and in this way indicates a change in the
produce of the earth671. There is a spring in the harbour of
Brundisium that yields water which never becomes putrid at sea.
The water of the Lyncestis, which is said to be acidulous,
intoxicates like wine672; this is the case also in Paphlagonia673 and
in the territory of Calenum674. In the island of Andros, at the temple
of Father Bacchus, we are assured by Mucianus, who was thrice

consul, that there is a spring, which, on the nones of January,
always has the flavour of wine; it is called Διὸς Θεοδοσία675. Near
Nonacris, in Arcadia, the Styx676, which is not unlike it either in
odour or in colour, instantly destroys those who drink it. Also in
Librosus, a hill in the country of the Tauri, there are three springs
which inevitably produce death, but without pain. In the territory of
the Carrinenses in Spain677, two springs burst out close together,
the one of which absorbs everything, the other throws them out. In
the same country there is another spring, which gives to all the fish
the appearance of gold, although, when out of the water, they do
not differ in any respect from other fish. In the territory of Como,
near the Larian lake, there is a copious spring, which always swells
up and subsides again every hour678. In the island of Cydonea679,
before Lesbos, there is a warm fountain, which flows only during
the spring season. The lake Sinnaus680, in Asia, is impregnated with
wormwood, which grows about it. At Colophon, in the cave of the
Clarian Apollo, there is a pool, by the drinking of which a power is
acquired of uttering wonderful oracles; but the lives of those who
drink of it are shortened681. In our own times, during the last years
of Nero’s life, we have seen rivers flowing backwards, as I have
stated in my history of his times682.
And indeed who can be mistaken as to the fact, that all springs
are colder in summer than in winter683, as well as these other
wonderful operations of nature; that copper and lead sink when in a
mass, but float when spread out684; and of things that are equally
heavy, some will sink to the bottom, while others will remain on
the surface685; that heavy bodies are more easily moved in water686;
that a stone from Scyros, although very large, will float, while the
same, when broken into small pieces, sinks687; that the body of an
animal, newly deprived of life, sinks, but that, when it is swelled

out, it floats688; that empty vessels are drawn out of the water with
no more ease than those that are full689; that rain-water is more
useful for salt-pits than other kinds of water690; that salt cannot be
made, unless it is mixed with fresh water691; that salt water freezes
with more difficulty692, and is more readily heated693; that the sea is
warmer in winter694 and more salt in the autumn695; that everything
is soothed by oil, and that this is the reason why divers send out
small quantities of it from their mouths, because it smoothes any
part which is rough696 and transmits the light to them; that snow
never falls in the deep part of the sea697; that although water
generally has a tendency downwards, fountains rise up698, and that
this is the case even at the foot of Ætna699, burning as it does, so as
to force out the sand like a ball of flame to the distance of 150
miles?

CHAP. 107.—THE WONDERS OF FIRE AND WATER UNITED.

And now I must give an account of some of the wonders of fire,
which is the fourth element of nature; but first those produced by
means of water.

CHAP. 108. (104.)—OF MALTHA.

In Samosata, a city of Commagene700, there is a pool which
discharges an inflammable mud, called Maltha701. It adheres to
every solid body which it touches, and moreover, when touched, it
follows you, if you attempt to escape from it. By means of it the
people defended their walls against Lucullus, and the soldiers were
burned in their armour702. It is even set on fire in water. We learn
by experience that it can be extinguished only by earth.

CHAP. 109. (105.)—OF NAPHTHA.

Naphtha is a substance of a similar nature703 (it is so called about
Babylon, and in the territory of the Astaceni, in Parthia704), flowing
like liquid bitumen. It has a great affinity to fire, which instantly
darts on it wherever it is seen705. It is said, that in this way it was
that Medea burned Jason’s mistress; her crown having taken fire,
when she approached the altar for the purpose of sacrificing706.

CHAP. 110. (106.)—PLACES WHICH ARE ALWAYS
BURNING.

Among the wonders of mountains there is Ætna, which always
burns in the night707, and for so long a period has always had
materials for combustion, being in the winter buried in snow, and
having the ashes which it has ejected covered with frost. Nor is it in
this mountain alone that nature rages, threatening to consume the
earth708; in Phaselis, the mountain Chimæra burns, and indeed with
a continual flame, day and night709. Ctesias of Cnidos informs us,
that this fire is kindled by water, while it is extinguished by earth
and by hay710. In the same country of Lycia, the mountains of
Hephæstius, when touched with a flaming torch711, burn so
violently, that even the stones in the river and the sand burn, while
actually in the water: this fire is also increased by rain. If a person
makes furrows in the ground with a stick which has been kindled at
this fire, it is said that a stream of flame will follow it. The summit
of Cophantus, in Bactria712, burns during the night; and this is the
case in Media and at Sittacene713, on the borders of Persia; likewise
in Susa, at the White Tower, from fifteen apertures714, the greatest
of which also burns in the daytime. The plain of Babylon throws up
flame from a place like a fish-pond715, an acre in extent. Near
Hesperium, a mountain of the Æthiopians716, the fields shine in the
night-time like stars; the same thing takes place in the territory of
the Megalopolitani. This fire, however, is internal717, mild, and not
burning the foliage of a dense wood which is over it718. There is
also the crater of Nymphæum719, which is always burning, in the
neighbourhood of a cold fountain, and which, according to
Theopompus, presages direful calamities to the inhabitants of
Apollonia720. It is increased by rain721, and it throws out bitumen,

which, becoming mixed with the fountain, renders it unfit to be
tasted; it is, at other times, the weakest of all the bitumens. But
what are these compared to other wonders? Hiera, one of the
Æolian isles, in the middle of the sea, near Italy, together with the
sea itself, during the Social war, burned for several days722, until
expiation was made, by a deputation from the senate. There is a hill
in Æthiopia called Θεῶν ὄχημα723, which burns with the greatest
violence, throwing out flame that consumes everything, like the
sun724. In so many places, and with so many fires, does nature burn
the earth!

CHAP. 111. (107.)—WONDERS OF FIRE ALONE.

But since this one element is of so prolific a nature as to produce
itself, and to increase from the smallest spark, what must we
suppose will be the effect of all those funeral piles of the earth725?
What must be the nature of that thing, which, in all parts of the
world, supplies this most greedy voracity without destroying itself?
To these fires must be added those innumerable stars and the great
sun itself. There are also the fires made by men726, those which are
innate in certain kinds of stones, those produced by the friction of
wood727, and those in the clouds, which give rise to lightning. It
really exceeds all other wonders, that one single day should pass in
which everything is not consumed, especially when we reflect, that
concave mirrors placed opposite to the sun’s rays produce flame
more readily than any other kind of fire; and that numerous small
but natural fires abound everywhere. In Nymphæum there issues
from a rock a fire which is kindled by rain; it also issues from the
waters of the Scantia728. This indeed is a feeble flame, since it
passes off, remaining only a short time on any body to which it is
applied: an ash tree, which overshadows this fiery spring, remains
always green729. In the territory of Mutina fire issues from the
ground on the days that are consecrated to Vulcan730. It is stated by
some authors, that if a burning body falls on the fields below
Aricia731, the ground is set on fire; and that the stones in the
territory of the Sabines and of the Sidicini732, if they be oiled, burn
with flame. In Egnatia733, a town of Salentinum, there is a sacred
stone, upon which, when wood is placed, flame immediately bursts
forth. In the altar of Juno Lacinia734, which is in the open air, the
ashes remain unmoved, although the winds may be blowing from
all quarters.

It appears also that there are sudden fires both in waters and even
in the human body; that the whole of Lake Thrasymenus was on
fire735; that when Servius Tullius, while a child, was sleeping,
flame darted out from his head736; and Valerius Antias informs us,
that the same flame appeared about L. Marcius, when he was
pronouncing the funeral oration over the Scipios, who were killed
in Spain; and exhorting the soldiers to avenge their death. I shall
presently mention more facts of this nature, and in a more distinct
manner; in this place these wonders are mixed up with other
subjects. But my mind, having carried me beyond the mere
interpretation of nature, is anxious to lead, as it were by the hand,
the thoughts of my readers over the whole globe.

CHAP. 112. (108.)—THE DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH.

Our part of the earth, of which I propose to give an account,
floating as it were in the ocean which surrounds it (as I have
mentioned above737), stretches out to the greatest extent from east
to west, viz. from India to the Pillars consecrated to Hercules at
Gades, being a distance of 8568 miles738, according to the
statement of Artemidorus739, or according to that of Isidorus740,
9818 miles. Artemidorus adds to this 491 miles, from Gades, going
round by the Sacred Promontory, to the promontory of Artabrum741,
which is the most projecting part of Spain.
This measurement may be taken in two directions. From the
Ganges, at its mouth, where it discharges itself into the Eastern
ocean, passing through India and Parthyene, to Myriandrus742, a
city of Syria, in the bay of Issus, is a distance of 5215 miles743.
Thence, going directly by sea, by the island of Cyprus, Patara in
Lycia, Rhodes, and Astypalæa, islands in the Carpathian sea, by
Tænarum in Laconia, Lilybæum in Sicily and Calaris in Sardinia, is
2103 miles. Thence to Glades is 1250 miles, making the whole
distance from the Eastern ocean 8568 miles744.
The other way, which is more certain, is chiefly by land. From
the Ganges to the Euphrates is 5169 miles; thence to Mazaca, a
town in Cappadocia, is 319 miles; thence, through Phrygia and
Caria, to Ephesus is 415 miles; from Ephesus, across the Ægean
sea to Delos, is 200 miles; to the Isthmus is 2121⁄2 miles; thence,
first by land and afterwards by the sea of Lechæum and the gulf of
Corinth, to Patræ in Peloponnesus, 90 miles; to the promontory of
Leucate 871⁄2 miles; as much more to Corcyra; to the
Acroceraunian mountains 1321⁄2, to Brundisium 871⁄2, and to Rome

360 miles. To the Alps, at the village of Scingomagum745, is 519
miles; through Gaul to Illiberis at the Pyrenees, 927; to the ocean
and the coast of Spain, 331 miles; across the passage of Gades 71⁄2
miles; which distances, according to the estimate of Artemidorus,
make altogether 8945 miles.
The breadth of the earth, from south to north, is commonly
supposed to be about one-half only of its length, viz. 4490 miles;
hence it is evident how much the heat has stolen from it on one side
and the cold on the other: for I do not suppose that the land is
actually wanting, or that the earth has not the form of a globe; but
that, on each side, the uninhabitable parts have not been
discovered. This measure then extends from the coast of the
Æthiopian ocean, the most distant part which is habitable, to
Meroë, 1000 miles746; thence to Alexandria 1250; to Rhodes 562;
to Cnidos 871⁄2; to Cos 25; to Samos 100; to Chios 94; to Mitylene
65; to Tenedos 44; to the promontory of Sigæum 121⁄2; to the
entrance of the Euxine 3121⁄2; to the promontory of Carambis 350;
to the entrance of the Palus Mæotis 3121⁄2; and to the mouth of the
Tanais 275 miles, which distance, if we went by sea, might be
shortened 89 miles. Beyond the Tanais the most diligent authors
have not been able to obtain any accurate measurement.
Artemidorus supposes that everything beyond is undiscovered,
since he confesses that, about the Tanais, the tribes of the Sarmatæ
dwell, who extend towards the north pole. Isidorus adds 1250
miles, as the distance to Thule747; but this is mere conjecture. For
my part, I believe that the boundaries of Sarmatia really extend to
as great a distance as that mentioned above: for if it were not very
extensive, how could it contain the innumerable tribes that are
always changing their residence? And indeed I consider the
uninhabitable portion of the world to be still greater; for it is well

known that there are innumerable islands lying off the coast of
Germany748, which have been only lately discovered.
The above is all that I consider worth relating about the length
and the breadth of the earth749. But Eratosthenes750, a man who was
peculiarly well skilled in all the more subtle parts of learning, and
in this above everything else, and a person whom I perceive to be
approved by every one, has stated the whole of this circuit to be
252,000 stadia, which, according to the Roman estimate, makes
31,500 miles. The attempt is presumptuous, but it is supported by
such subtle arguments that we cannot refuse our assent.
Hipparchus751, whom we must admire, both for the ability with
which he controverts Eratosthenes, as well as for his diligence in
everything else, has added to the above number not much less than
25,000 stadia.
(109.) Dionysodorus is certainly less worthy of confidence752;
but I cannot omit this most remarkable instance of Grecian vanity.
He was a native of Melos, and was celebrated for his knowledge of
geometry; he died of old age in his native country. His female
relations, who inherited his property, attended his funeral, and
when they had for several successive days performed the usual
rites, they are said to have found in his tomb an epistle written in
his own name to those left above; it stated that he had descended
from his tomb to the lowest part of the earth, and that it was a
distance of 42,000 stadia. There were not wanting certain
geometricians, who interpreted this epistle as if it had been sent
from the middle of the globe, the point which is at the greatest
distance from the surface, and which must necessarily be the centre
of the sphere. Hence the estimate has been made that it is 252,000
stadia in circumference.

CHAP. 113.—THE HARMONICAL PROPORTION OF THE
UNIVERSE.

That harmonical proportion, which compels nature to be always
consistent with itself, obliges us to add to the above measure,
12,000 stadia; and this makes the earth one ninety-sixth part of the
whole universe.

Summary.—The facts, statements, and observations contained in
this Book amount in number to 417.
Roman authors quoted.—M. Varro753, Sulpicius Gallus754, Titus
Cæsar755 the Emperor, Q. Tubero756, Tullius Tiro757, L. Piso758, T.
Livius759, Cornelius Nepos760, Sebosus761, Cælius Antipater762,
Fabianus763, Antias764, Mucianus765, Cæcina766, who wrote on the
Etruscan discipline, Tarquitius767, who did the same, Julius
Aquila768, who also did the same, and Sergius769.
Foreign authors quoted.—Plato770, Hipparchus771, Timæus772,
Sosigenes773, Petosiris774, Necepsos775, the Pythagorean776
Philosophers, Posidonius777, Anaximander778, Epigenes779 the
philosopher who wrote on Gnomonics, Euclid780, Cœranus781 the
philosopher, Eudoxus782, Democritus783, Critodemus784,
Thrasyllus785, Serapion786, Dicæarchus787, Archimedes788,
Onesicritus789, Eratosthenes790, Pytheas791, Herodotus792,
Aristotle793, Ctesias794, Artemidorus795 of Ephesus, Isidorus796 of
Charax, and Theopompus797.

BOOK III.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS,
HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND
PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

INTRODUCTION.
Thus far have I treated of the position and the wonders of the earth,
of the waters, the stars, and the proportion of the universe and its
dimensions. I shall now proceed to describe its individual parts;
although indeed we may with reason look upon the task as of an
infinite nature, and one not to be rashly commenced upon without
incurring censure. And yet, on the other hand, there is nothing
which ought less to require an apology, if it is only considered how
far from surprising it is that a mere mortal cannot be acquainted
with everything. I shall therefore not follow any single author, but
shall employ, in relation to each subject, such writers as I shall look
upon as most worthy of credit. For, indeed, it is the characteristic of
nearly all of them, that they display the greatest care and accuracy
in the description of the countries in which they respectively
flourished; so that by doing this, I shall neither have to blame nor
contradict any one.
The names of the different places will here be simply given, and
as briefly as possible; the account of their celebrity, and the events
which have given rise thereto, being deferred to a more appropriate
occasion; for it must be remembered that I am here speaking of the
earth as a whole, and I wish to be understood as using the names
without any reference whatever to their celebrity, and as though the
places themselves were in their infancy, and had not as yet acquired

any fame through great events. The name is mentioned, it is true,
but only as forming a part of the world and the system of the
universe.
The whole globe is divided into three parts, Europe, Asia, and
Africa. Our description commences where the sun sets and at the
Straits of Gades798, where the Atlantic ocean, bursting in, is poured
forth into the inland seas. As it makes its entrance from that side,
Africa is on the right hand and Europe on the left; Asia lies
between them799; the boundaries being the rivers Tanais800 and
Nile. The Straits of the ocean, of which I have just spoken, extend
fifteen miles in length and five801 in breadth, measured from the
village of Mellaria802 in Spain to the Album Promontorium803 or
White Promontory in Africa, as we learn from Turranius Gracilis,
who was born in that vicinity. Titus Livius and Cornelius Nepos
however have stated the breadth, where it is least, to be seven
miles, and where greatest, ten; from so small a mouth as this does
so immense an expanse of water open upon us! Nor is our
astonishment diminished by the fact of its being of great depth; for,
instead of that, there are numerous breakers and shoals, white with
foam, to strike the mariner with alarm. From this circumstance it is,
that many have called this spot the threshold of The Inland Sea.
At the narrowest part of the Straits, there are mountains placed to
form barriers to the entrance on either side, Abyla804 in Africa, and
Calpe805 in Europe, the boundaries formerly of the labours of
Hercules806. Hence it is that the inhabitants have called them the
Columns of that god; they also believe that they were dug through
by him; upon which the sea, which was before excluded, gained
admission, and so changed the face of nature.

CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE BOUNDARIES AND GULFS OF EUROPE
FIRST SET FORTH IN A GENERAL WAY.

I shall first then speak of Europe, the foster-mother of that
people which has conquered all other nations, and itself by far the
most beauteous portion of the earth. Indeed, many persons have,
not without reason807, considered it, not as a third part only of the
earth, but as equal to all the rest, looking upon the whole of our
globe as divided into two parts only, by a line drawn from the river
Tanais to the Straits of Gades. The ocean, after pouring the waters
of the Atlantic through the inlet which I have here described, and,
in its eager progress, overwhelming all the lands which have had to
dread its approach, skirts with its winding course the shores of
those parts which offer a more effectual resistance, hollowing out
the coast of Europe especially into numerous bays, among which
there are four Gulfs that are more particularly remarkable. The first
of these begins at Calpe, which I have previously mentioned, the
most distant mountain of Spain; and bends, describing an immense
curve, as far as Locri and the Promontory of Bruttium808.

CHAP. 2.—OF SPAIN GENERALLY.

The first land situate upon this Gulf is that which is called the
Farther Spain or Bætica809; next to which, beginning at the frontier
town of Urgi810, is the Nearer, or Tarraconensian811 Spain,
extending as far as the chain of the Pyrenees. The Farther Spain is
divided lengthwise into two provinces, Lusitania812 and Bætica, the
former stretching along the northern side of the latter, and being
divided from it by the river Ana813.
The source of this river is in the district of Laminium814, in the
Nearer Spain. It first spreads out into a number of small lakes, and
then again contracts itself into a narrow channel, or entirely
disappears under ground815, and after frequently disappearing and
again coming to light, finally discharges itself into the Atlantic
Ocean. Tarraconensian Spain lies on one side, contiguous to the
Pyrenees, running downwards along the sides of that chain, and,
stretching across from the Iberian Sea to the Gallic ocean816, is
separated from Bætica and Lusitania by Mount Solorius817, the
chains of the Oretani818 and the Carpetani819, and that of the
Astures820.

CHAP. 3.—OF BÆTICA.

Bætica, so called from the river which divides it in the middle,
excels all the other provinces in the richness of its cultivation and
the peculiar fertility and beauty of its vegetation.
It consists of four jurisdictions, those of Gades821, of Corduba822,
of Astigi823, and of Hispalis824. The total number of its towns is
175; of these nine are colonies825, and eight municipal towns826;
twenty-nine have been long since presented with the old Latin
rights827; six are free towns828, three federate829, and 120 tributary.
In this district, the things that more especially deserve notice, or
are more easily explained in the Latin tongue, are the following,
beginning at the river Ana, along the line of the sea-shore; the town
of Onoba, surnamed Æstuaria830; the rivers Luxia and Urium831,
flowing through this territory between the Ana and the Bætis; the
Marian832 Mountains; the river Bætis; the coast of Corum833, with
its winding bay; opposite to which is Gades, of which we shall
have occasion to speak among the islands834. Next comes the
Promontory of Juno835, and the port of Bæsippo836; the towns of
Bœlo837 and Mellaria838, at which latter begin the Straits of the
Atlantic; Carteia839, called by the Greeks Tartessos840; and the
mountain of Calpe.
Along the coast of the inland sea841 is the town of Barbesula842
with its river; also Salduba843; the town of Suel844; and then
Malaca845, with its river, one of the federate towns. Next to this
comes Mænoba846, with its river; then Sexifirmum847, surnamed
Julium; Selambina848; Abdera849; and Murci850, which is at the
boundary of Bætica. M. Agrippa supposed that all this coast was
peopled by colonists of Punic origin. Beyond the Anas, and facing

the Atlantic, is the country of the Bastuli851 and the Turditani. M.
Varro informs us, that the Iberians, the Persians, the Phœnicians,
the Celts, and the Carthaginians spread themselves over the whole
of Spain; that the name “Lusitania” is derived from the games
(lusus) of Father Bacchus, or the fury (lyssa852) of his frantic
attendants, and that Pan853 was the governor of the whole of it. But
the traditions respecting Hercules854 and Pyrene, as well as Saturn,
I conceive to be fabulous in the highest degree.
The Bætis does not rise, as some writers have asserted, near the
town of Mentisa855, in the province of Tarraco, but in the
Tugiensian Forest856; and near it rises the river Tader857, which
waters the territory of Carthage858. At Ilorcum859 it turns away from
the Funeral Pile860 of Scipio; then taking a sweep to the left, it falls
into the Atlantic Ocean, giving its name to this province: at its
source it is but small, though during its course it receives many
other streams, which it deprives as well of their waters as their
renown. It first enters Bætica in Ossigitania861, and glides gently,
with a smooth current, past many towns situate on either side of its
banks.
Between this river and the sea-shore the most celebrated places
inland are Segida862, also surnamed Augurina; Julia863, called
Fidentia; Urgao864 or Alba, Ebora865 or Cerealis, Iliberri866 or
Liberini, Ilipula867 or Laus, Artigi868 or Julienses, Vesci869 or
Faventia, Singili870, Attegua871, Arialdunum, Agla Minor872,
Bæbro873, Castra Vinaria874, Cisimbrium875, Hippo Nova or New
Hippo876, Ilurco877, Osca878, Escua879, Sucubo880, Nuditanum, Old
Tuati881; all which towns are in that part of Bastitania which
extends towards the sea, but in the jurisdiction882 of Corduba. In the
neighbourhood of the river itself is Ossigi883, also surnamed
Laconicum, Iliturgi884 or Forum Julium, Ipasturgi885 or Triumphale,

Setia, and, fourteen miles inland, Obulco886, which is also called
Pontificense.
Next to these comes Epora887, a federate town, Sacili888
Martialium, and Onoba889. On the right bank is Corduba, a Roman
colony, surnamed Patricia890; here the Bætis first becomes
navigable. There are also the towns of Carbula and Detunda891, and
the river Singulis892, which falls into the Bætis on the same side.
The towns in the jurisdiction of Hispalis are the following: Celti,
Arua893, Canama894, Evia, Ilipa895, surnamed Illa, and Italica896. On
the left of the river is the colony of Hispalis897 named Romuliensis,
and, on the opposite side898, the town of Osset899, surnamed Julia
Constantia, Vergentum, or Julî Genius900, Orippo, Caura901, Siarum,
and the river Menoba902, which enters the Bætis on its right bank.
Between the æstuaries of the Bætis lie the towns of Nebrissa903,
surnamed Veneria, and of Colobona904. The colonies are, Asta905,
which is also called Regia, and, more inland, that of Asido906,
surnamed Cæsariana.
The river Singulis, discharging itself into the Bætis at the place
already mentioned, washes the colony of Astigi907, surnamed
Augusta Firma, at which place it becomes navigable. The other
colonies in this jurisdiction which are exempt from tribute are
Tucci, surnamed Augusta Gemella908, Itucci called Virtus Julia909,
Attubi or Claritas Julia910, Urso911 or Genua Urbanorum; and
among them in former times Munda912, which was taken with the
son of Pompey. The free towns are Old Astigi913 and Ostippo914; the
tributary towns are Callet, Callecula, Castra Gemina, the Lesser
Ilipula, Merucra, Sacrana, Obulcula915, and Oningis. As you move
away from the sea-coast, near where the river Menoba is navigable,
you find, at no great distance, the Alontigiceli and the Alostigi916.

