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Title: American Journal of Science, Vol. 1.

Author: Various

Editor: Benjamin Silliman

Release date: July 28, 2016 [eBook #52663]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, VOL. 1. ***

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE

Vinculums, equivalent to parentheses (), have been retained and are represented by an
overline.
Musical sharp, flat, natural are represented by glyphs copied from the original book: , ,
.
This book contains the first four issues of the Journal, each with its own Table of
Contents:
Vol. 1 No. 1 Pages 1 through 104
Vol. 1 No. 2 105 through 208
Vol. 1 No. 3 209 through 316
Vol. 1 No. 4 317 through 442
In issue No. 2, the incorrect numbering of Articles in the text has been left unchanged.
The Table of Contents for this issue is correct. This error is noted in an Addendum,
Footnote [16], by the publisher.
Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful
comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources.
More detail can be found at the end of the book.

THE

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,
MORE ESPECIALLY OF

MINERALOGY, GEOLOGY,
AND THE

OTHER BRANCHES OF NATURAL HISTORY;
INCLUDING ALSO

AGRICULTURE
AND THE

ORNAMENTAL AS WELL AS USEFUL

ARTS.

CONDUCTED BY

BENJAMIN SILLIMAN, M. D.
Professor of Chemistry, Mineralogy, &c. in Yale College; Author of Travels in England,
Scotland, and Holland, &c.; and Member of various Literary and Scientific Societies.

VOL. I.
SECOND EDITION.

New-York:
PUBLISHED BY J. EASTBURN AND CO. LITERARY ROOMS, BROADWAY, AND
BY HOWE AND SPALDING, NEW-HAVEN.
Sold by Ezekiel Goodall, Hallowell, Maine; Daniel Stone, Brunswick, Maine; Cummings & Hilliard, and Wells & Lilly, Boston;
Simeon Butler, Northampton; Samuel G. Goodrich, Hartford; Clark & Lyman, Middletown; Russell Hubbard, Norwich; O.
&. L. Goodwin, Litchfield; W. E. Norman, Hudson; William Williams, Utica; E. F. Backus, Albany; S. Potter, Philadelphia;
E. J. Coale, Baltimore; W. H. Fitzwhylsonn, Richmond; W. F. Gray, Fredericksburgh; Caleb Atwater, Circleville; William
Poundsford, and James Collord, Cincinnati; John Guirey, Columbia, S. C.; W. T. Williams, Savannah; Henry Wills, Edenton;
John Mill, Charleston; Samuel S. Spencer, and John Menefee, Natchez; Benjamin Hanna, New-Orleans.

PRINTED BY ABRAHAM PAUL.

1819.

ADVERTISEMENT.

In the following plan of this Work, we trust it will be understood,
that we do not pledge ourselves that all the subjects mentioned
shall be touched upon in every Number. This is plainly impossible,
unless every article should be very short and imperfect. All that the
Public are entitled to expect is, that in the progress of the Journal,
the various subjects mentioned may occupy such an extent as our
communications and resources shall permit.
We have been honoured by such a list of names of gentlemen
who are willing to be considered as contributors to this Journal,
that the publication of it would afford us no ordinary gratification,
did we not feel that it is more decorous to allow their names to
appear with their communications, without laying them under a
previous pledge to the Public.

PLAN OF THE WORK.

This Journal is intended to embrace the circle of the Physical
Sciences, with their application to the Arts, and to every useful
purpose.
It is designed as a deposit for original American
communications; it will contain also occasional selections from
Foreign Journals, and notices of the progress of Science in other
countries. Within its plan are embraced
Natural History, in its three great departments of Mineralogy,
Botany, and Zoology.
Chemistry and Natural Philosophy, and their various branches:
and Mathematics, pure and mixed.
It will be a leading object to illustrate American Natural
History, and especially our Mineralogy and Geology.
The Applications of these sciences are obviously as numerous as
physical arts, and physical wants; for no one of these arts or wants
can be named which is not connected with them.
While Science will be cherished for its own sake, and with a due
respect for its own inherent dignity; it will also be employed as the
hand-maid to the Arts. Its numerous applications to Agriculture,
the earliest and most important of them: to Manufactures, both
mechanical and chemical; and, to Domestic Economy, will be
carefully sought out, and faithfully made.

It is within the design of this Journal to receive communications
likewise on Music, Sculpture, Engraving, Painting, and generally
on the fine and liberal, as well as useful arts;
On Military and Civil Engineering, and the art of Navigation;
Notices, Reviews, and Analyses of new scientific works;
accounts of Inventions, and Specifications of Patents;
Biographical and Obituary Notices of scientific men; essays on
Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, and generally on such
other branches of medicine as depend on scientific principles;
Meteorological Registers, and Reports of Agricultural
Experiments: and interesting Miscellaneous Articles, not perhaps
exactly included under either of the above heads.
Communications are respectfully solicited from men of science,
and from men versed in the practical arts.
Learned Societies are invited to make this Journal, occasionally,
the vehicle of their communications to the Public.
The Editor will not hold himself responsible for the sentiments
and opinions advanced by his correspondents: he will consider it as
an allowed liberty to make slight verbal alterations, where errors
may be presumed to have arisen from inadvertency.

CONTENTS.

Page
Introductory Remarks 1
Art. I. Essay on Musical Temperament, by Professor Alex. M.
Fisher 9

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.
Art. II. Review of Cleaveland's Mineralogy 35
Art. III. New Locality of Fluor Spar, &c. 52
Art. IV. Carbonat of Magnesia, &c. discovered by J. Pierce,
Esq. 54
Art. V. Native Copper, near New-Haven 55
Art. VI. Petrified Wood from Antigua 56
Art. VII. American Porcelain Clays, &c. 57
Art. VIII. Native Sulphur from Java 58
Art. IX. Productions of Wier's Cave, in Virginia 59
Art. X. Mineralogy and Geology of part of Virginia and
Tennessee, by Mr. J. H. Kain 60
Art. XI. Notice of Professor Mitchill's edition of Cuvier's
Geology 68
Art. XII. Notice of Eaton's Index to the Geology of the
Northern States, &c. 69
Art. XIII. Notice of M. Brongniart on Organized Remains 71

BOTANY.
Art. XIV. Observations on a species of Limosella, by Professor
E. Ives 74
Art. XV. Notice of Professor Bigelow's Memoir on the Floral
Calendar of the United States, &c. 76

Art. XVI. Journal of the Progress of Vegetation, &c. by C. S.
Rafinesque, Esq. 77

ZOOLOGY.
Art. XVII. Description of a new Species of Marten, by C. S.
Rafinesque, Esq. 82
Art. XVIII. Natural History of the Copper-Head Snake, by the
same 84

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
Art. XIX. On a Method of augmenting the Force of
Gunpowder, by Colonel G. Gibbs 87
Art. XX. On the connexion between Magnetism and Light, by
the same 89
Art. XXI. On a new means of Producing Heat and Light, by J.
L. Sullivan, Esq. 91
Art. XXII. On the Effects of the Earthquakes of 1811, 1812, on
the Wells in Columbia, South Carolina, by Professor
Edward D. Smith 93
Art. XXIII. On the Respiration of Oxygen Gas in an Affection
of the Thorax 95

MISCELLANEOUS.
Art. XXIV. On the Priority of Discovery of the Compound
Blowpipe, and its Effects 97
Art. XXV. On the Northwest Passage, the North Pole, and the
Greenland Ice 101

THE

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

The age in which we live is not less distinguished by a vigorous and
successful cultivation of physical science, than by its numerous and
important applications to the practical arts, and to the common purposes of
life.
In every enlightened country, men illustrious for talent, worth, and
knowledge, are ardently engaged in enlarging the boundaries of natural
science; and the history of their labours and discoveries is communicated to
the world chiefly through the medium of Scientific Journals. The utility of
such Journals has thus become generally evident; they are the heralds of
science; they proclaim its toils and its achievements; they demonstrate its
intimate connexion as well with the comfort, as with the intellectual and
moral improvement of our species; and they often procure for it enviable
honours and substantial rewards.
In England the interests of science have been, for a series of years,
greatly promoted by the excellent Journals of Tilloch and Nicholson; and
for the loss of the latter, the scientific world has been fully compensated by
Dr. Thomson's Annals of Philosophy, and by the Journal of Science and the
Arts, both published in London.
In France, the Annales de Chimie et de Physique, the Journal des Mines,
the Journal de Physique, &c. have long enjoyed a high and deserved
reputation. Indeed, there are few countries in Europe which do not produce
some similar publication; not to mention the transactions of learned
societies and numerous medical Journals.
From these sources our country reaps, and will long continue to reap, an
abundant harvest of information: and if the light of science, as well as of
day, springs from the east, we will welcome the rays of both; nor should
national pride induce us to reject so rich an offering.
But can we do nothing in return? In a general diffusion of useful
information through the various classes of society, in activity of intellect,
and fertility of resource and invention, characterizing a highly intelligent

population, we have no reason to shrink from a comparison with any
country. But the devoted cultivators of science, in the United States, are
comparatively few; they are, however, rapidly increasing in number. Among
them are persons distinguished for their capacity and attainments, and
notwithstanding the local feelings nourished by our state sovereignties, and
the rival claims of several of our larger cities, there is evidently a
predisposition towards a concentration of effort, from which we may hope
for the happiest results, with regard to the advancement of both the science
and the reputation of our country.
Is it not, therefore, desirable to furnish some rallying point, some object
sufficiently interesting to be compassed by common efforts, and thus to
become the basis of an enduring, common interest? To produce these
efforts, and to excite this interest, nothing, perhaps, bids fairer than a
Scientific Journal. Hitherto nearly all our exertions, of this kind, have been
made by medical gentlemen, and directed primarily to medical objects. We
are neither ignorant nor forgetful of the merits of our various Medical
Journals, nor of the zeal with which, as far as consistent with their main
object, they have fostered the physical sciences. We are aware, also, that
Journals have been established, professedly deriving their materials
principally from foreign sources; that our various literary Magazines and
Reviews have given, and continue to give, some notices of physical and
mathematical subjects, and that some of them seem even partial to these
branches of knowledge: that various limited efforts have been made, and are
still making, to publish occasional or periodical papers, devoted to
mathematical or physical subjects, and that even our newspapers sometimes
contain scientific intelligence. We are aware, also, that some of our
academies and societies of natural history, either in Journals of their own, or
through the medium of existing magazines, communicate to the public the
efforts of their members in various branches of natural science.
But all these facts go only to prove the strong tendency which exists in
this country towards the cultivation of physical science, and the inadequacy
of the existing means for its effectual promulgation.
Although our limits do not permit us, however much inclined, to be more
particular in commemorating the labours and in honouring the
performances (often marked by much ability) of our predecessors and
cotemporaries, there is one effort which we are not willing to pass by

without a more particular notice; and we are persuaded that no apology is
necessary for naming the Journal of the late Dr. Bruce, of New-York,
devoted principally to mineralogy and geology.
No future historian of American science will fail to commemorate this
work as our earliest purely scientific Journal, supported by original
American communications.
Both in this country and in Europe, it was received in a very flattering
manner; it excited, at home, great zeal and effort in support of the sciences
which it fostered, and, abroad, it was hailed as the harbinger of our future
exertions. The editor was honoured with letters on the subject of his
Journal, and with applications for it from most of the countries in Europe;
but its friends had to regret that, although conducted in a manner perfectly
to their satisfaction, it appeared only at distant intervals, and, after the lapse
of several years, never proceeded beyond the fourth number.
The hopes of its revival have now, unhappily, become completely extinct,
by the lamented death of Dr. Bruce.[1]
This gentleman, with an accomplished education, with extensive
acquirements in science, and great zeal for promoting it in his own country;
advantageously and extensively known in Europe, and furnished with a
correct and discriminating mind, and a chaste, scientific taste, was so well
qualified for the task which he had undertaken, that no one can attempt to
resume those scientific labours which he has now for ever relinquished,
without realizing that he undertakes an arduous enterprise, and lays himself
under a heavy responsibility. American science has much to lament in the
death of Dr. Bruce.
No one, it is presumed, will doubt that a Journal devoted to science, and
embracing a sphere sufficiently extensive to allure to its support the
principal scientific men of our country, is greatly needed; if cordially
supported, it will be successful, and if successful, it will be a great public
benefit.
Even a failure, in so good a cause, (unless it should arise from incapacity
or unfaithfulness,) cannot be regarded as dishonourable. It may prove only
that the attempt was premature, and that our country is not yet ripe for such
an undertaking; for without the efficient support of talent, knowledge, and

money, it cannot long proceed. No editor can hope to carry forward such a
work without the active aid of scientific and practical men; but, at the same
time, the public have a right to expect that he will not be sparing of his own
labour, and that his work shall be generally marked by the impress of his
own hand. To this extent the editor cheerfully acknowledges his obligations
to the public; and it will be his endeavour faithfully to redeem his pledge.
Most of the periodical works of our country have been short-lived. This,
also, may perish in its infancy; and if any degree of confidence is cherished,
that it will attain a maturer age, it is derived from the obvious and intrinsic
importance of the undertaking; from its being built upon permanent and
momentous national interests; from the evidence of a decided approbation
of the design, on the part of men of the first eminence, obtained in the
progress of an extensive correspondence; from assurances of support, in the
way of contributions, from men of ability in many parts of the union; and
from the existence of such a crisis in the affairs of this country and of the
world, as appears peculiarly auspicious to the success of every wise and
good undertaking.
As regards the subjects of this work, it is in our power to do much in the
department of the natural history of this country. Our Zoology has been
more fully investigated than our mineralogy and botany; but neither
department is in danger of being exhausted. The interesting travels of Lewis
and Clark have recently brought to our knowledge several plants and
animals before unknown. Foreign naturalists frequently explore our
territory; and, for the most part, convey to Europe the fruits of their
researches, while but a small part of our own productions is examined and
described by Americans: certainly, this is little to our credit, and still less to
our advantage. Honourable exceptions to the truth of this remark are
furnished by the exertions of some gentlemen in our principal cities, and in
various other parts of the Union.[2]
Our botany, it is true, has been extensively and successfully investigated;
but this field is still rich, and rewards every new research with some
interesting discovery. Our mineralogy, however, is a treasure but just
opened. That both science and art may expect much advantage from this
source, is sufficiently evinced by the success which has crowned the active
efforts of a few ardent cultivators of this science: several new species of
minerals have been added to it in this country; great numbers of American

localities discovered, and interesting additions made to our materials, for
the useful and ornamental arts. The science of mineralogy is now illustrated
by courses of lectures, and by several good cabinets in the different states.
Among the cabinets, the splendid collection of Colonel Gibbs, now in Yale
College, (a munificent DEPOSIT for the benefit of his country,) stands pre-
eminent: it would be considered as a very noble cabinet in any part of
Europe: and its introduction into the United States, and its gratuitous
dedication to the promotion of science, are equally advantageous to the
community, and honourable to its patriotic and enlightened proprietor.
Mineralogy is most intimately connected with our arts, and especially with
our agriculture.
Such are the disguises worn by many most useful mineral substances,
that an unskilful observer is liable to pass a thing by, as worthless, which, if
better informed, he would seize with avidity; and, still more frequently, a
worthless substance, clothed perhaps in a brilliant and attractive exterior,
excites hopes altogether delusive, and induces expense, without a
possibility of remuneration. A diffusion of correct knowledge on this
subject is the only adequate remedy for either evil.
Our geology, also, presents a most interesting field of inquiry. A grand
outline has recently been drawn by Mr. Maclure, with a masterly hand, and
with a vast extent of personal observation and labour: but to fill up the
detail, both observation and labour still more extensive are demanded; nor
can the object be effected, till more good geologists are formed, and
distributed over our extensive territory.
To account for the formation and changes of our globe, by excursions of
the imagination, often splendid and imposing, but usually visionary, and
almost always baseless, was, till within half a century, the business of
geological speculations; but this research has now assumed a more sober
character; the science of geology has been reared upon numerous and
accurate observations of facts; and standing thus upon the basis of
induction, it is entitled to a rank among those sciences which Lord Bacon's
Philosophy has contributed to create. Geological researches are now
prosecuted, by actually exploring the structure and arrangement of districts,
countries, and continents. The obliquity of the strata of most rocks, causing
their edges to project in many places above the surface; their exposure in
other instances, on the sides or tops of hills and mountains; or, in

consequence of the intersection of their strata, by roads, canals, and river-
courses, or by the wearing of the ocean; or their direct perforation, by the
shafts of mines; all these causes, and others, afford extensive means of
reading the interior structure of the globe.
The outlines of American geology appear to be particularly grand,
simple, and instructive; and a knowledge of the important facts, and general
principles of this science, is of vast practical use, as regards the interests of
agriculture, and the research for useful minerals. Geological and
mineralogical descriptions, and maps of particular states and districts, are
very much needed in the United States; and to excite a spirit to furnish them
will form one leading object of this journal.
The science of natural philosophy, with its powerful auxiliary,
mathematics, and the science of chemistry, the twin sister of natural
philosophy, are of incalculable importance to this country. A volume would
not suffice to trace their applications, and to enumerate the instances of
their utility.
As one which may be allowed to stand, instar omnium, we may mention
the steam engine; that legitimate child of physical and chemical science—at
once more powerful than the united force of the strongest and largest
animals, and more manageable than the smallest and gentlest; raising from
the bowels of the earth the massy treasures of its mines, drawing up rivers
from their channels, and pouring them, in streams of life, into the bosom of
cities; and, above all, propelling against the currents, the winds, and the
waves of the ocean, those stupendous vessels, which combine speed with
certainty, and establish upon the bosom of the deep the luxuries and
accommodations of the land.
The successful execution of this magnificent design was first witnessed
upon the waters of the Hudson, but is now imitated in almost every
civilized country; and it remains to be seen whether they will emulate us by
transporting, by the same means, and against the same obstacles, the most
formidable trains of artillery.
The mechanical inventions of this country are numerous; many of them
are ingenious, and some are highly important. In no way can a knowledge
of them be so readily and extensively diffused as in a scientific journal. To
this object, therefore, a part of our labours (should there be a call for it,)

will be devoted, and every necessary aid will be given by plates and
descriptions.
Science and art mutually assist each other; the arts furnish facts and
materials to science, and science illuminates the path of the arts.
The science of mathematics, both pure and mixed, can never cease to be
interesting and important to man, as long as the relations of quantity shall
exist, as long as ships shall traverse the ocean, as long as man shall measure
the surface or heights of the earth on which he lives, or calculate the
distances and examine the relations of the planets and stars; and as long as
the iron reign of war shall demand the discharge of projectiles, or the
construction of complicated defences.
In a word, the whole circle of physical science is directly applicable to
human wants, and constantly holds out a light to the practical arts; it thus
polishes and benefits society, and every where demonstrates both supreme
intelligence, and harmony and beneficence of design in the Creator.

Art. I. Essay on Musical Temperament.[3]
By Professor Fisher, of Yale College.

It is well known to those who have attended to the subject of musical
ratios, that a fixed scale of eight degrees to the octave, which shall render
all its concords perfect, is impossible. It has been demonstrated by Dr.
Smith, from an investigation of all the positions which the major, the minor,
and the half-tone can assume, that the most perfect scales possible, of which
there are two equally so, differing only in the position of the major and the
minor tone above the key note, must have one Vth and one 3d too flat, and
consequently the supplementary 4th and VIth too sharp, by a comma. In
vocal music, and in that of perfect instruments, this defect in the scale is not
perceived, because a small change may be made in the key, whenever the
occurrence of either of those naturally imperfect intervals renders such a
change necessary to perfect harmony. But in instruments with fixed scales,
such as the guitar, the piano-forte, and the organ, if we begin with tuning as
many concords as possible perfect, the resulting chords above-mentioned
will be necessarily false in an offensive degree. Hence it is an important
problem in practical harmonics, to distribute these imperfections in the
scale among the different chords, in such a manner as to occasion the least
possible injury to harmony.
But this is not the only nor the principal difficulty which the tuner of
imperfect instruments has to encounter. In order that these instruments may
form a proper accompaniment for the voice, and be used in conjunction
with perfect instruments, it is necessary that music should be capable of
being executed on them, in all the different keys in common use; and
especially that they should be capable of those occasional modulations
which often occur in the course of the same piece. Now only five additional
sounds to the octave are usually inserted for this purpose, between those of
the natural scale, which, of course, furnish it with only three sharps and two
flats. Hence, when a greater number of flats or sharps is introduced, the
music can be executed only by striking, in the former case, the sharp of the
note next below; and, in the latter, the flat of the note next above. But as the

diatonic semitone is more than half the major, and much more than half the
minor tone, if the additional sounds in the common artificial scale be made
perfect for one of the above employments, they must be extremely harsh for
the other. Hence arises the necessity of adjusting the position of these five
inserted sounds so that they may make tolerable harmony, whichever way
employed. A change in these will require corresponding changes in the
position of the several degrees of the natural scale; so that it is highly
probable that the best scheme of temperament will leave no concord, either
of the natural or artificial scale, absolutely perfect.
In adjusting the imperfections of the scale, the three following
considerations have been usually taken into view.
I. One object to be aimed at is, to make the sum of the temperaments of
all the concords the least possible. Since experience teaches us that the
harshness of a given concord increases with its temperament, it is obvious
that of two systems which agree in other respects, the best is that in which
the sum of the temperaments is least.
II. When other things are equal, the best adjustment of the imperfections
of the scale is that which diminishes the harmoniousness of all the different
concords proportionally. The succession of a worse to a better harmony, is
justly regarded by several of the best writers on this subject, as one of the
principal causes of offence to the ear, in instruments imperfectly tuned.
III. When different chords of the same kind are of unequally frequent
occurrence, there is an advantage, cæteris paribus, in giving the greatest
temperament to that which occurs most seldom. This important
consideration has indeed been neglected by Dr. Smith, in the systems which
he recommends, both for his changeable and the common fixed scale; as it
is, also, by the numerous advocates of the system of equal semitones. But
many authors on temperament, and most instrument-makers, pay a vague
regard to it. Their aim has been, although in a loose and conjectural manner,
to make the prominent chords of the simplest keys the nearest to perfection,
whilst a greater temperament is thrown upon those which occur only in the
more complex keys. Thus Dr. Young, in the Philos. Trans. for 1800,
recommends a scheme which increases the temperament of the IIIds, on the
key note of the successive keys, as we modulate by fifths from C, nearly in
arithmetical progression. Earl Stanhope assigns as a reason for the small

temperament which is given to several of the IIIds in his system, that they
are on the tonic of the simpler keys. The irregularities in Mr. Hawkes's
scheme may be traced to the same cause. And, with the instrument-makers,
it is a favourite maxim to lay the wolf, as they term it, where it will be most
seldom heard.
But if the above consideration deserves any weight at all, it deserves to
be accurately investigated. Not only ought the relative frequency of
different chords to be ascertained with the greatest accuracy, of which the
nature of the subject is susceptible, but the degree of weight which this
consideration ought to have, when compared with the two others above-
mentioned, should be determined: for it is plain that neither of them ought
to be ever left out of view.
Accordingly, the principal design of the following propositions will be to
investigate the actual frequency of occurrence of different chords in
practice; and from this and the two other above-mentioned considerations
united, to deduce the best system of temperament for a scale, containing
any given number of sounds to the octave, and particularly for the common
Douzeave, or scale of twelve degrees.

Proposition I.
All consonances may be regarded, without any sensible error in practice, as
equally harmonious in their kinds, when equally tempered; and when
unequally tempered, within certain limits, as having their
harmoniousness diminished in the direct ratio of their temperaments.
As different consonances, when perfect, are not pleasing to the ear in an
equal degree, some approaching nearer to the nature of discords than others,
so a set of tempered consonances, cæteris paribus, will be best constituted
when their harmoniousness is diminished proportionally. Suppose, for
example, that the agreeable effects of the Vth, IIId, and 3d, when perfect,
are as any unequal numbers, a, b, and c; the best arrangement of a tempered
scale, other things being equal, would be, not that in which the agreeable
effect of the Vth was reduced to an absolute level with that of the IIId, or
3d, but when they were so tempered that their agreeable effects on the ear
might be expressed by mn a, mn b, mn c.

That different consonances, in this sense, are equally harmonious in their
kinds, when equally tempered, or, at least, sufficiently so for every practical
purpose, may be illustrated in the following manner:

Let the lines AB, ab, represent the times of vibration of two tempered
unisons. Whatever be the ratio of AB to ab, whether rational or irrational, it
is obvious that the successive vibrations will alternately recede from and
approach each other, till they very nearly coincide; and, that during one of
these periods, the longer vibration, AB, has gained one of the shorter. Let
the points, A, B, &c. represent the middle of the successive times of
vibration of the lower; and a, b, &c. those of the higher of the tempered
unisons. Let the arc AGN..VA be a part of a circle, representing one period
of their pulses, and let the points A, a, be the middle points of the times of
those vibrations which approach the nearest to a coincidence. It is obvious
that the dislocations bB, cC, &c. of the successive pulses, increase in a ratio
which is very nearly that of their distances from A, or a. Now if the pulses
exactly coincided, the unisons would be perfect; and the same would be
equally true, if the pulses of the one bisected, or divided in any other
constant ratio, those of the other; as clearly appears from observation. It is,
therefore, not the absolute magnitude, as asserted by Dr. Smith, but the

variableness of the successive dislocations, Bb, Cc, &c. which renders the
imperfect unisons discordant; and the magnitude of the successive
increments of these dislocations is the measure of the degree of discordance
heard in the unisons.
If now the time of vibration in each is doubled, AC, ac, &c. will
represent the times of vibration of imperfect unisons an octave below, and
the successive dislocations will be Cc, Ee, &c. only half as frequent as
before. But the unisons AE, ae, will be equally harmonious with AB, ab;
because, although the successive dislocations are less frequent than before,
yet the coincidences C′c′, E′e′ of the corresponding perfect unisons are less
frequent in the same ratio.
Suppose, in the second place, that the time of vibration is doubled, in
only one of the unisons, ab; and that the times become AB and ac, or those
of imperfect octaves. These will also be equally harmonious in their kind
with the unisons AB, ab. For, although the dislocations Cc, Ee, &c. are but
half as numerous as before, the coincidences of the corresponding perfect
octaves will be but half as numerous. The dislocations which remain are the
same as those of the imperfect unisons; and if some of the dislocations are
struck out, and the increments of successive ones thus increased, no greater
change is made in the nature of the imperfect than of the perfect
consonance.
If, thirdly, we omit two-thirds of the pulses of the lower unison, retaining
the octave ac of the last case, we shall have AD, ac, the times of vibration
of imperfect Vths, to which, and to all other concords, the same reasoning
may be applied as above. It may be briefly exhibited thus; since the
intermission of the coincidences C′c′, E′e′ of the perfect unisons, an octave
below A′B′, does not render the Vth A′D′G′ a′c′e′g′ less perfect than the
unison A′c′ a′c′, each being perfect in its kind; so neither does the
intermission of the corresponding dislocations Cc, Ee, of the tempered
unisons, in the imperfect Vth, ADG, aceg, render it less harmonious in its
kind than the tempered unison AB, ab, from which it is derived in exactly
the same manner that the perfect Vth is derived from the perfect unison.
The consonances thus derived, as has been shown by Dr. Smith, will have
the same periods, and consequently the same beats, with the imperfect
unisons. It is obvious, likewise, that they will all be equally tempered. Let m

AB, and n ab, be a general expression for the times of vibration of any such
consonance. The tempering ratio of an imperfect consonance is always
found by dividing the ratio of the vibrations of the imperfect by that of the
corresponding perfect consonance. But mn AB ab
÷ mn = AB ab
; which is
evidently the tempering ratio of the imperfect unisons.
Hence, so far as any reasoning, founded on the abstract nature of
coexisting pulses can be relied on, (for, in a case of this kind, rigid
demonstration can scarcely be expected,) we are led to conclude that the
harmoniousness of different consonances is proportionally diminished when
they are equally tempered.
The remaining part of the proposition, viz. that consonances differently
tempered have their harmoniousness diminished, or their harshness
increased, in the direct ratio of their temperaments, will be evident, when
we consider that the temperament of any consonance is the sole cause of its
harshness, and that the effect ought to be proportioned to its adequate cause.
We may add, that the rapidity of the beats, in a given consonance, increases
very nearly in the ratio of the temperament; and universal experience
shows, that increasing the rapidity of the beats of the same consonance,
increases its harshness. This is on the supposition that the consonance is not
varied so much as to interfere with any other whose ratio is equally simple.
Cor. We may hence infer, that in every system of temperament which
preserves the octaves perfect, each consonance is equally harmonious, in its
kind, with its complement to the octave, and its compounds with octaves.
For the tempering ratio of the complement of any concord to the octave, is
the same with that of the concord itself, differing only in its sign, which
does not sensibly affect the harmony or the rate of beating; while the
tempering ratio of the compounds with octaves is not only the same, but
with the same sign.

Scholium 1.
There is no point in harmonics, concerning which theorists have been
more divided in opinion than in regard to the true measure of equal
harmony, in consonances of different kinds. Euler maintains, that the more
simple a consonance is, the less temperament it will bear; and this seems to

have ever been the general opinion of practical musicians.[4] Dr. Smith, on
the contrary, asserts, and has attempted to demonstrate, that the simpler will
bear a much greater temperament than the more complex consonances. The
foregoing proposition has, at least, the merit of taking the middle ground
between these discordant opinions. If admitted, it will greatly simplify the
whole subject, and will reduce the labour of rendering all the concords in
three octaves as equally harmonious as possible, which occupies so large a
portion of Dr. Smith's volume, to a single short proposition. Dr. Smith's
measure of equal harmony, viz. equal numbers of short cycles in the
intervals between the successive beats, seems designed, not to render the
different consonances proportionally harmonious, but to reduce the simpler
to an absolute level, in point of agreeableness, with the more complex;
which, as has been shown, is not the object to be aimed at in adjusting their
comparative temperaments. But, in truth, his measure is far more favourable
to the complex consonances than equal harmony, even in this sense, would
require; and, in a great number of instances, leads to the grossest
absurdities. Two consonances, according to him, are equally harmonious,
when their temperaments are inversely as the products of the least numbers
expressing their perfect ratio. If so, the VIII + 3d, whose ratio is 5/12, when
tempered 1/20 of a comma, and the unison, whose ratio is 1/1, when tempered
3 commas, are equally harmonious. But all who have the least experience in
tempered consonances will pronounce, at once, that the former could
scarcely be distinguished by the nicest ear from the corresponding perfect
concord, while the latter would be a most offensive discord. One instance
more shall suffice. The temperaments to render the VIII + Vth, and the VIII
+ 6th equally harmonious, are laid down in his tables to be as 80 : 3. We
will now suppose an instrument perfectly tuned in Dr. Smith's manner, and
furnished with all the additional sounds which constitute his changeable
scale. In this system, the IIIds, and consequently the VIII + 6ths, are
tempered 1/9 of a comma; which, so far from being offensive, will be
positively agreeable to the ear. This cannot be doubted by those who admit
that the VIII + 6ths in the common imperfect scales, when tempered at a
medium nearly seven times as much, make tolerable harmony. Yet,
according to the theory which we are opposing, the VIII + Vth will be
equally harmonious when tempered nearly a minor semitone. Now let any
one, even with the common instruments, whenever an VIII + Vth occurs,
strike the semitone next above or below: for example, instead of playing C,

g, let him play C, g ; instead of A, e, let him play A, e , &c. and compare
the harmony of these with that of the VIII + 6ths, if he wants any farther
evidence that Dr. Smith's measure of equal harmony is without foundation.
It may be thought, that even the measure of equal harmony laid down in
the proposition, is more favourable to the complex consonances than the
conclusions of experience will warrant. But when it is asserted by practical
musicians, that the octave will bear less tempering than the Vth, the Vth
less than the IIId, &c., they doubtless intend to estimate the temperament by
the rate of beating, and to imply, that when different consonances to the
same base are made to beat equally fast, the simpler are more offensive than
the more complex consonances. This is entirely consistent with the
proposition; for when equally tempered, the more complex consonances
will beat more rapidly than the more simple; if on the same base, very
nearly in the ratio of their major terms. (Smith's Har. Prop. XI. Cor. 4.) If,
for example, an octave, a Vth, and a IIId on the same base were made to
beat with a rapidity which is as the numbers 2, 3, and 5, no unprejudiced ear
would probably pronounce the octave less harmonious in its kind than the
IIId.
To those, on the other hand, who may incline to a measure of equal
harmony between that laid down in the proposition and that of Dr. Smith,
on account of the rapidity of the beats of the more complex consonances, it
maybe sufficient to reply, that if the beats of a more complex consonance
are more rapid than those of a simpler one, when both are equally tempered,
those of the latter, cæteris paribus, are more distinct. It is the distinctness of
the undulations, in tempered consonances, which is one of the principal
causes of offence to the ear.

Scholium 2.
It will be proper to explain, in this place, the notation of musical
intervals, which will be adopted in the following pages. It is well known
that musical intervals are as the logarithms of their corresponding ratios. If,
therefore, the octave be represented by .30103, the log. of 2, the value of the
Vth will be expressed by .17509; that of the major tone by .05115; that of
the comma by .00540, &c. But in order to avoid the prefixed ciphers, in
calculations where so small intervals as the temperaments of different

concords are concerned, we will multiply each of these values by 100,000,
which will give a set of integral values having the same ratio. The octave
will now become 30103, the comma 540, &c.; and, in general, when
temperaments are hereafter expressed by numbers, they are to be considered
as so many 540ths of a comma. Had more logarithmic places been taken,
the intervals would have been expressed with greater accuracy; but it was
supposed that the additional accuracy would not compensate for the
increased labour of computation which it would occasion. This notation has
been adopted by Dr. Robinson, in the article Temperament, (Encyc. Brit.
Supplement;) and for every practical purpose, is as much superior to that
proposed by Mr. Farey, in parts of the Schisma, lesser fraction and minute,
[5]
as all decimal measures necessarily are, to those which consist of
different denominations.

Proposition II.
In adjusting the imperfections of the scale, so as to render all the
consonances as equally harmonious as possible, only the simple
consonances, such as the Vth, IIId, and 3d, with their complements to and
compounds with the octave, can be regarded.
It has been generally assigned as the reason for neglecting the
consonances, usually termed discords, in ascertaining the best scheme of
temperament, that they are of less frequent occurrence than the concords.
This, however, if it were the only reason, would lead us, not to neglect them
entirely, but merely to give them a less degree of influence than the
concords, in proportion as they are less used.
A consideration which seems not to have been often noticed, renders it
impossible to pay them any regard in harmonical computations. All such
computations must proceed on the supposition that within the limits to
which the temperaments of the different consonances extend, they become
harsher as their temperaments are increased. It is evident that any
consonance may be tempered so much as to become better by having its
temperament increased, in consequence of its approaching as near to some
other perfect ratio, the terms of which are equally small; or perhaps much
nearer some perfect ratio whose terms are not proportionally larger. For
example, after we have sharpened the Vth more than 3 commas, it becomes

more harmonious, as approaching much nearer to the perfect ratio 5/6. In
this, however, and the other concords, the value of the nearest perfect ratios
in small numbers, varies so much from the ratios of these concords, and the
consequent limits within which the last part of Prop. I. holds true, are so
wide that there is no hazard in making it a basis of calculation. And if there
be a few exceptions to this, in some systems, in which the temperaments of
a few of the concords become so large as to approach nearer to some other
perfect ratio, whose terms are nearly as small as those of the perfect
concord, although they might become more harmonious, by having their
temperament increased, yet their effect in melody would be still more
impaired; so that the concords may all be considered as subjected to the
same rule of calculation.
But the limits within which the second part of Prop. I. holds true, with
regard to the more complex consonances, are much more limited. We
cannot, for instance, sharpen the 7th, whose ratio is 9 : 16 more than ½ a
comma, without rendering it more harmonious, as approaching nearer
another perfect ratio which is simpler; that of 5 : 9. Yet the difference
between these two 7ths is so trifling that they have never received distinct
names; and, indeed, their effect on the ear in melody would not be sensibly
different.
Again, the 5th, whose perfect ratio has been generally laid down as 45 :
64, but which is in reality 25 : 36,[6] cannot be sharpened more than ⅓ of a
comma, before it becomes more harmonious by having its temperament
increased, as approaching nearer the simpler ratio 7 : 10. At the same time,
the effect of this interval in melody would not be sensibly varied. The
limits, within which the harmoniousness of the IVth is inversely as its
temperament, are still narrower.
Hence it appears that no inference can be drawn from the temperaments
of such consonances as the 7th, 5th, IVth, &c. respecting their real
harmoniousness. The other perfect ratios which have nearly the same value
with those of these chords, and which are in equally simple terms, are so
numerous that by increasing their temperament they alternately become
more and less harmonious; and in a manner so irregular, that to attempt to
subject them to calculation, with the concords, would be in vain. Even when
unaltered, they may be considered either as greater temperaments of more
simple, or less temperaments of more complex ratios. Suppose the 5th, for

example, to be flattened ⅕ of a comma: shall it be considered as deriving its
character from the perfect ratio 25 : 36, and be regarded as flattened 108; or
shall it be referred to the perfect ratio 7 : 10, and considered as sharpened
239? No one can tell.—On the whole, it is manifest that no consonances
more complex than those included in the proposition, can be regarded in
adjusting the temperaments of the scale.

Proposition III.
The best scale of sounds, which renders the harmony of all the concords as
nearly equal as possible, is that in which the Vths are flattened 2/7, and the
IIIds and 3ds, each 1/7 of a comma.
The octave must be kept perfect, for reasons which have satisfied all
theoretical and practical harmonists, how widely soever their opinions have
differed in other respects. Admitting equal temperament to be the measure
of equal harmony, the complements of the Vth, IIId, and 3d, to the octave,
and their compounds with octaves will be equally harmonious in their kinds
with these concords respectively; according to the corollary of Prop I.
Hence we have only to find those temperaments of the Vths, IIIds, and
3ds, in the compass of one octave, which will render them all, as nearly as
possible, equally harmonious. The temperaments of the different concords
of the same name ought evidently to be rendered equal; since, otherwise,
their harmony cannot be equal. This can be effected only by rendering the
major and minor tones equal, and preserving the equality of the two
semitones. If this is done, the temperament of all the IIIds will be equal,
since they will each be the sum of two equal tones. For a similar reason the
3ds, and consequently the Vths, formed by the addition of IIIds, and 3ds,
will be equally tempered.

In order to reduce the octave to five equal and variable tones, and two
equal and variable semitones, we will suppose the intervals of the
untempered octave to be represented by the parts CD, DE, &c. of the line
Cc. Denoting the comma by c, we will suppose the tone DE, which is
naturally minor, to be increased by any variable quantity, x; then, by the
foregoing observations, the other minor tone, GA, must be increased by the
same quantity. As the major tones must be rendered equal to the minor, their
increment will be x – c. As the octave is to be perfect, the variation of the
two semitones must be the same with that of the five tones, with the
contrary sign; and as they are to be equally varied, the decrement of each
will be 5x –2 3c ; or what amounts to the same thing, the increment of each
3c – 5x
will be 2
.

