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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Destructors" to "Diameter"

Author: Various

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THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND
GENERAL INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VIII slice III

Destructor to Diameter

DESTRUCTOR (continued from volume 8 slice 2 page 108.)

... in main flues, &c. (g) The chimney draught must be assisted with forced draught from fans or
steam jet to a pressure of 1½ in. to 2 in. under grates by water-gauge. (h) Where a destructor is
required to work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its efficiency as a refuse
destructor plant must be primarily kept in view in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded
as a secondary consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a furnace so as to
present a large cooling surface, whereby the temperature of the gases is reduced before the organic
matter has been thoroughly burned. (i) Where steam-power and a high fuel efficiency are desired a
large percentage of CO2 should be sought in the furnaces with as little excess of air as possible, and
the flue gases should be utilized in heating the air-supply to the grates, and the feed-water to the
boilers. (j) Ample boiler capacity and hot-water storage feed-tanks should be included in the design
where steam-power is required.
As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few trustworthy data can be given. The
outlay necessarily depends, amongst other things, upon the difficulty of preparing
Cost.
the site, upon the nature of the foundations required, the height of the chimney-
shaft, the length of the inclined or approach roadway, and the varying prices of labour and materials
in different localities. As an example may be mentioned the case of Bristol, where, in 1892, the total
cost of constructing a 16-cell Fryer destructor was £11,418, of which £2909 was expended on
foundations, and £1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost of the destructor proper, buildings and
approach road was therefore £6820, or about £426 per cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in
destructors depends mainly upon—(a) The price of labour in the locality, and the number of "shifts"
or changes of workmen per day; (b) the type of furnace adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be
consumed; (d) the interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The cost of burning ton for ton

consumed, in high-temperature furnaces, including labour and repairs, is not greater than in slow-
combustion destructors. The average cost of burning refuse at twenty-four different towns throughout
England, exclusive of interest on the cost of the works, is 1s. 1½d. per ton burned; the minimum cost
is 6d. per ton at Bradford, and the maximum cost 2s. 10d. per ton at Battersea. At Shoreditch the cost
per ton for the year ending on the 25th of March 1899, including labour, supervision, stores, repairs,
&c. (but exclusive of interest on cost of works), was 2s. 6.9d. The quantity of refuse burned per cell
per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up to 20 tons. The ordinary low-temperature destructor,
with 25 sq. ft. grate area, burns about 20 lb. of refuse per square foot of grate area per hour, or
between 5 and 6 tons per cell per 24 hours. The Meldrum destructor furnaces at Rochdale burn as
much as 66 lb. per square foot of grate area per hour, and the Beaman and Deas destructor at
Llandudno 71.7 lb. per square foot per hour. The amount, however, always depends materially on the
care observed in stoking, the nature of the material, the frequency of removal of clinker, and on the
question whether the whole of the refuse passed into the furnace is thoroughly cremated.
The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies from 22 to 37% of the bulk dealt
Residues:
with. From 25 to 30% is a very usual amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse
consists of about 8% of straw, paper, shavings, &c., the residue contains about 29%
clinker, 2.7% fine ash, .5% flue dust, and .6% old tins, making a total residue of 32.8%. As the
residuum amounts to from one-fourth to one-third of the total bulk of the refuse dealt with, it is a
question of the utmost importance that some profitable, or at least inexpensive, means should be
devised for its regular disposal. Among other purposes, it has been used for bottoming for
macadamized roads, for the manufacture of concrete, for making paving slabs, for forming suburban
footpaths or cinder footwalks, and for the manufacture of mortar. The last is a very general, and in
many places profitable, mode of disposal. An entirely new outlet has also arisen for the disposal of
good well-vitrified destructor clinker in connexion with the construction of bacteria beds for sewage
disposal, and in many districts its value has, by this means, become greatly enhanced.
Through defects in the design and management of many of the early destructors complaints of
nuisance frequently arose, and these have, to some extent, brought destructor installations into
disrepute. Although some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this respect, that is by no
means the case with the modern improved type of high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not
for the great prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of a refuse destructor
in a neighbourhood would not be generally known to the inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly
designed and worked, will give rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the midst of a
populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect cremation of the refuse and of the gases given off,
Forced draught.
forced draught is essential. This is supplied either as air draught delivered from a
rapidly revolving fan, or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall steam jet or the Meldrum
blower. With a forced blast less air is required to obtain complete combustion than by chimney
draught. The forced draught grate requires little more than the quantity theoretically necessary, while
with chimney draught more than double the theoretical amount of air must be supplied. With forced
draught, too, a much higher temperature is attained, and if it is properly worked, little or no cold air
will enter the furnaces during stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of pressure in the cells
during clinkering should be maintained just sufficient to prevent an inrush of cold air through the
flues. The forced draught pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The efficiency of the
combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by the "Econometer," which registers
continuously and automatically the proportion of CO2 passing away in the waste gases; the higher the
percentage of CO2 the more efficient the furnace, provided there is no formation of CO, the presence
of which would indicate incomplete combustion. The theoretical maximum of CO2 for refuse burning

is about 20%; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting secondary air over the fire, and by
regulating the dampers or the air-pressure in the ash-pit, an amount approximating to this percentage
may be attained in a well-designed furnace if properly worked. If the proportion of free oxygen (i.e.
excess of air) is large, more air is passed through the furnace than is required for complete
combustion, and the heating of this excess is clearly a waste of heat. The position of the econometer
in testing should be as near the furnace as possible, as there may be considerable air leakage through
the brickwork of the flues.
The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the inlet air being first passed through
an air-heater the temperature of which is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue.
The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and gases perfectly innocuous and
Calorific value.
harmless, is worked at a temperature varying from 1250° to 2000° F., and the
maintenance of such temperatures has very naturally suggested the possibility of
utilizing this heat-energy for the production of steam-power. Experience shows that a considerable
amount of energy may be derived from steam-raising destructor stations, amply justifying a
reasonable increase of expenditure on plant and labour. The actual calorific value of the refuse
material necessarily varies, but, as a general average, with suitably designed and properly managed
plant, an evaporation of 1 lb. of water per pound of refuse burned is a result which may be readily
attained, and affords a basis of calculation which engineers may safely adopt in practice. Many
destructor steam-raising plants, however, give considerably higher results, evaporations approaching
2 lb. of water per pound of refuse being often met with under favourable conditions.
From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the calorific value of unscreened house
refuse varies from 1 to 2 lb. of water evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion
depending upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with. Taking the evaporative power of
coal at 10 lb. of water per pound of coal, this gives for domestic house refuse a value of from 1⁄10 to 1⁄5
that of coal; or, with coal at 20s. per ton, refuse has a commercial value of from 2s. to 4s. per ton. In
London the quantity of house refuse amounts to about 1¼ million tons per annum, which is
equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be burned in furnaces giving an
evaporation of 1 lb. of water per pound of refuse, it would yield a total power annually of about 138
million brake horse-power hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 20s. per ton for this amount of power
even when calculated upon the very low estimate of 2 lb.[1] of coal per brake horse-power hour,
works out at over £123,000. On the same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town, with, say, a
population of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5 cwt. per head per annum, would afford 112
indicated horse-power per ton burned, and the total indicated horse-power hours per annum would be

70,000 × 5 cwt.
× 112 = 1,960,000 I.H.P. hours annually.
20

If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the electrical horse-power hours would be
(with a dynamo efficiency of 90%)

1,960,000 × 90
= 1,764,000 E.H.P. hours per annum;
100

and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be
1,764,000 × 746 = 1,315,944,000.

Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give 1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in
lamps, or with 8-candle-power lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have

1,184,349,600 watt-hours
= 39,478,320 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum;
30 watts
39,478,320
that is, 563 8-c.p. lamp hours per annum per head of population.
70,000 population

Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20% on three-quarters of the total or
15% upon the whole, there would be 478 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population:
i.e. if the power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it would supply electric light at the
rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of the population for about 11⁄3 hours for every night of the year.
In actual practice, when the electric energy is for the purposes of lighting only, difficulty has been
experienced in fully utilizing the thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to
Difficulties.
the want of adequate means of storage either of the thermal or of the electric
energy. A destructor station usually yields a fairly definite amount of thermal energy uniformly
throughout the 24 hours, while the consumption of electric-lighting current is extremely irregular, the
maximum demand being about four times the mean demand. The period during which the demand
exceeds the mean is comparatively short, and does not exceed about 6 hours out of the 24, while for a
portion of the time the demand may not exceed 1⁄ 20th of the maximum. This difficulty, at first
regarded as somewhat grave, is substantially minimized by the provision of ample boiler capacity, or
by the introduction of feed thermal storage vessels in which hot feed-water may be stored during the
hours of light load (say 18 out of the 24), so that at the time of maximum load the boiler may be
filled directly from these vessels, which work at the same pressure and temperature as the boiler.
Further, the difficulty above mentioned will disappear entirely at stations where there is a fair day
load which practically ceases at about the hour when the illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing
the demand upon both destructor and electric plant throughout the 24 hours. This arises in cases
where current is consumed during the day for motors, fans, lifts, electric tramways, and other like
purposes, and, as the employment of electric energy for these services is rapidly becoming general,
no difficulty need be anticipated in the successful working of combined destructor and electric plants
where these conditions prevail. The more uniform the electrical demand becomes, the more fully
may the power from a destructor station be utilized.
In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse destructors are now very commonly
installed in conjunction with various other classes of power-using undertakings, including tramways,
water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and clinker-crushing works and others; and the
increasingly large sums which are being yearly expended in combined undertakings of this character
is perhaps the strongest evidence of the practical value of such combinations where these several
classes of work must be carried on.
For further information on the subject, reference should be made to William H. Maxwell, Removal
and Disposal of Town Refuse, with an exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants (London,
1899), with a special Supplement embodying later results (London, 1905).
See also the Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal and County Engineers,
vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214 and xxv. p. 138; also the Proceedings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, vols. cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413, cxxxviii. p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx.
pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp. 369 and 498, cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300.

(W. H. Ma.)

[1] With medium-sized steam plants, a consumption of 4 lb. of coal per brake horse-power per hour is a very usual
performance.

DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN, 3rd Baron (1835-1895), English poet,
eldest son of George Fleming Leicester (afterwards Warren), 2nd Baron De Tabley, was born on the
26th of April 1835. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree in
1856 with second classes in classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn of 1858 he went to
Turkey as unpaid attaché to Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, and two years later was called to the bar. He
became an officer in the Cheshire Yeomanry, and unsuccessfully contested Mid-Cheshire in 1868 as a
Liberal. After his father's second marriage in 1871 he removed to London, where he became a close
friend of Tennyson for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the title in 1887 he was lost to
his friends, assuming the life of a recluse. It was not till 1892 that he returned to London life, and
enjoyed a sort of renaissance of reputation and friendship. During the later years of his life Lord De
Tabley made many new friends, besides reopening old associations, and he almost seemed to be
gathering around him a small literary company when his health broke, and he died on the 22nd of
November 1895 at Ryde, in his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire. Although
his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a poet, De Tabley was a man of many studious
tastes. He was at one time an authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels; published A Guide to
the Study of Book Plates (1880); and the fruit of his careful researches in botany was printed
posthumously in his elaborate Flora of Cheshire (1899). Poetry, however, was his first and last
passion, and to that he devoted the best energies of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards poetry
came from his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a close companionship during his
Oxford days, and whom he lost, as Tennyson lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their
degrees. Fortescue was killed by falling from the mast of Lord Drogheda's yacht in November 1859,
and this gloomy event plunged De Tabley into deep depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley
issued four little volumes of pseudonymous verse (by G. F. Preston), in the production of which he
had been greatly stimulated by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he assumed a pseudonym—his
Praeterita (1863) bearing the name of William Lancaster. In the next year he published Eclogues and
Monodramas, followed in 1865 by Studies in Verse. These volumes all displayed technical grace and
much natural beauty; but it was not till the publication of Philoctetes in 1866 that De Tabley met with
any wide recognition. Philoctetes bore the initials "M.A.," which, to the author's dismay, were
interpreted as meaning Matthew Arnold. He at once disclosed his identity, and received the
congratulations of his friends, among whom were Tennyson, Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he
published Orestes, in 1870 Rehearsals and in 1873 Searching the Net. These last two bore his own
name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when
in 1876 The Soldier of Fortune, a drama on which he had bestowed much careful labour, proved a
complete failure, he retired altogether from the literary arena. It was not until 1893 that he was

persuaded to return, and the immediate success in that year of his Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical,
encouraged him to publish a second series in 1895, the year of his death. The genuine interest with
which these volumes were welcomed did much to lighten the last years of a somewhat sombre and
solitary life. His posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics of De Tabley's poetry
are pre-eminently magnificence of style, derived from close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight
and colour. His passion for detail was both a strength and a weakness: it lent a loving fidelity to his
description of natural objects, but it sometimes involved him in a loss of simple effect from over-
elaboration of treatment. He was always a student of the classic poets, and drew much of his
inspiration directly from them. He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a brother poet well
said, "still climbed the clear cold altitudes of song." His ambition was always for the heights, a
region naturally ice-bound at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and bright, vivid
outlines.

See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his Critical Kit-Kats (1896).
(A. Wa.)

DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE ÉDOUARD (1848- ), French painter, was born in Paris on
the 5th of October 1848. After working as a pupil of Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the Salon of
1867, a picture representing "A Corner of Meissonier's Studio." Military life was from the first a
principal attraction to the young painter, and he gained his reputation by depicting the scenes of a
soldier's life with every detail truthfully rendered. He exhibited "A Halt" (1868); "Soldiers at rest,
during the Manœuvres at the Camp of Saint Maur" (1869); "Engagement between Cossacks and the
Imperial Guard, 1814" (1870). The war of 1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which
gained him repeated successes. Among his more important pictures may be named "The Conquerors"
(1872); "The Retreat" (1873); "The Charge of the 9th Regiment of Cuirassiers in the Village of
Morsbronn, 6th August 1870" (1874); "The Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A
Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877); "Bonaparte in Egypt" (1878); the
"Inauguration of the New Opera House"—a water-colour; the "Defence of Champigny by Faron's
Division" (1879). He also worked with Alphonse de Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In 1884
he exhibited at the Salon the "Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic study, and "The Dream" (1888),
now in the Luxemburg. Detaille recorded other events in the military history of his country: the
"Sortie of the Garrison of Huningue" (now in the Luxemburg), the "Vincendon Brigade," and
"Bizerte," reminiscences of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit to Russia, Detaille exhibited "The
Cossacks of the Ataman" and "The Hereditary Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard."
Other important works are: "Victims to Duty," "The Prince of Wales and the Duke of Connaught" and
"Pasteur's Funeral." In his picture of "Châlons, 9th October 1896," exhibited in the Salon, 1898,
Detaille painted the emperor and empress of Russia at a review, with M. Félix Faure. Detaille became
a member of the French Institute in 1898.

See Marius Vachon, Detaille (Paris, 1898); Frédéric Masson, Édouard Detaille and his work (Paris
and London, 1891); J. Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy, Les

Jeunes peintres militaires (Paris, 1878).

DETAINER (from detain, Lat. detinere), in law, the act of keeping a person against his will, or the
wrongful keeping of a person's goods, or other real or personal property. A writ of detainer was a
form for the beginning of a personal action against a person already lodged within the walls of a
prison; it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838.

DETERMINANT, in mathematics, a function which presents itself in the solution of a system of
simple equations.

1. Considering the equations

ax + by + cz = d,
a′x + b′y + c′z = d′,
a″x + b″y + c″z = d″,

and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross multiplication, we multiply the
equations by factors selected in such a manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient of y
becomes = 0, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = 0; the factors in question are b′c″ - b″c′, b″c -
bc″, bc′ - b′c (values which, as at once seen, have the desired property); we thus obtain an equation
which contains on the left-hand side only a multiple of x, and on the right-hand side a constant term;
the coefficient of x has the value

a(b′c″ - b″c′) + a′(b″c - bc″) + a″(bc′ - b′c),

and this function, represented in the form

a, b, c ,
a′, b′, c′
a″, b″, c″

is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 3², it is called a determinant of the third
order. It is to be noticed that the resulting equation is

a, b, c x = d, b, c
a′, b′, c′ d′, b′, c′
a″, b″, c″ d″, b″, c″

where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function with d, d′, d″ in place of a, a′, a″
respectively, and is of course also a determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c″ - b″c′, b″c - bc″, bc′ -

b′c used in the process are themselves the determinants of the second order

b′, c′ , b″, c″ , b, c .
b″, c″ b, c b′, c′

We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation of the determinants of the orders 1, 2, 3,
4, &c., each from the preceding one, viz. we have

a = a,

a, b = a b′ - a′ b .
a′, b′

a, b, c = a b′, c′ + a′ b″, c″ + a″ b, c ,
a′, b′, c′ b″, c″ b, c b′, c′
a″, b″, c″

a, b, c, d = a b′, c′, d′ - a′ b″, c″, d″ + a″ b″′, c″′, d″′ - a′″ b, c, d ,
a′, b′, c′, d′ b″, c″, d″ b′″, c′″, d′″ b, c, d b′, c′, d′
a″, b″, c″, d″ b′″, c′″, d′″ b, c, d; b′, c′, d′ b″, c″, d″
a′″, b′″, c′″, d′″

and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd order, but alternately + and - for a
determinant of an even order.

2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results:—

A determinant of the order n is the sum of the 1.2.3...n products which can be formed with n
elements out of n² elements arranged in the form of a square, no two of the n elements being in the
same line or in the same column, and each such product having the coefficient ± unity.

The products in question may be obtained by permuting in every possible manner the columns (or
the lines) of the determinant, and then taking for the factors the n elements in the dexter diagonal.
And we thence derive the rule for the signs, viz. considering the primitive arrangement of the
columns as positive, then an arrangement obtained therefrom by a single interchange (inversion, or
derangement) of two columns is regarded as negative; and so in general an arrangement is positive or
negative according as it is derived from the primitive arrangement by an even or an odd number of
interchanges. [This implies the theorem that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive

arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even number of interchanges,—a theorem the
verification of which may be easily obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular case of the general
one), an arrangement can be derived from itself only by an even number of interchanges.] And this
being so, each product has the sign belonging to the corresponding arrangement of the columns; in
particular, a determinant contains with the sign + the product of the elements in its dexter diagonal. It
is to be observed that the rule gives as many positive as negative arrangements, the number of each
being = ½ 1.2...n.

The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving to the columns in the primitive
arrangement the numbers 1, 2, 3 ... n, to obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement we take,
as often as a lower number succeeds a higher one, the sign -, and, compounding together all these
minus signs, obtain the proper sign, + or - as the case may be.

Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123, 231, 312 are positive; 213, 321, 132 are
negative; and the developed expression of the foregoing determinant of the third order is

= ab′c″ - ab″c′ + a′b″c - a′bc″ + a″bc′ - a″b′c.

3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function[1] of the elements of each column
thereof, and also a linear function of the elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the determinant
retains the same value, only its sign being altered, when any two columns are interchanged, or when
any two lines are interchanged; more generally, when the columns are permuted in any manner, or
when the lines are permuted in any manner, the determinant retains its original value, with the sign +
or - according as the new arrangement (considered as derived from the primitive arrangement) is
positive or negative according to the foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that, if two columns
are identical, or if two lines are identical, the value of the determinant is = 0. It may be added, that if
the lines are converted into columns, and the columns into lines, in such a way as to leave the dexter
diagonal unaltered, the value of the determinant is unaltered; the determinant is in this case said to be
transposed.

4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of the n² elements, linear as regards the
terms of each column (or say, for shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only the sign is
altered when any two columns are interchanged; these properties completely determine the function,
except as to a common factor which may multiply all the terms. If, to get rid of this arbitrary
common factor, we assume that the product of the elements in the dexter diagonal has the coefficient
+1, we have a complete definition of the determinant, and it is interesting to show how from these
properties, assumed for the definition of the determinant, it at once appears that the determinant is a
function serving for the solution of a system of linear equations. Observe that the properties show at
once that if any column is = 0 (that is, if the elements in the column are each = 0), then the
determinant is = 0; and further, that if any two columns are identical, then the determinant is = 0.

5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down at the beginning of this article,
consider the determinant

ax + by + cz - d, b, c ;
a′x + b′y + c′z - d′, b′, c′
a″x + b″y + c″z - d″, b″, c″

it appears that this is

= x a, b, c + y b, b, c + z c, b, c - d, b, c ;
a′, b′, c′ b′, b′, c′ c′, b′, c′ d′, b′, c′
a″, b″, c″ b″, b″, c″ c″, b″, c″ d″, b″, c″

viz. the second and third terms each vanishing, it is

= x a, b, c - d, b, c .
a′, b′, c′ d′, b′, c′
a″, b″, c″ d″, b″, c″

But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the original determinant is = 0, and
therefore the determinant itself is = 0; that is, the linear equations give

x a, b, c - d, b, c = 0;
a′, b′, c′ d′, b′, c′
a″, b″, c″ d″, b″, c″

which is the result obtained above.

We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there is a more symmetrical process. Join
to the original equations the new equation

αx + βy + γz = δ;

a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have

α, β, γ, δ = 0;
a, b, c, d
a′, b′, c′, d′
a″, b″, c″, d″

or, as this may be written,

α, β, γ, - δ a, b, c = 0;
a, b, c, d a′, b′, c′
a′, b′, c′, d′ a″, b″, c″
a″, b″, c″, d″

which, considering δ as standing herein for its value αx + βy + γz, is a consequence of the original
equations only: we have thus an expression for αx + βy + γz, an arbitrary linear function of the
unknown quantities x, y, z; and by comparing the coefficients of α, β, γ on the two sides respectively,
we have the values of x, y, z; in fact, these quantities, each multiplied by

a, b, c ,
a′, b′, c′
a″, b″, c″

are in the first instance obtained in the forms

1 , 1 , 1 ;
a, b, c, d a, b, c, d a, b, c, d
a′, b′, c′, d′ a′, b′, c′, d′ a′, b′, c′, d′
a″, b″, c″, d″ a″, b″, c″, d″ a″, b″, c″, d″

but these are

= b, c, d , - c, d, a , d, a, b ,
b′, c′, d′ c′, d′, a′ d′, a′, b′
b″, c″, d″ c″, d″, a″ d″, a″, b″

or, what is the same thing,

= b, c, d , c, a, d , a, b, d
b′, c′, d′ c′, a′, d′ a′, b′, d′
b″, c″, d″ c″, a″, d″ a″, b″, d″

respectively.

6. Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order.—The theorem is obtained very easily
from the last preceding definition of a determinant. It is most simply expressed thus—

(α, α′, α″), (β, β′, β″), (γ, γ′, γ″)
(a, b, c ) " " " = a, b, c . α, β, γ ,
(a′, b′, c′ ) " " " a′, b′, c′ α′, β′, γ′
(a″, b″, c″ ) " " " a″, b″, c″ α″, β″, γ″

where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant, the terms of the first line being (a, b, c)
(α, α′, α″), that is, aα + bα′ + cα″, (a, b, c)(β, β′, β″), that is, aβ + bβ′ + cβ″, (a, b, c)(γ, γ′, γ″), that is
aγ + bγ′ + cγ″; and similarly the terms in the second and third lines are the life functions with (a′, b′,
c′) and (a″, b″, c″) respectively.

There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and columns; the result would hold good if
on the left-hand side we had written (α, β, γ), (α′, β′, γ′), (α″, β″, γ″), or what is the same thing, if on
the right-hand side we had transposed the second determinant; and either of these changes would, it
might be thought, increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason which need not be explained,[2]
the form actually adopted is the preferable one.

To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant on the left-hand side, qua linear
function of its columns, may be broken up into a sum of (3³ =) 27 determinants, each of which is
either of some such form as

= αβγ′ a, a, b ,
a′, a′, b′
a″, a″, b″

where the term αβγ' is not a term of the αβγ-determinant, and its coefficient (as a determinant with
two identical columns) vanishes; or else it is of a form such as

= αβ′γ″ a, b, c ,
a′, b′, c′
a″, b″, c″

that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the abc-determinant last written down;
the sum of all other factors ± αβ′γ″ is the αβγ-determinant of the formula; and the final result then is,
that the determinant on the left-hand side is equal to the product on the right-hand side of the
formula.

7. Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary Determinants.—Consider, for simplicity, a
determinant of the fifth order, 5 = 2 + 3, and let the top two lines be

a, b, c, d, e
a′, b′, c′, d′, e′

then, if we consider how these elements enter into the determinant, it is at once seen that they enter
only through the determinants of the second order

a, b ,
a′, b′

&c., which can be formed by selecting any two columns at pleasure. Moreover, representing the
remaining three lines by

a″, b″, c″, d″, e″
a″′, b″′, c″′, d″′, e″′

a″″, b″″, c″″, d″″, e″″

it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant formed with any two columns of the
first set is the determinant of the third order formed with the complementary three columns of the
second set; and it thus appears that the determinant of the fifth order is a sum of all the products of
the form

a, b c″, d″, e″ ,
a′, b″ c″′, d″′, e″′
c″″, d″″, e″″

the sign ± being in each case such that the sign of the term ± ab′c″d′″e″″ obtained from the diagonal
elements of the component determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the determinant of the
fifth order; for the product written down the sign is obviously +.

Observe that for a determinant of the n-th order, taking the decomposition to be 1 + (n - 1), we fall
back upon the equations given at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a determinant.

8. Any determinant a, b formed out of the elements of the original determinant, by selecting the
a′, b′
lines and columns at pleasure, is termed a minor of the original determinant; and when the number of
lines and columns, or order of the determinant, is n-1, then such determinant is called a first minor;
the number of the first minors is = n², the first minors, in fact, corresponding to the several elements
of the determinant—that is, the coefficient therein of any term whatever is the corresponding first
minor. The first minors, each divided by the determinant itself, form a system of elements inverse to
the elements of the determinant.

A determinant is symmetrical when every two elements symmetrically situated in regard to the
dexter diagonal are equal to each other; if they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum of the two
elements be = 0), this relation not extending to the diagonal elements themselves, which remain
arbitrary, then the determinant is skew; but if the relation does extend to the diagonal terms (that is, if
these are each = 0), then the determinant is skew symmetrical; thus the determinants

a, h, g ; a, ν, -μ ; 0, ν, -μ
h, b, f -ν, b, λ -ν, 0, λ
g, f, c μ, -λ, c μ, -λ, 0

are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical: The theory admits of very extensive
algebraic developments, and applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of mathematics. For
further developments of the theory of determinants see Algebraic Forms.
(A. Ca.)

9. History.—These functions were originally known as "resultants," a name applied to them by
Pierre Simon Laplace, but now replaced by the title "determinants," a name first applied to certain

forms of them by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the theory of determinants is to be found in the
writings of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693), who incidentally discovered certain properties when
reducing the eliminant of a system of linear equations. Gabriel Cramer, in a note to his Analyse des
lignes courbes algébriques (1750), gave the rule which establishes the sign of a product as plus or
minus according as the number of displacements from the typical form has been even or odd.
Determinants were also employed by Étienne Bezout in 1764, but the first connected account of
these functions was published in 1772 by Charles Auguste Vandermonde. Laplace developed a
theorem of Vandermonde for the expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph Louis Lagrange, in
his memoir on Pyramids, used determinants of the third order, and proved that the square of a
determinant was also a determinant. Although he obtained results now identified with determinants,
Lagrange did not discuss these functions systematically. In 1801 Gauss published his Disquisitiones
arithmeticae, which, although written in an obscure form, gave a new impetus to investigations on
this and kindred subjects. To Gauss is due the establishment of the important theorem, that the
product of two determinants both of the second and third orders is a determinant. The formulation of
the general theory is due to Augustin Louis Cauchy, whose work was the forerunner of the brilliant
discoveries made in the following decades by Hoëné-Wronski and J. Binet in France, Carl Gustav
Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur Cayley in England. Jacobi's researches
were published in Crelle's Journal (1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and enriched
by new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacobi is indissolubly associated with
this branch of science. The far-reaching discoveries of Sylvester and Cayley rank as one of the most
important developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new fields were opened up, and have been
diligently explored by many mathematicians. Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley;
axisymmetric-determinants by Jacobi, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester and O. Hesse, and centro-symmetric
determinants by W. R. F. Scott and G. Zehfuss. Continuants have been discussed by Sylvester;
alternants by Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H. Nagelbach and G. Garbieri; circulants by E. Catalan, W.
Spottiswoode and J. W. L. Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B. Christoffel and G. Frobenius.
Determinants composed of binomial coefficients have been studied by V. von Zeipel; the expression
of definite integrals as determinants by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the expression of continued
fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V. Nachreiner, S. Günther and E. Fürstenau. (See T. Muir,
Theory of Determinants, 1906).

[1] The expression, a linear function, is here used in its narrowest sense, a linear function without constant term; what is
meant is that the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a′, a″, ... of any column or line thereof, a function of the form Aa
+ A′a′ + A″a″ + ... without any term independent of a, a′, a″ ...

[2] The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for the multiplication of two matrices.

DETERMINISM (Lat. determinare, to prescribe or limit), in ethics, the name given to the theory
that all moral choice, so called, is the determined or necessary result of psychological and other
conditions. It is opposed to the various doctrines of Free-Will, known as voluntarism, libertarianism,
indeterminism, and is from the ethical standpoint more or less akin to necessitarianism and fatalism.
There are various degrees of determinism. It may be held that every action is causally connected not
only externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also internally with his motives and
impulses. In other words, if we could know exactly all these conditions, we should be able to forecast

with mathematical certainty the course which the agent would pursue. In this theory the agent cannot
be held responsible for his action in any sense. It is the extreme antithesis of Indeterminism or
Indifferentism, the doctrine that a man is absolutely free to choose between alternative courses (the
liberum arbitrium indifferentiae). Since, however, the evidence of ordinary consciousness almost
always goes to prove that the individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself as being
free within certain limitations to make his own choice of alternatives, many determinists go so far as
to admit that there may be in any action which is neither reflex nor determined by external causes
solely an element of freedom. This view is corroborated by the phenomenon of remorse, in which the
agent feels that he ought to, and could, have chosen a different course of action. These two kinds of
determinism are sometimes distinguished as "hard" and "soft" determinism. The controversy between
determinism and libertarianism hinges largely on the significance of the word "motive"; indeed in no
other philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused by purely verbal disputation and
ambiguity of expression. How far, and in what sense, can action which is determined by motives be
said to be free? For a long time the advocates of free-will, in their eagerness to preserve moral
responsibility, went so far as to deny all motives as influencing moral action. Such a contention,
however, clearly defeats its own object by reducing all action to chance. On the other hand, the
scientific doctrine of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the distinction between external and
internal compulsion, e.g. motives, character and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the
product of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does it become impossible to
regard him as self-determined. Even in his motives and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards
outward surroundings, in his appetites and aversions, inherited tendency and environment have been
found to play a very large part; indeed many thinkers hold that the whole of a man's development,
mental as well as physical, is determined by external conditions.

In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere discussed, but Christian ethics as set
forth in the New Testament assumes throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been argued by
theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge, coupled with that of the divine origin of all
things, necessarily implies that all human action was fore-ordained from the beginning of the world.
Such an inference is, however, clearly at variance with the whole doctrine of sin, repentance and the
atonement, as also with that of eternal reward and punishment, which postulates a real measure of
human responsibility.

For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles, Will, Predestination (for the
theological problems), Ethics.

DETINUE (O. Fr. detenue, from detenir, to hold back), in law, an action whereby one who has an
absolute or a special property in goods seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession and
refuses to redeliver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an action of detinue, the judgment is that he
recover the chattel or, if it cannot be had, its value, which is assessed by the judge and jury, and also

certain damages for detaining the same. An order for the restitution of the specific goods may be
enforced by a special writ of execution, called a writ of delivery. (See Contract; Trover.)

DETMOLD, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated
on the east slope of the Teutoburger Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Altenbeken line of the
Prussian state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164. The residential château of the princes of Lippe-Detmold
(1550), in the Renaissance style, is an imposing building, lying with its pretty gardens nearly in the
centre of the town; whilst at the entrance to the large park on the south is the New Palace (1708-
1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house. Detmold possesses a natural history museum,
theatre, high school, library, the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876) was born,
and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe (1801-1836), also a native, died. The
leading industries are linen-weaving, tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of marble
and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town is the Grotenburg, with Ernst von Bandel's
colossal statue of Hermann or Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold (Thiatmelli) was in 783
the scene of a conflict between the Saxons and the troops of Charlemagne.

DETROIT, the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Wayne county, on the
Detroit river opposite Windsor, Canada, about 4 m. W. from the outlet of Lake St Clair and 18 m.
above Lake Erie. Pop. (1880) 116,340; (1890) 205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were
foreign-born and 4111 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. Of the foreign-born in 1900, 32,027
were Germans and 10,703 were German Poles, 25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French
Canadians, 6347 were English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by the Michigan Central, the
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the Père Marquette, the Detroit &
Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo & Ironton and the Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines,
one 2 m. to 3 m., and the other 6 m. from the centre of the city, connect the factory districts with the
main railway lines. Trains are ferried across the river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to
Cleveland, Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important places between, and to several
Canadian ports. Detroit is also the S. terminus for several lines to more remote lake ports, and
electric lines extend from here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac, Jackson, Toledo and Grand Rapids.

The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase from 29 sq. m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m.
in 1905. Its area in proportion to its population is much greater than that of most of the larger cities of
the United States. Baltimore, for example, had in 1904 nearly 70% more inhabitants (estimated),
while its area at that time was a little less and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter less than that of Detroit.
The ground within the city limits as well as that for several miles farther back is quite level, but rises
gradually from the river bank, which is only a few feet in height. The Detroit river, along which the
city extends for about 10 m., is here ½ m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its current is quite rapid; its
water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth it has a width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a

number of islands, which during the summer are popular resorts. The city has a 3 m. frontage on the
river Rouge, an estuary of the Detroit, with a 16 ft. channel. Before the fire by which the city was
destroyed in 1805, the streets were only 12 ft. wide and were unpaved and extremely dirty. But when
the rebuilding began, several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide were—through the influence of
Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one of the territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the
plan of the city of Washington—made to radiate from two central points. From a half circle called the
Grand Circus there radiate avenues 120 ft. and 200 ft. wide. About ¼ m. toward the river from this
was established another focal point called the Campus Martius, 600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at
which commence radiating or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide. Running north from the river
through the Campus Martius and the Grand Circus is Woodward Avenue, 120 ft. wide, dividing the
present city, as it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the river is Jefferson Avenue,
also 120 ft. wide. The first of these avenues is the principal retail street along its lower portion, and is
a residence avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the principal wholesale street at the lower end,
and a fine residence avenue E. of this. Many of the other residence streets are 80 ft. wide. The setting
of shade trees was early encouraged, and large elms and maples abound. The intersections of the
diagonal streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as well as the larger ones, are well
shaded. The streets are paved mostly with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much
used, and kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other American cities of equal size are the
streets and avenues kept so clean. The Grand Boulevard, 150 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 12 m. in
length, has been constructed around the city except along the river front. A very large proportion of
the inhabitants of Detroit own their homes: there are no large congested tenement-house districts; and
many streets in various parts of the city are faced with rows of low and humble cottages often having
a garden plot in front.

Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871), overlooking the Campus Martius, is in
Renaissance style, in three storeys; the flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches a height of 200 ft.
On the four corners above the first section of the tower are four figures, each 14 ft. in height, to
represent Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and on the same level with these is a clock weighing
7670 lb—one of the largest in the world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and Sailors'
monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892) and unveiled in 1872. At each of
the four corners in each of three sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and figures
representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry and Artillery, also Victory, Union,
Emancipation and History; the figure by which the monument is surmounted was designed to
symbolize Michigan. A larger and more massive and stately building than the city hall is the county
court house, facing Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a gilded dome. The Federal
building is a massive granite structure, finely decorated in the interior. Among the churches of
greatest architectural beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine Byzantine interior, St John's
Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue Baptist and the First Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue, and
St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of Mary, both Roman Catholic. The municipal museum of art, in
Jefferson Avenue, contains some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese collections, the
Scripps' collection of old masters, other valuable paintings, and a small library; free lectures on art

are given here through the winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908, including one of
the best collections of state and town histories in the country. A large private collection, owned by C.
M. Burton and relating principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the public. The city is not
rich in outdoor works of art. The principal ones are the Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monument
on the Campus Martius, and a statue of Mayor Pingree in West Grand Circus Park.

The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about 1200 acres. By far the most
attractive is Belle Isle, an island in the river at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having an
area of more than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of 4½ acres, with its trees, flowers and
fountains, affords a pleasant resting place in the busiest quarter of the city. Six miles farther out on
Woodward Avenue is Palmer Park of about 140 acres, given to the city in 1894 and named in honour
of the donor. Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the city, and there are various smaller parks.
The principal cemeteries are Elmwood (Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining
in the E. part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in the N. part of the city.

Charity and Education.—Among the charitable institutions are the general hospitals (Harper,
Grace and St Mary's); the Detroit Emergency, the Children's Free and the United States Marine
hospitals; St Luke's hospital, church home, and orphanage; the House of Providence (a maternity
hospital and infant asylum); the Woman's hospital and foundling's home; the Home for convalescent
children, &c. In 1894 the mayor, Hazen Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of
preparing, through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant land in and about the city for
the growing of potatoes and other vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor
commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the unemployed, and furnishing them with
seed for planting. This plan served an admirable purpose through three years of industrial depression,
and was copied in other cities; it was abandoned when, with the renewal of industrial activity, the
necessity for it ceased. The leading penal institution of the city is the Detroit House of Correction,
noted for its efficient reformatory work; the inmates are employed ten hours a day, chiefly in making
furniture. The house of correction pays the city a profit of $35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational
institutions, in addition to those of the general public school system, include several parochial
schools, schools of art and of music, and commercial colleges; Detroit College (Catholic), opened in
1877; the Detroit College of Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan College of Medicine and
Surgery, opened in 1888; the Detroit College of law, founded in 1891, and a city normal school.

Commerce.—Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping and shipbuilding interests a high
importance. All the enormous traffic between the upper and lower lakes passes through the Detroit
river. In 1907 the number of vessels recorded was 34,149, with registered tonnage of 53,959,769,
carrying 71,226,895 tons of freight, valued at $697,311,302. This includes vessels which delivered
part or all of their cargo at Detroit. The largest item in the freights is iron ore on vessels bound down.
The next is coal on vessels up bound. Grain and lumber are the next largest items. Detroit is a port of
entry, and its foreign commerce, chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The city's exports
increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 in 1909. The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896
and $7,100,659 in 1909.