The country which extends from the Bætis to the river Anas,
beyond the districts already described, is called Bæturia, and is
divided into two parts and the same number of nations; the
Celtici917, who border upon Lusitania, in the jurisdiction of
Hispalis, and the Turduli, who dwell on the verge918 of Lusitania
and Tarraconensis, and are under the protection of the laws of
Corduba. It is evident that the Celtici have sprung from the
Celtiberi, and have come from Lusitania, from their religious rites,
their language, and the names of their towns, which in Bætica are
distinguished by the following epithets919, which have been given
to them. Seria has received the surname of Fama Julia920,
Nertobriga that of Concordia Julia921, Segida that of Restituta
Julia922, and Contributa923 that of Julia. What is now Curiga was
formerly Ucultuniacum, Constantia Julia924 was Laconimurgis, the
present Fortunales were the Tereses925, and the Emanici were the
Callenses926. Besides these, there are in Celtica the towns of
Acinippo927, Arunda928, Aruci929, Turobriga, Lastigi, Salpesa,
Sæpone, and Serippo.
The other Bæturia, which we have mentioned, is inhabited by the
Turduli, and, in the jurisdiction of Corduba, has some towns which
are by no means inconsiderable; Arsa930, Mellaria931, Mirobriga932,
and Sisapo933, in the district of Osintias.
To the jurisdiction of Gades belongs Regina, with Roman
citizens; and Læpia, Ulia934, Carisa935 surnamed Aurelia, Urgia936
or Castrum Julium, likewise called Cæsaris Salutariensis, all of
which enjoy the Latian rights. The tributary towns are Besaro,
Belippo937, Barbesula, Lacippo, Bæsippo, Callet, Cappacum,
Oleastro, Ituci, Brana, Lacibi, Saguntia938, and Audorisæ.

M. Agrippa has also stated the whole length of this province to
be 475 miles939, and its breadth 257; but this was at a time when its
boundaries extended to Carthage940, a circumstance which has
often caused great errors in calculations; which are generally the
result either of changes effected in the limits of provinces, or of the
fact that in the reckoning of distances the length of the miles has
been arbitrarily increased or diminished. In some parts too the sea
has been long making encroachments upon the land, and in others
again the shores have advanced; while the course of rivers in this
place has become more serpentine, in that more direct. And then,
besides, some writers begin their measurements at one place, and
some at another, and so proceed in different directions; and hence
the result is, that no two accounts agree.
(2.) At the present day the length of Bætica, from the town of
Castulo941, on its frontier, to Gades is 250 miles, and from Murci,
which lies on the sea-coast, twenty-five miles more. The breadth,
measured from the coast of Carteia, is 234 miles. Who is there that
can entertain the belief that Agrippa, a man of such extraordinary
diligence, and one who bestowed so much care on his subject,
when he proposed to place before the eyes of the world a survey of
that world, could be guilty of such a mistake as this, and that too
when seconded by the late emperor the divine Augustus? For it was
that emperor who completed the Portico942 which had been begun
by his sister, and in which the survey was to be kept, in conformity
with the plan and descriptions of M. Agrippa.

CHAP. 4. (3.)—OF NEARER SPAIN.

The ancient form of the Nearer Spain, like that of many other
provinces, is somewhat changed, since the time when Pompey the
Great, upon the trophies which he erected in the Pyrenees, testified
that 877 towns, from the Alps to the borders of the Farther Spain,
had been reduced to subjection by him. The whole province is now
divided into seven jurisdictions, those of Carthage943, of Tarraco, of
Cæsar Augusta944, of Clunia945, of Asturica946, of Lucus947, and of
the Bracari948. To these are to be added the islands, which will be
described on another occasion, as also 293 states which are
dependent on others; besides which the province contains 179
towns. Of these, twelve are colonies, thirteen, towns with the rights
of Roman citizens, eighteen with the old Latian rights, one
confederate, and 135 tributary.
The first people that we come to on the coast are the Bastuli;
after whom, proceeding according to the order which I shall follow,
as we go inland, there are the Mentesani, the Oretani, and the
Carpetani on the Tagus, and next to them the Vaccæi, the Vectones,
and the Celtiberian Arevaci. The towns nearest to the coast are
Urci, and Barea949 included in Bætica, the district of Mavitania,
next to it Deitania, and then Contestania, and the colony of
Carthago Nova; from the Promontory of which, known as the
Promontorium Saturni950, to the city of Cæsarea951 in Mauritania,
the passage is a distance of 187 miles. The remaining objects
worthy of mention on the coast are the river Tader952, and the free
colony of Ilici953, whence the Ilicitanian Gulf954 derives its name; to
this colony the Icositani are subordinate.

We next have Lucentum955, holding Latian rights; Dianium956, a
tributary town; the river Sucro957, and in former times a town of the
same name, forming the frontier of Contestania. Next is the district
of Edetania, with the delightful expanse of a lake958 before it, and
extending backward to Celtiberia. Valentia959, a colony, is situate
three miles from the sea, after which comes the river Turium960,
and Saguntum961 at the same distance, a town of Roman citizens
famous for its fidelity, the river Uduba962, and the district of the
Ilergaones963. The Iberus964, a river enriched by its commerce, takes
its rise in the country of the Cantabri, not far from the town of
Juliobriga965, and flows a distance of 450 miles; 260 of which, from
the town of Varia966 namely, it is available for the purposes of
navigation. From this river the name of Iberia has been given by
the Greeks to the whole of Spain.
Next comes the district of Cossetania, the river Subi967, and the
colony of Tarraco, which was built by the Scipios as Carthage968
was by the Carthaginians. Then the district of the Ilergetes, the
town of Subur969, and the river Rubricatum970, beyond which begin
the Laletani and the Indigetes971. Behind these, in the order in
which they will be mentioned, going back from the foot of the
Pyrenees, are the Ausetani972, the Lacetani973, and along the
Pyrenees, the Cerretani974, next to whom are the Vascones975. On
the coast is the colony of Barcino976, surnamed Faventia; Bætulo977
and Iluro978, towns with Roman citizens; the river Larnum979,
Blandæ980, the river Alba981; Emporiæ982, a city consisting of two
parts, one peopled by the original inhabitants, the other by the
Greek descendants of the Phocæans; and the river Ticher983. From
this to the Venus Pyrenæa984, on the other side of the Promontory, is
a distance of forty miles.

I shall now proceed to give an account of the more remarkable
things in these several jurisdictions, in addition to those which have
been already mentioned. Forty-three different peoples are subject to
the jurisdiction of the courts of Tarraco: of these the most famous
are—holding the rights of Roman citizens, the Dertusani985 and the
Bisgargitani; enjoying Latian rights, the Ausetani, and the
Cerretani, both Julian and Augustan, the Edetani986, the
Gerundenses987, the Gessorienses988, and the Teari989, also called
Julienses. Among the tributaries are the Aquicaldenses990, the
Onenses, and the Bæculonenses991.
Cæsar Augusta, a free colony, watered by the river Iberus, on the
site of the town formerly called Salduba, is situate in the district of
Edetania, and is the resort of fifty-five nations. Of these there are,
with the rights of Roman citizens, the Bellitani992, the Celsenses993,
a former colony, the Calagurritani994, surnamed the Nassici, the
Ilerdenses995, of the nation of the Surdaones, near whom is the river
Sicoris, the Oscenses996 in the district of Vescitania, and the
Turiasonenses997. Of those enjoying the rights of the ancient Latins,
there are the Cascantenses998, the Ergavicenses999, the
Graccuritani1000, the Leonicenses1001, and the Osicerdenses; of
federate states, there are the Tarragenses1002; and of tributaries, the
Arcobrigenses1003, the Andologenses1004, the Aracelitani1005, the
Bursaonenses1006, the Calagurritani1007, who are also surnamed the
Fibularenses, the Complutenses1008, the Carenses1009, the
Cincenses1010, the Cortonenses, the Damanitani1011, the
Larnenses1012, the Lursenses1013, the Lumberitani1014, the Lacetani,
the Lubienses, the Pompelonenses1015, and the Segienses.

Sixty-five different nations resort to Carthage1016, besides the
inhabitants of the islands. Of the Accitanian1017 colony, there are
the Gemellenses, and the town of Libisosona1018, surnamed
Foroaugustana, to both of which have been granted Italian1019
rights. Of the colony of Salaria1020, there are the people of the
following towns, enjoying the rights of ancient Latium: the
Castulonenses, also called the Cæsari Venales, the Sætabitani1021 or
Augustani, and the Valerienses1022. The best known among the
tributaries are the Alabanenses1023, the Bastitani1024, the
Consaburrenses1025, the Dianenses1026, the Egelestani1027, the
Ilorcitani1028, the Laminitani, the Mentesani1029, both those called
Oritani and those called Bastuli, and the Oretani who are surnamed
Germani1030, the people of Segobriga1031 the capital of Celtiberia,
those of Toletum1032 the capital of Carpetania, situate on the river
Tagus, and after them the Viatienses and the Virgilienses1033.
To the jurisdiction of Clunia1034 the Varduli contribute fourteen
nations, of whom we need only particularize the Albanenses1035, the
Turmodigi1036, consisting of four tribes, among which are the
Segisamonenses1037 and the Segisamaiulienses. To the same
jurisdiction belong the Carietes1038 and the Vennenses with five
states, among which are the Velienses. Thither too resort the
Pelendones of the Celtiberians, in four different nations, among
whom the Numantini1039 were especially famous. Also, among the
eighteen states of the Vaccæi, there are the Intercatienses1040, the
Pallantini1041, the Lacobrigenses, and the Caucenses1042. But among
the seven peoples belonging to the Cantabri, Juliobriga1043 is the
only place worthy of mention; and of the ten states of the
Autrigones, Tritium and Virovesca1044. The river Areva1045 gives its
name to the Arevaci; of whom there are six towns, Segontia1046 and
Uxama1047, names which are frequently given to other places, as

also Segovia1048 and Nova Augusta, Termes1049, and Clunia itself,
the frontier of Celtiberia. The remaining portion turns off towards
the ocean, being occupied by the Varduli, already mentioned, and
the Cantabri.
Next upon these touch the twenty-two nations of the Astures,
who are divided into the Augustani1050 and the Transmontani, with
the magnificent city of Asturica. Among these we have the
Cigurri1051, the Pæsici, the Lancienses1052, and the Zoëlæ1053. The
total number of the free population amounts to 240,000 persons.
The jurisdiction of Lucus1054 embraces, besides the Celtici and
the Lebuni, sixteen different nations, but little known and with
barbarous names. The number however of the free population
amounts to nearly 166,000.
In a similar manner the twenty-four states of the jurisdiction of
the Bracari contain a population of 175,000, among whom, besides
the Bracari1055 themselves, we may mention, without wearying the
reader, the Bibali, the Cœlerni, the Gallæci, the Hequæsi, the
Limici, and the Querquerni.
The length of the Nearer Spain, from the Pyrenees to the frontier
of Castulo, is 6071056 miles, and a little more if we follow the line
of the coast; while its breadth, from Tarraco to the shore of
Olarson1057, is 3071058 miles. From the foot of the Pyrenees, where
it is wedged in by the near approach of the two seas, it gradually
expands until it touches the Farther Spain, and thereby acquires a
width more than double1059.
Nearly the whole of Spain abounds in mines1060 of lead, iron,
copper, silver, and gold; in the Nearer Spain there is also found
lapis specularis1061; in Bætica there is cinnabar. There are also
quarries of marble. The Emperor Vespasianus Augustus, while still

harassed by the storms that agitated the Roman state, conferred the
Latian rights on the whole of Spain. The Pyrenean mountains
divide Spain from Gaul, their extremities projecting into the two
seas on either side.

CHAP. 5. (4.)—OF THE PROVINCE OF GALLIA
NARBONENSIS.

That part of the Gallias which is washed by the inland sea1062 is
called the province of [Gallia] Narbonensis1063, having formerly
borne the name of Braccata1064. It is divided from Italy by the river
Varus1065, and by the range of the Alps, the great safeguards of the
Roman Empire. From the remainder of Gaul, on the north, it is
separated by the mountains Cebenna1066 and Jura1067. In the
cultivation of the soil, the manners and civilization of the
inhabitants, and the extent of its wealth, it is surpassed by none of
the provinces, and, in short, might be more truthfully described as a
part of Italy than as a province. On the coast we have the district of
the Sordones1068, and more inland that of the Consuarani1069. The
rivers are the Tecum and the Vernodubrum1070. The towns are
Illiberis1071, the scanty remains of what was formerly a great city,
and Ruscino1072, a town with Latian rights. We then come to the
river Atax1073, which flows from the Pyrenees, and passes through
the Rubrensian Lake1074, the town of Narbo Martius, a colony of
the tenth legion, twelve miles distant from the sea, and the rivers
Arauris1075 and Liria1076. The towns are otherwise but few in
number, in consequence of the numerous lakes1077 which skirt the
sea-shore. We have Agatha1078, formerly belonging to the
Massilians, and the district of the Volcæ Tectosages1079; and there is
the spot where Rhoda1080, a Rhodian colony, formerly stood, from
which the river takes its name of Rhodanus1081; a stream by far the
most fertilizing of any in either of the Gallias. Descending from the
Alps and rushing through lake Lemanus1082, it carries along with it
the sluggish Arar1083, as well as the torrents of the Isara and the
Druentia1084, no less rapid than itself. Its two smaller mouths are

called Libica1085, one being the Spanish, and the other the
Metapinian mouth; the third and largest is called the
Massiliotic1086. There are some authors who state that there was
formerly a town called Heraclea1087 at the mouth of the Rhodanus
or Rhone.
Beyond this are the Canals1088 leading out of the Rhone, a
famous work of Caius Marius, and still distinguished by his name;
the Lake of Mastramela1089, the town of Maritima1090 of the Avatici,
and, above this, the Stony Plains1091, memorable for the battles of
Hercules; the district of the Anatilii1092, and more inland, that of the
Desuviates1093 and the Cavari. Again, close upon the sea, there is
that of the Tricorii1094, and inland, there are the Tricolli1095, the
Vocontii1096, and the Segovellauni, and, after them, the
Allobroges1097.
On the coast is Massilia, a colony of Phocæan1098 Greeks, and a
federate1099 city; we then have the Promontory of Zao1100, the port
of Citharista1101, and the district of the Camatullici1102; then the
Suelteri1103, and above them the Verrucini1104. Again, on the coast,
we find Athenopolis1105, belonging to the Massilians, Forum
Julii1106 Octavanorum, a colony, which is also called Pacensis and
Classica, the river Argenteus1107, which flows through it, the district
of the Oxubii1108 and that of the Ligauni1109; above whom are the
Suetri1110, the Quariates1111 and the Adunicates1112. On the coast we
have Antipolis1113, a town with Latian rights, the district of the
Deciates, and the river Varus, which proceeds from Mount Cema,
one of the Alps.
The colonies in the interior are Arelate Sextanorum1114, Beterræ
Septimanorum1115, and Arausio1116 Secundanorum; Valentia1117 in
the territory of the Cavari, and Vienna1118 in that of the Allobroges.

The towns that enjoy Latian rights are Aquæ Sextiæ1119 in the
territory of the Saluvii, Avenio1120 in that of the Cavari, Apta
Julia1121 in that of the Volgientes, Alebece1122 in that of the Reii
Apollinares, Alba1123 in that of the Helvi, and Augusta1124 in that of
the Tricastini, Anatilia, Aeria1125, the Bormanni1126, the Comaci,
Cabellio1127, Carcasum1128 in the territory of the Volcæ Tectosages,
Cessero1129, Carpentoracte1130 in the territory of the Memini, the
Cenicenses1131, the Cambolectri1132, surnamed the Atlantici,
Forum1133 Voconi, Glanum Livi1134, the Lutevani1135, also called the
Foroneronienses1136, Nemausum1137 in the territory of the
Arecomici, Piscenæ1138, the Ruteni1139, the Sanagenses1140, the
Tolosani1141 in the territory of the Tectosages on the confines of
Aquitania, the Tasconi1142, the Tarusconienses1143, the
Umbranici1144, Vasio1145 and Lucus Augusti1146, the two capitals of
the federate state of the Vocontii. There are also nineteen towns of
less note, as well as twenty-four belonging to the people of
Nemausum. To this list1147 the Emperor Galba added two tribes
dwelling among the Alps, the Avantici1148 and the Bodiontici, to
whom belongs the town of Dinia1149. According to Agrippa the
length of the province of Gallia Narbonensis is 370 miles, and its
breadth 2481150.

CHAP. 6. (5.)—OF ITALY.

Next comes Italy, and we begin with the Ligures1151, after whom
we have Etruria, Umbria, Latium, where the mouths of the Tiber
are situate, and Rome, the Capital of the world, sixteen miles
distant from the sea. We then come to the coasts of the Volsci and
of Campania, and the districts of Picenum, of Lucania, and of
Bruttium, where Italy extends the farthest in a southerly direction,
and projects into the [two] seas with the chain of the Alps1152,
which there forms pretty nearly the shape of a crescent. Leaving
Bruttium we come to the coast of [Magna] Græcia, then the
Salentini, the Pediculi, the Apuli, the Peligni, the Frentani, the
Marrucini, the Vestini, the Sabini, the Picentes, the Galli, the
Umbri, the Tusci, the Veneti, the Carni, the Iapydes, the Histri, and
the Liburni.
I am by no means unaware that I might be justly accused of
ingratitude and indolence, were I to describe thus briefly and in so
cursory a manner the land which is at once the foster-child1153 and
the parent of all lands; chosen by the providence of the Gods to
render even heaven itself more glorious1154, to unite the scattered
empires of the earth, to bestow a polish upon men’s manners, to
unite the discordant and uncouth dialects of so many different
nations by the powerful ties of one common language, to confer the
enjoyments of discourse and of civilization upon mankind, to
become, in short, the mother-country of all nations of the Earth.
But how shall I commence this undertaking? So vast is the
number of celebrated places (what man living could enumerate
them all?), and so great the renown attached to each individual
nation and subject, that I feel myself quite at a loss. The city of
Rome alone, which forms a portion of it, a face well worthy of

shoulders so beauteous, how large a work would it require for an
appropriate description! And then too the coast of Campania, taken
singly by itself! so blest with natural beauties and opulence, that it
is evident that when nature formed it she took a delight in
accumulating all her blessings in a single spot—how am I to do
justice to it? And then the climate, with its eternal freshness and so
replete with health and vitality, the sereneness of the weather so
enchanting, the fields so fertile, the hill sides so sunny, the thickets
so free from every danger, the groves so cool and shady, the forests
with a vegetation so varying and so luxuriant, the breezes
descending from so many a mountain, the fruitfulness of its grain,
its vines, and its olives so transcendent; its flocks with fleeces so
noble, its bulls with necks so sinewy, its lakes recurring in never-
ending succession, its numerous rivers and springs which refresh it
with their waters on every side, its seas so many in number, its
havens and the bosom of its lands opening everywhere to the
commerce of all the world, and as it were eagerly stretching forth
into the very midst of the waves, for the purpose of aiding as it
were the endeavours of mortals!
For the present I forbear to speak of its genius, its manners, its
men, and the nations whom it has conquered by eloquence and
force of arms. The very Greeks themselves, a race fond in the
extreme of expatiating on their own praises, have amply given
judgment in its favour, when they named but a small part of it
‘Magna Græcia1155.’ But we must be content to do on this occasion
as we have done in our description of the heavens; we must only
touch upon some of these points, and take notice of but a few of its
stars. I only beg my readers to bear in mind that I am thus
hastening on for the purpose of giving a general description of
everything that is known to exist throughout the whole earth.

I may premise by observing that this land very much resembles
in shape an oak leaf, being much longer than it is broad; towards
the top it inclines to the left1156, while it terminates in the form of
an Amazonian buckler1157, in which the spot at the central
projection is the place called Cocinthos, while it sends forth two
horns at the end of its crescent-shaped bays, Leucopetra on the
right and Lacinium on the left. It extends in length 1020 miles, if
we measure from the foot of the Alps at Prætoria Augusta, through
the city of Rome and Capua to the town of Rhegium, which is
situate on the shoulder of the Peninsula, just at the bend of the neck
as it were. The distance would be much greater if measured to
Lacinium, but in that case the line, being drawn obliquely, would
incline too much to one side. Its breadth is variable; being 410
miles between the two seas, the Lower and the Upper1158, and the
rivers Varus and Arsia1159: at about the middle, and in the vicinity
of the city of Rome, from the spot where the river Aternus1160 flows
into the Adriatic sea, to the mouth of the Tiber, the distance is 136
miles, and a little less from Castrum-novum on the Adriatic sea to
Alsium1161 on the Tuscan; but in no place does it exceed 200 miles
in breadth. The circuit of the whole, from the Varus to the Arsia, is
3059 miles1162.
As to its distance from the countries that surround it—Istria and
Liburnia are, in some places1163, 100 miles from it, and Epirus and
Illyricum 50; Africa is less than 200, as we are informed by M.
Varro; Sardinia1164 is 120, Sicily 11⁄2, Corsica less than 80, and
Issa1165 50. It extends into the two seas towards the southern parts
of the heavens, or, to speak with more minute exactness, between
the sixth1166 hour and the first hour of the winter solstice.
We will now describe its extent and its different cities; in doing
which, it is necessary to premise, that we shall follow the

arrangement of the late Emperor Augustus, and adopt the division
which he made of the whole of Italy into eleven districts; taking
them, however, according to their order on the sea-line, as in so
hurried a detail it would not be possible otherwise to describe each
city in juxtaposition with the others in its vicinity. And for the same
reason, in describing the interior, I shall follow the alphabetical
order which has been adopted by that Emperor, pointing out the
colonies of which he has made mention in his enumeration. Nor is
it a very easy task to trace their situation and origin; for, not to
speak of others, the Ingaunian Ligurians have had lands granted to
them as many as thirty different times.

CHAP. 7.—OF THE NINTH1167 REGION OF ITALY.

To begin then with the river Varus; we have the town of
Nicæa1168, founded by the Massilians, the river Paulo1169, the Alps
and the Alpine tribes, distinguished by various names1170, but more
especially the Capillati1171, Cemenelio1172, a town of the state of the
Vediantii, the port of Hercules Monæcus1173, and the Ligurian
coast. The more celebrated of the Ligurian tribes beyond the Alps
are the Salluvii, the Deciates, and the Oxubii1174; on this side of the
Alps, the Veneni1175, and the Vagienni, who are derived from the
Caturiges1176, the Statielli1177, the Bimbelli1178, the Magelli, the
Euburiates, the Casmonates1179, the Veleiates1180, and the peoples
whose towns we shall describe as lying near the adjoining coast.
The river Rutuba1181, the town of Albium Intemelium1182, the river
Merula1183, the town of Albium Ingaunum1184, the port of Vadum
Sabatiorum1185, the river Porcifera1186, the town of Genua, the river
Feritor1187, the Portus Delphini1188, Tigullia1189, Tegesta1190 of the
Tigullii, and the river Macra1191, which is the boundary of Liguria.
Extending behind all the before-mentioned places are the
Apennines, the most considerable of all the mountains of Italy, the
chain of which extends unbroken from the Alps1192 to the Sicilian
sea. On the other side of the Apennines, towards the Padus1193, the
richest river of Italy, the whole country is adorned with noble
towns; Libarna1194, the colony of Dertona1195, Iria1196, Barderate1197,
Industria1198, Pollentia1199, Carrea surnamed Potentia1200, Foro
Fulvî or Valentinum1201, Augusta1202 of the Vagienni, Alba
Pompeia1203, Asta1204, and Aquæ Statiellorum1205. This is the ninth
region, according to the arrangement of Augustus. The coast of
Liguria extends 211 miles1206, between the rivers Varus and Macra.

CHAP. 8.—THE SEVENTH REGION OF ITALY.