The several concords of the same name in this octave are now affected
with equal and variable temperaments. The common increment of the IIIds
will be 2x – c; that of the 3ds ½ · c – 3x; and consequently that of the Vths
½ · x – c.
In adjusting these variable temperaments, so as to render the harmony of
the concords of different kinds, as nearly equal as possible, we immediately
discover that, as the Vth is composed of the IIId and 3d, the temperaments
of the three cannot all be equal. When the temperaments of the IIId and 3d
have the same sign, that of the Vths must be equal to their sum; and, when
they have contrary signs, to their difference. Hence the temperament of one
of these three concords is necessarily equal to the sum of that of the other
two. This being fixed, the temperaments, and consequently, (by Prop. I.) the
discordance of the different consonances is the most equably divided
possible, when the two smaller temperaments, whose sum is equal to the
greater, are made equal to each other. The problem contains three cases.
1. When the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have the same sign, they
ought to be equal to each other. Making 2x – c = ½ · c – 3x, we obtain
x = 3/7 c, which, substituted in the general expressions for the temperaments
of the Vth, IIId, and 3d, makes their increments equal to –2/7 c, –1/7 c, –1/7 c,
respectively.
2. Let the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have contrary signs: and first,
let that of the IIIds be the greater. Then the former ought to be double of the

latter, in order that the temperament of the Vths and and 3ds may be equal.
Hence we have 2x – c = – 2 · ½ · c – 3x; whence x is found = 0; and by
substitution as before, the required temperament of the IIId = – c; of the Vth
– ½ c, and of the 3d ½ c.
3. Let the temperaments of the IIId and 3d have contrary signs, as before;
and let that of the 3d be the greater. Making ½ · c – 3x = –2 · 2x – c, we
obtain x = 3/5 c; which gives, by substitution, the temperaments of the 3d,
Vth, and IIId – 2/5 c, – 1/5 c, and 1/5 c, respectively.
Each of these results makes the harmony of all the consonances as nearly
equal as possible; but as the sum of the temperaments in the first case is
much the least, it follows that the temperaments stated in the proposition
constitute the best scheme of intervals for the natural scale, in which the
harmony of all the different consonances is rendered as nearly equal as
possible.
Cor. 1. In the same manner it may be shown that these temperaments are
the best, among those which approach as nearly as possible to equal
harmony, for the artificial scale; provided that it is furnished with distinct
sounds for all the sharps and flats in common use. By inserting a sound
between F and G, making the interval F G equal to either of the semitones
found above, the intervals, reckoned from G as a key note, will be exactly
the same in respect to their temperaments, as the corresponding ones
reckoned from C. The same thing holds, whatever be the number of flats
and sharps. It is supposed, however, that the flat of a note is never used for
the sharp of that next below, or the contrary; and hence this scheme of
temperament would only be adapted to an instrument, furnished with all the
degrees of the enharmonic scale; or, at least, with as many as are in
common use.
Cor. 2. This scale will differ but little in practice from the one deduced,
with so much labour, by Dr. Smith, from his criterion of equal harmony;
which flattens the Vths 5/18, the IIIds 1/9, and the 3ds 1/6 of a comma. The
several differences are only 1/126, 2/63, and 1/42 of a comma. Hence, as his
measure of equal harmony differs so widely from that of Proposition I. we
may infer that the consideration of equalizing the harmony of the concords
of different names can have very little practical influence on the
temperaments of the scale. Should it, therefore, be maintained that the

criterion laid down in Prop. I. is not mathematically accurate; yet, as it must
be allowed, in the most unfavourable view, to correspond far better with the
decisions of experience than that of Doctor Smith, the chance is, that, at the
lowest estimate, the temperaments deduced from it approach much more
nearly to correctness. Hence it is manifest that equal temperament may be
made, without any sensible error in practice, the criterion of equal
harmony.

Scholium 3.
Although the foregoing would be the best division of the musical scale, if
our sole object were to render the harmony of its concords as nearly equal
as possible, yet the two other considerations, stated at the beginning of the
essay, must by no means be neglected, as has been done by Dr. Smith. It
seems to be universally admitted, that the sum of the temperaments may be
increased to a certain extent, in order to equalize the harmony of the
concords; otherwise the natural scale of major and minor tones, which
makes the sum of the temperaments of the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds but 2
commas, ought to be left unaltered. Yet how far this principle ought to be
carried, may be a matter of doubt. If we make the IIIds perfect, and flatten
the Vths and 3ds each ¼ c, according to the old system of mean tones, we
shall have the smallest aggregate of temperaments which admits of the
different concords of the same name being rendered equally imperfect; but
this amounts to 2½ commas. Thus far, however, it seems evidently proper to
proceed. If we go still farther, and endeavour to equalize the harmony of the
concords of different names, it may be questioned whether nearly as much
is not lost as gained; for the aggregate temperaments are increased, in Dr.
Smith's scale, to 2⅔ c, and in that of the above proposition to 25/7 c. The
system of mean tones, although more unequal in its harmony when but two
notes are struck at once, yet when the chords are played full, as they
generally are on the organ, never offends the ear by a transition from a
better to a worse harmony. For every triad is equally harmonious; being
composed of a perfect IIId, and a Vth and 3d, tempered each ¼ c, or of their
complements to, or compounds with octaves, which, in their kinds, are
equally harmonious.
Again, if different chords, in practice, vary in the frequency of their
occurrence, this will be a sufficient reason for deviating from the system of

equal temperament. Suppose, for example, that a given sum of temperament
is to be divided between two Vths, one of which occurs in playing ten times
as often as the other: there can be no doubt that the greater part of the
temperament ought to be thrown upon the latter. Hence it becomes an
important problem to ascertain, with some degree of precision, the relative
frequency with which different consonances occur in practice. Before
proceeding to a direct investigation of this problem, it may be observed, in
general, that such a difference manifestly exists. In a given key, it cannot
have escaped the most superficial observer, that the most frequent
combination of sounds is the common chord on the tonic; that the next after
this is that on the dominant, and the third, that on the subdominant. Perhaps
scarcely a piece of music can be found, in which this order of frequency
does not hold true. It is equally true that some signatures occur oftener than
others. That of one sharp will be found to be more used, in the major mode,
than any other; and, in general, the more simple keys will be found of more
frequent occurrence than those which have more flats or sharps. These
differences are not the result of accident. The tonic, dominant, and
subdominant, are obviously the most prominent notes in the scale, and must
always be the fundamental bases of more chords than either of the others;
while the greater ease of playing on the simpler keys will always be a
reason with composers for setting a larger part of their music on these, than
on the more difficult keys. It is observable, that the greater part of musical
compositions, whether of the major or minor mode, is reducible to two
kinds: that in which the base chiefly moves between the tonic and its
octave, and that in which the base moves between the dominant and
subdominant of the key. The former class, in the major mode, are almost
universally set on the key of one sharp; the latter, generally on the natural
key, or that of two sharps. In the minor mode, the former class have usually
the signature of two flats, or the natural key; the latter, that of one flat.
Hence the three former keys will comprise the greater part of the music in
the major mode, and the three latter, of that in the minor mode, in every
promiscuous collection. But if we were even to suppose each of the chords
in the same key, and each of the signatures, of equally frequent occurrence,
some chords would occur much oftener, as forming an essential part of the
harmony of more keys than others. The Vth DA, for example, forms one of
the essential chords of six different keys; while the Vth G D forms a part
only of the single key of four sharps.

Proposition IV.
To find a set of numbers, expressing the ratio of the probable number of
times that each of the different consonances in the scale will occur, in any
set of musical compositions.
This can be done only by investigating their actual frequency of
occurrence in a collection of pieces for the instrument to be tuned,
sufficiently extensive and diversified to serve as a specimen of music for
the same instrument in general. This may appear, at first view, an endless
task; and it would be really such, were we to take music promiscuously, and
count all the consonances which the base makes with the higher parts, and
the higher parts with each other. But it appears, from Prop. I. Cor. that all
the positions and inversions of a chord, when the octaves are kept perfect,
are equally harmonious with the chord itself. The Vth, for example, which
makes one of the consonances in a common harmonic triad, is equally
harmonious in its kind, with the V + VIII, which takes its place in the 3d
position of this triad, and with the 4th in its second inversion. Hence,
instead of counting single consonances, we have only to count chords; and
this is done with the greatest ease, by means of the figures of the thorough
base. The labour will be still farther abridged by reducing the derivative
chords, such as the 6, the 6/4, &c. to their proper roots, as they are taken
down. But even after these reductions, the labour of numbering the different
chords in a sufficiently extensive set of compositions, to establish, with any
degree of certainty, the relative frequency of the different signatures, would
be very irksome. A method, however, presents itself, which renders it
sufficient to examine the chords in such a set of pieces only as will give
their chance of occurrence in two keys—a major, and its relative minor.
It will be evident to all who are much conversant with musical
compositions, that the internal structure of all pieces in the same mode,
whatever be their signature, is much the same. There is scarcely more
difference, for example, in the relative frequency of different chords in the
natural key, and in that of two sharps, or two flats, than there is in different
pieces on the same key. If the Vth CG on the tonic has to the Vth EB on the
mediant in the natural key, any given ratio of frequency m : n, the relative
frequency of the Vth DA on the tonic, and the Vth F C on the mediant in
the key of two sharps, will not sensibly differ from that of m : n. Hence, if
we examine a sufficient number of pieces to establish the relative frequency

of the different consonances in one major and its relative minor key, and, by
a much more extensive investigation, ascertain the relative frequency of
occurrence of the different signatures, it is evident, that by multiplying this
last series of numbers into the first, and adding those products which belong
to chords terminated by the same letters, we shall have a series of numbers
expressing the chance of occurrence in favour of each of the consonances of
the scale, when all the keys are taken into view.
It was judged that 200 scores, taken promiscuously from all the varieties
of music for the organ,[7] would afford a set of numbers expressing, with
sufficient accuracy, the chance that a given consonance will occur in a
single major, and its relative minor key. Accordingly 200 scores were
examined, 150 in the major, and 50 in the minor mode, (as it will appear
hereafter that this is nearly the ratio of their frequency) of the various
species of music for the organ, comprising a proper share both of the
simpler and of the more rapid and chromatic movements. As the selecting
and reducing to their proper keys all the occasional modulations which
occur in the same piece would render the labour of ascertaining the relative
frequency of different signatures very tedious, it was thought best to
consider all those modulations which are too transient to be indicated by a
new signature, as belonging to the same key. This will account for the
occurrence of the chords in the following table, which are affected by flats
and sharps.
The minim, or the crotchet, was taken for unity, according to the rapidity
of the movement. Bases of greater or less length had their proper values
assigned them; although mere notes of passage, which bore no proper
harmony, were generally disregarded. The scores were taken promiscuously
from all the different keys; and were reduced, when taken down, to the
same tonic; the propriety of which will evidently appear from the foregoing
remarks. The following table contains the result of the investigation.

TABLE I.
Common Chords. Flat Fifths. 7ths. 9-sevenths.
Bases.
Major Minor Major. Minor. Major. Minor. Major. Minor.
mode. mode.
B III 5 8 — — 7 — — —
B 3 — 163 55 11 17 2 —
B 4 4 — — — — — —
A VII — — — — — — 3 —
A III 19 8 — — 7 2 — —
A 166 588 2 1 26 5 2 —
G — — 3 38 — — — —
G3 18 15 — — — — — —
G 965 93 — — 178 15 3 —
F — — 46 4 11 2 — —
F 352 60 — — 11 12 7 3
E III 26 271 — — 1 25 — —
E 32 25 5 1 8 — 1 4
D III — — 2 1 — — — —
D — — — 4 — — — —
D III 29 4 — — 49 7 — —
D 120 129 — — 55 18 6 1
C — — 2 4 1 — — —
C3 2 — — — — — — —
C 1769 275 — — 5 1 4 1

The following anomalous chords were found in the major mode, and are
subjoined, to make the list complete:
8 5ths on C, and 1 on D.
5 5/4ths on D, 2 on E, and 1 on G.
The left hand column of the foregoing table contains the fundamental
bases of the several chords. When any number is annexed to the letter
denoting the fundamental, it denotes the quality of some other note
belonging to the chord. E III, for example, denotes that the various chords

on E, which stand against it, have their third sharped; G 3, that the third,
which is naturally major, is to be taken minor, &c. Of the two columns in
each of the four remaining pairs, the left contains the number of chords
belonging to each root, of the kind specified at the top, which were found in
150 scores in the major mode; and the right, the corresponding results of the
examination of 50 scores in the minor mode. The diminished triad, which is
used in harmonical progression like the other triads, has its lowest note
considered as its fundamental. The diminished 7th, in the few instances in
which it occurred, was considered as the first inversion of the 9/7th,
agreeably to the French classification, and was accordingly reduced to that
head.
From this table, the number of times that each consonance of two notes
would actually occur, were the 200 scores played, is easily computed. We
will suppose three notes, besides octaves, to be played to each chord. The
octaves played it is unnecessary to take into the computation, as it would
only multiply the number of consonances whose temperament is the same,
in the same ratio, and would have no effect on the ratio of the numbers
expressing the frequency of the different consonances. In the chord of the
7th, which naturally consists of four notes, we will suppose, for the sake of
uniformity, that one is omitted; and as the 7th ought always to be struck, we
will suppose the Vth and IIId of the base to be omitted, each half the
number of times in which this chord occurs. Considered as composed of
three distinct notes, neither of which is an octave of either of the others,
each chord will contain three distinct consonances. The common chord on
C, for example, will contain the Vth CG, the IIId CE, and the 3d EG. The 9/7
on C will contain the VII CB, the IX, or (which must have the same
temperament) the IId CD, and the 3d BD. Reducing all these consonances
to their proper places, and adding those of the same name which have the
same degree for their base, we obtain the following results:

TABLE II.
Vths, 4ths, and IIIds, 6ths, and 3ds, VIths, and
Octaves. Octaves. Octaves.
Bases.
Major. Minor. Major. Minor. Major. Minor.

B 8 8 10 8 1141 214
B 3 6 22 19 —— ——
A 195 607 22 10 626 663
G —— —— —— —— 32 310
G 1088 116 1090 125 22 23
F —— —— —— —— 78 10
F 395 78 486 301 —— ——
E 59 308 40 284 1828 308
E —— —— 2 —— —— ——
D —— —— —— —— 7 9
D 197 156 60 7 403 213
C —— —— —— —— 26 12
C 1807 278 1959 870 4 1
5ths, IVths, and 7ths, IIds, and VIIths, 2ds, and
Octaves. Octaves. Octaves.
Bases.
Major. Minor. Major. Minor. Major. Minor.

B 256 265 25 17 —— ——
B —— —— —— —— —— ——
A 2 1 34 7 3 ——
G 10 53 —— —— —— ——
G —— —— 188 20 —— ——
F 74 7 1 2 —— ——
F —— —— —— —— 17 16
E 10 1 20 27 —— ——
E —— —— —— —— —— ——
D 7 5 —— —— —— ——
D —— —— 123 27 —— ——
C 9 10 1 —— —— ——
C —— —— 5 1 10 1

Besides the following chromatic intervals:
{ 8 extreme sharp 5ths on C
Major mode. { 1 ————————— D
{ 1 extreme flat 7th —— G
{ 4 extreme sharp 6ths on F
Minor mode. { 4 extreme flat 7ths on C
{ 3 ————————— G

It was thought best to exhibit a complete table of all the consonances
which occurred in the 200 scores examined; although (Prop. II.) only the
concords in the upper half of the table can be regarded in forming a system
of temperament. For the more frequent consonances, this table may be
regarded as founded on a sufficiently extensive induction to be tolerably
accurate. For the more unfrequent chords, and especially for those which
arise from unusual modulations, it expresses the chance of occurrence with
very little accuracy; and it is doubtless the fact that a more extensive
investigation would include some chords not found at all in this list. But it
must be recollected, on the other hand, that the influence of these unusual
chords on the resulting system of temperament would be insensible, could
their chance of occurrence be determined with the greatest accuracy.
But none of the numbers in the foregoing table by any means expresses
the chance that a given interval will occur, considering all the keys in which
it is found. For example, the Vth CG on the tonic of the natural key, in
music written on this key, is the one of most frequent occurrence, its chance
being expressed by 1807; but in the key of two flats, it becomes the Vth on
the supertonic, and its chance of occurrence is only as 197. Hence the
problem can be completed only by finding a set of numbers which shall
express, with some degree of accuracy, the relative frequency of different
signatures.
An examination of 1600 scores, comprising four entire collections of
music for the organ and voice, by the best European composers, besides
many miscellaneous pieces, afforded the results in the following table:

TABLE III.

Signatures. Major Mode. Minor Mode.

4 s 42 2
3 s 95 6
2 s 200 13
1 322 72
176 121
1 180 97
2 s 70 77
3 s 116 8
4 s 0 3

Ratio of their sums 1201 : 399

The chance of occurrence for any chord varies as the frequency of the
key to which it belongs, and as the number belonging to the place which it
holds, as referred to the tonic, in Table II., jointly. Hence the chance of its
occurrence in all the keys in which it is found, is as the sum of the products
of the numbers in Table III., each into such a number of Table II. as
corresponds to its place in that key. To give a specimen of the manner in
which this calculation is to be conducted, the numbers belonging to the
major mode in the three first divisions of Table II. are first to be multiplied
throughout by 176, which expresses the relative frequency of the major
mode of the natural key. They are then to be multiplied throughout by 322,
which expresses the frequency of the key of one sharp. But the first product,
which expresses the frequency of the Vth on the tonic, now becomes GD,
and must be added, not to the first, but to the fifth, in the last row of
products. The product into 59, expressing the frequency of the Vth on the
mediant, becomes BF , an interval not found among the essential chords of
the natural key. In general, the products of the numbers in Table III. into
those in Table II. are to be considered as belonging, not to the letters against
which these multipliers stand, but to those which have the same position
with regard to their successive tonics, as these have with regard to C.

Whenever an interval occurs, affected with a new flat or sharp, it is to be
considered as the commencement of a new succession of products. The IIId
C E , for example, does not occur at all till we come to the key of two
sharps, and even then only in occasional modulations, corresponding to the
IIId on B in the natural key, whose multiplier is 10. In the key of 3 sharps it
becomes another accidental chord, answering to the IIId on E in the key of
C, and consequently has 40 for its multiplier. It is only in the key of 6
sharps, that it becomes a constituent chord of the key; when if that key were
ever used, it would correspond to the IIId GB on the dominant of the natural
key.
After all the products have been taken and reduced to their proper places,
in the manner exemplified above, a similar operation must be repeated with
the numbers in the second column of Table III. and those in the second
columns in the three first divisions of Table II.
The necessity of keeping the major, and its relative minor key, distinct,
will be evident, when we consider that the several keys in the minor mode
do not follow the same law of frequency as in the major; as is manifest from
the observations in Schol. Prop. III. and as clearly appears from an
inspection of Table III.
But in order to discover the relative frequency of the different chords on
every account, the results of the two foregoing operations must be united.
Now, as the numbers in the two columns of Table II. at a medium, are as 3 :
1, and those in Table III. are in the same ratio, although the factors are to
each other in only the simple ratio of the relative frequency of the two
modes, yet their products will, at a medium, be in the duplicate ratio of that
frequency. Hence, to render the two sets of results homologous, so that
those which correspond to the same interval may be properly added, to
express the general chance of occurrence for that interval in all the major
and minor keys in which it is found, this duplicate ratio must be reduced to
a simple one, either by dividing the first, or by multiplying the last series of
results, by 3. We will do the latter, as it will give the ratios in the largest,
and, of course, the most accurate terms. Then adding those results in each
which belong to the same interval, and cutting off the three right hand
figures, (expressing in the nearest small fractions those results which are
under 1000) which will leave a set of ratios abundantly accurate for every

purpose; the numbers constituting the final solution of the problem will
stand as follows:

TABLE IV.

Vths and IIIds and 3ds and Vths and IIIds and 3ds and
Bases. Bases.
4ths. 6ths. VIths. 4ths. 6ths. VIths.
F 67 29 1072 B —— —— 4
F 639 924 66 B 221 135 1161
E —— —— 12 B 418 654 5
E 548 323 1151 A —— —— 29
E 265 363 ½ A 870 568 1085
D ⅓ ½ 144 A 52 78 ⅕
D 1166 943 569 G 5 4 365
D 1 6 —— G 1207 1197 567
C 25 12 581 F —— —— ¼
C 816 1131 180 G —— ½ ——
Note. In this table, as well as the last, the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds are to be
taken above, and the 4ths, 6ths, and VIths, their complements to the octave,
below the corresponding degrees in the first column. And, in general,
whenever the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds are hereafter treated as different classes
of concords, each will be understood to include its complement to the
octave and its compounds with octaves.

Scholium.
The foregoing table exhibits, with sufficient accuracy, the ratio of the
whole number of times which the different chords would occur, were the
1600 scores, whose signatures were examined, actually played in
succession, on the keys to which they are set, and with an instrument having
distinct sounds for all the flats and sharps. Had the examination been more
extensive, the results might be relied on with greater assurance as accurate;
but the general similarity, not only in the structure of different musical
compositions, but in the comparative frequency of the different keys in
different authors; is so great, that a more extensive examination was thought
to be of little practical importance.
(To be continued.)

Art. II. Review of an elementary Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology,
being an introduction to the study of these sciences, and designed for the
use of pupils; for persons attending lectures on these subjects; and as a
companion for travellers in the United States of America—Illustrated by
six plates. By Parker Cleaveland, Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy, and Lecturer on Chemistry and Mineralogy in Bowdoin
College, Member of the American Academy, and Corresponding Member
of the Linnæan Society of New England.
—— itum est in viscera terræ:
Quasque recondiderat, Stygiisque admoverat umbris,
Effodiuntur opes —— Ovid.

Boston, published by Cummings and Hilliard, No. 1, Cornhill. Printed by
Hilliard & Metcalf, at the University Press, Cambridge, New England.
1816.

This work has been for some time before the public, and it has been more
or less the subject of remark in our various journals. It is, however, so
appropriate to the leading objects of this Journal, that we cannot consider
ourselves as performing labours of supererogation while we consider the
necessity, plan, and execution of the treatise of Professor Cleaveland.
An extensive cultivation of the physical sciences is peculiar to an
advanced state of society, and evinces, in the country where they flourish, a
highly improved state of the arts, and a great degree of intelligence in the
community. To this state of things we are now fast approximating. The
ardent curiosity regarding these subjects, already enkindled in the public
mind, the very respectable attainments in science which we have already
made, and our rapidly augmenting means of information in books,
instruments, collections, and teachers, afford ground for the happiest
anticipations.
Those sciences which require no means for their investigation beyond
books, teachers, and study—those which demand no physical
demonstrations, no instruments of research, no material specimens: we
mean those sciences which relate only to the intellectual and moral

character of man, were early fostered, and, in a good degree, matured in this
country. Hence, in theology, in ethics, in jurisprudence, and in civil policy,
our advances were much earlier, and more worthy of respect, than in the
sciences relating to material things. In some of these, it is true, we have
made very considerable advances, especially in natural philosophy and the
mathematics, and their applications to the arts; and this has been true, in
some good degree, for very nearly a century. Natural history has been the
most tardy in its growth, and no branch of it was, till within a few years,
involved in such darkness as mineralogy. Notwithstanding the laudable
efforts of a few gentlemen to excite some taste for these subjects, so little
had been effected in forming collections, in kindling curiosity, and diffusing
information, that only fifteen years since, it was a matter of extreme
difficulty to obtain, among ourselves, even the names of the most common
stones and minerals; and one might inquire earnestly, and long, before he
could find any one to identify even quartz, feldspar, or hornblende, among
the simple minerals; or granite, porphyry, or trap, among the rocks. We
speak from experience, and well remember with what impatient, but almost
despairing curiosity, we eyed the bleak, naked ridges, which impended over
the valleys and plains that were the scenes of our youthful excursions. In
vain did we doubt whether the glittering spangles of mica, and the still more
alluring brilliancy of pyrites, gave assurance of the existence of the precious
metals in those substances; or whether the cutting of glass by the garnet,
and by quartz, proved that these minerals were the diamond; but if they
were not precious metals, and if they were not diamonds, we in vain
inquired of our companions, and even of our teachers, what they were.
We do not forget that Dr. Adam Seybert, in Philadelphia; Dr. Samuel L.
Mitchill, in New-York; and Dr. Benjamin Waterhouse, in Harvard
University, began at an earlier period to enlighten the public on this subject;
they began to form collections; Harvard received a select cabinet from
France and England; and Mr. Smith, of Philadelphia, (although, returning
from Europe fraught with scientific acquisitions, he perished tragically near
his native shores,) left his collection to enrich the Museum of the American
Philosophical Society.
Still, however, although individuals were enlightened, no serious
impression was produced on the public mind; a few lights were indeed held
out, but they were lights twinkling in an almost impervious gloom.

The return of the late Benjamin D. Perkins, and of the late Dr. A. Bruce,
from Europe, in 1802 and 3, with their collections, then the most complete
and beautiful that this country had ever seen; the return of Colonel Gibbs, in
1805, with his extensive and magnificent cabinet; his consequent
excursions and researches into our mineralogy; the commencement, about
this time, of courses of lectures on mineralogy, in several of our colleges,
and of collections by them and by many individuals; the return of Mr.
Maclure, in 1807; his Herculean labour in surveying the United States
geologically, by personal examination; and the institution of the American
Journal of Mineralogy, by Dr. Bruce, in 1810;—these are among the most
prominent events, which, in the course of a few years, have totally changed
the face of this science in the United States.
During the last ten years, it has been cultivated with great ardour, and
with great success: many interesting discoveries in American mineralogy
have been made; and this science, with its sister science, Geology, is fast
arresting the public attention. In such a state of things, books relating to
mineralogy would of course be eagerly sought for.
No work, anterior to Kirwan, could be consulted by the student with
much advantage, on account of the wonderful progress, which, within forty
or fifty years, has been made in mineralogy. Even Kirwan, who performed a
most important service to the science, was become, in some considerable
degree, imperfect and obsolete; the German treatises, the fruitful fountains
from which the science had flowed over Europe, were not translated;
neither were those of the French; and this was the more to be regretted,
because they had mellowed down the harshness and enriched the sterility of
the German method of description, besides adding many interesting
discoveries of their own. It is true we possessed the truly valuable treatise
of Professor Jameson, the most complete in our language. But the expense
of the work made it unattainable by most of our students, and the
undeviating strictness with which the highly respectable author has adhered
to the German mode of description, gave it an aspect somewhat repulsive to
the minds of novices, who consulted no other book. We are, however, well
aware of the value of this work, especially in the improved edition. It must,
without doubt, be in the hands of every one who would be master of the
science; but it is much better adapted to the purposes of proficients than of
beginners.

The mineralogical articles dispersed through Aikin's Dictionary are
exceedingly valuable; but, from the high price of the work, they are
inaccessible to most persons.
The most recent of the French systems, that by Brongniart, seemed to
combine nearly all the requisites that could be desired in an elementary
treatise; and a translation of it would probably, ere this, have been given to
the American public, had we not been led to expect the work of Professor
Cleaveland, which, it was anticipated, would at least possess one important
advantage over the work of Brongniart, and every other; it would exhibit,
more or less extensively, American localities, and give the leading features
of our natural mineral associations.
Thus it appears[8] that the work of Professor Cleaveland was eminently
needed; the science, at large, needed it; and to American mineralogists it
was nearly indispensable. It appeared too at a very opportune moment. Had
it come a few years sooner, it might not have found many readers. Now it is
sustained by the prevailing curiosity, and diffused state of information
regarding mineralogy; and, in turn, no cause could operate more effectually
to cherish this curiosity, and to diffuse this information still more widely,
than this book. Professor Cleaveland is therefore entitled to our thanks for
undertaking this task; and, in this age of book-making, it is no small
negative praise if an author be acquitted of unnecessarily adding to the
already onerous mass of books.
With respect to the PLAN of this work, Professor Cleaveland has, with
good judgment, availed himself of the excellencies of both the German and
French schools.
Mr. Werner, of Fribourg, in some sense not only the founder of the
modern German school of mineralogy, but almost of the science itself, is
entitled to our lasting gratitude for his system of external characters, first
published in 1774. In this admirable treatise he has combined precision and
copiousness, so that exact ideas are attached to every part of the descriptive
language, and every character is meant to be defined.
It is intended that a full description of a mineral upon this plan shall
entirely exhaust the subject, and that although many properties may be
found in common among different minerals, still every picture shall contain
peculiar features, not to be found in any other. It would certainly appear, at

first view, that this method must be perfect, and leave nothing farther to be
desired. It has, however, been found in practice, that the full descriptions of
the Wernerian writers are heavy and dry; they are redundant also, from the
frequent repetition of similar properties; and from not giving due
prominence to those which are peculiar, and therefore distinctive, they
frequently fail to leave a distinct impression of any thing on the mind, and
thus, in the midst of what is called by the writers of this school a full
oryctognostic picture, a student is sometimes absolutely bewildered.
Some of the modern French writers, availing themselves of Mr. Werner's
very able delineation of the external characters of minerals, have selected
such as are most important, most striking, distinctive, and interesting; and
drawing a spirited and bold sketch, have left the minuter parts untouched:
such a picture, although less perfect, often presents a stronger likeness, and
more effectually arrests the attention.
This is the method of description which has been, as we think, happily
adopted, to a great extent by Mr. Cleaveland.
Mr. Werner, availing himself of the similarities in the external appearance
of minerals, has (excepting the metals) arranged them also upon this plan,
without regard to their constitution; that is, to their real nature, or, at least,
making this wholly subservient to the other: this has caused him, in some
instances, to bring together things which are totally unlike in their nature,
and, in other instances, to separate those which were entirely similar.
Whatever may be said in favour of such a course, considered as a
provisional one, while chemical analysis was in its infancy, the mind can
never rest satisfied with any arrangement which contradicts the real nature
of things; in a word, the composition of minerals is the only correct
foundation for their classification. This classification has been adopted by
several of the ablest modern French writers.
"It is believed," (says Professor Cleaveland, Preface, p. 7.) "that the more
valuable parts of the two systems may be incorporated, or, in other words,
that the peculiar descriptive language of the one may, in a certain degree, be
united to the accurate and scientific arrangement of the other.
"This union of descriptive language and scientific arrangement has been
effected with good success, by Brongniart, in his System of Mineralogy—
an elementary work, which seems better adapted both to interest and

instruct, than any which has hitherto appeared. The author of this volume
has, therefore, adopted the general plan of Brongniart, the more important
parts of whose work are, of course, incorporated with this."
A happier model could not, in our opinion, be chosen; and we conceive
that Professor Cleaveland is perfectly consistent, and perfectly perspicuous,
when, adopting the chemical composition of minerals as the only proper
foundation of arrangement, and, of course, rejecting the principle of Mr.
Werner, which arranges them upon their external properties, he still adopts
his descriptive language as far as it answers his purpose. For to elect a
principle of arrangement, and to classify all the members of a system so as
to give each its appropriate place, is obviously quite a different thing from
describing each member, after its place in a system is ascertained. In doing
the latter, characters may be drawn from any source which affords them.
In his "Introduction to the Study of Mineralogy," the author has given a
view at once copious, condensed, and perspicuous, of all that is necessary to
be learned previously to the study of particular minerals. He begins with
definitions and general principles, which are laid down with clearness.
By way of engaging the attention to the study of this department of
nature, he remarks:
"From a superficial view of minerals in their natural depositories, at or
near the surface of the earth, it would hardly be expected that they could
constitute the object of a distinct branch of science. Nothing appears farther
removed from the influence of established principles and regular
arrangement, than the mineral kingdom when observed in a cursory manner.
But a closer inspection and more comprehensive view of the subject will
convince us, that this portion of the works of nature is by no means destitute
of the impress of the Deity. Indications of the same wisdom, power, and
benevolence, which appear in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, are also
clearly discernible in the mineral."
"It may also be remarked," continues the author, "that several arts and
manufactures depend on mineralogy for their existence; and that
improvements and discoveries in the latter cannot fail of extending their
beneficial effects to the aforementioned employments. In fine, the study of
mineralogy, whether it be viewed as tending to increase individual wealth,
to improve and multiply arts and manufactures, and thus promote the public

good; or as affording a pleasant subject for scientific research, recommends
itself to the attention of the citizen and scholar."
This introductory view of the importance and interest of the science
cannot be charged with the fault of exaggeration, since it is most evident
that neither civilization, refinement in arts, nor comfort, can exist where the
properties of mineral substances are but imperfectly understood.
As regards this country, the argument admits of much amplification. The
more our mineral treasures are explored, the more abundantly do they repay
the research; and we trust that the period is not far distant, when we shall no
longer ignorantly tread under our feet minerals of great curiosity and value,
and import from other countries, at a great expense, what we, in many
instances, possess abundantly at home.[9]
But to return to the plan of the author's work. Few persons, unacquainted
with the science of mineralogy, would suspect that mere brute matter could
exhibit many strong marks, capable of discrimination.
It may, however, be confidently affirmed, that there is no mineral which,
if carefully studied, may not be distinguished by characters sufficiently
decisive from every other mineral; an account of these characters ought,
therefore, to precede every system of mineralogy. Professor Cleaveland has,
with entire propriety, included them under the heads of crystallography,
physical and external characters, and chemical characters.
He has given a clear view of the Abbé Haüy's curious discoveries
regarding the six primitive figures or solids which form the bases of all
crystals—the three integrant particles or molecules which constitute the
primitive forms, and of the theory by which it is shown how the immensely
numerous and diversified secondary or actual forms arise out of these few
elementary figures.
This is certainly one of the most singular and acute discoveries of our
age. It is true, there is a difference of opinion among mineralogists as to the
practical use of crystallography in the discrimination of minerals. Some
dwell upon it with excessive minuteness, and others seem restless and
impatient of its details. The truth seems to be, that those who understand it,
derive from it (wherever it is applicable) the most satisfactory aid; and it
requires only a moderate knowledge of geometry to understand its principal

outlines. On the other hand, it is no doubt possible, in most instances, to
dispense with its aid, and to discriminate minerals by their other properties.
Of the external and physical characters of Mr. Werner, Mr. Cleaveland
has given a clear account, combining into the same view the fine
discriminations of the French authors, particularly regarding refraction,
phosphorescence, specific gravity, electricity, chatoyement, and magnetism.
The same may be said of the chemical characters. We do not know a more
satisfactory and able view of the characters of minerals than Professor
Cleaveland has exhibited.
We would however ask, whether, in enumerating the kinds of lustre, the
term adamantine should not be explained, as it is not understood by people
in general, while the terms denoting the other kinds are generally
intelligible; whether in the enumeration of imitative forms, lenticular and
acicular should not rather be referred to the laws of crystallization; whether
reniform and mamillary are synonymous; whether sandstone, as being a
mere aggregate of fragments, is a good instance of the granular fracture;
whether in its natural state (at least the common ore of nickel) is ever
magnetic, till purified, and whether cobalt is ever magnetic unless impure.
Professor Cleaveland's remarks on fracture are uncommonly
discriminating and instructive, and would lead a learner to a just
comprehension of this important point in the characters of minerals.
The section relating to the chemical characters is concise, and
professedly proceeds upon the principle of selection. It might perhaps have
been, to some extent, advantageously enlarged; although, it is true, the
author refers us to the particular minerals for individual instances; still it
might have been well to have illustrated the general principles by a few
well-chosen instances, e. g. how, by the blowpipe, galena is distinguished
from sulphuret of antimony; carbonat of lead from sulphat of barytes, or
carbonat of lime; garnet from titanium; plaster of Paris from soapstone,
&c.; and, among trials in the moist way, how by nitric acid and ammonia,
iron pyrites is distinguished from copper pyrites; and how, by acids, sulphat
of lime is known from carbonat of lime. As the acids are used principally
for trials on the effervescence of carbonats, most of which form with
sulphuric acid, insoluble compounds, we should doubt whether sulphuric
acid is so advantageously employed as the nitric or muriatic, in such cases,

on account of the clogging of the effervescence by the thick magena,
produced by a recently precipitated and insoluble sulphat.
According to our experience, the nitric or muriatic acid, diluted with two
or three parts of water, is most eligible.
With respect to the blowpipe: it is a convenience to have a mouth-piece
of wood, or ivory, joined to a tube of metal, as Mr. Cleaveland
recommends; and some authors direct to have the tube attached to a hollow
ball, for the sake of condensing the moisture of the breath; but every thing
which adds to the expense and complication of the instrument will tend to
discourage its use; we have never found any difficulty in performing every
important experiment with the common goldsmith's brass blowpipe; and are
confident, that, after the learner has acquired the art, or knack, of propelling
a continued stream of air from his mouth, by means of the muscles of the
lips and cheeks, while his respiration proceeds without embarrassment
through the nostrils, he will need no other instrument than the common
blowpipe. Indeed it is a truly admirable instrument, instantly giving us the
effect of very powerful furnaces, the heat being entirely under command,
the subject of operation and all the changes in full view, and the expense
and bulk of the instrument being such that every one may possess it, and
carry it about his person.
The chapter on the principles of arrangement is worthy of all praise. This
difficult subject is here discussed with such clearness, comprehensiveness,
and candour, as prove the author to be completely master of his subject; and
we are persuaded, that, on this topic, no author can be studied with more
advantage. We forbear to extract, because the whole should be attentively
perused in connexion, and scarcely admits of abridgement. We entirely
agree with Professor Cleaveland, as we have already said, that the chemical
composition of minerals is the only just foundation of their arrangement;
that next in importance is the crystalline structure, including a knowledge of
the primitive form, and integrant molecule; and last and least important, in
fixing the arrangement, are the external characters: these last should be only
provisionally employed, where the two first are not ascertained, or the
second is not applicable. When the arrangement is once made, we may,
however, and we commonly shall, in describing minerals, pursue precisely
the reverse order; the external characters will usually be mentioned first, the
crystalline characters next, and the chemical last of all. In description, the

external characters are often the most valuable; if judiciously selected and
arranged, they will always prove of the most essential service, and can
rarely be entirely dispensed with.
With regard to the NOMENCLATURE of minerals, we feelingly unite with
Professor Cleaveland in deploring the oppressive redundancy of
synonymes. Few minerals have only one name, and usually they have
several. With Count Bournon we agree, that the discoverer of a mineral has
the exclusive right of naming it, and that the name once given should not be
changed without the most cogent reasons. What then shall we say of the
Abbé Haüy, of whom, whether we speak of his genius, his learning, his
acuteness, his discoveries, his candour, and love of truth, or his universally
amiable and venerable character, we can never think without sentiments of
the highest respect and admiration? More than any modern writer he has
added to the list of synonymes, often exchanging a very good name, derived
perhaps from the locality or discoverer of a mineral, for one professedly
significant, but connected with its subject by a chain of thought so slight,
that considerable knowledge of Greek etymology, and still more
explanation, is necessary to comprehend the connexion; and thus, after all,
it amounts, with respect to most readers, only to the exchange of one
arbitrary name for another. What advantage, for instance, has grammatite,
alluding to a line often obscure, and still oftener wholly invisible, over the
good old name tremolite, which always reminds us of an interesting
locality; how is pyroxene better than augite, amphibole than hornblende,
amphigene than leucite, or disthene than sappar. Some of the Abbé Haüy's
names are, however, very happily chosen, especially where new
discriminations were to be established, or errors corrected, or even a
redundant crop of synonymes to be superseded by a better name. Epidote is
an instance of the latter, and the new divisions of the old zeolite family into
four species, mesotype, stilbite, analcime, and chabasie, afford a happy
instance of the former. It were much to be wished, that by the common
consent of mineralogists, one nomenclature should be universally adopted:
for its uniformity is of much more importance than its nature.
In expressing our approbation of the principles of arrangement adopted
by Professor Cleaveland, we have of course espoused those of his TABULAR
VIEW, which is perhaps as nearly as the state of science will admit, erected
upon a chemical basis, like that of Brongniart, to which it bears a close

resemblance. Some of the subordinate parts, we could have wished had
been arranged in a manner somewhat different. In the genus lime, it appears
to us better to describe the species carbonat first; because, being very
abundant, and its characters clear, it forms a convenient point of departure
and standard of comparison, in describing the other species which have
lime for their basis, and some of which are comparatively rare. The same
remark we would make upon quartz, and its concomitant, pure silicious
stones. There appears to us a high advantage in making these minerals
clearly known first, before we proceed to those which are much more rare,
and especially which are much harder, and possess the characters of gems.
For example, if a learner has become acquainted with quartz, chalcedony,
flint, opal, chrysoprase, and jasper, he will much more easily comprehend
the superior hardness, &c. and different composition of topaz, sapphire,
spinelleruby, chrysoberyl, and zircon, which we should much prefer to see
occupying a later, than the first place in a tabular arrangement; and,
although topaz, by containing fluoric acid, appears to be in some measure
assimilated to saline minerals, it is in its characters so very diverse from the
earthy salts, that we have fair reason to conclude that the fluoric acid does
not stamp the character; and, as it bears so close a resemblance to the ruby
and sapphire, which evidently derive their principal characters from the
argillaceous earth, we perhaps ought to infer that this (the topaz,) does so
too. Indeed Professor Cleaveland has sufficiently implied his own opinion,
by giving these minerals a juxtaposition in his table, although the same
reasons which induced the placing of the topaz next to the earthy salts,
could not have justified the placing of the sapphire there. On these points
we are not, however, strenuous; they are of more importance if the work be
used as a text-book for lectures, than as a private companion. With respect
to the completeness of Professor Cleaveland's tabular view, we have
carefully compared it with the third edition of Jameson's mineralogy; and
although a few new species, or sub-species, and varieties have been added
in this last edition, they are in general of so little importance, that Professor
Cleaveland's work cannot be considered as materially deficient; and the few
cases in which it is so, are much more than made up by his entirely new and
instructive views of American mineralogy, to which no parallel is to be
found in any other book, and which give it peculiar interest to the
American, and even to the European, reader.