As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total number of manufacturing
establishments in 1890 was 1746, with a product for the year valued at $77,351,546; in 1900 there
were 2847 establishments with a product for the year valued at $100,892,838; or an increase of
30.4% in the decade. In 1900 the establishments under the factory system, omitting the hand trades
and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and produced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904
establishments under the factory system numbered 1363 and the product had increased 45.7% to
$128,761,658. In the district subsequently annexed the product in 1904 was about $12,000,000,
making a total of $140,000,000. The output for 1906 was estimated at $180,000,000. The state
factory inspectors in 1905 visited 1721 factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected
1790 factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in the country in the manufacture of
automobiles. In 1904 the value of its product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In 1906 the
city had twenty automobile factories, with an output of 11,000 cars, valued at $12,000,000. Detroit is
probably the largest manufacturer in the country of freight cars, stoves, pharmaceutical preparations,
varnish, soda ash and similar alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships, paints,
foundry and machine shop products, brass goods, furniture, boots and shoes, clothing, matches,
cigars, malt liquors and fur goods; and slaughtering and meat packing is an important industry.

The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought into one association the members of
three former bodies, making a compact organization with civic as well as commercial aims. The
board has brought into active co-operation nearly all the leading business men of the city and many
of the professional men. Their united efforts have brought many new industries to the city, have
improved industrial conditions, and have exerted a beneficial influence upon the municipal
administration. Other business organizations are the Board of Trade, devoted to the grain trade and
kindred lines, the Employers' Association, which seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between
employer and employed, the Builders' & Traders' Exchange, and the Credit Men's Association.

Administration.—Although the city received its first charter in 1806, and another in 1815, the real
power rested in the hands of the governor and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters of 1824
and 1827 centred the government in a council and made the list of elective officers long; the charter
of 1827 was revised in 1857 and again in 1859 and the present charter dates from 1883. Under this
charter only three administrative officers are elected,—the mayor, the city clerk and the city
treasurer,—elections being biennial. The administration of the city departments is largely in the
hands of commissions. There is one commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and
boulevards, police and public works departments. The four members of the health board are
nominated by the governor and confirmed by the state senate. The school board is an independent
body, consisting of one elected member from each ward holding office for four years, but the mayor
has the veto power over its proceedings as well as those of the common council. In each case a two-
thirds vote overrules his veto. The other principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor
and confirmed by the council, are controller, corporation counsel, board of three assessors, fire
commission (four members), public lighting commission (six members), water commission (five
members), poor commission (four members), and inspectors of the house of correction (four in

number). The members of the public library commission, six in number, are elected by the board of
education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next fiscal year are furnished by the different
departments to the controller in February. He transmits them to the common council with his
recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to consider them. It may reduce or increase
the amounts asked, and may add new items. The budget then goes to the board of estimates, which
has a month for its consideration. This body consists of two members elected from each ward and
five elected at large. The mayor and heads of departments are advisory members, and may speak but
not vote. The members of the board of estimates can hold no other office and they have no
appointing power, the intention being to keep them as free as possible from all political motives and
influences. They may reduce or cut out any estimates submitted, but cannot increase any or add new
ones. No bonds can be issued without the assent of the board of estimates. The budget is apportioned
among twelve committees which have almost invariably given close and conscientious examination
to the actual needs of the departments. A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1,500,000, without impairing
the service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations. Prudent management under this
system has placed the city in the highest rank financially. Its debt limit is 2% on the assessed
valuation, and even that low maximum is not often reached. The debt in 1907 was only about
$5,500,000, a smaller per capita debt than that of any other city of over 100,000 inhabitants in the
country; the assessed valuation was $330,000,000; the city tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of
assessed valuation. Both the council and the estimators are hampered in their work by legislative
interference. Nearly all the large salaries and many of those of the second grade are made mandatory
by the legislature, which has also determined many affairs of a purely administrative character.

Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership. On account of inadequate and
unsatisfactory service by a private company, the city bought the water-works as long ago as 1836.
The works have been twice moved and enlargements have been made in advance of the needs of the
city. In 1907 there were six engines in the works with a pumping capacity of 152,000,000 gallons
daily. The daily average of water used during the preceding year was 61,357,000 gallons. The water
is pumped from Lake St Clair and is of exceptional purity. The city began its own public lighting in
April 1895, having a large plant on the river near the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public
buildings, but makes no provision for commercial business. The lighting is excellent, and the cost is
probably less than could be obtained from a private company. The street lighting is done partly from
pole and arm lights, but largely from steel towers from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with strong
reflected lights at the top. The city also owns two portable asphalt plants, and thus makes a saving in
the cost of street repairing and resurfacing. With a view of effecting the reduction of street car fares
to three cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for purchasing or leasing the street railways
of the city, but the Supreme Court pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as the
constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work of internal improvement, the state could not
empower a municipality to do so. Certain test votes indicated an almost even division on the question
of municipal ownership of the railways.

History.—Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet de la Mothe Cadillac (c. 1661-1730),
who had pointed out the importance of the place as a strategic point for determining the control of the
fur trade and the possession of the North-west and had received assistance from the French
government soon after Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the secretary of the Board of Indian
Commissioners in New York, had urged the English government to establish a fort at the same place.
Cadillac arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at once built a palisade fort about
200 ft. square S. of what is now Jefferson Avenue and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and
named it Fort Pontchartrain in honour of the French colonial minister. Indians at once came to the
place in large numbers, but they soon complained of the high price of French goods; there was
serious contention between Cadillac and the French Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of
the trade had been granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the Jesuits. After the several
parties had begun to complain to the home government the monopoly of the fur trade was transferred
to Cadillac and he was exhorted to cease quarrelling with the Jesuits. Although the inhabitants then
increased to 200 or more, dissatisfaction with the paternal rule of the founder increased until 1710,
when he was made governor of Louisiana. The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn; by the
second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and for several years following the
population was greatly reduced and the post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the
Mississippi country was opened, the population once more increased, and again in 1748, when the
settlement of the Ohio Valley began, the governor-general of Canada offered special inducements to
Frenchmen to settle at Detroit, with the result that the population was soon more than 1000 and the
cultivation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however, the place was taken by the British
under Colonel Robert Rogers and an English element was introduced into the population which up to
this time had been almost exclusively French. Three years later, during the conspiracy of Pontiac, the
fort first narrowly escaped capture and then suffered from a siege lasting from the 9th of May until
the 12th of October. Under English rule it continued from this time on as a military post with its
population usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new fort was built and named Fort Lernault,
and during the War of Independence the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions to
ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which concluded that war the title to the post
passed to the United States in 1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the 11th of January
1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794. It was then named Fort Shelby; but in 1802 it was
incorporated as a town and received its present name. In 1805 all except one or two buildings were
destroyed by fire. General William Hull (1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American
Independence, governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander of the north-western
army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to hear immediately of the declaration of war between the
United States and Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped by Lake Erie. He made
from Detroit on the 12th of July an awkward and futile advance into Canada, which, if more
vigorous, might have resulted in the capture of Malden and the establishment of American troops in
Canada, and then retired to his fortifications. On the 16th of August 1812, without any resistance and
without consulting his officers, he surrendered the city to General Brock, for reasons of humanity,
and afterwards attempted to justify himself by criticism of the War Department in general and in

particular of General Henry Dearborn's armistice with Prevost, which had not included in its terms
Hull, whom Dearborn had been sent out to reinforce.[1] After Perry's victory on the 14th of
September on Lake Erie, Detroit on the 29th of September was again occupied by the forces of the
United States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since then its progress has been unimpeded.
Detroit was the capital of Michigan from 1805 to 1847.

Authorities.—Silas Farmer, The History of Detroit and Michigan (Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and
"Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P. Powell's Historic Towns of the Western States (New York and
London, 1901); D. F. Wilcox, "Municipal Government in Michigan and Ohio," in Columbia
University Studies (New York, 1896); C. M. Burton, "Cadillac's Village" or Detroit under Cadillac
(Detroit, 1896); Francis Parkman, A Half Century of Conflict (Boston, 1897); and The Conspiracy of
Pontiac (Boston, 1898); and the annual Reports of the Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.).

[1] Hull was tried at Albany in 1814 by court martial, General Dearborn presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice,
neglect of duty and unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president remitted the sentence because of Hull's
services in the Revolution.

DETTINGEN, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Main, and on the
Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg railway, 10 m. N.W. of Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the
scene of a decisive battle on the 27th of June 1743, when the English, Hanoverians and Austrians (the
"Pragmatic army"), 42,000 men under the command of George II. of England, routed the numerically
superior French forces under the duc de Noailles. It was in memory of this victory that Handel
composed his Dettingen Te Deum.

DEUCALION, in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king of Phthia in Thessaly, husband of
Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the mythical ancestor of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved to
destroy all mankind by a flood, Deucalion constructed a boat or ark, in which, after drifting nine days
and nights, he landed on Mount Parnassus (according to others, Othrys, Aetna or Athos) with his
wife. Having offered sacrifice and inquired how to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast
behind them the "bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the hillside. The stones thrown
by Deucalion became men, those thrown by Pyrrha, women.

See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, Metam. i. 243-415; Apollonius Rhodius iii. 1085 ff.; H. Usener, Die
Sintflutsagen (1899).

DEUCE (a corruption of the Fr. deux, two), a term applied to the "two" of any suit of cards, or of
dice. It is also a term used in tennis when both sides have each scored three points in a game, or five
games in a set; to win the game or set two points or games must then be won consecutively. The

earliest instances in English of the use of the slang expression "the deuce," in exclamations and the
like, date from the middle of the 17th century. The meaning was similar to that of "plague" or
"mischief" in such phrases as "plague on you," "mischief take you" and the like. The use of the word
as an euphemism for "the devil" is later. According to the New English Dictionary the most probable
derivation is from a Low German das daus, i.e. the "deuce" in dice, the lowest and therefore the most
unlucky throw. The personification, with a consequent change of gender, to der daus, came later. The
word has also been identified with the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic mythology.

DEUS, JOÃO DE (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet of his generation, was born at San
Bartholomeu de Messines in the province of Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating in the
faculty of law at the university of Coimbra, he did not proceed to his degree but settled in the city,
dedicating himself wholly to the composition of verses, which circulated among professors and
undergraduates in manuscript copies. In the volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he practised a
rigorous self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855, and the first of his poems to appear in a
separate form was La Lata, in 1860. In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor
of O Bejense, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo, and four years later he edited the
Folha do Sul. As the pungent satirical verses entitled Eleições prove, he was not an ardent politician,
and, though he was returned as Liberal deputy for the constituency of Silves in 1869, he acted
independently of all political parties and promptly resigned his mandate. The renunciation implied in
the act, which cut him off from all advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of his lofty
character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend José Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from
local journals the series of poems, Flores do campo, which is supplemented by the Ramo de flores
(1869). This is João de Deus's masterpiece. Pires de Marmalada (1869) is an improvisation of no
great merit. The four theatrical pieces—Amemos o nosso proximo, Ser apresentado, Ensaio de
Casamento, and A Viúva inconsolavel—are prose translations from Méry, cleverly done, but not
worth the doing. Horacio e Lydia (1872), a translation from Ronsard, is a good example of artifice in
manipulating that dangerously monotonous measure, the Portuguese couplet. As an indication of a
strong spiritual reaction three prose fragments (1873)—Anna, Mãe de Maria, A Virgem Maria and A
Mulher do Levita de Ephrain—translated from Darboy's Femmes de la Bible, are full of significance.
The Folhas soltas (1876) is a collection of verse in the manner of Flores do campo, brilliantly
effective and exquisitely refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his attention to
educational problems, and in his Cartilha maternal (1876) first expressed the conclusions to which
his study of Pestalozzi and Fröbel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate was a
misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational mission absorbed João de Deus completely, and
is responsible for numerous controversial letters, for a translation of Théodore-Henri Barrau's
treatise, Des devoirs des enfants envers leurs parents, for a prosodic dictionary and for many other
publications of no literary value. A copy of verses in Antonio Vieira's Grinalda de Maria (1877), the
Loas á Virgem (1878) and the Proverbios de Salomão are evidence of a complete return to orthodoxy
during the poet's last years. By a lamentable error of judgment some worthless pornographic verses

entitled Cryptinas have been inserted in the completest edition of João de Deus's poems—Campo de
Flores (Lisbon, 1893). He died at Lisbon on the 11th of January 1896, was accorded a public funeral
and was buried in the National Pantheon, the Jeronymite church at Belem, where repose the remains
of Camoens, Herculano and Garrett. His scattered minor prose writings and correspondence have
been posthumously published by Dr Theophilo Braga (Lisbon, 1898).

Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has been more widely read, more
profoundly admired than João de Deus; yet no poet in any country has been more indifferent to
public opinion and more deliberately careless of personal fame. He is not responsible for any single
edition of his poems, which were put together by pious but ill-informed enthusiasts, who ascribed to
him verses that he had not written; he kept no copies of his compositions, seldom troubled to write
them himself, and was content for the most part to dictate them to others. He has no great intellectual
force, no philosophic doctrine, is limited in theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch,
often marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced accent; and, on the only
occasion when he was induced to revise a set of proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse.
And yet, though he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though he wrote nothing at all comparable
in force or majesty to the restrained splendour of Os Lusiadas, the popular instinct which links his
name with that of his great predecessor is eminently just. For Camoens was his model; not the
Camoens of the epic, but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets, where the passion of tenderness
finds its supreme utterance. Braga has noted five stages of development in João de Deus's artistic life
—the imitative, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout phases. Under each of these
divisions is included much that is of extreme interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed
through the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly probable that Caturras and
Gaspar, pieces as witty as anything in Bocage but free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always
interest literary students. But it is as the singer of love that João de Deus will delight posterity as he
delighted his own generation. The elegiac music of Rachel and of Marina, the melancholy of Adeus
and of Remoinho, the tenderness and sincerity of Meu casta lirio, of Lagrima celeste, of Descalça
and a score more songs are distinguished by the large, vital simplicity which withstands time. It is
precisely in the quality of unstudied simplicity that João de Deus is incomparably strong. The
temptations to a display of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a Portuguese poet; he has the tradition
of virtuosity in his blood, he has before him the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an
instrument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is João de Deus clamorous or rhetorical,
not once does he indulge in idle ornament. His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweetness and of
reverent purity; yet with all his caressing softness he is never sentimental, and, though he has not the
strength for a long fight, emotion has seldom been set to more delicate music. Had he included
among his other gifts the gift of selection, had he continued the poetic discipline of his youth instead
of dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he performed it, might have been done no less well
by a much lesser man, there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen.

See also Maxime Formont, Le Mouvement poétique contemporain en Portugal (Lyon, 1892).
(J. F.-K.)

DEUTERONOMY, the name of one of the books of the Old Testament. This book was long the
storm-centre of Pentateuchal criticism, orthodox scholars boldly asserting that any who questioned its
Mosaic authorship reduced it to the level of a pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at last triumphed
over tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of Deuteronomy is now a commonplace of criticism. It
is still instructive, however, to note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion regarding
the composition and date of his book has passed.

In the 17th century the characteristics which so clearly mark off Deuteronomy from the other four
books of the Pentateuch were frankly recognized, but the most advanced critics of that age were
inclined to pronounce it the earliest and most authentic of the five. In the beginning of the 19th
century de Wette startled the religious world by declaring that Deuteronomy, so far from being
Mosaic, was not known till the time of Josiah. This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever
since, this chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical criticism. The only other single
chapter of the Bible which is responsible for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in
critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy years after de Wette's discovery,
Wellhausen with equal acumen inferred that Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and
therefore could not have been in existence in his day; for had Leviticus been the recognized Law-
book of his nation Ezekiel could not have represented as a degradation the very position which that
Law-book described as a special honour conferred on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence
Leviticus, so far from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than Deuteronomy, as de
Wette thought, must belong to a much later stratum, and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic.

The title "Deuteronomy" is due to a mistranslation by the Septuagint of the clause in chap. xvii.
18, rendered "and he shall write out for himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really means "and
he [the king] shall write out for himself a copy of this law," where there is not the slightest suggestion
that the author intended to describe "this law" delivered on the plains of Moab as a second code in
contradistinction to the first code given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the phrase "this
law" is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater difficulty than that caused by the Greek
mistranslation of the Hebrew word for "copy." How much does "this law" include? It was long
supposed to mean the whole of our present Deuteronomy; indeed, it is on that supposition that the
traditional view of the Mosaic authorship is based. But the context alone can determine the question;
and that is often so ambiguous that a sure inference is impossible. We may safely assert, however,
that nowhere need "this law" mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably means very much less, and
sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little that it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered
stones set up beside an altar.

Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the result of a long process of development.
The fact that it is legislative as well as hortatory is enough to prove this, for most of the laws it
contains are found elsewhere in the Pentateuch, sometimes in less developed, sometimes in more
developed forms, a fact which is conclusive proof of prolonged historical development. According to
the all-pervading law of evolution, the less complex form must have preceded the more complex.
Still, the book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as easily recognized as that of

Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable for its copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious
feeling.

The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot have been so large as our present book,
for not only could it be read at a single sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one day. On the day
it was found, Shaphan first read it himself, and then went to the king and read it aloud to him. But
perhaps the most conclusive proof of its brevity is that it was read publicly to the assembled people
immediately before they, as well as their king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a word is said
as to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by such a great multitude, being long or difficult.

The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.), which, however, contain many
later insertions. But the impression made upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have been
produced by the legislative part alone. The king must have listened to the curses as well as the
blessings in chap, xxviii., and no doubt also to the exhortations in chaps. v.-xi. Hence we may
conclude that the original book consisted of a central mass of religious, civil and social laws,
preceded by a hortatory introduction and followed by an effective peroration. The book read to Josiah
must therefore have comprised most of what is found in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But
something like two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present form, for in the closing
chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43 (where the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and
xxxii. 48-52, there are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally acknowledged to
be post-exilic.

The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book as we now have it. There are two
introductions, the first i.-iv. 44, more historical than hortatory; the second v.-xi., more hortatory than
historical. These may at first have been prefixed to separate editions of the legislative portion, but
were eventually combined. Then, before D was united to P, five appendices of very various dates and
embracing poetry as well as prose, were added so as to give a fuller account of the last days of Moses
and thus lead up to the narrative of his death with which the book closes. (1) Chap. xxvii., where the
elders of Israel are introduced for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. 1) and then the
priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer to laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that
the date of this chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the laws codified in the Law of
Holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.). (2) The second appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us the
farewell address of Moses and is certainly later than D. Moses is represented as speaking not with
any hope of preventing Israel's apostasy but because he knows that the people will eventually prove
apostate (xxxi. 29), a point of view very different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap. xxxii. That
this didactic poem must have been written late in the nation's history, and not at its very beginning, is
evident from v. 7: "Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many generations." Such words
cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of Moses. It must have been composed in a time of natural
gloom and depression, after Yahweh's anger had been provoked by "a very froward generation,"
certainly not before the Assyrian Empire had loomed up against the political horizon, aggressive and
menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The
Blessing of Moses, chap, xxxiii. The first line proves that this poem is not by D, who speaks

invariably of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation depicted is in striking contrast with that of the
Song. Everything is bright because of promises fulfilled, and the future bids fair to be brighter still.
Bruston maintains with reason that the Blessing, strictly so called, consists only of vv. 6-25, and has
been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the goodness of Jehovah to his people on their entrance into
Canaan (vv. 1-5, 26-29). The special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) in vv. 13-
17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the time of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel,
Jeroboam II. (5) The account of Moses' death, chap. xxxiv. This appendix, containing, as it does,
manifest traces of P, proves that even Deuteronomy was not put into its present form until after the
exile.

From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the Covenant (Ex. xx.-xxiii.) it is clear
that D was acquainted with E, the prophetic narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not quite
clear whether D knew E as an independent work, or after its combination with J, the somewhat
earlier prophetic narrative of the Southern kingdom, the combined form of which is now indicated by
the symbol JE. Kittel certainly puts it too strongly when he asserts that D quotes always from E and
never from J, for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as readily be ascribed to J as to E, cf.
Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut. x. 14 and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written
certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J.

In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas, whereas in Jeremiah and Ezekiel their
influence is everywhere manifest. Hence this school of thought arose between the age of Isaiah and
that of Jeremiah; but how long D itself may have been in existence before it was read in 622 to Josiah
cannot be determined with certainty. Many argue that D was written immediately before it was found
and that, in fact, it was put into the temple for the purpose of being "found." This theory gives some
plausibility to the charge that the book is a pious fraud. But the narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no
such inference. The more natural explanation is that it was written not in the early years of Josiah's
reign, and with the cognizance of the temple priests then in office, but some time during the long
reign of Manasseh, probably when his policy was most reactionary and when he favoured the
worship of the "host of heaven" and set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This explains
why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed it where he hoped it would be safely
preserved till opportunity should arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he actually
foresaw how favourable that opportunity would prove, and that, as soon as discovered, his work
would be promulgated as law by the king and willingly accepted by the people. The author believed
that everything he wrote was in full accordance with the mind of Moses, and would contribute to the
national weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and therefore he did not scruple to represent Moses as
the speaker. It is not to be expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact year or even
decade in which such a book was written. It is enough to determine with something like probability
the century or half-century which best fits its historical data; and these appear to point to the reign of
Manasseh.

Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the historical résumés JE is followed closely,
whole clauses and even verses being copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points out in his

careful analysis, there are only three facts in D which are not also found in JE, viz. the number of the
spies, the number of souls that went down into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark being made of acacia
wood. But even these may have been in J or E originally, and left out when JE was combined with P.
Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory parts of D between two authors, one of whom
uses the 2nd person plural when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular; but as a
similar alternation is constantly found in writings universally acknowledged to be by the same
author, this clue seems anything but trustworthy, depending as it does on the presence or absence of a
single Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it frequently does, in the division of verses which otherwise
seem to be from the same pen (cf. xx. 2). The inference as to diversity of authorship is much more
conclusive when difference of standpoint can be proved, cf. v. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii. 2. The first two
passages represent Moses as addressing the generation that was alive at Horeb, whereas the last
represents him as speaking to those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later; and it
may well be that the one author may, in the historical and hortatory parts, have preferred the 2nd
plural and the other the 2nd singular; without the further inference being justified that every law in
which the 2nd singular is used must be assigned to the latter, and every law in which the 2nd plural
occurs must be due to the former.

The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding characteristics, is, for him, an innovation,
but an innovation towards which events had long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9 shows that even the
zeal of Josiah could not carry out the instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's acceptance of D
made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the religion of Judah became henceforward a
religion which enabled its adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of them. D
requires the destruction not only of the high places and the idols, but of the Asheras (wooden posts)
and the Mazzebas (stone pillars) often set up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21). These reforms
made too heavy demands upon the people, as was proved by the reaction which set in at Josiah's
death. Indeed the country people would look on the destruction of the high places with their Asheras
and Mazzebas as sacrilege and would consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his
sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of Jerusalem and the exile of the people would
appear to those who had obeyed D's instructions as a well-merited punishment for national apostasy.

Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each individual Israelite; and it is
certainly not by accident that the declaration of the individual's duty towards God immediately
follows the emphatic intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity. "Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our God,
Yahweh is one: and thou shalt love Yahweh thy God with all thine heart and with all thy soul and
with all thy strength" (vi. 4, 5).

In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should never be forgotten that upon this
passage the greatest eulogy ever pronounced on any scripture was pronounced by Christ himself,
when he said "on these words hang all the law and the prophets," and it is also well to remember that
when tempted in the wilderness he repelled each suggestion of the Tempter by a quotation from
Deuteronomy.

Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the influence of the age and atmosphere in
which he lived; and despite the spirit of love which breathes so strongly throughout the book,
especially for the poor, the widow and the fatherless, the stranger and the homeless Levite (xxiv. 10-
22), and the humanity shown towards both beasts and birds (xxii. 1, 4, 6 f., xxv. 4), there are
elements in D which go far to explain the intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance
characteristic of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as his own soul seek to tempt him
from the faith of his fathers, D's pitiless order to that man is "Thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand
shall be first upon him to put him to death." From this single instance we see not only how far
mankind has travelled along the path of religious toleration since Deuteronomy was written, but also
how very far the criticism implied in Christ's method of dealing with what "was said to them of old
time" may be legitimately carried.
(J. A. P.*)

DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873), German oriental scholar, was
born on the 28th of October 1829, at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of Jewish extraction. On reaching his
sixteenth year he began his studies at the university of Berlin, paying special attention to theology
and the Talmud. He also mastered the English language and studied English literature. In 1855
Deutsch was appointed assistant in the library of the British Museum. He worked intensely on the
Talmud and contributed no less than 190 papers to Chambers's Encyclopaedia, in addition to essays
in Kitto's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries, and articles in periodicals. In October 1867 his article on
"The Talmud," published in the Quarterly Review, made him known. It was translated into French,
German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch and Danish. He died at Alexandria on the 12th of May 1873.

His Literary Remains, edited by Lady Strangford, were published in 1874, consisting of nineteen
papers on such subjects as "The Talmud," "Islam," "Semitic Culture," "Egypt, Ancient and Modern,"
"Semitic Languages," "The Targums," "The Samaritan Pentateuch," and "Arabic Poetry."

DEUTSCHKRONE, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, between the two lakes of Arens and
Radau, 15 m. N.W. of Schneidemühl, a railway junction 60 m. north of Posen. Pop. (1905) 7282. It is
the seat of the public offices for the district, possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church,
a synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuit college, and has manufactures of
machinery, woollens, tiles, brandy and beer.

DEUTZ (anc. Divitio), formerly an independent town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province,
on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to Cologne, with which it has been incorporated since 1888.
It contains the church of St Heribert, built in the 17th century, cavalry barracks, artillery magazines,
and gas, porcelain, machine and carriage factories. It has a handsome railway station on the banks of

the Rhine, negotiating the local traffic with Elberfeld and Königswinter. The fortifications of the
town form part of the defences of Cologne. To the east is the manufacturing suburb of Kalk.

The old castle in Deutz was in 1002 made a Benedictine monastery by Heribert, archbishop of
Cologne. Permission to fortify the town was in 1230 granted to the citizens by the archbishop of
Cologne, between whom and the counts of Berg it was in 1240 divided. It was burnt in 1376, 1445
and 1583; and in 1678, after the peace of Nijmwegen, the fortifications were dismantled; rebuilt in
1816, they were again razed in 1888.

DEUX-SÈVRES, an inland department of western France, formed in 1790 mainly of the three
districts of Poitou, Thouarsais, Gâtine and Niortais, added to a small portion of Saintonge and a still
smaller portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 339,466. It is bounded N. by Maine-et-Loire,
E. by Vienne, S.E. by Charente, S. by Charente-Inférieure and W. by Vendée. The department takes
its name from two rivers—the Sèvre of Niort which traverses the southern portion, and the Sèvre of
Nantes (an affluent of the Loire) which drains the north-west. There are three regions—the Gâtine,
occupying the north and centre of the department, the Plaine in the south and the Marais,—
distinguished by their geological character and their general physical appearance. The Gâtine, formed
of primitive rocks (granite and schists), is the continuation of the "Bocage" of Vendée and Maine-et-
Loire. Its surface is irregular and covered with hedges and clumps of wood or forests. The systematic
application of lime has much improved the soil, which is naturally poor. The Plaine, resting on oolite
limestone, is treeless but fertile. The Marais, a low-lying district in the extreme southwest, consists of
alluvial clays which also are extremely productive when properly drained. The highest points, several
of which exceed 700 ft., are found in a line of hills which begins in the centre of the department, to
the south of Parthenay, and stretches north-west into the neighbouring department of Vendée. It
divides the region drained by the Sèvre Nantaise and the Thouet (both affluents of the Loire) in the
north from the basins of the Sèvre Niortaise and the Charente in the south. The climate is mild, the
annual temperature at Niort being 54° Fahr., and the rainfall nearly 25 in. The winters are colder in
the Gâtine, the summers warmer in the Plaine.

Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sèvres, which is primarily an agricultural department,
consists of arable land. Wheat and oats are the main cereals. Potatoes and mangold-wurzels are the
chief root-crops. Niort is a centre for the growing Of vegetables (onions, asparagus, artichokes, &c.)
and of angelica. Considerable quantities of beetroot are raised to supply the distilleries of Melle.
Colza, hemp, rape and flax are also cultivated. Vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of
Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the south. The department is well known for the
Parthenay breed of cattle and the Poitou breed of horses; and the mules reared in the southern
arrondissements are much sought after both in France and in Spain. The system of co-operative
dairying is practised in some localities. The apple-trees of the Gâtine and the walnut-trees of the
Plaine bring a good return. Coal is mined, and the department produces building-stone and lime. A
leading industry is the manufacture of textiles (serges, druggets, linen, handkerchiefs, flannels, swan-

skins and knitted goods). Tanning and leather-dressing are carried on at Niort and other places, and
gloves are made at Niort. Wool and cotton spinning, hat and shoe making, distilling, brewing, flour-
milling and oil-refining are also main industries. The department exports cattle and sheep to Paris
and Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and its industrial products.

The Sèvre Niortaise and its tributary the Mignon furnish 19 m. of navigable waterway. The
department is served by the Ouest-État railway. It contains a large proportion of Protestants,
especially in the south-east. The four arrondissements are Niort, Bressuire, Melle and Parthenay; the
cantons number 31, and the communes 356. Deux-Sèvres is part of the region of the IX. army corps,
and of the diocese and the académie (educational circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its court
of appeal.

Niort (the capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent, Thouars and Oiron are the principal
places in the department. Several other towns contain features of interest. Among these are Airvault,
where there is a church of the 12th and 14th centuries which once belonged to the abbey of St Pierre,
and an ancient bridge built by the monks; Celles-sur-Belle, where there is an old church rebuilt by
Louis XI., and again in the 17th century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a fine Romanesque church
with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of the most ancient abbeys of Gaul.

DEVA (Sanskrit "heavenly"), in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, spirits of the light and air, and
minor deities generally beneficent. In Persian mythology, however, the word is used for evil spirits or
demons. According to Zoroaster the devas were created by Ahriman.

DEVA (mod. Chester), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain on the Dee. It was occupied by
Roman troops about A.D. 48 and held probably till the end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison was
the Legio XX. Valeria Victrix, with which another legion (II. Adjutrix) was associated for a few
years, about A.D. 75-85. It never developed, like many Roman legionary fortresses, into a town, but
remained military throughout. Parts of its north and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate)
and numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area.

See F. J. Haverfield, Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester (Chester, 1900), Introduction.

DEVADATTA, the son of Suklodana, who was younger brother to the father of the Buddha
(Mahāvastu, iii. 76). Both he and his brother Ānanda, who were considerably younger than the
Buddha, joined the brotherhood in the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry. Four other cousins of
theirs, chiefs of the Sākiya clan, and a barber named Upāli, were admitted to the order at the same
time; and at their own request the barber was admitted first, so that as their senior in the order he
should take precedence of them (Vinaya Texts, iii. 228). All the others continued loyal disciples, but

Devadatta, fifteen years afterwards, having gained over the crown prince of Magadha, Ajātasattu, to
his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting of the order, that the Buddha should retire, and
hand over the leadership to him, Devadatta (Vinaya Texts, iii. 238; Jātaka, i. 142). This proposal was
rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition to have successfully instigated the prince to the
execution of his aged father and to have made three abortive attempts to bring about the death of the
Buddha (Vinaya Texts, iii. 241-250; Jātaka, vi. 131), shortly afterwards, relying upon the feeling of
the people in favour of asceticism, he brought forward four propositions for ascetic rules to be
imposed on the order. These being refused, he appealed to the people, started an order of his own,
and gained over 500 of the Buddha's community to join in the secession. We hear nothing further
about the success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be referred to under the name of
the Gotamakas, in the Anguttara (see Dialogues of the Buddha i. 222), for Devadatta's family name
was Gotama. But his community was certainly still in existence in the 4th century A.D., for it is
especially mentioned by Fa Hien, the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's translation, p. 62). And it possibly
lasted till the 7th century, for Hsüan Tsang mentions that in a monastery in Bengal the monks then
followed a certain regulation of Devadatta's (T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang, ii. 191). There is no
mention in the canon as to how or when Devadatta died; but the commentary on the Jātaka, written
in the 5th century A.D., has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by the earth near
Sāvatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha (Jātaka, iv. 158). The spot where this
occurred was shown to both the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and T. Watters, On
Yuan Chwang, i. 390). It is a striking example of the way in which such legends grow, that it is only
the latest of these authorities, Hsüan Tsang, who says that, though ostensibly approaching the Buddha
with a view to reconciliation, Devadatta had concealed poison in his nail with the object of
murdering the Buddha.

Authorities.—Vinaya Texts, translated by Rhys Davids and H. Oldenberg (3 vols., Oxford, 1881-
1885); The Jātaka, edited by V. Fausböll (7 vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang
(ed. Rhys Davids and Bushell, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905); Fa Hian, translated by J. Legge
(Oxford, 1886); Mahāvastu (ed. Tenant, 3 vols., Paris, 1882-1897).
(T. W. R. D.)

DEVAPRAYAG (Deoprayag), a village in Tehri State of the United Provinces, India. It is situated
at the spot where the rivers Alaknanda and Bhagirathi unite and form the Ganges, and as one of the
five sacred confluences in the hills is a great place of pilgrimage for devout Hindus. Devaprayag
stands at an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a hill which rises above it 800 ft. On a terrace in the
upper part of the village is the temple of Raghunath, built of huge uncemented stones, pyramidical in
form and capped by a white cupola.

DEVENS, CHARLES (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist, was born in Charlestown,
Massachusetts, on the 4th of April 1820. He graduated at Harvard College in 1838, and at the

Harvard law school in 1840, and was admitted to the bar in Franklin county, Mass., where he
practised from 1841 to 1849. In the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the state senate, and from
1849 to 1853 was United States marshal for Massachusetts, in which capacity he was called upon in
1851 to remand the fugitive slave, Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained to do, much
against his personal desire; and subsequently he attempted in vain to purchase Sims's freedom, and
many years later appointed him to a position in the department of justice at Washington. Devens
practised law at Worcester from 1853 until 1861, and throughout the Civil War served in the Federal
army, becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier-general of volunteers in April 1862.
At the battle of Ball's Bluff (1861) he was severely wounded; he was again wounded at Fair Oaks
(1862) and at Chancellorsville (1863), where he commanded a division. He later distinguished
himself at Cold Harbor, and commanded a division in Grant's final campaign in Virginia (1864-65),
his troops being the first to occupy Richmond after its fall. Breveted major-general in 1865, he
remained in the army for a year as commander of the military district of Charleston, South Carolina.
He was a judge of the Massachusetts superior court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate justice
of the supreme court of the state from 1873 to 1877, and again from 1881 to 1891. From 1877 to
1881 he was attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet of President Hayes. He died at
Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January 1891.

See his Orations and Addresses, with a memoir by John Codman Ropes (Boston, 1891).

DEVENTER, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on the right bank of the Ysel, at the
confluence of the Schipbeek, and a junction station 10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also connected
by steam tramway S.E. with Brokulo. Pop. (1900) 26,212. Deventer is a neat and prosperous town
situated in the midst of prettily wooded environs, and containing many curious old buildings. There
are three churches of special interest: the Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and
occupies the site of an older structure of which the 11th-century crypt remains; the Roman Catholic
Broederkerk, or Brothers' Church, containing among its relics three ancient gospels said to have been
written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin), the English apostle of the Frisians and Westphalians (d. c. 773);
and the Bergkerk, dedicated in 1206, which has two late Romanesque towers. The town hall (1693)
contains a remarkable painting of the town council by Terburg. In the fine square called the Brink is
the old weigh-house, now a school (gymnasium), built in 1528, with a large external staircase (1644).
The gymnasium is descended from the Latin school of which the celebrated Alexander Hegius was
master in the third quarter of the 15th century, when the young Erasmus was sent to it, and at which
Adrian Floreizoon, afterwards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil about the same time.
Another famous educational institution was the "Athenaeum" or high school, founded in 1630, at
which Henri Renery (d. 1639) taught philosophy, while Johann Friedrich Gronov (Gronovius) (1611-
1671) taught rhetoric and history in the middle of the same century. The "Athenaeum" disappeared in
1876. In modern times Deventer possessed a famous teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch
translator of Shakespeare. The town library, also called the library of the Athenaeum, includes many
MSS. and incunabula, and a 13th-century copy of Reynard the Fox. The archives of the town are of

considerable value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade, Deventer has important iron foundries
and carpet factories (the royal manufactory of Smyrna carpets being especially famous); while
cotton-printing, rope-making and the weaving of woollens and silks are also carried on. A public
official is appointed to supervise the proper making of a form of gingerbread known as "Deventer
Koek," which has a reputation throughout Holland. In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of
Deventer, some 14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870.

In the 14th century Deventer was the centre of the famous religious and educational movement
associated with the name of Gerhard Groot (q.v.), who was a native of the town (see Brothers of
Common Life.).

DE VERE, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1902), Irish poet and critic, was born at Curragh Chase,
Co. Limerick, on the 10th of January 1814, being the third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt (1788-
1846). In 1832 his father dropped the final name by royal licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet.
Wordsworth called his sonnets the "most perfect of the age." These and his drama, Mary Tudor, were
published by his son in 1875 and 1884. Aubrey de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and
in his twenty-eighth year published The Waldenses, which he followed up in the next year by The
Search after Proserpine. Thenceforward he was continually engaged, till his death on the 20th of
January 1902, in the production of poetry and criticism. His best-known works are: in verse, The
Sisters (1861); The Infant Bridal (1864); Irish Odes (1869); Legends of St Patrick (1872); and
Legends of the Saxon Saints (1879); and in prose, Essays chiefly on Poetry (1887); and Essays chiefly
Literary and Ethical (1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume of travel-sketches, and two dramas
in verse, Alexander the Great (1874); and St Thomas of Canterbury (1876); both of which, though
they contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic spirit. The characteristics
of Aubrey de Vere's poetry are "high seriousness" and a fine religious enthusiasm. His research in
questions of faith led him to the Roman Church; and in many of his poems, notably in the volume of
sonnets called St Peter's Chains (1888), he made rich additions to devotional verse. He was a disciple
of Wordsworth, whose calm meditative serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his affection
for Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and weight to his own versions of
mythological idylls. But perhaps he will be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the
study of Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many followers, who have
sometimes assumed the appearance of pioneers; but after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on "Celtic
Literature," nothing perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival than Aubrey de Vere's tender insight
into the Irish character, and his stirring reproductions of the early Irish epic poetry.