Next to this comes the seventh region, in which is Etruria, a
district which begins at the river Macra, and has often changed its
name. At an early period the Umbri were expelled from it by the
Pelasgi; and these again by the Lydians, who from a king of
theirs1207 were named Tyrrheni, but afterwards, from the rites
observed in their sacrifices, were called, in the Greek language1208,
Tusci. The first town in Etruria is Luna1209, with a noble harbour,
then the colony of Luca1210, at some distance from the sea, and
nearer to it again the colony of Pisæ1211, between the rivers
Auser1212 and Arnus1213, which owes its origin to Pelops and the
Pisans1214, or else to the Teutani, a people of Greece. Next is
Vada1215 Volaterrana, then the river Cecinna1216, and
Populonium1217 formerly belonging to the Etrurians, the only town
they had on this coast. Next to these is the river Prile1218, then the
Umbro1219, which is navigable, and where the district of Umbria
begins, the port of Telamon1220, Cosa1221 of the Volcientes, founded
by the Roman people, Graviscæ1222, Castrum novum1223, Pyrgi1224,
the river Cæretanus1225, and Cære1226 itself, four miles inland,
called Agylla by the Pelasgi who founded it, Alsium1227,
Fregenæ1228, and the river Tiber, 2841229 miles from the Macra.
In the interior we have the colonies of Falisci1230, founded by the
Argives, according to the account of Cato1231, and surnamed Falisci
Etruscorum, Lucus Feroniæ1232, Rusellana, the Senienses1233, and
Sutrina1234. The remaining peoples are the Arretini1235 Veteres, the
Arretini Fidentes, the Arretini Julienses, the Amitinenses, the
Aquenses, surnamed Taurini1236, the Blerani1237, the
Cortonenses1238, the Capenates1239, the Clusini Novi, the Clusini

Veteres1240, the Florentini1241, situate on the stream of the Arnus,
Fæsulæ1242, Ferentinum1243, Fescennia1244, Hortanum1245,
Herbanum1246, Nepeta1247, Novem Pagi1248, the Claudian præfecture
of Foroclodium1249, Pistorium1250, Perusia1251, the Suanenses, the
Saturnini, formerly called the Aurinini, the Subertani1252, the
Statones1253, the Tarquinienses1254, the Tuscanienses1255, the
Vetulonienses1256, the Veientani1257, the Vesentini1258, the
Volaterrani1259, the Volcentini1260, surnamed Etrusci, and the
Volsinienses1261. In the same district the territories of
Crustumerium1262 and Caletra1263 retain the names of the ancient
towns.

CHAP. 9.—THE FIRST REGION OF ITALY1264; THE TIBER;
ROME.

The Tiber or Tiberis, formerly called Thybris, and previously
Albula1265, flows down from nearly the central part of the chain of
the Apennines, in the territory of the Arretini. It is at first small, and
only navigable by means of sluices, in which the water is dammed
up and then discharged, in the same manner as the Timia1266 and
the Glanis, which flow into it; for which purpose it is found
necessary to collect the water for nine days, unless there should
happen to be a fall of rain. And even then, the Tiber, by reason of
its rugged and uneven channel, is really more suitable for
navigation by rafts than by vessels, for any great distance. It winds
along for a course of 150 miles, passing not far from Tifernum1267,
Perusia, and Ocriculum1268, and dividing Etruria from the
Umbri1269 and the Sabini1270, and then, at a distance of less than
sixteen miles from the city, separating the territory of Veii from that
of Crustuminum, and afterwards that of the Fidenates and of
Latium from Vaticanum.
Below its union with the Glanis from Arretinum the Tiber is
swollen by two and forty streams, particularly the Nar1271 and the
Anio, which last is also navigable and shuts in Latium at the back;
it is also increased by the numerous aqueducts and springs which
are conveyed to the City. Here it becomes navigable by vessels of
any burden which may come up from the Italian sea; a most
tranquil dispenser of the produce of all parts of the earth, and
peopled and embellished along its banks with more villas than
nearly all the other rivers of the world taken together. And yet there
is no river more circumscribed than it, so close are its banks shut in
on either side; but still, no resistance does it offer, although its

waters frequently rise with great suddenness, and no part is more
liable to be swollen than that which runs through the City itself. In
such case, however, the Tiber is rather to be looked upon1272 as
pregnant with prophetic warnings to us, and in its increase to be
considered more as a promoter of religion than a source of
devastation.
Latium1273 has preserved its original limits, from the Tiber to
Circeii1274, a distance of fifty miles: so slender at the beginning
were the roots from which this our Empire sprang. Its inhabitants
have been often changed, and different nations have peopled it at
different times, the Aborigines, the Pelasgi, the Arcades, the Seculi,
the Aurunci, the Rutuli, and, beyond Circeii, the Volsci, the Osci,
and the Ausones whence the name of Latium came to be extended
as far as the river Liris1275.
We will begin with Ostia1276, a colony founded by a king of
Rome, the town of Laurentum1277, the grove of Jupiter Indiges1278,
the river Numicius1279, and Ardea1280, founded by Danaë, the
mother of Perseus. Next come the former site of Aphrodisium1281,
the colony of Antium1282, the river and island called Astura1283, the
river Nymphæus1284, the Clostra Romana1285, and Circeii1286,
formerly an island, and, if we are to believe Homer, surrounded by
the open sea, though now by an extensive plain. The circumstances
which we are enabled to publish on this subject for the information
of the world are very remarkable. Theophrastus, the first foreigner
who treated of the affairs of Rome with any degree of accuracy (for
Theopompus, before whose time no Greek writer had made
mention of us, only stated the fact that the city had been taken by
the Gauls, and Clitarchus, the next after him, only spoke of the
embassy that was sent by the Romans to Alexander)—
Theophrastus, I say, following something more than mere rumour,

has given the circuit of the island of Circeii as being eighty stadia,
in the volume which he wrote during the archonship of Nicodorus
at Athens1287, being the 440th year of our city. Whatever land
therefore has been annexed to that island beyond the circumference
of about ten miles, has been added to Italy since the year previously
mentioned.
Another wonderful circumstance too.—Near Circeii are the
Pomptine Marshes1288, formerly the site, according to Mucianus,
who was thrice consul, of four-and-twenty cities. Next to this
comes the river Ufens1289, upon which is the town of Terracina1290,
called, in the language of the Volsci, Anxur; the spot too where
Amyclæ1291 stood, a town destroyed by serpents. Next is the site of
the Grotto1292, Lake Fundanus1293, the port of Caieta1294, and then
the town of Formiæ1295, formerly called Hormiæ, the ancient seat
of the Læstrygones1296, it is supposed. Beyond this, formerly stood
the town of Pyræ; and we then come to the colony of Minturnæ1297,
which still exists, and is divided1298 by the river Liris, also called
the Glanis. The town of Sinuessa1299 is the last in the portion which
has been added to Latium; it is said by some that it used to be
called Sinope.
At this spot begins that blessed country Campania1300, and in this
vale first take their rise those hills clad with vines, the juice of
whose grape is extolled by Fame all over the world; the happy spot
where, as the ancients used to say, father Liber and Ceres are ever
striving for the mastery. Hence the fields of Setia1301 and of
Cæcubum1302 extend afar, and, next to them those of Falernum1303
and of Calinum1304. As soon as we have passed these, the hills of
Massica1305, of Gaurus1306, and of Surrentum rise to our view. Next,
the level plains of Laborium1307 are spread out far and wide, where
every care is bestowed on cultivating crops of spelt, from which the

most delicate fermenty is made. These shores are watered by warm
springs1308, while the seas are distinguished beyond all others for
the superlative excellence of their shell and other fish. In no
country too has the oil of the olive a more exquisite flavour. This
territory, a battle-ground as it were for the gratification of every
luxurious pleasure of man, has been held successively by the Osci,
the Greeks, the Umbri, the Tusci, and the Campani.
On the coast we first meet with the river Savo1309, the town of
Volturnum with a river1310 of the same name, the town of
Liternum1311, Cumæ1312, a Chalcidian colony, Misenum1313, the port
of Baiæ1314, Bauli1315, the Lucrine Lake1316, and Lake Avernus, near
which there stood formerly a town1317 of the Cimmerians. We then
come to Puteoli1318, formerly called the colony of Dicæarchia, then
the Phlegræan1319 Plains, and the Marsh of Acherusia1320 in the
vicinity of Cumæ.
Again, on the coast we have Neapolis1321, also a colony of the
Chalcidians, and called Parthenope from the tomb there of one of
the Sirens, Herculaneum1322, Pompeii1323, from which Mount
Vesuvius may be seen at no great distance, and which is watered by
the river Sarnus1324; the territory of Nuceria, and, at the distance of
nine miles from the sea, the town of that name1325, and then
Surrentum1326, with the Promontory of Minerva1327, formerly the
abode of the Sirens. The distance thence by sea to Circeii is
seventy-eight miles. This region, beginning at the Tiber, is looked
upon as the first of Italy according to the division of Augustus.
Inland there are the following colonies:—Capua1328, so called
from its champaign country, Aquinum1329, Suessa1330, Venafrum1331,
Sora1332, Teanum surnamed Sidicinum1333, Nola1334; and the towns
of Abelia1335, Aricia1336, Alba Longa1337, the Acerrani1338, the

Allifani1339, the Atinates1340, the Aletrinates1341, the Anagnini1342,
the Atellani1343, the Affilani1344, the Arpinates1345, the
Auximates1346, the Abellani1347, the Alfaterni (both those who take
their names from the Latin, the Hernican and the Labicanian
territory), Bovillæ1348, Calatia1349, Casinum1350, Calenum1351,
Capitulum1352 of the Hernici, the Cereatini1353, surnamed Mariani,
the Corani1354, descended from the Trojan Dardanus, the
Cubulterini, the Castrimœnienses1355, the Cingulani1356, the
Fabienses1357 on the Alban Mount, the Foropopulienses1358 of the
Falernian district, the Frusinates1359, the Ferentinates1360, the
Freginates1361, the old Frabaterni1362, the new Frabaterni, the
Ficolenses1363, the Fregellani1364, Forum Appî1365, the Forentani1366,
the Gabini1367, the Interamnates Succasini1368, also surnamed
Lirinates, the Ilionenses Lavinii1369, the Norbani1370, the
Nomentani1371, the Prænestini1372 (whose city was formerly called
Stephané), the Privernates1373, the Setini1374, the Signini1375, the
Suessulani1376, the Telesini1377, the Trebulani, surnamed
Balinienses1378, the Trebani1379, the Tusculani1380, the Verulani1381,
the Veliterni1382, the Ulubrenses1383, the Urbinates1384, and, last and
greater than all, Rome herself, whose other name1385 the hallowed
mysteries of the sacred rites forbid us to mention without being
guilty of the greatest impiety. After it had been long kept buried in
secresy with the strictest fidelity and in respectful and salutary
silence, Valerius Soranus dared to divulge it, but soon did he pay
the penalty1386 of his rashness.
It will not perhaps be altogether foreign to the purpose, if I here
make mention of one peculiar institution of our forefathers which
bears especial reference to the inculcation of silence on religious
matters. The goddess Angerona1387, to whom sacrifice is offered on
the twelfth day before the calends of January [21st December], is

represented in her statue as having her mouth bound with a sealed
fillet.
Romulus left the city of Rome, if we are to believe those who
state the very greatest number, having three1388 gates and no more.
When the Vespasians were emperors1389 and censors, in the year
from its building 826, the circumference of the walls which
surrounded it was thirteen miles and two-fifths. Surrounding as it
does the Seven Hills, the city is divided into fourteen districts, with
265 cross-roads1390 under the guardianship of the Lares. If a
straight line is drawn from the mile-column1391 placed at the
entrance of the Forum, to each of the gates, which are at present
thirty-seven in number (taking care to count only once the twelve
double gates, and to omit the seven old ones, which no longer
exist), the result will be [taking them altogether], a straight line of
twenty miles and 765 paces1392. But if we draw a straight line from
the same mile-column to the very last of the houses, including
therein the Prætorian encampment, and follow throughout the line
of all the streets, the result will then be something more than
seventy miles. Add to these calculations the height of the houses,
and then a person may form a fair idea of this city, and will
certainly be obliged to admit that there is not a place throughout the
whole world that for size can be compared to it. On the eastern side
it is bounded by the agger of Tarquinius Superbus, a work of
surpassing grandeur; for he raised it so high as to be on a level with
the walls on the side on which the city lay most exposed to attack
from the neighbouring plains. On all the other sides it has been
fortified either with lofty walls or steep and precipitous hills1393,
but so it is, that its buildings, increasing and extending beyond all
bounds, have now united many other cities to it1394.

Besides those previously mentioned, there were formerly in the
first region the following famous towns of Latium: Satricum1395,
Pometia1396, Scaptia, Politorium1397, Tellene, Tifata, Cænina1398,
Ficana1399, Crustumerium, Ameriola1400, Medullum1401,
Corniculum1402, Saturnia1403, on the site of the present city of
Rome, Antipolis1404, now Janiculum, forming part of Rome,
Antemnæ1405, Camerium1406, Collatia1407, Amitinum1408, Norbe,
Sulmo1409, and, with these, those Alban nations1410 who used to
take part in the sacrifices1411 upon the Alban Mount, the Albani, the
Æsulani1412, the Accienses, the Abolani, the Bubetani1413, the
Bolani1414, the Cusuetani, the Coriolani1415, the Fidenates1416, the
Foretii, the Hortenses1417, the Latinienses, the Longulani1418, the
Manates, the Macrales, the Mutucumenses, the Munienses, the
Numinienses, the Olliculani, the Octulani, the Pedani1419, the
Polluscini, the Querquetulani, the Sicani, the Sisolenses, the
Tolerienses, the Tutienses, the Vimitellarii, the Velienses, the
Venetulani, and the Vitellenses. Thus we see, fifty-three peoples of
ancient Latium have passed away without leaving any traces of
their existence.
In the Campanian territory there was also the town of Stabiæ1420,
until the consulship of Cneius Pompeius and L. Cato, when, on the
day before the calends of May [30th of April], it was destroyed in
the Social War by L. Sulla the legatus, and all that now stands on
its site is a single farmhouse. Here also Taurania has ceased to
exist, and the remains of Casilinum1421 are fast going to ruin.
Besides these, we learn from Antias that king L. Tarquinius took
Apiolæ1422, a town of the Latins, and with its spoils laid the first
foundations of the Capitol. From Surrentum1423 to the river
Silarus1424, the former territory of Picentia1425 extends for a
distance of thirty miles. This belonged to the Etruscans, and was

remarkable for the temple of the Argive Juno, founded by Jason1426.
In it was Picentia, a town1427 of the territory of Salernum1428.

CHAP. 10.—THE THIRD REGION OF ITALY.

At the Silarus begins the third region of Italy, consisting of the
territory of Lucania and Bruttium; here too there have been no few
changes of the population. These districts have been possessed by
tbe Pelasgi, the Œnotrii, the Itali, the Morgetes, the Siculi, and
more especially by people who emigrated from Greece1429, and, last
of all, by the Leucani, a people sprung from the Samnites, who
took possession under the command of Lucius. We find here the
town of Pæstum1430, which received from the Greeks the name of
Posidonia, the Gulf of Pæstum1431, the town of Elea, now known as
Velia1432, and the Promontory of Palinurum1433, a point at which the
land falls inwards and forms a bay1434, the distance across which to
the pillar1435 of Rhegium is 100 miles. Next after Palinurum comes
the river Melpes1436, then the town of Buxentum1437, called in
[Magna] Græcia Pyxus, and the river Laus; there was formerly a
town1438 also of the same name.
At this spot begins the coast of Bruttium, and we come to the
town of Blanda1439, the river Batum1440, Parthenius, a port of the
Phocians, the bay of Vibo1441, the place1442 where Clampetia
formerly stood, the town of Temsa1443, called Temese by the
Greeks, and Terina founded by the people of Crotona1444, with the
extensive Gulf of Terina; more inland, the town of Consentia1445.
Situate upon a peninsula1446 is the river Acheron1447, from which
the people of Acherontia derive the name of their town; then
Hippo, now called Vibo Valentia, the Port of Hercules1448, the river
Metaurus1449, the town of Tauroentum1450, the Port of Orestes, and
Medma1451. Next, the town of Scyllæum1452, the river Cratæis1453,
the mother of Scylla it is said; then the Pillar of Rhegium, the

Straits of Sicily, and the two promontories which face each other,
Cænys1454 on the Italian, and Pelorus1455 on the Sicilian side, the
distance between them being twelve stadia. At a distance thence of
twelve miles and a half, we come to Rhegium1456, after which
begins Sila1457, a forest of the Apennines, and then the promontory
of Leucopetra1458, at a distance of fifteen miles; after which come
the Locri1459, who take their surname from the promontory of
Zephyrium1460, being distant from the river Silarus 303 miles.
At this spot ends the first1461 great Gulf of Europe; the seas in
which bear the following names:—That from which it takes its rise
is called the Atlantic, by some the Great Atlantic, the entrance of
which is, by the Greeks, called Porthmos, by us the Straits of
Gades. After its entrance, as far as it washes the coasts of Spain, it
is called the Hispanian Sea, though some give it the name of the
Iberian or Balearic1462 Sea. Where it faces the province of Gallia
Narbonensis it has the name of the Gallic, and after that, of the
Ligurian, Sea. From Liguria to the island of Sicily, it is called the
Tuscan Sea, the same which is called by some of the Greeks the
Notian1463, by others the Tyrrhenian, while many of our people call
it the Lower Sea. Beyond Sicily, as far as the country of the
Salentini, it is styled by Polybius the Ausonian Sea. Eratosthenes
however gives to the whole expanse that lies between the inlet of
the ocean and the island of Sardinia, the name of the Sardoan Sea;
thence to Sicily, the Tyrrhenian; thence to Crete, the Sicilian; and
beyond that island, the Cretan Sea.

CHAP. 11.—SIXTY-FOUR ISLANDS, AMONG WHICH ARE
THE BALEARES.

The first islands that we meet with in all these seas are the two to
which the Greeks have given the name of Pityussæ1464, from the
pine-tree1465, which they produce. These islands now bear the name
of Ebusus, and form a federate state. They are separated by a
narrow strait1466 of the sea, and are forty-six1467 miles in extent.
They are distant from Dianium1468 700 stadia, Dianium being by
land the same distance1469 from New Carthage. At the same
distance1470 from the Pityussæ, lie, in the open sea, the two
Baleares, and, over against the river Sucro1471, Colubraria1472. The
Baleares1473, so formidable in war with their slingers1474, have
received from the Greeks the name of Gymnasiæ.
The larger island is 1001475 miles in length, and 475 in
circumference. It has the following towns; Palma1476 and
Pollentia1477, enjoying the rights of Roman citizens, Cinium1478 and
Tucis, with Latin rights: Bocchorum, a federate town, is no longer
in existence. At thirty miles’ distance is the smaller island, 40 miles
in length, and 1501479 in circumference; it contains the states of
Jamnon1480, Sanisera, and Magon1481.
In the open sea, at twelve miles’ distance from the larger island,
is Capraria1482 with its treacherous coast, so notorious for its
numerous shipwrecks; and, opposite to the city of Palma, are the
islands known as the Mænariæ1483, Tiquadra1484, and Little
Hannibalis1485.
The earth of Ebusus has the effect of driving away serpents,
while that of Colubraria produces them; hence the latter spot is
dangerous to all persons who have not brought with them some of

the earth of Ebusus. The Greeks have given it the name of
Ophiusa1486. Ebusus too produces no1487 rabbits to destroy the
harvests of the Baleares. There are also about twenty other small
islands in this sea, which is full of shoals. Off the coast of Gaul, at
the mouth of the Rhodanus, there is Metina1488, and near it the
island which is known as Blascon1489, with the three Stœchades, so
called by their neighbours the Massilians1490, on account of the
regular order in which they are placed; their respective names are
Prote1491, Mese1492, also called Pomponiana, and Hypæa1493. After
these come Sturium1494, Phœnice, Phila, Lero, and, opposite to
Antipolis1495, Lerina1496, where there is a remembrance of a town
called Vergoanum having once existed.

CHAP. 12. (6.)—CORSICA.

In the Ligurian Sea, but close to the Tuscan, is Corsica, by the
Greeks called Cyrnos, extending, from north to south 150 miles,
and for the most part 50 miles in breadth, its circumference being
325. It is 62 miles distant from the Vada Volaterrana1497. It contains
thirty-two states, and two colonies, that of Mariana1498, founded by
C. Marius, and that of Aleria, founded by the Dictator Sylla. On
this side of it is Oglasa1499, and, at a distance of less than sixty
miles from Corsica, Planaria1500, so called from its appearance,
being nearly level with the sea, and consequently treacherous to
mariners.
We next have Urgo1501, a larger island, and Capraria, which the
Greeks have called Ægilion1502; then Igilium1503 and Dianium1504,
which they have also called Artemisia, both of them opposite the
coast of Cosa; also Barpana1505, Mænaria, Columbaria, and
Venaria. We then come to Ilva1506 with its iron mines, an island 100
miles in circumference, 10 miles distant from Populonium, and
called Æthalia by the Greeks: from it the island of Planasia1507 is
distant 28 miles. After these, beyond the mouths of the Tiber, and
off the coast of Antium, we come to Astura1508, then Palmaria and
Sinonia, and, opposite to Formiæ, Pontiæ. In the Gulf of Puteoli are
Pandateria1509, and Prochyta, so called, not from the nurse of
Æneas, but because it has been poured forth1510 or detached from
Ænaria1511, an island which received its name from having been the
anchorage of the fleet of Æneas, though called by Homer
Inarime1512; it is also called Pithecusa, not, as many have fancied,
on account of the multitudes of apes found there, but from its
extensive manufactories of pottery. Between Pausilipum1513 and
Neapolis lies the island of Megaris1514, and then, at a distance of

eight miles from Surrentum, Capreæ1515, famous for the castle of
the emperor Tiberius: it is eleven miles in circumference.

CHAP. 13.—SARDINIA.

Leucothea comes next, and after it, but out of sight, as it lies
upon the verge of the African Sea, Sardinia. It is situate somewhat
less1516 than eight miles from the nearest point of Corsica, and the
Straits between them are even still more reduced by the small
islands there situate, called the Cuniculariæ1517, as also those of
Phintonis1518 and Fossæ, from which last the Straits themselves
have obtained the name of Taphros1519.
(7.) Sardinia extends, upon the east side, a distance of 188 miles,
on the west 175, on the south 77, and on the north 125, being 565
miles in circumference. Its promontory of Caralis1520 is distant
from Africa 200, and from Gades 1400 miles. Off the promontory
of Gordis1521 it has two islands called the Isles of Hercules1522, off
that of Sulcis, the island of Enosis1523, and off that of Caralis,
Ficaria1524. Some writers place Beleris not far from it, as also
Callodis, and the island known as Heras Lutra1525.
The most celebrated peoples of this island are the Ilienses1526, the
Balari, and the Corsi; and among its eighteen towns, there are those
of the Sulcitani1527, the Valentini1528, the Neapolitani1529, the
Bosenses1530, the Caralitani1531, who enjoy the rights of Roman
citizens, and the Norenses1532. There is also one colony which is
called Ad Turrim Libysonis1533. Timæus has called this island
Sandaliotis, on account of the similarity of its shape to the sole of a
shoe, while Myrtilus has given it the name of Ichnusa1534, from its
resemblance to the print of a footstep. Opposite to the Gulf of
Pæstum is Leucasia1535, so called from a Siren who is buried there;
opposite to Velia are Pontia and Isacia, both known by one name,
that of Œnotrides, a proof that Italy was formerly possessed by the

Œnotrians. Opposite to Vibo are the little islands called
Ithacesiæ1536, from the watch-tower of Ulysses situate there.

CHAP. 14. (8.)—SICILY.