In another edition, (which we cannot doubt will speedily be called for,)
he will of course add whatever is omitted in this, and we should be gratified
to see a good article on the subject of the ærolites or stones which have
fallen from the atmosphere. This subject is one, in our view, of high
interest; and although in strictness it may not claim a place in a tabular view
of minerals, (we must confess, however, that we see no important obstacle
to its being treated of under the head of native iron,) there can be no
objection to its being placed in an appendix. The fall of stones from the
atmosphere is the most curious and mysterious fact in natural history.
It may seem perhaps too trivial to remark, that the annexation of
numbers, referring to the pages, would be a serious addition to the utility of
the tabular view. Very few inadvertencies have been observed—the
following may be mentioned: Amenia, in the State of New-York, is printed
(by a typographical error we presume) Armenia; and Menechan, where the
menechanite is found, is mentioned as occurring in Scotland, but it is in
Cornwall.
Authors seem agreed that the black-lead ore is an altered carbonat, but
they seem not to have been so well agreed as to the nature of the blue-lead
ore. In the cabinet of Colonel Gibbs, there are specimens which appear
satisfactorily to illustrate both these subjects. The black-lead is by the
blowpipe alone reducible to metallic lead; there is one specimen in the
cabinet referred to, which is blackened on what appears to have been the
under side, and seemingly by the contact of sulphuretted hydrogen gas; that
which was probably the upper part remains unaltered, and is beautiful white
carbonat of lead; this appearance is the more striking, because the piece is
large and full of interstices, by which the gas appears to have passed
through. The blue ore is in large six-sided prisms of a dark blue or almost
black colour; where the prisms are broken across, they present an unequal
appearance; sometimes they are invested; and sometimes slightly, and at
other times deeply, penetrated by sulphuret of lead, having the usual
brilliant foliated fracture. The part which looks like sulphuret of lead is
easily reducible by the blowpipe, but not the whole crystal, as authors
appear to imply; for if that part of the crystal which does not present the
appearance of galena is heated by the blowpipe flame, it is not reduced, but
congeals into the garnet dodecahedron, with its colour unaltered: these
crystals are therefore phosphat of lead, and they appear to be either an

original mixture of phosphat and sulphuret of lead, or the phosphat has
somehow in part given up its phosphoric acid, and assumed in its stead
sulphur, perhaps from the decomposition of sulphuretted hydrogen.
Professor Cleaveland will, of course, add new localities, even foreign
ones, where they are interesting, and domestic ones, where they are well
authenticated. Among the former, we trust he will mention the lake of
sulphuric acid contained in the crater of Mount Idienne, in the Province of
Bagnia Vangni, in the eastern part of Java, and also the river of sulphuric
acid which flows from it and kills animals, scorches vegetation, and
corrodes the stones.[10] Among American localities, we beg leave to
mention violet fluor spar, abundant and very handsome, near Shawnee
Town, on the Ohio, in the Illinois Territory, and galena, of which this fluor
is the gangue;—sulphat of magnesia, perfectly crystallized, in masses
composed of delicate white prisms, in a cave in the Indiana Territory, not
very remote from Louisville, in Kentucky; it is said to be so abundant that
the inhabitants carry it away by the wagon load;—pulverulent carbonat of
magnesia, apparently pure, found by Mr. Pierce at Hoboken, in serpentine,
where the hydrate of magnesia was found;—chabasie, agates, chalcedony,
amethyst, and analcime, at Deerfield, by Mr. E. Hitchcock;—agates in
abundance at East-Haven, near New-Haven, in secondary greenstone, like
the above-named minerals at Deerfield;—saline springs, covered with
petroleum, and emitting large volumes of inflammable gases, numerous in
New-Connecticut, south of Lake Erie;—magnetical pyrites, abundant in the
bismuth vein, at Trumbull, Connecticut:—very brilliant fine-grained
micaceous iron, in large masses near Bellows' Falls; yellow foliated blende,
in Berlin, Connecticut, and near Hamilton College—the latter discovered by
Professor Noyes; it is in veins in compact limestone;—red oxid of titanium,
often geniculated, at Leyden, in Massachusetts, discovered by Mr. E.
Hitchcock;—red oxid of titanium, in very large crystals and geniculated,
imbedded in micaceous schistus, at Oxford, 20 miles north from New-
Haven;—silicious petrifactions of wood, abundant in the island of Antigua,
recently brought by Mr. Pelatiah Perit, of New-York;—sulphuret of
molybdena, at Pettipaug, and at East-Haddam, Connecticut;—prehnite
abundant and beautiful, in secondary greenstone, at Woodbury, 24 miles
north of New-Haven, discovered by Mr. Elijah Baldwin;—black oxid of
manganese, in great abundance, and of an excellent quality, near

Bennington, Vermont, and plumose mica, in a very fine graphic granite, in a
hill two miles north of Watertown, Connecticut.
The introduction to the Study of Geology, deserves a more extended
series of remarks than it would now be proper to make, after so full a
consideration of the previous parts of the work.
Professor Jameson's elaborate exposition of the Wernerian system, is too
full, and too much devoted to a particular system, for beginners: the
sketches of geology contained in the systems of Chemistry by Murray and
Thomson, and in Phillips's mineralogy, are too limited, although useful: the
excellent account of the Wernerian system, contained in an Appendix to
Brochant's Mineralogy, has, we believe, never been translated; and we need
not say that Professor Playfair's illustrations of the Huttonian Theory, De
Luc's Geology, and Cuvier's Geology, are not well adapted to the purposes
of a beginner; neither is Delametherie's, nor has it been translated. An
introduction to geology was, therefore, hardly less needed than one to
mineralogy. Professor Cleaveland has performed this difficult duty with
great ability, and has brought this interesting branch of science fairly within
the reach of our students.
Although adhering substantially to the Wernerian arrangement of rocks,
he has, so to speak, blended Werner's three classes of primitive, transition,
and secondary rocks, into one class; and where the same rock occurs in all
the three classes, or in two of them, he mentions it in giving the history of
the particular rock. This method simplifies the subject very much to the
apprehensions of a learner. A rigid Wernerian would probably revolt at it,
but the distinctions of Mr. Werner may still be pointed out, and, we should
think, ought to be, at least by all teachers.
In Mr. Cleaveland's account of the trap rocks, we should almost imagine
that some typographical error had crept into the following paragraph:
"But in modern geological inquiries, the word trap is usually employed to
designate a simple mineral, composed of hornblende nearly or quite pure,
and also those aggregates in which hornblende predominates. Hence, the
presence of hornblende, as a predominating ingredient, characterizes those
MINERALS to which most geologists apply the name trap."

Now, it is not accordant with our apprehensions that trap is ever at the
present time employed to designate a simple mineral, nor has Professor
Cleaveland himself used it in his tabular view, or in his description of
simple minerals. In our view, it is the classical word of modern geology, to
designate that description of rocks in which hornblende predominates, and
perhaps a few others of minor importance usually associated with them. It is
true, a rock composed of pure hornblende may be called trap, but it is not
true, vice versa, that this rock, considered in its character of a simple
mineral, is called trap. If our views are correct, the section which is headed
trap or hornblende, should be trap or hornblende rocks, and greenstone
should come in as a subdivision, and not form a distinct section. With these
alterations, and with the substitution of rock in the first, and rocks in the
second instance, in the paragraph above quoted, instead of mineral and
minerals, we apprehend the view of this family of rocks would be much
more clear, and a degree of confusion, which learners now experience from
the paragraph, would be prevented. If we are wrong, we are sure Professor
Cleaveland will pardon us; if right, his candour will readily admit the
correction.
As to the manner in which the work of Professor Cleaveland is executed,
the remarks which we already made, have in a good degree anticipated this
head.
We cannot, however, dismiss the subject without adding that, in our
opinion, this work does honour to our country, and will greatly promote the
knowledge of mineralogy and geology, besides aiding in the great work of
disseminating a taste for science generally. Our views of the plan we have
already detailed. The manner of execution is masterly. Discrimination,
perspicuity, judicious selection of characters and facts, and a style chaste,
manly, and comprehensive, are among the characteristics of Professor
Cleaveland's performance. It has brought within the reach of the American
student the excellencies of Kirwan, Jameson, Haüy, Brochant, Brongniart,
and Werner; and we are not ashamed to have this work compared with their
productions. In our opinion Professor Cleaveland's work ought to be
introduced into all our schools of mineralogy, and to be the travelling
companion of every American mineralogist.
We trust that all cultivators of mineralogy and geology in this country,
will willingly aid Professor Cleaveland in enlarging his list of American

localities for a second edition; and we hope that he will repay them, at a
future day, by giving us a distinct treatise on geology, with as particular a
delineation as possible of the geological relations of the great North
American formations. Mr. Maclure has, with great ability, sketched the
outline; but much labour is still needed in filling up the detail.

Art. III. New Locality of Fluor Spar, or Fluat of Lime and of Galena, or
Sulphuret of Lead.

Mr. Joseph Baldwin, formerly of Connecticut, now residing near
Shawnee Town, in the Illinois Territory, has given us some interesting
specimens of fluor spar. They are found not far from Shawnee Town, on the
banks of the Ohio; and a few miles below where the Wabash joins the Ohio.
The fluor forms the gangue of a lead vein, and we have pieces in which the
lead and fluor are intimately blended. The lead ore is the common galena,
or sulphuret, with a broad, foliated, or laminated fracture, and a high degree
of metallic splendour. We reduced it to the metallic state, and it yielded a
large product of very soft lead. On dissolving it in nitric acid, and applying
the muriatic acid till precipitation ceased, the precipitate formed was all
redissolved by boiling water; nor, when submitted to cupellation did the
lead leave any thing upon the cupel. We, therefore, conclude that it
contained no appreciable quantity of silver. It is said to be very abundant at
Shawnee Town.
The fluor spar is very beautiful. Its colours, chiefly, very deep purple and
violet; but still highly translucent; one specimen was entirely limpid. Both
kinds, when thrown in coarse powder, on a red-hot shovel, in a dark place,
phosphoresced, and the violet specimens in a very striking manner. Of the
violet kind, we have a specimen nearly as large as a man's fist, which is
perfectly pure and sound, and appears to have been a single crystal; the
natural faces and angles were unfortunately obliterated by grinding on a
common grindstone. We have others which are decidedly crystals of perfect
regularity; cubes, and passages between the cube and octahedron. In some
of the specimens, the disposition of colours, and the transmission of light is
such as to show very clearly that the octahedron lies in the centre, as the
nucleus or primitive form.
The size and beauty of the specimens, and the abundance of this mineral
near Shawnee Town, (provided there is no mistake in the case) clearly
entitle this to be considered as the most interesting American locality of this

beautiful mineral. Measures have been taken to investigate the subject more
fully, and to obtain a supply of specimens.
Quartz crystals appear to abound at the same place, besides various other
minerals.

Art. IV. Carbonate of Magnesia, and very uncommon Amianthus,
discovered near New-York.—Extract of a Letter from Mr. James Pierce to
the Editor.

New-York, May 18, 1818.
DEAR SIR,

I forward you specimens of straw and rose-coloured amianthus I recently
met with on Staten-Island, which I detached, in strips, from a rock; it not
appearing, as is usual, in veins. It breaks up like flax, and may be spun and
wove without the aid of moisture; and in respect to tenacity, flexibility, and
length of fibre, it may be considered the best found in this country, and
perhaps equal to any hitherto discovered. Staten-Island exhibits many
minerals worthy of examination. I subjoin, as requested, the following
geological description, &c.
Hoboken, where I discovered native carbonate of magnesia, is situated
opposite the city of New-York, on the western or New-Jersey bank of the
Hudson. It is a primitive, insulated elevation, with a nucleus of serpentine;
the ground gradually descends in every direction except on the river side,
where mural precipices of serpentine rock are observed, extending about
100 rods parallel with the water, and elevated from 60 to 100 feet above its
level. The carbonate of magnesia I found in horizontal veins of nearly two
inches in breadth, and of unknown depth, in a midway region of this
serpentine ledge; I extracted a considerable quantity with a spoon. When
first taken out it was soft, white, and very slightly adhesive, from a little
moisture; but, when dry, fell to powder without friction. The nature of the
mineral I immediately conjectured, and treated it with diluted sulphuric
acid, in which it entirely dissolved with effervescence, forming a bitter
fluid, and leaving no sediment. Upon evaporation, well-defined crystals of
Epsom salts were formed. It differs little from the manufactured carbonate
of magnesia of the shops; but is rather a super than a sub-carbonate. It has
been analyzed by Professor Mitchill, who found it exclusively composed of
magnesia and carbonic acid. Carbonates of magnesia, hitherto discovered,
have been, I believe, found impure, and in a state of rock, requiring

chemical process to render them serviceable; this is, perhaps, fit for
immediate use. When I first mentioned the discovery to mineralogists, they
were incredulous, supposing it did not natively exist in this state, but I
convinced them by uniting it with sulphuric acid.
REMARKS.

The specimen of amianthus, referred to in Mr. Pierce's communication, is
uncommon. The fibres measure from 12 to 15 inches in length, and are as
soft and flexible as fine human hair.
It will be remembered, that in the rocks at Hoboken, Dr. Bruce
discovered the hydrate of magnesia, or magnesia combined with nothing
but water, in the proportion of about 70 per cent. of magnesia. This
discovery gave a new and interesting species to mineralogy; it is now
admitted in the systematical works on mineralogy.
Mr. Pierce's discovery is not less interesting; and we presume he will be
deemed correct in the opinion, that pure native carbonate of magnesia has
not been discovered before. The serpentine of Hoboken, then, is memorable
for affording these two new species.

Art. V. Native Copper.

In Bruce's Journal, (Vol. I. p. 149.) mention is made of a remarkable piece
of native copper, found near New-Haven many years ago, and weighing
about 90lbs.
We have now to add, (and the fact is, indeed, mentioned in Cleaveland's
Mineralogy,) that another piece has been recently found half a mile west of
the Hartford turnpike road, opposite the town of Wallingford, and twelve
miles from New-Haven. It was turned up in ploughing to repair a road. The
country is of the secondary trap formation, and the rocks, at the particular
place, are the old red sandstone of Werner, which here occupies the plains,
and runs under the trap. The piece weighs almost six pounds; it is fine
virgin copper, with rudiments of large octahedral crystals of native copper
upon its surface, which is more or less incrusted with green carbonate of
copper and ruby oxid, very much resembling that of Cornwall: the ruby
oxid is particularly remarkable in the cavities of the piece.
As it was found within three or four miles of the place where the large
piece of ninety pounds weight was discovered, and as copper is known to
exist in many places in these hills, the facts should be kept in view, and may
lead to something of importance.

Art. VI. Petrified Wood from Antigua.

The mineralogy and geology of the West-India islands has been, as yet,
but little explored. The scientific world has, however, been favoured with
some interesting articles from the pen of Dr. Nugent; and we are informed
that he has described also the geology of the island of Antigua. We have
recently become acquainted with one interesting production of this island,
and without waiting for Dr. Nugent's account, (which we believe has not yet
reached this country) we shall lay it before our readers.
We are under obligations to Mr. Pelatiah Perit, of New-York, for a
collection of specimens of silicious petrifactions of wood from Antigua.
Their characters are indubitable; the distinct ligneous layers corresponding
with the annual growth, the medullary prolongations, the knots formed by
branches, the cracks and the bark, are all distinctly visible. Some of the
pieces are ponderous portions of large trees.
As to the mineralizing matter, it is evidently silicious, and the specimens
are principally the holzstein of Werner; crystals of quartz are apparent in the
cavities; some parts are agatized, and veins of chalcedony occasionally
pervade the fissures: they are not impressible by steel, and give fire with it.
According to the information of Mr. Perit, they are scattered over the
surface of the Island of Antigua, with a profusion hardly less than that
which Horneman observed of the same mineral during his travels over the
eastern part of the great African desert.
It is much to be wished that our numerous intelligent navigators and
travelling merchants would, in imitation of this and of a similar example,
mentioned below, bestow some share of their attention on the natural
productions of the countries which they visit. In this way they might, on
their return, render very essential services to the science of their own
country.

Art. VII. Porcelain and Porcelain Clays.

Through the kind offices of a friend, we have been furnished, from one of
the great porcelain manufactories in the vicinity of Paris, with a series of
specimens, to illustrate the elegant art of fabricating porcelain. The
specimens begin with the raw materials, and exhibit them in all their
principal stages of advancement up to the perfect vessel, including the
materials for the glazing, and the colours for the painting, and the
application of both. At the request of the manufacturer, through whose
liberality we were indulged with this gratification, we transmitted to Paris
various specimens of American porcelain clays. This gentleman has caused
them to be subjected to trials in the porcelain furnaces, and he finds that
some of them are equal to the French porcelain clays, and some superior. As
our specimens were all labelled with the names of the places, in this
country, from which they were obtained, we hope soon to learn where to
look for porcelain clays, equal or superior to those celebrated ones from
which the superb French porcelain is manufactured.
As this subject is one of much practical importance to the rising arts of
this country, and as much interest has been excited in Paris concerning our
porcelain clays, we should feel greatly obliged by the transmission to us of
any specimens of American porcelain clays, with memoranda of the place,
the quantity, the depth at which obtained, the difficulty of obtaining, and,
generally, all the peculiar circumstances. We will take care that their value
shall be ascertained, if they appear promising, and a proper return shall be
made to the proprietor.
To those of our readers who may not be familiar with this subject, we
would however take the liberty to remark, that porcelain clays generally
arise from the decomposition of granite, and particularly of that kind which
is denominated graphic granite, and which abounds with feldspar. It is,
therefore, in the primitive countries that we are chiefly to expect them—
such as New-England, and part of the high country of the middle and
southern states.

It should be observed, that if a clay, otherwise apparently good, burns
red, it contains iron, and is unfit for porcelain; although it may serve well
enough for more common and coarse earthen ware.

Art. VIII. Native Sulphur from Java.

Through the kindness of Mr. I. Huntington, recently returned from Java,
we have received from that Island some fine specimens of native sulphur.
They are very pure, of an orange yellow, slightly shaded with white, and
occasionally with red; some of the cavities are lined with delicate crystals.
What gives them particular interest is, that they are believed to be from that
"large, and now nearly extinct, volcano, about sixty miles from the town of
Batavia, at the bottom of which (of the crater) lie large quantities of native
sulphur, even many hundred tons." It is in the crater of this volcano that the
famous lake of sulphuric acid exists, and from which it flows down the
mountain, and through the country below, a river of the same acid. (See
Tilloch's Phil. Mag. Vol. XLII. p. 182.) It is a most curious phenomenon,
and we believe entirely without a parallel. Another river, called the White
River, unites with this some miles below its origin: this river, which is so
called from the turbidness of its waters, its salutary to men and animals;
fishes live in it, and vegetation is nourished by its waters; but after the
junction it becomes clear; the acid dissolving the earthy particles which
discoloured it, and it now becomes fatal to living beings: kills the fish,
destroys the vegetation, and corrodes the stones in its channel. This
remarkable river flows from Mount Idienne, in the province of Bagnia
Vangni, in the eastern part of Java.

Art. IX. Productions of Wier's Cave, in Virginia.

We are indebted to the Reverend Elias Cornelius, and to Mr. John H.
Kain, for a collection of the calcareous incrustations of Wier's Cave, in
Virginia.
The stalactites, and stalagmites, and various incrustations, are of
uncommon size and beauty. Some of the stalactites have a delicate
whiteness, and a brilliancy arising from their crystallized structure, which,
with the regularity of their forms, give them a fair title to rank with those of
the famous caverns in the Peak of Derbyshire, in the island of Antiparos,
&c.
In these stalactites, the structure is most remarkably distinct, both in the
fibrous and concentric lamellar form. In this collection were observed many
forms of the crystallized hard carbonates of lime, of Count Bournon.
For a description of the cavern from which these specimens came, we
refer to the succeeding memoir, by Mr. Kain.

Art. X. Remarks on the Mineralogy and Geology of the Northwestern part
of the State of Virginia, and the Eastern part of the State of Tennessee. By
Mr. John H. Kain, of Tennessee.

The most prominent as well as the most beautiful feature of this country,
is that succession of mountain and valley, ridge and vale, which we meet
with in traversing its surface. The grand range of Alleghany mountains
enters Virginia about the 39th degree of north latitude; and, pursuing a
southwestern course, spreads out upon the east end of Tennessee, and
terminates near the southern boundary line of that state, in the Alabama
territory; and about the 34th parallel of north latitude. In this view are
included the Blue Mountains, the North Mountains, the Allegheny,
(properly so called) the Cumberland, Clinch, Iron, and Smoky mountains,
together with a variety of smaller mountains, spurs, and ridges, all running
parallel to each other, from the northeast to the southwest; and all, I believe
I may say, covered with forests, and presenting to the eye of the naturalist a
most interesting field for speculation and improvement.
With a few exceptions, the geologist meets with none of those
remarkable appearances which indicate the changes and convulsions which
have been wrought by time, the great enemy of nature. Occasionally we are
presented with a view of a sublime precipice, formed by a section which a
river appears to have made for itself through an opposing mountain; and the
large masses of ruins, which lie scattered around such a place, seem, to the
imagination of the solitary traveller, the historical records of commotions,
awful even in retrospect. Most commonly, however, the mountains seem to
have lain for ages in undisturbed repose; and the streams of water, when
they have crossed them, have sought an easy passage through the ravines,
which do not so often divide a mountain, or ridge, at right angles, as wind
between the ends of two opposing spurs, which pass each other, gradually
declining into the champaign country at their mutual base. Through this
whole extent of country we rarely meet with any remarkable falls of water;
the obvious reason of which is, that the rocks are so soft that they are easily
worn down to the level of the beds of rivers. But shoals, or shallows, are

frequent, and are formed by beds of rounded sandstone, spread out into a
broad base, over which the water often rushes with no small violence and
noise.
The mountains are generally, though not always, sterile, and produce
nothing but forest trees; but the valleys are, with hardly an exception, rich,
and productive of every variety of "grass and herb yielding seed, and fruit-
tree yielding fruit." Nor are they less favoured in the mineral kingdom;
possessing the greatest abundance of all the most useful and necessary
minerals, of which we shall now proceed to speak in order.
All the country included under the boundaries mentioned above, with the
exception of some primitive ranges of mountains on the southeastern side,
is apparently transition. This, it will be seen by a reference to Mr. Maclure's
excellent map, will extend the boundary of his transition class considerably
farther northwest, and make it include Cumberland Mountain and all East
Tennessee. This would be evident from comparing the northwestern part of
Virginia, which Mr. Maclure has included in his transition tract with all East
Tennessee. Every mineralogist must observe the identity of the minerals of
the two countries as well as that of their stratification and general
formation. The limestone in the valleys, and the sandstone on the
mountains, lie in strata which make an angle of from 25 to 45 degrees with
the horizon. The limestone bears the impressions of shells, but rarely, if
ever, of vegetables, and contains beds of hornstone, but not of flint, or what
can properly be called flint.
The rock which lies in the lowest valleys, and often rises into pretty high
hills, and is seen forming bluffs on the banks of the rivers, is limestone: it is
of a dark blue, approaching to a gray, as it is exposed to the air, and often
appearing quite white. Its fracture is compact in one direction; in another it
is more or less slaty in its structure. It is interspersed with veins of the
crystallized carbonate of lime, more or less perfect, and of a pure but
opaque white. Another variety of this limestone, not so abundant, is that
which is white and red, having the white and red spots intimately mingled.
Its structure is similar to the other kind.
Lying in beds of this limestone, parallel to, and imbedded in, its strata, is
a stone, which, from its globular form, its hardness, and its colour, has been
usually mistaken for flint. On comparing it with the flint of chalk-beds, we

find it much less translucent, its colour darker, and its hues duller; and its
rough and irregular fracture, compared with the easy, smooth, and
conchoidal cleavage of the true flint, decides it to be hornstone. It is found
also forming considerable distinct beds on the hills; and is seen in detached
pieces, and irregular pebbles, covering many of the ridges.
Alternating with the beds of limestone, and possessing the same
formation, is a soft clay slate. Soapstone is found in it.
As soon as we ascend the mountains, we meet with a slaty sand-stone of
various compactness, as it possesses more or less iron, often forming an
excellent iron ore. A variety of this iron ore has been lately turned to a good
use, in the manufacture of a red paint, near Knoxville, Tennessee. Different
varieties of this sandstone possess different qualities. It is converted by the
inhabitants into millstones, grindstones, and whetstones. Interspersed
among the sandstone of the mountains we often find very beautiful and
interesting specimens of hornstones, assuming a resemblance to all the
silicious stones, from the chalcedony to the jasper. In this extensive range of
mountains, many other minerals exist, of which we shall treat more
particularly hereafter. The limestone, slate, and sandstone, as far as the
writer's knowledge extends, so to speak, form the country; the limestone
and clay slate dipping under the sandstone. Gypsum, coal, sulphate of
barytes, &c. are found in these, and we shall now speak of their localities.
Gypsum.—This valuable mineral production exists in Washington
County, Virginia, 20 miles north of Abingdon, in the vicinity of Saltville. It
is similar, in every respect, to the plaster of Nova Scotia, and devoted by the
farmers of that part of Virginia, and Tennessee, to similar purposes.
Coal is said to exist in immense quantities in the Cumberland Mountain.
A bed of it is wrought near Knoxville, Tennessee. It is of an excellent
quality; but wood is so abundant that it is used only in forges.
Sulphate of Barytes.—This mineral is found in Bottetourt County,
Virginia, near Fincastle; and in Sevier County, Tennessee.
Hard Carbonates of Lime.—Stalactitical concretions abound in all the
caves so often described as existing in this country. Those of Virginia are
more perfectly crystallized than those of Tennessee. Under the head of hard
carbonates should be mentioned an extensive bed or vein in Montgomery

County in the State of Virginia, near the seat of Colonel Hancock. It appears
to have been formed in a chasm, in the common limestone of the country,
by a calcareous deposition which resembles, exactly, in all its characters,
the calcareous concretions which are found forming in the caves of the
country. The whole bed may, in fact, be regarded as a cave which has been
filled up in the progress of time, by this curious process. Its width is
various, from two feet to ten, or more, extending along the side of a very
steep ridge, for at least 50 yards, and it is said to be continued seven miles
farther.
The silicious carbonate of lime may be worth distinguishing from the
common limestone. It is found in a bed near Colonel Hancock's, and was
supposed to be gypsum. It phosphoresces beautifully; it is white, and
confusedly crystalline in its structure, and much harder than the common
limestone. Indeed the limestone generally, on the east of the Alleghany, is
somewhat harder than that on the west.
Lead.—There are several localities of this mineral. A mine of it is
wrought near New River, 15 miles from Wythe, Virginia. Another locality
of the ore of lead is said to have been discovered in Granger County,
Tennessee, on land belonging to General Cocke. It exists also, very near the
surface, on the plantation of the Rev. Mr. Craighead, near Nashville; which,
however, is out of our boundary.
Other metallic ores are said to have been found among these mountains,
and particularly those of gold and silver; but the accounts are vague and
uncertain, and not to be credited.
The numerous Caves of this country present attractions to every, the least
curious, traveller; and, in an eminent degree, to the mineralogist. They are
crevices, or large chasms, probably worn in the rocks by the passage of
water. This will, at first view, perhaps appear a bold assertion; but if it be
recollected that they occur only in limestone, which is a soft rock, and
(under certain circumstances,) soluble in water; that the rocks bear every
mark of having been worn by water; and that streams of water are always
found in them, it will not appear an improbable hypothesis. It is by no
means difficult to believe that a stream, after having worn such a chasm as a
cave presents, in the solid rock, may have found another channel; and,
forsaking the old, have left room for nature to display some of her most

beautiful works. A description of one of these caves will be a description of
all; and we shall select Wier's Cave, in Rockingham County, Virginia, as it
is the most curious of any with which we are acquainted.
The entrance of the cave is narrow and difficult. When the cave was first
discovered, the passage into it was impeded by stalactites, which had
formed perpendicular columns across it; but these are now removed. As we
advance, our course is at first horizontal, but we soon descend fifteen or
twenty feet by a ladder, and find ourselves in a large echoing cavern.
Stalactites of a silvery whiteness are suspended from above, and pillars of
stalagmites are rising around us. Ledges of rocks form our floor, and the
uneven walls are incrusted over with a beautiful brown spar, which is
sometimes suspended from the canopy in thin, shining, and translucent
sheets. In passing on over the rugged rock of our pathway, our attention is
divided between a care for our safety, and an admiration of the surrounding
wonders.
Proceeding on through a narrower crevice in the rocks, we are soon
introduced into other apartments, differing in shape and size from the first,
but resembling it in the irregularity of its walls, floor, and covering, and in
the calcareous incrustations and concretions, which, assuming a thousand
fantastic shapes, and displaying a sparkling lustre, the more vivid as the
light is stronger, give to this whole grotto the power of charming every
beholder.
The cave is a mile and a half in extent, and extremely irregular in its
course and shape. Its perpendicular height varies from three to forty feet,
and its breadth from two to thirty. Its dividing branches are numerous,
forming a great variety of apartments. The blue limestone appears
frequently enough to satisfy us that it is the groundwork of the whole; but it
is almost every where covered with incrustations of the hard carbonates.
These hang from the arched vault above in clusters, and often reach the
ground, forming massive columns. Stalagmites again rise from the floor
like so many statues; the irregular sides of the ledges of rocks are often
incrusted over with white crystals of the carbonate of lime, and have the
appearance of banks of salt: at times we seem to walk on diamond
pavements; again our footway is of rounded pebbles, and seems the bed of a
river which had deserted its channel. Often we pass small streams of water;
and the water is continually dripping from the ends of the stalactites, the

echoing sound of which, when it drops, forms the only interruption to the
profound silence which reigns throughout the cavern.
To give an idea of the diversified shapes which these concretions assume
in the progress of their formation, (and they are constantly forming,) would
be impossible. Suffice it to say, that there is scarcely any thing on earth to
which they may not be supposed to form a resemblance; and yet, in fact,
they are unlike any thing but themselves.
It is generally known that the earth in these caves contains the nitrates of
lime, and potash, and other salts. The numerous caves which have been
found in the Cumberland mountains and other parts of Tennessee, have
been very productive of the nitrate of potash. In the investigation of the
causes which have given origin to these salts, it may be recollected, that
wild animals burrow in these caves; that when pursued by the hunter, they
make them the places of their retreat, and probably die there; that the
aborigines have made them a place of burial; and that the streams of water
which flow through them in wet weather, carry with them not only great
quantities of leaves but many other vegetable productions.
The natural bridge is celebrated as one of the greatest curiosities of the
world. Viewed by a geologist, it would probably be considered as a cave (so
to speak) unroofed in all but one place. It seems improbable that if the
ravine had been made by a convulsion, which had split and separated the
rock to the distance of fifty or sixty feet, any part of it, and particularly so
large a mass as that which forms the bridge, should have been left, without
exhibiting any marks of violence. The rock is limestone. It is known that
this rock wears away rapidly under the attrition of water; and the
supposition does not appear improbable, that, in the lapse of ages, so large a
creek as that which flows below the bridge, may have worn as deep a ravine
as that which now strikes us with so much surprise, In short, may not a cave
have been originally formed where the ravine is now, and the pending
portion of it have fallen in at every place except that which now forms this
celebrated natural curiosity?
Mineral Springs.—The mineral springs of this region are numerous and
diversified. Chalybeate springs are promiscuously scattered over the whole
of it; and springs impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen are quite
common. Salt springs and licks are found more in the western than the

eastern range of mountains. That which was first wrought by William King,
is well known. The salt here is associated with gypsum. In the same range
of mountains, farther to the southwest, there are now several other salt-
works, and also one to the west, on Goose Creek, in Kentucky, which has
been very productive.
The Warm Springs.—These springs are situated in a country which
presents many attractions to the travelling geologist; and much light, it is
hoped, will yet be thrown on the geology of our country, by a more minute
and accurate examination of it than has yet been made.
The warm springs ooze through the sand on the south bank of the French
Broad river, in the mountains which divide the state of Tennessee from her
parent state, about the 36th parallel of latitude. The temperature of the water
is about 95° of Fahrenheit.
On the opposite side of the river from the springs is a geological
curiosity. A limestone rock is seen dipping under the sandstone which forms
the country. Limestone is nowhere else to be seen within six miles of this
place. In this limestone rock is a cave similar to others already described.
Paint Rock, in the vicinity of the Warm Springs, is interesting on many
accounts. It is a bold precipice on the bank of French Broad river. At this
place the river passes with a very rapid current directly across the course of
a mountain, which terminates abruptly, and forms the precipice on the north
bank of the river. On looking at the rock, the opposite end of the mountain,
and the ruins around it, the mind is insensibly carried back to the
contemplation of some dreadful commotion in nature, which probably
shook these mountains to their bases.
The rock is composed of a clay slate; and it is here again remarkable, that
this stone is not to be seen in any other place within some miles. It has
received its name from some red paintings, (probably left on it by the
Indians,) which have the appearance of hieroglyphics.
To conclude. It will be seen from the above observations, that this
country presents a vast field of most interesting research, and claims the
attention of every traveller who is interested at all in geological inquiries. If
what has been said will at all contribute to the enlargement of the general
stock of our knowledge on these subjects, the writer will be much gratified;

and it is his sincere wish, that the accuracy of his remarks may be tried, and
his mistakes corrected, by the researches of succeeding travellers.

Art. XI. Notice of Professor Mitchill's Edition of Cuvier's Essay on the
Theory of the Earth.

The American scientific public are under obligations to Professor Mitchill
for bringing this book within their reach. It is one of the most eloquent,
impressive, and instructive works on this grand but obscure subject, with
which the world has ever been favoured. The reader is no sooner drawn
within the current of Cuvier's eloquence, than he is borne along almost
without the power or wish to escape. It is believed there are few intelligent
and enlightened persons, whether geologists or not, who would fail to be
gratified by a book which secures the understanding by a strict course of
reasoning from facts, and delights the taste by a style bold, terse, and lucid,
but at the same time rich and flowing.
The analysis of this work has been ably performed in Europe, and there
is, therefore, the less necessity to attempt it here. While we take the liberty
thus to recommend it, we do not hold ourselves strictly bound to the
admission of every one of Cuvier's doctrines; and might, perhaps, wish that
in a few instances he had been somewhat more explicit, or somewhat more
qualified.
The additions by Professor Jameson, of Edinburgh, are valuable and
interesting, and are retained in the present edition.
Those by Professor Mitchill will be perused with pleasure and advantage.
The learned author has assembled, in one view, a great mass of facts, partly
resulting from his own journeys and observations, and partly deduced from
other respectable sources. We have no doubt that most of these facts will be
considered by the scientific world as very interesting, whatever views they
may entertain of the conclusions built upon them. The author has occupied
himself principally upon those portions of the United States, which, by the
organized remains both of animals and vegetables, with which they more or
less abound, exhibit the most decisive and interesting evidence of changes
and catastrophes, whose history is to be sought in the memorials entombed
in the strata themselves.

We give no opinion regarding the theories of Professor Mitchill, not
intending to review the work, but merely to aid, as far as in our power, in
drawing the public attention to the interesting subjects about which it is
occupied.
If we have any remark to add, it is, that an adherence to the technical
precision with which most rocks are at the present day described, appears
desirable in mineralogical and geological descriptions. When in the
valuable additions before us we read of schorl rock, we gain only the idea
of a rock containing that mineral; but as it occurs occasionally in several of
the primitive rocks, we are at a loss which is intended; we believe it never
forms a rock by itself. So with the slate rocks: there are several varieties of
them—mica slate, clay slate, greenstone slate, &c. besides some
subdivisions; and the mere word slate does not always give us the precise
idea. But we are aware that, in the present case, it was less in view to go
into all the details of geological description, than to give a view of our
organized remains and of their supposed origin.

Art. XII. Notice of Eaton's Index to the Geology of the Northern States,
together with a Transverse Section of the Catskill Mountain to the
Atlantic.