A volume of Selections from his poems was edited in 1894 (New York and London) by G. E.
Woodberry.

DEVICE, a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also a pattern or design, particularly an
heraldic design or emblem, often combined with a motto or legend. "Device" and its doublet "devise"
come from the two Old French forms devis and devise of the Latin divisa, things divided, from
dividere, to separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out, apportion. "Devise," as a substantive, is
now only used as a legal term for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention restricted
to a disposition of real property, the term "bequest" being used of personalty (see Will). This use is
directly due to the Medieval Latin meaning of dividere = testamento disponere. In its verbal form,
"devise" is used not only in the legal sense, but also in the sense of to plan, arrange, scheme.

DEVIL (Gr. διάβολος, "slanderer," from διαβάλλειν, to slander), the generic name for a spirit of
evil, especially the supreme spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used for minor evil
spirits in much the same sense as "demon." From the various characteristics associated with this idea,
the term has come to be applied by analogy in many different senses. From the idea of evil as
degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure, the term is applied to persons in evil plight, or of
slight consideration. In English legal phraseology "devil" and "devilling" are used of barristers who
act as substitutes for others. Any remuneration which the legal "devil" may receive is purely a matter
of private arrangement between them. In the chancery division such remuneration is generally in the
proportion of one half of the fee which the client pays; "in the king's bench division remuneration for
'devilling' of briefs or assisting in drafting and opinions is not common" (see Annual Practice, 1907,
p. 717). In a similar sense an author may have his materials collected and arranged by a literary hack
or "devil." The term "printer's devil" for the errand boy in a printing office probably combines this
idea with that of his being black with ink. The common notions of the devil as black, ill-favoured,
malicious, destructive and the like, have occasioned the application of the term to certain animals
(the Tasmanian devil, the devil-fish, the coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth or
separating wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or fried. In this article we are concerned
with the primary sense of the word, as used in mythology and religion.

The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription of all phenomena to personal
agencies. As phenomena are good or evil, produce pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction
in the character of these agencies is gradually recognized; the agents of good become gods, those of
evil, demons. A tendency towards the simplification and organization of the evil as of the good
forces, leads towards belief in outstanding leaders among the forces of evil. When the divine is most
completely conceived as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and over against God stands Satan,
or the devil.

Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian monotheism that this belief in the devil has
been most fully developed, yet there are approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In Babylonian
mythology "the old serpent goddess 'the lady Nina' was transformed into the embodiment of all that
was hostile to the powers of heaven" (Sayce's Hibbert Lectures, p. 283), and was confounded with
the dragon Tiamat, "a terrible monster, reappearing in the Old Testament writings as Rahab and

Leviathan, the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man" (Tennant's The Fall and Original Sin,
p. 43), and according to Gunkel (Schöpfung und Chaos, p. 383) "the original of the 'old serpent' of
Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with an army of monsters strives daily to arrest
the course of the boat of the luminous gods. While the Greek mythology described the Titans as
"enchained once for all in their dark dungeons" yet Prometheus' threat remained to disturb the
tranquillity of the Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology the army of darkness is led by Hel, the
personification of twilight, sunk to the goddess who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and
Loki, originally the god of fire, but afterwards "looked upon as the father of the evil powers, who
strips the goddess of earth of her adornments, who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes
the death of Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts, Indra, Agni and Vishnu
wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver the celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the
caverns of the clouds. In the Trimurti, Brahmă (the impersonal) is manifested as Brahmā (the
personal creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Siva (the destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the belief in
the god of Vedic times Rudra, who is represented as "the wild hunter who storms over the earth with
his bands, and lays low with arrows the men who displease him" (Chantepie de la Saussaye's
Religionsgeschichte, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p. 25). The evil character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as
Kali (the black) is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The opposition of good and
evil is most fully carried out in Zoroastrianism. Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is
Ahriman, the source of all evil; and the opposition runs through the whole universe (D'Alviella's
Hibbert Lectures, pp. 158-164).

The conception of Satan (Heb. ‫שטן‬, the adversary, Gr. Σατανᾶς, or Σατᾶν, 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs
to the post-exilic period of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of the influence of
Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots in much older beliefs. An "evil spirit" possesses
Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 14), but it is "from the Lord." The same agency produces discord between
Abimelech and the Shechemites (Judges ix. 23). "A lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets" as
Yahweh's messenger entices Ahab to his doom (1 Kings xxii. 22). Growing human corruption is
traced to the fleshy union of angels and women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil, whether as
misfortune or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (1 Sam. xviii. 10; 2 Sam. xxiv. 1; 1 Kings xxii.
20; Isa. vi. 10, lxiii. 17). After the Exile there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence by the
introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all evil from God by ascribing its origin to
Satan, the enemy of God and man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands as the adversary
of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by Yahweh for desiring that Jerusalem should be further
punished. In the book of Job he presents himself before the Lord among the sons of God (ii. 1), yet
he is represented both as accuser and tempter. He disbelieves in Job's integrity, and desires him to be
so tried that he may fall into sin. While, according to 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, God himself tests David in
regard to the numbering of the people, according to 1 Chron. xxi. 1 it is Satan who tempts him.

The development of the conception continued in later Judaism, which was probably more strongly
influenced by Persian dualism. It is doubtful, however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book of
Tobit is the same as the Aēshma Daēwa of the Bundahesh. He is the evil spirit who slew the seven

husbands of Sara (iii. 8), and the name probably means "Destroyer." In the book of Enoch Satan is
represented as the ruler of a rival kingdom of evil, but here are also mentioned Satans, who are
distinguished from the fallen angels and who have a threefold function, to tempt, to accuse and to
punish. Satan possesses the ungodly (Ecclesiasticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii.
(Wisdom ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom lustful qualities are
assigned (Tobit vi. 14); Gen. iii. is probably referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, "a serpent
speaking with the words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert wisdom." The Book of the
Secrets of Enoch not only identifies Satan with the Serpent, but also describes his revolt against God,
and expulsion from heaven. In the Jewish Targums Sammael, "the highest angel that stands before
God's throne, caused the serpent to seduce the woman"; he coalesces with Satan, and has inferior
Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is ascribed to a union of Satan with Eve. As accuser
affecting man's standing before God he is greatly feared.

This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced in the New Testament. Satan is the
διάβολος (Matt. xiii. 39; John xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10), slanderer or accuser, the
πειράζων (Matt. iv. 3; 1 Thess. iii. 5), the tempter, the πονηρός (Matt. v. 37; John xvii. 15; Eph. vi.
16), the evil one, and the ἐχθρός (Matt. xiii. 39), the enemy. He is apparently identified with
Beelzebub (or Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26, 27. Jesus appears to recognize the existence of demons
belonging to a kingdom of evil under the leadership of Satan "the prince of demons" (Matt. xii. 24,
26, 27), whose works in demonic possessions it is his function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. 11, vi. 7;
Luke x. 17-20). But he himself conquers Satan in resisting his temptations (Matt. iv. 1-11). Simon is
warned against him, and Judas yields to him as tempter (Luke xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's cures
are represented as a triumph over Satan (Luke x. 18). This Jewish doctrine is found in Paul's letters
also. Satan rules over a world of evil, supernatural agencies, whose dwelling is in the lower heavens
(Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince of the power of the air" (ii. 2). He is the tempter (1 Thess. iii. 5;
1 Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x. 10), to whom the offender is to be handed over for bodily destruction
(v. 5), identified with the serpent (Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and probably with Beliar or Belial (vi.
15); and the surrender of man to him brought death into the world (Rom. v. 17). Paul's own "stake in
the flesh" is Satan's messenger (2 Cor. xii. 7). According to Hebrews Satan's power over death Jesus
destroys by dying (ii. 14). Revelation describes the war in heaven between God with his angels and
Satan or the dragon, the "old serpent," the deceiver of the whole world (xii. 9), with his hosts of
darkness. After the overthrow of the Beast and the kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned in the
bottomless pit a thousand years (xx. 2). Again loosed to deceive the nations, he is finally cast into the
lake of fire and brimstone (xx. 10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2 Peter ii. 4). In John's Gospel and Epistles
Satan is opposed to Christ. Sinner and murderer from the beginning (1 John iii. 8) and liar by nature
(John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin (viii. 34), causes death (verse 44), rules the present world (xiv.
30), but has no power over Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. 11; 1 John v. 18). He will be
destroyed by Christ with all his works (John xvi. 33; 1 John iii. 8).

In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic Age "the present dominion of evil
demons, or of one evil demon, was just as generally presupposed as man's need of redemption, which

was regarded as a result of that dominion. The tenacity of this belief may be explained among other
things by the living impression of the polytheism that surrounded the communities on every side. By
means of this assumption too, humanity seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for
redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range" (Harnack's History of Dogma, i. p. 181).
While Christ's First Advent delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow would be
completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics held that "the present world sprang from a fall
of man, or from an undertaking hostile to God, and is, therefore, the product of an evil or
intermediate being" (p. 257). Some taught that while the future had been assigned by God to Christ,
the devil had received the present age (p. 309). The fathers traced all doctrines not held by the
Catholic Church to the devil, and the virtues of heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil
transforming himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes Satan's fall to "pride and
arrogance and envy of God's creation"; and traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in
resisting his temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline passages, represents the death of Christ
"as a ransom paid to the 'apostasy' for men who had fallen into captivity" (ii. 290). He does not admit
that Satan has any lawful claim on man, or that God practised a deceit on him, as later fathers taught.
This theory of the atonement was formulated by Origen. "By his successful temptation the devil
acquired a right over men. God offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped, as
Christ overcame both him and death" (p. 367). It was held by Gregory of Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses
the phrase pia fraus, Augustine, Leo I., and Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst form. "The
humanity of Christ was the bait; the fish, the devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging on the
invisible hook, Christ's divinity" (iii. 307). In Athanasius the relation of the work of Christ to Satan
retires into the background, Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this
view. It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the Lombard asserted it, disregarding
these objections. Bernard represents man's bondage to Satan "as righteously permitted as a just
retribution for sin," he being "the executioner of the divine justice." Another theory of Origen's found
less acceptance. The devil, as a being resulting from God's will, cannot always remain a devil. The
possibility of his redemption, however, was in the 5th century branded as a heresy. Persian dualism
was brought into contact with Christian thought in the doctrine of Mani; and it is permissible to
believe that the gloomy views of Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some measure to
this influence. Mani taught that Satan with his demons, sprung from the kingdom of darkness,
attacked the realm of light, the earth, defeated man sent against him by the God of light, but was
overthrown by the God of light, who then delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). "During the middle
ages," says Tulloch, "the belief in the devil was absorbing—saints conceived themselves and others
to be in constant conflict with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the 13th to the 15th
century, passed into Protestantism. Luther was always conscious of the presence and opposition of
Satan. "As I found he was about to begin again," says Luther, "I gathered together my books, and got
into bed. Another time in the night I heard him above my cell walking on the cloister, but as I knew it
was the devil I paid no attention to him and went to sleep." He held that this world will pass away
with its pleasures, as there can be no real improvement in it, for the devil continues in it to ply his
daring and seductive devices (vii. 191). I. A. Dorner (Christian Doctrine, iii. p. 93) sums up

Protestant doctrine as follows:—"He is brought into relation with natural sinfulness, and the impulse
to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to him. The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a
slavery to Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the extra-Christian world. But his
power is broken by Christ, and by his word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating
anything is also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting substances is conceded to him.
But it is only at the Last Judgment that his power is wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered up to
eternal punishment." This belief in the devil was specially strong in Scotland among both clergy and
laity in the 17th century. "The devil was always and literally at hand," says Buckle, "he was haunting
them, speaking to them, and tempting them. Go where they would he was there."

In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been expressed on this subject. J. S. Semler
denied the reality of demonic possession, and held that Christ in his language accommodated himself
to the views of the sick whom he was seeking to cure. Kant regarded the devil as a personification of
the radical evil in man. Daub in his Judas Ishcarioth argued that a finite evil presupposes an absolute
evil, and the absolute evil as real must be in a person. Schelling regarded the devil as, not a person,
but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the freedom of man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising
opponent of the common belief. "The problem remains to seek evil rather in self than in Satan, Satan
only showing the limits of our self-knowledge." Dorner has formulated a theory which explains the
development of the conception of Satan in the Holy Scriptures as in correspondence with an
evolution in the character of Satan. "Satan appears in Scripture under four leading characters:—first
as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of
the law retorts criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine, which brings evil and
death upon men; fourthly and lastly he is described, especially in the New Testament, as the enemy
of God and man." He supposes "a change in Satan in the course of the history of the divine
revelation, in conflict with which he came step by step to be a sworn enemy of God and man,
especially in the New Testament times, in which, on the other hand, his power is broken at the root
by Christ." He argues that "the world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits breaches
everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance" (pp. 99, 102). H. L. Martensen gives even freer
rein to speculation. "The evil principle," he says, "has in itself no personality, but attains a
progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no individual personality, save only in
individual creatures, who in an especial manner make themselves its organs; but among these is one
creature in whom the principle is so hypostasized that he has become the centre and head of the
kingdom of evil" (Dogmatics, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no place in his constructive doctrine to the
belief in the devil; but recognizes that the mutual action of individual sinners on one another
constitutes a kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E. Garvie, The Ritschlian
Theology, p. 304). Kaftan affirms that a "doctrine about Satan can as little be established as about
angels, as faith can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the dogmatic explanation of
evil. This whole province must be left to the immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan
will on account of the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would be arrogant to wish to set it
aside. Only let everyone keep the thought that Satan also stands under the commission of the
Almighty God, and that no one must suppose that by leading back his sins to a Satanic temptation he

can get rid of his own guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith" (Dogmatik, p. 348). In the
book entitled Evil and Evolution there is "an attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the
ancient mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil is best explained by assuming
that God is confronted with Satan, who in the process of evolution interferes with the divine designs,
an interference which the instability of such an evolving process makes not incredible. Satan is,
however, held to be a creature who has by abuse of his freedom been estranged from, and opposed to
his Creator, and who at last will be conquered by moral means. W. M. Alexander in his book on
demonic possession maintains that "the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son of God is the
classical criterion of genuine demonic possession" (p. 150), and argues that, as "the Incarnation
indicated the establishment of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took place "a counter
movement among the powers of darkness," of which "genuine demonic possession was one of the
manifestations" (p. 249).

Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently affirmed that belief in Satan is not now
generally regarded as an essential article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an indispensable
element of Christian experience. On the one hand science has so explained many of the processes of
outer nature and of the inner life of man as to leave no room for Satanic agency. On the other hand
the modern view of the inspiration of the Scriptures does not necessitate the acceptance of the
doctrine of the Scriptures on this subject as finally and absolutely authoritative. The teaching of Jesus
even in this matter may be accounted for as either an accommodation to the views of those with
whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the limitation of knowledge which was a
necessary condition of the Incarnation, for it cannot be contended that as revealer of God and
redeemer of men it was imperative that he should either correct or confirm men's beliefs in this
respect. The possibility of the existence of evil spirits, organized under one leader Satan to tempt man
and oppose God, cannot be denied; the sufficiency of the evidence for such evil agency may,
however, be doubted; the necessity of any such belief for Christian thought and life cannot, therefore,
be affirmed. (See also Demonology; Possession.)

(A. E. G. )

DEVIZES, a market town and municipal borough in the Devizes parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England,
86 m. W. by S. of London by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6532. Its castle was built on a tongue of land
flanked by two deep ravines, and behind this the town grew up in a semicircle on a stretch of bare and exposed
tableland. Its main streets, in which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate from the market place, where
stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town on the N.,
passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty-nine locks. St John's church, one of the most interesting in
Wiltshire, is cruciform, with a massive central tower, based upon two round and two pointed arches. It was
originally Norman of the 12th century, and the chancel arch and low vaulted chancel, in this style, are very fine. In
the interior several ancient monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are preserved, besides some beautiful carved
stone work, and two rich ceilings of oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly Norman, but was
rebuilt in the 15th and again in the 19th century. Its lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber roof,
and the south porch, though repaired in 1612, preserves its Norman mouldings. The woollen industries of Devizes
have lost their prosperity; but there is a large grain trade, with engineering works, breweries, and manufactures of
silk, snuff, tobacco and agricultural implements. The town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen
councillors. Area, 906 acres.

Devizes (Divisis, la Devise, De Vies) does not appear in any historical document prior to the reign of Henry I.,
when the construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger, bishop of Salisbury, at once constituted
the town an important political centre, and led to its speedy development. After the disgrace of Roger in 1139 the
castle was seized by the Crown; in the 14th century it formed part of the dowry of the queens of England, and
figured prominently in history until its capture and demolition by Cromwell in the Civil War of the 17th century.
Devizes became a borough by prescription, and the first charter from Matilda, confirmed by successive later
sovereigns, merely grants exemption from certain tolls and the enjoyment of undisturbed peace. Edward III. added
a clause conferring on the town the liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II. instituted a coroner. A gild merchant
was granted by Edward I., Edward II. and Edward III., and in 1614 was divided into the three companies of
drapers, mercers and leathersellers. The present governing charters were issued by James I. and Charles I., the
latter being little more than a confirmation of the former, which instituted a common council consisting of a mayor,
a town clerk and thirty-six capital burgesses. These charters were surrendered to Charles II., and a new one was
conferred by James II., but abandoned three years later in favour of the original grant. Devizes returned two
members to parliament from 1295, until deprived of one member by the Representation of the People Act of 1867,
and of the other by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The woollen manufacture was the staple industry of the town
from the reign of Edward III. until the middle of the 18th century, when complaints as to the decay of trade began
to be prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth the market was held on Monday, and there were two annual fairs at the
feasts of the Purification of the Virgin and the Decollation of John the Baptist. The market was transferred to
Thursday in the next reign, and the fairs in the 18th century had become seven in number.

See Victoria County History, Wiltshire; History of Devizes (Devizes, 1859).

DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68), the name applied to the war which arose out of Louis XIV.'s claims to
certain Spanish territories in right of his wife Maria Theresa, upon whom the ownership was alleged to have
"devolved." (See, for the military operations, Dutch Wars.) The war was ended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in
1668.

DEVON, EARLS OF. From the family of De Redvers (De Ripuariis; Riviers), who had been earls of Devon
from about 1100, this title passed to Hugh de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340), the representative of a prominent family
in the county (see Gibbon's "digression" in chap. lxi. of the Decline and Fall, ed. Bury), but was subsequently
forfeited by Thomas Courtenay (1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle of Towton. It was
revived in 1485 in favour of Edward Courtenay (d. 1509), whose son Sir William (d. 1511) married Catherine,
daughter of Edward IV. Too great proximity to the throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry (c. 1498-1539) was
restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in 1525 was created marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a
daughter of William Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture on Henry's execution, but in
1553 it was recreated for his son Edward (1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant in the Courtenay
family, till in 1831 a claim by a collateral branch was allowed by the House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon
was restored to the peerage, still being held by the head of the Courtenays. The earlier earls of Devon were referred
to occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the former variant has prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for
the earldom and dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see Devonshire, Earls and Dukes of, and also the article
Courtenay).

DEVONIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name applied to series of stratified fossiliferous and igneous rocks that
were formed during the Devonian period, that is, in the interval of time between the close of the Silurian period
and the beginning of the Carboniferous; it includes the marine Devonian and an estuarine Old Red Sandstone
series of strata. The name "Devonian" was introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A. Sedgwick to describe
the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W. Lonsdale had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be
intermediate between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two workers also carried on further researches
upon the same rocks of the European continent, where already several others, F. Roemer, H. E. Beyrich, &c., were
endeavouring to elucidate the succession of strata in this portion of the "Transition Series." The labours of these
earlier workers, including in addition to those already mentioned, the brothers F. and G. von Sandberger, A.
Dumont, J. Gosselet, E. J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de Verneuil and H. von Dechen, although somewhat modified by
later students, formed the foundation upon which the modern classification of the Devonian rocks is based.

Stratigraphy of the Devonian Facies.
Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall that the Devonian rocks were first
distinguished, it is in central Europe that the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and here, too, their
geological position was first indicated by the founders of the system, Sedgwick and Murchison.
Continental Europe.—Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the centre of Europe, extending from the Ardennes
through the south of Belgium across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best known from the picturesque
gorges which have been cut through them by the Rhine below Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves. They
reappear from under younger formations in Brittany, in the Harz and Thuringia, and are exposed in Franconia,
Saxony, Silesia, North Moravia and eastern Galicia. The principal subdivisions of the system in the more typical
areas are indicated in Table I.
This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata, is traceable westwards through Belgium
(where the Calcaire de Givet represents the Stringocephalus limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards into the Harz.
The rocks reappear with local petrographical modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general
palaeontological characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, the north of Moravia and East
Galicia. Devonian rocks have been detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of the
evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods, lamellibranchs and other organic remains. Perhaps in other
tracts of the Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales, limestones and dolomites, though as yet
unfossiliferous, but containing ores of silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other metals, may be referable to the
Devonian system.
In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of a vast thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly
rocks, with occasional seams of limestone, and in particular with one thick central calcareous zone. These rocks
are characterized in the lower zones by numerous broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (Phacops,
Homalonotus, &c.) which, though generically like those of the Silurian system, are specifically distinct. The
central calcareous zone abounds in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous brachiopods. In the highest bands a
profusion of coiled cephalopods (Clymenia) occurs in some of the limestones, while the shales are crowded with a
small but characteristic ostracod crustacean (Cypridina). Here and there traces of fishes have been found, more
especially in the Eifel, but seldom in such a state of preservation as to warrant their being assigned to any definite
place in the zoological scale. Subsequently, however, E. Beyrich has described from Gerolstein in the Eifel an

undoubted species of Pterichthys, which, as it cannot be certainly identified with any known form, he names P.
Rhenanus. A Coccosteus has been described by F. A. Roemer from the Harz, and still later one has been cited from
Bicken near Herborn by V. Koenen; but, as Beyrich points out, there may be some doubt as to whether the latter is
not a Pterichthys. A Ctenacanthus, seemingly undistinguishable from the C. Bohemicus of Barrande's Étage G, has
also been obtained from the Lower Devonian "Nereitenschichten" of Thuringia. The characteristic Holoptychius
nobilissimus has been detected in the Psammite de Condroz, which in Belgium forms a characteristic sandy portion
of the Upper Devonian rocks. These are interesting facts, as helping to link the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone
types together. But they are as yet too few and unsupported to warrant any large deduction as to the correlations
between these types.
It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone appear to be united into one system,
where the limestones and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the fish-bearing sandstones and
shales of the other. In Russia, as was shown in the great work Russia and the Ural Mountains by Murchison, De
Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations
cover an extent of surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development arises not from the thickness but
from the undisturbed horizontal character of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described elsewhere, they
remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they were originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth,
they present but a meagre representative of the massive Devonian greywacke and limestone of Germany, or of the
Old Red Sandstone of Britain. Yet vast though the area is over which they form the surface rock, it is probably
only a small portion of their total extent; for they are found turned up from under the newer formations along the
flank of the Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread continuously across the whole breadth of Russia in
Europe. Though almost everywhere undisturbed, they afford evidence of some terrestrial oscillation between the
time of their formation and that of the Silurian rocks on which they rest, for they are found gradually to overlap
Upper and Lower Silurian formations.

Table I.

Brittany and
Stages. Ardennes. Rhineland.
Normandy.
Cypridina slates.
Limestone of Etrœungt. Pön sandstone (Sauerland).
Famennienc Psammites of Condroz Crumbly limestone (Kramen-
(Clymenia (sandy series). zelkalk) with Clymenia. Slates of Rostellec.
beds). Slates of Famenne Neheim slates in Sauerland,
(shaly series). and diabases, tuffs, &c., in
Dillmulde, &c.
Upper
Adorf limestone of Waldeck
Devonian.
and shales with Goniatites
Slates of Matagne.
(Eifel and Aix) =
Frasnien Limestones, marls and Limestone of Cop-
Budesheimer shales.
(Intumes- shale of Frasne, and Choux and green
Marls, limestone and dolomite
cens beds). red marble of slates of Travuliors.
with Rhynchonella cuboides
Flanders.
(Flinz in part).
Iberg limestone of Dillmulde.
Middle Stringocephalus limestone,
Devonian. ironstone of Brilon and H
Lahnmulde.
Givérien d
Upper Lenne shales, crinoidal Limestones of
(Stringo- sh
Limestone of Givet. limestone of Eifel, red Chalonnes, Montjean
cephalus
sandstones of Aix. and l'Ecochère.
beds).
Tuffs and diabases of Brilon
H
and Lahnmulde.
Red conglomerate of Aix.

G
Calceola beds, Wissenbach
li
slates, Lower Lenne beds,
Calceola slates and G
Eifélien Güntroder limestone and
limestones of Couvin. Slates of Porsguen, li
(Calceola clay slate of Lahnmulde,
Greywacke with Spirifer greywacke of Fret. G
beds). Dillmulde, Wildungen,
cultrijugatus. a
Griefenstein limestone,
Ballersbach limestone. M
li
Greywacke of Hierges.
Upper Coblentz slates.
Shales and conglomer-
Red sandstone of Eifel, Limestones
ate of Burnot with
Coblentz quartzite, lower of Erbray, Brulon,
quartzite, of Bierlé
Coblentz slates. Viré and Néhou,
Coblentzien and red slates of
Hunsrück and Siegener greywacke of Faou,
Vireux, greywacke F2
greywacke and slates. sandstone of
Lower of Vireux, greywacke W
Taunus quartzite and Gahard.
Devonian. of Montigny, sand- L
greywacke.
stone of Anor. H
Slates of St Hubert and
and Fooz, slates of
Slates and quartzites
Gédinnien Mondrepuits, arkose of Slates of Gédinne.
of Plougastel.
Weismes, conglomerate
of Fèpin.

The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact, first signalized by Murchison and his
associates, that they unite within themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red Sandstone types. In
some districts they consist largely of limestones, in others of red sandstones and marls. In the former they present
molluscs and other marine organisms of known Devonian species; in the latter they afford remains of fishes, some
of which are specifically identical with those of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The distribution of these two
palaeontological types in Russia is traced by Murchison to the lithological characters of the rocks, and consequent
original diversities of physical conditions, rather than to differences of age. Indeed cases occur where in the same
band of rock Devonian shells and Old Red Sandstone fishes lie commingled. In the belt of the formation which
extends southwards from Archangel and the White Sea, the strata consist of sands and marls, and contain only fish
remains. Traced through the Baltic provinces, they are found to pass into red and green marls, clays, thin
limestones and sandstones, with beds of gypsum. In some of the calcareous bands such fossils occur as Orthis
striatula, Spiriferina prisca, Leptaena productoides, Spirifer calcaratus, Spirorbis omphaloides and Orthoceras
subfusiforme. In the higher beds Holoptychius and other well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone occur.
Followed still farther to the south, as far as the watershed between Orel and Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose
their red colour and sandy character, and become thin-bedded yellow limestones, and dolomites with soft green
and blue marls. Traces of salt deposits are indicated by occasional saline springs. It is evident that the geographical
conditions of the Russian area during the Devonian period must have closely resembled those of the Rhine basin
and central England during the Triassic period. The Russian Devonian rocks have been classified in Table II. There
is an unquestionable passage of the uppermost Devonian rocks of Russia into the base of the Carboniferous
system.

Table II.

North-West Russia. Central Russia. Petchoraland. Ural Re
Upper. Red sandstone Limestones with Limestones with Arca Domanik slates and Cypridina slate
(Old Red). Spirifer Verneuili and oreliana limestones with Sp. Clymenia lime
Sp. Archiaci. Limestones with Sp. Verneuili. (Famennien).
Limestones wit

Verneuili and Sp. Gephyoceras i
Archiaci. and Rhynchon
(Frasnien).
Limestones and
Dolomites and limestones Marl with with Sp. Anos
with Spirifer Anossofi (Givétien).
Middle. Spirifer Anossofi. and corals. Limestones and
Pentamerus ba
Lower sandstone (Old Red). (Eifélien).
Limestones and
Yuresan and U
slate and quartz
Lower. Absent.
marble of Bycl
of Bogoslovsk,
schists and qua

The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very different from that of the Rhenish region; to
this facies the name "Hercynian" has been applied, and the correlation of the strata has been a source of prolonged
discussion among continental geologists. A similar fauna appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia, in Brittany
(limestone of Erbray) and in the Urals. The Upper Devonian of the Harz passes up into the Culm.
In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is represented by Clymenia limestone and Cypridina
slates with Adorf limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The middle division has diabases and
tuffs at the top with Tentaculite and Nereite shales and limestones below. The upper part of the Lower Devonian,
the sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably upon Silurian rocks. In the Carnic Alps are coral reef limestones,
the equivalents of the Iberg limestone, which attain an enormous thickness; these are underlain by coral limestones
with fossils similar to those of the Konjeprus limestone of Bohemia; below these are shales and nodular limestones
with goniatites. The Devonian rocks of Poland are sandy in the lower, and more calcareous in the upper parts. They
are of interest because while the upper portions agree closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top of the
Coblentzien upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red Sandstone fishes (Coccosteus, &c.) are found. In
France Devonian rocks are found well developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table, also in Normandy and
Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the middle and upper divisions are known. In south France in the
neighbourhood of Cabrières, about Montpellier and in the Montagne Noire, all three divisions are found in a highly
calcareous condition. Devonian rocks are recognized, though frequently much metamorphosed, on both the
northern and southern flanks of the Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they are extensively developed. In
Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft. thick, all three divisions and most of the central European subdivisions are
present. In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of Spain bear a marked resemblance to those of Brittany.
Asia.—From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have been traced from point to point right across
Asia. In the Altai Mountains they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age with a fauna possessing
Hercynian features. The same features are observed in the Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan.
Well-developed quartzites with slates and diabases are found south of Yarkand and Khotan. Middle and Upper
Devonian strata are widespread in China. Upper Devonian rocks are recorded from Persia, and from the Hindu
Kush on the right bank of the Chitral river.
England.—In England the original Devonian rocks are developed in Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In
north Devonshire these rocks consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south Devon there are, in addition,
thick beds of massive limestone, and intercalations of lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the stratigraphy in this
region is a difficult matter, partly on account of the absence of good exposures with fossils, and partly through the
disturbed condition of the rocks. The system has been subdivided as shown in Table III.

Table III.

North Devon and West
South Devon.
Somerset.
Ashburton slates.
Pilton group. Grits, slates
Livaton slates.
and thin limestones.
Red and green Entomis slates
Baggy group. Sandstones
(Famennien).
Upper. and slates.
Red and grey slates with
Pickwell Down group.
tuffs.
Dark slates and grits.
Chudleigh goniatite limestone
Morte slates (?).
Petherwyn beds (Frasnien).
Torquay and Plymouth
Ilfracombe slates with limestones and Ashprington
lenticles of limestone. volcanic series. (Givétien
Middle.
Combe Martin grits and and Eifélien.)
slates. Slates and limestones of
Hope's Nose.
Looe beds (Cornwall).
Hangman grits and slates.
Meadfoot, Cockington and
Lynton group, grits and
Lower. Warberry series of slates
calcareous slates.
and greywackes. (Coblentzien
Foreland grits and slates.
and Gédinnien.)

The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the Rhenish and south Devonshire areas. In north
Devonshire the Devonian rocks pass upward without break into the Culm.
North America.—In North America the Devonian rocks are extensively developed; they have been studied most
closely in the New York region, where they are classified according to Table IV.
The classification below is not capable of application over the states generally and further details are required
from many of the regions where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but everywhere the broad threefold
division seems to obtain. In Maryland the following arrangement has been adopted—(1) Helderberg = Coeymans;
(2) Oriskany; (3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings = Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire = Catskill in part. In the
interior the Helderbergian is missing and the system commences with (1) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton,
(4) Portage (and Genesee), (5) Chemung.
The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part of the continent; there is a northern development
in Maine, and in Canada (Gaspé, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal); an Appalachian belt, and a lower
Mississippian region. The series as a whole is mainly calcareous (2000 ft. in Gaspé), and thins out towards the
west. The fauna has Hercynian affinities. The Oriskany formation consists largely of coarse sandstones; it is thin in
New York, but in Maryland and Virginia it is several hundred feet thick. It is more widespread than the underlying
Helderbergian. The Lower Devonian appears to be thick in northern Maine and in Gaspé, New Brunswick and
Nova Scotia, but neither the palaeontology nor the stratigraphy has been completely worked out.
In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base, Esopus and Schoharie grits, have not been
differentiated west of the Appalachian region; but the Onondaga limestones are much more extensive. The Erian
series is often described as the Hamilton series outside the New York district, where the Marcellus shales are
grouped together with the Hamilton shales, and numerous local subdivisions are included, as in Ohio, Kentucky
and Tennessee. The rocks are mostly shales or slates, but limestones predominate in the western development. In
Pennsylvania the Hamilton series is from 1500 ft. to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more calcareous western extension it
is much thinner. The Marcellus shales are bituminous in places.
The Senecan series is composed of shallow-water deposits; the Tully limestone, a local bed in New York, thins
out in places into a layer of pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The bituminous Genesee shales
are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.); 25 ft. on Lake Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage formation

reach 1000 ft. to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the Chautauquan series the Chemung formation is not always
clearly separable from the Portage beds, it is a sandstone and conglomerate formation which reaches its maximum
thickness (8000 ft.) in Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly towards the west. In the Catskill region the Upper Devonian
has an Old Red facies—red shales and sandstones with a freshwater and brackish fauna.

Table IV.

Probable
Groups. Formations. European
Equivalent.
Chemung beds with Catskill
Chautauquan. Famennien.
as a local facies.
Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca
Upper. and Oneonta shales as local
Senecan. facies). Frasnien.
Genesee shales.
Tully limestone.
Hamilton shale.
Erian. Givétien.
Marcellus shale.
Onondaga (Corniferous)
Middle.
limestone.
Ulsterian. Eifélien.
Schoharie grit.
Esopus grit (Caudagalli grit).
Oriskanian. Oriskany sandstone. Coblentzien.
Kingston beds.
Lower. Becraft limestone.
Helderbergian. Gédinnien.
New Scotland beds.
Coeymans limestone.

Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of
undifferentiated Devonian rocks in many parts of the continent. In the Great Plains this system appears to be
absent, but it is represented in Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona; Devonian
rocks occur between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains, in the Arbuckle Mountains of Oklahoma and in Texas.
In the western interior limestones predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are found at Eureka, Nevada, beneath 2000 ft.
of shale. On the Pacific coast metamorphism of the rocks is common, and lava-flows and tuffs occur in them.
In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the eastern region, Devonian strata are found in
considerable force along the course of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence they stretch out into
Alaska. It is probable, however, that much that is now classed as Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil evidence
to be Carboniferous.
South America, Africa, Australia, &c.—In South America the Devonian is well developed; in Argentina,
Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and the Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about the junction of the Lower and
Middle divisions, and the fauna has affinities with the Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied to the
South American Devonian is that of South Africa, where they are represented by the Bokkeveld beds in the Cape
system. In Australia we find Lower Devonian consisting of coarse littoral deposits with volcanic rocks; and a
Middle division with coral limestones in Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland; an Upper division has also
been observed. In New Zealand the Devonian is well exposed in the Reefton mining field; and it has been
suggested that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may belong to this system.
Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies.