But more celebrated than all is Sicily, called Sicania by
Thucydides, and by many writers Trinacria or Trinacia, from its
triangular appearance. According to Agrippa it is 6181537 miles in
circumference. In former times it was a continuation of the territory
of Bruttium, but, in consequence of the overflowing of the sea,
became severed from it; thus forming a strait of 15 miles in length,
and a mile and a half in width in the vicinity of the Pillar of
Rhegium. It was from this circumstance of the land being severed
asunder that the Greeks gave the name of Rhegium1538 to the town
situate on the Italian shore.
In these Straits is the rock of Scylla, as also Charybdis1539, a
whirlpool of the sea, both of them noted for their perils. Of this
triangle, the promontory, which, as we have already1540 mentioned,
is called Pelorus, faces Scylla and juts out towards Italy, while
Pachynum1541 extends in the direction of Greece, Peloponnesus
being at a distance from it of 440 miles, and Lilybæum1542, towards
Africa, being distant 180 miles from the promontory of
Mercury1543, and from that of Caralis in Sardinia 190. These
promontories and sides are situate at the following distances from
each other: by land it is 186 miles from Pelorus to Pachynum, from
Pachynum to Lilybæum 200, and from Lilybæum to Pelorus
1701544.
In this island there are five colonies and sixty-three cities or
states. Leaving Pelorus and facing the Ionian Sea, we have the
town of Messana1545, whose inhabitants are also called Mamertini
and enjoy the rights of Roman citizens; the promontory of
Drepanum1546, the colony of Tauromenium1547, formerly called

Naxos, the river Asines1548, and Mount Ætna, wondrous for the
flames which it emits by night. Its crater is twenty stadia in
circumference, and from it red-hot cinders are thrown as far as
Tauromenium and Catina, the noise being heard even at
Maroneum1549 and the Gemellian Hills. We then come to the three
rocks of the Cyclopes1550, the Port of Ulysses1551, the colony of
Catina1552, and the rivers Symæthus1553 and Terias; while more
inland lie the Læstrygonian Plains.
To these rivers succeed the towns of Leontinum1554 and Megaris,
the river Pantagies1555, the colony of Syracuse1556, with the fountain
of Arethusa1557, (the people in the Syracusan territory drink too of
the fountains of Temenitis1558, Archidemia, Magæa, Cyane, and
Milichie,) the port of Naustathmus1559, the river Elorus, and the
promontory of Pachynum. This side1560 of Sicily begins with the
river Hirminius1561, then follow the town of Camarina1562, the river
Gelas1563, and the town of Agragas1564, which our people have
named Agrigentum. We next come to the colony of Thermæ1565, the
rivers Achates1566, Mazara, and Hypsa; the town of Selinus1567, and
then the Promontory of Lilybæum, which is succeeded by
Drepana1568, Mount Eryx1569, the towns of Panhormus1570, Solus1571
and Himera1572, with a river of the same name, Cephalœdis1573,
Aluntium1574, Agathyrnum, the colony of Tyndaris1575, the town of
Mylæ1576, and then Pelorus, the spot at which we began.
In the interior there are the following towns enjoying Latin
privileges, those of the Centuripini1577, the Netini1578, and the
Segestani1579; tributary towns are those of the Assorini1580, the
Ætnenses1581, the Agyrini1582, the Acestæi, the Acrenses1583, the
Bidini1584, the Cetarini1585, the Cacyrini1586, the Drepanitani, the
Ergetini1587, the Echetlienses1588, the Erycini1589, the Entellini1590,

the Enini1591, the Enguini1592, the Gelani1593, the Galatini1594, the
Halesini1595, the Hennenses, the Hyblenses1596, the Herbitenses1597,
the Herbessenses1598, the Herbulenses, the Halicyenses1599, the
Hadranitani1600, the Imacarenses, the Ipanenses, the Ietenses1601, the
Mytistratini1602, the Magellini, the Murgentini1603, the
Mutycenses1604, the Menanini1605, the Naxii1606, the Noæi1607, the
Petrini1608, the Paropini1609, the Phthinthienses1610, the Semellitani,
the Scherini, the Selinuntii1611, the Symæthii, the Talarienses, the
Tissinenses1612, the Triocalini1613, the Tyracinenses, and the
Zanclæi1614, a Messenian colony on the Straits of Sicily. Towards
Africa, its islands are Gaulos1615, Melita, 87 miles from Camerina,
and 113 from Lilybæum, Cosyra1616, Hieronnesos1617, Cæne1618,
Galata1619, Lopadusa, Æthusa, written by some Ægusa,
Bucinna1620, Osteodes1621, distant from Soluntum 75 miles, and,
opposite to Paropus, Ustica.
On this side of Sicily, facing the river Metaurus, at a distance of
nearly 251622 miles from Italy, are the seven1623 islands called the
Æolian, as also the Liparæan islands; by the Greeks they are called
the Hephæstiades, and by our writers the Vulcanian1624 Isles; they
are called “Æolian” because in the Trojan times Æolus was king
there.
(9.) Lipara1625, with a town whose inhabitants enjoy the rights of
Roman citizens, is so called from Liparus, a former king who
succeeded1626 Æolus, it having been previously called Melogonis or
Meligunis. It is 25 miles1627 distant from Italy, and in
circumference a little less. Between this island and Sicily we find
another, the name of which was formerly Therasia, but now called
Hiera, because it is sacred to Vulcan1628: it contains a hill which at
night vomits forth flames. The third island is Strongyle1629, lying

one mile1630 to the east of Lipara, over which Æolus reigned as
well; it differs only from Lipara in the superior brilliancy of its
flames. From the smoke of this volcano it is said that some of the
inhabitants are able to predict three days beforehand what winds
are about to blow; hence arose the notion that the winds are
governed by Æolus. The fourth of these islands is Didyme1631,
smaller than Lipara, the fifth Ericusa, the sixth Phœnicusa, left to
be a pasture-ground for the cattle of the neighbouring islands, and
the last and smallest Euonymos. Thus much as to the first great
Gulf of Europe.

CHAP. 15. (10.)—MAGNA GRÆCIA, BEGINNING AT LOCRI.

At Locri begins the fore-part of Italy, called Magna Græcia,
whose coast falls back in three bays1632 formed by the Ausonian
sea, so called from the Ausones, who were the first inhabitants of
the country. According to Varro it is 86 miles in extent; but most
writers have made it only 75. Along this coast there are rivers
innumerable, but we shall mention those only that are worthy of
remark. After leaving Locri we come to the Sagra1633, and the ruins
of the town of Caulon, Mystiæ1634, Consilinum Castrum1635,
Cocinthum1636, in the opinion of some, the longest headland of
Italy, and then the Gulf of Scylacium1637, and Scylacium1638 itself,
which was called by the Athenians, when they founded it,
Scylletium. This part of Italy is nearly a peninsula, in consequence
of the Gulf of Terinæum1639 running up into it on the other side; in
it there is a harbour called Castra Hannibalis1640: in no part is Italy
narrower than here, it being but twenty miles across. For this
reason the Elder Dionysius entertained the idea of severing1641 this
portion from the main-land of Italy at this spot, and adding it to
Sicily. The navigable rivers in this district are the Carcines1642, the
Crotalus, the Semirus, the Arocas, and the Targines. In the interior
is the town of Petilia1643, and there are besides, Mount Clibanus1644,
the promontory of Lacinium, in front of which lies the island of
Dioscoron1645, ten miles from the main-land, and another called the
Isle of Calypso, which Homer is supposed to refer to under the
name of Ogygia; as also the islands of Tiris, Eranusa, and
Meloessa. According to Agrippa, the promontory of Lacinium1646 is
seventy miles from Caulon.
(11.) At the promontory of Lacinium begins the second Gulf of
Europe, the bend of which forms an arc of great depth, and

terminates at Acroceraunium, a promontory of Epirus, from which
it is distant1647 seventy-five miles. We first come to the town of
Croton1648, and then the river Neæthus1649, and the town of
Thurii1650, situate between the two rivers Crathis and Sybaris, upon
the latter of which there was once a city1651 of the same name. In a
similar manner Heraclia1652, sometimes called Siris, lies between
the river of that name and the Aciris. We next come to the rivers
Acalandrus and Casuentum1653, and the town of Metapontum1654,
with which the third region of Italy terminates. In the interior of
Bruttium, the Aprustani1655 are the only people; but in Lucania we
find the Atinates, the Bantini, the Eburini1656, the Grumentini, the
Potentini, the Sontini1657, the Sirini, the Tergilani, the Ursentini,
and the Volcentani1658, whom the Numestrani join. Besides these,
we learn from Cato1659 that Thebes in Lucania has disappeared, and
Theopompus informs us that there was formerly a city of the
Lucani called Pandosia1660, at which Alexander, the king of Epirus,
died.

CHAP. 16.—THE SECOND REGION OF ITALY.

Adjoining to this district is the second region of Italy, which
embraces the Hirpini, Calabria, Apulia, and the Salentini, extending
a distance of 250 miles along the Gulf of Tarentum, which receives
its name from a town of the Laconians so called, situate at the
bottom of the Gulf, to which was annexed the maritime colony
which had previously settled there. Tarentum1661 is distant from the
promontory of Lacinium 136 miles, and throws out the territory of
Calabria opposite to it in the form of a peninsula. The Greeks
called this territory Messapia, from their leader1662; before which it
was called Peucetia, from Peucetius1663, the brother of Œnotrius,
and was comprised in the territory of Salentinum. Between the two
promontories1664 there is a distance of 100 miles. The breadth
across the peninsula from Tarentum1665 to Brundusium by land is
35 miles, considerably less if measured from the port of Sasina1666.
The towns inland from Tarentum are Varia1667 surnamed Apulia,
Messapia, and Aletium1668; on the coast, Senum, and Callipolis1669,
now known as Anxa, 75 miles from Tarentum. Thence, at a
distance of 32 miles, is the Promontory of Acra Iapygia1670, at
which point Italy projects the greatest distance into the sea. At a
distance of 19 miles from this point is the town of Basta1671, and
then Hydruntum1672, the spot at which the Ionian is separated from
the Adriatic sea, and from which the distance across to Greece is
the shortest. The town of the Apolloniates1673 lies opposite to it, and
the breadth of the arm of the sea which runs between is not more
than fifty miles. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was the first who
entertained the notion of uniting these two points and making a
passage on foot, by throwing a bridge across, and after him M.
Varro1674, when commanding the fleet of Pompey in the war against

the Pirates. Other cares however prevented either of them from
accomplishing this design. Passing Hydruntum, we come to the
deserted site of Soletum1675, then Fratuertium, the Portus
Tarentinus, the haven of Miltopa, Lupia1676, Balesium1677,
Cælia1678, and then Brundusium1679, fifty miles from Hydruntum.
This last place is one of the most famous ports of Italy, and,
although more distant, affords by far the safest passage across to
Greece, the place of disembarkation being Dyrrachium, a city of
Illyria; the distance across is 225 miles.
Adjoining Brundusium is the territory of the Pediculi1680; nine
youths and as many maidens, natives of Illyria, became the parents
of sixteen nations. The towns of the Pediculi are Rudiæ1681,
Egnatia1682, and Barium1683; their rivers are the Iapyx (so called
from the son of Dædalus, who was king there, and who gave it the
name of Iapygia), the Pactius1684, and the Aufidus, which rises in
the Hirpinian mountains and flows past Canusium1685.
At this point begins Apulia, surnamed the Daunian, from the
Daunii, who take their name from a former chief, the father-in-law
of Diomedes. In this territory are the towns of Salapia1686, famous
for Hannibal’s amour with a courtezan, Sipontum1687, Uria, the
river Cerbalus1688, forming the boundary of the Daunii, the port of
Agasus1689, and the Promontory of Mount Garganus1690, distant
from the Promontory of Salentinum or Iapygia 234 miles. Making
the circuit of Garganus, we come to the port of Garna1691, the Lake
Pantanus1692, the river Frento, the mouth of which forms a harbour,
Teanum of the Apuli1693, and Larinum, Cliternia1694, and the river
Tifernus, at which the district of the Frentani1695 begins. Thus there
were three different nations of the Apulians, [the Daunii,] the Teani,
so called from their leader, and who sprang from the Greeks, and
the Lucani, who were subdued by Calchas1696, and whose country

is now possessed by the Atinates. Besides those already mentioned,
there are, of the Daunii, the colonies of Luceria1697 and Venusia1698,
the towns of Canusium1699 and Arpi, formerly called Argos
Hippium1700 and founded by Diomedes, afterwards called
Argyrippa. Here too Diomedes destroyed the nations of the Monadi
and the Dardi, and the two cities of Apina and Trica1701, whose
names have passed into a by-word and a proverb.
Besides the above, there is in the interior of the second region
one colony of the Hirpini, Beneventum1702, so called by an
exchange of a more auspicious name for its old one of
Maleventum; also the Æculani1703, the Aquilonii1704, the Abellinates
surnamed Protropi, the Compsani, the Caudini, the Ligures, both
those called the Corneliani and Bebiani, the Vescellani, the Æclani,
the Aletrini, the Abellinates1705 surnamed Marsi, the Atrani, the
Æcani1706, the Alfellani1707, the Atinates1708, the Arpani, the
Borcani, the Collatini, the Corinenses, the Cannenses1709, rendered
famous by the defeat of the Romans, the Dirini, the Forentani1710,
the Genusini1711, the Herdonienses, the Hyrini1712, the Larinates
surnamed Frentani1713, the Merinates1714 of Garganus, the
Mateolani, the Netini1715, the Rubustini1716, the Silvini1717, the
Strapellini1718, the Turmentini, the Vibinates1719, the Venusini, and
the Ulurtini. In the interior of Calabria there are the Ægetini, the
Apamestini1720, the Argentini, the Butuntinenses1721, the Deciani,
the Grumbestini, the Norbanenses, the Palionenses, the Sturnini1722,
and the Tutini: there are also the following Salentine nations; the
Aletini1723, the Basterbini1724, the Neretini, the Uxentini, and the
Veretini1725.

CHAP. 17. (12.)—THE FOURTH REGION OF ITALY.

We now come to the fourth region, which includes the most
valiant probably of all the nations of Italy. Upon the coast, in the
territory of the Frentani1726, after the river Tifernus, we find the
river Trinium1727, with a good harbour at its mouth, the towns of
Histonium1728, Buca1729, and Ortona, and the river Aternus1730. In
the interior are the Anxani surnamed Frentani, the Higher and
Lower Carentini1731, and the Lanuenses; in the territory of the
Marrucini, the Teatini1732; in that of the Peligni, the
Corfinienses1733, the Superæquani1734, and the Sulmonenses1735; in
that of the Marsi, the Anxantini1736, the Atinates1737, the
Fucentes1738, the Lucenses1739, and the Marruvini1740; in that of the
Albenses, the town of Alba on Lake Fucinus; in that of the
Æquiculani, the Cliternini1741, and the Carseolani1742; in that of the
Vestini, the Angulani1743, the Pinnenses, and the Peltuinates,
adjoining to whom are the Aufinates1744 Cismontani; in that of the
Samnites, who have been called Sabelli1745, and whom the Greeks
have called Saunitæ, the colony of old Bovianum1746, and that of
the Undecumani, the Aufidenates1747, the Esernini1748, the
Fagifulani, the Ficolenses1749, the Sæpinates1750, and the
Tereventinates; in that of the Sabini, the Amiternini1751, the
Curenses1752, Forum Decî1753, Forum Novum, the Fidenates, the
Interamnates1754, the Nursini1755, the Nomentani1756, the Reatini1757,
the Trebulani, both those called Mutusci1758 and those called
Suffenates1759, the Tiburtes, and the Tarinates.
In these districts, the Comini1760, the Tadiates, the Cædici, and
the Alfaterni, tribes of the Æquiculi, have disappeared. From
Gellianus we learn that Archippe1761, a town of the Marsi, built by

Marsyas, a chieftain of the Lydians, has been swallowed up by
Lake Fucinus, and Valerianus informs us that the town of the
Viticini in Picenum was destroyed by the Romans. The Sabini
(called, according to some writers, from their attention to
religious1762 observances and the worship of the gods, Sevini)
dwell on the dew-clad hills in the vicinity of the Lakes of the
Velinus1763. The Nar, with its sulphureous waters, exhausts these
lakes, and, descending from Mount Fiscellus1764, unites with them
near the groves of Vacuna1765 and Reate, and then directs its course
towards the Tiber, into which it discharges itself. Again, in another
direction, the Anio1766, taking its rise in the mountain of the
Trebani, carries into the Tiber the waters of three lakes remarkable
for their picturesque beauty, and to which Sublaqueum1767 is
indebted for its name. In the territory of Reate is the Lake of
Cutiliæ1768, in which there is a floating island, and which,
according to M. Varro, is the navel or central point of Italy. Below
the Sabine territory lies that of Latium, on one side Picenum, and
behind it Umbria, while the range of the Apennines flanks it on
either side.

CHAP. 18. (13.)—THE FIFTH REGION OF ITALY.

The fifth region is that of Picenum, once remarkable for the
denseness of its population; 360,000 Picentines took the oaths of
fidelity to the Roman people. They are descended from the Sabines,
who had made a vow to celebrate a holy spring1769. Their territory
commenced at the river Aternus1770, where the present district and
colony of Adria1771 is, at a distance of six miles from the sea. Here
we find the river Vomanus, the territories of Prætutia and Palma1772,
Castrum Novum1773, the river Batinus; Truentum1774, with its river
of the same name, which place is the only remnant of the
Liburni1775 in Italy; the river Albula1776; Tervium, at which the
Prætutian district ends, and that of Picenum begins; the town of
Cupra1777, Castellum Firmanorum1778, and above it the colony of
Asculum1779, the most illustrious in Picenum; in the interior there is
the town of Novana1780. Upon the coast we have Cluana1781,
Potentia, Numana, founded by the Siculi, and Ancona1782, a colony
founded by the same people on the Promontory of Cumerus,
forming an elbow of the coast, where it begins to bend inwards,
and distant from Garganus 183 miles. In the interior are the
Auximates1783, the Beregrani1784, the Cingulani, the Cuprenses
surnamed Montani1785, the Falarienses1786, the Pausulani, the
Planinenses, the Ricinenses, the Septempedani1787, the
Tollentinates, the Treienses, and the Pollentini of Urbs Salvia1788.

CHAP. 19. (14.)—THE SIXTH REGION OF ITALY.

Adjoining to this is the sixth region, which includes Umbria and
the Gallic territory in the vicinity of Ariminum. At Ancona begins
the coast of that part of Gaul known as Gallia Togata1789. The Siculi
and the Liburni possessed the greater part of this district, and more
particularly the territories of Palma, of Prætutia, and of Adria.
These were expelled by the Umbri, these again by the Etrurians,
and these in their turn by the Gauls. The Umbri are thought to have
been the most ancient race in Italy, it being supposed that they were
called “Ombrii” by the Greeks, from the fact of their having
survived the rains1790 which had inundated the earth. We read that
300 of their towns were conquered by the Tusci; at the present day
we find on their coast the river Æsis1791, Senogallia1792, the river
Metaurus, the colonies of Fanum Fortunæ1793 and Pisaurum1794,
with a river of the same name; and, in the interior, those of
Hispellum1795 and Tuder.
Besides the above, there are the Amerini1796, the Attidiates1797,
the Asisinates1798, the Arnates1799, the Æsinates1800, the
Camertes1801, the Casuentillani, the Carsulani1802, the Dolates
surnamed Salentini, the Fulginiates1803, the Foroflaminienses1804,
the Forojulienses surnamed Concupienses, the Forobrentani, the
Forosempronienses1805, the Iguvini1806, the Interamnates surnamed
Nartes, the Mevanates1807, the Mevanionenses, the Matilicates1808,
the Narnienses1809, whose town used formerly to be called
Nequinum; the Nucerini1810, both those surnamed Favonienses and
those called Camellani; the Ocriculani1811, the Ostrani1812, the
Pitulani, both those surnamed Pisuertes and the others called
Mergentini; the Plestini1813, the Sentinates1814, the Sarsinates1815,
the Spoletini1816, the Suasini1817, the Sestinates1818, the Suillates1819,

the Tadinates1820, the Trebiates1821, the Tuficani1822, the
Tifernates1823 surnamed Tiberini, and the others called
Metaurenses, the Vesinicates, the Urbinates, both those surnamed
Metaurenses1824 and the others called Hortenses, the
Vettonenses1825, the Vindinates, and the Viventani. In this district
there exist no longer the Feliginates who possessed Clusiolum
above Interamna, and the Sarranates, with their towns of
Acerræ1826, surnamed Vafriæ, and Turocelum, also called
Vettiolum; as also the Solinates, the Curiates, the Fallienates, and
the Apiennates. The Arienates also have disappeared with the town
of Crinovolum, as well as the Usidicani, the Plangenses, the
Pæsinates, and the Cælestini. Cato writes that Ameria above-
mentioned was founded 964 years before the war with Perseus.

CHAP. 20. (15.)—THE EIGHTH REGION OF ITALY; THE
PADUS.

The eighth region is bounded by Ariminum, the Padus, and the
Apennines. Upon the coast we have the river Crustumium1827, and
the colony of Ariminum1828, with the rivers Ariminus and Aprusa.
Next comes the river Rubico1829, once the boundary of Italy, and
after it the Sapis1830, the Vitis, and the Anemo, and then, Ravenna, a
town of the Sabines1831, with the river Bedesis, 105 miles from
Ancona; and, not far from the sea, Butrium1832, a town of the
Umbri. In the interior there are the colonies of Bononia1833,
formerly called Felsina, when it was the chief place of Etruria1834,
Brixillum1835, Mutina1836, Parma1837, and Placentia1838. There are
also the towns of Cæsena1839, Claterna, Forum Clodî1840, Forum
Livî, Forum Popilî, Forum Truentinorum1841, Forum Cornelî,
Forum Licinî, the Faventini1842, the Fidentini1843, the Otesini, the
Padinates1844, the Regienses1845, who take their name from Lepidus,
the Solonates1846, the Saltus Galliani1847, surnamed Aquinates, the
Tannetani1848, the Veliates1849, who were anciently surnamed
Regiates, and the Urbanates1850. In this district the Boii1851 have
disappeared, of whom there were 112 tribes according to Cato; as
also the Senones, who captured Rome.
(16.) The Padus1852 descends from the bosom of Mount Vesulus,
one of the most elevated points of the chain of the Alps, in the
territories of the Ligurian Vagienni1853, and rises at its source in a
manner that well merits an inspection by the curious; after which it
hides itself in a subterranean channel until it rises again in the
country of the Forovibienses. It is inferior in fame to none
whatever among the rivers, being known to the Greeks as the

Eridanus and famous as the scene of the punishment of Phaëton1854.
At the rising of the Dog-star it is swollen by the melted snows; but,
though it proves more furious in its course to the adjoining fields
than to the vessels that are upon it, still it takes care to carry away
no portion of its banks, and when it recedes, renders them
additionally fertile. Its length from its source is 300 miles, to which
we must add eighty-eight for its sinuosities; and it receives from
the Apennines and Alps not only several navigable rivers, but
immense lakes as well, which discharge themselves into its waters,
thus conveying altogether as many as thirty streams into the
Adriatic Sea.
Of these the best known are the following—flowing from the
range of the Apennines, the Jactus, the Tanarus1855, the Trebia
which passes Placentia, the Tarus, the Incia, the Gabellus, the
Scultenna, and the Rhenus: from the chain of the Alps, the
Stura1856, the Orgus, the two Duriæ, the Sessites, the Ticinus, the
Lambrus, the Addua, the Ollius, and the Mincius. There is no river
known to receive a larger increase than this in so short a space; so
much so indeed that it is impelled onwards by this vast body of
water, and, invading the land1857, forms deep channels in its course:
hence it is that, although a portion of its stream is drawn off by
rivers and canals between Ravenna and Altinum, for a space of 120
miles, still, at the spot where it discharges the vast body of its
waters, it is said to form seven seas.
By the Augustan Canal the Padus is carried to Ravenna, at which
place it is called the Padusa1858, having formerly borne the name of
Messanicus. The nearest mouth to this spot forms the extensive
port known as that of Vatrenus, where Claudius Cæsar1859, on his
triumph over the Britons, entered the Adriatic in a vessel that
deserved rather the name of a vast palace than a ship. This mouth,

which was formerly called by some the Eridanian, has been by
others styled the Spinetic mouth, from the city of Spina, a very
powerful place which formerly stood in the vicinity, if we may
form a conclusion from the amount of its treasure deposited at
Delphi; it was founded by Diomedes. At this spot the river
Vatrenus1860, which flows from the territory of Forum Cornelî,
swells the waters of the Padus.
The next mouth to this is that of Caprasia1861, then that of Sagis,
and then Volane, formerly called Olane; all of which are situate
upon the Flavian Canal1862, which the Tuscans formerly made from
Sagis, thus drawing the impetuous stream of the river across into
the marshes of the Atriani, which they call the Seven Seas; and
upon which is the noble port of Atria1863, a city of the Tuscans,
from which place the sea was formerly called the Atriatic, though
now the Adriatic.
We next come to the overflowing mouths of Carbonaria, and the
Fosses of Philistina1864, by some called Tartarus1865, all of which
originate in the overflow of the waters in the Philistinian Canal,
swollen by the streams of the Atesis, descending from the
Tridentine Alps, and of the Togisonus1866, flowing from the
territory of the Patavini. A portion of them also forms the adjoining
port of Brundulum1867, in the same manner as Edron1868 is formed
by the two rivers Meduacus and the Clodian Canal. With the waters
of these streams the Padus unites, and with them discharges itself
into the sea, forming, according to most writers, between the Alps
and the sea-shore a triangular figure, 2000 stadia in circumference,
not unlike the Delta formed by the Nile in Egypt. I feel somewhat
ashamed to have to borrow from the Greeks any statement in
reference to Italy; Metrodorus of Scepsos, however, informs us that
this river has obtained its name of Padus from the fact, that about

its source there are great numbers of pine-trees, which in the Gallic
language are called “padi.” In the tongue of the Ligurians this river
is called “Bodincus,” which signifies “the bottomless.” This
derivation is in some measure supported by the fact that near this
river there is the town of Industria1869, of which the ancient name
was Bodincomagum, and where the river begins to be of greater
depth than in other parts.