The extensive collection of facts in this little book of fifty-four pages, is
creditable to the author's industry and discernment: he informs us that he
has travelled 1000 miles on foot, while investigating the geology of the
district concerning which he has written. This district is certainly
interesting, and every attempt to diffuse correct information concerning it,
deserves encouragement. Mr. Eaton's account of the regions he has
explored, has every mark of verisimilitude; and we commend his efforts to
diffuse geological information, by short courses of lectures, in different
towns. In his arrangement of rocks, he has deviated from Werner—has
adopted some views of Bakewell, and some of his own. Werner's
arrangement of rocks has, undoubtedly, its imperfections and its
redundancies; and yet it may be questioned how far his system has been
really improved by its different emendators. If Werner, by mentioning
argillaceous schistus only in the primitive class of rocks, left us to dispose
of it where we might, when we find it at one time, covering or sustaining
anthracite, with impressions of ferns, and at another with impressions of
fish and vegetables, and in contact with bituminous coal; still those who,
with Mr. Eaton, throw argillaceous slate into the transition class, and omit it
in the primitive and secondary, embarrass us with an equal difficulty; for we
find argillaceous slate in contact, and alternating with, mica slate, and
without any impressions of organized bodies, when we must, without a
doubt, call it primitive.
This is the fact with the clay slate of the Woodbridge hills, near New-
Haven, which is primitive; that of Rhode-Island, with anthracite, is
transition; and that at Middlefields, west of Middletown, with impressions
of fish, is secondary. Slate then appears to belong to all these three great
classes of rocks.
As to the metalliferous limestone, we do not so much object to the
introduction of this term by Bakewell, although it appears to us quite as

well to say that certain limestones, those of the transition class for example,
are metalliferous. But is Eaton correct in referring such limestone as that of
which the New-York City-Hall is built, to a metalliferous class? Is not that
limestone decidedly primitive? The fact mentioned of its containing pyrites,
hardly proves it to be metalliferous; since most rocks contain more or less
of pyrites. Some other remarks of less importance we might add, but we
prefer concluding by recommending this tract to the perusal of those who
wish for information respecting the geological structure of New-England;
and we think that Mr. Eaton is seriously aiding the progress of geology in
the interior of New-England.

Art. XIII. Notice of M. Brongniart on Organized Remains.

This distinguished mineralogist, so advantageously known by his
excellent work on mineralogy—his researches in company with Cuvier, into
the subterranean geography of the environs of Paris, and his
superintendence of the great porcelain manufactory at Sevres, is attempting
to form an extensive collection of organized remains.
Through Professor Cleaveland, we have received from him the following

NOTICE
Concerning the method of collecting, labelling, and transmitting specimens
of fossil organized bodies, and of the accompanying rocks, solicited by
M. Brongniart.

The study of fossil organized bodies appears to be of the utmost
importance in determining the relations of different formations, one of the
principal objects of geology.
In order more effectually to appreciate the value of this method of
investigation, it is necessary to multiply observations—to endeavour to
render them exact and precise—and especially to make them upon a general
plan.
M. Brongniart has been long occupied in such researches. The essay
published by M. Cuvier and him, upon the geology of the environs of Paris,
has afforded an example of their use.
He has laboured since this period to apply this method to other
formations, which contain the relics of organized bodies; but he stands in
need of much assistance, and he presumes to ask it, not only of naturalists,
but even of all persons interested in the sciences. By means of the following
instructions, he endeavours to avail himself of the kindness of persons the
least conversant in the discrimination of fossils.

1. To collect all the fossil organized bodies which can be obtained;
especially the distinguishable impressions and remains of vegetables from
coal countries, and beds of wood, coal, and others. The shells, crustaceæ,
madrepores, fishes, &c. It is not necessary that these bodies should be either
large or entire, but they must be sufficiently characterized to be capable of
being recognized.
It is useless to transmit large unmeaning pieces, which are recommended
only by their size—such as large ammonites—large madrepores—large
pieces of petrified wood—fragments of the one, or small individuals of the
other, are often sufficient. We may avoid also collecting the inner moulds
("des moules interieurs") of shells, because they are almost invariably
incapable of being recognized.
2. Petrifactions, isolated and detached from their rock, are the most
convenient in the determination of species; but when they cannot be
separated from the rock, we need not hesitate to send them engaged; it is
sufficient if a portion large enough for discrimination is visible.
Among shells, those are preferable which have the mouth or hinge in
view; among madrepores, those on whose surface the figures (les étoiles)
are distinguishable; among vegetables, those whose leaves are distinctly
expanded, (expalmées.)
3. Upon the objects transmitted it is desirable to have, at least in part, the
following notices:
1. The exact place from which the object comes: this is the most
important circumstance, and the easiest to obtain.
2. The kind of formation in which it is found, and a specimen of the
stratum, or at least of the rock, which contained it. It is desirable that this
rock exhibit remains of petrifactions similar to those found in the stratum
from which it has been drawn.
3. The nature of the formation of which this stratum or rock composes a
part, and specimens of as many of the superior and inferior strata as can be
obtained, designating the order of superposition of the strata.
4. It is important to designate, by the same mark, all the petrifactions
unquestionably found in the same stratum, or at least in the same formation.

The specimens ought to be almost square—about three inches or more on a
side, and one and a half thick.
5. It is equally important not to mix petrifactions found in different
formations, or in different strata of the same formation; or if they are
packed together, to distinguish them by numbers, marks, or labels.
When the preceding notices cannot be obtained, the first will suffice.
In order to collect the petrifactions, and to render them useful, it is not
necessary to know them, nor to be perplexed to find them out; nor to be
afraid of sending objects already known or of little note. A part of the
preceding indications, connected with the most common petrifactions, will
always render them useful. The important point then is, not to mix those
which are found separate, nor to separate those which are found associated
in the same stratum.
This is easily attained, by designating by a common number, letter, or
any sign whatever, one particular formation or stratum, and by marking
with the same sign all the petrifactions which are evidently found together.
The labels designating the place or the geological situation, may be
placed in the papers which envelope the specimens, or a number, referring
to an explanatory catalogue, may be attached to each specimen.
As far as possible, it is necessary to stick the labels or numbers to the
pieces, by pasting; and the surest way is, to write upon the piece itself, 1st,
the place where it is found; 2d, the number by which it is indicated in the
historical notes above requested.
If there is not time to make out as many numbers or labels as there are
pieces, it will be sufficient to unite in one box or packet all the petrifactions
of one particular stratum, and to designate them by a general label.
It is necessary to pack the shells and other fragile pieces in separate
boxes, and to wrap each piece in a separate paper.
M. Brongniart cannot allow himself to prefer such requests, except under
the express condition, that a memorandum of all the expenses which the
transportation and packing of the specimens may create shall accompany
the letter of advice.

The objects destined for him may be sent by the common modes of
conveyance, with a letter of advice, to the following address:
Mr. A. Brongniart, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Engineer of Mines, etc. Rue Saint-Dominique, Faubourg Saint-Germain,
No. 71, Paris.

Art. XIV. Observations on a species of Limosella, recently discovered in
the United States, by Dr. Eli Ives, Professor of Materia Medica and
Botany, in the Medical Institution of Yale College.

This small plant was observed in flower in July, 1816, by Mr. Horatio N.
Fenn (now of Rochester, State of New-York) in company with Dr.
Leavenworth. The plant and the seeds have been preserved by me, in a
flower-pot, from that time to the present. The plant was taken a few rods
south of Mr. Whitney's gun manufactory, on the margin of the river, where
it was covered by every tide. I have since observed the plant in great
abundance on the margin of the Housatonuck, in Derby, and in those small
streams in East Haven, Branford, and Guilford, which empty into Long-
Island Sound.
A specimen of the limosella (with some specimens of the tillea) was sent
to Z. Collins, Esq. of Philadelphia, who wrote me that Mr. Nuttall had
found the same plant, a few days previous to the receipt of my letter, and
that they had no question on the subject of the generic character, but that it
would probably prove to be a new species.
In the transactions of the Medico-Physical Society of New-York, page
440, it is described under the name of limosella subulata. A description of
the plant was published about the same time, by Mr. Nuttall, in the Journal
of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. (See Vol. I. No. 6. p.
115.)
In the paper written by Mr. Nuttall is the following query: "Does this
plant, with a lateral mode of growth and alternate leaves, germinate with
two cotyledons?" The following observations were made in answer to this
question. In the winter of 1816-17 this plant was kept in a situation exposed
to severe frost; yet whenever the weather became warm for two or three
days, it became quite green, but for the last winter there was no appearance
of life in the plant. In March 1818, the vessel in which the limosella had
been preserved for two summers preceding, and in which were a great
quantity of seeds, was exposed in a warm situation to the sun. There was no
appearance of vegetation until the last of March, when were observed

several cylindrical leaves, some of them evidently arose from bulbs which
had formed the last summer, on account of the dryness of its situation,
which frequently occurs when plants are removed from a moist to a dry
situation. In other instances single cylindrical leaves arose from the earth,
where no bulbs were to be found; these cylindrical leaves were thought to
arise from seeds, which, if it was a fact, would prove that the plant
vegetated with but one cotyledon. In a short time the vessel was crowded
with the seeds of the limosella raised by the cotyledons. These were
carefully observed, and in every instance, when the coat of the seed was
cast off, two linear cotyledons were observed, soon a cylindrical leaf arose
from the centre of the cotyledons, and when this leaf had grown to the
length of half an inch, a leaf of a similar kind arose laterally to a line made
by the first leaf and the cotyledons.
From the facts above stated, it is thought to be proved that the limosella
vegetates with two cotyledons. This was the fact in every instance where
the husk of the seeds was obviously attached to the cotyledons, and in the
few instances where the plants appeared to vegetate with but one cotyledon,
it is probable that it arose from a bulb or some portion of the old plant, in
which life had not been extinguished, during the past winter, which was
made more probable by the fact that several of the leaves arose obviously
from bulbs. This limosella,[11] with its congeners, hence will take its place
in the natural order of Jussieu lysimachiæ.

Art. XV. Professor Bigelow on the comparative Forwardness of the
Spring in different Parts of the United States, in 1817.

We have been favoured with an ingenious memoir on this subject, by the
author, Professor Bigelow of Boston; it is a part of the fourth volume of the
Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Professor Bigelow, availing himself of a hint given him some years ago
by the late venerable Dr. Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, ascertained, through
the medium of correspondence with accurate observers in different parts of
North America, the time of flowering, for "1817, of the common fruit-trees
and a few other plants"—"found in most parts of the United States."
The peach-tree was the one most uniformly returned, and the following
table exhibits the time of its flowering, in places sufficiently numerous and
remote, to afford a fair specimen of these observations:
Places. Lat. Long. Peach-tree in blossom.
Fort Claiborne, Alab. Ter. 31° 50′ 87° 50′ March 4
Charleston, S. C. 32 44 80 39 6 12
Richmond, Va. 37 40 77 50 23 Ap. 6
Lexington, Ky. 38 6 85 8 April 6 15
Baltimore, Md. 39 21 77 48 9
Philadelphia, P. 39 56 75 8 15
New-York, N. Y. 40 42 74 9 21 26
Boston, Mass. 42 23 70 52 May 9
Albany, N. Y. 43 39 73 30 12
Brunswick, Me. 43 53 69 55 15 [12]
Montreal, Can. 45 35 73 11 12
Professor Bigelow infers, "that the difference of season between the
northern and southern extremities of the country is not less than two months
and a half." "Difference of longitude does not seem very materially to affect
the Floral Calendar within the United States." It appears, that in the same
year peach-trees were in blossom at Valencia, in Spain, about the 19th of

March; the apple-tree near London, May 8th; the cherry-tree and pear-tree
at Geneva, in Switzerland, April 3d.
We hope that this research will be prosecuted in the manner it has thus
been happily begun. It evidently affords an excellent criterion of the actual
temperature, on a scale more extensive than it is practicable to obtain from
thermometrical registers.
Floral Calendars kept in various parts of the United States would afford
very interesting information, as to the changes of climate in particular
places; a common topic of popular remarks but generally with few and
inaccurate data.

Art. XVI. A Journal of the Progress of Vegetation near Philadelphia
between the 20th of February and the 20th of May, 1816, with occasional
Zoological Remarks. By C. S. Rafinesque.

The importance of observations on the annual progress of vegetation is
obvious, and, as connected with agriculture, gardening, &c., eminently
useful. Comparative observations acquire a particular degree of interest,
when made by skilful observers, at the same time, but at different places.
Dr. Bigelow, of Boston, issued a circular, proposing that such
contemporaneous observations should be made in the spring of 1817; and I
wish that his request may have been attended to, when the collection of
those observations may afford valuable materials for an American Calendar
of Flora. The blossoming of plants is easily watched, but their foliation and
budding ought not to be neglected. Having been prevented, by various
causes, from keeping an exact record of the progress of vegetation near
New-York in 1817, I submit an accurate journal which I had kept the year
before, at Philadelphia, in which I hope that some interesting facts may be
noticed. Dr. Benjamin Barton has published a sketch of a Calendar of Flora
for Philadelphia, in his Fragments on the Natural History of Pennsylvania;
by comparing it with mine, many material differences may be traced, which
evince a gradual change of temperature, although the spring of 1816 was
remarkably cold and late. The greater quantity of species observed by me
may, besides, render this journal a sort of vernal Flora of the neighbourhood
of Philadelphia; and many species found by me are not to be met in the
Flora Philadelphica of Dr. William Barton.

February 20. The Hyacinthus orientalis begins to show its flowers, and
on the
24. In full blossom, as well as Convallaria majalis, in rooms.
25. The grass begins to look greenish in some parts.
26. Seen the first larva of insect in a pond.
27. The Motacilla sialis, or bluebird, is heard for the first time.

28. The first shad (Clupea sapidissima) is taken in the Delaware, while
on the same day, the first smelt (Salmo eperlanoides) was taken in
the Raritan, at New-Brunswick.

March 1. The Tulipa gesneriana, and Hesperis matronalis, are in
blossom at the windows: the suckers (genus Catostomus) appear in
the fish-market.
2. The catkins of the Alnus serrulatus begin to swell.
3. Those of Salix Caprea begin to appear.
4. The grass looks green by patches in the country.
5. The leaves of Veronica officinalis, Plantago virginiana, Saxifraga
virginica, &c. are quite unfolded.
6. The new leaves of Kalmia latifolia begin to appear.
7. The spathas of Spathyema fetida, or Fothos fetida, begin to appear in
blossom.
8. The Alnus serrulatus is in full blossom.
10. Found several mosses and ferns in blossom; these last were covered
with capsules or old fructification: they were Asplenium ebeneum,
Aspidium marginale, Asp. acrostichoides, Polypodium medium, N.
Sp., &c.
11. Seen the first spider, in the country, brown, oblong, walking. A fall of
snow at night.
12. Seen in blossom, at the windows, Narcissus tazzetta, N. janguilla,
and several saffrons, genus Crocus, &c.
14. The grass looks quite green; the Draba verna? is in blossom in the
State-House garden, the Viburnum tinus, Primula acaulis, &c. in the
rooms, &c. The following fish are at market: white perch, (Perca
mucronata, Raf.) yellow perch, (Polyprion fasciatum, Raf.)
mamoose sturgeon, (Accipenser marginatur, Raf.) elk-oldwives,
(Sparus crythrops, Raf.) &c.
15. The Populus fastigiata, Lombardy poplar, begins to show its catkins.

17. The big-eye herring (Clupea megalops) begin to be seen at the fish-
market.
18. Many plants begin to grow and show their leaves.
19. A fall of snow. The first shad (Clupea sapidissima) appear in New-
York: they are now common here.
20. Crocus aureus in blossom in gardens; likewise Iris persica, &c.
21. Betula lenta begin to show the catkins.
22. Galanthus nivalis, and Lamium amplexicaule, are in blossom in
gardens at Cambden.
24. Populus fastigiata, and Salix caprea, are in full bloom.—The
gooseberry bushes shoot their leaves.
25. Populus angulata in blossom at Cambden.
26. Salix babylonica begins to blossom and shoot the leaves. Viburnum
prunifolium is budding.
27. Draba verna? is in seed already in Cambden: the Rhododendron
maximum begins to shoot in gardens.
28. Juniperus virginiana is in bloom. Saxifraga virginica begins to show
its flowers. Laurus benzoin, and Cornus florida, are budding.

April 1. In the morning, a large flight of wild geese went over the city
northwards, making a great noise. In the afternoon there was a
thunder storm from the southwest.
2. The frogs begin to croak. Found in blossom near Cambden, Arabis
rotundifolia, Raf., A. lyrata, Saxifraga virginica, Draba verna?
Betula lenta, &c. Pinus inops is budding.
3. Seen the first swallow. Found in blossom on the Schuylkill, Fumaria
cucullaria, Anemone thalictroides, Saxifraga virginica, many ferns
and mosses.
4. The fresh-water turtle (Testudo picta) begins to show itself.
7. Found in blossom to-day, Hepatica triloba, Laurus benzoin,
Sanguinaria canadensis, Spathyema fetida, Acer rubrum, &c. The

first bee is seen.
10. In blossom at the woodlands, Viola blanda, Luzula filamentosa, Raf.,
Gnaphalium? plantageneum, &c.
12. In blossom at Cambden, Viola lanceolata, and Houstonia cerulea.
14. The apricot-trees begin to blossom in gardens. Acernegundo is in
bloom at Gray's Ferry.
15. Seen the first butterfly—it was small and gray. Found in blossom,
near Cambden, Phlox subulata, Arabis parviflora, Raf., and
Vaccinium ligustrinum.
18. Seen in blossom, Epigea repens, Carex acuta, and Taraxacum dens-
leonis. In gardens, the peach and cherry trees are in bloom.
Observed many insects. The Camellia, the Magnolia chinensis, &c.
are seen in the hot-house of the Woodlands.
20. The first snake is seen, Coluber trivittata, Raf. Also a beautiful large
butterfly, red and black. The Salix vitellina, and Capsella bursa.
(Thlaspi bursa-pastoris,) are in blossom.
21. Found in blossom, near Gray's Ferry, Narcissus pseudo-narcissus,
and Sedum ternatum, both naturalized. Likewise the Populus
tremuloides, and Mespelus canadensis. The leaves of Podophyllum
pettatum are fully expanded.
23. Seen in full bloom in gardens, the pear-tree, plum-tree, Riber
grossularia, and R. rubrum.
24. Found in blossom along the Schuylkill, Aguilegia canadensis,
Hyacinthus botryoides, Ranunculus fascicularis, Violapapilionacea.
V. decumbens, Raf., Houstonia cerulea, Cerastium pumilum, Raf.
25. Found in blossom near Cambden, Viola pedata, V. lanceolata, V.
ovata, Raf., V. primulifolia, Arabis parviflora, Raf., Cerastium
pumilum, Raf., Carex acuta, Meopilus botryapium, Laurus
sassafras, Cercis canadensis, Potentilla simplex, Andromeda
racemoca.
28. Seen in blossom in gardens, Calycanthus floridus, Syringa persica,
Phlox pilosa, &c. The leaves of Liriodendron tulipifera, Æsculus

hippocastanum, Populus fastigiata, P. angulata, are unfolded.
30. In blossom on the Schuylkill, Obolaria virginiana, Anemone trifolia,
Hydrastis canadensis, &c.

May 1. In blossom in the Neck, Cerastium vulgatum? Veronica
serpyllifolia, V. arvensis, Ranunculus bulbosus, Viola cucultata.
3. Found above the Falls of the Schuylkill, Viola striata, V. concolor, V.
primulifolia, V. blanda, Fumaria aurea, F. cucullaria, Charophyllum
procumbens, Uvularia sessitifolia, U. perfoliata, Cercis canadensis,
Arabis falcata, Stellaria pubera, Erigeron pulchellum, Orchis
spectabilis, Hydrastis canadensis, Dentaria diphylla, Azalea
nudiflora, &c.
4. Found on the Vissahikon, Arabis bulbosa, Panax trifolium, Viola
pectata, V. rotundifolia, Cardamine pennsylvanica, Krigia virginica,
and several grasses.
7. Found in blossom over the Schuylkill, Laurus sassafras, Viburnum
prunifolium, Aronia arbutifolia, A. melanocarpa, Fragaria
virginica, Cerastium nutans, Raf., Convallaria majalis, naturalized,
and several species of the genus Vaccinium.
10. Found below the falls of the Schuylkill, Floerkea uliginosa,
Viburnum acerifolium, Oxalis violacea, Cerastium tenuifolium,
lechoma hederacea, &c.: and the following above the Falls—
Trillium cernuum, Viola pubescens, V. pennsylvanica, Hydrophyllum
virginicum, Polemonium reptans, Senecio aureus, Saxifraga
pennsylvanica, Staphylea trifoliata, Obolaria virginica, Caltha
palustris, Ranunculus abortivus, &c.
11. Seen the first bat.
12. Near Haddonfield, Bartsia coccinea, Helonias bullata, Trifolium
repens, &c.
15. Found between Cambden and Haddonfield, Trifolium pratense, Silene
virginica, Antirrhinum canadense, Lithospermum tenellum, Raf.,
Festucatenella, Seleranthus annuus, Oxalis biflora, Raf., Poa rubra,
Vaccinium corymbosum, Viola palmata, V. parvifolia, Raf., Rubus

flagellaris, &c. Also in blossom, Quercus rubra, Q. obtusiloba, Q.
alba, &c.
20. Found near Burlington, Plantago virginica, Euphorbia ipecacuanha,
Comptonia asplenifolia, Myosotis lappula, Senecio obovatus,
Scirpus acicularis, Lithospermum trinervum, Raf., L. tenellum, Raf.,
&c.; besides several Carex.

Art. XVII. Description of a New Species of North American Marten,
(Mustela vulpina) by C. S. Rafinesque.

The regions watered by the Missouri are inhabited by many animals, as
yet unknown to the zoologists, although many have been noticed by
travellers. A species of marten has lately been presented to the Lyceum of
Natural History in New-York, which was brought from that country, and
appears to belong to a peculiar species, very different from the common
martens of Europe, Asia, and America, although it has, in common with it,
the character of the yellow throat; but the head, feet, and tail, afford so
many peculiar characters, that no doubt can be entertained of its diversity. I
have, therefore, given to it the name of Mustela vulpina, or Fox Marten,
owing to its head and tail being somewhat similar to that of a fox.
Mustela Vulpina. Definition—Brown, three large yellowish spots
underneath on the throat, breast, and belly; cheeks, inside of the ears, and a
spot on the nape, white; tail tipped with white one-third of total length; feet
blackish, toes white.
Description.—This animal is of a fine shape: its size is rather above
mediocrity, being about half a foot high, and the total length being twenty-
seven inches, whereof nine form the tail. The general colour of the fur is of
a drab brown, and it is neither coarse nor very fine. The head is elongated,
oblong, about four inches long, shaped like that of a fox; the snout is
narrow; the nose is black, notched, and granulated, furnished on each side
with black whiskers, two inches long: there are three long black hairs, or
vibrissa, above each eye, and a few shorter ones scattered behind them on
the cheeks, chin, and tip of the lower jaw, which is white: the cheeks are
whitish, and there is a white spot on the nape of the neck: the ears are large,
broad, and white inside. There are three large, oblong spots, on the throat,
breast, and belly; this last is the largest; that on the breast the smallest. The
fore legs are shorter than the hind ones, and have, behind, three very long
hairs or vibrissa: the feet and toes of all the legs are covered with long fur;
the former have a dark brown or blackish ring, and the latter are of a dirty
white: there are five long toes to all the feet, of which the inner one is the

shortest; the nails are white, retractible, and shorter than the fur. The teeth
are as in the genus Mustela, and white; those of the lower jaw are larger and
stronger: the grinders are four on each side; they are broad, trifid, with the
middle lobe sharp and very long: the tusks, or dogteeth, are very strong,
curved, and approximated, leaving a very small place for the incisores,
which are very small, very short, and flat; the two lateral ones on each side
are situated diagonally, the second behind, and the two middle ones are only
half the size of the others. The tail is bushy, particularly at the top, where
there is a white pencil of long hairs; the brown of the remainder is darker
than on the body.
From the above accurate description, it will appear evident that this
animal is very different from the common marten of North America. It must
be a ferocious little animal, and very fierce; which is indicated by the
strength of the teeth.

Art. XVIII. Natural History of the Scytalus Cupreus, or Copper-head
Snake. By C. S. Rafinesque.

After the rattlesnake, the copper-head snake is the most dreaded in the
northern states, being the next largest venomous snake: he is also more
common in the cold parts, where the former is very rare. Strange as it may
seem, this conspicuous and dangerous animal has escaped the notice of
naturalists, and is not found described in Shaw nor Lacepede. Having seen
two of them near Fishkill, in the summer of 1817, I endeavoured to describe
them completely, and investigate their history. They were both killed in a
meadow, and one of them while sleeping coiled up near a fence; a slight
stroke of a rod was sufficient, as usual with venomous snakes. It appears
that they are killed much easier than the innocent snakes; these are often
seen to revive after an apparent death, and do not really die until the next
sunset; while venomous snakes do not easily revive, particularly if the head
is slightly bruised.
This snake is known by a variety of names in different parts of the State
of New-York, since he has every where attracted the attention of the
inhabitants: these names are, copper-head, copper-snake, chunk-head,
copper-adder, copper-viper, copper-belly, pilot-snake, deaf-adder, deaf-
snake; and in New-England, by the names rattlesnake's mate and red adder,
&c. They have all been given in reference to his colour, or to some
presumed peculiarities in his manners, &c. Chunk-head is a vulgar
expression, meaning thick-head or blunt-head. He has been called
sometimes pilot-snake, on a false supposition that he was the pilot or guide
of the rattlesnake; and he has been considered as deaf, because he is easily
surprised, and does not appear to hear the noise of your approach.
It belongs to the genus scytalus of Daudin, &c., which differs from the
Boa of Linnæus, as the genus Vipera does from Coluber, being provided
with fangs. I have given to it the name of Scytalus Cupreus, which means
coppered scytalus. The following definition of the species may be
considered as comparative and characteristic.

Scytalus Cupreus. Tail one-eighth of total length, with 45 caudal plates
entirely brown; 150 abdominal plates, the last very broad; head oval,
coppered above, yellow underneath; scales carinated on the back, which is
coppered, with reddish brown rings cross-shaped; belly variegated of
brownish.
Description. Total length about three feet; body thicker than in the
innocent snakes. Head large, broad, oval, obtuse, very distinct from the
neck, nearly two inches long, flattened, coppered brown above, and covered
with large, smooth scales; yellow underneath, as well as the neck, and with
rhomboidal smooth scales. Mouth very large; fangs yellowish white. Back
flattened anteriorly, a little angular in the middle, covered with small
rhomboidal, obtuse, keeled scales; those of the sides larger and smooth, not
keeled; centre of the back of a brownish copper colour; sides of a bright
copper; broad bands or rings, becoming forked on each side, and assuming
nearly the shape of a St. Andrew's cross; they are of a reddish brown: there
is a round spot opposite to the sinusses, and the scales of the sides are
minutely dotted of brown. The abdominal plates are 150, beginning under
the head; the last, covering the vent, is very broad, double the other: they
are of a shining, pale copper colour, with two longitudinal and lateral rows
of great, irregular, brown spots, with some light brownish clouds between
them, and each plate is marginated of whitish. The belly is very flat and
broad, about 1¼ inch in diameter; and the skin may be distended on the
sides, when, the animal is not fed. Tail short, tapering gradually, about four
inches long, cylindrical, brown, without spots, with 45 plates underneath,
and having at the end a small, obtuse, horn claw, of an oblong, compressed,
obtuse shape, and carinated underneath.
This snake has many of the habits of the rattlesnake; he is very slow in
his motions, rather clumsy, owing to his thick shape and short tail. He
retires in winter into caves, hollow rocks, and trees, where he lies, in a
torpid state, from November to April; several have been found coiled up
together, the head lying over the back: it is in the same situation he sleeps in
the fields. When found in the torpid state, they may be carried without
waking; but might wake in a warm room. They do not eat during all that
time: their food consists of birds, frogs, mice, and even squirrels, which
they catch by surprise, as they do not climb on trees. They kill their large
prey by breathing a poisonous effluvia, crushing it in their folds, and they

swallow it whole after covering it with their clammy saliva. They can
remain a very long time without a meal, and one meal is a long time
digesting.
They are generally found in meadows, pastures, and the edge of woods.
They creep slovenly through the grass, and if surprised by the sight of man,
they assume an erect and threatening posture, darting their tongue and
swelling their head; but they do not attack men, unless alarmed and struck.
They are considered more dangerous than the rattlesnake, because they do
not give notice of their vicinity, and lie concealed in the grass; but they are
easily killed, when assuming the threatening posture, by a slight touch of a
cane, spade, or any other instrument. The effects of their bite is similar to
that of the rattlesnake, and cured in the same way, by the prompt application
of the Aristolochia serpentaria, Polygala senega, Prenanthes serpentaria,
Macrotry serpentaria, &c. and other plants, bearing in consequence the
name of snakeroots.
This snake is found in New-England, New-York, New-Jersey,
Pennsylvania, &c., and perhaps all over the United States.

Art. XIX. On a Method of Augmenting the Force of Gunpowder.

Extract of a Letter to the Editor, from Colonel George Gibbs.

I employed, the last year, a man in blowing rocks, and having seen an
account of a method of substituting a portion of quick lime for a part of the
gunpowder usually employed, I was induced to make a number of
experiments upon it. I now send you the results in the certificate of the
person employed, whose statement might be relied on, even if I had not
superintended myself a number of the experiments.

"Sunswick Farms, Oct. 19, 1817.—I certify that, having been employed
by Colonel Gibbs in blasting rocks on his farm, I, by his orders, made use
of a composition of one part quick lime and two parts gunpowder, and
uniformly found the same charge to answer equally well with a like quantity
of gunpowder. I made upwards of fifty blasts in this manner, as well as
several hundreds in the usual way, and can therefore depend upon the
accuracy of this statement. I found, however, that when the powdered lime
was mixed with the gunpowder the day before, that the effect was
diminished. It should be always used the day it is mixed.
(Signed) T. Pomeroy."

This preparation was made generally in the morning, put in a bottle and
well corked, to prevent the access of the external air. The rationale of the
process was not explained in the original recommendation, but it soon
occurred to me, that it must be owing to the desiccation of the gunpowder
by the lime.
The attraction of moisture by gunpowder, is known to be very great:
according to Rees's Cyclopedia, upwards of 16 per cent. has been absorbed,
and that the removal, simply, from near the fire to the corner of the room,
produces a considerable change in its weight. I presume, therefore, that the
lime, which in its caustic state has also a great affinity to water, attracts a
portion of it from the powder, and leaves it in a state of dryness best fitted

for inflammation. But if the lime should remain too long mixed with the
powder, it would probably attack the water of crystallization of the
saltpetre, and, according to Count Rumford's idea, destroy a great part of
the power. If also left exposed, attractions of moisture would take place
from the atmosphere, the gunpowder would remain surcharged with
humidity as before, and the lime would be only an inert mass.
The examination of this subject led me to consider the increase of the
power of gunpowder in various situations, and of its use in the field. It is
well known that after a few discharges a cannon becomes heated, and the
range is much greater, as well as the recoil. The charge of powder is
therefore reduced about one quarter, to produce the original effect. As I
have not heard or seen any explanation of this fact I shall take this
opportunity of mentioning, that it appears to arise from the same cause as
the first explained, viz. the desiccation of the powder. No person will
dispute the heat acquired by a cannon, or even a musket, after repeated
discharges; and this heat must volatilize or destroy a great portion of the
moisture combined with the powder, assist its speedy inflammation, and
perhaps add to its power, by causing a more perfect combustion of the
inflammable parts of the gunpowder. This would cause a much greater
volume of gas to be produced, and the high temperature would also greatly
augment its elasticity; and it is well known that the effects of gunpowder
depend upon the rapid production and high degree of elasticity of a great
quantity of aeriform fluids or gases.

Art. XX. On The Connexion between Magnetism and Light. By Col.
Gibbs.

Extract from a Letter to the Editor.

I visited, the last year, the mine of magnetic iron at Succassunny, belonging
to Governor Dickerson of New-Jersey. The mine had not been worked for a
year past, and I did not descend it. The proprietor, a gentleman of
distinguished science, informed me of a singular circumstance attending it,
which was too important to be left unnoticed. The mine is worked at the
depth of 100 feet; direction of the bed, northeast and southwest; inclination
nearly perpendicular. The ore in the upper part of the bed is magnetic, and
has polarity; but that raised from the bottom has no magnetism at first, but
acquires it after it has been some time exposed to the influence of the
atmosphere. This fact, of which there is no doubt, struck me as most
singular. I could not recollect any similar observation; and it is only lately
that I have found that Werner had observed, that iron sand, raised from the
depth of 100 feet, had no magnetism. See Rees's Cyclopedia, Art. Sand.
I could only account for this circumstance by supposing that magnetism
existed not in the interior of the earth, as was supposed, but only on the
surface, and in such bodies as received this principle from atmospheric, or
celestial influence.
The late discovery of the magnetic influence of the violet rays of light, by
M. Morechini, a notice of which has since reached us in the journals,
connected with the above fact, leads me to believe that light is the great
source of magnetism. A learned foreigner,[13] whose residence in this
country has contributed much to its scientific improvement, has also
informed me that other substances than metallic have been found, by
compression, to be magnetic.
It is well known that the violet ray is the most refrangible, or has the
most attraction to matter. But there are other rays, which Herschel, who
some years since discovered them, calls invisible rays, which are still more

refrangible, are next beyond the violet, when refracted, and partake of most
of its properties, except that they are invisible. I have not yet seen any
account of the experiments of M. Morechini, other than the notice in the
journal; but I trust I shall soon be able to determine whether those invisible
rays do not possess the magnetic power as well as the violet; or, perhaps,
possess it exclusively.
As the refraction of the atmosphere in the polar circles, is at least ten
times greater than in the tropics, a greater quantity of the magnetic rays will
there be separated and combined than elsewhere; and of course arises
excess of magnetism. Hence the direction of magnetic bodies towards the
northern and southern extreme regions. The great absorption and emission
of light in the polar regions, by the ice and snow, may cause the
extraordinary illumination of that country during the absence of the sun,
and the emission of the magnetic rays with electricity may, perhaps, give us
the aurora borealis.
The coincidence of the diurnal variation of the compass with the solar
influence, deserves particular notice, and will have considerable weight on
this subject.
That there are many facts which cannot readily be explained by the
theory of light, I shall not deny; but in the infancy of this system we may be
allowed to hope that future observations may enable us to remove present
difficulties. One thing must be admitted, that no theory has heretofore been
published relating to magnetism, which has received or seems entitled to
much confidence. In your next number I hope to be able to furnish you with
further remarks on this subject; but, I have no doubt that philosophy will
finally determine that we owe to the solar ray light, heat, electricity, and
magnetism.
G. GIBBS.
Sunswick, January, 1818.

Art. XXI. On a new Means of producing Heat and Light, with an
Engraving, by J. L. Sullivan, Esq. of Boston.
Boston, May 7, 1818.
To Professor Silliman.
Sir,

If the following account of a method of using tar and steam as fuel,
recently invented by Mr. Samuel Morey, should be found sufficiently
interesting to occupy a place in the Journal of Science, I am sensible its
usefulness will be much extended through that medium of information.
The inventor, not unskilled in chemistry, and aware of the attraction of
oxygen for carbon, conceived it practicable to convert the constituents of
water into fuel, by means of this affinity.
Whatever may be the fact, chemically considered, the operation, in
various experiments, promises to afford a convenient method of applying to
use several of the most combustible substances, not hitherto employed as
fuel. By the process I shall briefly describe, all carbonaceous fluids may be
conveniently burnt, and derive great force from their combination with the
oxygen and hydrogen gases of water or steam, before or at the moment of
ignition.

NEW FIRE APPARATUS.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

A tight vessel, cylindrically shaped, was first employed, containing rosin,
connected with a small boiler by a pipe which entered near the bottom, and

extended nearly its length, having small apertures, over which were two
inverted gutters, inclining or sloping upwards over each other; the upper
one longer than the other, intended to detain the steam in the rosin, in its
way to the surface. The rosin being heated, carburetted hydrogen gas would
issue from the outlet, or pipe, inserted near the top of the vessel, and being
ignited, afforded a small blaze, about as large as that of a candle; but, when
the steam was allowed to flow, this blaze would instantly shoot out many
hundred times its former bulk, to the distance of two or three feet.
It is presumed the steam was decomposed, and carburetted hydrogen and
carbonic oxide, or carbonic acid, produced as the steam passed, very near
the hot bottom of the vessel.
Another apparatus was constructed, consisting of two vessels, one within
the other, having a cover common to both; the inner one to contain tar, (as a
more convenient substance than rosin;) the outer vessel to contain water,
which surrounds the other, and lies under its bottom; or, in other words, a
vessel of tar set into a vessel of boiling water. The boiler has a lining of
sheet copper, or tin, to promote the ebullition. The tar vessel being riveted
to the cover, holes are made through its sides, near to the cover, to allow the
steam to pass in, and act on its surface. The cover being secured on, a safety
valve is provided for the steam vessel, and two cocks; one over the tar, the
other over the water, are fixed contiguously; the first has a tube, or is
elongated to reach nearly to the bottom of the tar, which ascends, and is
driven out by the pressure of the steam on its surface. Both cocks conduct to
a pipe, wherein is placed a large wire, or metallic rod, which about fills the
tube, and is perforated obliquely, or zig zag, to increase the length of the
passage, and to mingle the tar and steam more intimately. The gases, or
vapours, issue from a small orifice at the end of the pipe; and, being ignited
by a little fire, into which it is directed, an intense and voluminous blaze is
produced, and continues as long as the materials remain unexhausted. A hot
brick, instead of the fire, answers the same purpose.
This apparatus contained but about one quart of tar, (which must always
be nicely strained,) and it lasted one and a half hour, and the flame was
sufficient to fill a common fireplace, if not allowed to escape, by its
violence, up the chimney. Its force will be according to the elasticity of the
steam. I regret being unable, since, to make more exact and varied
experiments, to demonstrate the economy of this fuel. This point, however,

and the chemical facts, will be the subject of a future communication. And
probably a form of a stove may be devised, wherein it may be used for the
purposes of warmth, light, and cooking; and another apparatus to light
streets.
But this invention will be of more special use as fuel for steam engines
applied to navigation—the purpose principally for which I have purchased
the patent right.
This may be the subject of another communication.

Art. XXII. On the Changes which have taken place in the Wells of Water
situated in Columbia, South-Carolina, since the Earthquakes of 1811-12.
By Edward Darrell Smith, M. D., Professor of Chemical and
Experimental Philosophy and Mineralogy in the South-Carolina College.