The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald Geikie, "consists of two subdivisions, the lower of
which passes down conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off in the same manner into
the base of the Carboniferous system, while they are separated from each other by an unconformability." The Old
Red strata appear to have been deposited in a number of elongated lakes or lagoons, approximately parallel to one
another, with a general alignment in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas of deposit Sir A. Geikie has assigned
convenient distinctive names.
In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated by a pronounced unconformability which is
probably indicative of a prolonged interval of erosion. In the central valley between the base of the Highlands and
the southern uplands lay "Lake Caledonia." Here the lower division is made up of some 20,000 ft. of shallow-
water deposits, reddish-brown, yellow and grey sandstones and conglomerates, with occasional "cornstones," and
thin limestones. The grey flagstones with shales are almost confined to Forfarshire, and are known as the
"Arbroath flags." Interbedded volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites, diabases, with agglomerates and tuffs constitute
an important feature, and attain a thickness of 6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A line of old volcanic vents
may be traced in a direction roughly parallel to the trend of the great central valley. On the northern side of the
Highlands was "Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than the foregoing lake, though its boundaries are not
determinable. It lay over Moray Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended from Caithness to the
Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even have stretched across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in
Sognefjord and Dalsfjord, and may have had communications with some parts of northern Russia. Very
characteristic of this area are the Caithness flags, dark grey and bituminous, which, with the red sandstones and
conglomerates at their base, probably attain a thickness of 16,000 ft. The somewhat peculiar fauna of this series led
Murchison to class the flags as Middle Devonian. In the Shetland Islands contemporaneous volcanic rocks have
been observed. Over the west of Argyllshire lay "Lake Lorne"; here the volcanic rocks predominate, they are
intercalated with shallow-water deposits. A similar set of rocks occupy the Cheviot district.
The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in Shropshire and South Wales by a great series of
red rocks, shales, sandstones and marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few fossils, and no break has yet been
found in the series. In Scotland this series was deposited in basins which correspond only partially with those of
the earlier period. They are well developed in central Scotland over the lowlands bordering the Moray Firth.
Interbedded lavas and tuffs are found in the island of Hoy. An interesting feature of this series is the occurrence of
great crowds of fossil fishes in some localities, notably at Dura Den in Fife. In the north of England this series rests
unconformably upon the Lower Old Red and the Silurian.
Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmorland, and also in the Lammermuir hills and in
Flint and Anglesey, a brecciated conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a glacial deposit in places, has
often been classed with the Old Red Sandstone, but in parts, at least, it is more likely to belong to the base of the
Carboniferous system. In Ireland the lower division appears to be represented by the Dingle beds and Glengariff
grits, while the Kerry rocks and the Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the equivalents of the upper division. Rocks of Old
Red type, both lower and upper, are found in Spitzbergen and in Bear Island. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia
the Old Red facies is extensively developed. The Gaspé sandstones have been estimated at 7036 ft. thick. In parts
of western Russia Old Red Sandstone fossils are found in beds intercalated with others containing marine fauna of
the Devonian facies.
Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas.
The two types of sediment formed during this period—the marine Devonian and the lagoonal Old Red
Sandstone—representing as they do two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical condition,
are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubtless at all times there were regions of the earth that were
marked off no less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have records; but this period is the
earliest in which these variations of environment are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break between the
older Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous above is not strongly marked; and in certain areas a very close
relationship can be shown to exist between the older Devonian and the former, and the younger Devonian and the
latter. Nevertheless, taken as a whole, the life of this period bears a distinct stamp of individuality.
The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are presented by corals and brachiopods. The corals were
abundant individually and varied in form; and they are so distinctive of the period that no Devonian species has yet

been found either in the Silurian or in the Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present day, and contributed to
the formation of limestone masses in Devonshire, on the continent of Europe and in North America. Rugose and
tabulate forms prevailed; among the former the cyathophyllids (Cyathophyllum) were important, Phillipsastraea,
Zaphrentis, Acervularia and the curious Calceola (sandalina), an operculate genus which has given
palaeontologists much trouble in its diagnosis, for it has been regarded as a pelecypod (hippurite) and a
brachiopod. The tabulate corals were represented by Favosites, Michelinia, Pleurodictyum, Fistulipora, Pachypora
and others. Heliolites and Plasmopora represent the alcyonarians. Stromatoporoids were important reef builders. A
well-known fossil is Receptaculites, a genus to which it has been difficult to assign a definite place; it has been
thought to be a sponge, it may be a calcareous alga, or a curious representative of the foraminifera.
In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of their development: they compose three-quarters
of the known fauna, and more than 1100 species have been described. Changes were taking place from the
beginning of the period in the relative importance of genera; several Silurian forms dropped out, and new types
were coming in. A noticeable feature was the development of broad-winged shells in the genus Spirifer, other
spiriferids were Ambocoelia, Uncites, Verneuilia. Orthids and pentamerids were waning in importance, while the
productids (Productella, Chonetes, Strophalosia) were increasing. The strophomenids were still flourishing,
represented by the genera Leptaena, Stropheodonta, Kayserella, and others. The ancient Lingula, along with
Crania and Orbiculoidea, occur among the inarticulate forms. Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is
Atrypa reticularis. The athyrids were very numerous (Athyris, Retzia, Merista, Meristella, Kayserina, &c.); and the
rhynchonellids were well represented by Pugnax, Hypothyris, and several other genera. The important group of
terebratulids appears in this system; amongst them Stringocephalus is an eminently characteristic Devonian
brachiopod; others are Dielasma, Cryptonella, Rensselaeria and Oriskania.
The pelecypod molluscs were represented by Pterinea, abundant in the lower members along with other large-
winged forms, and by Cucullella, Buchiola and Curtonotus in the upper members of the system. Other genera are
Actinodesma, Cardiola, Nucula, Megalodon, Aviculopecten, &c. Gasteropods were becoming more important, but
the simple capulid forms prevailed: Platyceras (Capulus), Straparollus, Pleurotomaria, Murchisonia,
Macrocheilina, Euomphalus. Among the pteropods, Tentaculites was very abundant in some quarters; others were
Conularia and Styliolina. In the Devonian period the cephalopods began to make a distinct advance in numbers,
and in development. The goniatites appear with the genera Anarcestes, Agoniatites, Tornoceras, Bactrites and
others; and in the upper strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the later ammonoids, began to take definite shape.
While several new nautiloids (Homaloceras, Ryticeras, &c.) made their appearance several of the older genera still
lived on (Orthoceras, Poterioceras, Actinoceras).
Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian sea, though they were relatively scarce in others;
they include the genera Melocrinus, Haplocrinus, Cupressocrinus, Calceocrinus and Eleuthrocrinus. The
cystideans were falling off (Proteocystis, Tiaracrinus), but blastoids were in the ascendant (Nucleocrinus,
Codaster, &c.). Both brittle-stars, Ophiura, Palaeophiura, Eugaster, and true starfishes, Palaeaster, Aspidosoma,
were present, as well as urchins (Lepidocentrus).
When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic,
the other mainly lacustrine or lagoonal with a eurypteridian facies. The trilobites had already begun to decline in
importance, and as happens not infrequently with degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to develop
strange eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their genera. A number of Silurian genera lived on into the
Devonian period, and some gradually developed into new and distinctive forms; such were Proëtus, Harpes,
Cheirurus, Bronteus and others. Distinct species of Phacops mark the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively,
while the genus Dalmania (Odontochile) was represented by species with an almost world-wide range. The
Ostracod Entomis (Cypridina) was extremely abundant in places—Cypridinen-Schiefer—while the true Cypridina
was also present along with Beyrichia, Leperditia, &c. The Phyllocarids, Echinocaris, Eleuthrocaris, Tropidocaris,
are common in the United States. It is in the Old Red Sandstone that the eurypterids are best preserved; foremost
among these was Pterygotus; P. anglicus has been found in Scotland with a length of nearly 6 ft.; Eurypterus,
Slimonia, Stylonurus were other genera.
Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick
rocks. Mr Scudder believed he had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a stridulating organ was present. A

species of Ephemera, allied to the modern may-fly, had a spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the Scottish Old Red
Sandstone myriapods, Kampecaris and Archidesmus, have been described; they are somewhat simpler than more
recent forms, each segment being separate, and supplied with only one pair of walking legs. Spiders and scorpions
also lived upon the land.
The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red strata, coupled with the truly remarkable
characters possessed by some of the forms, has caused the period to be described as the "age of fishes." As in the
case of the crustaceans, referred to above, we find one assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater or
brackish conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine Devonian; on the whole the former is
the richer in variety, but there seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of living in either
environment, whatever may have been the real condition of the Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the
curious ostracoderms, a remarkable group of creatures possessing many of the characteristics of fishes, but more
probably belonging to a distinct class of organisms, which appears to link the vertebrates with the arthropods. They
had come into existence late in Silurian times; but it is in the Old Red strata that their remains are most fully
preserved. They were abundant in the fresh or brackish waters of Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada,
and are represented by such forms as Pteraspis, Cephalaspis, Cyathaspis, Tremataspis, Bothriolepis and
Pterichthys.
In the lower members of the Old Red series Dipterus, and in the upper members Phaneropleuron, represented
the dipnoid lung-fishes; and it is of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious forms still survive in the
African Protopterus, the Australian Ceratodus and the South American Lepidosiren,—all freshwater fishes.
Distantly related to the lung-fishes were the singular arthrodirans, a group possessing the unusual faculty of
moving the head in a vertical plane. These comprise the wide-ranging Coccosteus with Homosteus and Dinichthys,
the largest fish of the period. The latter probably reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with exceedingly powerful
jaws provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were fairly prominent denizens of the sea; some were armed with
cutting teeth, others with crushing dental plates; and although they were on the whole marine fishes, they were
evidently able to live in fresher waters, like some of their modern representatives, for their remains, mostly teeth
and large dermal spines, are found both in the Devonian and Old Red rocks. Mesacanthus, Diplacanthus,
Climatius, Cheiracanthus are characteristic genera. The crossopterygians, ganoids with a scaly lobe in the centre of
the fins, were represented by Holoptychius and Glyptopomus in the Upper Old Red, and by such genera as
Diplopterus, Osteolepis, Gyroptychius in the lower division. The Polypterus of the Nile and Calamoichthys of
South Africa are the modern exemplars of this group. Cheirolepis, found in the Old Red of Scotland and Canada, is
the only Devonian representative of the actinopterygian fishes. The cyclostome fishes have, so far, been discovered
only in Scotland, in the tiny Palaeospondylus. Amphibian remains have been found in the Devonian of Belgium;
and footprints supposed to belong to a creature of the same class (Thinopus antiquus) have been described by
Professor Marsh from the Chemung formation of Pennsylvania.
Plant Life.—In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone we find the earliest well-defined assemblage of
terrestrial plants. In some regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places they form thin seams of
veritable coal. These plants evidently flourished around the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their remains
were buried along with the other forms of life. Lycopods and ferns were the predominant types; and it is important
to notice that both groups were already highly developed. The ferns include the genera Sphenopteris,
Megalopteris, Archaeopteris, Neuropteris. Among the Lycopods are Lycopodites, Psilophyton, Lepidodendron.
Modern horsetails are represented by Calamocladus, Asterocalamites, Annularia. Of great interest are the genera
Cordaites, Araucarioxylon, &c., which were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the Coniferae and the
Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure markings, aquatic plants are not so well represented as might have
been expected; Parka, a common fossil, has been regarded as a water plant with a creeping stem and two kinds of
sporangia in sessile sporocarps.

Physical Conditions, &c.—Perhaps the most striking fact that is brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks
and their fossils is the gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took place quietly in every quarter of
the globe shortly after the beginning of the period. While in most places the Lower Devonian sediments succeed
the Silurian formations in a perfectly conformable manner, the Middle and Upper divisions, on account of this
encroachment of the sea, rest unconformably upon the older rocks, the Lower division being unrepresented. This is

true over the greater part of South America, so far as our limited knowledge goes, in much of the western side of
North America, in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central Europe. Of the distribution of land and
sea and the position of the coast lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The known deposits
all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas; no abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has
pointed out the probability of a Eurasian sea province extending through Europe towards the east, across north and
central Asia towards Manitoba in Canada, and an American sea province embracing the United States, South
America and South Africa. At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land area caused partly by the
uplift of the Caledonian range just before the beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe to
eastern Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red Sandstone was formed.

In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence of three zones of deposition: (1) A northern, Old
Red, region, including Great Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and Spitzbergen; here the land was close at
hand; great brackish lagoons prevailed, which communicated more or less directly with the open sea. In European
Russia, during its general advance, the sea occasionally gained access to wide areas, only to be driven off again,
during pauses in the relative subsidence of the land, when the continued terrigenous sedimentation once more
established the lagoonal conditions. These alternating phases were frequently repeated. (2) A middle region,
covering Devonshire and Cornwall, the Ardennes, the northern part of the lower Rhenish mountains, and the upper
Harz to the Polish Mittelgebirge; here we find evidence of a shallow sea, clastic deposits and a sublittoral fauna.
(3) A southern region reaching from Brittany to the south of the Rhenish mountains, lower Harz, Thuringia and
Bohemia; here was a deeper sea with a more pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind that the above-mentioned
regions are intended to refer to the time when the extension of the Devonian sea was near its maximum. In the case
of North America it has been shown that in early and middle Devonian time more or less distinct faunas invaded
the continent from five different centres, viz. the Helderberg, the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern Hamilton
and the north-western Hamilton; these reached the interior approximately in the order given.

Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas had mingled one with another and a more
generalized life assemblage had been evolved, we find many forms with a very wide range, indicating great
uniformity of conditions. Thus we find identical species of brachiopods inhabiting the Devonian seas of England,
France, Belgium, Germany, Russia, southern Asia and China; such are, Hypothyris (Rhynchonella) cuboides,
Spirifer disjunctus and others. The fauna of the Calceola shales can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and
Siberia; the Stringocephalus limestones are represented in Belgium, England, the Urals and Canada; and the
(Gephyroceras) intumescens shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba.

The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no violent crustal movements seem to have taken place,
and while some changes of level occurred towards its close in Great Britain, Bohemia and Russia, generally the
passage from Devonian to Carboniferous conditions was quite gradual. In later periods these rocks have suffered
considerable movement and metamorphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and in the Belgian
coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was
fairly widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period. In the Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a
great thickness (6000 ft.) of igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas with agglomerates and tuffs. In
Devonshire diabases and tuffs are found in the middle division. In west central Europe volcanic rocks are found at
many horizons, the most common rocks are diabases and diabase tuffs, schalstein. Felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in
the Middle Devonian of Australia. Contemporaneous igneous rocks are generally absent in the American
Devonian, but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to be some.

There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it is interesting to observe that local glacial conditions
may have existed in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with striated boulders in the upper Old Red

of Scotland. On the other hand, the prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately warm temperatures in
the Middle Devonian seas.

The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some importance: in many of the metamorphosed regions
veins of tin, lead, copper, iron are exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in New Zealand, gold veins occur.
Anthracite of Devonian age is found in China and a little coal in Germany, while the Upper Devonian is the chief
source of oil and gas of western Pennsylvania and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle division is oil-
bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central Tennessee, and in England the marls of the "Old Red" are
employed for brick-making.

References.—The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is very extensive; important papers have been
contributed by the following geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Béclard, E. W. Benecke, L. Beushausen, A.
Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W. Dawson, A. Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Frech, J. Fournet, Sir A.
Geikie, G. Gürich, R. Hoernes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch, A. von Koenen, Hugh Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S.
Prosser, P. de Rouville, C. Schuchert, T. Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E. Ussher, P. N. Wenjukoff, G. F.
Whidborne, J. F. Whiteaves and H. S. Williams. Sedgwick and Murchison's original description appeared in the
Trans. Geol. Soc. (2nd series, vol. v., 1839). Good general accounts will be found in Sir A. Geikie's Text-Book of
Geology (vol. ii., 4th ed., 1903), in E. Kayser's Lehrbuch der Geologie (vol. ii., 2nd ed., 1902), and, for North
America, in Chamberlin and Salisbury's Geology (vol. ii., 1906). See the Index to the Geological Magazine (1864-
1903), and in subsequent annual volumes; Geological Literature added to the Geological Society's Library
(London), annually since 1893; and the Neues Jahrbuch für Min., Geologie und Paläontologie (Stuttgart, 2 annual
volumes). The U.S. Geological Survey publishes at intervals a Bibliography and Index of North American
Geology, &c., and this (e.g. Bulletin 301,—the Bibliog. and Index for 1901-1905) contains numerous references
for the Devonian system in North America.
(J. A. H.)

DEVONPORT, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Devonshire, England, contiguous to East
Stonehouse and Plymouth, the seat of one of the royal dockyards, and an important naval and military station. Pop.
(1901) 70,437. It is situated immediately above the N.W. angle of Plymouth Sound, occupying a triangular
peninsula formed by Stonehouse Pool on the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great Western and
the London & South Western railways. The town proper was formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a ditch
excavated out of the limestone, but these are in great part demolished. Adjoining Devonport are East Stonehouse
(an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice Town, the two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall,
erected in 1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is distinguished by a Doric portico; while near it are
the public library, in Egyptian style, and a conspicuous Doric column built of Devonshire granite. This monument,
which is 100 ft. high, was raised in commemoration of the naming of the town in 1824. Other institutions are the
Naval Engineering College, Keyham (1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899, the majority of the
students being connected with the dockyard; the naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and the
naval and military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was formerly defended by a battery (now a naval signalling
station), stands the military residence, or Government House, occupied by the commander of the Plymouth Coast
Defences; and near at hand is the principal naval residence, the naval commander-in-chief's house. The prospect
from Mount Wise over the Hamoaze to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in the south of
England. The most noteworthy feature of Devonport, however, is the royal dockyard, originally established by
William III. in 1689 and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock. It is situated within the old town boundary and
contains four docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham steamyard, situated higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old
boundary and connected with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1896 further extensions were begun at the
Keyham yard, which became known as Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard comprised two
basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the southern 7 acres in area, and three docks, having floor-lengths of

295, 347 and 413 ft., together with iron and brass foundries, machinery shops, engineer students' shop, &c. The
new extensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 21st of February 1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying
to the northward in front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of 77 acres of mudflats lying below
high-water mark. The scheme presented three leading features—a tidal basin, a group of three graving docks with
entrance lock, and a large enclosed basin with a coaling depôt at the north end. The tidal basin, close to the old
Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long with a mean width of 590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth being 32 ft.
at low water of spring tides. It affords access to two graving docks, one with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20½ ft. of
water over the sill, and the other with a length of 741 ft. and 32 ft. of water over the sill. Each of these can be
subdivided by means of an intermediate caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an entrance to the closed
basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the closed basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a
dock. The closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft. long, measures 1550 ft. by 1000 ft. and
has an area of 35½ acres, with a depth of 32 ft. at low-water springs; it has a direct entrance from the Hamoaze,
closed by a caisson. The foundations of the walls are carried down to the rock, which in some places lies covered
with mud 100 ft. or more below coping level. Compressed air is used to work the sliding caissons which close the
entrances of the docks and closed basin. A ropery at Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the navy.

By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a parliamentary borough including East Stonehouse and
returning two members. The ground on which it stands is for the most part the property of the St Aubyn family
(Barons St Levan), whose steward holds a court leet and a court baron annually. The town is governed by a mayor,
sixteen aldermen and forty-eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres.

DEVONPORT, EAST and WEST, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, situated on both sides of the mouth of
the river Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of Hobart. Pop. (1901), East Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There
is regular communication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it ranks as the third port in Tasmania. A
celebrated regatta is held on the Mersey annually on New Year's day.

DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Devonshire title, now in the Cavendish family, had
previously been held by Charles Blount (1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson of the 4th Lord
Mountjoy (d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he was created earl of Devonshire in 1603 for his services in Ireland,
where he became famous in subduing the rebellion between 1600 and 1603; but the title became extinct at his
death. In the Cavendish line the 1st earl of Devonshire was William (d. 1626), second son of Sir William
Cavendish (q.v.), and of Elizabeth Hardwick, who afterwards married the 6th earl of Shrewsbury. He was created
earl of Devonshire in 1618 by James I., and was succeeded by William, 2nd earl (1591-1628), and the latter by his
son William (1617-1684), a prominent royalist, and one of the original members of the Royal Society, who married
a daughter of the 2nd earl of Salisbury.

William Cavendish, 1st duke of Devonshire (1640-1707), English statesman, eldest son of the earl of
Devonshire last mentioned, was born on the 25th of January 1640. After completing his education he made the tour
of Europe according to the custom of young men of his rank, being accompanied on his travels by Dr Killigrew.
On his return he obtained, in 1661, a seat in parliament for Derbyshire, and soon became conspicuous as one of the
most determined and daring opponents of the general policy of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee
appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord treasurer Danby. In 1679 he was re-elected for
Derby, and made a privy councillor by Charles II.; but he soon withdrew from the board with his friend Lord
Russell, when he found that the Roman Catholic interest uniformly prevailed. He carried up to the House of Lords

the articles of impeachment against Lord Chief-Justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and illegal proceedings in the
court of King's bench; and when the king declared his resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of York,
afterwards James II., he moved in the House of Commons that a bill might be brought in for the association of all
his majesty's Protestant subjects. He also openly denounced the king's counsellors, and voted for an address to
remove them. He appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his trial, at a time when it was scarcely more criminal to
be an accomplice than a witness. After the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof of his attachment by
offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell in the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his
escape. In November 1684 he succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father. He opposed arbitrary
government under James II. with the same consistency and high spirit as during the previous reign. He was
withdrawn from public life for a time, however, in consequence of a hasty and imprudent act of which his enemies
knew how to avail themselves. Fancying that he had received an insulting look in the presence chamber from
Colonel Colepepper, a swaggerer whose attendance at court the king encouraged, he immediately avenged the
affront by challenging the colonel, and, on the challenge being refused, striking him with his cane. This offence
was punished by a fine of £30,000, which was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely fortune. Not
being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's bench, from which he was released only on signing a bond for
the whole amount. This was afterwards cancelled by King William. After his discharge the earl went for a time to
Chatsworth, where he occupied himself with the erection of a new mansion, designed by William Talman, with
decorations by Verrio, Thornhill and Grinling Gibbons. The Revolution again brought him into prominence. He
was one of the seven who signed the original paper inviting the prince of Orange from Holland, and was the first
nobleman who appeared in arms to receive him at his landing. He received the order of the Garter on the occasion
of the coronation, and was made lord high steward of the new court. In 1690 he accompanied King William on his
visit to Holland. He was created marquis of Hartington and duke of Devonshire in 1694 by William and Mary, on
the same day on which the head of the house of Russell was created duke of Bedford. Thus, to quote Macaulay,
"the two great houses of Russell and Cavendish, which had long been closely connected by friendship and by
marriage, by common opinions, common sufferings and common triumphs, received on the same day the highest
honour which it is in the power of the crown to confer." His last public service was assisting to conclude the union
with Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son, the marquis of Hartington, had been appointed among
the commissioners by Queen Anne. He died on the 18th of August 1707, and ordered the following inscription to
be put on his monument:—

Willielmus Dux Devon,
Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus,
Inimicus et Invisus Tyrannis.

He had married in 1661 the daughter of James, duke of Ormonde, and he was succeeded by his eldest son
William as 2nd duke, and by the latter's son William as 3rd duke (viceroy of Ireland, 1737-1744). The latter's son
William (1720-1764) succeeded in 1755 as 4th duke; he married the daughter and heiress of Richard Boyle, earl of
Burlington and Cork, who brought Lismore Castle and the Irish estates into the family; and from November 1756
to May 1757 he was prime minister, mainly in order that Pitt, who would not then serve under the duke of
Newcastle, should be in power. His son William (1748-1811), 5th duke, is memorable as the husband of the
beautiful Georgiana Spencer, duchess of Devonshire (1757-1806), and of the intellectual Elizabeth Foster, duchess
of Devonshire (1758-1824), both of whom Gainsborough painted. His son William, 6th duke (1790-1858), who
died unmarried, was sent on a special mission to the coronation of the tsar Nicholas at Moscow in 1826, and
became famous for his expenditure on that occasion; and it was he who employed Sir Joseph Paxton at
Chatsworth. The title passed in 1858 to his cousin William (1808-1891), 2nd earl of Burlington, as 7th duke, a man
who, without playing a prominent part in public affairs, exercised great influence, not only by his position but by

his distinguished abilities. At Cambridge in 1829 he was second wrangler, first Smith's prizeman, and eighth
classic, and subsequently he became chancellor of the university.

Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th duke (1833-1908), born on the 23rd of July 1833, was the son of the 7th duke
(then earl of Burlington) and his wife Lady Blanche Howard (sister of the earl of Carlisle). In 1854 Lord
Cavendish, as he then was, took his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge; in 1856 he was attached to the special
mission to Russia for the new tsar's accession; and in 1857 he was returned to parliament as Liberal member for
North Lancashire. At the opening of the new parliament of 1859 the marquis of Hartington (as he had now
become) moved the amendment to the address which overthrew the government of Lord Derby. In 1863 he became
first a lord of the admiralty, and then under-secretary for war, and on the formation of the Russell-Gladstone
administration at the death of Lord Palmerston he entered it as war secretary. He retired with his colleagues in July
1866; but upon Mr Gladstone's return to power in 1868 he became postmaster-general, an office which he
exchanged in 1871 for that of secretary for Ireland. When Mr Gladstone, after his defeat and resignation in 1874,
temporarily withdrew from the leadership of the Liberal party in January 1875, Lord Hartington was chosen
Liberal leader in the House of Commons, Lord Granville being leader in the Lords. Mr W. E. Forster, who had
taken a much more prominent part in public life, was the only other possible nominee, but he declined to stand.
Lord Hartington's rank no doubt told in his favour, and Mr Forster's education bill had offended the Nonconformist
members, who would probably have withheld their support. Lord Hartington's prudent management in difficult
circumstances laid his followers under great obligations, since not only was the opposite party in the ascendant, but
his own former chief was indulging in the freedom of independence. After the complete defeat of the
Conservatives in the general election of 1880, a large proportion of the party would have rejoiced if Lord
Hartington could have taken the Premiership instead of Mr Gladstone, and the queen, in strict conformity with
constitutional usage (though Gladstone himself thought Lord Granville should have had the preference), sent for
him as leader of the Opposition. Mr Gladstone, however, was clearly master of the situation: no cabinet could be
formed without him, nor could he reasonably be expected to accept a subordinate post. Lord Hartington, therefore,
gracefully abdicated the leadership, and became secretary of state for India, from which office, in December 1882,
he passed to the war office. His administration was memorable for the expeditions of General Gordon and Lord
Wolseley to Khartum, and a considerable number of the Conservative party long held him chiefly responsible for
the "betrayal of Gordon." His lethargic manner, apart from his position as war minister, helped to associate him in
their minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the government acted "too late"; but Gladstone and Lord
Granville were no less responsible than he. In June 1885 he resigned along with his colleagues, and in December
was elected for the Rossendale Division of Lancashire, created by the new reform bill. Immediately afterwards the
great political opportunity of Lord Hartington's life came to him in Mr Gladstone's conversion to home rule for
Ireland. Lord Hartington's refusal to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the chief of the new
Liberal Unionist party, composed of a large and influential section of the old Liberals. In this capacity he moved
the first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera house, and also, in the House of Commons, moved
the rejection of Mr Gladstone's Bill on the second reading. During the memorable electoral contest which
followed, no election excited more interest than Lord Hartington's for the Rossendale division, where he was
returned by a majority of nearly 1500 votes. In the new parliament he held a position much resembling that which
Sir Robert Peel had occupied after his fall from power, the leader of a small, compact party, the standing and
ability of whose members were out of all proportion to their numbers, generally esteemed and trusted beyond any
other man in the country, yet in his own opinion forbidden to think of office. Lord Salisbury's offers to serve under
him as prime minister (both after the general election, and again when Lord Randolph Churchill resigned) were
declined, and Lord Hartington continued to discharge the delicate duties of the leader of a middle party with no
less judgment than he had shown when leading the Liberals during the interregnum of 1875-1880. It was not until
1895, when the differences between Conservatives and Liberal Unionists had become almost obliterated by

changed circumstances, and the habit of acting together, that the duke of Devonshire, as he had become by the
death of his father in 1891, consented to enter Lord Salisbury's third ministry as president of the council. The duke
thus was the nominal representative of education in the cabinet at a time when educational questions were rapidly
becoming of great importance; and his own technical knowledge of this difficult and intricate question being
admittedly superficial, a good deal of criticism from time to time resulted. He had however by this time an
established position in public life, and a reputation for weight of character, which procured for him universal
respect and confidence, and exempted him from bitter attack, even from his most determined political opponents.
Wealth and rank combined with character to place him in a measure above party; and his succession to his father as
chancellor of the university of Cambridge in 1892 indicated his eminence in the life of the country. In the same
year he had married the widow of the 7th duke of Manchester.

He continued to hold the office of lord president of the council till the 3rd of October 1903, when he resigned on
account of differences with Mr Balfour (q.v.) over the latter's attitude towards free trade. As Mr Chamberlain had
retired from the cabinet, and the duke had not thought it necessary to join Lord George Hamilton and Mr Ritchie in
resigning a fortnight earlier, the defection was unanticipated and was sharply criticized by Mr Balfour, who, in the
rearrangement of his ministry, had only just appointed the duke's nephew and heir, Mr Victor Cavendish, to be
secretary to the treasury. But the duke had come to the conclusion that while he himself was substantially a free-
trader,[1] Mr Balfour did not mean the same thing by the term. He necessarily became the leader of the Free Trade
Unionists who were neither Balfourites nor Chamberlainites, and his weight was thrown into the scale against any
association of Unionism with the constructive policy of tariff reform, which he identified with sheer Protection. A
struggle at once began within the Liberal Unionist organization between those who followed the duke and those
who followed Mr Chamberlain (q.v.); but the latter were in the majority and a reorganization in the Liberal
Unionist Association took place, the Unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a separate body. The duke then
became president of the new organizations, the Unionist Free Food League and the Unionist Free Trade Club. In
the subsequent developments the duke played a dignified but somewhat silent part, and the Unionist rout in 1906
was not unaffected by his open hostility to any taint of compromise with the tariff reform movement. But in the
autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from
public effort and spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at Cannes on the 24th of March 1908.

The head of an old and powerful family, a wealthy territorial magnate, and an Englishman with thoroughly
national tastes for sport, his weighty and disinterested character made him a statesman of the first rank in his time,
in spite of the absence of showy or brilliant qualities. He had no self-seeking ambitions, and on three occasions
preferred not to become prime minister. Though his speeches were direct and forcible, he was not an orator, nor
"clever"; and he lacked all subtlety of intellect; but he was conspicuous for solidity of mind and
straightforwardness of action, and for conscientious application as an administrator, whether in his public or
private life. The fact that he once yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly quoted as
characteristic; but he combined a great fund of common sense and knowledge of the average opinion with a
patriotic sense of duty towards the state. Throughout his career he remained an old-fashioned Liberal, or rather
Whig, of a type which in his later years was becoming gradually more and more rare.

There was no issue of his marriage, and he was succeeded as 9th duke by his nephew Victor Christian
Cavendish (b. 1868), who had been Liberal Unionist member for West Derbyshire since 1891, and was treasurer of
the household (1900 to 1903) and financial secretary to the treasury (1903 to 1905); in 1892 he married a daughter
of the marquess of Lansdowne, by whom he had two sons.
(H. Ch.)

[1] His own words to Mr Balfour at the time were: "I believe that our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advantageous
to the country, though I do not contend that the principles on which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any departure
from it, for sufficient reasons."

DEVONSHIRE (Devon), a south-western county of England, bounded N.W. and N. by the Bristol Channel,
N.E. by Somerset and Dorset, S.E. and S. by the English Channel, and W. by Cornwall. The area, 2604.9 sq. m., is
exceeded only by those of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire among the English counties. Nearly the whole of the surface
is uneven and hilly. The county contains the highest land in England south of Derbyshire (excepting points on the
south Welsh border); and the scenery, much varied, is in most parts striking and picturesque. The heather-clad
uplands of Exmoor, though chiefly within the borders of Somerset, extend into North Devon, and are still the haunt
of red deer, and of the small hardy ponies called after the district. Here, as on Dartmoor, the streams are rich in
trout. Dartmoor, the principal physical feature of the county, is a broad and lofty expanse of moorland which rises
in the southern part. Its highest point, 2039 ft., is found in the north-western portion. Its rough wastes contrast
finely with the wild but wooded region which immediately surrounds the granite of which it is composed, and with
the rich cultivated country lying beyond. Especially noteworthy in this fertile tract are the South Hams, a fruitful
district of apple orchards, lying between the Erme and the Dart; the rich meadow-land around Crediton, in the vale
of Exeter; and the red rocks near Sidmouth. Two features which lend a characteristic charm to the Devonshire
landscape are the number of picturesque old cottages roofed with thatch; and the deep lanes, sunk below the
common level of the ground, bordered by tall hedges, and overshadowed by an arch of boughs. The north and
south coasts of the county differ much in character, but both have grand cliff and rock scenery, not surpassed by
any in England or Wales, resembling the Mediterranean seaboard in its range of colour. As a rule the long combes
or glens down which the rivers flow seaward are densely wooded, and the country immediately inland is of great
beauty. Apart from the Tamar, which constitutes the boundary between Devon and Cornwall, and flows into the
English Channel, after forming in its estuary the harbours of Devonport and Plymouth, the principal rivers rise on
Dartmoor. These include the Teign, Dart, Plym and Tavy, falling into the English Channel, and the Taw flowing
north towards Bideford Bay. The river Torridge, also discharging northward, receives part of its waters from
Dartmoor through the Okement, but itself rises in the angle of high land near Hartland point on the north coast, and
makes a wide sweep southward. The lesser Dartmoor streams are the Avon, the Erme and the Vealm, all running
south. The Exe rises on Exmoor in Somersetshire; but the main part of its course is through Devonshire (where it
gives name to Exeter), and it is joined on its way to the English Channel by the lesser streams of the Culm, the
Creedy and the Clyst. The Otter, rising on the Blackdown Hills, also runs south, and the Axe, for part of its course,
divides the counties of Devon and Dorset. These eastern streams are comparatively slow; while the rivers of
Dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid course.

Geology.—The greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks in Devonshire is that covered by the Culm, a
series of slates, grits and greywackes, with some impure limestones and occasional radiolarian cherts as at Codden
Hill; beds of "culm," an impure variety of coal, are found at Bideford and elsewhere. This series of rocks occurs at
Bampton, Exeter and Chudleigh and extends thence to the western boundary. North and south of the Culm an older
series of slates, grits and limestones appears; it was considered so characteristic of the county that it was called the
Devonian system (q.v.), the marine equivalent of the Old Red Sandstone of Hereford and Scotland. It lies in the
form of a trough with its axis running east and west. In the central hollow the Culm reposes, while the northern and
southern rims rise to the surface respectively north of the latitude of Barnstaple and South Molton and south of the
latitude of Tavistock. These Devonian rocks have been subdivided into upper, middle and lower divisions, but the
stratigraphy is difficult to follow as the beds have suffered much crumpling; fine examples of contorted strata may
be seen almost anywhere on the north coast, and in the south, at Bolt Head and Start Point they have undergone
severe metamorphism. Limestones are only poorly developed in the north, but in the south important masses occur,
in the middle and at the base of the upper subdivisions, about Plymouth, Torquay, Brixham and between Newton

Abbot and Totnes. Fossil corals abound in these limestones, which are largely quarried and when polished are
known as Devonshire marbles.
On the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set of rocks which cover the older series and dip
away from them gently towards the east. The lower and most westerly situated members of the younger rocks is a
series of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones and marls which are probably of lower Bunter age, but by some
geologists have been classed as Permian. These red rocks are beautifully exposed on the coast by Dawlish and
Teignmouth, and they extend inland, producing a red soil, past Exeter and Tiverton. A long narrow strip of the
same formation reaches out westward on the top of the Culm as far as Jacobstow. Farther east, the Bunter pebble
beds are represented by the well-known pebble deposit of Budleigh Salterton, whence they are traceable inland
towards Rockbeare. These are succeeded by the Keuper marls and sandstones, well exposed at Sidmouth, where
the upper Greensand plateau is clearly seen to overlie them. The Greensand covers all the high ground northward
from Sidmouth as far as the Blackdown Hills. At Beer Head and Axmouth the Chalk is seen, and at the latter place
is a famous landslip on the coast, caused by the springs which issue from the Greensand below the Chalk. The
Lower Chalk at Beer has been mined for building stone and was formerly in considerable demand. At the extreme
east of the county, Rhaetic and Lias beds make their appearance, the former with a "bone" bed bearing the remains
of saurians and fish.
Dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the Culm and Devonian strata in post-Carboniferous times
and subsequently exposed by denudation. Evidences of Devonian volcanic activity are abundant in the masses of
diabase, dolerite, &c., at Bradford and Trusham, south of Exeter, around Plymouth and at Ashprington. Perhaps the
most interesting is the Carboniferous volcano of Brent Tor near Tavistock. An Eocene deposit, the product of the
denudation of the Dartmoor Hills, lies in a small basin at Bovey Tracey (see Bovey Beds); it yields beds of lignite
and valuable clays.
Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone near Torquay and at other points, and a submerged
forest lies in the bay south of the same place. The caves and fissures in the Devonian limestone at Kent's Hole near
Torquay, Brixham and Oreston are famous for the remains of extinct mammals; bones of the elephant, rhinoceros,
bear and hyaena have been found as well as flint implements of early man.
Minerals.—Silver-lead was formerly worked at Combe Martin near the north coast, and elsewhere. Tin has been
worked on Dartmoor (in stream works) from an unknown period. Copper was not much worked before the end of
the 18th century. Tin occurs in the granite of Dartmoor, and along its borders, but rather where the Devonian than
where the Carboniferous rocks border the granite. It is found most plentifully in the district which surrounds
Tavistock, which, for tin and other ores, is in effect the great mining district of the county. Here, about 4 m. from
Tavistock, are the Devon Great Consols mines, which from 1843 to 1871 were among the richest copper mines in
the world, and by far the largest and most profitable in the kingdom. The divided profits during this period
amounted to £1,192,960. But the mining interests of Devonshire are affected by the same causes, and in the same
way, as those of Cornwall. The quantity of ore has greatly diminished, and the cost of raising it from the deep
mines prevents competition with foreign markets. In many mines tin underlies the general depth of the copper, and
is worked when the latter has been exhausted. The mineral products of the Tavistock district are various, and
besides tin and copper, ores of zinc and iron are largely distributed. Great quantities of refined arsenic have been
produced at the Devon Great Consols mine, by elimination from the iron pyrites contained in the various lodes.
Manganese occurs in the neighbourhood of Exeter, in the valley of the Teign and in N. Devon; but the most
profitable mines, which are shallow, are, like those of tin and copper, in the Tavistock district.
The other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles, building stones, slates and potters' clay. Among
building stones, the granite of Dartmoor holds the foremost place. It is much quarried near Princetown, near
Moreton Hampstead on the N.E. of Dartmoor and elsewhere. The annual export is considerable. Hard traps, which
occur in many places, are also much used, as are the limestones of Buckfastleigh and of Plymouth. The Roborough
stone, used from an early period in Devonshire churches, is found near Tavistock, and is a hard, porphyritic elvan,
taking a fine polish. Excellent roofing slates occur in the Devonian series round the southern part of Dartmoor. The
chief quarries are near Ashburton and Plymouth (Cann quarry). Potters' clay is worked at King's Teignton, whence
it is largely exported; at Bovey Tracey; and at Watcombe near Torquay. The Watcombe clay is of the finest quality.

China clay or kaolin is found on the southern side of Dartmoor, at Lee Moor, and near Trowlesworthy. There is a
large deposit of umber close to Ashburton.

Climate and Agriculture.—The climate varies greatly in different parts of the county, but everywhere it is more
humid than that of the eastern or south-eastern parts of England. The mean annual temperature somewhat exceeds
that of the midlands, but the average summer heat is rather less than that of the southern counties to the east. The
air of the Dartmoor highlands is sharp and bracing. Mists are frequent, and snow often lies long. On the south coast
frost is little known, and many half hardy plants, such as hydrangeas, myrtles, geraniums and heliotropes, live
through the winter without protection. The climate of Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Torquay and other watering places
on this coast is very equable, the mean temperature in January being 43.6° at Plymouth. The north coast, exposed
to the storms and swell of the Atlantic, is more bracing; although there also, in the more sheltered nooks (as at
Combe Martin), myrtles of great size and age flower freely, and produce their annual crop of berries.

Rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county is under cultivation; the cultivated area falling a
little below the average of the English counties. There are, however, about 160,000 acres of hill pasture in addition
to the area in permanent pasture, which is more than one-half that of the cultivated area. The Devon breed of cattle
is well adapted both for fattening and for dairy purposes; while sheep are kept in great numbers on the hill
pastures. Devonshire is one of the chief cattle-farming and sheep-farming counties. It is specially famous for two
products of the dairy—the clotted cream to which it gives its name, and junket. Of the area under grain crops, oats
occupy about three times the acreage under wheat or barley. The bulk of the acreage under green crops is occupied
by turnips, swedes and mangold. Orchards occupy a large acreage, and consist chiefly of apple-trees, nearly every
farm maintaining one for the manufacture of cider.