CHAP. 21. (17.)—THE ELEVENTH REGION OF ITALY;
ITALIA TRANSPADANA.

From the river Padus the eleventh region receives its name of
Transpadana; to which, situate as it is wholly in the interior, the
river, by its bounteous channel, conveys the gifts of all the seas.
The towns are Vibî Forum1870 and Segusio; and, at the foot of the
Alps, the colony of Augusta Taurinorum1871, at which place the
Padus becomes navigable, and which was founded by the ancient
race of the Ligurians, and of Augusta Prætoria1872 of the Salassi,
near the two passes of the Alps, the Grecian1873 and the Penine (by
the latter it is said that the Carthaginians passed into Italy, by the
Grecian, Hercules)—the town of Eporedia1874, the foundation of
which by the Roman people was enjoined by the Sibylline books;
the Gauls call tamers of horses by the name of “Eporediæ”—
Vercellæ1875, the town of the Libici, derived its origin from the
Salluvii, and Novaria1876, founded by the Vertacomacori, is at the
present day a district of the Vocontii, and not, as Cato supposes, of
the Ligurians; of whom two nations, called the Lævi and the
Marici, founded Ticinum1877, not far from the Padus, as the Boii,
descended from the Transalpine nations, have founded Laus
Pompeia1878 and the Insubres Mediolanum1879.
From Cato we also learn that Comum, Bergomum1880, and
Licinîforum1881, and some other peoples in the vicinity, originated
with the Orobii, but he admits that he is ignorant as to the origin of
that nation. Cornelius Alexander however informs us that they
came from Greece, interpreting their name as meaning “those who
live upon the mountains1882.” In this district, Parra has disappeared,
a town of the Orobii, from whom, according to Cato, the people of
Bergomum are descended; its site even yet shows that it was situate

in a position more elevated than fruitful1883. The Caturiges have
also perished, an exiled race of the Insubres, as also Spina
previously mentioned; Melpum too, a place distinguished for its
opulence, which, as we are informed by Cornelius Nepos, was
destroyed by the Insubres, the Boii, and the Senones, on the very
day on which Camillus took Veii.

CHAP. 22. (18.)—THE TENTH REGION OF ITALY.

We now come to the tenth region of Italy, situate on the Adriatic
Sea. In this district are Venetia1884, the river Silis1885, rising in the
Tarvisanian1886 mountains, the town of Altinum1887, the river
Liquentia rising in the mountains of Opitergium1888, and a port with
the same name, the colony of Concordia1889; the rivers and
harbours of Romatinum1890, the greater and less Tiliaventum1891,
the Anaxum1892, into which the Varamus flows, the Alsa1893, and the
Natiso with the Turrus, which flow past the colony of Aquileia1894
at a distance of fifteen miles from the sea. This is the country of the
Carni1895, and adjoining to it is that of the Iapydes, the river
Timavus1896, the fortress of Pucinum1897, famous for its wines, the
Gulf of Tergeste1898, and the colony of that name, thirty-three miles
from Aquileia. Six miles beyond this place lies the river Formio1899,
189 miles distant from Ravenna, the ancient boundary1900 of
enlarged Italy, and now the frontier of Istria. That this region takes
its name from the river Ister which flows from the Danube, also
called the Ister, into the Adriatic opposite the mouth of the Padus,
and that the sea which lies between them is rendered fresh by their
waters running from opposite directions, has been erroneously
asserted by many, and among them by Nepos even, who dwelt
upon the banks of the Padus. For it is the fact that no river which
runs from the Danube discharges itself into the Adriatic. They have
been misled, I think, by the circumstance that the ship Argo came
down some river into the Adriatic sea, not far from Tergeste; but
what river that was is now unknown. The most careful writers say
that the ship was carried across the Alps on men’s shoulders,
having passed along the Ister, then along the Savus, and so from

Nauportus1901, which place, lying between Æmona1902 and the Alps,
from that circumstance derives its name.

CHAP. 23. (19.)—ISTRIA, ITS PEOPLE AND LOCALITY.

Istria projects in the form of a peninsula. Some writers have
stated its length to be forty miles, and its circumference 125; and
the same as to Liburnia which adjoins it, and the Flanatic Gulf1903,
while others make it 2251904; others again make the circumference
of Liburnia 180 miles. Some persons too extend Iapydia, at the
back of Istria, as far as the Flanatic Gulf, a distance of 130 miles,
thus making Liburnia but 150 miles. Tuditanus1905, who subdued
the Istri, had this inscription on his statue which was erected there:
“From Aquileia to the river Titus is a distance of 1000 stadia.”
The towns of Istria with the rights of Roman citizens are
Ægida1906, Parentium, and the colony of Pola1907, now Pietas Julia,
formerly founded by the Colchians, and distant from Tergeste 100
miles: after which we come to the town of Nesactium1908, and the
river Arsia, now1909 the boundary of Italy. The distance across from
Ancona to Pola is 120 miles. In the interior of the tenth region are
the colonies of Cremona, Brixia in the territory of the
Cenomanni1910, Ateste1911 belonging to the Veneti, and the towns of
Acelum1912, Patavium1913, Opitergium, Belunum1914, and Vicetia;
with Mantua1915, the only city of the Tuscans now left beyond the
Padus. Cato informs us that the Veneti are descendants of the
Trojans1916, and that the Cenomanni1917 dwelt among the Volcæ in
the vicinity of Massilia. There are also the towns of the Fertini1918,
the Tridentini1919, and the Beruenses, belonging to the Rhæti,
Verona1920, belonging to the Rhæti and the Euganei, and
Julienses1921 to the Carni. We then have the following peoples,
whom there is no necessity to particularize with any degree of
exactness, the Alutrenses, the Asseriates, the Flamonienses1922 with
those surnamed Vanienses, and the others called Culici, the

Forojulienses1923 surnamed Transpadani, the Foretani, the
Nedinates1924, the Quarqueni1925, the Taurisani1926, the Togienses,
and the Varvari. In this district there have disappeared—upon the
coast—Iramene, Pellaon, and Palsatium, Atina and Cælina
belonging to the Veneti, Segeste and Ocra to the Carni, and Noreia
to the Taurisci. L. Piso also informs us that although the senate
disapproved of his so doing, M. Claudius Marcellus1927 razed to the
ground a tower situate at the twelfth mile-stone from Aquileia.
In this region also and the eleventh there are some celebrated
lakes1928, and several rivers that either take their rise in them or else
are fed by their waters, in those cases in which they again emerge
from them. These are the Addua1929, fed by the Lake Larius, the
Ticinus by Lake Verbannus, the Mincius by Lake Benacus, the
Ollius by Lake Sebinnus, and the Lambrus by Lake Eupilis—all of
them flowing into the Padus.
Cælius states that the length of the Alps from the Upper Sea to
the Lower is 1000 miles, a distance which Timagenes shortens by
twenty-two. Cornelius Nepos assigns to them a breadth of 100
miles, and T. Livius of 3000 stadia; but then in different places. For
in some localities they exceed 100 miles; where they divide
Germany, for instance, from Italy; while in other parts they do not
reach seventy, being thus narrowed by the providential dispensation
of nature as it were. The breadth of Italy, taken from the river Var at
the foot of these mountains, and passing along by the Vada1930
Sabatia, the Taurini, Comum, Brixia, Verona, Vicetia, Opitergium,
Aquileia, Tergeste, Pola, and Arsia, is 745 miles.

CHAP. 24. (20.)—THE ALPS, AND THE ALPINE NATIONS.

Many nations dwell among the Alps; but the more remarkable,
between Pola and the district of Tergeste, are the Secusses, the
Subocrini, the Catali, the Menocaleni, and near the Carni the
people formerly called the Taurisci, but now the Norici. Adjoining
to these are the Rhæti and the Vindelici, who are all divided into a
multitude of states. It is supposed that the Rhæti are the
descendants of the Tuscans, who were expelled by the Gauls and
migrated hither under the command of their chief, whose name was
Rhætus. Turning then to the side of the Alps which fronts Italy, we
have the Euganean1931 nations enjoying Latin rights, and of whom
Cato enumerates thirty-four towns. Among these are the
Triumpilini, a people who were sold1932 with their territory; and
then the Camuni, and several similar tribes, each of them in the
jurisdiction of its neighbouring municipal town. The same author
also considers the Lepontii1933 and the Salassi to be of Tauriscan
origin, but most other writers, giving a Greek1934 interpretation to
their name, consider the Lepontii to have been those of the
followers of Hercules who were left behind in consequence of their
limbs being frozen by the snow of the Alps. They are also of
opinion that the inhabitants of the Grecian Alps are descended from
a portion of the Greeks of his army, and that the Euganeans, being
sprung from an origin so illustrious, thence took their name1935.
The head of these are the Stœni1936. The Vennonenses1937 and the
Sarunetes1938, peoples of the Rhæti, dwell about the sources of the
river Rhenus, while the tribe of the Lepontii, known as the Uberi,
dwell in the vicinity of the sources of the Rhodanus, in the same
district of the Alps. There are also other native tribes here, who
have received Latin rights, such as the Octodurenses1939, and their

neighbours the Centrones1940, the Cottian1941 states, the Ligurian
Vagienni, descended from the Caturiges1942, as also those called
Montani1943; besides numerous nations of the Capillati1944, on the
confines of the Ligurian Sea.
It may not be inappropriate in this place to subjoin the
inscription now to be seen upon the trophy1945 erected on the Alps,
which is to the following effect:—“To the Emperor Cæsar—The
1946
son of Cæsar now deified, Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, and
1947
emperor fourteen years, in the seventeenth year of his
holding the tribunitial authority, the Senate and the Roman
people, in remembrance that under his command and auspices all
the Alpine nations which extended from the upper sea to the
lower were reduced to subjection by the Roman people—The
Alpine nations so subdued were: the Triumpilini, the Camuni, the
Venostes1948, the Vennonenses, the Isarci, the Breuni, the
Genaunes1949, the Focunates, four nations of the Vindelici, the
Consuanetes, the Rucinates, the Licates1950, the Catenates, the
Ambisontes, the Rugusci, the Suanetes1951, the Calucones, the
Brixentes, the Lepontii, the Uberi, the Nantuates, the Seduni,
the Varagri, the Salassi, the Acitavones, the Medulli, the
Uceni1952, the Caturiges, the Brigiani, the Sogiontii, the
Brodiontii, the Nemaloni, the Edenates1953, the Esubiani, the
Veamini, the Gallitæ, the Triulatti, the Ecdini, the Vergunni,
1954
the Eguituri , the Nementuri, the Oratelli, the Nerusi, the
Velauni, and the Suetri.”
The twelve states of the Cottiani1955 were not included in the list,
as they had shown no hostility, nor yet those which had been placed
by the Pompeian law under the jurisdiction of the municipal towns.

Such then is Italy, sacred to the gods, such are the nations, such
the cities of her peoples; to which we may add, that this is that
same Italy, which, when L. Æmilius Paulus1956 and C. Attilius
Regulus were Consuls, on hearing of the rising in Gaul, unaided,
and without any foreign assistance whatever, without the help even
of that portion which lies beyond the Padus, armed 80,000 horse
and 700,000 foot. In abundance of metals of every kind Italy yields
to no land whatever; but all search for them has been prohibited by
an ancient decree of the Senate, who gave orders thereby that Italy
shall be exempted1957 from such treatment.

CHAP. 25. (21.)—LIBURNIA AND ILLYRICUM.

The nation of the Liburni adjoins the river Arsia1958, and extends
as far as the river Titus. The Mentores, the Hymani1959, the
Encheleæ, the Buni, and the people whom Callimachus calls the
Peucetiæ, formerly formed part of it; but now the whole in general
are comprised under the one name of Illyricum. But few of the
names of these nations are worthy of mention, or indeed very easy
of pronunciation. To the jurisdiction of Scardona1960 resort the
Iapydes and fourteen cities of the Liburni, of which it may not
prove tedious if I mention the Lacinienses, the Stlupini, the
Burnistæ, and the Olbonenses. Belonging to the same jurisdiction
there are, in the enjoyment of Italian rights, the Alutæ1961, the
Flanates1962, from whom the Gulf takes its name, the Lopsi, and the
Varvarini; the Assesiates, who are exempt from tribute; and upon
the islands, the Fertinates and the Curictæ1963.
Besides these, there are on the coast, after leaving Nesactium,
Alvona1964, Flanona, Tarsatica, Senia, Lopsica, Ortopula, Vegium,
Argyruntum, Corinium1965, Ænona, the city of Pasinum, and the
river Tedanius, at which Iapydia terminates. The islands of this
Gulf, with their towns, besides those above mentioned, are
Absyrtium1966, Arba1967, Crexa, Gissa, and Portunata. Again, on the
mainland there is the colony of Iadera1968, distant from Pola 160
miles; then, at a distance of thirty miles, the island of Colentum1969,
and of eighteen, the mouth of the river Titus.

CHAP. 26. (22.)—DALMATIA.

Scardona, situate upon the river1970, at a distance of twelve miles
from the sea, forms the boundary of Liburnia and the beginning of
Dalmatia. Next to this place comes the ancient country of the
Autariatares and the fortress of Tariona, the Promontory of
Diomedes1971, or, as others call it, the peninsula of Hyllis, 100
miles1972 in circuit. Then comes Tragurium, a place with the rights
of Roman citizens, and celebrated for its marble, Sicum, a place to
which Claudius, the emperor lately deified, sent a colony of his
veterans, and Salona1973, a colony, situate 112 miles from Iadera. To
this place resort for legal purposes, having the laws dispensed
according to their divisions into decuries or tithings, the Dalmatæ,
forming 342 decuries, the Deurici 22, the Ditiones 239, the Mazæi
269, and the Sardiates 52. In this region are Burnum1974,
Andetrium1975, and Tribulium, fortresses ennobled by the battles of
the Roman people. To the same jurisdiction also belong the
Issæi1976, the Colentini, the Separi, and the Epetini, nations
inhabiting the islands. After these come the fortresses of
Peguntium1977 and of Rataneum, with the colony of Narona1978, the
seat of the third jurisdiction, distant from Salona eighty-two miles,
and situate upon a river of the same name, at a distance of twenty
miles from the sea. M. Varro states that eighty-nine states used to
resort thither, but now nearly the only ones that are known are the
Cerauni1979 with 24 decuries, the Daorizi with 17, the Dæsitiates
with 103, the Docleatæ with 33, the Deretini with 14, the
Deremistæ with 30, the Dindari with 33, the Glinditiones with 44,
the Melcomani with 24, the Naresii with 102, the Scirtarii with 72,
the Siculotæ with 24, and the Vardæi, once the scourges of Italy,
with no more than 20 decuries. In addition to these, this district was

possessed by the Ozuæi, the Partheni, the Hemasini, the Arthitæ,
and the Armistæ. The colony of Epidaurum1980 is distant from the
river Naron 100 miles. After Epidaurum come the following towns,
with the rights of Roman citizens:—Rhizinium1981, Acruvium1982,
Butua, Olcinium, formerly called Colchinium, having been
founded by the Colchians; the river Drilo1983, and, upon it,
Scodra1984, a town with the rights of Roman citizens, situate at a
distance of eighteen miles from the sea; besides in former times
many Greek towns and once powerful states, of which all
remembrance is fast fading away. For in this region there were
formerly the Labeatæ, the Enderini1985, the Sasæi, the Grabæi1986,
properly called Illyrii, the Taulantii1987, and the Pyræi. The
Promontory of Nymphæum on the sea-coast still retains its
name1988; and there is Lissum, a town enjoying the rights of Roman
citizens, at a distance from Epidaurum of 100 miles.
(23.) At Lissum begins the province of Macedonia1989, the
nations of the Parthini1990, and behind them the Dassaretæ1991. The
mountains of Candavia1992 are seventy-eight miles from
Dyrrhachium. On the coast lies Denda, a town with the rights of
Roman citizens, the colony of Epidamnum1993, which, on account
of its inauspicious name, was by the Romans called Dyrrhachium,
the river Aöus1994, by some called Æas, and Apollonia1995, formerly
a colony of the Corinthians, at a distance of four miles from the
sea, in the vicinity of which the celebrated Nymphæum1996 is
inhabited by the barbarous Amantes1997 and Buliones. Upon the
coast too is the town of Oricum1998, founded by the Colchians. At
this spot begins Epirus, with the Acroceraunian1999 mountains, by
which we have previously mentioned2000 this Gulf of Europe as
bounded. Oricum is distant from the Promontory of Salentinum in
Italy eighty2001 miles.

CHAP. 27. (24.)—THE NORICI.

In the rear of the Carni and the Iapydes, along the course of the
great river Ister2002, the Rhæti touch upon the Norici2003: their
towns are Virunum2004, Celeia, Teurnia, Aguntum2005,
Vianiomina2006, Claudia2007, and Flavium Solvense2008. Adjoining
to the Norici is Lake Peiso2009, and the deserts of the Boii2010; they
are however now inhabited by the people of Sabaria2011, a colony of
the now deified emperor Claudius, and the town of Scarabantia
Julia2012.

CHAP. 28. (25.)—PANNONIA.

Next to them comes acorn-bearing Pannonia2013, along which the
chain of the Alps, gradually lessening as it runs through the middle
of Illyricum from north to south, forms a gentle slope on the right
hand and the left. The portion which looks towards the Adriatic Sea
is called Dalmatia and Illyricum, above mentioned, while Pannonia
stretches away towards the north, and has the Danube for its
extreme boundary. In it are the colonies of Æmona2014 and Siscia.
The following rivers, both known to fame and adapted for
commerce, flow into the Danube; the Draus2015, which rushes from
Noricum with great impetuosity, and the Savus2016, which flows
with a more gentle current from the Carnic Alps, there being a
space between them of 120 miles. The Draus runs through the
Serretes, the Serrapilli2017, the Iasi, and the Andizetes; the Savus
through the Colapiani2018 and the Breuci; these are the principal
peoples. Besides them there are the Arivates, the Azali, the
Amantini, the Belgites, the Catari, the Cornacates, the Eravisci, the
Hercuniates2019, the Latovici, the Oseriates, the Varciani, and, in
front of Mount Claudius, the Scordisci, behind it the Taurisci. In
the Savus there is the island of Metubarris2020, the greatest of all the
islands formed by rivers. Besides the above, there are these other
rivers worthy of mention:—the Colapis2021, which flows into the
Savus near Siscia, where, dividing its channel, it forms the island
which is called Segestica2022; and the river Bacuntius2023, which
flows into the Savus at the town of Sirmium, where we find the
state of the Sirmienses and the Amantini. Forty-five miles thence is
Taurunum2024, where the Savus flows into the Danube; above
which spot the Valdanus2025 and the Urpanus, themselves far from
ignoble rivers, join that stream.

CHAP. 29. (26.)—MŒSIA.

Joining up to Pannonia is the province called Mœsia2026, which
runs, with the course of the Danube, as far as the Euxine. It
commences at the confluence2027 previously mentioned. In it are
the Dardani, the Celegeri, the Triballi, the Timachi, the Mœsi, the
Thracians, and the Scythians who border on the Euxine. The more
famous among its rivers are the Margis2028, which rises in the
territory of the Dardani, the Pingus, the Timachus, the Œscus which
rises in Mount Rhodope, and, rising in Mount Hæmus, the Utus2029,
the Asamus, and the Ieterus.
The breadth of Illyricum2030 at its widest part is 325 miles, and
its length from the river Arsia to the river Drinius 530; from the
Drinius to the Promontory of Acroceraunia Agrippa states to be 175
miles, and he says that the entire circuit of the Italian and Illyrian
Gulf is 1700 miles. In this Gulf, according to the limits which we
have drawn, are two seas, the Ionian2031 in the first part, and the
Adriatic, which runs more inland and is called the Upper Sea.

CHAP. 30.—ISLANDS OF THE IONIAN SEA AND THE
ADRIATIC.

In the Ausonian Sea there are no islands worthy of notice beyond
those which we have already mentioned, and only a few in the
Ionian; those, for instance, upon the Calabrian coast, opposite
Brundusium, by the projection of which a harbour is formed; and,
over against the Apulian coast, Diomedia2032, remarkable for the
monument of Diomedes, and another island called by the same
name, but by some Teutria.
The coast of Illyricum is clustered with more than 1000 islands,
the sea being of a shoaly nature, and numerous creeks and
æstuaries running with their narrow channels between portions of
the land. The more famous are those before the mouths of the
Timavus, with warm springs2033 that rise with the tides of the sea,
the island of Cissa near the territory of the Istri, and the Pullaria2034
and Absyrtides2035, so called by the Greeks from the circumstance
of Absyrtus, the brother of Medea, having been slain there. Some
islands near them have been called the Electrides2036, upon which
amber, which they call “electrum,” was said to be found; a most
assured instance however of that untruthfulness2037 which is
generally ascribed to the Greeks, seeing that it has never yet been
ascertained which of the islands were meant by them under that
name. Opposite to the Iader is Lissa, and other islands whose
names have been already mentioned2038. Opposite to the Liburni
are some islands called the Crateæ, and no smaller number styled
Liburnicæ and Celadussæ2039. Opposite to Surium is Bavo, and
Brattia2040, famous for its goats, Issa with the rights of Roman
citizens, and Pharia with a town. At a distance of twenty-five miles
from Issa is Corcyra2041, surnamed Melæna, with a town founded

by the Cnidians; between which and Illyricum is Melite2042, from
which, as we learn from Callimachus, a certain kind of little dogs
were called Melitæi; fifteen miles from it we find the seven
Elaphites2043. In the Ionian Sea, at a distance of twelve miles from
Oricum, is Sasonis2044, notorious from having been a harbour of
pirates.

Summary.—The towns and nations mentioned are in number * *
* *2045. The rivers of note are in number * * * *. The mountains of
note are in number * * * *. The islands are in number * * * *. The
towns or nations which have disappeared are in number * * * *.
The facts, statements, and observations are in number 326.
Roman Authors quoted.—Turannius Gracilis2046, Cornelius
Nepos2047, T. Livius2048, Cato the Censor2049, M. Agrippa2050, M.
Varro2051, the Emperor Augustus2052 now deified, Varro
Atacinus2053, Antias2054, Hyginus2055, L. Vetus2056, Pomponius
Mela2057, Curio2058 the Elder, Cælius2059, Arruntius2060, Sebosus2061,
Licinius Mucianus2062, Fabricius Tuscus2063, L. Ateius2064,
Capito2065, Verrius Flaccus2066, L. Piso2067, Gellianus2068, and
Valerianus2069.
Foreign Authors quoted.—Artemidorus2070, Alexander
Polyhistor2071, Thucydides2072, Theophrastus2073, Isidorus2074,
Theopompus2075, Metrodorus of Scepsis2076, Callicrates2077,
Xenophon of Lampsacus2078, Diodorus of Syracuse2079,
Nymphodorus2080, Calliphanes2081, and Timagenes2082.