To Professor Silliman.
Dear Sir,

In answer to your inquiry respecting the changes in our wells, since the
memorable period of the earthquakes, I would make the following
observations:
These tremendous convulsions of nature commenced in December, 1811,
and were continued, at intervals, until the latter end of the succeeding
month of March, with different degrees of violence, in this and some of the
adjacent states. In November, 1812, I visited this town, and then understood
that the wells, which are generally very deep, had an abundance of water in
them. This continued to be the case for about one year after; and in the
College well, in particular, which was a remarkably fine one, there were
always about twelve feet of water, notwithstanding its daily consumption by
more than two hundred persons. Shortly after this time, many of the wells in
the town began to fail in their usual supply of water, although they were
frequently cleaned out and occasionally deepened. Their state became
worse every year, until, at length, about three years since, some of them
proved to be entirely dry, and most of the others had their water turbid, and
diminished to the depth of only two or three feet. A little anterior to this
period, what were called the dry years had commenced, and there were,
comparatively, very scanty falls of rain until the last spring; since when
there has been a very large quantity. To elucidate the subject more fully, it
may not be amiss to give some topographical account of the town of
Columbia. About a mile from the eastern bank of the Cogaree the town
begins to be thickly built up, and at this distance the elevation of ground is
supposed to be one hundred feet above the level of the river in its ordinary
state. The hill is then tolerably level for the space of a mile or more in its

western extent, and its soil is principally composed of a loose, porous sand,
with which few, if any, stones are intermixed at any depth that has yet been
penetrated. In attempting to account for the failure of the well-waters, it was
supposed by some that the earthquakes had produced such changes in the
loose texture of the soils, that the veins of water which used to supply the
wells, had sunk beneath the level of these reservoirs; but on this head it is to
be observed, that there was no remarkable failure of water for one or two
years after these changes were supposed to have been effected. Others
again, connecting the greatest failure of water with the concurring dearth of
rain, conceived that the fact might be explained by the droughts occasioning
a deficiency in the river-water, and thus cutting off the supply which they
supposed had heretofore percolated from the margin of the river into the
wells. If their hypothesis was correct, it was believed that the difficulty
would be removed, either by deepening the wells, or by subsequent large
supplies of rain. Many wells were immediately deepened from two to eight
or ten feet, but the remedy proved very inadequate. And since the great falls
of rain, within a year past, although there are somewhat larger supplies of
water in some wells, yet there is not the half as much as existed before the
earthquakes. The College well, although deepened several feet, does not
now contain generally more than four or five feet of water. I must not omit
to remark, that two wells, situated in a longitudinal line from north to south,
with regard to each other, and also in a lower spot of ground, never failed
entirely, although they diminished considerably, and now yield more
copious supplies than any others.
Whatever may be the cause of this phenomenon, the effects are so
inconvenient, and it is so generally believed that they are likely to be
permanent, that the inhabitants of the town are beginning to build cisterns,
in order to accumulate artificial reservoirs of water.

Art. XXIII. Respiration of Oxygen Gas.

It is not extraordinary, when oxygen gas was first discovered, and found to
be the principle of life to the whole animal creation, that extravagant
expectations should have been formed as to its medicinal application.
Disappointment followed of course, and naturally led to a neglect of the
subject; and, in fact, for some years, pneumatic medicine has gone into
discredit, and public opinion has vibrated to the extreme of incredulity.
Partaking in a degree in this feeling, we listened with some reluctance to a
very pressing application on this subject during the last summer. A young
lady, apparently in the last stages of decline, and supposed to be affected
with hydrothorax, was pronounced beyond the reach of ordinary medical
aid. As she was in a remote town in Connecticut, where no facilities existed
towards the attainment of the object, we felt no confidence that, even if
oxygen gas were possessed of any efficacy in such cases, it would actually
be applied in this case, in such a manner as to do any good. Yielding,
however, to the anxious wishes of friends, we furnished drawings for such
an apparatus as might be presumed attainable, and also written and minute
directions for preparing, trying, and administering the gas. It was obtained
from nitrate of potash, (saltpetre,) not because it was the best process, but
because the substance could be obtained in the place, and because a
common fire would serve for its extrication. The gas obtained had, of
course, a variable mixture of nitrogen or azot, and probably on an average,
might not be purer than nearly the reversed proportions of the atmosphere
—that is, 70 to 80 per cent. of oxygen to 20 or 30 nitrogen; and it is worthy
of observation, whether this circumstance might not have influenced the
result.
Contrary to our expectations, the gas (as we are since informed by good
authority) was skilfully prepared and perseveringly used. From the first, the
difficulty of breathing and other oppressive affections were relieved: the
young lady grew rapidly better, and in a few weeks entirely recovered her
health. A respectable physician, conversant with the case, states, in a letter
now before us, "that the inhaling of the oxygen gas relieved the difficulty of

breathing, increased the operation of diuretics, and has effected her cure.
Whether her disease was hydrothorax, or an anasarcous affection of the
lungs, is a matter I believe not settled."
Should the revival of the experiments on the respiration of oxygen gas
appear to be desired, it would not be difficult to simplify the apparatus and
operations so as to bring them within the reach of an intelligent person,
even although ignorant of chemistry: and this task, should there be
occasion, we would cheerfully undertake to perform.
This interesting class of experiments ought to be resumed, not with the
spirit of quackery, or of extravagant expectation, but with the sobriety of
philosophical research; and it is more than probable that the nitrous oxyde
which is now little more than a subject of merriment and wonder, if
properly diluted and discreetly applied, would be productive of valuable
effects.

Art. XXIV. On the Compound Blowpipe. Extract from the Journal de
Physique, of Paris, for January 1818.[14]
CONCERNING HEAT.

"Heat, considered as one of the most important agents, especially in
relation to chemistry, and even to mineralogy, has also been the subject of
numerous labours, both with regard to the means of augmenting and of
diminishing its effects.
"To the former belong the numerous experiments made, especially in
England, with the blowpipe, supplied by a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen
gases. Mr. Clarke has evidently been more extensively engaged in these
researches than any other person, as our readers have perceived in the
extracts which we have given from the labours of this learned chemist; but
it is proper also to give publicity to the protest (réclamation) made to us in
favour of Mr. Silliman.
"We have already stated that Mr. Hare, of Philadelphia, first conceived
the idea of forming a blowpipe with explosive gas; but as we have not been
conversant with the memoirs of the Society of Arts and Sciences of
Connecticut, we have not made mention of Mr. Silliman.
"The fact is, that this chemist, Professor at New-Haven, published, on the
7th of May,[15] 1812, a memoir containing the results of experiments made
upon a very great number of bodies, until that time reputed to be infusible;
and, among others, upon the alkaline earths, the decomposition of which he
effected.
"The experiments of Mr. Clarke were therefore subsequent; but, having
been made upon a still more extensive list of substances, they are scarcely
less interesting.
"It results then, from the experiments of Messrs. Hare, Silliman, Clarke,
Murray, and Ridolfi, that there is really no substance which is infusible in
the degree of heat produced by this kind of blowpipe.

"In this new department of physics, it is attempted not only to apply the
blowpipe to a very great number of bodies, but so to modify the instrument
or apparatus as to give it the highest degree of convenience, and especially
to obviate the danger of explosion."
pp. 38 & 39.
REMARKS.

As the results produced by Mr. Hare's Compound Blowpipe, fed by
oxygen and hydrogen gases, continue to be mentioned in Europe, in many
of the Journals, without any reference to the results long since obtained in
this country, we republish the following statement of facts, which was, in
substance, first published in New-York, more than a year since. It should be
observed, that Mr. Tilloch has since published, in the Philosophical
Magazine in London, the memoir which contained the American results,
and there have been some other allusions to it in different European
Journals, and to Mr. Hare's previous experiments; but still this interesting
class of results continue to be attributed to others than their original
discoverers.

Yale College, April 7, 1817.
Various notices, more or less complete, chiefly copied from English
newspapers, are now going the round of the public prints in this country,
stating that "a new kind of fire" has been discovered in England, or, at least,
new and heretofore unparalleled means of exciting heat, by which the gems,
and all the most refractory substances in nature, are immediately melted,
and even in various instances dissipated in vapour, or decomposed into their
elements. The first glance at these statements, (which, as regards the effects,
I have no doubt are substantially true,) was sufficient to satisfy me, that the
basis of these discoveries was laid by an American discovery, made by Mr.
Robert Hare of Philadelphia, in 1801. In December of that year, Mr. Hare
communicated to the Chemical Society of Philadelphia his discovery of a
method of burning oxygen and hydrogen gases in a united stream, so as to
produce a very intense heat.
In 1802, he published a detailed memoir on the subject, with an
engraving of his apparatus, and he recited the effects of his instrument;

some of which, in the degree of heat produced, surpassed any thing before
known.
In 1802, and 1803, I was occupied with him, in Philadelphia, in
prosecuting similar experiments on a more extended scale; and a
communication on the subject was made to the Philosophical Society of
Philadelphia. The memoir is printed in their transactions; and Mr. Hare's
original memoir was reprinted in the Annals of Chemistry, in Paris, and in
the Philosophical Magazine, in London.
Mr. Murray, in his System of Chemistry, has mentioned Mr. Hare's results
in the fusion of several of the earths, &c. and has given him credit for his
discovery.
In one instance, while in Europe, in 1806, at a public lecture, I saw some
of them exhibited by a celebrated Professor, who mentioned Mr. Hare as the
reputed author of the invention.
In December, 1811, I instituted an extended course of experiments with
Mr. Hare's blowpipe, in which I melted lime and magnesia, and a long list
of the most refractory minerals, gems, and others, the greater part of which
had never been melted before, and I supposed that I had decomposed lime,
barytes, strontites, and magnesia, evolving their metallic basis, which burnt
in the air as fast as produced. I communicated a detailed account of my
experiments to the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, who
published it in their Transactions for 1812; with their leave it was
communicated to Dr Bruce's Mineralogical Journal, and it was printed in
the 4th number of that work. Hundreds of my pupils can testify that Mr.
Hare's splendid experiments, and many others performed with his blowpipe,
fed by oxygen and hydrogen gases, have been for years past annually
exhibited, in my public courses of chemistry in Yale College, and that the
fusion and volatilization of platina, and the combustion of that metal, and of
gold and silver, and of many other metals; that the fusion of the earths, of
rock crystal, of gun flint, of the corundum gems, and many other, very
refractory substances; and the production of light beyond the brightness of
the sun, have been familiar experiments in my laboratory. I have uniformly
given Mr. Hare the full credit of the invention, although my researches, with
his instrument, had been pushed farther than his own, and a good many new
results added.

It is therefore with no small surprise that, in the Annales de Chimie et de
Physique, for September, 1816, I found a translation of a very elaborate
memoir, from a Scientific Journal, published at the Royal Institution in
London, in which a full account is given of a very interesting series of
experiments performed by means of Mr. Hare's instrument; or rather one
somewhat differently arranged, but depending on the same principle. Mr.
Hare's invention is slightly mentioned in a note, but no mention is made of
his experiments, or of mine.
On a comparison of the memoir in question with Mr. Hare's and with my
own, I find that very many of the results are identical, and all the new ones
are derived directly from Mr. Hare's invention, with the following
differences.—In Mr. Hare's, the two gases were in distinct reservoirs, to
prevent explosion; they were propelled by the pressure of a column of
water, and were made to mingle, just before their exit, at a common orifice.
In the English apparatus, the gases are both in one reservoir, and they are
propelled by their own elasticity, after condensation, by a syringe.
Professor Clarke, of Cambridge University, the celebrated traveller, is the
author of the memoir in question; and we must presume that he was
ignorant of what had been done by Mr. Hare and myself, or he would
candidly have adverted to the facts.
It is proper that the public should know that Mr. Hare was the author of
the invention, by means of which, in Europe, they are now performing the
most brilliant and beautiful experiments; and that there are very few of
these results hitherto obtained there, by the use of it, (and the publication of
which has there excited great interest,) which were not, several years ago,
anticipated here, either by Mr. Hare or by myself.
As I have cited only printed documents, or the testimony of living
witnesses, I trust the public will not consider this communication as
indelicate, or arrogant, but simply a matter of justice to the interests of
American science, and particularly to Mr. Hare.
BENJAMIN SILLIMAN,
Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy in Yale College.

Art. XXV. The Northwest Passage, the North Pole, and the Greenland
Ice.

In looking over the foreign journals, we find no articles of intelligence so
interesting as those which respect the three subjects mentioned above.
Indeed, as they have found their way into most of our newspapers, it is now
generally known in this country, that, in consequence of the reported
breaking up of the Greenland ice, an expedition has already left England, in
two divisions, the one for the purpose of exploring a northwest passage to
Asia, around the North American continent, by the way of Davis's Straits;
the other, for effecting the same object by passing over the north pole.
If Horace thought that man almost impiously daring who first adventured
upon the open sea, what shall we say of the hardihood of the attempt to visit
THE POLE?—the pole, which it is impossible to contemplate without awe—
which, in all probability, has never been visited by any living being—where
the dreary solitude has never been broken by human voice—where the
sound of war has never been heard, and darkness and cold exert an almost
undisputed dominion! What must be the emotions of that man who first
stands upon the point of the earth's axis! Who, no longer partaking of the
revolution, in circles of latitude, slowly revolves on the axis of his own
body, once in twenty-four hours—to whom the sun does not rise or set, but,
moving in a course very oblique to the horizon, makes scarcely a
perceptible progress in twenty-four hours, and at the end of three months,
when he has attained his noon, is only 23° 28′, on the arc of a vertical circle,
above the horizon—to whom longitude is extinct, and who can move in no
possible direction but south—to whom the stars are a blank, and to whom
the polar star, could he see it, would appear in the zenith. Such are some of
the most obvious results of a position on the pole. The man who first
establishes himself on this sublime point, will have more reason for self-
congratulation than he who led the Persian myriads into Greece, or he who
pushed the Macedonians to the Indus.
On these interesting subjects, we beg leave to refer our readers to a very
able treatise in the Quarterly Review for February, 1818, where all the

topics at the head of this article are discussed with much learning and
ability.—We extract the following passage:
"If an open navigation should be discovered across the polar basin, the
passage over the pole or close to it, will be one of the most interesting
events to science that has ever occurred. It will be the first time that the
problem was practically solved with which the learners of geography are
sometimes puzzled—that of going the shortest way between two places
lying east and west, by taking a direction of north and south. The passage of
the pole will require the undivided attention of the navigator. On
approaching this point, from which the northern coasts of Europe, Asia, and
America, and every part of them, will bear south of him, nothing can
possibly assist him in determining his course, and keeping on the right
meridian of his destined place, but a correct knowledge of the time: and yet
no means of ascertaining that time will be afforded him. The only time he
can have, with any degree of certainty, as long as he remains on or near the
pole, must be that of Greenwich, and this he can know only from good
chronometers; for, from the general hazy state of the atmosphere, and
particularly about the horizon, and the sameness in the altitude of the sun at
every hour in the four-and-twenty, he must not expect to obtain an
approximation even of the apparent time, by observation, and he will have
no stars to assist him. All his ideas respecting the heavens and the
reckonings of his time will be reversed, and the change not gradual, as in
proceeding from the east to the west, or the contrary, but instantaneous. The
magnetic needle will point to its unknown magnetic pole, or fly around
from the point of the bowl in which it is suspended, and that which
indicated north will now be south; the east will become the west, and the
hour of noon will be that of midnight.
"These curious circumstances will probably be considered to mark the
passage by the pole, as the most interesting of the two, while it will perhaps
be found equally easy. We have, indeed, very little doubt, that if the polar
basin should prove to be free from land about the pole, it will also be free of
ice. A sea of more than two thousand miles in diameter, of unfathomable
depth, (which is the case between Greenland and Spitzbergen,) and in
constant motion, is not likely to be frozen over at any time. But if all
endeavours to discover a passage to the Pacific by either route should prove
unavailing, it will still be satisfactory to have removed every doubt on this

subject by ascertaining the fact. In making the attempt, many objects
interesting and important to science will present themselves to the
observation of those who are engaged in the two expeditions. That which
proceeds up Davis's Straits, will have an opportunity of adjusting the
geography of the northeast coast of America, and the west coast of
Greenland; and of ascertaining whether the latter be not an island or an
archipelago of islands; and much curious information may be expected
from both.
"They will ascertain, what is as yet but very imperfectly known, the
depth, the temperature, the saltness, and the specific gravity of the sea-
water in those high latitudes—the velocity of the currents, the state of
atmospherical electricity in the arctic regions, and its connexion, at which
we have glanced, with the inclination, declination, and intensity of force of
the magnetic needle; on which subject alone, a collection of facts towards
the upper part of Davis's Straits would be worth a voyage of discovery. It
has, indeed, been long suspected that one of the magnetic poles will be
found in this neighbourhood, as in no part of the world have such
extraordinary phenomena been observed, or such irregularities in the
vibration and the variation of the needle.
"A comparison of the magnetic influence near the pole, with what it has
been observed to be on the equator, might lead to important results; and the
swinging of a pendulum as near the pole as can be approached, to compare
with the oscillations observed in the Shetland Islands, and in the southern
hemisphere, would be a great point gained for science."
We have no room in this Number to consider the probability of success in
this attempt, nor the question, whether the breaking up of the Greenland ice,
and its passage to, and dissolution in, the south, have been attended with a
chilling influence on the continents. That such a chilling effect might be
extensively exerted, is certainly credible. Approaching some of the icebergs,
in April 1805, on the shoals of Newfoundland, we were rendered very
sensible of the vicinity of such dangerous neighbours, by the great chill in
the air, long before they were visible; and when we had passed them, the
weather again grew milder.
Perhaps it militates against the probability of finding the northern polar
basin free of ice, that Captain Cook, in his approximation to the southern

pole, in January, 1773, when in latitude 67° 15′ south, "could proceed no
farther; the ice being entirely closed to the south, in the whole extent from
east to west-southwest, without the least appearance of any opening." The
advanced season of the year did not, however, permit Captain Cook to
ascertain whether he could coast around this ice—whether it was ultimately
attached to land, or was a part of a vast field extending to the south pole.
This last is however highly improbable, because being found about 23°
from the pole, it is hardly credible that it would occupy so extensive a
region as to embrace the pole, and, perhaps extend as much farther beyond;
especially as in similar latitudes in the opposite hemisphere, navigation is
comparatively free, and has been pushed even to more than 80° of north
latitude.
The scientific, as well as the commercial world, will wait with no small
impatience for the termination of the two grand arctic expeditions, which
are among the most original and daring, and may be among the most
interesting and momentous hitherto undertaken by man.

FOOTNOTES:
[1] I trust the public will pardon me for stating, that various scientific friends,
despairing of the revival of the Journal of Dr. Bruce, had, for some time, pressed
me to undertake the editing of a Journal of Science. Considerations of personal
friendship prevented me from listening to such proposals till the decline of Dr.
Bruce's health, attended by the most alarming symptoms, rendered it very
obvious that his Journal would not be revived. Towards the close of last
November, in a personal interview, I communicated to him the design of the
present work, at the same time offering to waive it, provided he considered it as
probable that his own Journal would be resumed. Of this, however, he gave no
encouragement; but, on the contrary, expressed his warm approbation of my
undertaking, authorized me to consider him as a contributor, and to make public
use of his name as a patron. It was not till after this that the annunciation of this
work took place; and it is certain that had not all hope of the resumption of Dr.
Bruce's Journal been completely cut off, this would not have appeared.
[2] The efforts of Stephen Elliott, Esq. of South Carolina, in regard to the botany
of the Southern States, are particularly worthy of imitation and praise.
[3] From the MS. papers of the Connecticut Academy, now published by
permission.
[4] See Kollmann's Harmony, p. 13, &c.
[5] Tilloch's Phil. Mag. Vol. XXVIII. p. 140.

[6] The propriety of making 25 : 36 the true ratio of the 5th will be manifest,
when it is considered that this is the value of that interval as sounded by voices
and perfect instruments; when the 3ds which compose it are made perfect. This
interval, as found in the scale which has the fewest tempered concords possible
referred to at the beginning of this essay, ought to be regarded as the true 5th,
flattened by a comma, in the same manner as one of its component 3ds will be
allowed by all to be flattened.
[7] The propriety of this limitation will be manifest, when we consider that in
organ music, the chords are generally played more full, and are more protracted,
than in music for other keyed instruments. It is harmony which constitutes its
character, in a higher degree than in music for other instruments. Hence the
harmony of the organ ought not to be impaired by including in our computations
any music not adapted to it. If a similar examination of music for the piano-forte
would afford a set of results essentially different from those of this proposition,
this is no proof that it ought to have any concern in a system of temperament
designed primarily for the organ, but merely that the same temperament cannot
be equally adapted to different instruments. If, as is probable, such an
examination would give essentially the same results, to introduce them would be
superfluous.
[8] The smaller works of Phillips and Aikin were not then published; had they
been, they could not have superseded Cleaveland; the same may be said of the
respectable work of Professor Kidd, of Oxford University.
[9] A vast region in the interior of New-York and Pennsylvania is now fertilized
by inexhaustible beds of sulphat of lime, (plaster of Paris,) which, till a very few
years since, were not even known to exist.
Near New-Haven immense beds of green marble were discovered in 1811,
during a mineralogical excursion: this beautiful material, closely resembling the
verd antique, is now, on the spot, wrought into tables, fireplaces, and many other
ornamental forms; and although the farmers had made fences of it for 150 years,
no one suspected what it was till the study of mineralogy, in Yale College,
brought it to light.
[10] See Tilloch's Phil. Mag. Vol. XLII. p. 182.
[11] In the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia this plant
is called limosella tenuifolia.
[12] No return of this tree was made from Brunswick. The date of the cherry-tree
is therefore substituted, which is usually in blossom at the same time.
[13] Mr. Correa de Serra, Minister of the King of Portugal.
[14] Communicated by a friend at Paris.
[15] See Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, and Bruce's Journal, Vol. I.
p. 199.

CONTENTS.

Page
MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.
Art. I. Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a section of
Massachusetts, on Connecticut river, with a part of
New-Hampshire and Vermont, by Edward
Hitchcock, A.M. Principal of Deerfield Academy 106
Art. II. On the Prairies and Barrens of the West, by Caleb
Atwater, Esq. 116
Art. III. Account of the Coal Mines in the vicinity of
Richmond, Virginia, by Mr. John Grammer, Jun. 125
Art IV. Sketch of the Geology and Mineralogy of a part of the
State of Indiana, by Mr. W. B. Stilson 131
Art. V. New localities of Agate, Chalcedony, Chabasie, Stilbite,
Analcime, Titanium, Prehnite, &c. 134
Art. VI. Account of the Strata perforated by, and of the
Minerals found in, the great adit to the Southampton
Lead Mine, by Mr. Amos Eaton, Lecturer on
Geology, Botany, &c. 136
Art. VII. On the Peat of Dutchess County, by the Rev. F. C.
Schaeffer 139
Art. VIII. Notices of Geology in the West-Indies, by Dr.
Nugent 140
Art. IX. Discovery of Native Crystallized Carbonate of
Magnesia on Staten-Island, with a Notice of its
Geology, by James Pierce, Esq. 142
Art. X. On a curious substance found with the native Nitre of
Kentucky and of Africa, by Samuel Brown, M.D. 146

BOTANY.

Art. XI. Description of species of Sponges observed on the
shores of Long-Island, by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq. 149
Art. XII. Memoir on the Xanthium maculatum, by the same 151

ZOOLOGY.
Art. XIII. Description of the Phalæna Devastator—the Insect
that produces the Cut-worm, by Mr. John P. Brace 154
Art. XIV. Description of the Exoglossum, a new genus of
Fresh-water Fish, by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq. 155

PHYSICS, MECHANICS, AND CHEMISTRY.
Art. XV. On the Revolving Steam-Engine of Mr. Samuel
Morey, communicated by John L. Sullivan, Esq. 157
Art. XVI. Cautions regarding Fulminating Powders 168

USEFUL ARTS.
Art. XVII.[16] Account of a Parisian method of obtaining
Gelatine from bones, by Mr. Isaac Doolittle 170
Art. XVIII. On the use of Distilled Seawater for domestic
purposes—from the Annales de Chimie, &c. 172

FINE ARTS.
Art. XIX. Essay on Musical Temperament, by Professor Fisher 176
Art. XX. Notice of Col. Trumbull's Picture of the Declaration
of Independence 200

INTELLIGENCE.
Art. XXI. An Address to the People of the Western Country 203
Art. XXII. Extract of a letter from Col. Gibbs, on the effect of
light on the Magnetical power 207
Art. XXIII. On a new Lamp, without flame—from the Annals
of Philosophy ibid.

[16] ERRATUM.
In the text this Article was, by inadvertence, numbered XIX, and all the
succeeding Articles of this Number are marked two higher than they ought to be.

THE

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

Art. I. Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of a Section of
Massachusetts on Connecticut River, with a Part of New-Hampshire and
Vermont; by Edward Hitchcock, A. M. Principal of Deerfield Academy.

The geology of this tract, from a few miles south of Northampton in
Massachusetts, to the north boundary of Brattleborough in Vermont, and of
Chesterfield in New-Hampshire, is shown on the subjoined map. The
primitive formation, except the argillite, is coloured vermilion; the
secondary, blue; and the alluvial, gamboge yellow, according to Cleaveland.
The alluvial part is elevated above the bed of Connecticut river from 10 to
100 feet, and, in most places, reposes on red sandstone. The soil in the
northern part is generally argillaceous; but in the southern more siliceous.
The secondary formation consists chiefly of detached eminences that rise
abruptly from the plain, and are composed of red sandstone and
puddingstone alternating, except the elevations A and B, (Holyoke and
Tom) and a part of the range CD, passing through Deerfield and Greenfield,
which are greenstone. The part coloured rose-red consists of argillite,
sometimes alternating with mica slate, siliceous slate, or chlorite slate. It is
thus coloured to show the extent of the argillite, and not from a belief that
this rock is of the transition class; for in this region the argillite is
undoubtedly primitive. Some quarries of this rock have been opened in
Massachusetts; and in Vermont are extensively wrought. I have not learnt
how far the argillite extends northward in Vermont and New-Hampshire. Its
strata are almost perpendicular, inclining a few degrees to the west.
The primitive region on the west side of Connecticut river, included by
the map, is made up of mica slate, as a prevailing rock, particularly in the
northern part. Hornblende slate sometimes alternates with this, and sienite
appears in various places, though its strata are generally thin. Limestone
also occurs in Deerfield, Conway, Colrain, &c. of a dull brown colour. It
contains so large a proportion of silex that it is often but little removed from
granular quartz. Lime for building has sometimes been obtained from it. A
range of granite, containing veins of lead ore, appears at Southampton, and

proceeds to Hatfield. North of this, the other rocks cover it, and it does not
again rise within the limits of the map.
Sienite is the prevailing rock on the east side of Connecticut river in the
primitive region, more particularly in the southern part. In some places a
narrow stratum of mica slate lies next to the conglomerate of the secondary
formation, and a low range of graphic and common granite has been
observed in Amherst and Leverett, lying next to the mica slate. Other veins
of granite also traverse the sienite; and gneiss occurs in many places. The
proportion of hornblende in the sienite is generally small, and mica is often
present in considerable proportion. Porphyritic sienite is common in this
quarter, and steatite occurs in its eastern part.
Most of the primitive region on the map is broken and mountainous,
being made up of parallel ridges and detached eminences. The strata run
nearly north and south, and dip to the east at angles between 20° and 60°. It
would be easy to extend the map on the west to the top of Hoosack
mountain, since the country is all primitive; and on the east the primitive
continues, with a few exceptions, to the ocean. The map might also be
extended to the boundary of Connecticut, by prolonging the primitive
ranges with some divergency, and colouring the intermediate space
secondary, except a narrow tract on the east side of Connecticut river, which
is alluvial. These extensions were not thought necessary.
In the town of Gill, at E, there is a cataract in Connecticut river, from 30
to 40 feet in height; and it is believed that the alluvial region, and part of the
secondary shown on the map from this fall to the place where the river
passes between mount Holyoke and Tom, was formerly the bed of a lake:
for the logs are still found undecayed in many places, from 10 to 20 feet
below the surface; the river has evidently worn a passage between Holyoke
and Tom: many of the hills on the northern part, and the sandstone on the
plain, bear the marks of having been washed by water, and the channels of
two rivers are still visible in Deerfield, the one 30, and the other 100 feet
above the present bed of Connecticut river. Between mount Tom and the
mountains west, there is a secondary plain of sufficient height to throw back
the water over the supposed bed of the lake, before a passage was worn
between Holyoke and Tom. South of these hills commences another alluvial
and secondary tract, extending on both sides of the river to Haddam, in

Connecticut, where the river passes between mountains, and perhaps this
region also was the bed of a lake.
The plain on which the village of Deerfield stands, with the adjoining
meadows, is sunk 50 or 60 feet below the general alluvial tract, and was
undoubtedly the bed of a pond, or small lake, that remained after the larger
one of which we have spoken had subsided. When this larger lake
decreased, Deerfield river was cut off from a communication with the
Connecticut by the mountain CD, and the plain extending westward from
this mountain. There is a tradition, derived from the aboriginals of
Deerfield, that the passage in which Deerfield river now runs through the
mountain CD, was begun by a squaw with a clam-shell.
On the margin of these meadows, at considerable elevation, numerous
small conical excavations appear. On digging below the surface, stones are
found calcined by fire. These are probably the spots where Indian wigwams
formerly stood. Many vestiges of the aboriginals are frequently found in
Deerfield, such as beads, stone pots, mortars, pipes, axes, and the barbs of
arrows and pikes. Near the village they had a burial-ground, where many
skeletons have been uncovered. A roll of human hair was lately found here,
by Mr. J. C. Hoyt of Deerfield, three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and
three inches long, closely tied by a string made of the hide of some animal,
which string was encircled by brass or copper clasps greatly oxidized; but
the hair and string were in a good state of preservation, though they must
have lain there more than a century. In the meadows, logs, leaves,
butternuts, and walnuts are found undecayed, 15 feet below the surface; and
stumps of trees have been observed at that depth standing yet firmly where
they once grew. In the same meadows, a few years since, several toads were
dug up from 15 feet below the surface, and three feet in gravel. They soon
recovered from a torpid state, and hopped away.
The small range of hills beginning at the south line of Deerfield, and
terminating in Gill, deserves description. At its commencement on the
south, a conical hill, called Sugar Loaf, of red conglomerate, rises abruptly
from the plain 500 feet. The appearance of this hill, as you come from the
south, is picturesque, and it is an interesting feature of the country. The
range becomes higher for three miles, where, at its greatest elevation, it is
730 feet above the bed of Deerfield river. The west side of the mountain is

precipitous, and in some places naked. The ascent on the other side is
gentle.
Both sides of this hill are sandstone and puddingstone, frequently
alternating: though these are most extensive on the west side, and as we rise
the puddingstone predominates. The strata dip to the east about 10 degrees.
Near the centre of this range is a ridge of greenstone, with a mural face on
the west, and amorphous masses lying at the base, half way up to its
summit. This ridge does not rise so high as the puddingstone on the west of
it, as may be seen in the view of strata with the map. It commences on the
west bank of Connecticut river, about a mile north of the hill C, and
increases in elevation nearly to the spot where it disappears at the fall of the
river in Gill. This rock does not appear to rest on sandstone, but to descend
through it, where there is an opportunity for observation. Deerfield river has
worn a passage through the sandstone and greenstone 150 feet deep, and the
greenstone passes under its bed, and the sandstone, at a few rods distant lies
on each side of the greenstone. A similar fact has been noticed at the fall in
Connecticut river, in Gill. Yet I have coloured this greenstone secondary on
the map; for it is certain that Mount Tom rests on sandstone, and it is stated
by Professor Silliman, that the same rock does in Connecticut. Could we
penetrate deeper below the surface, it is probable the same would be found
to be the case with this greenstone.
As stated above, this rock disappears near the cataract in Gill, and it is
succeeded by puddingstone. But four miles farther north, it again emerges
in Bernardstone, though it rises but little above the surface. Here its
character is changed. The hornblende is more crystalline, and the rock
becomes decidedly primitive, as you approach a mountain of argillite and
mica slate, into which it passes, and no greenstone has been observed north
of this. It terminates not far from the line of Vermont. The red sandstone
and conglomerate also terminate on the opposite side of the river in
Northfield.
The greenstone in the above described range, is of a finer texture than the
same rock in Connecticut; and the feldspar, in some specimens, is scarcely
discernible with a microscope. Indeed, in many instances, the eye would
decide the rock to be basalt. Much of it is fissile, the laminæ varying from
half an inch to a foot in thickness. This is most perceptible among the loose

masses; but it exists also in that in place. Whether this circumstance be
accidental, I will not attempt to decide.
A large proportion of the greenstone of our vicinity constitutes the base
of amygdaloid. The imbedded substances are calcareous spar, quartz,
chalcedony, analcime, prehnite, &c. as will be more particularly mentioned
hereafter. Globular concretions of greenstone are common in this
amygdaloid, several inches in diameter, and of greater specific gravity than
the other parts of the rock. A great number of columns occur in the same
range, having from three to six sides. Some of them are quite regular, and
are well articulated, exhibiting at their joints considerable concavities and
convexities. They are from one to thirty feet long, and, in their natural
position, incline a few degrees to the east, as may be seen in the view of
strata with the map; A few have been noticed that make lateral curves. One
of these hexagonal columns measures at one end as follows:—Diagonals,
27, 29, and 29½ inches; sides, 16½, 13¼, 11½, 17, 11½, and 16½ inches.
The convexity of this column is a little more than an inch. The best
instances of these prisms occur one mile east from the village of Deerfield.
Masses of greenstone are found at considerable distance from the range,
among the puddingstone. One has been noticed weighing many tons, a
hundred rods from the range of greenstone, and on much higher ground.
Some of these scattered fragments contain chalcedony. A specimen of
petrosiliceous porphyry has been found among the same puddingstone, and
also a mass of singular, though not well defined, amygdaloid, whose base is
similar to wacke, and imbedded substances are calcareous spar, chlorite,
and green earth.
The elevation in the north part of Sunderland, called Toby, from 800 to
900 feet high, is chiefly conglomerate, red, brown, or greenish, which, in
some parts, alternates with chlorite slate, secondary argillite, and a
sandstone that seems to be passing into gray wacke slate. Some of the
imbedded masses in this puddingstone are quite large, its cement is
frequently calcareous, its aspect is singular, and it is very different from the
puddingstone before described, On the opposite side of the river. At the foot
of this mountain, in the bottom of Connecticut river, distinct impressions of
fish are found on a schistose rock, like the one above mentioned as passing
into gray wacke slate. This same species of slate occurs in several other

places at the bottom of Connecticut river, as at the fall in Gill. In this last
place bituminous shale has been noticed.
In Mount Toby, in Sunderland, is a cave nearly 150 feet above the bed of
Connecticut river. It opens to the north and west, forming a quarter of a
circle, is 130 feet in extent, 60 feet deep, and from 3 to 20 wide. A little to
the south of it, is a fissure in the puddingstone, formed by a separation of
the rock, ten feet wide, and as deep as the cave. So perfect is this division,
that it appears as if cloven down by the sword of some Titan. Perhaps this
cave and fissure were formed by the washing of the waters of the lake we
have mentioned on the sandstone and conglomerate beneath; thus causing
the superincumbent rock to fall and separate. There is no appearance of any
other convulsion. Imperfect, calcareous stalactites are found in this cave.
The falls in Connecticut river, at E, are not unworthy of notice. The river
here is about 40 rods wide, and the height of the main cataract, raised
considerably by an artificial dam, is 30 feet. The fall continues two miles.
On the north bank you view the cataract from elevated ground, and can see
the river nearly a mile above and below—above, perfectly smooth and
calm, below, forming a quarter of a circle, and tumbling among the broken
rocks. On the opposite side of the river are a few buildings, the
commencement of a canal, and, behind these, moderately elevated hills,
covered with woods. Two rocky islands near the middle of the descending
sheet, and another thirty rods below, add much to the beauty of the view.
Looking from the southeast shore, you have a partial prospect of the falls,
and a view of an amphitheatre of greenstone hills, through which a small
river empties. The pleasure derived from the view proceeds more from its
wildness than its sublimity.
The position of the hills, boundaries, and rivers, on the accompanying
map, may not, in all cases, be precisely correct. The general outlines were
enlarged by a pentegraph from Carleton's map of Massachusetts, and the
intermediate objects were placed chiefly by the eye; their relative situations
being determined by travelling over the ground, and viewing them from
different elevations. The boundaries of the several formations have not been
so carefully noticed near the angles of the map as in the central parts. Of
their correctness generally, however, I am confident. The latitude and
longitude of Deerfield, from which those on the map were marked, were
obtained by taking a mean of the observations given by Gen. E. Hoyt, in the

Transactions of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and of twelve
lunar observations since made. The result is, Lat. 42° 32' 32". Long. 72° 39'
from Greenwich.
With the map is given a view of the strata of rocks from Hoosack
mountain to eleven miles east of Connecticut river, on a line nearly east and
west, passing through Deerfield. The horizontal distances are laid down
from a scale: the elevations are assumed. The principal rocks only are
coloured; for it is very difficult to determine the breadth of many, since they
frequently alternate with one another. I have not examined the country on
the east side of Connecticut river with sufficient care to be able to extend
the section on that side more than a few miles.
It may not be amiss to mention, that Mount Holyoke, so much celebrated
for the delightful view from its top, has been found, with a sextant, to be
830 feet above Connecticut river. Its height has been frequently overrated.
The mineralogy of this section of the country has been but imperfectly
explored. I shall mention those minerals only of which I have obtained
specimens, and whose localities have not been noticed by mineralogists.
Quartz—several varieties.
1. Rock Crystal—abundant. Some good specimens are found in Conway,
on feldspar, with the usual hexagonal, prismatic crystals, and these
crystals cross each other in all directions.
2. Irised Quartz—found in Leyden.
3. Granular Quartz—in Deerfield.
4. Radiated Quartz—in Whately and Shelburne.
5. Blue Quartz—in rolled masses on the banks of Deerfield river.
6. Greasy Quartz—in same place.
7. Pseudomorphous Quartz—in greenstone, Deerfield.
8. Lamellar Quartz—in same place. The laminæ sometimes penetrate
crystals of common quartz.
9. Tubular, or Pectinated Quartz—in same place.
10. Quartz Geodes—in same place.

Prase—in the north part of Sunderland. (Not good specimens.)
Amethyst—in Greenstone, Deerfield: the colour is not deep, but delicate.
Chalcedony—in same place—considerably abundant, but generally in
small masses.
Carnelian—in same place, not plenty. The chalcedony, in some
specimens, seems to be passing into cacholong, and the carnelian into
sardonyx.
Agate—in same place. It is made up of chalcedony, carnelian, and quartz.
They are generally small, but some are elegant.
Jasper, red, and yellow—found in rolled masses on the banks of
Deerfield river and in Leyden. Some have been found imperfectly
striped. It occurs frequently as it was formed by the aboriginals into
barbs for pikes and arrows.
Petrosilex—on the banks of Deerfield river—not good specimens.
Feldspar—the red variety occurs in puddingstone, Deerfield. It is not
necessary to mention any other locality of a mineral so common.
Hornblende—very abundant—mostly black in this vicinity.
Mica—this is very abundant on the east side of Connecticut river. Some
crystals of it have been found in Amherst.
Talc—in Shutesbury.
Steatite. The localities of this are seen on the section. The aboriginals
formed many articles from this mineral, as pots, pipes, &c.
Chlorite—in Shutesbury: also in amygdaloid, Deerfield. In Deerfield
academy there are some Indian pipes of this mineral, well wrought.
Green Earth—in small quantities, in amygdaloid, Deerfield.
Schorl—the black variety occurs in Pelham, Shutesbury, and Orange,
Mass., and in Brattleborough, Vermont.
Epidote—in Deerfield, Shutesbury, Leyden, and Pelham, and in Athol,
Worcester county. The specimens poor.