Fisheries.—Though the fisheries of Devon are less valuable than those of Cornwall, large quantities of the
pilchard and herrings caught in Cornish waters are landed at Plymouth. Much of the fishing is carried on within the
three-mile limit; and it may be asserted that trawling is the main feature of the Devonshire industry, whereas
seining and driving characterize that of Cornwall. Pilchard, cod, sprats, brill, plaice, soles, turbot, shrimps,
lobsters, oysters and mussels are met with, besides herring and mackerel, which are fairly plentiful. After
Plymouth, the principal fishing station is at Brixham, but there are lesser stations in every bay and estuary.

Other Industries.—The principal industrial works in the county are the various Government establishments at
Plymouth and Devonport. Among other industries may be noted the lace-works at Tiverton; the manufacture of
pillow-lace for which Honiton and its neighbourhood has long been famous; and the potteries and terra-cotta
works of Bovey Tracey and Watcombe. Woollen goods and serges are made at Buckfastleigh and Ashburton, and
boots and shoes at Crediton. Convict labour is employed in the direction of agriculture, quarrying, &c., in the great
prison of Dartmoor.

Communications.—The main line of the Great Western railway, entering the county in the east from Taunton,
runs to Exeter, skirts the coast as far as Teignmouth, and continues a short distance inland by Newton Abbot to
Plymouth, after which it crosses the estuary of the Tamar by a great bridge to Saltash in Cornwall. Branches serve
Torquay and other seaside resorts of the south coast; and among other branches are those from Taunton to
Barnstaple and from Plymouth northward to Tavistock and Launceston. The main line of the London & South-
Western railway between Exeter and Plymouth skirts the north and west of Dartmoor by Okehampton and
Tavistock. A branch from Yeoford serves Barnstaple, Ilfracombe, Bideford and Torrington, while the Lynton &
Barnstaple and the Bideford, Westward Ho & Appledore lines serve the districts indicated by their names. The
branch line to Princetown from the Plymouth-Tavistock line of the Great Western company in part follows the line
of a very early railway—that constructed to connect Plymouth with the Dartmoor prison in 1819-1825, which was
worked with horse cars. The only waterways of any importance are the Tamar, which is navigable up to

Gunnislake (3 m. S.W. of Tavistock), and the Exeter ship canal, noteworthy as one of the oldest in England, for it
was originally cut in the reign of Elizabeth.

Population and Administration.—The area of the ancient county is 1,667,154 acres, with a population in 1891
of 631,808, and 1901 of 661,314. The area of the administrative county is 1,671,168 acres. The county contains 33
hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Barnstaple (pop. 14,137), Bideford (8754), Dartmouth (6579), Devonport, a
county borough (70,437), Exeter, a city and county borough (47,185), Torrington, officially Great Torrington
(3241), Honiton (3271), Okehampton (2569), Plymouth, a county borough (107,636), South Molton (2848),
Tiverton (10,382), Torquay (33,625), Totnes (4035). The other urban districts are Ashburton (2628), Bampton
(1657), Brixham (8092), Buckfastleigh (2520), Budleigh Salterton (1883), Crediton (3974), Dawlish (4003), East
Stonehouse (15,111), Exmouth (10,485), Heavitree (7529), Holsworthy (1371), Ilfracombe (8557), Ivybridge
(1575), Kingsbridge (3025), Lynton (1641), Newton Abbot (12,517), Northam (5355), Ottery St Mary (3495),
Paignton (8385), Salcombe (1710), Seaton (1325), Sidmouth (4201), Tavistock (4728), Teignmouth (8636). The
county is in the western circuit, and assizes are held at Exeter. It has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided
into twenty-four petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Barnstaple, Bideford, Devonport, Exeter, Plymouth,
South Molton, and Tiverton have separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter sessions, and those of
Dartmouth, Great Torrington, Torquay and Totnes have commissions of the peace only. There are 461 civil
parishes. Devonshire is in the diocese of Exeter, with the exception of small parts in those of Salisbury and Truro;
and there are 516 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the county. The parliamentary
divisions are the Eastern or Honiton, North-eastern or Tiverton, Northern or South Molton, North-western or
Barnstaple, Western or Tavistock, Southern or Totnes, Torquay, and Mid or Ashburton, each returning one member;
and the county also contains the parliamentary boroughs of Devonport and Plymouth, each returning two
members, and that of Exeter, returning one member.

History.—The Saxon conquest of Devonshire must have begun some time before the 8th century, for in 700
there existed at Exeter a famous Saxon school. By this time, however, the Saxons had become Christians, and
established their supremacy, not by destructive inroads, but by a gradual process of colonization, settling among
the native Welsh and allowing them to hold lands under equal laws. The final incorporation of the district which is
now Devonshire with the kingdom of Wessex must have taken place about 766, but the county, and even Exeter,
remained partly Welsh until the time of Æthelstan. At the beginning of the 9th century Wessex was divided into
definite pagi, probably corresponding to the later shires, and the Saxon Chronicle mentions Devonshire by name in
823, when a battle was fought between the Welsh in Cornwall and the people of Devonshire at Camelford. During
the Danish invasions of the 9th century aldermen of Devon are frequently mentioned. In 851 the invaders were
defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of Devon, and in 878, when the Danes under Hubba were harrying the coast
with a squadron of twenty-three ships, they were again defeated with great slaughter by the fyrd. The modern
hundreds of Devonshire correspond in position very nearly with those given in the Domesday Survey, though the
names have in many cases been changed, owing generally to alterations in their places of meeting. The hundred of
Bampton formerly included estates west of the Exe, now transferred to the hundred of Witheridge. Ten of the
modern hundreds have been formed by the union of two or more Domesday hundreds, while the Domesday
hundred of Liston has had the new hundred of Tavistock severed from it since 1114. Many of the hundreds were
separated by tracts of waste and forest land, of which Devonshire contained a vast extent, until in 1204 the
inhabitants paid 5000 marks to have the county disafforested, with the exception only of Dartmoor and Exmoor.

Devonshire in the 7th century formed part of the vast bishopric of Dorchester-on-Thames. In 705 it was attached
to the newly created diocese of Sherborne, and in 910 Archbishop Plegmund constituted Devonshire a separate
diocese, and placed the see at Crediton. About 1030 the dioceses of Devonshire and Cornwall were united, and in
1049 the see was fixed at Exeter. The archdeaconries of Exeter, Barnstaple and Totnes are all mentioned in the

12th century and formerly comprised twenty-four deaneries. The deaneries of Three Towns, Collumpton and
Ottery have been created since the 16th century, while those of Tamerton, Dunkeswell, Dunsford and Plymptre
have been abolished, bringing the present number to twenty-three.

At the time of the Norman invasion Devonshire showed an active hostility to Harold, and the easy submission
which it rendered to the Conqueror accounts for the exceptionally large number of Englishmen who are found
retaining lands after the Conquest. The many vast fiefs held by Norman barons were known as honours, chief
among them being Plympton, Okehampton, Barnstaple, Harberton and Totnes. The honour of Plympton was
bestowed in the 12th century on the Redvers family, together with the earldom of Devon; in the 13th century it
passed to the Courtenay family, who had already become possessed of the honour of Okehampton, and who in
1335 obtained the earldom. The dukedom of Exeter was bestowed in the 14th century on the Holland family,
which became extinct in the reign of Edward IV. The ancestors of Sir Walter Raleigh, who was born at Budleigh,
had long held considerable estates in the county.

Devonshire had an independent sheriff, the appointment being at first hereditary, but afterwards held for one
year only. In 1320 complaint was made that all the hundreds of Devonshire were in the hands of the great lords,
who did not appoint a sufficiency of bailiffs for their proper government. The miners of Devon had independent
courts, known as stannary courts, for the regulation of mining affairs, the four stannary towns being Tavistock,
Ashburton, Chagford, and Plympton. The ancient miners' parliament was held in the open air at Crockern's Tor.

The castles of Exeter and Plympton were held against Stephen by Baldwin de Redvers, and in the 14th and 15th
centuries the French made frequent attacks on the Devonshire coast, being repulsed in 1404 by the people of
Dartmouth. In the Wars of the Roses the county was much divided, and frequent skirmishes took place between the
earl of Devon and Lord Bonville, the respective champions of the Lancastrian and Yorkist parties. Great
disturbances in the county followed the Reformation of the 16th century and in 1549 a priest was compelled to say
mass at Sampford Courtney. On the outbreak of the Civil War the county as a whole favoured the parliament, but
the prevailing desire was for peace, and in 1643 a treaty for the cessation of hostilities in Devonshire and Cornwall
was agreed upon. Skirmishes, however, continued until the capture of Dartmouth and Exeter in 1646 put an end to
the struggle. In 1688 the prince of Orange landed at Torbay and was entertained for several days at Ford and at
Exeter.

The tin mines of Devon have been worked from time immemorial, and in the 14th century mines of tin, copper,
lead, gold and silver are mentioned. Agriculturally the county was always poor, and before the disafforestation
rendered especially so through the ravages committed by the herds of wild deer. At the time of the Domesday
Survey the salt industry was important, and there were ninety-nine mills in the county and thirteen fisheries. From
an early period the chief manufacture was that of woollen cloth, and a statute 4 Ed. IV. permitted the manufacture
of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of Devonshire. About 1505 Anthony Bonvis, an Italian, introduced an
improved method of spinning into the county, and cider-making is mentioned in the 16th century. In 1680 the lace
industry was already flourishing at Colyton and Ottery St Mary, and flax, hemp and malt were largely produced in
the 17th and 18th centuries.

Devonshire returned two members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295 Barnstaple, Exeter, Plympton, Tavistock,
Torrington and Totnes were also represented. In 1831 the county with its boroughs returned a total of twenty-six
members, but under the Reform Act of 1832 it returned four members in two divisions, and with ten boroughs was
represented by a total of eighteen members. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six members in three
divisions, and four of the boroughs were disfranchised, making a total of seventeen members.

Antiquities.—In primeval antiquities Devonshire is not so rich as Cornwall; but Dartmoor abounds in remains of
the highest interest, the most peculiar of which are the long parallel alignments of upright stones, which, on a small

scale, resemble those of Carnac in Brittany. On Dartmoor the lines are invariably straight, and are found in direct
connexion with cairns, and with circles which are probably sepulchral. These stone avenues are very numerous. Of
the so-called sacred circles the best examples are the "Longstones" on Scorhill Down, and the "Grey Wethers"
under Sittaford Tor. By far the finest cromlech is the "Spinster's Rock" at Drewsteignton, a three-pillared cromlech
which may well be compared with those of Cornwall. There are numerous menhirs or single upright stones; a large
dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of the Teign, near the Scorhill circle; and rock basins occur on the summit of
nearly every tor on Dartmoor (the largest are on Kestor, and on Heltor, above the Teign). It is, however, tolerably
evident that these have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite, and that the dolmen in the Teign
is due to the action of the river. Clusters of hut foundations, circular, and formed of rude granite blocks, are
frequent; the best example of such a primitive village is at Batworthy, near Chagford; the type resembles that of
East Cornwall. Walled enclosures, or pounds, occur in many places; Grimspound is the most remarkable.
Boundary lines, also called trackways, run across Dartmoor in many directions; and the rude bridges, formed of
great slabs of granite, deserve notice. All these remains are on Dartmoor. Scattered over the county are numerous
large hill castles and camps,—all earthworks, and all apparently of the British period. Roman relics have been
found from time to time at Exeter (Isca Damnoniorum), the only large Roman station in the county.

The churches are for the most part of the Perpendicular period, dating from the middle of the 14th to the end of
the 15th century. Exeter cathedral is of course an exception, the whole (except the Norman towers) being very
beautiful Decorated work. The special features of Devonshire churches, however, are the richly carved pulpits and
chancel screens of wood, in which this county exceeded every other in England, with the exception of Norfolk and
Suffolk. The designs are rich and varied, and the skill displayed often very great. Granite crosses are frequent, the
finest and earliest being that of Coplestone, near Crediton. Monastic remains are scanty; the principal are those at
Tor, Buckfast, Tavistock and Buckland Abbeys. Among domestic buildings the houses of Wear Gilford, Bradley
and Dartington of the 15th century; Bradfield and Holcombe Rogus (Elizabethan), and Forde (Jacobean), deserve
notice. The ruined castles of Okehampton (Edward I.), Exeter, with its vast British earthworks, Berry Pomeroy
(Henry III., with ruins of a large Tudor mansion), Totnes (Henry III.) and Compton (early 15th century), are all
interesting and picturesque.

Authorities.—T. Westcote, Survey of Devon, written about 1630, and first printed in 1845; J. Prince, Worthies of
Devon (Exeter, 1701); Sir W. Pole, Collections towards a History of the County of Devon (London, 1791); R.
Polwhele, History of Devonshire (3 vols. Exeter, 1797, 1798-1800); T. Moore, History of Devon from the Earliest
Period to the Present Time (vols, i., ii., London, 1829-1831); G. Oliver, Historic Collections relating to the
Monasteries in Devon (Exeter, 1820); D. and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia (vol. vi., London, 1822); Ecclesiastical
Antiquities in Devon (Exeter, 1844); Mrs Bray, Traditions of Devonshire, in a series of letters to Robert Southey
(London, 1838); G. C. Boase, Devonshire Bibliography (London, 1883); Sir W. R. Drake, Devonshire Notes and
Notelets (London, 1888); S. Hewett, Peasant Speech of Devon (London, 1892); R. N. Worth, History of
Devonshire (London, 1886, new edition, 1895); C. Worthy, Devonshire Parishes (Exeter, 1887); Devonshire Wills
(London, 1896); Victoria County History, Devonshire.

DEVRIENT, the name of a family of German actors.

Ludwig Devrient (1784-1832), born in Berlin on the 15th of December 1784, was the son of a silk merchant. He
was apprenticed to an upholsterer, but, suddenly leaving his employment, joined a travelling theatrical company,
and made his first appearance on the stage at Gera in 1804 as the messenger in Schiller's Braut von Messina. By
the interest of Count Brühl, he appeared at Rudolstadt as Franz Moor in Schiller's Räuber, so successfully that he
obtained a permanent engagement at the ducal theatre in Dessau, where he played until 1809. He then received a
call to Breslau, where he remained for six years. So brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of

Shakespeare's plays, that Iffland began to fear for his own reputation; yet that great artist was generous enough to
recommend the young actor as his only possible successor. On Iffland's death Devrient was summoned to Berlin,
where he was for fifteen years the popular idol. He died there on the 30th of December 1832. Ludwig Devrient
was equally great in comedy and tragedy. Falstaff, Franz Moor, Shylock, King Lear and Richard II. were among
his best parts. Karl von Holtei in his Reminiscences has given a graphic picture of him and the "demoniac
fascination" of his acting.

See Z. Funck, Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler, Ifflands und Devrients (Leipzig, 1838); H. Smidt in
Devrient-Novellen (3rd ed., Berlin, 1882); R. Springer in the novel Devrient und Hoffmann (Berlin, 1873), and
Eduard Devrient's Geschichte der deutschen Schauspielkunst (Leipzig, 1861).

Three of the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, sons of his brother, a merchant, were also connected with the stage.
Karl August Devrient (1797-1872) was born at Berlin on the 5th of April 1797. After being for a short time in
business, he entered a cavalry regiment as volunteer and fought at Waterloo. He then joined the stage, making his
first appearance on the stage in 1819 at Brunswick. In 1821 he received an engagement at the court theatre in
Dresden, where, in 1823, he married Wilhelmine Schröder (see Schröder-Devrient). In 1835 he joined the
company at Karlsruhe, and in 1839 that at Hanover. His best parts were Wallenstein and King Lear. He died on the
5th of April 1872. His brother Philipp Eduard Devrient (1801-1877), born at Berlin on the 11th of August 1801,
was for a time an opera singer. Turning his attention to theatrical management, he was from 1844 to 1846 director
of the court theatre in Dresden. Appointed to Karlsruhe in 1852, he began a thorough reorganization of the theatre,
and in the course of seventeen years of assiduous labour, not only raised it to a high position, but enriched its
repertory by many noteworthy librettos, among which Die Gunst des Augenblicks and Verirrungen are the best
known. But his chief work is his history of the German stage—Geschichte der deutschen Schauspielkunst
(Leipzig, 1848-1874). He died on the 4th of October 1877. A complete edition of his works—Dramatische und
dramaturgische Schriften—was published in ten volumes (Leipzig, 1846-1873).

The youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of Ludwig Devrient was Gustav Emil Devrient (1803-
1872), born in Berlin on the 4th of September 1803. He made his first appearance on the stage in 1821, at
Brunswick, as Raoul in Schiller's Jungfrau von Orleans. After a short engagement in Leipzig, he received in 1829
a call to Hamburg, but after two years accepted a permanent appointment at the court theatre in Dresden, to which
he belonged until his retirement in 1868. His chief characters were Hamlet, Uriel Acosta (in Karl Gutzkow's play),
Marquis Posa (in Schiller's Don Carlos), and Goethe's Torquato Tasso. He acted several times in London, where
his Hamlet was considered finer than Kemble's or Edmund Kean's. He died on the 7th of August 1872.

Otto Devrient (1838-1894), another actor, born in Berlin on the 3rd of October 1838, was the son of Philipp
Eduard Devrient. He joined the stage in 1856 at Karlsruhe, and acted successively in Stuttgart, Berlin and Leipzig,
until he received a fixed appointment at Karlsruhe, in 1863. In 1873 he became stage manager at Weimar, where he
gained great praise for his mise en scène of Goethe's Faust. After being manager of the theatres in Mannheim and
Frankfort he retired to Jena, where in 1883 he was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1884 he
was appointed director of the court theatre in Oldenburg, and in 1889 director of dramatic plays in Berlin. He died
at Stettin on the 23rd of June 1894.

DEW. The word "dew" (O.E. deaw; cf. Ger. Tau) is a very ancient one and its meaning must therefore be
defined on historical principles. According to the New English Dictionary, it means "the moisture deposited in
minute drops upon any cool surface by condensation of the vapour of the atmosphere; formed after a hot day,
during or towards night and plentiful in the early morning." Huxley in his Physiography makes the addition
"without production of mist." The formation of mist is not necessary for the formation of dew, nor does it

necessarily prevent it. If the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead of water it is called hoarfrost. The
researches of Aitken suggest that the words "by condensation of the vapour in the atmosphere" might be omitted
from the definition. He has given reasons for believing that the large dewdrops on the leaves of plants, the most
characteristic of all the phenomena of dew, are to be accounted for, in large measure at least, by the exuding of
drops of water from the plant through the pores of the leaves themselves. The formation of dewdrops in such cases
is the continuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the leaves with water from the soil. The
process is set up in full vigour in the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions at the surface of the leaf in
the hot sun, and continued after the sun has gone.

On the other hand, the most typical physical experiment illustrating the formation of dew is the production of a
deposit of moisture, in minute drops, upon the exterior surface of a glass or polished metal vessel by the cooling of
a liquid contained in the vessel. If the liquid is water, it can be cooled by pieces of ice; if volatile like ether, by
bubbling air through it. No deposit is formed by this process until the temperature is reduced to a point which,
from that circumstance, has received a special name, although it depends upon the state of the air round the vessel.
So generally accepted is the physical analogy between the natural formation of dew and its artificial production in
the manner described, that the point below which the temperature of a surface must be reduced in order to obtain
the deposit is known as the "dew-point."

In the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at which, by being cooled without change of pressure,
the air becomes saturated with water vapour, not on account of any increase of supply of that compound, but by the
diminution of the capacity of the air for holding it in the gaseous condition. Thus, when the dew-point temperature
has been determined, the pressure of water vapour in the atmosphere at the time of the deposit is given by
reference to a table of saturation pressures of water vapour at different temperatures. As it is a well-established
proposition that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not vary while the air is being cooled without
change of its total external pressure, the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the pressure of water vapour in
the air when the cooling commenced. Thus the artificial formation of dew and consequent determination of the
dew-point is a recognized method of measuring the pressure, and thence the amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere. The dew-point method is indeed in some ways a fundamental method of hygrometry.

The dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the question of the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or
its reverse. So long as the dew-point is low, high temperature does not matter, but when the dew-point begins to
approach the normal temperature of the human body the atmosphere becomes insupportable.

The physical explanation of the formation of dew consists practically in determining the process or processes by
which leaves, blades of grass, stones, and other objects in the open air upon which dew may be observed, become
cooled "below the dew-point."

Formerly, from the time of Aristotle at least, dew was supposed to "fall." That view of the process was not
extinct at the time of Wordsworth and poets might even now use the figure without reproach. To Dr Charles Wells
of London belongs the credit of bringing to a focus the ideas which originated with the study of radiation at the
beginning of the 19th century, and which are expressed by saying that the cooling necessary to produce dew on
exposed surfaces is to be attributed to the radiation from the surfaces to a clear sky. He gave an account of the
theory of automatic cooling by radiation, which has found a place in all text-books of physics, in his first Essay on
Dew published in 1818. The theory is supported in that and in a second essay by a number of well-planned
observations, and the essays are indeed models of scientific method. The process of the formation of dew as
represented by Wells is a simple one. It starts from the point of view that all bodies are constantly radiating heat,
and cool automatically unless they receive a corresponding amount of heat from other bodies by radiation or

conduction. Good radiators, which are at the same time bad conductors of heat, such as blades of grass, lose heat
rapidly on a clear night by radiation to the sky and become cooled below the dew-point of the atmosphere.

The question was very fully studied by Melloni and others, but little more was added to the explanation given by
Wells until 1885, when John Aitken of Falkirk called attention to the question whether the water of dewdrops on
plants or stones came from the air or the earth, and described a number of experiments to show that under the
conditions of observation in Scotland, it was the earth from which the moisture was probably obtained, either by
the operation of the vascular system of plants in the formation of exuded dewdrops, or by evaporation and
subsequent condensation in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Some controversy was excited by the publication
of Aitken's views, and it is interesting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which is of general
application in meteorological questions, namely, that the physical processes operative in the evolution of
meteorological phenomena are generally complex. It is not radiation alone that is necessary to produce dew, nor
even radiation from a body which does not conduct heat. The body must be surrounded by an atmosphere so fully
supplied with moisture that the dew-point can be passed by the cooling due to radiation. Thus the conditions
favourable for the formation of dew are (1) a good radiating surface, (2) a still atmosphere, (3) a clear sky, (4)
thermal insulation of the radiating surface, (5) warm moist ground or some other provision to produce a supply of
moisture in the surface layers of air.

Aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in considering the supply of moisture we must take into
consideration the ground as well as the air and concern ourselves with the temperature of both. Of the five
conditions mentioned, the first four may be considered necessary, but the fifth is very important for securing a
copious deposit. It can hardly be maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply of water by
evaporation from warm ground, but, when such a supply is forthcoming, it is evident that in place of the limited
process of condensation which deprives the air of its moisture and is therefore soon terminable, we have the
process of distillation which goes on as long as conditions are maintained. This distinction is of some practical
importance for it indicates the protecting power of wet soil in favour of young plants as against night frost. If
distillation between the ground and the leaves is set up, the temperature of the leaves cannot fall much below the
original dew-point because the supply of water for condensation is kept up; but if the compensation for loss of heat
by radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of water from the atmosphere, without renewal of the supply,
the dew-point will gradually get lower as the moisture is deposited and the process of cooling will go on.

In these questions we have to deal with comparatively large changes taking place within a small range of level.
It is with the layer a few inches thick on either side of the surface that we are principally concerned, and for an
adequate comprehension of the conditions close consideration is required. To illustrate this point reference may be
made to figs. 1 and 2, which represent the condition of affairs at 10.40 P.M. on about the 20th of October 1885,
according to observations by Aitken. Vertical distances represent heights in feet, while the temperatures of the air
and the dew-point are represented by horizontal distances and their variations with height by the curved lines of
the diagram. The line marked 0 is the ground level itself, a rather indefinite quantity when the surface is grass. The
whole vertical distance represented is from 4 ft. above ground to 1 ft. below ground, and the special phenomena
which we are considering take place in the layer which represents the rapid transition between the temperature of
the ground 3 in. below the surface and that of the air a few inches above ground.

The point of interest is to determine where the dew-point curve and dry-bulb curve will cut. If they cut above the
surface, mist will result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be formed. Below the surface, it may be assumed that
the air is saturated with moisture and any difference in temperature of the dew-point is accompanied by distillation.
It may be remarked, by the way, that such distillation between soil layers of different temperatures must be
productive of the transference of large quantities of water between different levels in the soil either upward or
downward according to the time of year.

These diagrams illustrate the importance of
the warmth and moisture of the ground in the
phenomena which have been considered. From
the surface there is a continual loss of heat going
on by radiation and a continual supply of
warmth and moisture from below. But while the
heat can escape, the moisture cannot. Thus the
dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as it
approaches the surface, the dew-point line to the
right. Thus the effect of the moisture of the
ground is to cause the lines to approach. In the
case of grass, fig. 2, the deviation of the dry-
bulb line to the left to form a sharp minimum of
temperature at the surface is well shown. The
dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left
to the same point as the dry-bulb; but that could
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
only happen if there were so copious a
condensation from the atmosphere as actually to
make the air drier at the surface than up above. In diagram 1, for soil, the effect on air temperature and moisture is
shown; the two lines converge to cut at the surface where a dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground
line there must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the surface by distillation, the more rapid the
greater the temperature gradient.

The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical countries, is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be
collected by gutters and spouts, but it is not generally regarded as a large percentage of the total rainfall. Loesche
estimates the amount of dew for a single night on the Loango coast at 3 mm., but the estimate seems a high one.
Measurements go to show that the depth of water corresponding with the aggregate annual deposit of dew is 1 in.
to 1.5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1.2 in. at Munich (Wollny), 0.3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), 1.6 in. at Tenbury,
Worcestershire (Badgley).

With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that of the maintenance of "dew ponds" is intimately
associated. The name is given to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels of the chalk downs of the south of
England and elsewhere. Some of these ponds are very ancient, as the title of a work on Neolithic Dewponds by A.
J. and G. Hubbard indicates. Their name seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend upon dew and not entirely
upon rain for their maintenance as a source of water supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has
been discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence seems to be against the view that dew deposits
make any important contribution to the supply of water. The construction of dew ponds is, however, still practised
on traditional lines, and it is said that a new dew pond has first to be filled artificially. It does not come into
existence by the gradual accumulation of water in an impervious basin.

Authorities.—For Dew, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells (London, 1818), also "An Essay on Dew,"
edited by Casella (London, 1866), Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni, Pogg. Ann. lxxi. pp. 416, 424
and lxxiii. p. 467; Jamin, "Compléments à la théorie de la rosée," Journal de physique, viii. p. 41; J. Aitken, on
"Dew," Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh, xxxiii., part i. 2, and "Nature," vol. xxxiii. p. 256; C. Tomlinson, "Remarks
on a new Theory of Dew," Phil. Mag. (1886), 5th series, vol. 21, p. 483 and vol. 22, p. 270; Russell, Nature, vol
47, p. 210; also Met. Zeit. (1893), p. 390; Homén, Bodenphysikalische und meteorologische Beobachtungen
(Berlin, 1894), iii.; Taubildung, p. 88, &c.; Rubenson, "Die Temperatur-und Feuchtigkeitsverhältnisse in den

unteren Luftschichten bei der Taubildung," Met. Zeit. xi. (1876), p. 65; H. E. Hamberg, "Température et humidité
de l'air à différentes hauteurs à Upsal," Soc. R. des sciences d'Upsal (1876); review in Met. Zeit. xii. (1877), p. 105.
For Dew Ponds, see Stephen Hales, Statical Essays, vol. i., experiment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731);
Gilbert White, Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, letter xxix. (London, 1789); Dr C. Wells, An Essay on
Dew (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866); Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, "Prize Essay on Water Supply," Journ. Roy. Agric.
Soc., 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and Symons, "Evaporation from the Surface of Water," Brit.
Assoc. Rep. (1869), sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, "Hydrogeology: One of the Developments of Modern Practical
Geology," Trans. Inst. Surveyors, vol. ix. pp. 153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, "A Short Practical Treatise on Dew
Ponds" (London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural History of Isolated Ponds," Trans. Norfolk and Norwich
Naturalists' Society, vol. v. pp. 272-286 (1892); Professor G. S. Brady, On the Nature and Origin of Freshwater
Faunas (1899); Professor L. C. Miall, "Dew Ponds," Reports of the British Association (Bradford Meeting, 1900),
pp. 579-585; A. J. and G. Hubbard, "Neolithic Dewponds and Cattle-Ways" (London, 1904, 1907).
(W. N. S.)

DEWAN or Diwan, an Oriental term for finance minister. The word is derived from the Arabian diwan, and is
commonly used in India to denote a minister of the Mogul government, or in modern days the prime minister of a
native state. It was in the former sense that the grant of the dewanny to the East India Company in 1765 became
the foundation of the British empire in India.

DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- ), British chemist and physicist, was born at Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland,
on the 20th of September 1842. He was educated at Dollar Academy and Edinburgh University, being at the latter
first a pupil, and afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then professor of chemistry; he also studied under
Kekulé at Ghent. In 1875 he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental philosophy at Cambridge,
becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and in 1877 he succeeded Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of chemistry
in the Royal Institution, London. He was president of the Chemical Society in 1897, and of the British Association
in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission on London Water Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the
Committee on Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir Frederick Abel. His scientific work covers
a wide field. Of his earlier papers, some deal with questions of organic chemistry, others with Graham's
hydrogenium and its physical constants, others with high temperatures, e.g. the temperature of the sun and of the
electric spark, others again with electro-photometry and the chemistry of the electric arc. With Professor J. G.
M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the physiological action of light, and examined the changes which take
place in the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his
colleagues at Cambridge, he began in 1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later of which were
devoted to the spectroscopic examination of various gaseous constituents separated from atmospheric air by the aid
of low temperatures; and he was joined by Professor J. A. Fleming, of University College, London, in the
investigation of the electrical behaviour of substances cooled to very low temperatures. His name is most widely
known in connexion with his work on the liquefaction of the so-called permanent gases and his researches at
temperatures approaching the zero of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry dates back at least
as far as 1874, when he discussed the "Latent Heat of Liquid Gases" before the British Association. In 1878 he
devoted a Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to the then recent work of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet,
and exhibited for the first time in Great Britain the working of the Cailletet apparatus. Six years later, in the same
place, he described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and K. S. Olszewski, and illustrated for the first time in
public the liquefaction of oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed for optical projection so that
the actions taking place might be visible to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a machine from which
the liquefied gas could be drawn off through a valve for use as a cooling agent, and he showed its employment for

this purpose in connexion with some researches on meteorites; about the same time he also obtained oxygen in the
solid state. By 1891 he had designed and erected at the Royal Institution an apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen
by the pint, and towards the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and liquid ozone are strongly
attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of
liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing the influx of external heat that it is found possible
not only to preserve the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to keep them so free from ebullition that
examination of their optical properties becomes possible. He next experimented with a high-pressure hydrogen jet
by which low temperatures were realized through the Thomson-Joule effect, and the successful results thus
obtained led him to build at the Royal Institution the large refrigerating machine by which in 1898 hydrogen was
for the first time collected in the liquid state, its solidification following in 1899. Later he investigated the gas-
absorbing powers of charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and applied them to the production of high vacua
and to gas analysis (see Liquid Gases). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford medal upon him for his
work in the production of low temperatures, and in 1899 he became the first recipient of the Hodgkins gold medal
of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, for his contributions to our knowledge of the nature and properties of
atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first British subject to receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of
Sciences, and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal of the Italian Society of Sciences. He
was knighted in 1904, and in 1908 he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of Arts.

DEWAS, two native states of India, in the Malwa Political Charge of Central India, founded in the first half of
the 18th century by two brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into Malwa with the peshwa, Baji Rao, in 1728.
Their descendants are known as the senior and junior branches of the family, and since 1841 each has ruled his
own portion as a separate state, though the lands belonging to each are so intimately entangled, that even in
Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the main street are under different administrations and have different
arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch has an area of 446 sq. m. and a population of
62,312, while the area of the junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904.

DEWBERRY, Rubus caesius, a trailing plant, allied to the bramble, of the natural order Rosaceae. It is common
in woods, hedges and the borders of fields in England and other countries of Europe. The leaves have three
leaflets, are hairy beneath, and of a dusky green; the flowers which appear in June and July are white, or pale rose-
coloured. The fruit is large, and closely embraced by the calyx, and consists of a few drupules, which are black,
with a glaucous bloom; it has an agreeable acid taste.

DEW-CLAW, the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the "false hoof" of the deer, sometimes also called the
"nails." In dogs the dew-claw is the rudimentary toe or hallux (corresponding to the big toe in man) hanging
loosely attached to the skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg. The origin of the word is unknown, but it has
been fancifully suggested that, while the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw merely brushes the
dew from the grass.

D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS, Bart. (1602-1650), English antiquarian, eldest son of Paul D'Ewes of Milden,
Suffolk, and of Cecilia, daughter and heir of Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or Coxden, Dorsetshire, was born on

the 18th of December 1602, and educated at the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds, and at St John's College,
Cambridge. He had been admitted to the Middle Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623, when he
immediately began his collections of material and his studies in history and antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne,
daughter and heir of Sir William Clopton, of Luton's Hall in Suffolk, through whom he obtained a large addition to
his already considerable fortune. On the 6th of December he was knighted. He took an active part as a strong
Puritan and member of the moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary government in the Long
Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member for Sudbury. On the 15th of July he was created a baronet by the
king, but nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party when war broke out, and in 1643 took the Covenant. He
was one of the members expelled by Pride's Purge in 1648, and died on the 18th of April 1650. He had married
secondly Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley in Derbyshire, by whom he had a son, who
succeeded to his estates and title, the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731. D'Ewes appears
to have projected a work of very ambitious scope, no less than the whole history of England based on original
documents. But though excelling as a collector of materials, and as a laborious, conscientious and accurate
transcriber, he had little power of generalization or construction, and died without publishing anything except an
uninteresting tract, The Primitive Practice for Preserving Truth (1645), and some speeches. His Journals of all the
Parliaments during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth, however, a valuable work, was published in 1682. His large
collections, including transcripts from ancient records, many of the originals of which are now dispersed or
destroyed, are in the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His unprinted Diaries from 1621-1624 and from
1643-1647, the latter valuable for the notes of proceedings in parliament, are often the only authority for incidents
and speeches during that period, and are amusing from the glimpses the diarist affords of his own character, his
good estimation of himself and his little jealousies; some are in a cipher and some in Latin.

Extracts from his Autobiography and Correspondence from the MSS. in the British Museum were published by
J. O. Halliwell-Phillips in 1845, by Hearne in the appendix to his Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II. (1729), and in
the Bibliotheca topographica Britannica, No. xv. vol. vi. (1783); and from a Diary of later date, College Life in the
Time of James I. (1851). His Diaries have been extensively drawn upon by Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his
Studies of the Great Rebellion. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the Harleian Miscellany and in the
Somers Tracts.

DE WET, CHRISTIAN (1854- ), Boer general and politician, was born on the 7th of October 1854 at
Leeuwkop, Smithfield district (Orange Free State), and later resided at Dewetsdorp. He served in the first Anglo-
Boer War of 1880-81 as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he lived on his farm, becoming in 1897 member of
the Volksraad. He took part in the earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a commandant and later, as a
general, he went to serve under Cronje in the west. His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near
Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg a little later. Thenceforward he came to be
regarded more and more as the most formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla warfare. Sometimes severely
handled by the British, sometimes escaping only by the narrowest margin of safety from the columns which
attempted to surround him, and falling upon and annihilating isolated British posts, De Wet continued to the end of
the war his successful career, striking heavily where he could do so and skilfully evading every attempt to bring
him to bay. He took an active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at the conclusion of the war he visited
Europe with the other Boer generals. While in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a modification of the
terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote an account of his campaigns, an English version of which
appeared in November 1902 under the title Three Years' War. In November, 1907 he was elected a member of the
first parliament of the Orange River Colony and was appointed minister of agriculture. In 1908-9 he was a delegate
to the Closer Union Convention.

DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT (1780-1849), German theologian, was born on the 12th
of January 1780, at Ulla, near Weimar, where his father was pastor. He was sent to the gymnasium at Weimar, then
at the height of its literary glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with Johann Gottfried Herder, who
frequently examined at the school. In 1799 he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal teachers
being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Paulus, from the latter of whom he derived his tendency to free critical inquiry.
Both in methods and in results, however, he occupied an almost solitary position among German theologians.
Having taken his doctor's degree, he became privat-docent at Jena; in 1807 professor of theology at Heidelberg,
where he came under the influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was transferred to a similar chair in the
newly founded university of Berlin, where he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was, however,
dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written a letter of consolation to the mother of Karl
Ludwig Sand, the murderer of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the senate of the university was
unsuccessful, and a decree was issued not only depriving him of the chair, but banishing him from the Prussian
kingdom. He retired for a time to Weimar, where he occupied his leisure in the preparation of his edition of Luther,
and in writing the romance Theodor oder die Weihe des Zweiflers (Berlin, 1822), in which he describes the
education of an evangelical pastor. During this period he made his first essay in preaching, and proved himself to
be possessed of very popular gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the university of Basel, which
had been reorganized four years before. Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party,
De Wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and among the people generally. He was
admitted a citizen, and became rector of the university, which owed to him much of its recovered strength,
particularly in the theological faculty. He died on the 16th of June 1849.

De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as "the epoch-making opener of the historical criticism of the
Pentateuch." He prepared the way for the Supplement-theory. But he also made valuable contributions to other
branches of theology. He had, moreover, considerable poetic faculty, and wrote a drama in three acts, entitled Die
Entsagung (Berlin, 1823). He had an intelligent interest in art, and studied ecclesiastical music and architecture. As
a Biblical critic he is sometimes classed with the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer says (Development of
Theology, p. 102), he "occupied as free a position as the Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the
creeds of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the religious feelings, which the Rationalists had
not done, and, with a more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the connexion of the present life of the
church with the past." His works are marked by exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation and uniform
fairness. Accordingly they possess value which is little affected by the progress of criticism.