BOOK IV.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS,
HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND
PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED.

CHAP. 1. (1.)—EPIRUS.

The third great Gulf of Europe begins at the mountains of
Acroceraunia2083, and ends at the Hellespont, embracing an extent
of 2500 miles, exclusive of the sea-line of nineteen smaller gulfs.
Upon it are Epirus, Acarnania, Ætolia, Phocis, Locris, Achaia,
Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, Megaris, Attica, Bœotia; and again,
upon the other sea2084, the same Phocis and Locris, Doris, Phthiotis,
Thessalia, Magnesia, Macedonia and Thracia. All the fabulous lore
of Greece, as well as the effulgence of her literature, first shone
forth upon the banks of this Gulf. We shall therefore dwell a little
the longer upon it.
Epirus2085, generally so called, begins at the mountains of
Acroceraunia. The first people that we meet are the Chaones, from
whom Chaonia2086 receives its name, then the Thesproti2087, and
then the Antigonenses2088. We then come to the place where
Aornos2089 stood, with its exhalations so deadly to the feathered
race, the Cestrini2090, the Perrhæbi2091, in whose country Mount
Pindus is situate, the Cassiopæi2092, the Dryopes2093, the Sellæ2094,
the Hellopes2095, the Molossi, in whose territory is the temple of the
Dodonæan Jupiter, so famous for its oracle; and Mount
Tomarus2096, so highly praised by Theopompus, with its hundred
springs gushing from its foot.
(2.) Epirus, properly so called, advances towards Magnesia and
Macedonia, having at its back the Dassaretæ, previously2097
mentioned, a free nation, and after them the Dardani, a savage race.
On the left hand, before the Dardani are extended the Triballi and
the nations of Mœsia, while in front of them the Medi and the
Denselatæ join, and next to them the Thracians, who stretch away

as far as the Euxine: in such a manner is a rampart raised around
the lofty heights of Rhodope, and then of Hæmus.
On the coast of Epirus is the fortress of Chimæra2098, situate
upon the Acroceraunian range, and below it the spring known as
the Royal Waters2099; then the towns of Mæandria, and Cestria2100,
the Thyamis2101, a river of Thesprotia, the colony of Buthrotum2102,
and the Ambracian Gulf2103, so famed in history; which, with an
inlet only half a mile in width, receives a vast body of water from
the sea, being thirty-seven miles in length, and fifteen in width. The
river Acheron, which runs through Acherusia, a lake of Thesprotia,
flows into it2104 after a course of thirty-six miles; it is considered
wonderful for its bridge, 1000 feet in length, by a people who look
upon everything as wonderful that belongs to themselves. Upon
this Gulf is also situate the town of Ambracia. There are also the
Aphas and the Arachthus2105, rivers of the Molossi; the city of
Anactoria2106, and the place where Pandosia2107 stood.

CHAP. 2.—ACARNANIA.

The towns of Acarnania2108, the ancient name of which was
Curetis, are Heraclia2109, Echinus2110, and, on the coast, Actium, a
colony founded by Augustus, with its famous temple of Apollo and
the free city of Nicopolis2111. Passing out of the Ambracian Gulf
into the Ionian Sea, we come to the coast of Leucadia, with the
Promontory of Leucate2112, and then the Gulf and the peninsula of
Leucadia2113, which last was formerly called Neritis2114. By the
exertions of the inhabitants it was once cut off from the mainland,
but was again joined to it by the vast bodies of sand accumulated
through the action of the winds. This spot is called Dioryctos2115,
and is three stadia in length: on the peninsula is the town of Leucas,
formerly called Neritus2116. We next come to Alyzia2117, Stratos2118,
and Argos2119, surnamed Amphilochian, cities of the Acarnanians:
the river Acheloüs2120 flows from the heights of Pindus, and, after
separating Acarnania from Ætolia, is fast adding the island of
Artemita2121 to the mainland by the continual deposits of earth
which it brings down its stream.

CHAP. 3. (2.)—ÆTOLIA.

The peoples of Ætolia are the Athamanes2122, the Tymphæi2123,
the Ephyri2124, the Ænienses, the Perrhæbi2125, the Dolopes2126, the
Maraces, and the Atraces2127, in whose territory rises the river
Atrax, which flows into the Ionian Sea. Calydon2128 is a city of
Ætolia, situate at a distance of seven miles from the sea, and near
the banks of the river Evenus2129. We then come to Macynia2130,
and Molycria, behind which lie Mounts Chalcis2131 and Taphiassus.
On the coast again, there is the promontory of Antirrhium2132, off
which is the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, which flows in and
separates Ætolia from the Peloponnesus, being less2133 than one
mile in width. The promontory which faces it on the opposite side
is called Rhion2134. The towns of Ætolia, however, on the
Corinthian Gulf are Naupactus2135 and Pylene2136; and, more
inland, Pleuron and Halicyrna2137. The most famous mountains are
Tomarus, in the district of Dodona, Crania2138 in Ambracia,
Aracynthus2139 in Acarnania, and Acanthon2140, Panætolium2141,
and Macynium2142, in Ætolia.

CHAP. 4. (3.)—LOCRIS AND PHOCIS.

Next to Ætolia are the Locri2143, surnamed Ozolæ; a people
exempt from tribute. Here is the town of Œanthe2144, the port2145 of
Apollo Phæstius, and the Gulf of Crissa2146. In the interior are the
towns of Argyna, Eupalia2147, Phæstum, and Calamisus. Beyond
are the Cirrhæan plains of Phocis, the town of Cirrha2148, and the
port of Chalæon2149, seven miles from which, in the interior, is
situate the free town of Delphi2150, at the foot of Mount
Parnassus2151, and having the most celebrated oracle of Apollo
throughout the whole world. There is the Fountain too of
Castalia2152, and the river Cephisus2153 which flows past Delphi,
rising in the former city of Lilæa2154. Besides these, there is the
town of Crissa2155 and that of Anticyra2156, with the Bulenses2157; as
also Naulochum2158, Pyrrha, Amphissa2159, exempt from all tribute,
Tithrone, Tritea2160, Ambrysus2161, and Drymæa2162, which district
has also the name of Daulis. The extremity of the gulf washes one
corner of Bœotia, with its towns of Siphæ2163 and Thebes2164,
surnamed the Corsian, in the vicinity of Helicon2165. The third town
of Bœotia on this sea is that of Pagæ2166, from which point the
Isthmus of the Peloponnesus projects in the form of a neck.

CHAP. 5. (4.)—THE PELOPONNESUS.

The Peloponnesus, which was formerly called Apia2167 and
Pelasgia, is a peninsula, inferior in fame to no land upon the face of
the earth. Situate between the two seas, the Ægean and the Ionian,
it is in shape like the leaf of a plane-tree, in consequence of the
angular indentations made in its shores. According to Isidorus, it is
563 miles in circumference; and nearly as much again, allowing for
the sea-line on the margin of its gulfs. The narrow pass at which it
commences is known by the name of the Isthmus. At this spot the
two seas, which we have previously mentioned, running from the
north and the east, invade the land from opposite sides2168, and
swallow up its entire breadth, the result being that through these
inroads in opposite directions of such vast bodies of water, the
sides of the land are eaten away to such an extent, that Hellas2169
only holds on to the Peloponnesus by the narrow neck, five miles in
width, which intervenes. The Gulfs thus formed, the one on this
side, the other on that, are known as the Corinthian2170 and the
Saronic Gulfs. The ports of Lecheæ2171, on the one side, and of
Cenchreæ on the other, form the frontiers of this narrow passage,
which thus compels to a tedious and perilous circumnavigation
such vessels as from their magnitude cannot be carried across by
land on vehicles. For this reason it is that both King Demetrius2172,
Cæsar the Dictator, the prince Caius2173, and Domitius Nero2174,
have at different times made the attempt to cut through this neck by
forming a navigable canal; a profane design, as may be clearly seen
by the result2175 in every one of these instances.
Upon the middle of this intervening neck which we have called
the Isthmus, stands the colony of Corinth, formerly known by the
name of Ephyre2176, situate upon the brow of a hill, at a distance of

sixty stadia from the shore of either sea. From the heights of its
citadel, which is called Acrocorinthos, or the “Heights of Corinth,”
and in which is the Fountain of Pirene, it looks down upon the two
seas which lie in the opposite directions. From Leucas to Patræ
upon the Corinthian gulf is a distance of eighty-eight miles. The
colony of Patræ2177 is founded upon the most extensive promontory
of the Peloponnesus, facing Ætolia and the river Evenus, the
Corinthian Gulf being, as we have previously2178 stated, less than a
mile in width at the entrance there, though extending in length as
far as the isthmus, a distance of eighty-five miles.

CHAP. 6. (5.)—ACHAIA.

The province called Achaia2179 begins at the Isthmus; from the
circumstance of its cities being ranged in regular succession on its
coast, it formerly had the name of Ægialos2180. The first place there
is Lecheæ, already mentioned, a port of the Corinthians; next to
which is Olyros2181, a fortress of the people of Pellene2182; then the
former towns of Helice and Bura2183, and the places in which their
inhabitants took refuge after their towns had been swallowed up by
the sea, Sicyon2184 namely, Ægira2185, Ægium, and Erineos2186. In
the interior are Cleonæ and Hysiæ2187; then come the port of
Panormus2188, and Rhium already mentioned; from which
promontory, Patræ, of which we have previously spoken, is distant
five miles; and then the place where Pheræ2189 stood. Of the nine
mountains of Achaia, Scioessa is the most famous; there is also the
Fountain of Cymothoë. Beyond Patræ we find the town of
Olenum2190, the colony of Dyme2191, the places where
Buprasium2192 and Hyrmine once stood, the Promontory of
Araxus2193, the Bay of Cyllene, and the Promontory of Chelonates,
at five miles’ distance from Cyllene2194. There is also the fortress of
Phlius2195; the district around which was called by Homer
Aræthyrea2196, and, after his time, Asopis.
The territory of the Eleans then begins, who were formerly
called Epei, with the city of Elis2197 in the interior, and, at a
distance of twelve miles from Phlius, being also in the interior, the
temple of Olympian Jupiter, which by the universal celebrity of its
games, gives to Greece its mode of reckoning2198. Here too once
stood the town of Pisa2199, the river Alpheus flowing past it. On the
coast there is the Promontory of Ichthys2200. The river Alpheus is

navigable six miles, nearly as far as the towns of Aulon2201 and
Leprion. We next come to the Promontory of Platanodes2202. All
these localities lie to the west.

CHAP. 7.—MESSENIA.

Further south is the Gulf of Cyparissus, with the city of
Cyparissa2203 on its shores, the line of which is seventy-two miles
in length. Then, the towns of Pylos2204 and Methone2205, the place
where Helos stood, the Promontory of Acritas2206, the Asinæan
Gulf, which takes its name from the town of Asine2207, and the
Coronean, so called from Corone; which gulfs terminate at the
Promontory of Tænarum2208. These are all in the country of
Messenia, which has eighteen mountains, and the river Pamisus2209
also. In the interior are Messene2210, Ithome, Œchalia, Arene2211,
Pteleon, Thryon, Dorion2212, and Zancle2213, all of them known to
fame at different periods. The margin of this gulf measures eighty
miles, the distance across being thirty.

CHAP. 8.—LACONIA.

At Tænarum begins the territory of Laconia, inhabited by a free
nation, and situate on a gulf 106 miles in circuit, and 38 across. The
towns are, Tænarum2214, Amyclæ2215, Pheræ2216, and Leuctra2217;
and, in the interior, Sparta2218, Theramne2219, and the spots where
Cardamyle2220, Pitane2221, and Anthea formerly stood; the former
site of Thyrea2222, and Gerania2223. Here is also Mount Taygetus2224,
the river Eurotas, the Gulf of Ægilodes2225, the town of Psamathus,
the Gulf of Gytheum2226, so called from the town of that name,
from which place the passage is the safest across to the island of
Crete. All these places are bounded by the Promontory of
Malea2227.

CHAP. 9.—ARGOLIS.

The next gulf, which extends as far as Scyllæum2228, is called the
Argolic Gulf, being fifty miles across, and 162 in circuit. The
towns upon it are, Bœa2229, Epidaurus2230, surnamed Limera,
Zarax2231, and the port of Cyphanta2232. The rivers are the
Inachus2233 and the Erasinus, between which lies Argos, surnamed
Hippium2234, situate beyond the place called Lerna2235, and at a
distance of two miles from the sea. Nine miles farther is
Mycenæ2236, and the place where, it is said, Tiryns2237 stood; the
site, too, of Mantinea2238. The mountains are, Artemius,
Apesantus2239, Asterion2240, Parparus, and some others, eleven in
number. The fountains are those of Niobe2241, Amymone, and
Psamathe.
From Scyllæum to the Isthmus of Corinth is a distance of 177
miles. We find here the towns of Hermione2242, Trœzen2243,
Coryphasium2244, and Argos, sometimes called “Inachian,”
sometimes “Dipsian”2245 Argos. Then comes the port of
Schœnites2246, and the Saronic Gulf, which was formerly encircled
with a grove of oaks2247, from which it derives its present name,
oaks in ancient Greece having been so called. Upon this gulf is the
town of Epidaurus, famous for its temple of Æsculapius2248, the
Promontory of Spiræum2249, the port of Anthedus2250,
Bucephalus2251, and then Cenchreæ, previously mentioned, on this
side of the Isthmus, with its temple of Neptune2252, famous for the
games celebrated there every five years. So many are the gulfs
which penetrate the shores of the Peloponnesus, so many the seas
which howl around it. Invaded by the Ionian on the north, it is
beaten by the Sicilian on the west, buffeted by the Cretan on the

south, by the Ægean on the S.E., and by the Myrtoan on the N.E.;
which last sea begins at the Gulf of Megara, and washes all the
coast of Attica.

CHAP. 10. (6.)—ARCADIA.

Its interior is occupied for the greater part by Arcadia, which,
remote from the sea on every side, was originally called
Drymodes2253, and at a later period Pelasgis. The cities of Arcadia
are, Psophis2254, Mantinea2255, Stymphalus2256, Tegea2257,
Antigonea2258, Orchomenus2259, Pheneum2260, Palantium2261 (from
which the Palatium2262 at Rome derives its name), Megalopolis2263,
Gortyna2264, Bucolium, Carnion, Parrhasia2265, Thelpusa2266,
Melænæ2267, Heræa2268, Pylæ2269, Pallene, Agræ, Epium,
Cynæthæ2270, Lepreon of Arcadia2271, Parthenium2272, Alea,
Methydrium2273, Enispe, Macistum, Lampia, Clitorium2274, and
Cleonæ2275; between which two last towns is the district of Nemea,
commonly known as Bembinadia2276.
The mountains of Arcadia are, Pholoë2277, with a town of the
same name, Cyllene2278, Lycæus2279, upon which is the temple of
Lycæan Jupiter; Mænalus2280, Artemisius2281, Parthenius2282,
Lampeus2283, and Nonacris2284, besides eight others of no note. The
rivers are the Ladon2285, which rises in the marshes of Pheneus2286,
and the Erymanthus2287, which springs from a mountain of the
same name, and flows into the Alpheus.
The other cities of Achaia worthy of mention are those of the
Aliphiræi2288, the Abeatæ2289, the Pyrgenses2290, the Paroreatæ2291,
the Paragenitæ, the Tortuni, the Typanei2292, the Thriasii2293, and the
Tritienses2294. Domitius Nero [the emperor] granted liberty to the
whole of Achaia2295. The Peloponnesus, from the Promontory of
Malea to the town of Ægium2296 on the Corinthian Gulf, is 190
miles in length, and 125 miles across from Elis to Epidaurus; the
distance being, from Olympia to Argos, through Arcadia, sixty-

eight miles. The distance from Olympia to Phlius has been already
mentioned2297. Throughout the whole of this region, as though
nature had been desirous to compensate for the inroads of the sea,
seventy-six mountains raise their lofty heads.

CHAP. 11. (7.)—ATTICA.

At the narrow neck of the Isthmus, Hellas begins, by our people
known as Græcia. The first state that presents itself is Attica,
anciently called Acte2298. It touches the Isthmus in that part of it
which is called Megaris, from the colony of Megara2299, lying on
the opposite side to Pagæ2300.
These two towns are situate at the spot where the Peloponnesus
projects to the greatest distance; being placed, one on each side,
upon the very shoulders of Hellas as it were. The Pagæans, as well
as the people of Ægosthena2301, belong to the jurisdiction of
Megara. On the coast there is the port of Schœnos2302, the towns of
Sidus2303 and Cremmyon2304, the Scironian Rocks2305, six miles in
length, Geranea, Megara, and Eleusis2306. Œnoë2307 and
Probalinthos also formerly existed here; the ports of Piræus and
Phalerum2308 are distant from the Isthmus fifty-five miles, being
united to Athens, which lies in the interior, by a wall2309 five miles
in length. Athens is a free city, and needs2310 not a word more from
us in its commendation; of fame it enjoys even more than enough.
In Attica there are the Fountains of Cephisia2311, Larine, Callirrhoë
Enneacrunos2312, and the mountains of Brilessus2313, Ægialeus,
Icarius, Hymettus2314, Lycabettus2315, and the place where
Ilissus2316 stood. At the distance of forty-five miles from the Piræus
is the Promontory of Sunium2317. There is also the Promontory of
Thoricos2318; Potamos2319, Steria2320, and Brauron2321, once towns,
the borough of Rhamnus2322, the place where Marathon2323 stood,
the Thriasian2324 plain, the town of Melite2325, and Oropus2326 upon
the confines of Bœotia.

CHAP. 12.—BŒOTIA.

In this country are Anthedon2327, Onchestus2328, the free town of
Thespiæ2329, Lebadea2330, and then Thebes2331, surnamed
Bœotian2332, which does not yield the palm to Athens even in
celebrity; the native land, according to the common notion, of the
two Divinities Liber and Hercules. The birth-place of the Muses
too is pointed out in the grove of Helicon. To this same Thebes also
belong the forest of Cithæron2333, and the river Ismenus. Besides
these, there are in Bœotia the Fountains of Œdipodia, Psamathe,
Dirce, Epicrane, Arethusa, Hippocrene2334, Aganippe, and
Gargaphie; and, besides the mountains already mentioned,
Mycalesos, Hadylius, and Acontius. The remaining towns between
Megara and Thebes are Eleutheræ2335, Haliartus2336, Platææ2337,
Pheræ, Aspledon2338, Hyle2339, Thisbe2340, Erythræ2341, Glissas2342,
and Copæ2343; near the river Cephisus, Larymna and Anchoa2344; as
also Medeon, Phlygone, Acræphia2345, Coronea2346, and
Chæronea2347. Again, on the coast and below Thebes, are
Ocalea2348, Heleon, Scolos, Schœnos2349, Peteon2350, Hyriæ2351,
Mycalesos2352, Iresion, Pteleon, Olyros, and Tanagra2353, the people
of which are free; and, situate upon the very mouth of the
Euripus2354, a strait formed by the opposite island of Eubœa,
Aulis2355, so famous for its capacious harbour. The Bœotians
formerly had the name of Hyantes.
After them come the Locrians, surnamed Epicnemidii2356,
formerly called Leleges, through whose country the river Cephisus
passes, in its course to the sea. Their towns are Opus2357; from
which the Opuntian Gulf2358 takes its name, and Cynos.
Daphnus2359 is the only town of Phocis situate on the coast. In the

interior of Locris is Elatea2360, and on the banks of the Cephisus, as
we have previously stated2361, Lilæa, and, facing Delphi,
Cnemisæ2362 and Hyampolisæ2363. Again, upon the coast of the
Locrians, are Larymna2364, and Thronium2365, near which last the
river Boagrius enters the sea. Also, the towns of Narycion,
Alope2366, and Scarphia2367; and then the gulf which receives the
name of the Maliac2368 from the people who dwell there, and upon
which are the towns of Halcyone, Econia, and Phalara2369.

CHAP. 13.—DORIS.

Doris comes next, in which are Sperchios2370, Erineon2371,
Boion2372, Pindus, and Cytinum2373. Behind Doris lies Mount Œta.

CHAP. 14.—PHTHIOTIS.

Hæmonia follows, a country which has often changed its name,
having been successively called Pelasgic Argos, Hellas, Thessaly,
and Dryopis, always taking its surname from its kings. In this
country was born the king whose name was Græcus; and from
whom Græcia was so called; and here too was born Hellen2374,
from whom the Hellenes derive their name. The same people
Homer has called by three different names, Myrmidones, Hellenes,
and Achæi.
That portion of these people which inhabit the country adjacent
to Doris are called Phthiotæ. Their towns are Echinus2375, at the
mouth of the river Sperchius, and, at four miles from the narrow
pass of Thermopylæ2376, Heraclea, which from it takes its surname
of Trachin2377. Here too is Mount Callidromus2378, and the
celebrated towns of Hellas2379, Halos2380, Lamia2381, Phthia2382, and
Arne2383.

CHAP. 15. (8.)—THESSALY PROPER.

In Thessaly is Orchomenus, formerly called the Minyan2384, and
the towns of Almon, by some called Salmon, Atrax2385, and
Pelinna; the Fountain of Hyperia; the towns also of Pheræ2386, at
the back of which is Pieria2387, extending to Macedonia, Larisa2388,
Gomphi2389, Thebes2390 of Thessaly, the grove of Pteleon, the Gulf
of Pagasa, the town of Pagasa2391, which was afterwards called
Demetrias2392, the Plains of Pharsalia, with a free city of similar
name2393, Crannon2394, and Iletia. The mountains of Phthiotis are
Nymphæus, once so beautiful for its garden scenery, the work of
nature; Busygæus, Donacesa, Bermius2395, Daphusa, Chimerion,
Athamas, and Stephane. In Thessaly there are thirty-four, of which
the most famous are Cercetii, Olympus2396, Pierus, and Ossa,
opposite to which last are Pindus and Othrys, the abodes of the
Lapithæ. These mountains look towards the west, Pelion2397
towards the east, all of them forming a curve like an amphitheatre,
in the interior of which, lying before them, are no less than
seventy-five cities. The rivers of Thessaly are the Apidanus2398, the
Phœnix2399, the Enipeus2400, the Onochonus2401, and the Pamisus.
There is also the Fountain of Messeis, and the lake Bœbeis2402. The
river Peneus2403 too, superior to all others in celebrity, takes its rise
near Gomphi, and flows down a well-wooded valley between Ossa
and Olympus, a distance of five hundred stadia, being navigable
half that distance. The vale, for a distance of five miles through
which this river runs, is called by the name of Tempe; being a
jugerum2404 and a half nearly in breadth, while on the right and left,
the mountain chain slopes away with a gentle elevation, beyond the
range of human vision, the foliage imparting its colour to the light
within. Along this vale glides the Peneus, reflecting the green tints

as it rolls along its pebbly bed, its banks covered with tufts of
verdant herbage, and enlivened by the melodious warblings of the
birds. The Peneus receives the river Orcus, or rather, I should say,
does not receive it, but merely carries its waters, which swim on its
surface like oil, as Homer says2405; and then, after a short time,
rejects them, refusing to allow the waters of a river devoted to
penal sufferings and engendered for the Furies to mingle with his
silvery streams.

CHAP. 16. (9.)—MAGNESIA.