Tremolite—in the west part of Leyden, near Green river. The rock in this
region is chiefly mica slate, and the quantity of tremolite is very great.
Tons of it might be easily collected.
Cyanite, or Sappare—in Deerfield, in mica slate; discovered by Dr. S. W.
Williams.
Actynolite—rare, found in Shutesbury.
Serpentine—found in Leyden in rolled masses. Some of the specimens
admit a fine polish, and the ground is handsomely variegated. It has
not been noticed in situ.
Asbestus—compact, in Pelham.
Garnets—very plenty in Conway, Deerfield, Shelburne, &c. Good
specimens of the melanite occur in Conway.
Native Alum—in Leyden, in small quantities, efflorescing on argillaceous
slate.
Sulphur—in Conway, Shelburne, and Warwick, efflorescing on mica
slate.
Prehnite—in greenstone, Deerfield, encrusting the columns and in
radiated masses, but rarely crystallized. The veins of it, when in place,
are nearly perpendicular.
Zeolite—in same place, not abundant. Some good specimens of the
radiated variety are found.
Chabasie—in same place, considerably abundant. No crystals have yet
been found whose sides exceed a quarter of an inch. It occurs in the
veins of the greenstone, in geodes, on balls of zeolite, on chalcedony,
on lamellar quartz, &c.
Stilbite—in same place, not abundant. It is commonly associated with
chabasie, and the crystals, though small, are well defined.
Analcime—in same place, very abundant, and is associated with quartz
and amethyst, which are sometimes enclosed by analcime. It generally
occurs in cylindrical, reniform, and radiated masses. A few perfect
crystals only have been observed.

Laminated Calcareous Spar—in the same place, not uncommon.
Chalcedony, carnelian, agate, amethyst, prehnite, zeolite, chabasie,
stilbite, and analcime, have been found nearly in the same place; and it
may not be amiss to observe, that this spot is distant from Deerfield
Academy about one mile, and bears from the same, by a true meridian,
E. 2°, 15′ S.
Iron Sand—found in considerable quantity near the falls in Connecticut
river, on the Montague shore.
Sulphate of Iron—in Conway, in small quantities, efflorescing on mica
slate.
Sulphuret of Iron—in Halifax, Vermont, in abundance; also in
Charlemont, Mass., Deerfield, &c.
Magnetic Oxide of Iron—very common in the region west of Connecticut
river. I have observed it in Athol, Worcester county.
Specular Oxide of Iron—some veins of this ore occur in Hawley,
Bernardstown, and Warwick, and have been wrought to a small extent.
Micaceous Oxide of Iron—in the iron mine in Hawley.
Green Carbonate of Copper—in greenstone, in Greenfield. This ore
constitutes a vein on the bank of Connecticut river, passing into the hill
on one side, and under the river on the other. It has never been
wrought, nor, indeed, is its locality publicly known.
Copper Pyrites—in the same vein, not abundant, at the surface.
Sulphate of Barytes—in the same place, constituting the immediate walls
of the vein. Its breadth on the wall varies from an inch to a foot, and
the breadth of the vein is 6 or 8 feet.
Galena—in Whately. This is probably from a continuation of the vein of
this ore that appears at Montgomery, Southampton, and Hatfield. A
single crystal has been found in the same range, in Greenfield, twelve
miles north of Whately; but it was not in place.
Red Oxyde of Titanium—in Leyden, crystallized on quartz and tremolite,
chiefly on the latter; colour brownish red—specific gravity 4.232;
scratches glass, handsomely geniculated, and sometimes several

geniculations in the same specimen; in one as many as six could be
perceived.
Eagle Stone, or Nodular argillaceous Oxide of Iron—one specimen on
the banks of Deerfield river.
Rose-red Quartz—a loose mass in alluvial soil, Deerfield.
Red Oxide of Titanium—in Shelburne.
I would acknowledge my peculiar obligations to Professor Silliman, of
New-Haven, and to Dr. David Hunt, of Northampton, Mass. for the very
generous assistance they have given me in a commencement of the study of
mineralogy, and for their liberal aid in this particular communication. Their
kindness, it is believed, will not soon be forgotten. To several others, also, I
am indebted for communicating facts of importance.
Deerfield, October, 1817.

Art. II. On the Prairies and Barrens of the West, by Caleb Atwater, Esq.
in Letters to the Editor.
Circleville, Ohio, May 28, 1818.
Dear Sir,

I send you for publication in the Journal of Science, an Essay on the
Prairies and Barrens found in this country.

Description of the Prairies.

Prairie is a French word, signifying a meadow, but is here applied only
to natural meadows. They are found in all the states and territories west of
the Allegany mountains, more or less numerous, of greater or less extent.
They are covered with a coarse kind of grass, which, before the country is
settled in their vicinity, grows to the height of six or seven feet. After these
natural meadows are fed upon by domestic animals, the grass does not grow
to a greater height than it does in common pastures. Sometimes this grass is
intermixed with weeds and plum-bushes. Some of those prairies are dry,
while others are moist. Pickaway Plains, in Pickaway county, in the State of
Ohio, lying a small distance south of this place, are nearly seven miles in
length, and about three miles in width, on ground considerably elevated
above the Scioto river, almost perfectly level, and, in their native state, were
covered with a great quantity of grass, some weeds and plum-bushes; and in
the most elevated places, there were a few trees. This was one great prairie.
Sandusky Plains, lying on the high ground between the head waters of
the Whetstone branch of the Scioto river, and the waters of streams running
into Lake Erie, are still more extensive than those of Pickaway, covered
with a coarse, tall grass, intermixed with weeds, with here and there a tree,
presenting to the eye a landscape of great extent.
The moist prairies generally lie along some stream, or at the head of one,
on level land, or on that which gently descends. The moist prairies are too
wet for trees to grow on them; and whether moist or dry, the soil, for a
greater or less depth, is always alluvial, resting on pebbles and sand, such as

are found at the bottom of rivers, ponds, and lakes. In some instances, the
writer is credibly informed, that the shells of muscles are found imbedded
in the pebbles and sand. That these shells, such as abound in our rivers,
ponds, and lakes, should be found in low prairies along the banks of waters
which frequently overflow them, excites no wonder, nor even surprise; but
that these shells should be found thus imbedded in pebbles and sand
underneath several feet of alluvial soil, in situations more than one hundred
feet above the waters of any stream now in existence, is calculated to
perplex the mind of the superficial observer. These prairies are found in the
western half of the State of Ohio, and north of the hills adjacent to the river
of that name. They are also found in every state and territory west of the
Alleganies, from the great northern lakes on the north, to the Mexican Gulf
on the south; from the western foot of the Allegany mountains, to the
eastern one of the Rocky mountains, up the Missouri. In summer, the grass
which spontaneously covers them, feeds immense herds of cattle; in winter,
the hay that is cut on them, with a little Indian corn or maize, feeds and
fattens the same herds. Some of these prairies extend as far as the eye can
reach; others contain only a few perches of ground.

Description of the Barrens.

But besides these prairies, there are also extensive tracts of country in
this part of the Union which deserve and shall receive our notice; they are
called "Barrens." From their appellation, "barrens," the person
unacquainted with them is not to suppose them thus called from their
sterility, because most of them are quite the reverse. These barrens are
found in a level country, with here and there a gentle rise, only a few feet
higher than the land around it. On these little rises, for they are not hills,
trees grow, and grass also; but grass and weeds are the only occupants of
the soil where there is no rise of ground. The soil is alluvial to greater or
less depth in these barrens, though on some of the highest rises there is little
or none; the lower the ground the deeper the alluvion. On these gentle rises,
where there is no alluvion, we find stiff, blue clay, and no pebbles. Under
the alluvial black soil, in the lower grounds, we find pebbles similar to
those in the prairies, owing to similar causes. On the little ridges, wherever
the land is not too moist, the oak or the hickory has taken possession, and
there grows to a moderate height, in clusters. It would seem, that whenever

the land had become sufficiently dry for an acorn or a hickory-nut to sprout,
take root, and grow, it did so; and from one or more of these trees, in time,
others have grown around them in such clusters as we now behold. Where
the land is lower, the soil deeper, more moist and more fertile, the grass was
too thick, and the soil too wet, for such kind of trees to grow in as were
found in the immediate vicinity. Imagine, then, natural meadows, of various
dimensions, and of every figure which the imagination can conceive, with
here and there a gentle rise of ground, decked with a few scattering trees or
a thick cluster of them, and bearing a tall, coarse grass, which is thin on the
rises, but on the lower grounds thick and luxuriant; imagine, also, a rill of a
reddish colour scarcely meandering through ground a little lower than the
surrounding plain, and you will have a very correct idea of the appearance
of these barrens. They are generally (not always) found on what, in our
western dialect, is called second bottom, and not on a level with any streams
of magnitude, but rather at their sources. To mention all the counties of this
State where these prairies and barrens are found, would be too tedious, and
illy comport with the object which we have in view. We shall therefore
content ourselves with describing those found in the north half of Fayette
county, and the adjoining county of Madison, which may be said to be
almost entirely one great barren of more than forty miles extent from north
to south, and generally half as much in breadth from east to west. The great
barren in Fayette, Madison, and, we may add, in the counties still north of
them, is on land elevated from fifty to one hundred feet above the level of
the Scioto river, into which the streams that have their sources in this tract
of country generally run. This land lies so level that the waters stand on it
too long for grain to thrive equally with grass, unless, indeed, the farmer
should dig a long drain, which is easily effected by the plough, with a little
assistance from the hoe and the spade. But as nature seems to have intended
this tract of country for the raising of cattle instead of grain, the
husbandman has listened to the suggestion, and in this great barren are
found some thousands of the finest cattle which the State affords. Here the
horse, the ox, and the swine feed, thrive, and fatten with little expense to
their owner; but sheep do not, and never will, thrive on prairie grass, or wet
grounds. Fruit-trees, the peach, the apple, the plum, &c. do very well when
planted on the gently rising grounds, where the hickory or the oak had once
stood. Fruit-trees, such as have been named, thrive very well also on the dry
prairies. On the eastern side of the Allegany mountains there neither is, nor

was there ever, any thing like these prairies and barrens, if we except those
found in the western part of New-York, in the Genesee country, and in the
vicinity of the lakes in that quarter. These, the writer of this saw nearly
thirty years since, and before that country was much settled. Those prairies
were similar in appearance to ours in the west, and were, beyond doubt,
formed by similar means.

Speculations on the Origin of the Prairies and Barrens.

What were the causes which contribute to form these natural meadows?
That water was the principal agent in their formation, we very little doubt;
but this is not the common opinion. According to that opinion, our prairies
and barrens, and especially the latter, were occasioned entirely by the
burning of the woods by the Indians, in order to take the wild game. Let us
try this opinion by the indubitable appearances exhibited by these prairies
and barrens.
They are invariably found in a level country, or in one which is nearly so;
and the soil is generally, if not always, more moist than that which is
uneven and hilly. Would not the leaves, where the land is dry, burn over
with as great facility, or even with greater facility, than the grass would
where the land is wet? Would there not be more wild game where they
could find their food in plenty, such as acorns and hickory nuts, on which
they feed in winter, than on land where no food, except dry grass and
weeds, were to be found? It is well known that these prairies and barrens
could not be burnt over when the vegetable productions which cover them
were growing. At the only season when it is possible to burn them, that is in
winter, to what kind of regions do the wild animals resort? Is it not to the
thick woods? Every hunter will answer in the affirmative. For the space of
twenty-five years, the writer of this lived in the vicinity of Indians, and
from information on which he relies, as well as from his own actual
observation, he confidently avers that the Indians neither are, nor ever were,
in the habit of firing the woods in order to take game. Erroneous
information first propagated such an opinion, and blind credulity has
extended it down to us. Another opinion, equally groundless, prevails to a
considerable extent; and that is, that these prairies have all been heretofore
cultivated by the aborigines, and that the grass having overspread these
plains, prevented the growth of trees on them. The Indians, it is to be

presumed, never cultivated any other grain than maize, or Indian corn, and
yet we see few or no corn-hills in any part of this country. In the western
part of New-York, before it was settled by its present inhabitants, thousands
and thousands of acres were to be seen, where the trees were as large as any
in the forest, and yet the rows of corn-hills were plainly discernible. I refer
in a particular manner to what is now called Cayuga county. There the
growth of grass had not prevented the growth of trees, nor did it here. We
know that some of these prairies were cultivated by the Indians, but never
to any very considerable extent. This country never was thickly settled by
Indians, like the shores of the Atlantic and the banks of the rivers running
into it. No, it was the ancestors of the Peruvians and the Mexicans who
lived here in great numbers, before they migrated to South America.
The question then recurs, by what powerful means were these prairies
and barrens formed?
That water was the principal agent, we infer from the fact, that the soil is
always alluvial to greater or less depth; the former we call prairie, the latter
barren. But how could the country from the southern shore of Lake Erie to
Chillicothe, a distance of more than one hundred and fifty miles from north
to south, ever be covered with water long enough to form alluvial soil, in
many places from four to six feet in depth? I answer, that the Niagara river,
the present outlet of Lake Erie, has worn away several hundred feet, and in
that way the lake is lowered in the same proportion. The high land,
composed entirely of sand, originally extending from the Ohio northerly
upwards of forty miles, to Chillicothe, has been worn through by the Scioto
river; and the waters which once for ages covered the whole country north
of the hills along the Ohio river have been drained off, and the dry land
appears where once stood the waters of lakes Erie and Michigan, then
forming but one great lake. I am fully impressed with the belief, that were
the bottom of Niagara river as high as it once was, the upper lakes would
now, as formerly, empty themselves into the Ohio by the Scioto and Miami
rivers, and into the Mississippi by the Illinois. I might proceed to examine
every part of the country where prairies and barrens are found; but they
have all been formed by the same agent, and that is water. An objection to
this opinion may be raised by some, that these prairies and barrens are
frequently found in the counties of Delaware, Champaign, Madison,
Fayette, &c. on ground considerably elevated. Are they higher than the hills

near Chillicothe? From a careful inspection, but without any instruments, I
am convinced that they are none of them as high.
There is no perpendicular fall of water, but merely a gradual descent,
from Columbus to the Ohio; nay, there is no fall from the very source of the
Scioto to its mouth. Every one acquainted with hydrostatics, knows that
water will run briskly where the descent is only a few inches in a mile. The
writer believes that the Scioto, from its source to the Ohio river, does not
descend more than one hundred feet, and that the present surface of Lake
Erie is about on a level with the Ohio in a freshet; that before the channel of
Niagara river was deepened, as it evidently has been, by the attrition of that
mighty stream; and before the hills adjacent to the Ohio were worn down by
the waters of the Scioto, the whole country north of Chillicothe, where
these hills commence, to Lake Erie inclusive, was covered with water,
except the very highest hills in the counties of Greene, &c. which were then
islands. What tends to corroborate this opinion is, that on these high
grounds we find limestone and other rocks, and indications of gypsum; but
no alluvion, and none of those fragments and ruins which are produced by
water acting mechanically upon a country for a long space of time. We
might mention other parts of country where prairies and barrens abound,
and which have been formed by water. Those along Greene river, in
Kentucky, have evidently been covered by the waters of that river. The bed
of that stream has been deepened by the constant flowing of the water along
its channel; the water is drained off, and the prairies and barrens now
occupy the soil which the water had made and formerly covered. The
prairies above the falls of Hockhocking, along that river, have evidently
been formed in the same way, and owe their origin and appearances to
similar causes. There is near Lancaster, on the last-mentioned river in the
State of Ohio, and near the great road, a gentle rise of ground in the prairie,
which has every appearance of having been an island, and is so called by
the people of the vicinity.
In fine, wherever prairies and barrens are found, there, for a long space of
time, water once stood, but was gradually drained off. Else why alluvial soil
to such a depth, in low situations, and growing thinner as we ascend on
ground more elevated? Else why do we find rocks in more elevated tracts of
country, and not in prairies or barrens? Else why do we find no alluvion, no
grass, but a thick growth of ancient forest-trees on the higher lands? Else

why do we find beneath the alluvion of the prairies, pebbles and shells
similar to those at the bottom of lakes and ponds? Else why do the higher
grounds to this moment present the appearances of so many islands? And
all these indications where no stream now in existence could by possibility
have reached them?
That the waters which once covered so great a part of this State (Ohio)
were drawn off gradually, we infer from the fact, that there is not a single
indication of the effects of an earthquake or volcano, from the foot of the
Allegany to the banks of the Mississippi: in this region not a stone nor a
layer of earth has been misplaced, nor its position changed.
But an interesting inquiry here presents itself. Were the hills along the
Ohio, before they were worn away by the streams which now empty
themselves into that river, ever high enough to raise the water to the north
of them to such a degree that it would overspread the country where the
prairies and barrens are now found? Although the height of these hills has
not been ascertained by the proper instruments, yet from appearances, not to
be mistaken by any person who examines them and the country towards
Lake Erie, these hills are much higher than any land between them and that
lake. And from certain indications, (as already remarked,) had not the bed
of the Niagara been deepened by the running of that mighty river, Lake
Erie, as formerly, would empty itself into the Ohio by the Scioto and
Miami; and the great northern lakes would once more discharge themselves
into the Mississippi by the Illinois. Lake Ontario, from some cause,
(possibly an earthquake, or the wearing away of its outlet, or both,) is
considerably lower than it was formerly: in that way the land along its
banks, once covered by its waters, is drained, presenting appearances
exactly similar to those seen in many of our prairies.

Miscellaneous Remarks on the Prairies and Barrens relative to their
Picturesque Features, and to Agriculture and Health, as affected by the
peculiarities of these Tracts.

To the traveller, who for several days traverses these prairies and barrens,
their appearance is quite uninviting, and even disagreeable. He may travel
from morning until night, and make good speed, but on looking around him,
he fancies himself at the very spot whence he started. No pleasant variety of

hill and dale, no rapidly running brook delights the eye, and no sound of
woodland music strikes the ear; but, in their stead, a dull uniformity of
prospect "spread out immense." Excepting here and there a tree, or a slight
elevation of ground, it is otherwise a dead level, covered with tall weeds
and coarse grass. The sluggish rivulets, of a reddish colour, scarcely move
perceptibly, and their appearance is as uninviting to the eye, as their taste is
disgusting to the palate. Such are the prairies and barrens of the west; but,
in order to make ample amends for any deficiency, nature has made them
exuberantly fertile. The farmer who settles upon them, by raising cattle,
becomes rich with little labour. He ditches those which are too moist for
grain; he ploughs and fences them, and raises from seventy to one hundred
bushels of maize or Indian corn to the acre, without ever hoeing it. The
United States own thousands and thousands of acres of such land in these
western States and territories, which, for prompt payment, may be
purchased for one dollar and sixty-two and a half cents an acre. One
objection to these lands is, the want of timber for fuel and other purposes;
and another is, that they are unhealthy: but in many places there is an
abundance of peat in the wet prairies, and cultivation will every year render
them more and more healthy. Some of them have been cultivated for fifteen
or twenty years past with grain, and are as fertile as they ever were. As M.
Volney says, "They are the Flanders of America."
Yours, &c. C. A.

Art. III. Account of the Coal Mines in the vicinity of Richmond, Virginia,
communicated to the editor in a letter from Mr. John Grammer, Jun.
Petersburgh, Virg. Jan. 28th, 1818.
Dear Sir,

In compliance with your request, that I would send you some account of
the Virginia coal pits, I paid a visit to them soon after my return, in
company with Mr. R. W. Withers, and I will now proceed to give you the
account proposed.
The pits, which we made the particular object of our visit, are situated in
the county of Chesterfield, about 14 miles distant, in a direction W. S. W.
from Richmond, and 3 miles south of James' River. The country rises
gradually from Richmond to the pits; and, from its sandy appearance, is
evidently an alluvial deposit, although its substratum is the granite
mentioned by Mr. M'Clure, as extending through this state from S. S. W. to
N. N. E. The coal is found on the western or upper surface of the granite,
coincident with it both in direction and inclination; but whether they come
immediately in contact or not, has not yet been ascertained. The 'bed' of
coal is supposed by the miners to be coextensive with the granite, and I can
discover no very good reason for disagreeing with them in this particular;
but, on the contrary, many circumstances concur to strengthen the opinion
that it is really coextensive with the granite. The coal is now procured from
at least 25 different pits, opened at convenient distances through an extent
of from 50 to 70 miles. It every where commences at the upper surface or
termination of the body of granite. Some suppose that it is imposed on the
granite; and others, that a thin stratum of slate is interposed between the
coal and granite. It is always found covered by the slate. The granite is
inclined to the horizon at an angle of 45°, and the coal has the same
inclination. And since the coal, as far as it has been discovered, is found to
accompany and correspond with the granite, why may we not suppose that
it continues to accompany the granite, where it has not yet been discovered?
At Heth's pits, the coal is 50 feet thick, measured on a line perpendicular to
the surfaces of the extreme strata. At some of the pits between Heth's and

James' River, it is 30 feet thick; and at the river, not more than 25 feet. The
thickness of the coal on the north side of James' River, at the pits in Henrico
and Hanover counties, is variable, but at no place greater than 25 feet; and
to the south of Heth's, in the pits extending to the Appomatox river, it is still
less thick. These facts would induce the supposition, that the coal was
deposited in a bed, near the centre of which Heth's pits were sunk. But, on
the other hand, the coal is distinctly stratified, and the number of strata
increases as the coal proceeds from the surface of the earth; of course,
therefore, the farther you proceed from the outer extremity of the coal, the
thicker the body of it will be found; and from the inclination of the coal, the
farther you are from its outer extremity the deeper it must be under the
surface of the earth. Heth's pits are 100 feet deeper than any that have yet
been sunk; and all the pits, that I have seen, appear to be nearer to the outer
extremity of the coal. We may conclude, therefore, that if the others had
been sunk as far from the outer extremity, they would have been as deep,
and the coal would have been found as thick in them as in Heth's. Heth's
pits, now so called, were first opened about 30 years since, and worked to
some considerable extent. Experiencing, however, much inconvenience
from the near approach of the works to a part of the coal which was on fire;
and finding, from their unskilful mode of mining, that the business was not
profitable, they abandoned the works, and filled up their shaft. Some few
years after, Mr. Heth obtained possession of the land; and, having imported
two Scotch miners, commenced working the coal again. He has now three
shafts open, in a line with each other, in the direction of the vein. They are
sunk near the brink of a steep hill, which rises about 180 feet from the
western bank of a small brook. The depth of one of the shafts is 350 feet.
The other two are about 300 feet deep, each. A steam-engine, constructed
by Bolton & Watt, is erected at the middle and deepest shaft. It is used
exclusively for pumping out water; but I will not trouble you with an
account of the modus operandi, as it would be only a repetition of your own
description of the same operation at the Cornwall mines. The coal is raised
in a box, called by the miners a cowe. These cowes contain about two
bushels each, and two of them are alternately rising and descending in each
shaft. They are raised by means of ropes, fastened to a simple wheel and
crank, which is turned by mules. In sinking their shafts, they cut, in the first
place, perpendicularly (i. e. to the surface of the earth) through the coal, to
its lower surface; and then turning westwardly, they open a horizontal

gallery through the inclination of the vein, to its upper surface; by this
means, to use their own terms, "gaining a double cut on it." Their principal
gallery passes (in the direction of the vein,) by the mouth of each shaft. Its
length is 1350 feet, and it is terminated at each end by a hitch or dyke of
hard sandstone. (The passage was stopped with rubbish in such a manner as
to prevent me from seeing the stone myself, and the gentleman who
escorted me through the mines is my authority for its being sandstone; he
might possibly, however, have been mistaken, as it is difficult to ascertain
what a stone is, in such a place, until it is broken.) When I was at the pits,
they were preparing to blast through this rock. At right angles to the
principal gallery, they have opened, at convenient distances apart, shorter
galleries, running westwardly, and these are again connected by passages
parallel to the first or principal gallery. Pickaxes are the only tools used in
working the coal, as it breaks very readily, in the direction of the strata. The
roofs of some of the passages are perfectly smooth; and in such, the light of
the lamps, reflected from the great variety of colours in the coal, presents a
very brilliant sight. The gloomy blackness, however, of most of the
galleries, and the strange dress and appearance of the black miners, would
furnish sufficient data to the conception of a poet, for a description of
Pluto's kingdom. A strong sulphurous acid ran down the walls of many of
the galleries; and I observed one of the drains was filled with a yellowish
gelatinous substance, which I ascertained, on a subsequent examination,
was a yellow, or rather a reddish, oxide of iron, mechanically suspended in
water.
I mentioned above that a part of the coal was on fire: I could not ascertain
when this fact was first observed to exist; and it is not impossible that the
coal may have been burning a century, or more. It is highly probable,
however, that a comparatively small quantity of the coal is consumed, as the
combustion must be greatly retarded by the absence of a sufficient portion
of atmospheric air. A strong sulphurous fume issues from an irregular hole
in the side of the hill of about 2 feet diameter. The hole appears to be only 4
or 5 feet deep, and the smoke rises into it from cracks, partly filled with
loose clay. The earth is very much cracked around the hole, to the distance
of 12 or 15 feet; and these cracks are from 1 to 4 inches wide. The mouth of
the hole is encrusted with acicular crystals of pure sulphur. Attempts were
formerly made to extinguish the fire, by turning water into this hole; and,
after every attempt, there was a temporary disappearance of the smoke for

several weeks; but never longer than three months. For several years,
however, they have desisted from such vain attempts, and have taken
advantage of the facility afforded, by the existence of this fire, for
ventilating the mines, in the following manner:—They opened a passage
from their present, to the old deserted, works; this they can open or shut, by
means of a close door. As the old works are very near the fire, the air in
them becomes very much rarified by the heat; and probably a considerable
portion of it is consumed (as the principal pabulum for the combustion,) and
a partial vacuum is produced. When the air in their present works, therefore,
becomes impure, they open the door, and a strong current rushes into the
old works; its place is again supplied with fresh air through the shafts.
Previous to the adoption of this mode of ventilation, they experienced great
inconvenience from carbonic acid gas; and some of the workmen had been
killed by an explosion of carburetted hydrogen gas. Since this mode has
been adopted, they have experienced no inconvenience at all from noxious
gases. On inquiry, I was told that the substances passed through, in getting
to the coal, varied in the different pits. As far, however, as I could learn by
inquiry, and an examination of the heaps of rubbish, the following
substances, in the order in which they stand, have been found in Heth's pits:
—mould, clay, gravel, fuller's earth, sandstone, (at first extremely coarse
and friable, but becoming more compact and hard, and having an
appearance somewhat stratified as they descended,) gray and bluish clay
slate, hard bluish sandstone, shale, or, as they term it, shiver, white
micaceous sandstone, extremely hard; blue slate and shale intermixed, black
slate, and then the coal. The depth of these strata differed so much in
different pits, that their individual thickness could not be ascertained.
Vegetable impressions are very common in the slate next the coal; and they
have found the impression of a fish. Pieces of pure charcoal, in the form of
sticks, or logs, are frequently found in or on the coal. In sinking one of the
pits they met with a perpendicular column, 8 inches in diameter, extending
through the slate into the coal; in all about 50 feet. Its surface was distinctly
serrated, and at intervals of about 2 inches it appeared jointed, breaking
easily at the joints. For the want of a better name I must call it a "lusus
naturæ;" for it is neither clay-slate nor mica-slate, nor shale, nor sandstone;
but appears to be composed of them all. Masses of a black oxide of iron are
sometimes found in the slate; and from its weight and hardness the miners
very properly call it ironstone. Iron pyrites are very abundant in the slate,

and the heaps of rubbish are white with the sulphate of alumine; yellow
ochre is found among the rubbish, but I could not ascertain its relative
position with any precision. The side of the hill at the pits is covered with
quartz pebbles; some of which are as transparent and beautiful as I ever
saw. The country, for several miles around the pits, (i. e. as far as I have
seen,) appears to be entirely destitute of rocks or pebbles, and is covered
with a light sandy soil. I am unable to inform you of the number of hands
employed at, or of the quantity of coal annually furnished from, these pits,
as a part of my notes has, by an accident, been rendered illegible.
Thus, sir, I have endeavoured to comply with my promise of giving you
an account of the coal pits.[17] In doing this, I have only attempted to state
facts as they existed; although I have no doubt that my imperfect
acquaintance with geology has occasioned many omissions which might
have been interesting. To the same cause must be attributed the use of
language not always strictly scientific, and a method less exact than might
have been desired. With all its imperfections, however, if you can, from the
mass of facts, cull any one which may be useful or interesting, I shall be
fully compensated by the pleasure of having furnished it, for any trouble I
may have been at in doing so. And, if at any time I should be able to furnish
you with any information relative to the mineralogy or geology of this part
of the country, I hope you will let me know it.

Art. IV. Sketch of the Geology and Mineralogy of a part of the State of
Indiana, communicated in a letter to the Editor, by Mr. W. B. Stilson.

Louisville, (Ken.) August 11, 1818.
Dear Sir,

I have employed a short period of leisure in passing over a portion of the
state of Indiana. Among other objects, I was not wholly inattentive to the
mineralogical and geological features of the country. I now, with diffidence,
transmit to you the result of my inquiries.

Sketch, &c.

The secondary formation of the state of Indiana is abundantly evident.
The surface of the soil is undulating, and marked with few elevations which
deserve the name of mountains. The rocks are sandstone, limestone, and
clay-slate; all of which are disposed in horizontal strata. The sandstone
presents nothing remarkable in its appearance. Its colours are various
shades of gray and brown. The principal hills are of this formation. The
principal colours of the limestone are blue and gray, and their various
mingled and intermediate shades. Its secondary formation is very manifest
from its almost earthy appearance. In innumerable instances, the limestone
rocks contain immense quantities of imbedded shells, of great similarity in
form and appearance, and having considerable resemblance, to the common
escallop-shell of the ocean. Owing to the easy decomposition of these
rocks, and the horizontal position of their strata, they afford many
subterranean passages for water. A considerable stream, called Lost River,
runs into a cave in the side of a precipitous hill; and, after a passage of 6 or
7 miles under the earth, again makes its appearance, with a large accession
to its waters. The traveller's attention is continually excited by cavities in
the earth, where the temporary rivulets, proceeding from rains, make a
sudden exit through perpendicular perforations in the upper stratum of the
rock. There are many such cavities, which do not receive any water from
the surface. Some of them are many yards in diameter, forming a regular

circular concave, of considerable depth towards the centre. They are
vulgarly known among the inhabitants by the name of "sink-holes." The
localities of slate are few, and present nothing uncommon.
With regard to the particular minerals. On Sand Creek, 60 miles from
White River, is an interesting locality of that variety of silex, commonly
called burrstone. It has been examined by several practical millers, who do
not hesitate to pronounce the specimens which it affords, equal, if not
superior, to the French burrs. The locality is twenty acres in extent, and
appears to be inexhaustible. The mineral varies very much in its
appearance; it is generally porous, and appears to have been puffed up by
the escape of some gas, while it was in a state of fusion. A mass of well-
raised bread gives no inadequate idea of its configuration. It produces most
vivid sparks with steel. Some labourers are employed in procuring
millstones from this place; and, such is the size of the siliceous rocks, that
they are under no necessity of constructing them of detached masses. They
form, of a single rock, millstones of five and a half feet in diameter, which
are not defaced by any irregularity, or even earthy cavity. These millstones
may be carried down the White, Wabash, Ohio, and Mississippi rivers, to
New-Orleans, with great facility. And if they should prove as excellent as it
is expected they will, this discovery will shed new lustre upon the
accumulating evidence of the mineralogical resources of this republic.
Many other varieties of silex are common: rock crystal, agate, and
chalcedony, are often found in the beds of rivulets. I passed a considerable
distance upon the banks of a small stream, called Leather-wood creek: the
bottom of the creek was covered, the whole distance, with siliceous masses,
shaped like oblate spheroids, and of every size, from that of a large melon
downwards. On being broken, they presented beautiful geodes of
crystallized quartz, amethyst, &c. The outside was often fine chalcedony,
and sometimes the interior was the same substance, in the form of balls; all
these were sometimes combined, forming agates of great beauty.
Carbonate of lime, crystallized, is sometimes found; and many of the
caves afford fine stalactites.
There is a large cave near Corydon, celebrated for the production of
sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salts. It has been explored for the distance
of several miles. When it was first discovered, the bottom, in many places,

was covered to the depth of several inches, with pure, brilliant, needle-
shaped crystals of sulphate of magnesia. By some mysterious process of
nature, or rather of Divine benevolence, the production of this useful salt is
continually going on. This cave also produces some other salts in small
quantities: nitrate of lime, nitrate of magnesia, sulphate of lime, &c.
Where the basis of the country is limestone, the waters always take up a
great quantity of lime, and some of them possess great petrifying powers. I
saw many specimens of petrifactions: a tuft of moss, the form perfectly
preserved; leaves, bark, and branches of trees; insects, and many others.
Many of the springs are strongly impregnated with sulphur, and some of
them are saturated with sulphuretted hydrogen. I found the opinion
universally prevalent among the people of this state, that the first
appearance of these sulphur springs was immediately subsequent to the
earthquakes of 1812. They say, that then new springs, impregnated with
sulphur, broke out, and the waters of some old springs, for the first time,
gave indications of this mineral. A sensible farmer, who has a large sulphur-
fountain, boiling up from the bottom of a river near its bank, assured me,
that there was no trace of this spring until after the period to which I have
alluded. He could have no interest in deceiving me; and if he did deceive
me, his conduct could originate only in that love of the marvellous which is
so characteristic of the human mind. He moreover assured me that the
"water had been growing weaker, (to use his phrase) ever since its first
appearance." I have room only to mention, among the minerals of Indiana,
many varieties of clay, ochres, gypsum, alabaster, muriat of soda, (very
common,) iron ore, and antimony.

Art. V. New localities of Agate, Chalcedony, Chabasie, Stilbite, Analcime,
Titanium, Prehnite, &c.

Deerfield, &c. In the account of the Mineralogy and Geology of
Deerfield, by Mr. Hitchcock, in the present Number, it will be seen, that
these interesting minerals (with the exception of titanium) exist in the
secondary greenstone of that place. We have specimens, (through the
kindness of Mr. Hitchcock,) and observe that the agates, chalcedony,
analcime, and prehnite, are imbedded in the trap; the agates are in some
instances very delicate in the disposition of their bands, and need nothing
but polishing to make them beautiful; the same is true of the chalcedony.
The chabasie and stilbite occupy cavities, and the chabasie is often
distinctly crystalized in a rhomboid, so nearly approaching a cube, in the
quantity of its angles, that the mistake is easily committed of supposing
them to be cubes; the crystals are sometimes transparent, and the largest a
quarter of an inch in diameter. Titanium is found in Leyden; it is the red
oxide—very well characterized—in reddish brown crystals as large as a
common goose quill,[18] and, in some instances, perfectly geniculated. It is
rare to see finer specimens.
East-Haven. It will be observed, that the great ranges of secondary
greenstone, which cut Connecticut and Massachusetts in two, terminate at
New-Haven, on the one hand, and some way above Deerfield on the other.
By comparing the account of the termination at New-Haven (Bruce's
Journal, v. i. p. 139.) with that now published, of the termination at or near
Deerfield, it will be seen that the geology and imbedded minerals are very
similar. At East-Haven, (one of the branches of the greenstone of New-
Haven, and within from three to four miles of the latter town,) chalcedony
is often found, sometimes imbedded in the trap, (but perhaps more
frequently loose among the fallen stones,) which, although in small pieces,
is as perfect in its characters as the chalcedony of the Feroe Islands. It is of
a delicate gray, translucent, mamillary, botryoidal, stalactitical, or impressed
by crystals of quartz, which have usually fallen out; sometimes these
crystals incrust the chalcedony.

Agates also are found in considerable numbers, both imbedded and loose.
They usually consist of bands of chalcedony and quartz, and sometimes of
the latter only, variously striped or spotted, or interlaced with jasper,
carnelian, and cacholong.
The form of the imbedded agates at East-Haven is commonly ovoidal, or
egg-shaped, and frequently it is conical. Some portions of pure chalcedony
occur, which are shaped like a long, slender carrot or parsnip, and the
situation of the latter in the ground would exactly represent that of the
chalcedony or agate in the rock.
The imbedded masses are frequently altogether quartz, and then they are
most commonly geodes or hollow balls lined with crystals, commonly very
perfect and brilliant, although rarely large. These crystals are commonly
transparent and colourless—but they exhibit also most of the varieties of
colour which quartz assumes—the amethyst—the smoky—yellow, &c., and
occasionally they are tipped and spotted with red jasper.
The spontaneous decay of these trap rocks causes many specimens to be
found among their ruins, and many more are imbedded in the solid rock;
but the industry of successive classes from the neighbouring college,
issuing from Col. Gibbs's cabinet, has now made specimens more scarce.
Woodbury. Twenty-four miles from New-Haven, N.W.
In a geological sketch of parts of the counties of New-Haven and
Litchfield, which may appear in a future Number, it will be seen that
prehnite, stilbite, and agate are found at Woodbury, in the little basin of
secondary greenstone which exists there; the prehnite is abundant—it is not
known whether the agates are so, although it is asserted to be the fact; the
stilbite was not observed to be abundant, although it was well characterized.

Art. VI. Account of the Strata perforated by, and of the Minerals found in,
the great adit to the Southampton Lead Mine. Communicated to the
Editor by Mr. Amos Eaton, Lecturer on Geology, Botany, &c.
To Professor Silliman.

After a laborious geological excursion along M'Clure's Springfield
section, for about one hundred miles, I visited Dr. D. Hunt, at Northampton.
He observed that you had expressed an opinion, that an attentive
examination of all the strata constituting the walls of the artificial avenue or
drift at the Southampton mines, would bring facts to knowledge, which
might, in some degree, subserve the cause of geological science. I am now
at the mouth of the drift, having just completed the labour which you had
marked out.
I employed two miners to commence with me, at the termination of the
drift, which is now extended 800 feet into the hill. We broke off large
specimens, at very short intervals, throughout the whole extent of the drift.
We arrived at its mouth with almost a boat load of specimens. I kept a
memorandum of every thing which occurred, while under ground; and I
have now arranged the specimens, before the mouth of the drift, in the same
order in which they were situated in the earth.
Fatigued as I am, I will make my remarks here, in the field, lest
something should hereafter escape me, which is now fresh in my
recollection. Beginning with the greatest distance to which the miners have
penetrated, I will set down my remarks, in fact, in reversed order.
800 feet. The rock is fine-grained gray granite, traversed by veins, lined
with quartz crystals, and mostly filled with calcareous spar, often
beautifully crystallized. In the same veins blue and purple fluate of lime and
copper pyrites frequently occur.
790 feet. The same fine-grained granite is continued, occasionally
traversed by veins lined with crystals of quartz; but containing no other
minerals.