The most important of his works are:—Beiträge zur Einleitung in das
Alte Testament (2 vols., 1806-1807); Kommentar über die Psalmen (1811),
which has passed through several editions, and is still regarded as of high
authority; Lehrbuch der hebräisch-jüdischen Archäologie (1814); Über
Religion und Theologie (1815); a work of great importance as showing its
author's general theological position; Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik
(1813-1816); Lehrbuch der historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel
(1817); Christliche Sittenlehre (1819-1821); Einleitung in das Neue
Testament (1826); Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform, und ihr
Einfluss auf das Leben (1827); Das Wesen des christlichen Glaubens
(1846); and Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament
(1836-1848). De Wette also edited Luther's works (5 vols., 1825-1828).
See K. R. Hagenbach in Herzog's Realencyklopädie; G. C. F. Lücke's W.
M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung (1850); and D.
Schenkel's W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie für
unsere Zeit (1849). Rudolf Stähelin, De Wette nach seiner theol.
Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung (1880); F. Lichtenberger, History of German
Theology in the Nineteenth Century (1889); Otto Pfleiderer, Development of
Theology (1890), pp. 97 ff.; T. K. Cheyne, Founders of the Old Testament
Criticism, pp. 31 ff.

DEWEY, DAVIS RICH (1858- ), American economist and
statistician, was born at Burlington, Vermont, U.S.A., on the 7th of April
1858. He was educated at the university of Vermont and at Johns Hopkins
University, and afterwards became professor of economics and statistics at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was chairman of the state
board on the question of the unemployed (1895), member of the
Massachusetts commission on public, charitable and reformatory interests
(1897), special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of a
state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an excellent

Syllabus on Political History since 1815 (1887), a Financial History of the
U.S. (1902), and National Problems (1907).

DEWEY, GEORGE (1837- ), American naval officer, was born at
Montpelier, Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837. He studied at
Norwich University, then at Norwich, Vermont, and graduated at the United
States Naval Academy in 1858. He was commissioned lieutenant in April
1861, and in the Civil War served on the steamsloop "Mississippi" (1861-
1863) during Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April
1862, and at Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting below
Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865 served on the
steam-gunboat "Agawam" with the North Atlantic blockading squadron and
took part in the attacks on Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January 1865.
In March 1865 he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the
European squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States
Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the "Narragansett" in
1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned commander in 1872; was
light-house inspector in 1876-1877; and was secretary of the light-house
board in 1877-1882. In 1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief
of the bureau of equipment and recruiting; in 1893-1895 was a member of
the light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board of
inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of commodore in
February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned, at his own request, to
sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In April 1898, while with his fleet at
Hong Kong, he was notified by cable that war had begun between the
United States and Spain, and was ordered to "capture or destroy the Spanish
fleet" then in Philippine waters. On the 1st of May he overwhelmingly
defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in Manila Bay, a victory
won without the loss of a man on the American ships (see Spanish-

American War). Congress, in a joint resolution, tendered its thanks to
Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and men under his command, and
authorized "the secretary of the navy to present a sword of honor to
Commodore George Dewey, and cause to be struck bronze medals
commemorating the battle of Manila Bay, and to distribute such medals to
the officers and men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron of the United
States." He was promoted rear-admiral on the 10th of May 1898. On the
18th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the city of Manila.
After remaining in the Philippines under orders from his government to
maintain control, Dewey received the rank of admiral (March 3, 1899)—
that title, formerly borne only by Farragut and Porter, having been revived
by act of Congress (March 2, 1899),—and returned home, arriving in New
York City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he received a great ovation.
He was a member (1899) of the Schurman Philippine Commission, and in
1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible Democratic candidate for the
presidency. He acted as president of the Schley court of inquiry in 1901,
and submitted a minority report on a few details.

DEWEY, MELVIL (1851- ), American librarian, was born at
Adams Center, New York, on the 10th of December 1851. He graduated in
1874 at Amherst College, where he was assistant librarian from 1874 to
1877. In 1877 he removed to Boston, where he founded and became editor
of The Library Journal, which became an influential factor in the
development of libraries in America, and in the reform of their
administration. He was also one of the founders of the American Library
Association, of which he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president in
1891 and 1893. In 1883 he became librarian of Columbia College, and in
the following year founded there the School of Library Economy, the first
institution for the instruction of librarians ever organized. This school,

which was very successful, was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was
re-established as the State Library School under his direction; from 1888 to
1906 he was director of the New York State Library and from 1888 to 1900
was secretary of the University of the State of New York, completely
reorganizing the state library, which he made one of the most efficient in
America, and establishing the system of state travelling libraries and picture
collections. His "Decimal System of Classification" for library cataloguing,
first proposed in 1876, is extensively used.

DEWING, THOMAS WILMER (1851- ), American figure
painter, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1851. He
was a pupil of Jules Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to 1879; was elected a full
member of the National Academy of Design in 1888; was a member of the
society of Ten American Painters, New York; and received medals at the
Paris Exhibition (1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St
Louis (1904). His decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy and
finish. Among his portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White and of his own
wife. Mrs Dewing (b, 1855), née Maria Oakey, a figure and flower painter,
was a pupil of John La Farge in New York, and of Couture in Paris.

DE WINT, PETER (1784-1849), English landscape painter, of Dutch
extraction, son of an English physician, was born at Stone, Staffordshire, on
the 21st of January 1784. He studied art in London, and in 1809 entered the
Academy schools. In 1812 he became a member of the Society of Painters
in Watercolours, where he exhibited largely for many years, as well as at the
Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of William Hilton, R.A. He died in
London on the 30th of January 1849. De Wint's life was devoted to art; he
painted admirably in oils, and he ranks as one of the chief English water-

colourists. A number of his pictures are in the National Gallery and the
Victoria and Albert Museum.

DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was born at
Kampen, and in 1761 entered the naval service at the age of twelve years.
He distinguished himself by his zeal and courage, and at the revolution of
1787 he had reached the rank of lieutenant. The overthrow of the "patriot"
party forced him to fly for his safety to France. Here he threw himself heart
and soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took part under Dumouriez
and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, and was soon promoted
to the rank of brigadier-general. When Pichegru in 1795 overran Holland,
De Winter returned with the French army to his native country. The states-
general now utilized the experience he had gained as a naval officer by
giving him the post of adjunct-general for the reorganization of the Dutch
navy. In 1796 he was appointed vice-admiral and commander-in-chief of
the fleet. He spared no efforts to strengthen it and improve its condition,
and on the 11th of October 1797 he ventured upon an encounter off
Camperdown with the British fleet under Admiral Duncan. After an
obstinate struggle the Dutch were defeated, and De Winter himself was
taken prisoner. He remained in England until December, when he was
liberated by exchange. His conduct in the battle of Camperdown was
declared by a court-martial to have nobly maintained the honour of the
Dutch flag.

From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador to the French
republic, and was then once more appointed commander of the fleet. He
was sent with a strong squadron to the Mediterranean to repress the Tripoli
piracies, and negotiated a treaty of peace with the Tripolitan government.
He enjoyed the confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of Holland, and,

after the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French empire, in an equal
degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was created marshal and
count of Huessen, and given the command of the armed forces both by sea
and land. Napoleon gave him the grand cross of the Legion of Honour and
appointed him inspector-general of the northern coasts, and in 1811 he
placed him at the head of the fleet he had collected at the Texel. Soon
afterwards De Winter was seized with illness and compelled to betake
himself to Paris, where he died on the 2nd of June 1812. He had a splendid
public funeral and was buried in the Pantheon. His heart was enclosed in an
urn and placed in the Nicolaas Kerk at Kampen.

DE WITT, CORNELIUS (1623-1672), brother of John de Witt (q.v.),
was born at Dort in 1623. In 1650 he became burgomaster of Dort and
member of the states of Holland and West Friesland. He was afterwards
appointed to the important post of ruwaard or governor of the land of
Putten and bailiff of Beierland. He associated himself closely with his
greater brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout his
career with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the deputy chosen by
the states of Holland to accompany Admiral de Ruyter in his famous
expedition to Chatham. Cornelius de Witt on this occasion distinguished
himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De
Ruyter in 1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at Sole
Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled by illness to
leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that the Orange party were in
the ascendant, and he and his brother were the objects of popular suspicion
and hatred. An account of his imprisonment, trial and death, is given below.

DE WITT, JOHN (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at Dort, on
the 24th of September 1625. He was a member of one of the old burgher-
regent families of his native town. His father, Jacob de Witt, was six times
burgomaster of Dort, and for many years sat as a representative of the town
in the states of Holland. He was a strenuous adherent of the republican or
oligarchical states-right party in opposition to the princes of the house of
Orange, who represented the federal principle and had the support of the
masses of the people. John was educated at Leiden, and early displayed
remarkable talents, more especially in mathematics and jurisprudence. In
1645 he and his elder brother Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland
and England, and on his return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an
advocate. In 1650 he was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which
made him the leader and spokesman of the town's deputation in the state of
Holland. In this same year the states of Holland found themselves engaged
in a struggle for provincial supremacy, on the question of the disbanding of
troops, with the youthful prince of Orange, William II. William, with the
support of the states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders of the
states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle; among these
was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William, at the moment when he
had crushed opposition, led to a reaction. He left only a posthumous child,
afterwards William III. of Orange, and the principles advocated by Jacob de
Witt triumphed, and the authority of the states of Holland became
predominant in the republic.

At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence, sagacity and
business talents exhibited by the youthful pensionary of Dort that on the
23rd of July 1653 he was appointed to the office of grand pensionary
(Raadpensionaris) of Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He was re-elected
in 1658, 1663 and 1668, and held office until his death in 1672. During this
period of nineteen years the general conduct of public affairs and
administration, and especially of foreign affairs, such was the confidence

inspired by his talents and industry, was largely placed in his hands. He
found in 1653 his country brought to the brink of ruin through the war with
England, which had been caused by the keen commercial rivalry of the two
maritime states. The Dutch were unprepared, and suffered severely through
the loss of their carrying trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about peace as
soon as possible. The first demands of Cromwell were impossible, for they
aimed at the absorption of the two republics into a single state, but at last in
the autumn of 1654 peace was concluded, by which the Dutch made large
concessions and agreed to the striking of the flag to English ships in the
narrow seas. The treaty included a secret article, which the states-general
refused to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in inducing the states of
Holland to accept, by which the provinces of Holland pledged themselves
not to elect a stadtholder or a captain-general of the union. This Act of
Seclusion, as it was called, was aimed at the young prince of Orange, whose
close relationship to the Stuarts made him an object of suspicion to the
Protector. De Witt was personally favourable to this exclusion of William
III. from his ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that
he prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter.

The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently successful.
He restored the finances of the state, and extended its commercial
supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he sustained Denmark against
Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an advantageous peace with Portugal. The
accession of Charles II. to the English throne led to the rescinding of the
Act of Seclusion; nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the prince
of Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This led to ill-will
between the English and Dutch governments, and to a renewal of the old
grievances about maritime and commercial rights, and war broke out in
1665. The zeal, industry and courage displayed by the grand pensionary
during the course of this fiercely contested naval struggle could scarcely
have been surpassed. He himself on more than one occasion went to sea

with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came in contact by the
example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action and inflexible
strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an organizer and a diplomatist
quite as much as to the brilliant seamanship of Admiral de Ruyter, that the
terms of the treaty of peace signed at Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle
of uti possidetis, were so honourable to the United Provinces. A still greater
triumph of diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the Triple Alliance
(January 17, 1668) between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden,
which checked the attempt of Louis XIV. to take possession of the Spanish
Netherlands in the name of his wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check,
however, was but temporary, and the French king only bided his time to
take vengeance for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III. was
growing to manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout the country
spared no efforts to undermine the authority of De Witt, and secure for the
young prince of Orange the dignities and authority of his ancestors.

In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded the United
Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically no resistance was
possible. The unanimous voice of the people called William III. to the head
of affairs, and there were violent demonstrations against John de Witt. His
brother Cornelius was (July 24) arrested on a charge of conspiring against
the prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt resigned the post of grand
pensionary that he had held so long and with such distinction. Cornelius
was put to the torture, and on the 19th of August he was sentenced to
deprivation of his offices and banishment. He was confined in the
Gevangenpoort, and his brother came to visit him in the prison. A vast
crowd on hearing this collected outside, and finally burst into the prison,
seized the two brothers and literally tore them to pieces. Their mangled
remains were hung up by the feet to a lamp-post. Thus perished, by the
savage act of an infuriated mob, one of the greatest statesmen of his age.

John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influential
burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two sons and three
daughters.

Bibliography.—J. Geddes, History of the Administration of John de Witt,
(vol. i. only, London, 1879); A. Lefèvre-Pontalis, Jean de Witt, grand
pensionnaire de Hollande (2 vols., Paris, 1884); P. Simons, Johan de Witt
en zijn tijd (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842); W. C. Knottenbelt,
Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt (Amsterdam, 1862); J. de Witt,
Brieven ... gewisselt tusschen den Heer Johan de Witt ... ende de
gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d. Vereen. Nederlanden so in Vranckryck,
Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken, Poolen, enz. 1652-69 (6 vols., The
Hague, 1723-1725); Brieven ... 1650-1657 (1658) eerste deel bewerkt den
R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W. Kernkamp (Amsterdam, 1906).

DEWLAP (from the O.E. læppa, a lappet, or hanging fold; the first
syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explanation that the word
means "the fold which brushes the dew" is not borne out, according to the
New English Dictionary, by the equivalent words such as the Danish
doglaeb, in Scandinavian languages), the loose fold of skin hanging from
the neck of cattle, also applied to similar folds in the necks of other animals
and fowls, as the dog, turkey, &c. The American practice of branding cattle
by making a cut in the neck is known as a "dewlap brand." The skin of the
neck in human beings often becomes pendulous with age, and is sometimes
referred to humorously by the same name.

DEWSBURY, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough
in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river Calder, 8 m. S.S.W.
of Leeds, on the Great Northern, London & North-Western, and Lancashire

& Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 28,060. The parish church of All Saints
was for the most part rebuilt in the latter half of the 18th century; the
portions still preserved of the original structure are mainly Early English.
The chief industries are the making of blankets, carpets, druggets and
worsted yarn; and there are iron foundries and machinery works. Coal is
worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary borough includes the
adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and returns one member. The
municipal borough, incorporated in 1862, is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and
18 councillors. Area, 1471 acres. Paulinus, first archbishop of York, about
the year 627 preached in the district of Dewsbury, where Edwin, king of
Northumbria, whom he converted to Christianity, had a royal mansion. At
Kirklees, in the parish, are remains of a Cistercian convent of the 12th
century, in an extensive park, where tradition relates that Robin Hood died
and was buried.

DEXIPPUS, PUBLIUS HERENNIUS (c. A.D. 210-273), Greek
historian, statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian
family of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon basileus and
eponymus in Athens. When the Heruli overran Greece and captured Athens
(269), Dexippus showed great personal courage and revived the spirit of
patriotism among his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up in
his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording his services,
has been preserved (Corpus Inscrr. Atticarum, iii. No. 716). It is remarkable
that the inscription is silent as to his military achievements. Photius (cod.
82) mentions three historical works by Dexippus, of which considerable
fragments remain: (1) Τὰ μετ᾽ Ἀλέξανδρον, an epitome of a similarly
named work by Arrian; (2) Σκυθικά, a history of the wars of Rome with the
Goths (or Scythians) in the 3rd century; (3) Χρονικὴ ἱστορία, a
chronological history from the earliest times to the emperor Claudius

Gothicus (270), frequently referred to by the writers of the Augustan
history. The work was continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404.
Photius speaks very highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a
level with Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the fragments
(C. W. Müller, F.H.G. iii. 666-687).

DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821-1890), American clergyman and
author, was born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the 13th of August 1821.
He graduated at Yale in 1840 and at the Andover Theological Seminary in
1844; was pastor of a Congregational church in Manchester, New
Hampshire, in 1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational
church, Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the Congregationalist in
1851-1866, of the Congregational Quarterly in 1859-1866, and of the
Congregationalist, with which the Recorder was merged, from 1867 until
his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the 13th of November 1890. He was
an authority on the history of Congregationalism and was lecturer on that
subject at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879; he left his fine
library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among his works are:
Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is, How it works, Why it is better
than any other Form of Church Government, and its consequent Demands
(1865), The Church Polity of the Puritans the Polity of the New Testament
(1870), As to Roger Williams and His "Banishment" from the Massachusetts
Colony (1876), Congregationalism of the Last Three Hundred Years, as
seen in its Literature (1880), his most important work, A Handbook of
Congregationalism (1880), The True Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptist"
(1881), Common Sense as to Woman Suffrage (1885), and many reprints of
pamphlets bearing on early church history in New England, especially
Baptist controversies. His The England and Holland of the Pilgrims was
completed by his son, Morton Dexter (b. 1846), and published in 1905.

DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1747-1806), American merchant, remarkable
for his eccentricities, was born at Malden, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of
February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth by buying up quantities of
the depreciated continental currency, which was ultimately redeemed by the
Federal government at par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter and built
extraordinary houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New Hampshire.
He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior pictures, besides
erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal statues carved in wood to
represent famous men. A statue of himself was included in the collection,
and had for an inscription "I am the first in the East, the first in the West,
and the greatest philosopher in the Western World." He wrote a book
entitled Pickle for the Knowing Ones. It was wholly without punctuation
marks, and as this aroused comment, he published a second edition, at the
end of which was a page displaying nothing but commas and stops, from
which the readers were invited to "peper and solt it as they plese." He beat
his wife for not weeping enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he
himself carried out in a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on
the 26th of October 1806.

DEXTRINE (British Gum, Starch Gum, Leiocome), (C6H10O5)x, a
substance produced from starch by the action of dilute acids, or by roasting
it at a temperature between 170° and 240° C. It is manufactured by spraying
starch with 2% nitric acid, drying in air, and then heating to about 110°.
Different modifications are known, e.g. amylodextrine, erythrodextrine and
achroodextrine. Its name has reference to its powerful dextrorotatory action
on polarized light. Pure dextrine is an insipid, odourless, white substance;
commercial dextrine is sometimes yellowish, and contains burnt or
unchanged starch. It dissolves in water and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol

it is precipitated from its solutions as the hydrated compound,
C6H10O5.H2O. Diastase converts it eventually into maltose, C12H22O11; and
by boiling with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is
transformed into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, C6H12O6. It does not
ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce Fehling's solution. If
heated with strong nitric acid it gives oxalic, and not mucic acid. Dextrine
much resembles gum arabic, for which it is generally substituted. It is
employed for sizing paper, for stiffening cotton goods, and for thickening
colours in calico printing, also in the making of lozenges, adhesive stamps
and labels, and surgical bandages.

See Otto Lueger, Lexikon der gesamten Technik.

DEY (an adaptation of the Turk, dāī, a maternal uncle), an honorary title
formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men, and appropriated by the
janissaries as the designation of their commanding officers. In Algeria the
deys of the janissaries became in the 17th century rulers of that country (see
Algeria: History). From the middle of the 16th century to the end of the
17th century the ruler of Tunisia was also called dey, a title frequently used
during the same period by the sovereigns of Tripoli.

DHAMMAPĀLA, the name of one of the early disciples of the Buddha,
and therefore constantly chosen as their name in religion by Buddhist
novices on their entering the brotherhood. The most famous of the Bhikshus
so named was the great commentator who lived in the latter half of the 5th
century A.D. at the Badara Tittha Vihdāra, near the east coast of India, just a
little south of where Madras now stands. It is to him we owe the
commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books, consisting almost

entirely of verses, and also the commentary on the Netti, perhaps the oldest
Pāli work outside the canon. Extracts from the latter work, and the whole of
three out of the seven others, have been published by the Pdāli Text Society.
These works show great learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But
as Dhammapāla confines himself rigidly either to questions of the meaning
of words, or to discussions of the ethical import of his texts, very little can
be gathered from his writings of value for the social history of his time. For
the right interpretation of the difficult texts on which he comments, they are
indispensable. Though in all probability a Tamil by birth, he declares, in the
opening lines of those of his works that have been edited, that he followed
the tradition of the Great Minster at Anurdādhapura in Ceylon, and the
works themselves confirm this in every respect. Hsüan Tsang, the famous
Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint story of a Dhammapdāla of Kdānchipura (the
modern Konjevaram). He was a son of a high official, and betrothed to a
daughter of the king, but escaped on the eve of the wedding feast, entered
the order, and attained to reverence and distinction. It is most likely that this
story, whether legendary or not (and Hsüan Tsang heard the story at
Kdānchipura nearly two centuries after the date of Dhammapdāla), referred
to this author. But it may also refer, as Hsüan Tsang refers it, to another
author of the same name. Other unpublished works, besides those
mentioned above, have been ascribed to Dhammapdāla, but it is very
doubtful whether they are really by him.

Authorities.—T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang (ed. Rhys Davids and
Bushell, London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in Zeitschrift der
deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft (1898), pp. 97 foll.; Netti (ed. E.
Hardy, London, Pāli Text Society, 1902), especially the Introduction,
passim; Therī Gdāthdā Commentary, Peta Vatthu Commentary, and
Vimdāna Vatthu Commentary, all three published by the Pāli Text Society.
(T. W. R. D.)

DHANIS, FRANCIS, Baron (1861-1909), Belgian administrator, was
born in London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen years of his life at
Greenock, where he received his early education. He was the son of a
Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady named Maher. The name Dhanis is
supposed to be a variation of D'Anvers. Having completed his education at
the École Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment of
grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he reached the
rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the Congo, and in 1887 he
went out for a first term. He did so well in founding new stations north of
the Congo that, when the government decided to put an end to the Arab
domination on the Upper Congo, he was selected to command the chief
expedition sent against the slave dealers. The campaign began in April
1892, and it was not brought to a successful conclusion till January 1894.
The story of this war has been told in detail by Dr Sydney Hinde, who took
part in it, in his book The Fall of the Congo Arabs. The principal
achievements of the campaign were the captures in succession of the three
Arab strongholds at Nyangwe, Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services
Dhanis was raised to the rank of baron, and in 1895 was made vice-
governor of the Congo State. In 1896 he took command of an expedition to
the Upper Nile. His troops, largely composed of the Batetela tribes who had
only been recently enlisted, and who had been irritated by the execution of
some of their chiefs for indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and
murdered many of their white officers. Dhanis found himself confronted
with a more formidable adversary than even the Arabs in these well-armed
and half-disciplined mercenaries. During two years (1897-1898) he was
constantly engaged in a life-and-death struggle with them. Eventually he
succeeded in breaking up the several bands formed out of his mutinous
soldiers. Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less striking
than those of the Arab war, many students of both think that the Belgian
leader displayed the greater ability and fortitude in bringing them to a

successful issue. In 1899 Baron Dhanis returned to Belgium with the
honorary rank of vice governor-general. He died on the 14th of November
1909.

DHAR, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency, Central India. It
includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories, and has an area of 1775 sq. m.
The raja is a Punwar Mahratta. The founder of the present ruling family was
Anand Rao Punwar, a descendant of the great Paramara clan of Rajputs who
from the 9th to the 13th century, when they were driven out by the
Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar. In 1742
Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the peshwa, the victory
of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign power to the family which
seven centuries before had been expelled from this very city and country.
Towards the close of the 18th and in the early part of the 19th century, the
state was subject to a series of spoliations by Sindia and Holkar, and was
only preserved from destruction by the talents and courage of the adoptive
mother of the fifth raja. By a treaty of 1819 Dhar passed under British
protection, and bound itself to act in subordinate co-operation. The state
was confiscated for rebellion in 1857, but in 1860 was restored to Raja
Anand Rao Punwar, then a minor, with the exception of the detached
district of Bairusia, which was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand Rao,
who received the personal title Maharaja and the K.C.S.I. in 1877, died in
1898, and was succeeded by Udaji Rao Punwar. In 1901 the population was
142,115. The state includes the ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the
Mahommedan capital of Malwa.

The Town of Dhar is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea. Pop.
(1901) 17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes and trees
surrounded by barren hills, and possesses, besides its old walls, many

interesting buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan, some of them containing
records of a great historical importance. The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque,
was built by Dilawar Khan in 1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It
derives its name from an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up
at the beginning of the 13th century in commemoration of a victory, and
bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the town of the
emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft. high, is now
overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an enclosure containing four
tombs, the most notable being that of Shaikh Kamal Maulvi (Kamal-ud-
din), a follower of the famous 13th-century Mussulman saint Nizam-ud-din
Auliya.[1] The mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built out of Hindu
remains in the 14th or 15th century: its name is derived from the slabs,
covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit grammar, with which it is
paved. On a small hill to the north of the town stands the fort, a conspicuous
pile of red sandstone, said to have been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of
Delhi in the 14th century. It contains the palace of the raja. Of modern
institutions may be mentioned the high school, public library, hospital, and
the chapel, school and hospital of the Canadian Presbyterian mission. There
is also a government opium depot for the payment of duty, the town being a
considerable centre for the trade in opium as well as in grain.

The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari (the
city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the capital of the
Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who transferred his
headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th century. During the
rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous throughout India as a centre
of culture and learning; but, after suffering various vicissitudes, it was
finally conquered by the Mussulmans at the beginning of the 14th century.
At the close of the century Dilawar Khan, the builder of the Lat Masjid,
who had been appointed governor in 1399, practically established his
independence, his son Hoshang Shah being the first Mahommedan king of
Malwa. Under this dynasty Dhar was second in importance to the capital
Mandu. Subsequently, in the time of Akbar, Dhar fell under the dominion of

the Moguls, in whose hands it remained till 1730, when it was conquered by
the Mahrattas.
See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908).

[1] Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near Delhi, was, according
to some authorities, an assassin of the secret society of Khorasan. By some modern
authorities he is supposed to have been the founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a
special reverence for his memory.

DHARAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Surat political agency
division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The population in 1901 was
100,430, being a decrease of 17% during the decade; the estimated gross
revenue is £25,412; and the tribute £600. Its chief is a Sesodia Rajput. The
state has been surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay system. It contains
one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272 villages. Only a
small part of the state, the climate of which is very unhealthy, is capable of
cultivation; the rest is covered with rocky hills, forest and brushwood.

DHARMSALA, a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab, India,
situated on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N.E. of Kangra town, at an
elevation of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971. The scenery of Dharmsala is
of peculiar grandeur. The spur on which it stands is thickly wooded with
oak and other trees; behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain tower
towards the jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half the year;
while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra valley. In 1855
Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the Kangra district of the Punjab
in place of Kangra, and became the centre of a European settlement and

cantonment, largely occupied by Gurkha regiments. The station was
destroyed by the earthquake of April 1905, in which 1625 persons,
including 25 Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha garrison, perished (Imperial
Gazetteer of India, 1908).

DHARWAR, a town and district of British India, in the southern division
of Bombay. The town has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. The
population in 1901 was 31,279. It has several ginning factories and a
cotton-mill; two high schools, one maintained by the Government and the
other by the Basel German Mission.

The District of Dharwar has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the north and
north-east are great plains of black soil, favourable to cotton-growing; in
the south and west are successive ranges of low hills, with flat fertile
valleys between them. The whole district lies high and has no large rivers.

In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of 6% in the
decade. The most influential classes of the community are Brahmans and
Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968, or 46% of the Hindu population;
they worship the symbol of Siva, and males and females both carry this
emblem about their person in a silver case. The principal crops are millets,
pulse and cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and Gadag,
junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the district in
several directions.

The early history of the territory comprised within the district of Dharwar
has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription slabs and
memorial stones which abound there. From these it is clear that the country
fell in turn under the sway of the various dynasties that ruled in the Deccan,
memorials of the Chalukyan dynasty, whether temples or inscriptions, being

especially abundant. In the 14th century the district was first overrun by the
Mahommedans, after which it was annexed to the newly established Hindu
kingdom of Vijayanagar, an official of which named Dhar Rao, according to
local tradition, built the fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of
the king of Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years
practically independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573 the fort was
captured by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was annexed to his
dominions. In 1685 the fort was taken by the emperor Aurangzeb, and
Dharwar, on the break-up of the Mogul empire, fell under the sway of the
peshwa of Poona. In 1764 the province was overrun by Hyder Ali of
Mysore, who in 1778 captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in
1791 by the Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817,
Dharwar was incorporated with the territory of the East India Company.

DHOLPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an
area of 1155 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country, without any special
manufactures. All along the bank of the river Chambal the country is deeply
intersected by ravines; low ranges of hills in the western portion of the state
supply inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and easily-worked red
sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was 270,973, showing a
decrease of 3% in the decade. The estimated revenue is £83,000. The state
is crossed by the Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to Agra. In recent
years it has suffered severely from drought. In 1896-1897 the expenditure
on famine relief amounted to £8190.

The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,310. The
present town, which dates from the 16th century, stands somewhat to the
north of the site of the older Hindu town built, it is supposed, in the 11th
century by the Tonwar Rajput Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named

after him Dholdera or Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the
town may be mentioned the fortified sarai built in the reign of Akbar,
within which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one of
his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is growing in
importance as a centre of trade.

Little is known of the early history of the country forming the state of
Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by the Tonwar Rajputs,
who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th to the 12th century. In 1450 it had a
raja of its own; but in 1501 the fort of Dholpur was taken by the
Mahommedans under Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred to a
Mussulman governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort was
captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed under the sway
of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the province of Agra. During the
dissensions which followed the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, Raja Kalyan
Singh Bhadauria obtained possession of Dholpur, and his family retained it
till 1761, after which it was taken successively by the Jat raja, Suraj Mal of
Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803
by the British. It was restored to Sindhia by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon,
but in consequence of new arrangements was again occupied by the British.
Finally, in 1806, the territories of Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were handed
over to the maharaj rana Kirat Singh, ancestor of the present chiefs of
Dholpur, in exchange for his state of Gohad, which was ceded to Sindhia.

The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia Jats, who
are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo-Scythian wave of
invasion which swept over northern India about A.D. 100. An ancestor of
the family appears to have held certain territories at Bamraoli near Agra c.
1195. His descendant in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished himself
in an expedition against the freebooters of the Deccan, was rewarded by the
sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the title of rana. In 1779

the rana of Gohad joined the British forces against Sindhia, under a treaty
which stipulated that, at the conclusion of peace between the English and
Mahrattas, all the territories then in his possession should be guaranteed to
him, and protected from invasion by Sindhia. This protection was
subsequently withdrawn, the rana having been guilty of treachery, and in
1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing the fortress of Gwalior, and crushed
his Jat opponent by seizing the whole of Gohad. In 1804, however, the
family were restored to Gohad by the British government; but, owing to the
opposition of Sindhia, the rana agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his
present territory of Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the
chief binding himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the paramount
power, and to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes to the British
government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana of Dholpur, was succeeded
in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh, who showed great loyalty during the
Mutiny of 1857, was created a K.C.S.I., and G.C.S.I. in 1869. He was
succeeded in 1873 by his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the C.B. and
frontier medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in 1901, and was
succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883).

See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908) and authorities there
given.

DHOW, the name given to a type of vessel used throughout the Arabian
Sea. The language to which the word belongs is unknown. According to the
New English Dictionary the place of origin may be the Persian Gulf,
assuming that the word is identical with the tava mentioned by Athanasius
Nikitin (India in the 15th Century, Hakluyt Society, 1858). Though the
word is used generally of any craft along the East African coast, it is usually
applied to the vessel of about 150 to 200 tons burden with a stem rising
with a long slope from the water; dhows generally have one mast with a

lateen sail, the yard being of enormous length. Much of the coasting trade
of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf is carried on by these vessels. They were
the regular vessels employed in the slave trade from the east coast of Africa.

DHRANGADRA, a native state of India, in the Gujarat division of
Bombay, situated in the north of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area is 1156
sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The estimated gross revenue is £38,000 and the
tribute £3000. A state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to the
town of Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in 1898.
Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor; the
manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand-mills. The chief
town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of 14,770.

The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with the
predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala Rajputs, who
are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in the 8th century. Raj Sahib
Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji (b. 1837), who succeeded his father in 1869,
was distinguished for the enlightened character of his administration,
especially in the matter of establishing schools and internal
communications. He was created a K.C.S.I in 1877. He died in 1900, and
was succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b. 1872).

DHULEEP SINGH (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born in
February 1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the 18th of September
1843, under the regency of his mother the rani Jindan, a woman of great
capacity and strong will, but extremely inimical to the British. He was
acknowledged by Ranjit Singh and recognized by the British government.
After six years of peace the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but

were defeated in four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore,
the capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but it was
administered to a great extent by the British government in his name. This
arrangement increased the regent's dislike of the British, and a fresh
outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite of the valour of the Sikhs, they were
utterly routed at Gujarat, and in March 1849 Dhuleep Singh was deposed, a
pension of £40,000 a year being granted to him and his dependants. He
became a Christian and elected to live in England. On coming of age he
made an arrangement with the British government by which his income was
reduced to £25,000 in consideration of advances for the purchase of an
estate, and he finally settled at Elvedon in Suffolk. While passing through
Alexandria in 1864 he met Miss Bamba Müller, the daughter of a German
merchant who had married an Abyssinian. The maharaja had been
interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he met Miss Müller at
one of the missionary schools where she was teaching. She became his wife
on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were the issue of the marriage. In
the year after her death in 1890 the maharaja married at Paris, as his second
wife, an English lady, Miss Ada Douglas Wetherill, who survived him. The
maharaja was passionately fond of sport, and his shooting parties were
celebrated, while he himself became a persona grata in English society.
The result, however, was financial difficulty, and in 1882 he appealed to the
government for assistance, making various claims based upon the alleged
possession of private estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the
Koh-i-nor diamond to the British Crown. His demand was rejected,
whereupon he started for India, after drawing up a proclamation to his
former subjects. But as it was deemed inadvisable to allow him to visit the
Punjab, he remained for some time as a guest at the residency at Aden, and
was allowed to receive some of his relatives to witness his abjuration of
Christianity, which actually took place within the residency itself. As the
climate began to affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and

returned to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his
claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but when that
expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where he lived for the rest
of his life on the pension allowed him by the Indian government. His death
from an attack of apoplexy took place at Paris on the 22nd of October 1893.
The maharaja's eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay Dhuleep Singh (b.
1866), was educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges, Cambridge. In 1888
he obtained a commission in the 1st Royal Dragoon Guards. In 1898 he
married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the earl of Coventry.
(G. F. B.)

DHULIA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of West
Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the Panjhra river. Pop.
(1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done in cotton and oil-seeds, and
weaving of cotton. A railway connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the main
line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.

DIABASE, in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of dolerite. It
was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks of this group differed
from their Tertiary and Recent representatives in certain essential respects,
but this is now admitted to be untenable, and the differences are known to
be merely the result of the longer exposure to decomposition, pressure and
shearing, which the older rocks have experienced. Their olivine tends to
become serpentinized; their augite changes to chlorite and uralite; their
felspars are clouded by formation of zeolites, calcite, sericite and epidote.
The rocks acquire a green colour (from the development of chlorite, uralite
and epidote); hence the older name of "greenstones," which is now little
used. Many of them become somewhat schistose from pressure

("greenstone-schists," meta-diabase, &c.). Although the original definition
of the group can no longer be justified, the name is so well established in
current usage that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and dolerite
are employed really to designate distinct facies of the same set of rocks.

The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz. olivine,
augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities of hornblende,
biotite, iron oxides and apatite.
There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine; quartz-diabases,
analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende diabases (or
proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is characteristic of another group.
Many of them are ophitic, especially those which contain olivine, but others
are intersertal, like the intersertal dolerites. The last include most quartz-
diabases, hypersthene-diabases and the rocks which have been described as
tholeites. Porphyritic structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites, some of
which are highly vesicular and contain remains of an abundant fine-grained
or partly glassy ground-mass (diabas-mandelstein, amygdaloidal diabase).
The somewhat ill-defined spilites are regarded by many as modifications of
diabase-porphyrite. In the intersertal and porphyrite diabases, fresh or
devitrified glassy base is not infrequent. It is especially conspicuous in
some tholeites (hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks consist
of augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a brown, vitreous,
interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte (sordawilite, &c.) occur at
the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite sills and dikes, and fine-grained
spotted rocks with large spherulites of grey or greenish felspar, and
branching growths of brownish-green augite (variolites).
To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented by the
diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary dolerites. In the
older rocks, however, certain minerals are more common than in the newer.
Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours and somewhat fibrous habit, is
very frequent in diabase; it is in most cases secondary after pyroxene, and is
then known as uralite; often it forms pseudomorphs which retain the shape
of the original augite. Where diabases have been crushed or sheared,
hornblende readily develops at the expense of pyroxene, sometimes

replacing it completely. In the later stages of alteration the amphibole
becomes compact and well crystallized; the rocks consist of green
hornblende and plagioclase felspar, and are then generally known as
epidiorites or amphibolites. At the same time a schistose structure is
produced. But transition forms are very common, having more or less of the
augite remaining, surrounded by newly formed hornblende which at first is
rather fibrous and tends to spread outwards through the surrounding felspar.
Chlorite also is abundant both in sheared and unsheared diabases, and with
it calcite may make its appearance, or the lime set free from the augite may
combine with the titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to form
incrustations or borders of sphene around the original crystals of ilmenite.
Epidote is another secondary lime-bearing mineral which results from the
decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the pyroxenes. Many diabases,
especially those of the teschenite sub-group, are filled with zeolites.
Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of all parts of
the globe. Popular names for them are "whinstone," "greenstone,"
"toadstone" and "trap." They form excellent road-mending stones and are
much quarried for this purpose, being tough, durable and resistant to wear,
so long as they are not extremely decomposed. Many of them are to be
preferred to the fresher dolerites as being less brittle. The quality of the
Cornish greenstones appears to have been distinctly improved by a smaller
amount of recrystallization where they have been heated by contact with
intrusive masses of granite.
(J. S. F.)

DIABETES (from Gr. διά, through, and βαίνειν, to pass), a
constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive discharge of
urine. Two forms of this complaint are described, viz. Diabetes Mellitus, or
Glycosuria, where the urine is not only increased in quantity, but
persistently contains a greater or less amount of sugar, and Diabetes
Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the urine is simply increased in quantity, and
contains no abnormal ingredient. This latter, however, must be

distinguished from the polyuria due to chronic granular kidney, lardaceous
disease of the kidney, and also occurring in certain cases of hysteria.

Diabetes mellitus is the disease to which the term is most commonly
applied, and is by far the more serious and important ailment. It is one of
the diseases due to altered metabolism (see Metabolic Diseases). It is
markedly hereditary, much more prevalent in towns and especially modern
city life than in more primitive rustic communities, and most common
among the Jews. The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually considered
one cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour its occurrence,
but many observers consider that the obesity so often met with among
diabetics is due to the same cause as the disease itself. No age is exempt,
but it occurs most commonly in the fifth decade of life. It attacks males
twice as frequently as females, and fair more frequently than dark people.