To Thessaly Magnesia joins, in which is the fountain of
Libethra2406. Its towns are Iolcos2407, Hormenium, Pyrrha2408,
Methone2409, and Olizon2410. The Promontory of Sepias2411 is here
situate. We then come to the towns of Casthanea2412 and
Spalathra2413, the Promontory of Æantium2414, the towns of
Melibœa2415, Rhizus, and Erymnæ2416; the mouth of the Peneus, the
towns of Homolium2417, Orthe, Thespiæ, Phalanna2418,
Thaumacie2419, Gyrton2420, Crannon2421, Acharne2422, Dotion2423,
Melitæa, Phylace2424, and Potniæ2425. The length of Epirus, Achaia,
Attica, and Thessaly is said altogether to amount to 490 miles, the
breadth to 287.

CHAP. 17. (10.)—MACEDONIA.

Macedonia comes next, including 150 nations, and renowned for
its two kings2426 and its former empire over the world; it was
formerly known by the name of Emathia2427. Stretching away
towards the nations of Epirus on the west it lies at the back of
Magnesia and Thessaly, being itself exposed to the attacks of the
Dardani2428. Pæonia and Pelagonia protect its northern parts from
the Triballi2429. Its towns are Ægiæ2430, at which place its kings
were usually buried, Beræa2431, and, in the country called Pieria
from the grove of that name, Æginium2432. Upon the coast are
Heraclea2433, the river Apilas2434, the towns of Pydna2435 and
Aloros2436, and the river Haliacmon2437. In the interior are the
Aloritæ2438, the Vallæi2439, the Phylacæi, the Cyrrhestæ2440, the
Tyrissæi, the colony of Pella2441, and Stobi2442, a town with the
rights of Roman citizens. Next comes Antigonea2443, Europus2444
upon the river Axius, and another place of the same name by which
the Rhœdias flows, Scydra, Eordæa, Mieza, and Gordyniæ. Then,
upon the coast, Ichnæ2445, and the river Axius; along this frontier
the Dardani, the Treres2446, and the Pieres, border on Macedonia.
Leaving this river, there are the nations of Pæonia2447, the
Paroræi2448, the Eordenses2449, the Almopii2450, the Pelagones, and
the Mygdones2451.
Next come the mountains of Rhodope, Scopius, and Orbelus;
and, lying along the extent of country in front of these mountains,
the Arethusii2452, the Antiochienses2453, the Idomenenses2454, the
Doberi2455, the Æstræenses, the Allantenses, the Audaristenses, the
Morylli, the Garesci2456, the Lyncestæ2457, the Othryonei2458, and
the Amantini2459 and Orestæ2460, both of them free peoples; the

colonies of Bullis2461 and Dium2462, the Xylopolitæ, the Scotussæi,
a free people, Heraclea Sintica2463, the Tymphæi2464, and the
Toronæi.
Upon the coast of the Macedonian Gulf there are the town of
Chalastra2465, and, more inland, Piloros; also Lete, and at the
extreme bend of the Gulf, Thessalonica2466, a free city; (from this
place to Dyrrhachium it is 245 miles2467,) and then Thermæ2468.
Upon the Gulf2469 of Thermæ are the towns of Dicæa, Pydna2470,
Derra, Scione2471, the Promontory of Canastræum2472, and the
towns of Pallene2473 and Phlegra. In this region also are the
mountains Hypsizorus, Epitus, Halcyone, and Leoomne; the towns
of Nyssos2474, Phryxelon, Mendæ, and what was formerly
Potidæa2475 on the isthmus of Pallene, but now the Colony of
Cassandria; Anthemus2476, Olophyxus2477, and the Gulf of
Mecyberna2478; the towns of Miscella, Ampelos2479, Torone2480,
Singos2481, and the canal, a mile and a half in length, by means of
which Xerxes, king of the Persians, cut off Mount Athos2482 from
the main land. This mountain projects from the level plain of the
adjacent country into the sea, a distance of seventy-five2483 miles;
its circumference at its base being 150 miles in extent. There was
formerly upon its summit the town of Acroathon2484: the present
towns are Uranopolis2485, Palæorium, Thyssus, Cleonæ2486, and
Apollonia, the inhabitants of which have the surname of
Macrobii2487. The town also of Cassera, and then the other side of
the Isthmus, after which come Acanthus2488, Stagira2489,
Sithone2490, Heraclea2491, and the country of Mygdonia that lies
below, in which are situate, at some distance from the sea,
Apollonia2492 and Arethusa. Again, upon the coast we have
Posidium2493, and the bay with the town of Cermorus,
Amphipolis2494, a free town, and the nation of the Bisaltæ. We then

come to the river Strymon2495 which takes its rise in Mount
Hæmus2496 and forms the boundary of Macedonia: it is worthy of
remark that it first discharges itself into seven lakes before it
proceeds onward in its course.
Such is Macedonia, which was once the mistress of the world,
which once extended2497 her career over Asia, Armenia, Iberia,
Albania, Cappadocia, Syria, Egypt, Taurus, and Caucasus, which
reduced the whole of the East under her power, and triumphed over
the Bactri, the Medes, and the Persians. She too it was who proved
the conqueror of India, thus treading in the footsteps of Father
Liber2498 and of Hercules; and this is that same Macedonia, of
which our own general Paulus Æmilius sold to pillage seventy-
two2499 cities in one day. So great the difference in her lot resulting
from the actions of two2500 individuals!

CHAP. 18. (11.)—THRACE; THE ÆGEAN SEA.

Thrace now follows, divided into fifty strategies2501, and to be
reckoned among the most powerful nations of Europe. Among its
peoples whom we ought not to omit to name are the Denseletæ and
the Medi, dwelling upon the right bank of the Strymon, and joining
up to the Bisaltæ above2502 mentioned; on the left there are the
Digerri and a number of tribes of the Bessi2503, with various names,
as far as the river Mestus2504, which winds around the foot of
Mount Pangæum2505, passing among the Elethi, the Diobessi2506,
the Carbilesi; and then the Brysæ, the Sapæi, and the Odomanti.
The territory of the Odrysæ2507 gives birth to the Hebrus2508, its
banks being inhabited by the Cabyleti, the Pyrogeri, the Drugeri,
the Cænici, the Hypsalti, the Beni, the Corpili, the Bottiæi, and the
Edoni2509. In the same district are also the Selletæ, the Priantæ, the
Doloncæ, the Thyni, and the Greater Cœletæ, below Mount
Hæmus, the Lesser at the foot of Rhodope. Between these tribes
runs the river Hebrus. We then come to a town at the foot of
Rhodope, first called Poneropolis2510, afterwards Philippopolis2511
from the name of its founder, and now, from the peculiarity of its
situation, Trimontium2512. To reach the summit of Hæmus you have
to travel six2513 miles. The sides of it that look in the opposite
direction and slope towards the Ister are inhabited by the Mœsi2514,
the Getæ, the Aorsi, the Gaudæ, and the Clariæ; below them, are
the Arræi Sarmatæ2515, also called Arreatæ, the Scythians, and,
about the shores of the Euxine, the Moriseni and the Sithonii, the
forefathers of the poet Orpheus2516, dwell.
Thus is Thrace bounded by the Ister on the north, by the Euxine,
and the Propontis2517 on the east, and by the Ægean Sea on the
south; on the coast of which, after leaving the Strymon, we come in

turn to Apollonia2518, Œsyma2519, Neapolis2520 and Datos. In the
interior is the colony of Philippi2521, distant from Dyrrhachium 325
miles; also Scotussa2522, the city of Topiris, the mouth of the river
Mestus2523, Mount Pangæus, Heraclea2524, Olynthos2525, Abdera2526,
a free city, the people of the Bistones2527 and their Lake. Here was
formerly the city of Tirida, which struck such terror with its stables
of the horses2528 of Diomedes. At the present day we find here
Dicæa2529, Ismaron2530, the place where Parthenion stood,
Phalesina, and Maronea2531, formerly called Orthagorea. We then
come to Mount Serrium2532 and Zone2533, and then the place called
Doriscus2534, capable of containing ten thousand men, for it was in
bodies of ten thousand that Xerxes here numbered his army. We
then come to the mouth of the Hebrus2535, the Port of Stentor, and
the free town of Ænos2536, with the tomb there of Polydorus2537, the
region formerly of the Cicones.
From Doriscus there is a winding coast as far as Macron
Tichos2538, or the “Long Wall,” a distance of 122 miles; round
Doriscus flows the river Melas, from which the Gulf of Melas2539
receives its name. The towns are, Cypsela2540, Bisanthe2541, and
Macron Tichos, already mentioned, so called because a wall
extends from that spot between the two seas,—that is to say, from
the Propontis to the Gulf of Melas, thus excluding the
Chersonesus2542, which projects beyond it.
The other side of Thrace now begins, on the coast2543 of the
Euxine, where the river Ister discharges itself; and it is in this
quarter perhaps that Thrace possesses the finest cities,
Histropolis2544, namely, founded by the Milesians, Tomi2545, and
Callatis2546, formerly called Acervetis. It also had the cities of
Heraclea and Bizone, which latter was swallowed up by an
earthquake; it now has Dionysopolis2547, formerly called Cruni,

which is washed by the river Zyras. All this country was formerly
possessed by the Scythians, surnamed Aroteres; their towns were,
Aphrodisias, Libistos, Zygere, Rocobe, Eumenia, Parthenopolis,
and Gerania2548, where a nation of Pigmies is said to have dwelt;
the barbarians used to call them Cattuzi, and entertain a belief that
they were put to flight by cranes. Upon the coast, proceeding from
Dionysopolis, is Odessus2549, a city of the Milesians, the river
Panysus2550, and the town of Tetranaulochus. Mount Hæmus,
which, with its vast chain, overhangs the Euxine, had in former
times upon its summit the town of Aristæum2551. At the present day
there are upon the coast Mesembria2552, and Anchialum2553, where
Messa formerly stood. The region of Astice formerly had a town
called Anthium; at the present day Apollonia2554 occupies its site.
The rivers here are the Panisos, the Riras, the Tearus, and the
Orosines; there are also the towns of Thynias2555, Halmydessos2556,
Develton2557, with its lake, now known as Deultum, a colony of
veterans, and Phinopolis, near which last is the Bosporus2558. From
the mouth of the Ister to the entrance of the Euxine, some writers
have made to be a distance of 555 miles; Agrippa, however,
increases the length by sixty miles. The distance thence to Macron
Tichos, or the Long Wall, previously mentioned, is 150 miles; and,
from it to the extremity of the Chersonesus, 126.
On leaving the Bosporus we come to the Gulf of Casthenes2559,
and two harbours, the one called the Old Men’s Haven, and the
other the Women’s Haven. Next comes the promontory of
Chrysoceras2560, upon which is the town of Byzantium2561, a free
state, formerly called Lygos, distant from Dyrrhachium 711 miles,
—so great being the space of land that intervenes between the
Adriatic Sea and the Propontis. We next come to the rivers
Bathynias and Pydaras2562, or Athyras, and the towns of

Selymbria2563 and Perinthus2564, which join the mainland by a neck
only 200 feet in width. In the interior are Bizya2565, a citadel of the
kings of Thrace, and hated by the swallows, in consequence of the
sacrilegious crime of Tereus2566; the district called Cænica2567, and
the colony of Flaviopolis, where formerly stood a town called
Cæla. Then, at a distance of fifty miles from Bizya, we come to the
colony of Apros, distant from Philippi 180 miles. Upon the coast is
the river Erginus2568; here formerly stood the town of Ganos2569;
and Lysimachia2570 in the Chersonesus is being now gradually
deserted.
At this spot there is another isthmus2571, similar in name to the
other2572, and of about equal width; and, in a manner by no means
dissimilar, two cities formerly stood on the shore, one on either
side, Pactye on the side of the Propontis, and Cardia2573 on that of
the Gulf of Melas, the latter deriving its name from the shape2574
which the land assumes. These, however, were afterwards united
with Lysimachia2575, which stands at a distance of five miles from
Macron Tichos. The Chersonesus formerly had, on the side of the
Propontis, the towns of Tiristasis, Crithotes, and Cissa2576, on the
banks of the river Ægos2577; it now has, at a distance of twenty-
two2578 miles from the colony of Apros, Resistos, which stands
opposite to the colony of Parium. The Hellespont also, which
separates, as we have already2579 stated, Europe from Asia, by a
channel seven stadia in width, has four cities facing each other,
Callipolis2580 and Sestos2581 in Europe, and Lampsacus2582 and
Abydos2583 in Asia. On the Chersonesus, there is the promontory of
Mastusia2584, lying opposite to Sigeum2585; upon one side of it
stands the Cynossema2586 (for so the tomb of Hecuba is called), the
naval station2587 of the Achæans, and a tower; and near it the
shrine2588 of Protesilaüs. On the extreme front of the Chersonesus,

which is called Æolium, there is the city of Elæus. Advancing
thence towards the Gulf of Melas, we have the port of Cœlos2589,
Panormus, and then Cardia, previously mentioned.
In this manner is the third great Gulf of Europe bounded. The
mountains of Thrace, besides those already mentioned, are Edonus,
Gigemoros, Meritus, and Melamphyllos; the rivers are the Bargus
and the Syrmus, which fall into the Hebrus. The length of
Macedonia, Thrace, and the Hellespont has been already2590
mentioned; some writers, however, make it 720 miles, the breadth
being 384.
What may be called a rock rather than an island, lying between
Tenos and Chios, has given its name to the Ægean Sea; it has the
name of Æx2591 from its strong resemblance to a goat, which is so
called in Greek, and shoots precipitately from out of the middle of
the sea. Those who are sailing towards the isle of Andros from
Achaia, see this rock on the left, boding no good, and warning them
of its dangers. Part of the Ægean Sea bears the name of
Myrtoan2592, being so called from the small island [of Myrtos]
which is seen as you sail towards Macedonia from Geræstus, not
far from Carystus2593 in Eubœa. The Romans include all these seas
under two names,—the Macedonian, in those parts where it touches
the coasts of Macedonia or Thrace, and the Grecian where it
washes the shores of Greece. The Greeks, however, divide the
Ionian Sea into the Sicilian and the Cretan Seas, after the name of
those islands; and they give the name of Icarian to that part which
lies between Samos and Myconos. The gulfs which we have
already mentioned, have given to these seas the rest of their names.
Such, then, are the seas and the various nations which are
comprehended in the third great Gulf of Europe.

CHAP. 19. (12.)—THE ISLANDS WHICH LIE BEFORE THE
LANDS ALREADY MENTIONED.

Lying opposite to Thesprotia, at a distance of twelve miles from
Buthrotus, and of fifty from Acroceraunia, is the island of
Corcyra2594, with a city of the same name, the citizens of which are
free; also a town called Cassiope2595, and a temple dedicated to
Jupiter Cassius. This island is ninety-seven miles in length, and in
Homer has the names of Scheria and Phæacia; while Callimachus
calls it Drepane. There are some other islands around it, such as
Thoronos2596, lying in the direction of Italy, and the two islands of
Paxos2597 in that of Leucadia, both of them five miles distant from
Corcyra. Not far2598 from these, and in front of Corcyra, are
Ericusa, Marathe, Elaphusa, Malthace, Trachie, Pythionia, Ptychia,
Tarachie, and, off Phalacrum2599, a promontory of Corcyra, the rock
into which (according to the story, which arises no doubt from the
similarity of appearance) the ship of Ulysses was changed.
Before Leucimna2600 we find the islands of Sybota, and between
Leucadia and Achaia a great number of islands, among which are
those called Teleboïdes2601, as also Taphiæ; by the natives, those
which lie before Leucadia are called by the names of Taphias,
Oxiæ, and Prinoessa2602; while those that are in front of Ætolia are
the Echinades2603, consisting of Ægialia, Cotonis, Thyatira,
Geoaris, Dionysia, Cyrnus, Chalcis, Pinara, and Mystus.
In front of these, and lying out at sea, are Cephallenia2604 and
Zacynthus2605, both of them free, Ithaca2606, Dulichium2607,
Same2608, and Crocyle2609. Cephallenia, formerly known as
Melæna2610, lies at a distance of eleven miles from Paxos, and is
ninety-three miles in circumference: its city of Same has been

levelled to the ground by the Romans; but it still possesses three
others2611. Between this island and Achaia lies the island of
Zacynthus, remarkable for its city of the same name, and for its
singular fertility. It formerly had the name of Hyrie, and lies to the
south of Cephallenia, at a distance of twenty-five miles; in it there
is the famous mountain of Elatus2612. This island is thirty-six miles
in circumference. At a distance of fifteen miles from Zacynthus is
Ithaca, in which is Mount Neritus2613; its circumference in all is
twenty-five miles. Twelve miles distant from this island is
Araxus2614, a promontory of the Peloponnesus. Before Ithaca, lying
out in the main sea, are Asteris2615 and Prote; and before Zacynthus,
at a distance of thirty-five miles in the direction of the south-east
wind, are the two Strophades2616, by some known as the Plotæ.
Before Cephallenia lies Letoia2617, before Pylos the three
Sphagiæ2618, and before Messene the Œnussæ2619, as many in
number.
In the Asinæan Gulf there are the three Thyrides2620, and in that
of Laconia Theganusa2621, Cothon, and Cythera2622, with the town
of that name, the former name of which island was Porphyris. It is
situate five miles from the promontory of Malea2623, thus forming a
strait very dangerous to navigation. In the Gulf of Argolis are
Pityusa2624, Irine, and Ephyre; opposite the territory of
Hermione2625, Tiparenus, Aperopia2626, Colonis2627, and Aristera;
and, opposite that of Trœzen, Calauria2628, at a distance of half a
mile, Plateis2629, Belbina, Lasia, and Baucidias. Opposite Epidaurus
is Cecryphalos2630, and Pityonesos2631, six miles distant from the
mainland; and, at a distance of fifteen miles from this last,
Ægina2632, a free island, the length of which, as you sail past it, is
eighteen miles. This island is twenty miles distant from Piræus, the
port of Athens: it used formerly to be called Œnone. Opposite the

promontory of Spiræum2633, lie Eleusa2634, Adendros2635, the two
islands called Craugiæ, the two Cæciæ, Selachusa, Cenchreis, and
Aspis; as also, in the Gulf of Megara, the four Methurides.
Ægila2636 lies at a distance of fifteen miles from Cythera, and of
twenty-five from Phalasarna, a city of Crete.

CHAP. 20.—CRETE.

Crete itself lies from east to west, the one side facing the south,
the other the north, and is known to fame by the renown of its
hundred cities. Dosiades says, that it took its name from the nymph
Crete, the daughter of Hesperides2637; Anaximander, from a king of
the Curetes, Philistides of Mallus * * * * *; while Crates says that it
was at first called Aëria, and after that Curetis; and some have been
of opinion that it had the name of Macaron2638 from the serenity of
its climate. In breadth it nowhere exceeds fifty miles, being widest
about the middle. In length, however, it is full 270 miles, and 589
in circumference, forming a bend towards the Cretan Sea, which
takes its name from it. At its eastern extremity is the Promontory of
Sammonium2639, facing Rhodes, while towards the west it throws
out that of Criumetopon2640, in the direction of Cyrene.
The more remarkable cities of Crete are, Phalasarna, Etæa2641,
Cisamon2642, Pergamum, Cydonia2643, Minoium2644, Apteron2645,
Pantomatrium, Amphimalla2646, Rhithymna, Panormus, Cytæum,
Apollonia, Matium2647, Heraclea, Miletos, Ampelos,
Hierapytna2648, Lebena2649, and Hierapolis; and, in the interior,
Gortyna2650, Phæstum, Cnossus2651, Polyrrenium, Myrina, Lycastus,
Rhamnus, Lyctus, Dium2652, Asus, Pyloros, Rhytion, Elatos, Pharæ,
Holopyxos, Lasos, Eleuthernæ2653, Therapnæ, Marathusa, and
Tylisos; besides some sixty others, of which the memory only
exists. The mountains are those of Cadistus2654, Ida, Dictynnæus,
and Corycus2655. This island is distant, at its promontory of
Criumetopon, according to Agrippa, from Phycus2656, the
promontory of Cyrene, 125 miles; and at Cadistus, from Malea in
the Peloponnesus, eighty. From the island of Carpathos2657, at its
promontory of Sammonium it lies in a westerly direction, at a

distance of sixty miles; this last-named island is situate between it
and Rhodes.
The other islands in its vicinity, and lying in front of the
Peloponnesus, are the two isles known as Corycæ, and the two
called Mylæ2658. On the north side, having Crete on the right, and
opposite to Cydonia, is Leuce2659, and the two islands known as
Budroæ2660. Opposite to Matium lies Dia2661; opposite to the
promontory of Itanum2662, Onisia and Leuce; and over against
Hierapytna, Chrysa and Gaudos2663. In the same neighbourhood,
also, are Ophiussa, Butoa, and Aradus; and, after doubling
Criumetopon, we come to the three islands known as Musagorus.
Before the promontory of Sammonium lie the islands of Phocœ, the
Platiæ, the Sirnides, Naulochos, Armedon, and Zephyre.
Belonging to Hellas, but still in the Ægean Sea, we have the
Lichades2664, consisting of Scarphia, Coresa, Phocaria, and many
others which face Attica, but have no towns upon them, and are
consequently of little note. Opposite Eleusis, however, is the far-
famed Salamis2665; before it, Psyttalia2666; and, at a distance of five
miles from Sunium, the island of Helene2667. At the same distance
from this last is Ceos2668, which some of our countrymen have
called Cea, and the Greeks Hydrussa, an island which has been torn
away from Eubœa. It was formerly 500 stadia in length; but more
recently four-fifths of it, in the direction of Bœotia, have been
swallowed up by the sea. The only towns it now has left are Iulis
and Carthæa2669; Coresus2670 and Pœëessa2671 have perished. Varro
informs us, that from this place there used to come a cloth of very
fine texture, used for women’s dresses.

CHAP. 21.—EUBŒA.

Eubœa2672 itself has also been rent away from Bœotia; the
channel of the Euripus, which flows between them, being so
narrow as to admit of the opposite shores being united by a
bridge2673. At the south, this island is remarkable for its two
promontories, that of Geræstus2674, which looks towards Attica, and
that of Caphareus2675, which faces the Hellespont; on the north it
has that of Cenæum2676. In no part does this island extend to a
greater breadth than forty miles, while it never contracts to less
than two. In length it runs along the whole coast of Bœotia,
extending from Attica as far as Thessaly, a distance of 150
miles2677. In circumference it measures 365, and is distant from the
Hellespont, on the side of Caphareus, 225 miles. The cities for
which it was formerly famous were, Pyrrha, Porthmos, Nesos,
Cerinthos2678, Oreum, Dium, Ædepsos2679, Ocha, and Œchalia; at
present it is ennobled by those of Chalcis2680 (opposite which, on
the mainland, is Aulis), Geræstus2681, Eretria2682, Carystus2683,
Oritanum, and Artemisium2684. Here are also the Fountain of
Arethusa2685, the river Lelantus, and the warm springs known as
Ellopiæ; it is still better known, however, for the marble of
Carystus. This island used formerly to be called Chalcodontis and
Macris2686, as we learn from Dionysius and Ephorus; according to
Aristides, Macra; also, as Callidemus says, Chalcis, because copper
was first discovered here. Menæchmus says that it was called
Abantias2687, and the poets generally give it the name of Asopis.

CHAP. 22.—THE CYCLADES.