774 feet. A narrow vein of sulphuret of lead, with walls lined with
crystals of quartz. The fairest cubic crystals are slightly attached to the
points of the quartz crystals. Yellowish crystals of carbonate of lime are
often interspersed among the lead. Sulphate of barytes occurs here also;
sometimes in plates meeting at various angles, and forming chambers lined
with minute crystals of quartz. Minute crystals of copper pyrites and a little
fluate of lime have been found here; also fine specimens of bitter spar. The
walls are very compact, fine-grained granite.
760 feet. Coarse, parti-coloured granite. The felspar is flesh-coloured and
white; the quartz often bluish or greenish; the mica silvery, greenish, or
purplish.
725 feet. A stratum of gray-wacke slate. Texture less firm than of the
same rock at the west of Pittsfield. This stratum is very distinct, and about
two feet thick.
723 feet. A stratum of serpentine rock, containing very red quartz
imbedded in various directions. It is very compact, and mostly green. Here
it is but about three feet thick. About ten miles south of this place, on
Maclure's Springfield section, near the line between Westfield and Russel,
and four miles west from Westfield Academy, I found this same stratum of
very great breadth. I say the same stratum, because it is situated in the
granitic hill, east of the highest ridge of granite, which is evidently a
continuation of this range. Perhaps I may, hereafter, give you an account of
my excursion along that section of Maclure, in which I may give you a
more particular description of the Westfield serpentine.
720 feet. Coarse granite, with white and flesh-coloured felspar, black and
silvery mica.
700 feet. A stratum of red mica slate, about four feet thick.
694 feet. Coarse, flesh-coloured granite. This is the handsomest granite in
the whole drift. Here we find the most beautiful specimens of graphic
granite, both flesh-coloured and gray.
680 feet. A stratum of Kirwan's stell-stein. That is, an aggregate of fine-
grained quartz and mica, without any felspar. The quartz is mostly greenish,
probably coloured by the next stratum.

670 feet. Beautiful green soapstone. Very compact, but rather softer than
that kind in common use for inkstands.
666 feet. A green, granular aggregate. It seems to be made up of fine
fragments of quartz, soapstone, and mica, rarely a little felspar, slightly
compacted together.
Remark. All the strata, from the inner termination of the drift to this
place, a distance of one hundred and thirty-four feet, are nearly vertical, or a
very little inclined. Here they begin to approach a horizontal position.
The green aggregate continues as far as the air-well, a distance of 66 feet,
with some trifling variations in the size and proportions of the aggregated
fragments.
500 feet. A granulated, schistose aggregate, chiefly of quartz and mica.
Though the constituents and the form of the rock correspond very nearly
with mica slate, it cannot be considered as the primitive mica slate rock. It
is so slightly compacted that it can scarcely be kept from falling to pieces.
Its position is nearly horizontal.
480 feet. A stratum of coal, half an inch thick. This stratum may be
traced, at different intervals, one hundred and eighty feet along the drift
towards its mouth. It lies between the strata of the last described schistose
aggregate.
400 feet. An aggregate appears, alternating with the loose schistose rock,
which resembles the red sandstone, but is of a less firm texture.
From this place all the strata, east of the soapstone, occasionally appear,
for the distance of about three hundred feet. This is probably on account of
their undulatory forms and horizontal position. Most of the way we find the
lower part of the walls to consist of a kind of semi-indurated puddingstone.
Sometimes a thin stratum of fine, loose sand occurs. At 300 feet the coal
stratum disappears, passing below the bottom of the drift.
The last hundred feet is chiefly gravel, which is now supported by
timbers.
Southampton, Aug. 26, 1818.

Art. VII. On the Peat of Dutchess County—read before the Lyceum of
Natural History, in New-York, by the Rev. F. C. Schaeffer, of New-York,
and by him communicated to the Editor.

In May, 1817, I brought specimens of marl and peat from Dutchess county,
which were taken from a fen or bog occupying an area of some acres. These
fens occur frequently in the towns of Rhinebeck, Northeast, Clinton, &c. in
Dutchess county. During a part of the year they are covered with water.
A pit was dug in the bog from which I procured the specimens. The order
and depth of the well-defined strata which were exhibited by this
excavation, I noted in my memorandum book, from which I extract the
following:
After clearing away the fresh sod and recent vegetable mould, there
appeared,
1. A stratum or bed of peat commonly called turf, varying in depth from
three to four feet.
2. A stratum of peat and marl commingled; depth two feet.
3. A stratum of pure marl, from two to three feet. Below these there was
an appearance of sand and blue clay.
The first, or upper stratum, consists of compact peat. This substance,
when first taken up, is of a dark brown colour, soft, and rather viscid. Some
vegetable fibres and vacuous seeds are distributed throughout the mass. It
may be moulded to any convenient form. When perfectly dry, the texture of
this variety, of which there is a specimen before you, acquires a high degree
of solidity. Its fracture is earthy; the colour is lighter.
I should not have offered more on this subject than the labelled specimen,
had I not made a most satisfactory experiment with this kind of fuel, which
may be obtained in great abundance in our own State. It is easily kindled;
burns with a bright flame; yields a bluish smoke, and produces an odour
similar to that which attends the combustion of gramineous substances. But
this is momentary. When thoroughly kindled, it burns with less flame,

yields a small proportion of blackish smoke, and sulphurous acid gas is
evolved, though I cannot discover any pyrites. It burns for a long time, and
emits a great body of heat. It leaves a very small proportion of light, grayish
white ashes; on which I have as yet made no experiments, having this day,
for the first time, paid particular attention to this substance, attracted by the
unusual hardness which it acquired since it is in my possession: and not
many hours have elapsed since I subjected it to combustion. The attempt
succeeded so well, that I cannot refrain from expressing my opinion, that
this variety of peat will answer as an excellent substitute for the best
Liverpool coal.

Art. VIII. Notices of Geology in the West-Indies.

REMARKS.

In the former Number of this work, a notice was published respecting
siliceous petrifactions of wood, from Antigua. We now publish a geological
sketch of the island, with notices of some other parts of the West Indies.
This communication is made by a friend, with permission to publish it. It is
a production of the pen of Dr. Nugent, of St. Johns, Antigua, a gentleman of
eminent scientific acquirements, who, it is hoped, will continue his laudable
and able efforts to illustrate the natural history of the West-Indies.

Memorandum concerning the Geology of Antigua, &c.

The southern and more mountainous part of the island consists of trap
rocks; more particularly of trap breccia and wacké-porphyry. On these beds
rests a series of very peculiar stratified conglomerate rocks. These strata
vary exceedingly in colour and thickness, but all dip, at a considerable
angle, to the northwest. The more usual character of this rock, is that of a
clayey basis, with minute particles of felspar, and small spots of
grünerde[19] (or chlorite Baldogée.) This latter is frequently diffused over
the whole, and gives it a green tinge: the colour has been thought by some
to proceed from the impregnation of copper, but I am rather of opinion that
is owing to manganese and iron. The conglomerate character of this rock, is
derived from its having imbedded in it, or incorporated with it, numerous
fragments, of all sizes, of petrified wood, chert, with and without coralline
impressions, agate, jasper, amygdaloid, greenstone, hornstone, porphyry,
porphyry slate, and other substances.
On this singular class of strata, reposes an extensive calcareous
formation, occupying the northern and eastern part of the island, having
subordinate to it, and at its lowest part, where it is in contact with the
conglomerate, large beds and patches of chert, which contains also a vast
variety of petrified woods, several of which are of the palm tribe, with
silicified shells, chiefly cerithea; though at the Church-hill, at St. Johns,

formed of this chert, casts of bivalve and ramose madrepores are likewise
found. The calcareous beds are principally of a friable marl, with blocks and
layers of limestone irregularly included. In this formation[20] are many
fossil shells, both in the calcareous and siliceous state; and there appear to
be some beds, wherein is a mixture of shells of marine, and others of a fresh
water, or at least a terrestrial origin. The coralline agates found in nodules
and patches therein, and which may readily be distinguished from the
coralline chert of the previous beds, are the most beautiful which have any
where been yet noticed; and when well selected and polished, make very
pleasing ornaments.
The island, as well as Barbuda, thirty miles to the northward, the Grande
Terre part of Guadaloupe, at a similar distance to the southward and
eastward, with several others of the West-India Islands, give proof of an
extensive formation, more recent than those to which naturalists have
heretofore principally confined their' attention; and which is, perhaps,
contemporaneous with, if not later than, the Paris Basin, so well described
by Cuvier and Brongniart.
April 10th, 1818. N. N.

N. B. A few specimens are sent.

REMARKS.

If the above paper be read attentively, in connexion with that in No. 1. on
the petrified wood of Antigua, it will afford some very curious information
to the geologist respecting these petrifactions, and must lead to interesting
speculations respecting their origin, under circumstances so very peculiar,
and to which we do not recollect to have heard of any parallel.

Art. IX. Discovery of Native Crystallized Carbonate of Magnesia on
Staten-Island, with a Notice of the Geology and Mineralogy of that
Island, by James Pierce, Esq. of New-York, in a Letter to the Editor.

New-York, October 19, 1818.
Dear Sir,

I forward you a few mineral specimens characteristic of Staten-Island,
including native carbonate of magnesia, in acicular crystals. I discovered
this new form and locality of magnesia in examining the strata exhibited in
an excavation now making, under the delusive expectation of finding gold,
about three miles from the Quarantine. In descending the shaft, sunk
perpendicularly in steatite, magnesite, veins of talc, and green translucent
asbestus were observed at depths from six to thirty-five feet. The magnesite
was found to embrace veins and cavities containing native carbonate of
magnesia, in very white acicular crystals, grouped in minute fibres radiating
from the sides, but not always filling the veins and cavities. The crystals
were, in some instances, suspended, assuming a stalactical form. This
carbonate of magnesia dissolves entirely in diluted sulphuric acid, with
considerable effervescence and chemical action, producing a bitter
compound, from which salts of easy solution are formed by evaporation.
The magnesite in which these crystals are found, appears to be composed of
carbonate of magnesia, steatite, and talc, disintegrating readily upon
exposure to air and moisture: it effervesces considerably in sulphuric acid,
forming a very bitter fluid that soon exhibits crystals, indicating that
magnesia enters in large proportion into its constitution. Magnesite may
perhaps be found at this place in quantity sufficient for a successful
manufacture of Epsom salts. Small regular hexaedral crystals of mica, were
noticed in steatite. Chromate of iron was sparingly diffused through the
different minerals raised from various depths.
A few remarks and facts respecting the geology and mineralogy of
Staten-Island, may, perhaps, give some additional interest to the specimens
presented.

Staten-Island (which constitutes Richmond county) is situated about
seven miles southwest of the city of New-York, extends from northeast to
southwest about fifteen miles, in a straight line, with an average width of
six. It exhibits a considerable diversity of surface. The eastern part is
composed principally of elevated ground: a mountain chain is observed to
take its rise in the vicinity of a narrow sound called the Kills, and sweep, in
a semicircular form, near the eastern shore; it then ranges southwest,
parallel with, and distant from Amboy Bay, about two miles, terminating
near the centre of the island, and forming, with the exception of some
passages, a continued chain, which, on the eastern and southern sides, is
very steep, but not precipitous; it gradually declines to the west and north,
and, in some places, it presents on its summit table land of considerable
extent. A prominent ridge crosses the island, connecting the elevated ground
of the south, with the hills of the northern part. A species of steatite,
containing veins of common, indurated, and scaly talc, amianthus, and most
of the varieties of asbestus, and some chromate of iron, constitutes the
nucleus of the whole mountain range and elevated ground of the eastern
division, stamping it as primitive. This steatite approaches, in most places,
within a foot and a half of the surface, and appears in small angular loose
blocks, wherever the soil has been removed. Its colour is a greenish yellow;
it is brittle, very adhesive to the tongue, but little unctuous, and probably
contains more alumine and less magnesia than steatites in general. Much of
it decomposes when exposed to air and moisture, and forms a good mould,
whenever the descent of ground permits an accumulation of earth. It is not
improbable, that in most places of the Staten-Island hills, when magnesia
constitutes a considerable ingredient of the rock, it will be found saturated
with carbonic acid, obviating the objection to common magnesian minerals
in agriculture.
The minerals observed on the surface of the northeast part of this chain of
hills are, secondary greenstone, asbestoid, sandstone, granite, and gneiss,
sparingly scattered in rolled masses. In addition to these rocks, in the
middle and western part of the chain, a mineral of uncommon appearance is
observed. It is composed principally of quartz, rough, with numerous cells
of various forms, in which small siliceous crystals are generally found: the
veins or plates of quartz that intersect each other, often embrace talc and
oxide of iron, which, decomposing, gives some specimens the appearance
of volcanic origin. Associated with this cellular ferruginous quartz, brown

hæmatite is often observed; this valuable ore often yields eighty per cent. of
iron of best quality; its fibres assume a variety of shapes; they were
observed at Staten-Island, straight and curved, radiating from a centre, and
exhibiting the stalactical, cylindrical, and botryoidal forms, often displaying
a black polished surface and glistening lustre. Ferruginous minerals are
abundant on the mountain for several miles. A granular oxide, called by
miners shot-ore,[21] from its being principally composed of spherical grains
of various sizes, was often noticed, and appears in some places in extensive
beds: it is easily fused, and affords a large per centage of good iron for
castings. A heavy ore, with a smooth surface and some lustre, bearing a
considerable resemblance to native iron, is sometimes seen. Banks of white
sand, resembling the siliceous particles of the seashore, are noticed on the
mountain tops, containing masses of compact, heavy ferruginous sandstone,
similar to the rocks of our alluvial seaboard. Large beds of water-worn
siliceous pebbles, in no way differing from those washed by the ocean, are
seen on the height of the ridge, in which excavations have been made
several feet, leaving the depth of the mass uncertain. On some of the
eminences, for a considerable extent, vegetation is entirely excluded by an
iron-bound soil. Iron ore, imbedded in an earth coloured by, and partly
composed of, oxide of iron, occupies the surface; and chalcedony and
radiated quartz are sometimes observed on the primitive ridge. Prospects
from many of these eminences are extensive and diversified. On one side,
the ocean and a great extent of coast are in view; on the other, a rich
landscape of hills and plains, the eye resting on the highland-chain and the
mountains bordering Pennsylvania; the harbour, at your feet, presents a
busy, ever-varying scene, and the city of New-York appears to great
advantage from this point of observation.
The district between the mountain and the narrows, the thickly settled
and well-cultivated plain bordering Amboy bay, and much of the western
division of the island, are decidedly alluvial. Adjacent to Fort Tompkins,
detached pieces of copper ore have been found. I have observed
petrifactions of marine shells in rocks excavated in that neighbourhood,
twenty feet from the surface, and sixty above the ocean.
The western part of the island presents moderate elevations; the soil, a
good medium of sand and clay, is in general fertile; but a tract near the
termination is sandy and barren. Some creeks penetrate to near the centre of

the island, and are bordered by extensive salt meadows. Except at the
primitive range, I have observed in no part of the island large beds of rock
that can be called in place; but rolled masses of greenstone, sandstone,
gneiss, granite, red jasper, and indurated clay, appear in general sparingly,
but sometimes in abundance, on the surface. Lignite has been found in
small quantities in the western part of the island. A chalybeate spring, of no
great strength, is the only mineral water met with in Richmond county. The
ponds, wells, and streams, contain a soft water, holding no lime in solution.

REMARKS.

We have already published (p. 54.) Mr. Pierce's discovery of the
pulverulent carbonate of magnesia, and have pointed out its connexion with
Dr. Bruce's previous discovery of the hydrate of magnesia, or pure
magnesia combined with water only. Mr. Pierce has now added another
important link to this chain, and future mineralogists may quote the vicinity
of New-York as affording,
1. Pure magnesia, crystallized and combined with water only.
2. Carbonate of magnesia, pulverulent and white.
3. Carbonate of magnesia, in very delicate and perfectly white acicular
crystals.
We possess specimens of them all.

Art. X. On a curious substance which accompanies the native Nitre of
Kentucky and of Africa. Communicated in a letter to the Editor, from
Samuel Brown, M. D. late of Kentucky, now of the Alabama Territory.
REMARKS.

The scientific public were several years ago laid under obligations to Dr.
Brown, for a very interesting and instructive account of the nitre caverns,
&c. of Kentucky, published in the Transactions of the Philosophical Society,
in Philadelphia, Vol. VI., and in Bruce's Journal, Vol. I. p. 100. The
following communication arose from a conversation on that subject
between Dr. Brown and the Editor.

New-Haven, July 27, 1818.
Dear Sir,
I have just found the passage I referred to the other day, relative to the
existence of native or sandrock nitre in the interior of Southern Africa. It is
in Barrow, and not in Vaillant, as I thought when I had the pleasure of
conversing with you concerning it. I am much obliged to you for recalling
my attention to that curious subject, as it has brought to my recollection a
fact, which I believe I omitted to mention in my memoir, (viz.) the
existence of a black substance in the clay under the rocks, of a bituminous
appearance and smell. This I remember to have seen in a rock-house, near
the Kentucky river, where very considerable quantities of sandrock nitre
had been obtained. This substance was found in masses of a few ounces
weight, and in the crevices of the rocks near the basis of the side walls. The
smell was not wholly bituminous, but resembled that of bitumen combined
with musk. I am quite unable to account for the formation of the nitre, or
the production of this black substance which sometimes accompanies it,
both in Africa and America. Had I seen Mr. Barrow's travels, when I noticed
the bitumen, I should certainly have paid more attention to it. But
perceiving no relation between the rock nitre and the masses of this
substance, my examination of it was much too superficial. I do not very

well understand what Mr. Barrow means by saying, that many wagon loads
of animal matter lay on the roof of the caverns in Africa. I saw no such
matter on the roof of the rock-houses in Kentucky. Certainly the caverns
have been the habitations of wild beasts, and great quantities of leaves, &c.
have been mixed with the debris of the superincumbent rocks, but it does
not seem probable, that much animal matter could be filtrated through a
roof of rock, perhaps forty or fifty feet in thickness. The subject, however,
is very curious, and deserves much more attention than any of us have
bestowed upon it.

Extract from Barrow's Southern Africa, p. 291. New-York edition.

"About 12 miles to the eastward of the wells, (Hepatic wells,) in a kloof
of the mountain, we found a considerable quantity of native nitre. It was in
a cavern similar to those used by the Bosgesmans for their winter
habitations, and in which they used to make the drawings above mentioned.
The under surface of the projecting stratum of calcareous stone, and the
sides that supported it, were incrusted with a coating of clear, white
saltpetre, that came off in flakes, from a quarter of an inch to an inch or
more in thickness. The fracture resembled that of refined sugar, it burnt
completely away without leaving any residuum; and if dissolved in water,
and thus evaporated, crystals of pure prismatic nitre were obtained. This
salt, in the same state, is to be met with under the sandstone strata of many
of the mountains of Africa; but, perhaps, not in sufficient quantities to be
employed as an article of export. There was also in the same cave, running
down the sides of the rock, a black substance, that was apparently
bituminous. The peasants called it the urine of the das. The dung of this
gregarious animal was lying upon the roof of the cavern to the amount of
many wagon loads. The putrid animal matter, filtrating through the rock,
contributed, no doubt, to the formation of the nitre. The Hepatic wells and
the native nitre rocks were in the division of Agster Sneuwberg, which joins
the Tacka to the southwest."
Should I ever visit Kentucky again, I hope that I shall be able to give a
better account of these caverns, which certainly are highly deserving of the
attention of naturalists.

In Philadelphia you may have an opportunity of seeing some small
specimens of the sandrock, containing nitre, now in the cabinet of the
Philosophical Society.

BOTANY.

Art. XI. Descriptions of species of Sponges observed on the shores of
Long-Island. By C. S. Rafinesque, Esq.

The sponges are one of the most singular productions of nature; and, even
to this time, naturalists are divided in opinion respecting their real rank in
the scale of organized beings. Some believe that they are animals,
belonging to the class of polyps, next to the genus of alcyonium, while
many contend that they are not animals, but plants, of the tribe of fuci, or
marine vegetables. I am inclined to adopt this latter opinion, since in all
those which I have seen, in Europe and America, no perceptible motion nor
sensibility was to be discerned in any stage of their existence; and those
who have acknowledged their animality, bring no stronger proof thereof
than an occasional slight shrinking under the hand, and an animal smell,
which are common to some marine plants.
Whatever be the truth on the subject, these doubtful opinions prove that
they are of the many connecting links between animals and plants. This is
not a proper place to decide this controversy; I mean merely to make known
new species of this tribe of beings, which I observed last year, on the shores
of Long-Island. Such a fragment will be, perhaps, the first attempt of the
kind; when more species shall be known, the subject may be investigated
with more certainty and accuracy.
1. Spongia albescens, Raf. (Whitish sponge.) Effuse, compressed,
irregular, perforated, somewhat branched, unequally lobed, whitish,
smooth; lobes truncated; cells porose, very minute, nearly equal; small
unequal cells inside.
Found near Bath and Gravesend, in sandy bottoms. A large species,
sometimes over a foot broad, of quite an irregular shape, rather flattened,

about one inch thick; partly gibbose; concave now and then, and with large,
irregular openings, as if large branches were anastomosed; circumference
branched or lobed, very jagged, sinus obtuse, lobes elongated obtuse,
truncate or flat, unequally divided. The substance is entirely of a cinereous
white, outside and inside, of a soft and brittle nature, rather friable; covered
outside with minute pores of an oblong or round shape, and full of small
unequal cells inside.
2. Spongia ostracina, Raf. (Oyster sponge.) Very branched, erect, red,
papillose; branches unequal, often dichotome, obtuse; cells porose, oblong,
nearly equal.
It is often found on the common oyster. (Ostrea virginica.) It rises from
four to six inches, the colour is a fine red, it branches from the base; the
branches are unequal, straight, cylindrical, or compressed. Substance
stupose. Surface covered with small papilla and small oblong unequal
pores.
3. Spongia cespitosa, Raf. (Bushy sponge.) Branched, cespitose,
yellowish, rough, papillose; branches fasciculated, upright, unequal,
flexuose, compressed, slightly anastomosed, nearly dichotome upwards;
cells porose, oblong, nearly equal, margin lacerated.
Found also on the oyster, but more seldom than the foregoing; the
specimens which I saw was found on the Bluepoint oysters, by Dr. Eddy. It
becomes brown by drying. It rises from four to six inches, the margin of the
cells or pores is torn into papillar, stiff processes, which produce a rough
surface. Substance stripose. Internal cells oblong, very small.
4. Spongia cladonia. (Cladonian sponge.) Branched effuse, smooth, pale
fulvous, stem procumbent, branches distichal, one-sided, erect, simple or
divided, obtuse; cells porose, minute; some larger round.
I have found this species at Bath and at Sandy-Hook, on Sandy bottoms.
Length about six inches. Stem and branches cylindrical or compressed.
Substance fibrose, anastomed, branches divaricate, ascendent, semi
dichotomose or simple, unequal, thicker towards the top.
5. Spongia virgata. (Slender sponge.) Nearly branched, smooth, fulvous,
stem divided, slender, cylindrical, knobby, branches erect, slender, nearly
heads acute; pores unequal, irregular, small.

A small species, three inches high, found at Oysterbay, on rocky bottoms,
rare; stem with few branches, and imperfect ones, like knobs. Substance
stupose. Branches round, alternate, small. Pores without any determinate
shape.

Art. XII. Memoir on the Xanthium maculatum, a New Species from the
State of New-York, &c. by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq.

Pursh and Michaux mention only one species of American Xanthium, the
X. strumarium, while there are three noticed in the catalogue of Dr.
Muhlenberg, the above species, and the X. orientale, and X. spinosum. The
first and the last are natives of Europe, and have been naturalized in the
United States, with many other plants. The species called X. orientale by
Dr. Muhlenberg, appears however to be a native; but the X. orientale of
Linnæus, is a native of Siberia, Japan, and the East-Indies; and when plants
are found to grow in such opposite quarters of the globe, a strong
presumption arises that they are not identical species, which presumption
has been confirmed by experience in many instances, whenever the plants
of both countries have been accurately examined. Decandolle, in the French
Flora, (2d edit, of 1815.) vol. 6. p. 356, describes, under the name of X.
macrocarpon, a species found in France, and which he takes to be the real
X. orientale of Linnæus. He has changed its name, because, he says, that it
is not certain that the X. orientale grows in Asia; or, if any grows there, that
it is identic with his species; which, however, is really the X. orientale of
Linnæus, Son, Lamark, and Gaertner. He adds, that he possesses in his
herbarium, a species from Canada, different from his X. macrocarpon
which has been figured by Morison, on whose authority some authors have
asserted that the X. orientale grew in Canada, mistaking his figure for that
plant.
From the above statement, it appears that much obscurity and difficulty
arises in botany, when errors creep into the distinction of species: to detect
those errors, and to ascertain the synonyme of obscure species, is not one of
the least useful botanical labours. Having found, last year and this year, in
the neighbourhood of New-York, a species of Xanthium different from any
described by the authors, and intermediate between the X. strumarium and
X. orientale of Linnæus, I presume that it may be the X. orientale of
Muhlenberg, Leconte, and Morison, and the Xanthium of Canada,
mentioned by Decandolle, Dumont, &c. I have given to it the name of X.

maculatum, since the stem is spotted like the Conium maculatum. None of
those authors having described it, I suppose that its description will be
acceptable, and will serve to fix this new species among the American
botanists.
Therefore it will appear, that the X. orientale, which had been considered
as a native of Asia, Europe, and America, is composed of at least three
species; the European species, which has been called X. macrocarpon by
Decandolle, the American species, which I have called X. maculatum, and
the Asiatic species, to which the name of X. orientale ought to remain; but
which ought to be better described, and more fully distinguished from the
X. macrocarpon by those who may chance to meet with it. I even suspect
that many species grow in Asia, since that of Ceylon may be different from
the Chinese and Siberian species.

Xanthium Maculatum.

Definition. Stem flexuous, round, rough, spotted with black; leaves long-
petiolate, cuneate-reniform, nearly trilobe, sinuate-toothed, obtuse, rough,
and thick; fruits elliptic, obtuse muricate; thorns rough.
Description. The root is annual, thick, and white. The stem rises from one
to two feet; it is upright, without thorns, very thick, and with few branches;
it is covered with oblong, black, and rough spots. The leaves are few, but
large, with very long petiols; they are nearly reniform, with an acute base,
and have three nerves; the teeth are unequal, large, and obtuse. The flowers
and fruits are disposed as in X. strumarium; but the fruits are generally
solitary; they are half an inch long, nearly cylindrical obtuse, with the two
beaks scarcely perceptible and bent in, covered with short, thick, and rough
thorns, rather soft, and not uncinate. The whole plant has a peculiar smell,
not unpleasant, somewhat between the camphorate and gravulent odour, but
weaker than in Conysa camphorata, &c.
History. This plant grows on Long-Island, near the seashore and marshes.
I have found it common near Bath, on the downs, and in New-Jersey, near
Bergen, and Powles Hook, on the margin of marshy meadows. According to
Dr. Mulenberg, it grows also in Pennsylvania; Messrs. Torrey and Leconte
found it on the island of New-York; and by Morison and Decandolle's
account, it is found as far north as Canada. It blossoms in August and

September, but the fruits remain on the plant till the severe frosts of
December.
Observations. This species differs from the X. macrocarpon of
Decandolle, by having smaller fruits, without horns, and whose thorns are
neither hooked nor hispid; by not having an angular stem, but a round,
spotted one, and by its leaves being broader, and not serrate, &c. Nearly all
those differences exist between it and the X. orientale of Asia, which has
not yet been isolated from the X. macrocarpon. The X. edrinatum differs
from this by having oval fruits, with aggregated, echinate, and hooked
thorns; and the X. strumarium, by having cordate hirsute leaves, the fruits
aggregated, with hooked thorns and horned tops. The X. spinosum, and X.
fruticosum, ate so totally different that they need not be compared.

ZOOLOGY.

Art. XIII. Description of the Phalaena Devastator, (the Insect that
produces the Cut-worm,) communicated for the American Journal of
Science, &c. by Mr. John P. Brace, of Litchfield, Conn.

This moth, whose larva is one of our most destructive enemies, belongs to
the Linnæan family noctua, in the genus phalaena. Its specific characters are
as follow: Wings incumbent and horizontal, when at rest; body long and
thin; thorax thick, but not crested; head small; eyes prominent and black;
antennæ setacious, gradually lessening towards extremities, and slightly
ciliated; palpi two, flat, broad in the middle, and very hairy; tongue rolled
up between them, not very prominent; clypeus small, legs long, small and
hairy; wings long as body; under wings shortest; colour a dark silvery gray,
with transverse dotted bands of black on upper wings. The insect lays its
eggs in the commencement of autumn, at the roots of trees and near the
ground: they are hatched early in May. The habits of the cut-worm have
been often and fully detailed. They eat almost all kinds of vegetables,
preferring beans, cabbages, and corn. They continue in this state about four
weeks; they then cast their skin and enter the pupa state, under ground. This
is a crustaceous covering, fitted to the parts of the future insect. In this they
continue for four weeks longer, and come out in the fly, or insect state,
about the middle of July. All those chrysalids that I exposed to the sun,
died; and all those that were kept cool under earth, produced an insect:
hence I infer, that the heat of the sun will kill the chrysalids. If, then, the
ground be ploughed about the first of July, many of those insects might be
destroyed, and the destruction of the productions of the next year prevented;
for the pupa is never more than a few inches under ground.
The phalaena devastator is never seen during the day; it conceals itself in
the crevices of buildings, and beneath the bark of trees. About sun-down it

leaves its hiding-place, is constantly on the wing, and very troublesome
about the candles in houses. It flies very rapidly, and is not easily taken.
Such is the description of this formidable enemy to vegetation. No
efficacious method has yet been taken to prevent its ravages, but the one
who could accomplish it, would do the cause of agriculture an essential
service.

Art. XIV. Description of a New Genus of North American Fresh water
Fish, Exoglossum, by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq.

Mr. Lesueur has published, in the 5th Number of the Journal of the
Academy of Sciences of Philadelphia, for September, 1817, the description
of a new fish, which he calls Cyprinus maxillingua: he considers it as a very
singular and anomalous species, owing to the peculiar structure of its lobed
lower jaw and tongue, which is external, and situated as an appendage to
the former. It was discovered in Pipe-creek, Maryland, in June, 1816, by
said author, who confesses that he does not consider it as properly
belonging to the genus Cyprinus, and presumes that when other species
shall be discovered, possessing the same character, they will constitute a
separate genus. Although this principle and presumption is correct, it was
wrong to delay the formation of such a distinct genus, because only a
species was then known, since so many genera are composed of single
species. However, Mr. Lesueur's expectation was verified even before he
wrote it, since in May, 1817, I had discovered in the Fishkill, State of New-
York, another, species, evidently congenerous with the Cyprinus
maxillingua, having the same structure of the mouth, &c. I therefore
venture to establish a separate genus for those two species, having no doubt
that many more will hereafter be added to it by accurate observers, and I
give to it the name of Exoglossum, meaning outside tongue. It will belong
to the same natural order and family of the genera Cyprinus, Catostomus,
&c.
Exoglossum. Generic Definition.—Body oblong, thick, and scaly; head
without scales, mouth without lips or teeth, upper jaw longer, entire; the
lower trilobed, middle lobe longer, performing the office of tongue; dorsal
fin opposite to the abdominal fins; three rays to the branchial membrane.
Remarks. Besides the above characters, the two species known at present
have, in common, the lateral line ascending upwards at the base, the tail
forked, &c.
1. Species. Exoglossum vittatum, Raf. Cyprinus maxillingua, Lesueur.
Specific Definition.—Back brownish olive; sides blue, with a brownish

band; a black spot at the base of the caudal fin, lower parts silvery gray;
lateral line ascending upwards at the base; dorsal and anal fins with nine
rays; tail forked.
Remarks. Length four inches; vulgar name little sucker. For further
particulars, see Lesueur's description, p. 85. cum. ic. I have been obliged to
change the specific name of maxillingua, since it has the same meaning as
the generic name.
2. Species. Exoglossum annulatum, Raf. Head black above, cheeks and
gills olivaceous, back blackish olive, sides olivaceous, lower parts olive
gray; a black ring at the base of the tail; lateral line ascending upwards at
the base, tail forked, dorsal and anal fins with nine rays.
Remarks. Length from three to six inches; vulgar name, Black chub.
Head broad and flat above, iris large and gray; fins olivaceous, abdominal
distant and with nine rays, pectoral with fifteen, caudal with twenty-four.

PHYSICS, MECHANICS, AND CHEMISTRY.

Art. XV. On the Revolving Steam-Engine, recently invented by Samuel
Morey, and Patented to him on the 14th July, 1815, with four
Engravings.

To Professor Silliman.
Sir,

The successful employment of the steam-engine, in navigating the rivers
and inland waters of the United States, and the probable extension of this
mode of conveyance of persons and property, makes those improvements
desirable which adapt the steam-engine to this purpose with less
complication and expense, placing it more within reach of individual
enterprise, and rendering it even useful on our small rivers and canals.
The steam-engine, though often seen in operation, is not readily
understood by an observer, without an acquaintance with the facts in natural
philosophy on which its power depends: and it may elucidate the subject of
this communication to advert, for a moment, to the gradations by which this
important machine has attained its present perfection.
It will be recollected that as early as 1663, the Marquis of Worcester
published some obscure hints of a mechanical power derived from the
elastic force of steam.
In 1669, Savary, availing himself of the suggestion, and pursuing the
subject more scientifically, invented his engine, consisting of an apparatus
to cause a vacuum by the condensation of steam, so that the water to be
raised would thereupon, by the external weight of the atmosphere, rise into
the chamber of the apparatus, which the steam had occupied.
As caloric becomes latent in the steam which it forms at 212° of
Fahrenheit, and the steam thus formed occupies 1800 times the bulk of the

water composing it; and as it returns instantly to a state of water on losing
its heat, by contact with any thing cold, Savary easily produced his vacuum
by the injection of a little cold water.
He also used (though in a very disadvantageous manner) the expansive
force of steam to drive the water out of the chamber, through a pipe
different from that by which it entered.
It is doubtful whether this kind of engine was ever erected on a scale of
any magnitude; for, a few years later, Newcomen and Crawley invented the
first engine with a cylinder and piston; and Savary, abandoning his own,
united with them in bringing their engine into use.
As steam drives out air, the principle of this engine was to let steam into
the cylinder beneath the piston, where (the piston having risen to the top of
the cylinder) a jet of cold water[22] condensed the steam, produced a
vacuum, and the piston, working air tight, descended by the pressure of the
atmosphere upon it, this pressure being a weight of nearly fifteen pounds to
each square inch; so that if the cylinder were two feet diameter, it would
amount to a weight of three tons.
This mode of operation prevailed for about fifty years, and though much
used to pump water from mines, was found to have great inconveniences
and defects; till, in the year 1762, Mr. Watt, being employed to repair a
working-model of an engine at the University of Glasgow, was led to direct
his mind to the improvement of the machine; and from his experiments
sprung the most essential change, viz. the condensation of the steam in the
cylinder, by opening a communication with a separate vessel, into which the
injection of cold water was made, thus allowing the cylinder to remain hot.
On opening that communication, the steam instantly rushes to the cold, or
rather is destroyed by the instant loss or reduction of its heat, and the
vacuum thus made allows the piston to descend as before mentioned.

Pl. I.

Pl. II.

Pl. III.

Pl. IV.

Mr. Watt soon added the airpump to the condenser, to extract the air
extricated from the water in boiling, together with the water injected.
The next step was to close the upper end of the cylinder, the piston-rod
working through a tight packing to exclude the air, letting the steam in
above, as well as below the piston, by an alternate communication, and then
condensing it in both cases alternately, thus producing a double stroke; at
the same time deriving some aid from the expansive force of the steam on
the side of the piston opposite to the vacuum. This is essentially the form of
all the engines in use at the present day. The minor parts devised by Mr.
Watt, as the working of the valves, &c. were such as would readily occur to
a scientific mechanician.
While he was bringing the engine to its present perfection, and furnishing
it for the numerous mines, manufactories, and breweries in Great Britain,
variations were devised by Cartwright, by Hornblower, Woolf, and others in
England, and more recently by Evans and by Ogden in America, evincing
much ingenuity, but (with the exception of Evans's, which is a simple
engine of high pressure) making the machine more complex.
Watt and Bolton's engine, as most generally used, being properly an
atmospheric engine, or working with steam so low as merely to produce a
vacuum in the cylinder, became of enormous dimensions, when the power
required was that of an hundred horses: a scale of estimate adapted to the
comprehension of those who had before used the labour of that animal, and
preferred to substitute the steam-engine.
It had not, however, escaped the notice of Mr. Watt, that there existed in
steam another source of power besides that of atmospheric pressure. The
experiments of his learned friend, Dr. Black, of Glasgow, as well as those of
the French chemists, and of Papin, in the instance of his digester, had
ascertained the laws of its expansive force, and amongst other interesting
facts, those subservient to our present purpose; viz. That after water has
reached the boiling point, 212° of Fahrenheit, the caloric which enters it no
longer becomes latent, but sensible in the steam, which thereupon acquires
expansive force to an unlimited degree: that this force increases
geometrically; or, that every accession of about 30° of heat, nearly doubles
its power at those stages of progression; that when the pressure at a high
temperature is taken off, or the steam allowed to flow, there is an

instantaneous and rapid production of steam; a fact which proves there can
be no necessity of a large space for the steam to form in above the water,
provided it be sufficient to prevent water from issuing with the steam, and,
therefore, that boilers of a small cylindrical form are best.
It may be a fair question, why Mr. Watt did not further employ this
principle of expansive force? We may readily conceive of several motives
to the contrary. Watt and Bolton's engines were in great demand; they gave
entire satisfaction, and the work they performed saved so much labour as to
afford the purchase at a high price. The public had gained immensely by
this better form of the engine, and Mr. Watt enjoyed the benefits of the
patent he had obtained; and, at a later period, this preference was increased
by an accident which happened to Trevethick's engine, though caused by
gross mismanagement, that would have been equally fatal to any other.
From an investigation, by a committee of parliament, into the causes of
the several fatal explosions of steam-engine boilers within a few years,
published in Tillock's Magazine, vol. 1., it appears that in every instance the
accident was fairly attributable to neglect or mismanagement. Many
competent persons were summoned to give their opinions; and through the
contrariety of their testimony, the prevalent opinion appears to have been,
that cast-iron boilers cannot be safe; that as many engines of high steam as
of low are now used in England, but that the high are much the most
economical in fuel and cost; that they are more safe, if properly constructed;
it being argued by some, that boilers for steam of 100 pounds to the inch,
are easily made of strength to sustain 500 pounds; this excess being much
greater than in those constructed for low steam, makes them comparatively
the safest, as the safety valves are less liable to be accidentally prevented
from venting the steam.
In the United States, instances are not wanting of the successful operation
of high steam; of which the engine at the mint is a conspicuous example.
There can, indeed, be no good reason why this great power should not be
employed to an extent within the limits of safety, if more economical and
convenient. If boilers can bear (as they are usually made of iron) 500
pounds, there can be no danger in using them with fifty; and this gives an
increase of power, with a condenser, fourfold, or makes a ten horse power
forty. The economy, therefore, of high steam, hardly admits of a question. It
seems unphilosophical to neglect a power so great, merely because it is so.