The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the patient may
suffer for a length of time before he thinks it necessary to apply for medical
aid. The first symptoms which attract attention are failure of strength, and
emaciation, along with great thirst and an increased amount and frequent
passage of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2 to 3 pints in the 24
hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or even more. It is usually
of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than normal urine, possesses a
decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific gravity (1030 to 1050). It
frequently gives rise to considerable irritation of the urinary passages.

By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from diabetic
urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests of sugar, while the
amount of this substance can be accurately estimated by certain analytical
processes. The quantity of sugar passed may vary from a few ounces to two
or more pounds per diem, and it is found to be markedly increased after
saccharine or starchy food has been taken. Sugar may also be found in the
blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all the excretions of persons suffering

from this disease. One of the most distressing symptoms is intense thirst,
which the patient is constantly seeking to allay, the quantity of liquid
consumed being in general enormous, and there is usually, but not
invariably, a voracious appetite. The mouth is always parched, and a faint,
sweetish odour may be evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease
upon the general health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and
more emaciated. He suffers from increasing muscular weakness, the
temperature of his body is lowered, and the skin is dry and harsh. There is
often a peculiar flush on the face, not limited to the malar eminences, but
extending up to the roots of the hair. The teeth are loosened or decay, there
is a tendency to bleeding from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms,
constipation and loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There
is in general great mental depression or irritability.

Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in the case of
young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be rapid. The complications
of the disease are many and serious. It may cause impaired vision by
weakening the muscles of accommodation, or by lessening the sensitiveness
of the retina to light. Also cataract is very common. Skin affections of all
kinds may occur and prove very intractable. Boils, carbuncles, cellulitis and
gangrene are all apt to occur as life advances, though gangrene is much
more frequent in men than in women. Diabetics are especially liable to
phthisis and pneumonia, and gangrene of the lungs may set in if the patient
survives the crisis in the latter disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds,
kidney diseases and heart failure due to fatty heart are all of common
occurrence. Also patients seem curiously susceptible to the poison of enteric
fever, though the attack usually runs a mild course. The sugar temporarily
disappears during the fever. But the most serious complication of all is
known as diabetic coma, which is very commonly the final cause of death.
The onset is often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a
rapid fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either constipation

or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal pain. At first the
condition is rather that of collapse than true coma, though later the patient is
absolutely comatose. The patient suffers from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea,
and the breath and skin have a sweet ethereal odour. The condition may last
from twenty-four hours to three days, but is almost invariably the precursor
of death.

Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being exceedingly rare.
Over 50% die of coma, another 25% of phthisis or pneumonia, and the
remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral haemorrhage, gangrene, &c. The
most favourable cases are those in which the patient is advanced in years,
those in which it is associated with obesity or gout, and where the social
conditions are favourable. A few cures have been recorded in which the
disease supervened after some acute illness. The unfavourable cases are
those in which there is a family history of the disease and in which the
patient is young. Nevertheless much may be done by appropriate treatment
to mitigate the severity of the symptoms and to prolong life.

There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that of drugs,
but each must be modified and determined entirely by the idiosyncrasy of
the patient, which varies in this condition between very wide limits. That of
diet is of primary importance inasmuch as it has been proved beyond
question that certain kinds of food have a powerful influence in aggravating
the disease, more particularly those consisting largely of saccharine and
starchy matter; and it may be stated generally that the various methods of
treatment proposed aim at the elimination as far as possible of these
constituents from the diet. Hence it is recommended that such articles as
bread, potatoes and all farinaceous foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and
most fruits should be avoided; while animal food and soups, green
vegetables, cream, cheese, eggs, butter, and tea and coffee without sugar,
may be taken with advantage. As a substitute for ordinary bread, which

most persons find it difficult to do without for any length of time, bran
bread, gluten bread and almond biscuits. A patient must never pass suddenly
from an ordinary to a carbohydrate-free diet. Any such sudden transition is
extremely liable to bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made
quite gradually, one form of carbohydrate after another being taken out of
the diet, whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed is being carefully
noted meanwhile. The treatment may be begun by excluding potatoes, sugar
and fruit, and only after several days is the bread to be replaced by some
diabetic substitute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to its lowest
point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount of carbohydrate
may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect on the glycosuria being
estimated. The best diet can only be worked out experimentally for each
individual patient. But in every case, if drowsiness or any symptom
suggesting coma supervene, all restrictions must be withdrawn, and
carbohydrate freely allowed. The question of alcohol is one which must be
largely determined by the previous history of the patient, but a small
quantity will help to make up the deficiencies of a diet poor in
carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky, and Hollands gin, are usually free
from sugar, and some of the light Bordeaux wines contain very little. Fat is
beneficial, and can be given as cream, fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green
vegetables are harmless, but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and
also celery and endive yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to 1½
ozs. daily without increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked or
raw, are allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form. The question of
milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to exclude it from the rigid diet,
allowing a certain quantity when the diet is being extended. Thirst is
relieved by anything that relieves the polyuria. But hypodermic injections
of pilocarpine stimulate the flow of saliva, and thus relieve the dryness of
the mouth. Constipation appears to increase the thirst, and must always be

carefully guarded against. The best remedies are the aperient mineral
waters.

Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in diabetes, but few
of them are worthy of mention as possessed of any efficacy. Opium is often
found of great service, its administration being followed by marked
amelioration in all the symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar action.
In the severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of little or no use,
and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin hydrochloride has been
tried in their place, but this seems to have more power over slight than over
severe cases. Salicylate of sodium and aspirin are both very beneficial,
causing a diminution in the sugar excretion without counterbalancing bad
effects.

In diabetes insipidus there is constant thirst and an excessive flow of
urine, which, however, is not found to contain any abnormal constituent. Its
effects upon the system are often similar to those of diabetes mellitus,
except that they are much less marked, the disease being in general very
slow in its progress. In some cases the health appears to suffer very slightly.
It is rarely a direct cause of death, but from its debilitating effects may
predispose to serious and fatal complications. It is best treated by tonics and
generous diet. Valerian has been found beneficial, the powdered root being
given in 5-grain doses.

DIABOLO, a game played with a sort of top in the shape of two cones
joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, and caught by means of a cord
strung to two sticks. The idea of the game appears originally to have come
from China, where a top (Kouengen), made of two hollow pierced cylinders
of metal or wood, joined by a rod—and often of immense size,—was made
by rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was used by pedlars to attract

customers. From China it was introduced by missionaries to Europe; and a
form of the game, known as "the devil on two sticks," appears to have been
known in England towards the end of the 18th century, and Lord Macartney
is credited with improvements in it. But its principal vogue was in France in
1812, where the top was called "le diable." Amusing old prints exist (see
Fry's Magazine, March and December 1907), depicting examples of the
popular craze in France at the time. The diable of those days resembled a
globular wooden dumb-bell with a short waist, and the sonorous hum when
spinning—the bruit du diable—was a pronounced feature. At intervals
during the century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a top
of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that the sensation
of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer, Gustave Phillipart,
discovering some old implements of the game, had experimented for some
time with new forms of top with a view to bringing it again into popularity;
and having devised the double-cone shape, and added a miniature bicycle
tire of rubber round the rims of the two ends of the double-cone, with other
improvements, he named it "diabolo." The use of celluloid in preference to
metal or wood as its material appears to have been due to a suggestion of
Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by the inventor on the subject. The game
of spinning, throwing and catching the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in
various directions, both as an exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in
"diabolo tennis" and other ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend
and the chief French seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906, its
vogue spread in 1907 so that in France and England it became the
fashionable "rage" among both children and adults.

The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor C. V. Boys
in the Proc. Phys. Soc. (London), Nov. 1907.

DIACONICON, in the Greek Church, the name given to a chamber on
the south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils, vessels, &c., of
the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II. (565-574), owing to a change
in the liturgy, the diaconicon and protheses were located in apses at the east
end of the aisles. Before that time there was only one apse. In the churches
in central Syria of slightly earlier date, the diaconicon is rectangular, the
side apses at Kalat-Seman having been added at a later date.

DIADOCHI (Gr. διαδἐχεσθαι, to receive from another), i.e.
"Successors," the name given to the Macedonian generals who fought for
the empire of Alexander after his death in 323 B.C. The name includes
Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, Antipater and his son
Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes and Lysimachus. The kingdoms
into which the Macedonian empire was divided under these rulers are
known as Hellenistic. The chief were Asia Minor and Syria under the
Seleucid Dynasty (q.v.), Egypt under the Ptolemies (q.v.), Macedonia under
the successors of Antigonus Gonatas, Pergamum (q.v.) under the Attalid
dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were merged in the Roman empire. (See
Macedonian Empire.)

DIAGONAL (Gr. ;δία, through, γωνία, a corner), in geometry, a line
joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a rectilinear figure.

DIAGORAS, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist,
flourished in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious in his youth
and a writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became an atheist because a great
wrong done to him was left unpunished by the gods. In consequence of his
blasphemous speeches, and especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he was
condemned to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head (Aristoph.
Clouds, 830; Birds, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth, where he is said

to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called Φρύγιοι λόγοι or
Ἀποπυργίζοντες, in which he probably attacked the Phrygian divinities.

DIAGRAM (Gr. διάγραμμα, from διαγράφειν, to mark out by lines), a
figure drawn in such a manner that the geometrical relations between the
parts of the figure illustrate relations between other objects. They may be
classed according to the manner in which they are intended to be used, and
also according to the kind of analogy which we recognize between the
diagram and the thing represented. The diagrams in mathematical treatises
are intended to help the reader to follow the mathematical reasoning. The
construction of the figure is defined in words so that even if no figure were
drawn the reader could draw one for himself. The diagram is a good one if
those features which form the subject of the proposition are clearly
represented.

Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way—namely, for
purposes of measurement. The plans and designs drawn by architects and
engineers are used to determine the value of certain real magnitudes by
measuring certain distances on the diagram. For such purposes it is essential
that the drawing be as accurate as possible. We therefore class diagrams as
diagrams of illustration, which merely suggest certain relations to the mind
of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale, from which measurements
are intended to be made. There are some diagrams or schemes, however, in
which the form of the parts is of no importance, provided their connexions
are properly shown. Of this kind are the diagrams of electrical connexions,
and those belonging to that department of geometry which treats of the
degrees of cyclosis, periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness.

Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic.—Diagrams
may also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams, in which no

symbols are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular
points of the diagrams, and mixed diagrams, in which certain magnitudes
are represented, not by the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by
symbols, such as numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the height
of places above the level of the sea is often indicated by marking the
number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places on the map. There
is another method in which a line called a contour line is drawn through all
the places in the map whose height above the sea is a certain number of
feet, and the number of feet is written at some point or points of this line.
By the use of a series of contour lines, the height of a great number of
places can be indicated on a map by means of a small number of written
symbols. Still this method is not a purely graphical method, but a partly
symbolical method of expressing the third dimension of objects on a
diagram in two dimensions.

In order to express completely by a purely graphical method the relations
of magnitudes involving more than two variables, we must use more than
one diagram. Thus in the arts of construction we use plans and elevations
and sections through different planes, to specify the form of objects having
three dimensions. In such systems of diagrams we have to indicate that a
point in one diagram corresponds to a point in another diagram. This is
generally done by marking the corresponding points in the different
diagrams with the same letter. If the diagrams are drawn on the same piece
of paper we may indicate corresponding points by drawing a line from one
to the other, taking care that this line of correspondence is so drawn that it
cannot be mistaken for a real line in either diagram. (See Geometry:
Descriptive.)

In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of which the
form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are projections of the
bodies taken from two points so near each other that, by viewing the two

diagrams simultaneously, one with each eye, we identify the corresponding
points intuitively. The method in which we simultaneously contemplate two
figures, and recognize a correspondence between certain points in the one
figure and certain points in the other, is one of the most powerful and fertile
methods hitherto known in science. Thus in pure geometry the theories of
similar, reciprocal and inverse figures have led to many extensions of the
science. It is sometimes spoken of as the method or principle of Duality.
Geometry Projective.)

Diagrams in Mechanics.
The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by the use
of a series of diagrams representing the configuration, displacement and
acceleration of the parts of the system.
Diagram of Configuration.—In considering a material system it is often
convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at any given
instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The position of any
particle of the system is defined by drawing a straight line or vector from
the origin, or point of reference, to the given particle. The position of the
particle with respect to the origin is determined by the magnitude and
direction of this vector. If in the diagram we draw from the origin (which
need not be the same point of space as the origin for the material system) a
vector equal and parallel to the vector which determines the position of the
particle, the end of this vector will indicate the position of the particle in the
diagram of configuration. If this is done for all the particles we shall have a
system of points in the diagram of configuration, each of which corresponds
to a particle of the material system, and the relative positions of any pair of
these points will be the same as the relative positions of the material
particles which correspond to them.
We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the vectors
are supposed to be drawn—one for the material system, the other for the
diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn from them, may
now be omitted, so that we have on the one hand the material system and on
the other a set of points, each point corresponding to a particle of the

system, and the whole representing the configuration of the system at a
given instant.
This is called a diagram of configuration.
Diagram of Displacement.—Let us next consider two diagrams of
configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different instants.
We call the first the initial configuration and the second the final
configuration, and the passage from the one configuration to the other we
call the displacement of the system. We do not at present consider the
length of time during which the displacement was effected, nor the
intermediate stages through which it passed, but only the final result—a
change of configuration. To study this change we construct a diagram of
displacement.
Let A, B, C be the points in the initial diagram of configuration, and A′,
B′, C′ be the corresponding points in the final diagram of configuration.
From o, the origin of the diagram of displacement, draw a vector oa equal
and parallel to AA′, ob equal and parallel to BB′, oc to CC′, and so on. The
points a, b, c, &c., will be such that the vector ab indicates the displacement
of B relative to A, and so on. The diagram containing the points a, b, c, &c.,
is therefore called the diagram of displacement.
In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto assumed
that we know the absolute displacements of the points of the system. For we
are required to draw a line equal and parallel to AA′, which we cannot do
unless we know the absolute final position of A, with respect to its initial
position. In this diagram of displacement there is therefore, besides the
points a, b, c, &c., an origin, o, which represents a point absolutely fixed in
space. This is necessary because the two configurations do not exist at the
same time; and therefore to express their relative position we require to
know a point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time.
But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume
a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space.
Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and equal to BA in the
initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel and equal to A′B′ in the

final configuration. It is easy to see that the position of the point b relative
to a will be the same by this construction as by the former construction,
only we must observe that in this second construction we use only vectors
such as AB, A′B′, which represent the relative position of points both of
which exist simultaneously, instead of vectors such as AA′, BB′, which
express the position of a point at one instant relative to its position at a
former instant, and which therefore cannot be determined by observation,
because the two ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously.
It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when drawn by
the first construction, includes an origin o, which indicates that we have
assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But no such point occurs
in the second construction, because we use such vectors only as we can
actually observe. Hence the diagram of displacements without an origin
represents neither more nor less than all we can ever know about the
displacement of the material system.
Diagram of Velocity.—If the relative velocities of the points of the
system are constant, then the diagram of displacement corresponding to an
interval of a unit of time between the initial and the final configuration is
called a diagram of relative velocity. If the relative velocities are not
constant, we suppose another system in which the velocities are equal to the
velocities of the given system at the given instant and continue constant for
a unit of time. The diagram of displacements for this imaginary system is
the required diagram of relative velocities of the actual system at the given
instant. It is easy to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any one point
relative to any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity of any of them.
Diagram of Acceleration.—By the same process by which we formed the
diagram of displacements from the two diagrams of initial and final
configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative velocity from
the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This diagram may be called
that of total accelerations in a finite interval of time. And by the same
process by which we deduced the diagram of velocities from that of
displacements we may deduce the diagram of rates of acceleration from that
of total acceleration.

We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kinematics
because they are found to be of use especially when we have to deal with
material systems containing a great number of parts, as in the kinetic theory
of gases. The diagram of configuration then appears as a region of space
swarming with points representing molecules, and the only way in which
we can investigate it is by considering the number of such points in unit of
volume in different parts of that region, and calling this the density of the
gas.
In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region containing
points equal in number but distributed in a different manner, and the
number of points in any given portion of the region expresses the number of
molecules whose velocities lie within given limits. We may speak of this as
the velocity-density.
Diagrams of Stress.—Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable to
statical questions, because the state of the system is constant, so that we do
not need to construct a series of diagrams corresponding to the successive
states of the system. The most useful of these applications, collectively
termed Graphic Statics, relates to the equilibrium of plane framed structures
familiarly represented in bridges and roof-trusses. Two diagrams are used,
one called the diagram of the frame and the other called the diagram of
stress. The structure itself consists of a number of separable pieces or links
jointed together at their extremities. In practice these joints have friction, or
may be made purposely stiff, so that the force acting at the extremity of a
piece may not pass exactly through the axis of the joint; but as it is unsafe
to make the stability of the structure depend in any degree upon the stiffness
of joints, we assume in our calculations that all the joints are perfectly
smooth, and therefore that the force acting on the end of any link passes
through the axis of the joint.
The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points in the
diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in the actual
structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the frame it is
represented by a straight line joining the points representing the two joints.
If no force acts on the link except the two forces acting through the centres
of the joints, these two forces must be equal and opposite, and their

direction must coincide with the straight line joining the centres of the
joints. If the force acting on either extremity of the link is directed towards
the other extremity, the stress on the link is called pressure and the link is
called a "strut." If it is directed away from the other extremity, the stress on
the link is called tension and the link is called a "tie." In this case, therefore,
the only stress acting in a link is a pressure or a tension in the direction of
the straight line which represents it in the diagram of the frame, and all that
we have to do is to find the magnitude of this stress. In the actual structure
gravity acts on every part of the link, but in the diagram we substitute for
the actual weight of the different parts of the link two weights which have
the same resultant acting at the extremities of the link.
We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links without
weight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of portions of the
weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If any link has more than
two joints we may substitute for it in the diagram an imaginary stiff frame,
consisting of links, each of which has only two joints. The diagram of the
frame is now reduced to a system of points, certain pairs of which are
joined by straight lines, and each point is in general acted on by a weight or
other force acting between it and some point external to the system. To
complete the diagram we may represent these external forces as links, that
is to say, straight lines joining the points of the frame to points external to
the frame. Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the point
of application of the weight with the centre of the earth.
But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in the
lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together with the real
frame and the links representing external forces, which join points in the
one frame to points in the other frame, make up together a complete self-
strained system in equilibrium, consisting of points connected by links
acting by pressure or tension. We may in this way reduce any real structure
to the case of a system of points with attractive or repulsive forces acting
between certain pairs of these points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The
direction of each of these forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line
joining the points, so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We

might do this by calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure
or the tension which acts in it.
We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses are
represented graphically as regards direction and position, but symbolically
as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be represented in a
purely graphical manner by a straight line in the direction of the force
containing as many units of length as there are units of force in the force.
The end of this line is marked with an arrow head to show in which
direction the force acts. According to this method each force is drawn in its
proper position in the diagram of configuration of the frame. Such a
diagram might be useful as a record of the result of calculation of the
magnitude of the forces, but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the
correctness of the calculation.
But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set of
forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel and
proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon the forces
are in equilibrium. (See Mechanics.) We might in this way form a series of
polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame. But in so doing we give
up the principle of drawing the line representing a force from the point of
application of the force, for all the sides of the polygon cannot pass through
the same point, as the forces do. We also represent every stress twice over,
for it appears as a side of both the polygons corresponding to the two joints
between which it acts. But if we can arrange the polygons in such a way
that the sides of any two polygons which represent the same stress coincide
with each other, we may form a diagram in which every stress is
represented in direction and magnitude, though not in position, by a single
line which is the common boundary of the two polygons which represent
the joints at the extremities of the corresponding piece of the frame.
We have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is
made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in which
every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude by a straight
line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is manifest by inspection,
for we have only to examine whether the corresponding polygon is closed
or not.

The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of stress
are as follows:—To every link in the frame corresponds a straight line in the
diagram of stress which represents in magnitude and direction the stress
acting in that link; and to every joint of the frame corresponds a closed
polygon in the diagram, and the forces acting at that joint are represented by
the sides of the polygon taken in a certain cyclical order, the cyclical order
of the sides of the two adjacent polygons being such that their common side
is traced in opposite directions in going round the two polygons.
The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the direction of
the force acting on that joint of the frame which corresponds to the polygon,
and due to that link of the frame which corresponds to the side. This
determines whether the stress of the link is a pressure or a tension. If we
know whether the stress of any one link is a pressure or a tension, this
determines the cyclical order of the sides of the two polygons
corresponding to the ends of the links, and therefore the cyclical order of all
the polygons, and the nature of the stress in every link of the frame.
Reciprocal Diagrams.—When to every point of concourse of the lines in
the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton of the
frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal.
The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other cases
than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in his Applied
Mechanics (1857). The method was independently applied to a large
number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical draughtsman in the office of J.
B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk Maxwell in his lectures in King's
College, London. In the Phil. Mag. for 1864 the latter pointed out the
reciprocal properties of the two diagrams, and in a paper on "Reciprocal
Figures, Frames and Diagrams of Forces," Trans. R.S. Edin. vol. xxvi.,
1870, he showed the relation of the method to Airy's function of stress and
to other mathematical methods. Professor Fleeming Jenkin has given a
number of applications of the method to practice (Trans. R.S. Edin. vol.
xxv.).
L. Cremona (Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica, 1872) deduced
the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the two

components of a wrench as developed by Möbius. Karl Culmann, in his
Graphische Statik (1st ed. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), made great use of
diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not reciprocal. Maurice
Levy in his Statique graphique (1874) has treated the whole subject in an
elementary but copious manner, and R. H. Bow, in his The Economics of
Construction in Relation to Framed Structures (1873), materially simplified
the process of drawing a diagram of stress reciprocal to a given frame acted
on by a system of equilibrating external forces.

Fig. 1 Diagram of Configuration.

Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or the links
of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow places a letter in
each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of the frame, and also in
each of the divisions of surrounding space as separated by the lines of
action of the external forces. When one link of the frame crosses another,
the point of apparent intersection of the links is treated as if it were a real
joint, and the stresses of each of the intersecting links are represented twice
in the diagram of stress, as the opposite sides of the parallelogram which
corresponds to the point of intersection.

This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of configuration
(fig. 1), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the linkwork which Professor
Sylvester has called a quadruplane.
In fig. 1 the real joints are distinguished from the places where one link
appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T, V. The four
links RSTV form a "contraparallelogram" in which RS = TV and RV = ST.
The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar to each other. A fourth triangle
(TNV), not drawn in the figure, would complete the quadruplane. The four
points O, P, N, Q form a parallelogram whose angle POQ is constant and
equal to π - SOR. The product of the distances OP and OQ is constant. The
linkwork may be fixed at O. If any figure is traced by P, Q will trace the
inverse figure, but turned round O through the constant angle POQ. In the
diagram forces Pp, Qq are balanced by the force Co at the fixed point. The
forces Pp and Qq are necessarily inversely as OP and OQ, and make equal
angles with those lines.

Fig. 2 Diagram of Stress.

Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the
diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a point
of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress in the link which is
the common boundary of two areas is represented in the diagram of stress
by the line joining the points corresponding to those areas. When a link is

divided into two or more parts by lines crossing it, the stress in each part is
represented by a different line for each part, but as the stress is the same
throughout the link these lines are all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure
the stress in RV is represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG,
DE and AB. If two areas have no part of their boundary in common the
letters corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not joined by a
straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn between them, it would
represent in direction and magnitude the resultant of all the stresses in the
links which are cut by any line, straight or curved, joining the two areas.
For instance the areas F and C in fig. 1 have no common boundary, and the
points F and C in fig. 2 are not joined by a straight line. But every path from
the area F to the area C in fig. 1 passes through a series of other areas, and
each passage from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to a line
drawn in the diagram of stress. Hence the whole path from F to C in fig. 1
corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and extending from F to C,
and the resultant of all the stresses in the links cut by the path is represented
by FC in fig. 2.
Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on bridges
(q.v.).
Automatic Description of Diagrams.
There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordinates of
a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values of two
related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move, say horizontally,
with a constant known velocity, while a tracing point is made to move in a
vertical straight line, the height varying as the value of any given physical
quantity, the point will trace out a curve on the paper from which the value
of that quantity at any given time may be determined. This principle is
applied to the automatic registration of phenomena of all kinds, from those
of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism to the velocity of cannon-shot, the
vibrations of sounding bodies, the motions of animals, voluntary and
involuntary, and the currents in electric telegraphs.
In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move with a
constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to that of the piston of

the engine, while that of the tracing point is proportional to the pressure of
the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of a point of the curve traced on the
diagram represent the volume and the pressure of the steam in the cylinder.
The indicator-diagram not only supplies a record of the pressure of the
steam at each stage of the stroke of the engine, but indicates the work done
by the steam in each stroke by the area enclosed by the curve traced on the
diagram. (J. C. M.)

DIAL and DIALLING. Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics, is a
branch of applied mathematics which treats of the construction of sun-dials,
that is, of those instruments, either fixed or portable, which determine the
divisions of the day (Lat. dies) by the motion of the shadow of some object
on which the sun's rays fall. It must have been one of the earliest
applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun; though for a
long time men would probably be satisfied with the division into morning
and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the greatest elevation.

History.—The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in Isaiah xxxviii. 8:
"Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which is gone down
in the sun-dial of Ahaz ten degrees backward." The date of this would be
about 700 years before the Christian era, but we know nothing of the
character or construction of the instrument. The earliest of all sun-dials of
which we have any certain knowledge was the hemicycle, or hemisphere, of
the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who probably lived about 300 B.C. It
consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed with its rim perfectly horizontal,
and having a bead, or globule, fixed in any way at the centre. So long as the
sun remained above the horizon the shadow of the bead would fall on the
inside of the hemisphere, and the path of the shadow during the day would
be approximately a circular arc. This arc, divided into twelve equal parts,
determined twelve equal intervals of time for that day. Now, supposing this

were done at the time of the solstices and equinoxes, and on as many
intermediate days as might be considered sufficient, and then curve lines
drawn through the corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the
shadow of the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a
division of time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial which
would divide each period of daylight into twelve equal parts. These equal
parts were called temporary hours; and, since the duration of daylight
varies from day to day, the temporary hours of one day would differ from
those of another; but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that
time, and especially in countries where the variation between the longest
summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our climates.

The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The Arabians, as
appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed the same construction
about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials have in modern times been
found in Italy. One, discovered at Tivoli in 1746, is supposed to have
belonged to Cicero, who, in one of his letters, says that he had sent a dial of
this kind to his villa near Tusculum. The second and third were found in
1751—one at Castel-Nuovo and the other at Rignano; and a fourth was
found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in his Abhandlungen von den
Sonnenuhren der Alten (Leipzig, 1777), says that this dial was made for the
latitude of Memphis; it may therefore be the work of Egyptians, perhaps
constructed in the school of Alexandria.

Herodotus recorded that the Greeks derived from the Babylonians the use
of the gnomon, but the great progress made by the Greeks in geometry
enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity, some of
which remain to us, and are proof not only of extensive knowledge but also
of great ingenuity.

Ptolemy's Almagest treats of the construction of dials by means of his
analemma, an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical problems.

The constructions given by him were sufficient for regular dials, that is,
horizontal dials, or vertical dials facing east, west, north or south, and these
are the only ones he treats of. It is certain, however, that the ancients were
able to construct declining dials, as is shown by that most interesting
monument of ancient gnomics—the Tower of the Winds at Athens. This is a
regular octagon, on the faces of which the eight principal winds are
represented, and over them eight different dials—four facing the cardinal
points and the other four facing the intermediate directions. The date of the
dials is long subsequent to that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes
the tower in the sixth chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials,
and as he has described all the dials known in his time, we must believe that
the dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours are still the temporary
hours or, as the Greeks called them, hectemoria.

The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and this
Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which Valerius
Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which is five degrees
less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum in the year 261 B.C. The
first dial actually constructed at Rome was in the year 164 B.C., by order of
Q. Marcius Philippus, but as no other Roman has written on gnomonics,
this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we remember that the
dial found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of Memphis, and
consequently less adapted to its position than that of Catania to Rome, we
may infer that mathematical knowledge was not cultivated in Italy.

The Arabians were much more successful. They attached great
importance to gnomonics, the principles of which they had learned from the
Greeks, but they greatly simplified and diversified the Greek constructions.
One of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who lived about the beginning of the
13th century, taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and

other surfaces. He even introduced equal or equinoctial hours, but the idea
was not supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in use.

Where or when the great and important step already conceived by Abu'l
Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by equal hours was generally
adopted cannot now be determined. The history of gnomonics from the 13th
to the beginning of the 16th century is almost a blank, and during that time
the change took place. We can see, however, that the change would
necessarily follow the introduction of clocks and other mechanical methods
of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were, the hours they
marked would be of the same length in summer and in winter, and the
discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary hours of the sun-
dial would soon be too important to be overlooked. Now, we know that a
balance clock was put up in the palace of Charles V. of France about the
year 1370, and we may reasonably suppose that the new sun-dials came into
general use during the 14th and 15th centuries.

Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was Sebastian
Münster (q.v.), who published his Horologiographia at Basel in 1531. He
gives a number of correct rules, but without demonstrations. Among his
inventions was a moon-dial,[1] but this does not admit of much accuracy.

During the 17th century dialling was discussed at great length by many
writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto volume of 800 pages
entirely to the subject. This was published in 1612, and may be considered
to contain all that was known at that time.

In the 18th century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials, and
these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament to a
garden, or in remote country districts where the old dial on the church tower
still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by its side. The art

of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little more than a
mathematical recreation.

General Principles.—The diurnal and the annual motions of the earth are
the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded. That the
earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in twenty-four hours,
and that it is carried round the sun in one year at a nearly uniform rate, is
the correct way of expressing these facts. But the effect will be precisely the
same, and it will suit our purpose better, and make our explanations easier,
if we adopt the ideas of the ancients, of which our senses furnish apparent
confirmation, and assume the earth to be fixed. Then, the sun and stars
revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east to west once a day—the
sun lagging a little behind the stars, making its day some four minutes
longer—so that at the end of the year it finds itself again in the same place,
having made a complete revolution of the heavens relatively to the stars
from west to east.
The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line through
the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small, compared with the
enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a parallel axis through any
point of the earth's surface, we may safely look on that as being the axis of
the celestial motions. The error in the case of the sun would not, at its
maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and 6 P.M., exceed half a second of time, and
at noon would vanish. An axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and
points to the pole, its elevation being equal to the latitude of the place.
The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would that of
the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes, spoken of above,
were always the same. But this is constantly altering, so that the time, as
measured by the sun's motion, and also consequently as measured by a sun-
dial, does not move on at a strictly uniform pace. This irregularity, which is
slight, would be of little consequence in the ordinary affairs of life, but
clocks and watches being mechanical measures of time could not, except by
extreme complication, be made to follow this irregularity, even if desirable.
The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the
length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in the year.

Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly; but the sun-dial,
now going a little slower, now a little faster, will be sometimes behind,
sometimes before the clock-the greatest accumulated difference being about
sixteen minutes for a few days in November, but on the average much less.
The four days on which the two agree are April 15, June 15, September 1
and December 24.
Clock-time is called mean time, that marked by the sun-dial is called
apparent time, and the difference between them is the equation of time. It is
given in most calendars and almanacs, frequently under the heading "clock
slow," "clock fast." When the time by the sun-dial is known, the equation of
time will at once enable us to obtain the corresponding clock-time, or vice
versa.
Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the apparent
position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need consideration in the
construction of an instrument which, with the best workmanship, does not
after all admit of very great accuracy.
The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood. The
problem before us is the following:—A rod, or style, as it is called, being
firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's axis, we have to find how
and where points or lines of reference must be traced on some fixed surface
behind the style, so that when the shadow of the style falls on a certain one
of these lines, we may know that at that moment it is solar noon,—that is,
that the plane through the style and through the sun then coincides with the
meridian; again, that when the shadow reaches the next line of reference, it
is 1 o'clock by solar time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the above
plane through the style and through the sun has just turned through the
twenty-fourth part of a complete revolution; and so on for the subsequent
hours,—the hours before noon being indicated in a similar manner. The
style and the surface on which these lines are traced together constitute the
dial.
The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected—whether on
church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall—the surface must be
prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines.

The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the accurate
fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the instrument depends.
It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an angle with the horizon
equal to the latitude of the place. The latter condition will offer no
difficulty, but the exact determination of the meridian plane which passes
through the point where the style is fixed to the surface is not so simple. At
present we shall assume that the style has been fixed in its true position.
The style itself will be usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the
shadow cast by the style it must always be understood that the middle line
of the thin band of shade is meant.
The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the dial. It
is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate.
The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to determine
accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend on this one. We
cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style has been itself accurately
fixed in its proper place. When that is done the XII o'clock line will be
found by the intersection of the dial surface with the vertical plane which
contains the style; and the most simple way of drawing it on the dial will be
by suspending a plummet from some point of the style whence it may hang
freely, and waiting until the shadows of both style and plumb-line coincide
on the dial. This single shadow will be the XII o'clock line.
In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock line is
simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore, at once be traced
on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line.
The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate method
of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when good watches
are common, be by marking where the shadow of the style falls when 1, 2,
3, &c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the next morning by the same
means the forenoon hour-lines could be traced; and in the same manner the
hours might be subdivided into halves and quarters, or even into minutes.
But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II, III, &c.,
o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each of these lines

would make with the XII o'clock line. Now, except in the simple cases of a
horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a cardinal point, this would
require long and intricate calculations, or elaborate geometrical
constructions, implying considerable mathematical knowledge, but also
introducing increased chances of error. The chief source of error would lie
in the uncertainty of the data; for the position of the dial-plane would have
to be found before the calculations began,—that is, it would be necessary to
know exactly by how many degrees it declined from the south towards the
east or west, and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical. The
ancients, with the means at their disposal, could obtain these results only
very roughly.
Dials received different names according to their position:—
Horizontal dials, when traced on a horizontal plane;
Vertical dials, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal points;
Vertical declining dials, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal point;
Inclining dials, when traced on planes neither vertical nor horizontal
(these were further distinguished as reclining when leaning backwards from
an observer, proclining when leaning forwards);
Equinoctial dials, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's axis, &c.
&c.
Dial Construction.—A very correct view of the problem of dial
construction may be obtained as follows:—

Fig. 1

Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. 1) having an axis AB parallel to the
axis of the earth. On the surface of the cylinder let equidistant generating-
lines be traced 15° apart, one of them XII ... XII being in the meridian plane
through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II, &c., following in the order of the
sun's motion.
Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line XII ... XII
at apparent noon, on the line I ... I at one hour after noon, on II ... II at two
hours after noon, and so on. If now the cylinder be cut by any plane MN

representing the plane on which the dial is to be traced, the shadow of AB
will be intercepted by this plane and fall on the lines AXII AI, AII, &c.
The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made by
AI, AII, &c. with AXII; the line AXII itself, being in the vertical plane
through AB, may be supposed known.
For the purposes of actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere will,
with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it to calculate
the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock line in the two cases
of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south dial.

Fig. 2.

Horizontal Dial.—Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed transparent
sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of the heavens. Draw
the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former
horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore
coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then the circle
QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with the horizontal
circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next divide the equatorial
circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, bc, cd, &c. ... of 15° each, beginning
from the meridian Pa, and through the various points of division and the
poles draw the great circles Pbp, Pcp, &c. ... These will exactly correspond
to the equidistant generating lines on the cylinder in the previous
construction, and the shadow of the style will fall on these circles after
successive intervals of 1,2, 3, &c., hours from noon. If they meet the
horizontal circle in the points B, C, D, &c., then EB, EC, ED, &c. ... will be
the I, II, III, &c., hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal dial
consists in calculating the angles which these lines make with the XII
o'clock line EA, whose position is known. The spherical triangles PAB,
PAC, &c., enable us to do this readily. They are all right-angled at A, the
side PA is the latitude of the place, and the angles APB, APC, &c., are
respectively 15°, 30°, &c., then
tan AB = tan 15° sin latitude,
tan AC = tan 30° sin latitude,
&c. &c.
These determine the sides AB, AC, &c., that is, the angles AEB, AEC, &c.,
required.
The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian EA of
11° 51' on a London dial, of 12° 31' at Edinburgh, of 11° 23' at Paris, 12° 0'
at Berlin, 9° 55' at New York and 9° 19' at San Francisco. In the same way
may be found the angles made by the other hour-lines.
The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one quadrant
from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further, because all the
other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these. In the first place the

dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian, and therefore two times
equidistant from noon will have their hour-lines equidistant from the
meridian; thus the XI o'clock line and the I o'clock line must make the same
angles with it, the X o'clock the same as the II o'clock, and so on. And next,
the 24 great circles, which were drawn to determine these lines, are in
reality only 12; for clearly the great circle which gives I o'clock after
midnight, and that which gives I o'clock after noon, are one and the same,
and so also for the other hours. Therefore the hour-lines between VI in the
evening and VI the next morning are the prolongations of the remaining
twelve.
Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and retain
only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on it, and we
shall have the horizontal dial.
On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock, and
sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for extending a
London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh the limits will be a little
longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within the Arctic circle, the whole
circuit will be required.
Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal plate
from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate, which is
sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have an acute angle
equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly fixed in a vertical
position on the dial, its two faces must coincide with the meridian plane,
and the sloping edges formed by the thickness of the plate must point to the
pole and form two parallel styles. Since there are two styles, there must be
two dials, or rather two half dials, because a little consideration will show
that, owing to the thickness of the plate, these styles will only one at a time
cast a shadow. Thus the eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours
before 6 o'clock in the morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the western edge
will be used. At noon it will change again to the eastern edge until 6 o'clock
in the evening, and finally the western edge for the remaining hours of
daylight.

The centres of the two
dials will be at the points
where the styles meet the
dial face; but, in drawing
the hour-lines, we must
be careful to draw only
those lines for which the
corresponding style is
able to give a shadow as
explained above. The
dial will thus have the
appearance of a single
dial plate, and there will
be no confusion (see fig.
3). Fig. 3.