Beyond Eubœa, and out in the Myrtoan2688 Sea, are numerous
other islands; but those more especially famous are, Glauconnesos
and the Ægila2689. Off the promontory, too, of Geræstus are the
Cyclades, lying in a circle around Delos, from which
circumstance2690 they derive their name. The first of them is the one
called Andros2691 with a city of the same name, distant from
Geræstus ten miles, and from Ceos thirty-nine. Myrsilus tells us
that this island was at first called Cauros, and after that Antandros;
Callimachus calls it Lasia, and others again Nonagria, Hydrussa,
and Epagris. It is ninety-three miles in circumference. At a distance
of one mile from Andros and of fifteen from Delos, is Tenos2692,
with a city of the same name; this island is fifteen miles in length.
Aristotle says that it was formerly called Hydrussa, from the
abundance of water found here, while some writers call it
Ophiussa2693. The other islands are, Myconos2694, with the
mountain of Dimastus2695, distant from Delos fifteen2696 miles;
Siphnus2697, formerly called Meropia and Acis, twenty-eight miles
in circumference; Seriphus2698, twelve miles in circuit;
Prepesinthus2699; Cythnos2700; and then, by far the most famous
among the Cyclades, and lying in the very middle of them,
Delos2701 itself, so famous for its temple of Apollo, and its
extensive commerce. This island long floated on the waves, and, as
tradition says, was the only one that had never experienced an
earthquake, down to the time of M. Varro2702; Mucianus however
has informed us, that it has been twice so visited. Aristotle states
that this island received its name from the fact of its having so
suddenly made its appearance2703 on emerging from the sea;
Aglaosthenes, however, gives it the name of Cynthia, and others of

Ortygia2704, Asteria, Lagia, Chlamydia, Cynthus, and, from the
circumstance of fire having been first discovered here, Pyrpile. Its
circumference is five miles only; Mount Cynthus2705 here raises his
head.
Next to this island is Rhene2706, which Anticlides calls by the
name of Celadussa, and Callidemus, Artemite; Scyros2707, which
the old writers have stated to be twenty miles in circumference, but
Mucianus 160; Oliaros2708; and Paros2709, with a city of the same
name, distant from Delos thirty-eight miles, and famous for its
marble2710; it was first called Platea, and after that, Minois. At a
distance of seven miles from this last island is Naxos2711, with a
town of the same name; it is eighteen miles distant from Delos.
This island was formerly called Strongyle2712, then Dia, and then
Dionysias2713, in consequence of the fruitfulness of its vineyards;
others again have called it the Lesser Sicily, or Callipolis2714. It is
seventy-five2715 miles in circumference—half as large again as
Paros.

CHAP. 23.—THE SPORADES.

The islands thus far are considered as belonging to the Cyclades;
the rest that follow are the Sporades2716. These are, Helene2717,
Phacussa, Nicasia, Schinussa, Pholegandros, and, at a distance of
thirty-eight miles from Naxos, Icaros2718, which has given its name
to the surrounding sea, and is the same number of miles in
length2719, with two cities, and a third now no longer in existence:
this island used formerly to be called Doliche, Macris, and
Ichthyoëssa2720. It is situate fifty miles to the north-east of Delos,
and thirty-five from the island of Samos. Between Eubœa and
Andros, there is an arm of the sea ten miles in width, and from
Icaros to Geræstus is a distance of 1121⁄2 miles.
After we pass these, no regular order can be well observed; the
rest must therefore be mentioned indiscriminately. There is the
island of Scyros2721, and that of Ios2722, eighteen miles distant from
Naxos, and deserving of all veneration for the tomb there of
Homer; it is twenty-five miles in length, and was formerly known
by the name of Phœnice; also Odia, Oletandros, and Gyara2723, with
a city of the same name, the island being twelve miles in
circumference, and distant from Andros sixty-two. At a distance of
eighty miles from Gyara is Syrnos, then Cynæthus, Telos2724, noted
for its unguents, and by Callimachus called Agathussa, Donusa2725,
Patmos2726, thirty miles in circumference, the Corassiæ2727,
Lebinthus2728, Leros2729, Cinara2730; Sicinus2731, formerly called
Œnoë2732; Hieracia, also called Onus; Casos2733, likewise called
Astrabe; Cimolus2734, or Echinussa; and Melos2735, with a city of
that name, which island Aristides calls Memblis, Aristotle
Zephyria, Callimachus Mimallis, Heraclides Siphis and Acytos.
This last is the most circular2736 in form of all these islands. After

this comes Machia, then Hypere, formerly Patage, or, as others
have it, Platage, but now called Amorgos2737, Polyægos2738, Phyle,
and Thera2739, known as Calliste when it first sprang from the
waves. From this, at a later period, the island of Therasia2740 was
torn away, and between the two afterwards arose Automate, also
called Hiera, and Thia, which in our own times came into existence
in the vicinity of these islands. Ios is distant from Thera twenty-
five miles.
Next to these follow Lea, Ascania2741, Anaphe2742, Hippuris, and
Astypalæa2743, a free state. This island is eighty-eight miles in
circumference, and 125 miles distant from Cadistus, in Crete. From
Astypalæa, Platea is distant sixty miles, and Caminia thirty-eight
from this last. We then come to the islands of Azibintha, Lanise,
Tragæa, Pharmacussa, Techedia, Chalcia2744, Calymna2745, in which
is the town of Coös, Calymna, at a distance of twenty-five miles
from which is Carpathum2746, which has given its name to the
Carpathian Sea. The distance thence to Rhodes2747, in the direction
of the south-west wind, is fifty miles. From Carpathum to Casus is
seven miles, and from Casus to Sammonium, the promontory of
Crete, thirty2748. In the Euripus of Eubœa, almost at the very mouth
of it, are the four islands called Petaliæ2749; and, at its outlet,
Atalante2750. The Cyclades and the Sporades are bounded on the
east by the Asiatic shores of the Icarian Sea, on the west by the
Attic shores of the Myrtoan Sea, on the north by the Ægean, and on
the south by the Cretan and Carpathian seas, extending 700 miles
in length, and 200 in breadth.
The Gulf of Pagasa2751 has in front of it Euthia2752,
Cicynethus2753, Scyros, previously mentioned2754, and the very
furthermost of the Cyclades and Sporades, Gerontia and
Scandila2755; the Gulf of Thermæ2756, Iræsia, Solimnia, Eudemia,

and Nea, which last is sacred to Minerva. Athos has before it four
islands; Peparethus2757, formerly called Evœnus, with a city of that
name, at a distance from Athos of nine miles; Sciathus2758, at a
distance of fifteen, and Imbros2759, with a city of the same name, at
a distance of eighty-eight miles. This last island is distant from
Mastusia, in the Chersonesus, twenty-five miles; it is sixty-two2760
miles in circumference, and is washed by the river Ilisus. At a
distance of twenty-two miles from it is Lemnos2761, being distant
from Mount Athos eighty-seven; it is 112 miles in circumference,
and has the cities of Hephæstia and Myrina2762; into the market-
place of which last city Athos throws its shadow at the summer
solstice. The island of Thasos2763, constituting a free state, is six
miles distant from Lemnos; it formerly had the name of Aëria, or
Æthria. Abdera2764, on the mainland, is distant from Thasos twenty-
two miles, Athos sixty-two2765. The island of Samothrace2766, a free
state, facing the river Hebrus, is the same distance from Thasos,
being also thirty-two2767 miles from Imbros, twenty-two from
Lemnos, and thirty-eight2768 from the coast of Thrace; it is thirty-
two miles in circumference, and in it rises Mount Saoce2769, ten
miles in height. This island is the most inaccessible of them all.
Callimachus mentions it by its ancient name of Dardania.
Between the Chersonesus and Samothrace, at a distance of about
fifteen miles from them both, is the island of Halonnesos2770, and
beyond it Gethone, Lamponia, and Alopeconnesus2771, not far from
Cœlos, a port2772 of the Chersonesus, besides some others of no
importance. The following names may be also mentioned, as those
of uninhabited islands in this gulf, of which we have been enabled
to discover the names:—Desticos, Sarnos, Cyssiros, Charbrusa,
Calathusa, Scylla, Draconon, Arconnesus, Diethusa, Scapos,

Capheris, Mesate, Æantion, Pateronnesos, Pateria, Calate,
Neriphus, and Polendos2773.

CHAP. 24.—THE HELLESPONT.—THE LAKE MÆOTIS.

The fourth great Gulf of Europe begins at the Hellespont and
ends at the entrance of the Mæotis2774. But in order that the several
portions of the Euxine and its coasts may be the better known, we
must briefly embrace the form of it in one general view. This vast
sea, lying in front of Asia, is shut out from Europe by the projection
of the shores of the Chersonesus, and effects an entrance into those
countries by a narrow channel only, of the width, as already
mentioned, of seven stadia, thus separating Europe from Asia. The
entrance of these Straits is called the Hellespont; over it Xerxes, the
king of the Persians, constructed a bridge of boats, across which he
led his army. A narrow channel extends thence a distance of eighty-
six miles, as far as Priapus2775, a city of Asia, at which Alexander
the Great passed over. At this point the sea becomes wider, and
after some distance again takes the form of a narrow strait. The
wider part is known as the Propontis2776, the Straits as the Thracian
Bosporus2777, being only half-a-mile in width, at the place where
Darius, the father of Xerxes, led his troops across by a bridge. The
extremity of this is distant from the Hellespont 239 miles.
We then come to the vast sea called the Euxine, which invades
the land as it retreats afar, and the name of which was formerly
Axenus2778. As the shores bend inwards, this sea with a vast sweep
stretches far away, curving on both sides after the manner of a pair
of horns, so much so that in shape it bears a distinct resemblance to
a Scythian bow2779. In the middle of the curve it is joined by the
mouth of Lake Mæotis, which is called the Cimmerian2780
Bosporus, and is two miles and a half in width. Between the two
Bospori, the Thracian and the Cimmerian, there is a distance in a
straight line, of 500 miles, as Polybius informs us. We learn from

Varro and most of the ancient writers, that the circumference of the
Euxine is altogether 2150 miles; but to this number Cornelius
Nepos adds 350 more; while Artemidorus makes it 2919 miles,
Agrippa 2360, and Mucianus 2425. In a similar manner some
writers have fixed the length of the European shores of this sea at
1478 miles, others again at 1172. M. Varro gives the measurement
as follows:—from the mouth of the Euxine to Apollonia 187 miles,
and to Callatis the same distance; thence to the mouth of the Ister
125 miles; to the Borysthenes 250; to Chersonesus2781, a town of
the Heracleotæ, 325; to Panticapæum2782, by some called Bosporus,
at the very extremity of the shores of Europe, 212 miles: the whole
of which added together, makes 13372783 miles. Agrippa makes the
distance from Byzantium to the river Ister 560 miles, and from
thence to Panticapæum, 635.
Lake Mæotis, which receives the river Tanais as it flows from
the Riphæan Mountains2784, and forms the extreme boundary
between Europe and Asia, is said to be 1406 miles in
circumference; which however some writers state at only 1125.
From the entrance of this lake to the mouth of the Tanais in a
straight line is, it is generally agreed, a distance of 375 miles.
The inhabitants of the coasts of this fourth great Gulf of Europe,
as far as Istropolis, have been already2785 mentioned in our account
of Thrace. Passing beyond that spot we come to the mouths of the
Ister. This river rises in Germany in the heights of Mount
Abnoba2786, opposite to Rauricum2787, a town of Gaul, and flows
for a course of many miles beyond the Alps and through nations
innumerable, under the name of the Danube. Adding immensely to
the volume of its waters, at the spot where it first enters Illyricum,
it assumes the name of Ister, and, after receiving sixty rivers, nearly
one half of which are navigable, rolls into the Euxine by six2788 vast

channels. The first of these is the mouth of Peuce2789, close to
which is the island of Peuce itself, from which the neighbouring
channel takes its name; this mouth is swallowed up in a great
swamp nineteen miles in length. From the same channel too, above
Istropolis, a lake2790 takes its rise, sixty-three miles in circuit; its
name is Halmyris. The second mouth is called Naracu-Stoma2791;
the third, which is near the island of Sarmatica, is called Calon-
Stoma2792; the fourth is known as Pseudo-Stomon2793, with its
island called Conopon-Diabasis2794; after which come the Boreon-
Stoma2795 and the Psilon-Stoma2796. These mouths are each of them
so considerable, that for a distance of forty miles, it is said, the
saltness of the sea is quite overpowered, and the water found to be
fresh.

CHAP. 25.—DACIA, SARMATIA.

On setting out from this spot, all the nations met with are
Scythian in general, though various races have occupied the
adjacent shores; at one spot the Getæ2797, by the Romans called
Daci; at another the Sarmatæ, by the Greeks called Sauromatæ, and
the Hamaxobii2798 or Aorsi, a branch of them; then again the base-
born Scythians and descendants of slaves, or else the
Troglodytæ2799; and then, after them, the Alani2800 and the
Rhoxalani. The higher2801 parts again, between the Danube and the
Hercynian Forest2802, as far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at
Carnuntum2803, and the borders of the Germans, are occupied by
the Sarmatian Iazyges2804, who inhabit the level country and the
plains, while the Daci, whom they have driven as far as the river
Pathissus2805, inhabit the mountain and forest ranges. On leaving
the river Marus2806, whether it is that or the Duria2807, that separates
them from the Suevi and the kingdom of Vannius2808, the Basternæ,
and, after them, other tribes of the Germans occupy the opposite
sides2809. Agrippa considers the whole of this region, from the Ister
to the ocean, to be 2100 miles in length, and 4400 miles in breadth
to the river Vistula in the deserts2810 of Sarmatia. The name
“Scythian” has extended, in every direction, even to the Sarmatæ
and the Germans; but this ancient appellation is now only given to
those who dwell beyond those nations, and live unknown to nearly
all the rest of the world.

CHAP. 26.—SCYTHIA.

Leaving the Ister, we come to the towns of Cremniscos2811,
Æpolium, the mountains of Macrocremnus, and the famous river
Tyra2812, which gives name to a town on the spot where Ophiusa is
said formerly to have stood. The Tyragetæ inhabit a large island2813
situate in this river, which is distant from Pseudostomos, a mouth
of the Ister, so called, 130 miles. We then come to the Axiacæ, who
take their name from the river Axiaces2814, and beyond them, the
Crobyzi, the river Rhodes2815, the Sagarian Gulf2816, and the port of
Ordesos2817. At a distance of 120 miles from the Tyra is the river
Borysthenes2818, with a lake and a people of similar name, as also a
town2819 in the interior, at a distance of fifteen miles from the sea,
the ancient names of which were Olbiopolis and Miletopolis.
Again, on the shore is the port of the Achæi, and the island of
Achilles2820, famous for the tomb there of that hero, and, at a
distance of 125 miles from it, a peninsula which stretches forth in
the shape of a sword, in an oblique direction, and is called, from
having been his place of exercise, Dromos Achilleos2821: the length
of this, according to Agrippa, is eighty miles. The Taurian
Scythians and the Siraci2822 occupy all this tract of country.
At this spot begins a well-wooded district2823, which has given to
the sea that washes its banks the name of the Hylæan Sea; its
inhabitants are called Enœchadlæ2824. Beyond them is the river
Panticapes2825, which separates the Nomades2826 and the Georgi,
and after it the Acesinus2827. Some authors say that the Panticapes
flows into the Borysthenes below Olbia2828. Others, who are more
correct, say that it is the Hypanis2829: so great is the mistake made
by those who have placed it2830 in Asia.

The sea runs in here and forms a large gulf2831, until there is only
an intervening space2832 of five miles between it and the Lake
Mæotis, its margin forming the sea-line of extensive tracts of land,
and numerous nations; it is known as the Gulf of Carcinites. Here
we find the river Pacyris2833, the towns of Navarum and
Carcine2834, and behind it Lake Buges2835, which discharges itself
by a channel into the sea. This Buges is separated by a ridge of
rocks2836 from Coretus, a gulf in the Lake Mæotis; it receives the
rivers Buges2837, Gerrus2838, and Hypacaris2839, which approach it
from regions that lie in various directions. For the Gerrus separates
the Basilidæ from the Nomades, the Hypacaris flows through the
Nomades and the Hylæi, by an artificial channel into Lake Buges,
and by its natural one into the Gulf of Coretus: this region bears the
name of Scythia Sindice.
At the river Carcinites, Scythia Taurica2840 begins, which was
once covered by the sea, where we now see level plains extended
on every side: beyond this the land rises into mountains of great
elevation. The peoples here are thirty in number, of which twenty-
three dwell in the interior, six of the cities being inhabited by the
Orgocyni, the Characeni2841, the Lagyrani, the Tractari, the
Arsilachitæ, and the Caliordi. The Scythotauri possess the range of
mountains: on the west they are bounded by the Chersonesus, and
on the east by the Scythian Satarchæ2842. On the shore, after we
leave Carcinites, we find the following towns; Taphræ2843, situate
on the very isthmus of the peninsula, and then Heraclea
Chersonesus2844, to which its freedom has been granted2845 by the
Romans. This place was formerly called Megarice, being the most
polished city throughout all these regions, in consequence of its
strict preservation of Grecian manners and customs. A wall, five
miles in length, surrounds it. Next to this comes the Promontory of

Parthenium2846, the city of the Tauri, Placia, the port of the
Symboli2847, and the Promontory of Criumetopon2848, opposite to
Carambis2849, a promontory of Asia, which runs out in the middle
of the Euxine, leaving an intervening space between them of 170
miles, which circumstance it is in especial that gives to this sea the
form of a Scythian bow. After leaving this headland we come to a
great number of harbours and lakes of the Tauri2850. The town of
Theodosia2851 is distant from Criumetopon 125 miles, and from
Chersonesus 165. Beyond it there were, in former times, the towns
of Cytæ, Zephyrium, Acræ, Nymphæum, and Dia.
Panticapæum2852, a city of the Milesians, by far the strongest of
them all, is still in existence; it lies at the entrance of the Bosporus,
and is distant from Theodosia eighty-seven miles and a half, and
from the town of Cimmerium, which lies on the other side of the
Strait, as we have previously2853 stated, two miles and a half. Such
is the width here of the channel which separates Asia from Europe,
and which too, from being generally quite frozen over, allows of a
passage on foot. The width of the Cimmerian Bosporus2854 is
twelve miles and a half: it contains the towns of Hermisium2855,
Myrmecium, and, in the interior2856 of it, the island of Alopece.
From the spot called Taphræ2857, at the extremity of the isthmus, to
the mouth of the Bosporus, along the line of the Lake Mæotis, is a
distance of 260 miles.
Leaving Taphræ, and going along the mainland, we find in the
interior the Auchetæ2858, in whose country the Hypanis has its rise,
as also the Neurœ, in whose district the Borysthenes has its source,
the Geloni2859, the Thyssagetæ, the Budini, the Basilidæ, and the
Agathyrsi2860 with their azure-coloured hair. Above them are the
Nomades, and then a nation of Anthropophagi or cannibals. On
leaving Lake Buges, above the Lake Mæotis we come to the

Sauromatæ and the Essedones2861. Along the coast, as far as the
river Tanais2862, are the Mæotæ, from whom the lake derives its
name, and the last of all, in the rear of them, the Arimaspi. We then
come to the Riphæan2863 mountains, and the region known by the
name of Pterophoros2864, because of the perpetual fall of snow
there, the flakes of which resemble feathers; a part of the world
which has been condemned by the decree of nature to lie immersed
in thick darkness; suited for nothing but the generation of cold, and
to be the asylum of the chilling blasts of the northern winds.
Behind these mountains, and beyond the region of the northern
winds, there dwells, if we choose to believe it, a happy race, known
as the Hyperborei2865, a race that lives to an extreme old age, and
which has been the subject of many marvellous stories2866. At this
spot are supposed to be the hinges upon which the world revolves,
and the extreme limits of the revolutions of the stars. Here we find
light for six months together, given by the sun in one continuous
day, who does not, however, as some ignorant persons have
asserted, conceal himself from the vernal equinox2867 to autumn.
On the contrary, to these people there is but one rising of the sun
for the year, and that at the summer solstice, and but one setting, at
the winter solstice. This region, warmed by the rays of the sun, is
of a most delightful temperature, and exempt from every noxious
blast. The abodes of the natives are the woods and groves; the gods
receive their worship singly and in groups, while all discord and
every kind of sickness are things utterly unknown. Death comes
upon them only when satiated with life; after a career of feasting, in
an old age sated with every luxury, they leap from a certain rock
there into the sea; and this they deem the most desirable mode of
ending existence. Some writers have placed these people, not in
Europe, but at the very verge of the shores of Asia, because we find
there a people called the Attacori2868, who greatly resemble them

and occupy a very similar locality. Other writers again have placed
them midway between the two suns, at the spot where it sets to the
Antipodes and rises to us; a thing however that cannot possibly be,
in consequence of the vast tract of sea which there intervenes.
Those writers who place them nowhere2869 but under a day which
lasts for six months, state that in the morning they sow, at mid-day
they reap, at sunset they gather in the fruits of the trees, and during
the night conceal themselves in caves. Nor are we at liberty to
entertain any doubts as to the existence of this race; so many
authors2870 are there who assert that they were in the habit of
sending their first-fruits to Delos to present them to Apollo, whom
in especial they worship. Virgins used to carry them, who for many
years were held in high veneration, and received the rites of
hospitality from the nations that lay on the route; until at last, in
consequence of repeated violations of good faith, the Hyperboreans
came to the determination to deposit these offerings upon the
frontiers of the people who adjoined them, and they in their turn
were to convey them on to their neighbours, and so from one to the
other, till they should have arrived at Delos. However, this custom,
even, in time fell into disuse.
The length of Sarmatia, Scythia, and Taurica, and of the whole of
the region which extends from the river Borysthenes, is, according
to Agrippa, 980 miles, and its breadth 717. I am of opinion,
however, that in this part of the earth all estimates of measurement
are exceedingly doubtful.

CHAP. 27.—THE ISLANDS OF THE EUXINE. THE ISLANDS
OF THE NORTHERN OCEAN.

But now, in conformity with the plan which I originally
proposed, the remaining portions of this gulf must be described. As
for its seas, we have already made mention of them.
(13.) The Hellespont has no islands belonging to Europe that are
worthy of mention. In the Euxine there are, at a distance of a mile
and a half from the European shore, and of fourteen from the
mouth of the Strait, the two Cyanæan2871 islands, by some called
the Symplegades2872, and stated in fabulous story to have run the
one against the other; the reason being the circumstance that they
are separated by so short an interval, that while to those who enter
the Euxine opposite to them they appear to be two distinct islands,
but if viewed in a somewhat oblique direction they have the
appearance of becoming gradually united into one. On this side of
the Ister there is the single island2873 of the Apolloniates, eighty
miles from the Thracian Bosporus; it was from this place that M.
Lucullus brought the Capitoline2874 Apollo. Those islands which
are to be found between the mouths of the Ister we have already
mentioned2875. Before the Borysthenes is Achillea2876 previously
referred to, known also by the names of Leuce and Macaron2877.
Researches which have been made at the present day place this
island at a distance of 140 miles from the Borysthenes, of 120 from
Tyra, and of fifty from the island of Peuce. It is about ten miles in
circumference. The remaining islands in the Gulf of Carcinites are
Cephalonnesos, Rhosphodusa, and Macra. Before we leave the
Euxine, we must not omit to notice the opinion expressed by many
writers that all the interior2878 seas take their rise in this one as the
principal source, and not at the Straits of Gades. The reason they

give for this supposition is not an improbable one—the fact that the
tide is always running out of the Euxine and that there is never any
ebb.
We must now leave the Euxine to describe the outer portions2879
of Europe. After passing the Riphæan mountains we have now to
follow the shores of the Northern Ocean on the left, until we arrive
at Gades. In this direction a great number of islands2880 are said to
exist that have no name; among which there is one which lies
opposite to Scythia, mentioned under the name of Raunonia2881,
and said to be at a distance of the day’s sail from the mainland; and
upon which, according to Timæus, amber is thrown up by the
waves in the spring season. As to the remaining parts of these
shores, they are only known from reports of doubtful authority.
With reference to the Septentrional2882 or Northern Ocean;
Hecatæus calls it, after we have passed the mouth of the river
Parapanisus, where it washes the Scythian shores, the Amalchian
sea, the word ‘Amalchian’ signifying in the language of these races,
frozen. Philemon again says that it is called Morimarusa or the
“Dead Sea” by the Cimbri, as far as the Promontory of Rubeas,
beyond which it has the name of the Cronian2883 Sea. Xenophon of
Lampsacus tells us that at a distance of three days’ sail from the
shores of Scythia, there is an island of immense size called
Baltia2884, which by Pytheas is called Basilia2885. Some islands2886
called Oönæ are said to be here, the inhabitants of which live on
the eggs of birds and oats; and others again upon which human
beings are produced with the feet of horses, thence called
Hippopodes. Some other islands are also mentioned as those of the
Panotii, the people of which have ears of such extraordinary size as
to cover the rest of the body, which is otherwise left naked.