The line of
demarcation between the shadow and the light will be better defined than
when a wire style is used; but the indications by this double dial will always
be one minute too fast in the morning and one minute too slow in the
afternoon. This is owing to the magnitude of the sun, whose angular breadth
is half a degree. The well-defined shadows are given, not by the centre of
the sun, as we should require them, but by the forward limb in the morning
and by the backward one in the afternoon; and the sun takes just about a
minute to advance through a space equal to its half-breadth.
Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate is of
metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be purchased ready
for placing on the pedestal,—the dial with all the hour-lines traced on it and
the style plate firmly fastened in its proper position, if not even cast in the
same piece with the dial plate.
When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial be
perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling will be done with
a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected either in the forenoon
or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate till the time given by the
shadow (making the one minute correction mentioned above) agrees with a

good watch whose error on solar time is known. It is, however, important to
bear in mind that a dial, so built up beforehand, will have the angle at the
base equal to the latitude of some selected place, such as London, and the
hour-lines will be drawn in directions calculated for the same latitude. Such
a dial can therefore not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although it
would, without appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose latitude did
not differ more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London, and it would be safe
to employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire.
If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in latitude,
then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a place whose
latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of time would never
exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following table will enable us to
check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of the angle of the style,—all
angles on the dial being readily measured with an ordinary protractor. It
extends from 50° lat. to 59½° lat., and therefore includes the whole of Great
Britain and Ireland:—

XI. A.M. X. A.M. IX. A.M. VIII. A.M. VII. A.M. VI. A.M.
LAT.
I. P.M. II. P.M. III. P.M. IIII. P.M. V. P.M. VI. P.M.
50° 0′ 11° 36′ 23° 51′ 37° 27′ 53° 0′ 70° 43′ 90° 0′
50 30 11 41 24 1 37 39 53 12 70 51 90 0
51 0 11 46 24 10 37 51 53 23 70 59 90 0
51 30 11 51 24 19 38 3 53 35 71 6 90 0
52 0 11 55 24 28 38 14 53 46 71 13 90 0
52 30 12 0 24 37 38 25 53 57 71 20 90 0
53 0 12 5 24 45 38 37 54 8 71 27 90 0
53 30 12 9 24 54 38 48 54 19 71 34 90 0
54 0 12 14 25 2 38 58 54 29 71 40 90 0
54 30 12 18 25 10 39 9 54 39 71 47 90 0
55 0 12 23 25 19 39 19 54 49 71 53 90 0
55 30 12 27 25 27 39 30 54 59 71 59 90 0
56 0 12 31 25 35 39 40 55 9 72 5 90 0
56 30 12 36 25 43 39 50 55 18 72 11 90 0

57 0 12 40 25 50 39 59 55 27 72 17 90 0
57 30 12 44 25 58 40 9 55 36 72 22 90 0
58 0 12 48 26 5 40 18 55 45 72 28 90 0
58 30 12 52 26 13 40 27 55 54 72 33 90 0
59 0 12 56 26 20 40 36 56 2 72 39 90 0
59 30 13 0 26 27 40 45 56 11 72 44 90 0

Vertical South Dial.—Let us take again our imaginary transparent sphere
QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis. Let Z be the
zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the meridian. Through E, the
centre of the sphere, draw a vertical plane facing south. This will cut the
sphere in the great circle ZMA, which, being vertical, will pass through the
zenith, and, facing south, will be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa
be the equatorial circle, obtained by drawing a plane through E at right
angles to the axis PEp. The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style,
the vertical line EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line, and
the line EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the intersection of
two great circles ZM, QM, each at right angles to the vertical plane QZP,
will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous problem, divide the
equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15° each, beginning at a, viz. ab, bc,
&c.,—each quadrant aM, MQ, &c., containing 6,—then through each point
of division and through the axis Pp draw a plane cutting the sphere in 24
equidistant great circles. As the sun revolves round the axis the shadow of
the axis will successively fall on these circles at intervals of one hour, and if
these circles cross the vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &c., the
shadow of the lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA, EB,
EC, &c., which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial,
Ep being the style.

Fig. 4.

There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on each
side of noon; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than 6 o'clock,
and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the dial before that
time, and is no longer available.
It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &c., may be calculated.
The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &c., will give us a simple rule. These
triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP, is the co-latitude

of the place, that is, the difference between the latitude and 90°; and the
successive angles ApB, ApC, &c., are 15°, 30°, &c., respectively. Then
tan AB = tan 15° sin co-latitude;
or more simply,
tan AB = tan 15° cos latitude,
tan AC = tan 30° cos latitude,
&c. &c.
and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB, AEC,
&c., required.
In this ease the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the opposite
result to that of the horizontal dial.
Inclining, Reclining, &c., Dials.—We shall not enter into the calculation
of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before supposed, constructed
with its centre at the centre of the dial, and all the hour-circles traced upon
it, the intersection of these hour-circles with the plane of the dial will
determine the hour-lines just as in the previous cases; but the triangles will
no longer be right-angled, and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost,
the chances of error being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing the
dial plane in its true position on the sphere, since that true position will have
to be found from observations which can be only roughly performed.
In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is not a plane, and
the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the only safe practical
way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points (one is sufficient when the
dial face is plane) of the shadow at the moment when a good watch shows
that the hour has arrived, and afterwards connect these points with the
centre by a continuous line. Of course the style must have been accurately
fixed in its true position before we begin.
Equatorial Dial.—The name equatorial dial is given to one whose plane
is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the equator. It is the
simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided into 24 equal ares is placed at
right angles to the style, and hour divisions are marked upon it. Then if care

be taken that the style point accurately to the pole, and that the noon
division coincide with the meridian plane, the shadow of the style will fall
on the other divisions, each at its proper time. The divisions must be
marked on both sides of the dial, because the sun will shine on opposite
sides in the summer and in the winter months, changing at each equinox.
To find the Meridian Plane.—We have, so far, assumed the meridian
plane to be accurately known; we shall proceed to describe some of the
methods by which it may be found.
The mariner's compass may
be employed as a first rough
approximation. It is well
known that the needle of the
compass, when free to move
horizontally, oscillates upon its
pivot and settles in a direction
termed the magnetic meridian.
This does not coincide with the
true north and south line, but
the difference between them is
generally known with tolerable
accuracy, and is called the
variation of the compass. The
variation differs widely at Fig. 5.

different parts of the surface of
the earth, and is not stationary at any particular place, though the change is
slow; and there is even a small daily oscillation which takes place about the
mean position, but too small to need notice here (see Magnetism,
Terrestrial).
With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the compass can
only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian, but it will
serve to fix the style so that only a small further alteration will be necessary
when a more perfect determination has been made.
A very simple practical method is the following:—

Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position that it may
receive the sun's rays both in the morning and in the afternoon. Then
carefully level the surface by means of a spirit-level. This must be done
very accurately, and the table in that position made perfectly secure, so that
there be no danger of its shifting during the day.
Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be rigidly fixed.
The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the surface, should be
somewhere near the middle of one end of the table. With H for centre,
describe any number of concentric arcs of circles, AB, CD, EF, &c.
A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet line at
some convenient height above H.
Everything
being thus
prepared, let us
follow the shadow
of the bead P as it
moves along the
surface of the table
during the day. It
will be found to
describe a curve
ACE ... FDB,
approaching the
point H as the sun
advances towards
noon, and receding
from it afterwards.
(The curve is a
conic section—an
hyperbola in these
regions.) At the
moment when it
crosses the arc AB, Fig. 6.

mark the point A;

AP is then the direction of the sun, and, as AH is horizontal, the angle PAH
is the altitude of the sun. In the afternoon mark the point B where it crosses
the same arc; then the angle PBH is the altitude. But the right-angled
triangles PHA, PHB are obviously equal; and the sun has therefore the same
altitudes at those two instants, the one before, the other after noon. It
follows that, if the sun has not changed its declination during the interval,
the two positions will be symmetrically placed one on each side of the
meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and bisecting it in M, HM will
be the meridian line.
Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &c., will furnish its meridian
line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the mean of the
positions thus found must be taken.
The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its
declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and may be
neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes, at the end of
March and at the end of September. Throughout the remainder of the year
the change of declination is so slow that we may safely neglect it. The most
favourable times are at the end of June and at the end of December, when
the sun's declination is almost stationary. If the line HM be produced both
ways to the edges of the table, then the two points on the ground vertically
below those on the edges may be found by a plummet, and, if permanent
marks be made there, the meridian plane, which is the vertical plane passing
through these two points, will have its position perfectly secured.
To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position.—Before giving any other
method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the construction of
the dial, by showing how the style may now be accurately placed in its true
position. The angle which the style makes with a hanging plumb-line, being
the co-latitude of the place, is known, and the north and south direction is
also roughly given by the mariner's compass. The style may therefore be
already adjusted approximately—correctly, indeed, as to its inclination—
but probably requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a fine
plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be properly
adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls exactly on the

plumb-line,—or, which is the same thing, if both shadows coincide on the
dial.
This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian plane,
whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the
ground. Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This will not
generally be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the meridian plane,
and that is the only necessary condition. Next, suspend a plummet over the
mark which is nearer to the sun, and, when the shadow of the plumb-line
falls on the stretched cord, it is noon. A signal from the observer there to the
observer at the dial enables the latter to adjust the style as directed above.
Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane.—We have dwelt at some
length on these practical operations because they are simple and tolerably
accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant, nor telescope—
nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of shadow lines.
The Pole star, or Ursae Minoris, may also be employed for finding the
meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This star is now
only about 1° 14' from the pole; if therefore a plumb-line be suspended at a
few feet from the observer, and if he shift his position till the star is exactly
hidden by the line, then the plane through his eye and the plumb-line will
never be far from the meridian plane. Twice in the course of the twenty-four
hours the planes would be strictly coincident. This would be when the star
crosses the meridian above the pole, and again when it crosses it below. If
we wished to employ the method of determining the meridian, the times of
the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the Nautical
Almanac, and a watch would be necessary to know when the instant
arrived. The watch need not, however, be very accurate, because the motion
of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes in the time would not give
an error of one-eighth of a degree in the azimuth.
The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both
calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star η Ursae Majoris, that
star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest from the "pointers,"
happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours from the right ascension of
the Pole star. The great circle which joins the two stars passes therefore

close to the pole. When the Pole star, at a distance of about 1° 14' from the
pole, is crossing the meridian above the pole, the star η Ursae Majoris,
whose polar distance is about 40°, has not yet reached the meridian below
the pole.
When η Ursae Majoris reaches the meridian, which will be within half
an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian; but its slow motion
will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now at some instant
between these two times—much nearer the latter than the former—the great
circle joining the two stars will be exactly vertical; and at this instant, which
the observer determines by seeing that the plumb-line hides the two stars
simultaneously, neither of the stars is strictly in the meridian; but the
deviation from it is so small that it may be neglected, and the plane through
the eye and the plumb-line taken for meridian plane.
In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane by
means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet at a
short distance in front of the eye; this second plummet, being suspended so
as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as always to be between
the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian plane will be secured by
placing two permanent marks on the ground, one under each plummet.
This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the upper
transit of Polaris; for, at the lower transit, the other star η Ursae Majoris
would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and the observation could not be
made. Also the stars will not be visible when the upper transit takes place in
the daytime, so that one-half of the year is lost to this method.
Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40° N., for there the
star would be below the horizon at its lower transit;—we may even say not
lower than 45° N., for the star must be at least 5° above the horizon before
it becomes distinctly visible.
There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed, but
none so convenient as these two, on account of Polaris with its very slow
motion being one of the pair.

To place the Style in its True Position without previous Determination of
the Meridian Plane.—The various methods given above for finding the
meridian plane have for ultimate object the determination of the plane, not
on its own account, but as an element for fixing the instant of noon,
whereby the style may be properly placed.
We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we
determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want a good
watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instrument for taking
altitudes. The local time at any moment may be determined in a variety of
ways by observation of the celestial bodies. The simplest and most
practically useful methods will be found described and investigated in any
work on astronomy.
For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the forenoon
will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when the sun is high
enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions of the horizon—
but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of increase of the altitude is still
tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later than 10 o'clock—take an altitude of
the sun, an assistant, at the same moment, marking the time shown by the
watch. The altitude so observed being properly corrected for refraction,
parallax, &c., will, together with the latitude of the place, and the sun's
declination, taken from the Nautical Almanac, enable us to calculate the
time. This will be the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we
require. Comparing the time so found with the time shown by the watch, we
see at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time; we know,
therefore, exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon arrives,
and waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its proper position as
explained before.
We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and observation
if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the time from some
observatory where the work is done; and, allowing for the change of
longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the time we have brought is
clock time, we shall have the exact instant of solar noon as in the previous
case.

In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in devising
elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced. Sometimes the
shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder, or on a sphere, or
on a combination of these. A universal dial was constructed of a figure in
the shape of a cross; another universal dial showed the hours by a globe and
by several gnomons. These universal dials required adjusting before use,
and for this a mariner's compass and a spirit-level were necessary. But it
would be tedious and useless to enumerate the various forms designed, and,
as a rule, the more complex the less accurate.
Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable centres.
They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day the style had to
be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-lines they had hour-points; and
the style, instead of being parallel to the axis of the earth, might make any
chosen angle with the horizon. There was no practical advantage in their
use, but rather the reverse; and they can only be considered as furnishing
material for new mathematical problems.
Portable Dials.—The dials so far described have been fixed dials, for
even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were to be
fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made generally of a
small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and these, so long as the sun
shone, roughly answered the purpose of a watch.
The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with
that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and the same
principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are essential points of
difference between them, besides those which are at once apparent.
In the fixed dial the result depends on the uniform angular motion of the
sun round the fixed style; and a small error in the assumed position of the
sun, whether due to the imperfection of the instrument, or to some small
neglected correction, has only a trifling effect on the time. This is owing to
the angular displacement of the sun being so rapid—a quarter of a degree
every minute—that for the ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not
required, as a displacement of a quarter of a degree, or at any rate of one
degree, can be readily seen by nearly every person. But with a portable dial

this is no longer the case. The uniform angular motion is not now available,
because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may refer it. In the
new position, to which the observer has gone, the zenith is the only point of
the heavens he can at once practically find; and the basis for the
determination of the time is the constantly but very irregularly varying
zenith distance of the sun.
At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only
method available for finding local time; but the perfection which has been
attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to reckon on an
accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have, however, to be taken. The
observations must not be made within a couple of hours of noon, on
account of the slow rate of change at that time, nor too near the horizon, on
account of the uncertain refractions there; and the same restrictions must be
observed in using a portable dial.
To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable dials, let
us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54° lat., and a mean
declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at 6 o'clock, and at
noon have an altitude of 36°,—that is, the portable dial will indicate an
average change of one-tenth of a degree in each minute, or two and a half
times slower than the fixed dial. The vertical motion of the sun increases,
however, nearer the horizon, but even there it will be only one-eighth of a
degree each minute, or half the rate of the fixed dial, which goes on at
nearly the same speed throughout the day.
Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude for
which they are available, and they should not be used more than 4 or 5 m.
north or south of the place for which they were constructed.
We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual use.
Dial on a Cylinder.—A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in. high,
and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of tolerably easy
rotation. A hole in the lid receives the style shaped somewhat like a
bayonet; and the straight part of the style, which, on account of the two
bends, is lower than the lid, projects horizontally out from the cylinder to a

distance of 1 or 1½ in. When
not in use the style would be
taken out and placed inside the
cylinder.
A horizontal circle is traced
on the cylinder opposite the
projecting style, and this circle
is divided into 36
approximately equidistant
intervals. [2] These intervals
represent spaces of time, and to
each division is assigned a
date, so that each month has
three dates marked as follows:-
January 10, 20, 31; February
10, 20, 28; March 10, 20, 31;
April 10, 20, 30, and so on,—
always the 10th, the 20th, and
the last day of each month.
Through each point of
Fig. 7.
division a vertical line parallel
to the axis of the cylinder is
drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily understood that if, upon
one of these days, the lid be turned, so as to bring the style exactly opposite
the date, and if the dial be then placed on a horizontal table so as to receive
sunlight, and turned round bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly
on the vertical line below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite
point of this line, the position of which point will depend on the length of
the style—that is, the distance of its end from the surface of the cylinder—
and on the altitude of the sun at that instant. Suppose that the observations
are continued all day, the cylinder being very gradually turned so that the
style may always face the sun, and suppose that marks are made on the
vertical line to show the extremity of the shadow at each exact hour from
sunrise to sunset-these times being taken from a good fixed sun-dial,—then

it is obvious that the next year, on the same date, the sun's declination being
about the same, and the observer in about the same latitude, the marks made
the previous year will serve to tell the time all that day.
What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the
instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which would
require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation, cannot be the
method employed.
The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation.
Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken from the
almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place and the length of
the style, will constitute the necessary data for computing the length of the
shadow, that is, the distance of the mark below the style for each successive
hour.
We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same at the
same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if the dates be
taken for the second year after leap year, the results will be sufficiently
approximate.
When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their respective
dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding hour-points, will
serve to find the time for a day intermediate to those set down, the lid being
turned till the style occupy a proper position between the two divisions. The
horizontality of the surface on which the instrument rests is a very
necessary condition, especially in summer, when, the shadow of the style
being long, the extreme end will shift rapidly for a small deviation from the
vertical, and render the reading uncertain. The dial can also be used by
holding it up by a small ring in the top of the lid, and probably the vertically
is better ensured in that way.
Portable Dial on a Card.—This neat and very ingenious dial is attributed
by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and probably dates from the
early part of the 17th century. Ozanam says that it was sometimes called the
capuchin, from some fancied resemblance to a cowl thrown back.

Construction.—Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the card
(fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it; with C as centre, and any
convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB below the horizontal.
Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at the points r, s, t, &c., and
through these points draw perpendiculars to the diameter ACB; these lines
will be the hour-lines, viz. the line through r will be the XI ... I line, the line
through s the X ... II line, and so on; the hour-line of noon will be the point
A itself; by subdivision of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &c., we may draw the
hour-lines corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where it can
be done without confusion.
Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the place,
and let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at right angles to
AD.

Fig. 8.

With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of circle
RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on it, extending
from 0° at S to 23½° on each side at R and T. Next determine the points on
the straight line FDG where radii drawn from A to the degree divisions on
the arc would cross it, and carefully mark these crossings.
The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination, south
declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the other hemisphere of
the earth this would be reversed; the north declinations would be on the
upper half.
Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations of
that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the days of the
month when the sun has these different declinations, and place these dates,
or so many of them as can be shown without confusion, opposite the
corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the sun-line at the top of the card
parallel to the line ACB; and, near the extremity, to the right, draw any
small figure intended to form, as it were, a door of which a b shall be the
hinge. Care must be taken that this hinge is exactly at right angles to the
sun-line. Make a fine open slit c d right through the card and extending
from the hinge to a short distance on the door,—the centre line of this slit
coinciding accurately with the sun-line. Now, cut the door completely
through the card; except, of course, along the hinge, which, when the card is
thick, should be partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the opening. Cut
the card right through along the line FDG, and pass a thread carrying a little
plummet W and a very small bead P; the bead having sufficient friction with
the thread to retain any position when acted on only by its own weight, but
sliding easily along the thread when moved by the hand. At the back of the
card the thread terminates in a knot to hinder it from being drawn through;
or better, because giving more friction and a better hold, it passes through
the centre of a small disk of card—a fraction of an inch in diameter—and,
by a knot, is made fast at the back of the disk.
To complete the construction,—with the centres F and G, and radii FA
and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the hour-lines; for

in an observation the bead will always be found between them. The
forenoon and afternoon hours may then be marked as indicated in the
figure. The dial does not of itself discriminate between forenoon and
afternoon; but extraneous circumstances, as, for instance, whether the sun is
rising or falling, will settle that point, except when close to noon, where it
will always be uncertain.
To rectify the dial (using the old expression, which means to prepare the
dial for an observation),—open the small door, by turning it about its hinge,
till it stands well out in front. Next, set the thread in the line FG opposite
the day of the month, and stretching it over the point A, slide the bead P
along till it exactly coincides with A.

Fig. 9.

To find the hour of the day,—hold the dial in a vertical position in such a
way that its plane may pass through the sun. The verticality is ensured by
seeing that the bead rests against the card without pressing. Now gradually
tilt the dial (without altering its vertical plane), until the central line of
sunshine, passing through the open slit of the door, just falls along the sun-
line. The hour-line against which the bead P then rests indicates the time.
The sun-line drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used as a
shadow-line. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the prolongation
of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was gradually tilted until
the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly coincided with it. But this
shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a degree more than the sun-line,
because it is given by that portion of the sun which just appears above the
edge, that is, by the upper limb of the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree
higher than the centre. Now, even at some distance from noon, the sun will
sometimes take a considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by
so much time will the indication of the dial be in error.
The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be free
from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of the sun.
The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than a mere
toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educational value which
is not to be measured by the roughness of the results obtained.
The theory of this instrument is as follows:—Let H (fig. 9) be the point
of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that the angle
DAH is the north declination of the sun,—P, the bead, resting against the
hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the hour-angle from noon
given by the bead, and we have to prove that this hour-angle is the correct
one corresponding to a north latitude DAC, a north declination DAH and an
altitude equal to the angle which the sun-line, or its parallel AC, makes with
the horizontal. The angle PHQ will be equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn
parallel to DC, for the pair of lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right
angles to the sun-line and the horizontal.

Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and N
respectively.
Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following values
will be readily deduced from the figure:—
AD = a cos decl. DH = a sin decl. PQ = a sin alt.
CX = AC = AD cos lat. = a cos decl. cos lat.
PN = CV = CX cos ACX = a cos decl. cos lat. cos ACX.
NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = sin decl. sin lat.
(∴ the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.)
And since PQ = NQ + PN,
we have, by simple substitution,
a sin alt. = a sin decl. sin lat. + a cos del. cos lat. cos ACX; or, dividing by a
throughout,
sin alt. = sin decl. sin lat. + cos decl. cos lat. cos ACX ... (1)
which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead.
To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let fig. 10
represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole, Z the zenith and S
the sun.
From the spherical triangle PZS, we have
cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP + sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS
but ZS = zenith distance = 90° - altitude
ZP = 90° - PR = 90°- latitude
PS = polar distance = 90° - declination,
therefore, by substitution
sin alt. = sin decl. sin lat. + cos decl. cos lat. cos ZPS ... (2)
and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun.

A comparison of the two formulae (1) and (2) shows that the hour-angle
given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and proves the
theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or at sun-set the
amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree. If, then, a little cross m
(see fig. 8) be made just below the sun-line, at a distance from it which
would subtend half a degree at c, the time of sun-set would be found
corrected for refraction, if the central line of light were made to fall on cm.
Literature.—The following
list includes the principal
writers on dialling whose
works have come down, to us,
and to these we must refer for
descriptions of the various
constructions, some simple and
direct, others fanciful and
intricate, which have been at
different times employed:
Ptolemy, Analemma, restored
by Commandine; Vitruvius,
Architecture; Sebastian
Münster, Horologiographia; Fig. 10.
Orontius Fineus, De horologiis
solaribus; Mutio Oddi da Urbino, Horologi solari; Dryander, De
horologiorum compositione; Conrad Gesner, Pandectae; Andreas Schöner,
Gnomonicae; F. Commandine, Horologiorum descriptio; Joan. Bapt.
Benedictus, De gnomonum usu; Georgius Schomberg, Exegesis
fundamentorum gnomonicorum; Joan. Solomon de Caus, Horologes
solaires; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, Praxis horologiorum; Desargues, Manière
universelle pour poser l'essieu, &c.; Ath. Kircher, Ars magna lucis et
Umbrae; Hallum, Explicatio horologii in horto regio Londini; Joan. Mark,
Tractatus horologiorum; Clavius, Gnomonices de horologiis. Also among
more modern writers, Deschales, Ozanam, Schottus, Wolfius, Picard,
Lahire, Walper; in German, Paterson, Michael, Müller; in English, Foster,
Wells, Collins, Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn, Emerson and Ferguson. See
also Hans Löschner, Über Sonnenuhren (2nd ed., Graz, 1906).

(H. G.)

[1] In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an elaborate sun-dial
dating from the end of the 17th or beginning of the 18th century, and around it a series of
numbers which make it available as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known.

[2] Strict equality is not necessary, as the observations made are on the vertical line
through each division-point, without reference to the others. It is not even requisite that the
divisions should go completely and exactly round the cylinder, although they were always
so drawn, and both these conditions were insisted upon in the directions for the
construction.

DIALECT (from Gr. διάλεκτος, conversation, manner of speaking,
διαλέγερθαι, to converse), a particular or characteristic manner of speech,
and hence any variety of a language. In its widest sense languages which
are branches of a common or parent language may be said to be "dialects"
of that language; thus Attic, Ionic, Aeolic and Doric are dialects of Greek,
though there may never have at any time been a separate language of which
they were variations; so the various Romance languages, Italian, French,
Spanish, &c., were dialects of Latin. Again, where there have existed side
by side, as in England, various branches of a language, such as the
languages of the Angles, the Jutes or the Saxons, and the descendant of one
particular language, from many causes, has obtained the predominance, the
traces of the other languages remain in the "dialects" of the districts where
once the original language prevailed. Thus it may be incorrect, from the
historical point of view, to say that "dialect" varieties of a language
represent degradations of the standard language. A "literary" accepted
language, such as modern English, represents the original language spoken
in the Midlands, with accretions of Norman, French, and later literary and
scientific additions from classical and other sources, while the present-day
"dialects" preserve, in inflections, pronunciation and particular words,

traces of the original variety of the language not incorporated in the
standard language of the country. See the various articles on languages
(English, French, &c).

DIALECTIC, or Dialectics (from Gr. διάλεκτος, discourse, debate; ἡ
διαλεκτική, sc. τέχνη, the art of debate), a logical term, generally used in
common parlance in a contemptuous sense for verbal or purely abstract
disputation devoid of practical value. According to Aristotle, Zeno of Elea
"invented" dialectic, the art of disputation by question and answer, while
Plato developed it metaphysically in connexion with his doctrine of "Ideas"
as the art of analysing ideas in themselves and in relation to the ultimate
idea of the Good (Repub. vii.). The special function of the so-called
"Socratic dialectic" was to show the inadequacy of popular beliefs. Aristotle
himself used "dialectic," as opposed to "science," for that department of
mental activity which examines the presuppositions lying at the back of all
the particular sciences. Each particular science has its own subject matter
and special principles (ἴδιαι ἀρχαί) on which the superstructure of its
special discoveries is based. The Aristotelian dialectic, however, deals with
the universal laws (κοιναὶ ἀρχαί) of reasoning, which can be applied to the
particular arguments of all the sciences. The sciences, for example, all seek
to define their own species; dialectic, on the other hand, sets forth the
conditions which all definitions must satisfy whatever their subject matter.
Again, the sciences all seek to educe general laws; dialectic investigates the
nature of such laws, and the kind and degree of necessity to which they can
attain. To this general subject matter Aristotle gives the name "Topics"
(τόποι, loci, communes loci). "Dialectic" in this sense is the equivalent of
"logic." Aristotle also uses the term for the science of probable reasoning as
opposed to demonstrative reasoning (άποδεικτική). The Stoics divided

λογική (logic) into rhetoric and dialectic, and from their time till the end of
the middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with, or a part of, logic.

In modern philosophy the word has received certain special meanings. In
Kantian terminology Dialektik is the name of that portion of the Kritik d.
reinen Vernunft in which Kant discusses the impossibility of applying to
"things-in-themselves" the principles which are found to govern
phenomena. In the system of Hegel the word resumes its original Socratic
sense, as the name of that intellectual process whereby the inadequacy of
popular conceptions is exposed. Throughout its history, therefore,
"dialectic" has been connected with that which is remote from, or alien to,
unsystematic thought, with the a priori, or transcendental, rather than with
the facts of common experience and material things.

DIALLAGE, an important mineral of the pyroxene group, distinguished
by its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre. The chemical composition is
the same as diopside, Ca Mg (SiO3)2, but it sometimes contains the
molecules (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"')2 SiO6 and Na Fe"' (SiO3)2, in addition, when
it approaches to augite in composition. Diallage is in fact an altered form of
these varieties of pyroxene; the particular kind of alteration which they have
undergone being known as "schillerization." This, as described by Prof. J.
W. Judd, consists in the development of a fine lamellar structure or parting
due to secondary twinning and the separation of secondary products along
these and other planes of chemical weakness ("solution planes") in the
crystal. The secondary products consist of mixtures of various hydrated
oxides—opal, göthite, limonite, &c—and appear as microscopic inclusions
filling or partly filling cavities, which have definite outlines with respect to
the enclosing crystal and are known as negative crystals. It is to the
reflection and interference of light from these minute inclusions that the

peculiar bronzy sheen or "schiller" of the mineral is due. The most
pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid; another, less
distinct, is parallel to the basal plane, and a third parallel to the plane of
symmetry; these planes of secondary parting are in addition to the ordinary
prismatic cleavage of all pyroxenes. Frequently the material is
interlaminated with a rhombic pyroxene (bronzite) or with an amphibole
(smaragdite or uralite), the latter being an alteration product of the diallage.

Diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green, sometimes brown, in
colour, and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller on the laminated
surfaces. The hardness is 4, and the specific gravity 3.2 to 3.35. It does not
occur in distinct crystals with definite outlines, but only as lamellar masses
in deep-seated igneous rocks, principally gabbro, of which it is an essential
constituent. It occurs also in some peridotites and serpentines, and rarely in
volcanic rocks (basalt) and crystalline schists. Masses of considerable size
are found in the coarse-grained gabbros of the Island of Skye, Le Prese near
Bornio in Valtellina, Lombardy, Prato near Florence, and many other
localities.

The name diallage, from diallage, "difference," in allusion to the
dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture, as originally applied by R. J.
Haüy in 1801, included other minerals (the orthorhombic pyroxenes
hypersthene, bronzite and bastite, and the smaragdite variety of hornblende)
which exhibit the same peculiarities of schiller structure; it is now limited to
the monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure. Like the minerals of similar
appearance just mentioned, it is sometimes cut and polished for ornamental
purposes.
(L. J. S.)

DIALOGUE, properly the conversation between two or more persons,
reported in writing, a form of literature invented by the Greeks for purposes
of rhetorical entertainment and instruction, and scarcely modified since the
days of its invention. A dialogue is in reality a little drama without a theatre,
and with scarcely any change of scene. It should be illuminated with those
qualities which La Fontaine applauded in the dialogue of Plato, namely
vivacity, fidelity of tone, and accuracy in the opposition of opinions. It has
always been a favourite with those writers who have something to censure
or to impart, but who love to stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage
others to pursue a train of thought which the author does not seem to do
more than indicate. The dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing
and noting down the undulations of human thought that it almost escapes
analysis. All that is recorded, in any literature, of what pretend to be the
actual words spoken by living or imaginary people is of the nature of
dialogue. One branch of letters, the drama, is entirely founded upon it. But
in its technical sense the word is used to describe what the Greek
philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the extreme
refinement of an art.

The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form is
commonly supposed to have been introduced by Plato, whose earliest
experiment in it is believed to survive in the Laches. The Platonic dialogue,
however, was founded on the mime, which had been cultivated half a
century earlier by the Sicilian poets, Sophron and Epicharmus. The works
of these writers, which Plato admired and imitated, are lost, but it is
believed that they were little plays, usually with only two performers. The
recently discovered mimes of Herodas (Herondas) give us some idea of
their scope. Plato further simplified the form, and reduced it to pure
argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing element of
character-drawing. He must have begun this about the year 405, and by 399
he had brought the dialogue to its highest perfection, especially in the cycle

directly inspired by the death of Socrates. All his philosophical writings,
except the Apology, are cast in this form. As the greatest of all masters of
Greek prose style, Plato lifted his favourite instrument, the dialogue, to its
highest splendour, and to this day he remains by far its most distinguished
proficient. In the 2nd century a.d. Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant
success with his ironic dialogues "Of the Gods," "Of the Dead," "Of Love"
and "Of the Courtesans." In some of them he attacks superstition and
philosophical error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he merely paints
scenes of modern life. The title of Lucian's most famous collection was
borrowed in the 17th century by two French writers of eminence, each of
whom prepared Dialogues des morts. These were Fontenelle (1683) and
Fénelon (1712). In English non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not
been extensively employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713, for his Platonic
treatise, Hylas and Philonous. Landor's Imaginary Conversations (1821-
1828) is the most famous example of it in the 19th century, although the
dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In Germany, Wieland adopted
this form for several important satirical works published between 1780 and
1799. In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of Valdés (1528) and those on
Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are celebrated. In Italian, collections
of dialogues, on the model of Plato, have been composed by Torquato Tasso
(1586), by Galileo (1632), by Galiani (1770), by Leopardi (1825), and by a
host of lesser writers. In our own day, the French have returned to the
original application of dialogue, and the inventions of "Gyp," of Henri
Lavedan and of others, in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and
maliciously told in conversation, would probably present a close analogy to
the lost mimes of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with them. This
kind of dialogue has been employed in English, and with conspicuous
cleverness by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but it does not seem so easily appreciated
by English as by French readers.
(E. G.)

DIALYSIS (from the Gr. διά, through, λύειν, to loosen), in chemistry, a
process invented by Thomas Graham for separating colloidal and crystalline
substances. He found that solutions could be divided into two classes
according to their action upon a porous diaphragm such as parchment. If a
solution, say of salt, be placed in a drum provided with a parchment bottom,
termed a "dialyser," and the drum and its contents placed in a larger vessel
of water, the salt will pass through the membrane. If the salt solution be
replaced by one of glue, gelatin or gum, it will be found that the membrane
is impermeable to these solutes. To the first class Graham gave the name
"crystalloids," and to the second "colloids." This method is particularly
effective in the preparation of silicic acid. By adding hydrochloric acid to a
dilute solution of an alkaline silicate, no precipitate will fall and the solution
will contain hydrochloric acid, an alkaline chloride, and silicic acid. If the
solution be transferred to a dialyser, the hydrochloric acid and alkaline
chloride will pass through the parchment, while the silicic acid will be
retained.

DIAMAGNETISM. Substances which, like iron, are attracted by the
pole of an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as magnetic, all others
being regarded as non-magnetic. It was noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827
that a number of so-called non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac,
were influenced by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed
the opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted upon
iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more or less magnetic.
Faraday showed in 1845 (Experimental Researches, vol. iii.) that while
practically all natural substances are indeed acted upon by a sufficiently
strong magnetic pole, it is only a comparatively small number that are
attracted like iron, the great majority being repelled. Bodies of the latter

class were termed by Faraday diamagnetics. The strongest diamagnetic
substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility being—0.000014, and its
permeability 0.9998. The diamagnetic quality of this metal can be detected
by means of a good permanent magnet, and its repulsion by a magnetic pole
had been more than once recognized before the date of Faraday's
experiments. The metals gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, antimony and
mercury are all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and platinum are attracted by a
very strong pole. (See Magnetism.)

DIAMANTE, FRA, Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato about 1400.
He was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine community of that
order, and was the friend and assistant of Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite
convent of Prato which he adorned with many works in fresco has been
suppressed, and the buildings have been altered to a degree involving the
destruction of the paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra Filippo in
the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of the cathedral of
Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to Florence by his
conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings of the commune of Prato
is still extant, in which it is determined to petition the metropolitan of
Florence to obtain his return to Prato,—a proof that his share in the work
was so important that his recall involved the suspension of it. Subsequently
he assisted Fra Filippo in the execution of the frescoes still to be seen in the
cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra Diamante completed in 1470 after his
master's death in 1469. Fra Filippo left a son ten years old to the care of
Diamante, who, having received 200 ducats from the commune of Spoleto,
as the balance due for the work done in the cathedral, returned with the
child to Florence, and, as Vasari says, bought land for himself with the
money, giving but a small portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-
doing, however, would depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra

Diamante, and the terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo. Fra Diamante
must have been nearly seventy when he completed the frescoes at Spoleto,
but the exact year of his death is not known.

DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA (1640?-1684?), Spanish dramatist,
was born at Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and began writing for the
stage in 1657. He became a knight of Santiago in 1660; the date of his death
is unknown, but no reference to him as a living author occurs after 1684.
Like many other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is deficient in
originality, and his style is riddled with affectations; La Desgraciada
Raquel, which was long considered to be his best play, is really Mira de
Amescua's Judía de Toledo under another title; and the earliest of
Diamante's surviving pieces, El Honrador de su padre (1658), is little more
than a free translation of Corneille's Cid. Diamante is historically interesting
as the introducer of French dramatic methods into Spain.

DIAMANTINA (formerly called Tejuco), a mining town of the state of
Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly on a steep hillside
overlooking a small tributary of the Rio Jequitinhonha (where diamond-
washing was once carried on), and partly on the level plain above. The town
is roughly but substantially built, with broad streets and large squares. It is
the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal seminary, and has many churches.
Its public buildings are inconspicuous; they include a theatre, military
barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum and a secondary school. There are
several small manufactures, including cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting
is carried on. The surrounding region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of
the lateral ranges of the Serra do Espinhaço, is rough and barren, but rich in

minerals, principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is the commercial
centre of an extensive region, and has long been noted for its wealth. The
date of the discovery of diamonds, upon which its wealth and importance
chiefly depend, is uncertain, but the official announcement was made in
1729, and in the following year the mines were declared crown property,
with a crown reservation, known as the "forbidden district," 42 leagues in
circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining was forbidden
within its limits and diamond-washing was placed under severe restrictions.
There are no trustworthy returns of the value of the output, but in 1849 the
total was estimated up to that date at 300,000,000 francs (see Diamond).
The present name of the town was assumed (instead of Tejuco) in 1838,
when it was made a cidade.

DIAMANTINO, a small town of the state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, near
the Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction with the Paraguay, in
14° 24′ 33″ S., 56° 8′ 30″ W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality 2147, mostly
Indians. It stands in a broken sterile region 1837 ft. above sea-level and at
the foot of the great Matto Grosso plateau. The first mining settlement dates
from 1730, when gold was found in the vicinity. On the discovery of
diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large population and for a time was
very prosperous. The mines failed to meet expectations, however, and the
population has steadily declined. Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the
principal articles of export.

DIAMETER (from the Gr. διά, through, μέτρον, measure), in geometry,
a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic section and terminated
by the curve; the "principal diameters" of the ellipse and hyperbola coincide
with the "axes" and are at ...

(Continued in volume 8, slice 4, page 158.)

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BRITANNICA, 11TH EDITION, "DESTRUCTORS" TO "DIAMETER"
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