Mr. Watt was desirous of an improvement by which to obtain a direct
rotatory motion. His experiments, resembling those of Curtis, at New-York,
were not found permanently practicable.
It was probably perceived to be a great object to get rid of a reciprocating
movement of large masses, on the well-known mechanical principle, that it
consumes power to check momentum, as well as to give it—to drag an inert
mass into motion rapidly, in opposite directions. And in engines for
navigation this is more disadvantageous than for land uses, as the
foundation of the engine cannot be perfectly substantial.
An engine, therefore, that possesses the cylinder and other members of
Watt's engine, working with or without a condenser, at pleasure—having a
rotatory movement—requiring no ponderous balance-wheel—adapted to
high steam—attended by no inconvenience from the rapidity of its stroke or
movement—having no inert mass of machinery to move reciprocally—
more powerful, proportionately, from its using steam as strong as that in the
boiler—of a simple and durable construction, and by a combination of two
similar machines attached to the same common intermediate axis, operating
so as to give nearly an equal power at every moment of its operation, seems
to combine every thing desirable in an engine for the purposes of
navigation. Such appears to be the revolving engine invented by Mr. Morey.
When those who are acquainted with steam-engines of the atmospheric
kind only, are told that Morels cylinder revolves, their imaginations may
suppose a moving mass as large as the enormous cylinders they have been
accustomed to see: but it is not so; the elastic force of steam requires
machinery but of comparatively small dimensions.
The revolving engine makes up in activity what in other engines is
supplied by magnitude.
We will take for example the engine working at the glass manufactory, in
this vicinity, the cylinder of which has one foot stroke and nine inches
diameter, and is at least a ten horse power, working with fifty pounds—or,
the engine now building for the Hartford boat. This engine will have two
cylinders of seventeen inches diameter and eighteen inch stroke; they will
revolve fifty times a minute. The area of the piston in each being 227
inches, steam at fifty pounds will give an hundred horse power.

This boat is seventy-seven feet long, twenty-one feet wide, and measures
one hundred and thirty-six tons. The engine, with its boilers, will occupy
sixteen feet by twelve, or one-eighth only of the boat; the cylinders being
hung on the timbers of the deck over the boilers. She is principally intended
to tow vessels up the river to Hartford.
In towing, it is of importance that the engine admit of any inferior
velocity or power, till some momentum is had. An engine working by
atmospheric pressure does not admit of this. And as the boat herself, at the
moment of commencing the operation, may have no steerage-way, by
placing two blade-rudders at the sides, behind the water-wheel, where a
current is occasioned by them, the boat is kept in her relative position.
The application of the steam-engine to the towing of other vessels was
fully appreciated by the late Mr. Fulton, whose conspicuous labours and
enterprise, in the establishment of steam-boats, the public duly honours. His
active mind had conceived of its utility; and he would have obtained a
patent, had not the previous employment of steam in this way, and the
award of arbitrators on the question been in my favour; which I mention
merely in reference to the supposed utility of this mode of operation, in
connexion with Morey's engine.
Morey's engine should rather be denominated a revolving engine than a
rotatory one, especially as it is essentially different from one so called
invented by Mr. Curtis.
Plate I. Fig. 5, represents the arrangement of a double engine for a boat,
with its cylinders in different positions. a a a, boilers; b b, tar-vessel; c,
valve-box; d, cylinders in different positions; e, piston-rod; f, pitman; h,
centre-piece; i i, shaft; k, valve; l, steam-pipe; m, escape-pipe; n,
condensers; t, water-wheel; v, face of the valves; x, tar-fire. The frame,
holding the cylinder (d) is, by its opposite sides, so hung as to revolve. To
the end of the axis of one side, extended over the cylinder, is fixed the
centre-piece (h) resembling a crank, from which the bar or pitman (f)
communicates to the cross-piece of the piston-rod. On this same axis, but
outside the frame, is placed two circular pieces, one of brass, the other of
iron, (k) which we may call the valves. One is fixed on the axis, the other
moves, and accompanies the frame and cylinder in its revolution; from it, at
opposite sides, pipes lead the steam to each end of the cylinder. It has a

smooth face, which applies, and is kept by springs close to that of its
counterpart fixed on the said axis. Steam-pipes lead from the boilers
through the counterpart into the moving valve. On the opposite side of the
fixed piece the eduction-pipe (o o) leads to the condensers.
The condensers (p) are upright vessels, two to each cylinder, connected at
top by a sliding valve box, so that the steam enters them alternately. At
bottom are two valves, kept closed by weights. A stream of water is injected
into the condensers, which escapes by the bottom valves (p p) by which
also the air is blown out, at every stroke, in the same manner the engine is
cleared of air at first.
There are also two cocks and cross-pipes seen, Plate III. Fig. 4, to change
the steam from one side to the other of the valve, to give a reversed motion
of the engine.
The power is communicated to its object from the opposite side of the
frame by the axis attached thereto, and supported on bearings. This axis (i i)
may be of any length; may terminate in a crank or cog-wheel, or another
cylinder (as here represented) may be attached thereto at right angles to the
first, to co-operate and produce, at every moment, equal power.
Plate II. Fig. 6. Profile of the above. a a, the boiler; c, valve; d e g,
cylinder and frame; f, valve; h h, cog-wheels; i, cog-wheels to move the
pumps; k k, condensers; m m, coverings in; o o, gas-fire flue.
Fig. 1. a, steam-pipe; b, escape-pipe; c, fixed valve; d, moving valve; e,
axis; f, a washer; g, section of frame; h, a washer; i, centre-piece; l l, steam-
pipe; k k, springs to keep the valves together.
The canal-boat has her wheel in the stern. (See Plate IV.) The motion is
given by a cog-wheel upon its axis (g) played upon by another, upon a
shaft, at right angles, to which the engine communicates motion. The wheel
being divided by a space of two or three inches, into two parts, to allow
room for this shaft, and for the support of its end.
Fig. 3, represents the arrangement of the machinery, occupying the after-
part of the boat. An engine of twenty horse power may thus occupy half a
canal-boat, can tow a number of others at such rate as may be proper on
canals.[23] b b, the boilers; c, tar-vessel; d, the cylinder; f, water-wheel.

The supply of water to the boilers is either by a pump, in usual form, or
by the supply-chamber of my invention, (Plate III. Fig. 2.) which consists
simply of a pipe having two stop-cocks, one end in a reservoir, the other
opening into the boiler at top, sloping downward for a foot or two. The
cocks are in the sloping point. The operation commences, by opening the
cock nearest the boiler, the steam drives the air out of the pipe through the
water into the reservoir; shut the cock, and the water rises from the
reservoir to fill it; shut the second cock, and open the first, the water
discharges from the chamber into the boiler; repeated by a movement from
the engine, when in motion, the supply continues with more certainty than
by a pump, because it is difficult to pump hot water, on account of the
elasticity of the steam arising from it, which obstructs the operation of the
valves. And it is important not to have to pump against the pressure of high
steam.[24]
Plate III. Fig. 4. The mode of changing the passage of the steam to the
opposite sides of the valves, in order to get a reversed motion of the engine.
a a, the fixed part, or valves; c d, the pipes; f g, the cross pipes; e e, the
cocks, which are represented open, to pipes c and d—turn them half round,
they close c and d, and open f and g. Fig. 1 shows the side-rudders, d, e, &c.
To this engine is conveniently applied the gas-fire, in the following
manner.
The boilers being cylindrical, with an inside flue for fuel, two or three are
placed close together, and set in the following manner: First, cross-bars of
iron are laid on the timbers, a platform of sheet-iron is laid on these bars,
coated over with clay mortar, or cemented, to keep out the air. Upon the
sheet-iron, and over the bars below, are placed cast-iron blocks in shape to
fit the curve of the boiler, so as to raise it three or four inches above the
platform. The sheet-iron is continued up the outsides of the outer boilers, so
as to enclose them; and at one end, between the boilers, there are small
grates for coal or other fuel.
The tar vessel or vessels, as the case may be, are lodged in the space
between and upon the boilers, and a small fire may be made under them, if
necessary. A pipe leads steam in at one end, two pipes at the other; one near
the bottom, and one near the top, lead out the tar and steam. These pipes
unite below; the steam and tar, thus mingled in suitable proportions, flow to

the main fire, or the flues of the boilers, as well as to the coal-fire below,
where the gas and tar are ignited. The fireman judges of the proportion of
each, by the effect; the object being to produce a nearly white flame without
appearance of tar. Thus flame is applied to the greatest possible surface, and
the apparatus adds very little to the cost of the engine.
There are also two improvements in the boiler, which I deem it important
to mention. First, the lining or covering of the flue within with sheet-iron or
copper, perforated with small holes, reaching down its sides, nearly to the
bottom. Plate III. Fig. 2. a the boiler; b the flue; d the grate; c c the lining.
This causes the water to circulate rapidly between them to the top of the
flue, and protects it from being run dry, or heated red hot, when the water
gets, by accident, too low. The lining also causes the steam to form much
faster, in consequence of this circulation.
The other is the interior boiler. A vessel occupying the back part of the
flue. Plate II. Fig. 8. (d) communicating downwards with the water, and
upwards with the steam of the main boiler. The fire acts upon it very
forcibly, surrounding it on all sides.
I have said there is no reciprocating movement in Morey's engine. Should
it be objected that the piston moves in the cylinder as usual, it must be
apparent that it also moves circularly; it is in fact the cylinder that moves,
carrying the piston with it, which gives and keeps up the motion, by
drawing and pressing on the centre-piece, and communicating the resistance
thence to the guides of the cross-piece on the insides of the frame, which
thus receives its motion.
In fact, this form of the engine seems divested of all the usual drawbacks
on its power, and leaves it to act freely with any velocity, according to the
strength of the steam in the boilers.
Such it appears in principle, and such thus far in practise. I have therefore
preferred it for the purposes of navigation, and have purchased the patent
right. But, though interested to recommend it, I cannot expect it to be
preferred by the intelligent, if there is not merit in the invention, and great
economy in its use. It may be considered the most direct application of the
power, and the most unexceptionable mode of using the expansive force of

high steam. And from the nature of its movement the most applicable to
boats and vessels.
Your Journal being the intended medium of information to promote the
useful arts, I hope it may be consistent with this object to explain the
manner in which these improvements may be made extensively useful.
It being necessary to supply the engines at a reasonable rate, I have
established a manufactory for this kind only. The great expense of steam-
boats hitherto, has confined their use too exclusively to the accommodation
of passengers. There is a wide field opening for their use, in freighting, on
all our waters; and it is often of importance to a community, when great
savings can be made, that large capitalists should be induced to engage that
such savings may be greater. Where companies are formed for an extensive
operation, the legislature may, with propriety, grant an extension of the time
for patents to run, that such persons may be duly remunerated for their
enterprise, by the duration of the service.
Our laws do not yet make a proper distinction between patents of a large
and expensive kind and those requiring little or no capital to go into
operation. The period of fourteen years remunerates the inventor of those
improvements only that require no capital, and involve no risk.
On this ground several of the State legislatures have, with good policy,
given encouragement to this kind of enterprise. They suspend the free use
of the invention a few years, rather than loose its immediate operation on a
large scale of public benefit.
The constitutionality of the measure plainly appears by its not interfering
with the laws of the United States. It is not an act exclusive of, or in
opposition to, patents, but acknowledging and confirming them. It is
furthering and giving effect to the intentions of the general government, in
the encouragement of useful inventions. For their own particular section of
the union, a State legislature may thus provide for the protection of capital,
engaged in enterprise of uncommon risk, as well as of uncommon
usefulness, without excluding other and better inventions, should they arise.
I shall ask leave to communicate, for some future Number, the results of
experiments, now making, with the gas fire applied to engines.
I am your most respectful humble servant,

JOHN L. SULLIVAN

Art. XVI. Cautions regarding Fulminating Powders.

Fulminating Mercury.

During a late lecture in the laboratory of Yale College, a quantity of
fulminating mercury, probably about 100 or 150 grains, lay upon a paper,
the paper lay on a small stool, which was made of pine plank, one inch and
a half thick; a glass gas receiver, 5 or 6 quarts capacity, stood over the
powder, as a guard, but without touching it, and stool and all stood on one
of the shelves of the pneumatic cistern, surrounded by tall tubes and other
glasses, several of which were within 6 or 8 inches. A small quantity of the
fulminating powder, at the distance of a few feet, was merely flashed, by a
coal of fire, but without explosion. In a manner, not easily understood, the
whole quantity of powder under the large glass instantly exploded with an
astounding report; but the glass was not exploded—it was merely thrown up
a little; in its fall it was shattered, and broke a glass which it hit, but no
fragment was projected, and none of the other contiguous tubes and glasses
were even overset, nor were any of a large audience, and some of them very
near, even scratched; but the plank, one and a half inch thick, on which the
powder lay, had a hole blown quite through, almost as large as the palm of
one's hand. This is a striking instance to prove that the initial force of this
powder, when exploded, is very great, but that it extends but a very little
way. If it be strewed through a glass tube of three-fourths of an inch in
diameter, and exploded by a coal of fire or hot iron, the tube may be held in
the naked hand, and the powder only flashes without breaking the tube, and
merely coats it over inside, and that very prettily, with the revived
quicksilver.

Fulminating Silver.

Chemists are too well acquainted with the tremendous energy of this
preparation, to make any comment upon its powers necessary. Unhappily,
however, it is now made a subject of amusement; it is prepared for sale by
those who know nothing of it, except as a nostrum, and it is bought by

others who have not even this degree of knowledge. It is true it is put up in
small quantities, in the little toys called torpedoes, and, if exploded one by
one, they will ordinarily do no harm; but as they fall into the hands of
children, we can never be secure that they will be discreetly used.
A very severe accident, from the unexpected explosion of this substance,
occurred some years since in the laboratory of Yale College. (See Bruce's
Journal, Vol. I. p. 163.) And, notwithstanding that this occurrence was well
known in New-Haven, the same accident, only under a severer form, has
again occurred in that town.
A man who had bought the secret of making fulminating silver, had
prepared as much as resulted from the solution of one ounce and a half.
Apparently, in a great measure, unaware of the nature of the preparation, he
had placed it, unmixed with any thing, on an earthen plate, which stood on a
table; his wife and children being around, he sat down to distribute the
powder upon several papers which he had prepared for the purpose; sand
and shot are mixed with the powder in the papers for the purpose of giving
momentum, and of producing attrition when the torpedo is thrown, in order
to ensure its explosion. Probably also the sand, looking not very unlike the
powder, may be intended to screen it from view, and thus to preserve the
secret, should the papers be opened. The unhappy man no sooner touched
the fulminating silver with a knife, than it exploded with its usual violence;
the table was split in two; blood issued copiously from every part of his
face, not from wounds, for it does not appear that the fragments hit him,
but, according to the opinion of a competent judge, the blood was actually
forced through the pores of the skin by the power of the explosion, which
very nearly destroyed his eyes. He suffered immensely, but now, at the end
of eight months, sees partially with one eye, but the other is nearly, if not
quite, destroyed.
Should not the tampering with such dangerous substances by ignorant
people be prevented by law?
In a late lecture in the laboratory of Yale College, some fulminating
silver, on the point of a knife, was in the act of being put upon a copper-
plate connected with one pole of a galvanic battery in active operation, the
other pole was not touched by the experimenter; but it seems that the
influence which was communicated through the floor of the room was

sufficient instantly to explode the powder, as soon as the knife touched the
copper-plate; the knifeblade was broken in two, and one half of it thrown to
a distance among the audience.
Recently also, we are informed, in one of the foreign journals, that a man
in England, who accidentally trod on a quantity of fulminating silver, had
his foot nearly destroyed by the explosion.

USEFUL ARTS.

Art. XIX. Account of an economical method of obtaining Gelatine from
bones, as practised in Paris. Communicated to the Editor by Mr. Isaac
Doolittle.
Paris, 16th May, 1818.
My dear Sir,

A few days since I visited the very interesting establishment of M. Robert,
for the extraction of the gelatinous matter from bones.
The bones used for this purpose are those only which answered no useful
purpose (except for the fabrication of phosphorus or ammoniac) before this
discovery, such as those of the head, the ribs, &c. &c., the legs of sheep and
calves, &c. Those formerly used by toysmen (Tabletiers) are still used for
that purpose, after extracting so much of the gelatine as can be done by
ebullition.
When the heads of oxen are to be operated upon, they begin by extracting
the teeth, (these are reserved for the fabrication of ammoniac, as affording a
greater proportion of that alkali than any of the other bones,) they then
break the skull, in such manner as to preserve all the compact parts in as
regular forms as possible; these pieces present a surface of 20 to 30 square
inches, and are put to soak in a mixture of muriatic acid and water. The
muriatic acid used bears about twenty-three degrees o£ the aeromètre, and
is diluted by water to about six degrees—four parts of the liquor is used to
one part of bones. They are left in this state, in open vessels, until a
complete solution of the phosphate of lime has taken place, and the
gelatinous part of the bone remains in its original shape and size, and is
perfectly supple. When this operation is finished, which commonly lasts six
or eight days, the gelatine is put into baskets, being first drained, and
immersed a short time in boiling water, in order to extract any small

remains of grease, which would deteriorate the gelatine, and also to extract
any of the acid which might be lodged in the pores. It is then carefully
wiped with clean linen, and afterward washed in copious streams of cold
water, to whiten it, and render it more transparent; it is then put to dry in the
shade.
Two ounces of this gelatine are said to be equal to three pounds of beef in
making soup—that is, three pounds of beef and two ounces of gelatine will
make as much soup, and of as good quality, as six pounds of beef. It is
constantly used in some of the hospitals of the capital, particularly in the
lying-in-hospital.
The ends of the bones, and such parts as from their porosity might still
retain a portion of the acid, are separated, and used for making glue of a
very superior quality.
The inside of the bones of sheep's legs furnish a sort of membranous
glue, which supplies, with advantage, the place of isinglass in the
fabrication of silk stuffs.
I give you these particulars, not because I think they contain any thing
new to you, in principle, but because I may have hit upon some details with
which you were unacquainted.

Art. XX. Experiments made in France upon the Use of Distilled Seawater
for domestic purposes, and its Effects on the Constitution, when taken as
a Beverage.[25]

In consequence of the great want of good fresh water in many of the
maritime parts of France, the government some time since ordered some
experiments to be made, upon an extensive scale, in order to ascertain how
far seawater, when distilled, could be used with success. Little or no use had
hitherto been made of water so prepared, except in long voyages, and
chiefly then only as a matter of necessity. There are above two hundred
leagues of seacoast in France, where, to the breadth of many miles, the
inhabitants are compelled to make use of bad and impure water, which, in
many cases, is injurious to the health of themselves and their animals. In
similar cases, it was the custom of the ancients to construct cisterns; but
these are not only expensive in themselves, but their utility depends upon
the quantity of rain that falls; while upon the shores of the most barren
places, nature has supplied a variety of vegetable matter, which, when dried,
would not only serve as a fuel for the purposes of distillation, but from the
ashes of which might be obtained a saline substance, sufficient to repay the
expense of collecting, drying, and burning. Thus the fuel for the distillation
of seawater would, in reality, cost nothing, while its preparation would
employ many individuals, particularly women and children. Before,
however, erecting any apparatus for this purpose, it was necessary to
ascertain both the utility and salubrity of the water thus prepared.
It is well known that Bougainville, Phipps, Homelin, &c. had employed
this water with much success; but they, like most of the chemists of the last
age, did not endeavour to imitate the process of nature in all its simplicity,
but mixed various substances with the seawater, in order to take away or
lessen the effect of the empyreuma arising from the distillation, and which
was so unpleasant to the smell and taste. And it is this which in general
renders sailors so averse to it, and excites a prejudice very unfavourable to
the salubrity of distilled seawater. One of the great objects to be ascertained

was, whether this disagreeable smell and taste was peculiar to seawater or
arose from the act of distillation.
In the month of July, last year, the king ordered some experiments to be
made, upon a large scale, at the three ports of Brest, Rochefort, and Toulon.
The instructions given were as follows: That a sufficient quantity of
seawater should be distilled to prepare, for the space of a month, bread and
other food for a certain number of criminals, who were employed on the
works of these ports, and also to supply them with drink, keeping from
them during that period every other liquid. Ten or twelve persons at each
part voluntarily came forward and offered themselves for the experiment.
The persons employed by government first distilled a sufficient quantity
of seawater, without the admixture of any other substance. This produce
dissolved soap, dressed vegetables, produced the same appearances, with
the aerometer, as that distilled from spring water. There was no difference
between the one and the other. But the distilled seawater had always that
empyreumatic taste and smell, of which we have before spoken; and it was
so strong, that the commission at Toulon called it odeur de marine, and
odeur de marecage. But this is not peculiar to seawater, for the result of a
distillation of fresh water had always the same taste and smell. Neither of
these liquids immediately loses this by being filtered through charcoal; but
by being exposed for some time to the air, the distilled seawater loses this
unpleasant quality, and then it does not differ from fresh water derived from
the purest source; and both have equally stood every chemical test to which
they have been exposed. The chemical properties of this water having thus
been determined, it remains to give an account of the effects upon the
individuals who underwent the experiment. These are the principal results:
Brest. During the first days, those who drank the water complained of a
weight upon the stomach. This indisposition, which was the only one they
experienced, soon decreased upon taking exercise, and totally went off by
an additional ounce of biscuit added to their common ration. One of them,
on the 29th day, had a few symptoms, but which he himself attributed to an
indigestion, from some bacon he had eaten. Eight individuals drank twenty-
five pints a day, rather more than three pints each,—(N. B. The French pint
contains very near fifty-seven cubic inches of English measure, and is the
regulation size for the claret or Bordeaux bottle; but in general the bottles

are rather smaller. The French pint is therefore equal to rather more than
nineteen-twentieths of an English quart, wine measure.)
Toulon. The results obtained at the arsenal of this town, were not less
decisive or satisfactory. The six persons who made the experiment acquired
a greater degree of freshness in their appearance, and were much fatter.
Their daily consumption of distilled water was nine pounds (poids de marc)
for drink, and eleven pounds for cooking. This is nearly the same relative
quantity as those at Brest.
Rochefort. The experiments here have not been made with the same
regularity; because the fifteen persons fixed upon had all agreed to say that
they were very ill. The two principal ones complained of violent cholics and
diarrhœas: but the plot was discovered, and upon being put upon the sick-
list, (à la diète,) they were laughed at by their companions. No one of them
was really indisposed; on the contrary, many thought they experienced
some good effect in regard to some infirmities under which they had long
laboured.
The above are not, however, the only experiments which have been made
upon this beverage. Several persons wishing to ascertain its effects by
individual experience, have voluntarily confined themselves to its use; and
the members of the commission of inquiry are almost in the daily practice
of taking it. The captain of the Duclat has taken it every day at his meals for
twenty days, and has experienced not the smallest inconvenience from its
use. M. M. Vasse, and Chatelain, apothecaries to the marine at Brest, have
occasionally kept the water in their mouths for four hours, by constantly
renewing it, and have not found either the sharp taste, or other caustic
qualities, which have been said to be peculiar to it. And here it may be
proper to state, that the mouths of all the individuals who had taken the
water for a length of time were examined, without the detection of any
thing in them either of a swollen or inflammatory appearance. Such are the
reports of commissioners employed to investigate the effects of distilled
seawater, who, although separated at a great distance from each other, and
having no communication, all agree in the inference, that it may be
employed without any injury to the health, both as a beverage and in
cookery, for the space of at least a month; and the fair presumption is, that it
may be employed for a much longer time; and that in consequence, it must
be considered as a very happy resource in long voyages of discovery.

FINE ARTS.

Art. XXI. Essay on Musical Temperament. By Professor Fisher, of Yale
College.

[Concluded from page 35.]

Proposition V.
To determine that position of any degree in the scale, which will render
all the concords terminated by it, at a medium, the most harmonious;
supposing their relative frequency given, and all the other degrees
fixed.

The best scheme of temperament for the changeable scale, on supposition
that all the concords were of equally frequent occurrence, is investigated in
Prop. III. But it is shown, in the last Proposition, that some chords occur in
practice far more frequently than others. Hence it becomes necessary to
ascertain what changes in the scale above referred to, this different
frequency requires. Any given degree, as C, terminates six different
concords; a Vth, IIId, and 3d above, and the same intervals below it. Let the
numbers denoting the frequency of these chords below C be denoted by a,
b, and c, and their temperaments, before the position of C is changed, by m,
n, and p: and let the frequency of the chords above C be denoted by a′, b′,
and c′, and their temperaments by m′, n′, and p′, respectively. If, now, we
regard any two of these 6 chords, whose temperaments would be
diminished by moving C opposite ways, and of which the sum of the
temperaments is consequently fixed, it is manifest that the more frequent
the occurrence, the less ought to be the temperament. Were we guided only
by the consideration of making the aggregate of dissonance heard in them
in a given time, the least possible, we should make the one of most frequent

occurrence perfect, and throw the whole of the temperament upon the other.
Let, for example, a be greater than a′, and let x be any variable distance to
which C is moved, so as to diminish the temperament m, of the chord
whose frequency is expressed by a. Then the temperament of a will become
= m ~ x, and that of a′ = m′ + x. Hence, as the dissonance head in each, in a
given time, is in the compound ratio of its frequency of occurrence and its
temperament, their aggregate dissonance will be as a · m ~ x + a′ · m′ + x; a
quantity which, as a is supposed greater than a′, evidently becomes a
minimum when x = m, or the chord, whose frequency is a, is made perfect.
But in this way we render the harmony of the chords very unequal, which
is, cæteris paribus, a disadvantage. As these considerations are
heterogeneous, it must be a matter of judgment, rather than of mathematical
certainty, what precise weight is to be given to each. We will give so much
weight to the latter consideration, as to make the temperament of each
concord inversely as its frequency. We have then
a : a′ :: m 1– x : m′1+ x ; which gives x = ama –+ a′m′
a′
.
But there are six concords to be accommodated, instead of two; and it is
evident that all the pairs cannot have their temperament inversely as their
frequency, since the numbers a, b, &c. and m, n, &c. have no constant ratio
to each other. This, however, will be the case, at a medium, if x be made
such, that the sum of the products of the numbers expressing the frequency
of those chords whose temperaments are increased by x, into their
respective temperaments, shall be equal to the sum of the corresponding
products belonging to those chords whose temperaments are diminished by
x. Applying this principle to the system of temperament in Prop. III, which
flattens all the concords, it is plain that raising any given degree by x will
increase the temperaments of the concords above that degree, and diminish
those of the concords below it. Hence it ought to be raised till
(m – x) a +(n – x)b + (p – x)c = (m′ + x)a + (n′ + x)b′ + (p + x)c′ ; from
am – a′m′ + bn – b′n′ + cp – c′p′
which x is found = a + a′ + b + b′ + c + c′
. Should either of the
temperaments be sharp, the sign of that term of the numerator, in which it
occurs, must be changed; and should the total value of the expression be
negative, x must be taken below C.

Proposition VI.

To determine that system of temperaments for the concords of the
changeable scale, which will render it, including every consideration,
the most harmonious possible.
We can scarcely expect to find any direct analytical process, which will
furnish us with a solution of this complicated problem, at a single operation.
We shall therefore content ourselves with a method which gradually
approximates towards the desired results. The best position of any given
degree, as C, supposing all the rest fixed, is determined by the last
proposition. In the same manner it is evident that the constitution of the
whole scale will be the best possible, when no degree in it can be elevated
or depressed, without rendering the sums of the products there referred to,
unequal. We can approximate to this state of the scale, by applying the
theorem in Prop. V. to each of the degrees successively. It is not essential in
what order the application is made; but for the sake of uniformity, in the
successive approximations, we will begin with that degree which has the
greatest sum a + a′ + b + &c. belonging to it, and proceed regularly to that
in which it is least. Making the equal temperament of Prop. III., (in which
the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds are flattened, 154, 77 and 77, respectively.) the
standard from which to commence the alterations in the scale required by
the unequal frequency of different chords, and beginning with D, the
theorem gives x = 5. Hence supposing the rest of the degrees in the scale
unaltered, it will be in the most harmonious state, when D is raised 5/540 of a
comma. For by the last proposition, the temperament of the six concords
affected by changing the place of D is best distributed, and that of the other
concords is not at all affected. We will now proceed to the second degree in
the scale, viz. A; in which the application of the theorem gives x = 13. In
this application, however, as D was before raised 5, m, the temperament of
the Vth below A, must be taken 154 + 5; and in all the succeeding
operations, when the exterior termination of any concord has been already
altered, we must take its temperament, not what it was at first, but what it
has become, by such previous alteration. In this manner, the scale is
becoming more harmonious at every step, till we have completed the whole
succession of degrees which it contains.
Let us now revert to D, the place where we began. As each of the outer
extremities of the chords which are terminated by D has been changed, a
new application of the theorem will give a second correction for the place

of D; although, as the numbers a, a', b, &c. continue the same, it will be
less than before. Continue the process through the whole scale, and a
second approximation to the most harmonious state will be obtained. In this
manner let the theorem be applied, till the value of x is exhausted, for every
degree; and it will then be in the most harmonious state possible. Three
operations gave the following results:

TABLE V.

1st Oper- 1st Oper-
Bases. 2d. 3d. Bases. 2d. 3d.
ation. ation.

F +18 +5 +1 B +18 +5 0
F -20 -6 -1 B +19 +5 0
E +18 +5 0 B -23 -10 -1
E +14 +5 0 A +18 +7 0
E -69 -8 -1 A +13 +4 +1
D +19 +5 +1 A -71 -7 -2
D +5 +2 +1 G +17 +5 0
D -45 -7 -2 G -14 0 0
C +18 +6 0 F +44 +5 0
C -5 -5 -2 G -46 -5 0

The sign plus denotes that the degree to which it belongs is to be raised,
and minus, that it is to be depressed. The corrections in each succeeding
operation are to be added to those in the preceding. The errors, in the 3d
approximation, are so trifling, that a 4th would be wholly useless.
Note. The foregoing calculations will be rendered much more
expeditious and sure, by reducing the theorem, in some sense, to a diagram,
as in the first of the following figures; and by applying the successive
corrections to the circumference of a circle divided into parts proportioned
to the intervals of the enharmonic scale, as in the second.

Proposition VII.
To determine the temperaments and beats of all the concords, together
with the values of the diatonic and chromatic intervals, and the lengths
and vibrations per second of a string producing all the sounds, of the
system resulting from the last proposition.
The temperaments of all the concords are easily deduced from Table V.
The Vth CG, for example, has its lower extremity lowered 12, and its upper
extremity 14. Hence it is flatter by 2 than at first, and consequently its
temperament=156. The temperaments of all the concords, thus calculated,
will be found in the 2d, 3d, and 4th columns of Table VII.
Having ascertained the temperaments, the value of the diatonic and
chromatic intervals may be found. The Vth CG being flattened 156, and the
Vth FC 139, the major tone FG must be diminished 156 + 139, or be =

4820. By thus fixing the extent of one interval after another, from the
temperaments of either of the different kinds of concords, as is most
convenient, the intervals in question will be found to have the values
exhibited in Table VI.
Let the numbers in this table be added successively, beginning at the
bottom, to the log. of 240, the number of vibrations per second of the tenor
C, (see Rees's Cyc. Art. Concert Pitch,) and the numbers corresponding to
these logarithms will be the vibrations in a second, of a string sounding the
several degrees of the scale. They are shown in col. 6, Table VII.
Since the length of a string cæteris paribus is inversely as its number of
vibrations, the lengths in col. 5 may be deduced from the vibrations in col.
6; or more expeditiously, by subtracting the numerical distances from C of
the several degrees in Table VI. from O, and taking the corresponding
numbers, from the table of logarithms. These numbers, when used as
logarithms, must be brought back to the decimal form, agreeably to
Scholium 2. Prop. I.
To find the number of beats made in a second by any concord, it is only
necessary to take from col. 5 the numbers belonging to the degrees which
terminate that concord, and to multiply them crosswise into the terms of its
perfect ratio. The difference of the products will be the number of beats
made in a second. The 3 last columns contain the beats made by each of the
concords, in 10 seconds.

TABLE VI.
C ——— ——— ——— C
2998 2998 ——— B
1772
B ——— ——— ——— B
1831 3033
B ——— 4813

——— A
2982 1780
A ——— ——— ——— A
1871 3030
A ——— 4839

——— G
2968 1809
G ——— ——— ——— G
1814 ——— F

G ——— 1798

4820
——— F
3006 1824
F ——— ——— ——— F
——— E
2988 2988
1777
E ——— ——— ——— E
1870 3028
E ———

4818 ——— D
2948 1790

D ——— ——— ——— D
1835 3018
D ——— 4827

——— C
2992 1809
C ——— ——— ——— C

TABLE VII.

Temperaments of the Beats in 10 S. of the
Lengths of Vibrations in a
Bases Vths IIIds
3ds String. Second. Vths. IIIds. 3ds.

B 77 51431 466,64 43,4
B 154 76 93 53574 447,98 47,4 39,0 57,8
B 147 35 97 55880 429,49 43,5 17,7 57,4
A 156 78 57448 417,77 45,1 46,2
A 153 71 107 59852 400,99 42,5 33,5 59,4
A 154 9 62487 384,08 40,4 4,0
G 151 76 75 64177 373,97 39,1 32,9 39,2
G 132 39 97 66907 358,71 32,9 16,3 48,1
F
101 68778 348,95 48,5
G 56 69760 344,03 21,9
F 154 76 83 71685 334,80 36,0 29,2 38,5
F 139 32 130 74760 321,03 30,9 11,9 57,8
E 154 78 76874 312,20 33,2 33,5
E 149 74 110 80085 299,68 30,8 25,2 45,3
E 110 13 54 83608 287,05 21,7 4,1 21,5
D 154 53 78 85868 279,50 29,6 17,0 30,0
D 144 61 112 89480 268,21 26,5 18,5 41,1
D 180 50 93342 257,12 32,0 14,8
C 156 78 82 95920 250,20 26,6 22,0 28,0

C 156 46 143 100000 240,00 25,8 12,8 47,5

Proposition VIII.
To compare the harmoniousness of the foregoing system with that of
several others, which have been most known and approved.
The aggregate of dissonance, heard in any tempered concord, is as its
temperament (Prop. I.) when its frequency of occurrence is given, and as its
frequency of occurrence, when its temperament is given: hence, universally,
it is as the product of both. The whole amount of dissonance heard in all the
concords of the same name must consequently be as the sum of the products
of the numbers denoting their temperaments, each into the number in Table
IV. denoting its frequency. These products, for the scale of Huygens which
divides the octave into 31 equal parts, of which the tone is 5 and the semi-
tone 3; for the system of mean tones, and for Dr. Smith's system of equal
harmony, compared with the scale of the last proposition, (cutting off the
three right-hand figures) stand as follows:

TABLE VIII.

Systems. Huygen's. Dr. Smith's. Mean Tones. New Scale.

Disso- { Vths 825 945 850 786
nance { IIIds 121 382 0 240
of the { 3ds 1049 629 944 683
Total 1995 1956 1794 1709

Were we to adhere to Dr. Smith's measure of equal harmony, the rows of
products belonging to the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds, must be divided,
respectively, by ⅓, 1/10, and 1/13 (the reciprocals of half the products of the
terms of their perfect ratios,) before they could be properly added to express
the whole amount of dissonance heard in all the concords; but, according to
Prop. I. the simple products ought to be added, and the sums at the bottom
of the table will express the true ratio of the aggregate dissonance of the
systems under which they stand. The last has decidedly the advantage over
the first, both in regard to the aggregate dissonance, and the equality of its
distribution among the different classes of concords. It has nearly an equal
advantage over the second in regard to the first of these considerations;
although in regard to the equality of distribution, the latter has slightly the
advantage. It has, in a small degree, the advantage over the third, in regard
to the aggregate dissonance; while, as it respects the equality of its
distribution, it has the decided preference. It is true that the temperaments
of the concords of the same name, in the new scale, are not as in the others,
absolutely equal; but no one of them is so large as to give any offence to the
nicest ear. The largest in the whole scale exceeds the uniform temperament
of Dr. Smith's Vths by only 1/18 of a comma.

Scholium 1.
The above system may be put in practice on the organ, by making the
successive Vths CG, GD, DE, &c. beat flat at the rate contained in Table
VII., descending an octave, where necessary, and doubling the number of
beats belonging to any degree in the table, when the Vth to be tuned has its
base in the octave above the treble C. The tenor C must first be made to

vibrate 240 in a second, the methods of doing which are detailed at length
in various authors. Whenever a IIId results from the Vths tuned, its beats
ought to be compared with those required in the table, and the correctness
of the Vths thus proved. This system is as easy, in practice, as any other; for
no one can be tuned correctly except by counting the beats, and rendering
them conformable to what that system requires. The intervals of the first
octave tuned ought to be adjusted with the utmost accuracy, by a table of
beats. When this is done, the labour of making perfect the other octaves of
the same stop, and the unisons, octaves, Vths, &c. of the other stops, is the
same in every system. This last, indeed, is so much the most laborious part
of the tuning of the organ, that if even much more labour were required than
actually is, in adjusting the intervals of the octave first tuned it would
occasion little difference in the whole.

Scholium 2.
The harmony of the IIIds and 3ds in any of the foregoing systems for the
changeable scale is so much finer than it can possibly be in the common
Douzeave, that it seems highly desirable that this scale should be introduced
into general use. But the increased bulk and expense attendant on the
introduction of so many new pipes or strings, together with the trouble
occasioned to the performer, in rectifying the scale for music in the different
keys, have hitherto prevented its becoming generally adopted. To multiply
the number of finger keys would render execution on the instrument
extremely difficult; and the apparatus necessary for transferring the action
of the same key from one string or set of pipes to another, besides being
complicated and expensive, requires such exactness that it must be
continually liable to get out of order. This latter expedient, however, has
been deemed the only practicable one, and has been carried into effect,
under different forms, by Dr. Smith, Mr. Hawkes, M. Loeschman, and
others. But Dr. Smith's plan (which is confined to stringed instruments)
requires only one of the unisons to be used at once; while those of the two
latter nearly double the whole number of strings or pipes. It deserves an
experiment, among the makers of imperfect instruments, whether a
changeable scale cannot be rendered practicable, at least on the piano forte,
[26]
without increasing the number of strings, and at the same time allowing
both the unisons to be used together—either by an apparatus for slightly

increasing the tension of the strings, or by one which shall intercept the
vibrations of such a part of the string, at its extremity, as shall elevate its
tone, by the diesis of the system of temperament adopted. Were only 4
degrees to the octave, furnishing the instrument with 5 sharps and 4 flats,
thus rendered changeable, there is little music which could not be correctly
executed upon it.

Scholium 3.
In the same general manner, may be found the best system of intervals,
for a scale confined to a less number of degrees than that of the complete
Enharmonic scale. In such an investigation, the numbers in Table IV.
expressing the frequency of all such adjacent degrees as have but one sound
in the given scale, must be united; and the temperaments m, n, &c. of the
theorem, when belonging to concords whose terminating degrees are united
to those adjacent, must be taken, not what they were in the complete scale,
but what they become, considering them as terminated by the substituted
adjacent degree.
If, for example, the best temperaments were required for a scale of 15
degrees to the octave, such as is that of some European organs, or in other
words, having no Enharmonic intervals except D E , and G A ,—the
numbers in Table IV. belonging to C and D , E and F, F and G , &c.
must be united, and their sums substituted when they occur, for a, a′, b, &c.
in the theorem; while the temperament, for example, of the IIId on C must
not be reckoned 77 as in the complete scale, but 1261 – 77 sharp, since its
upper termination has become F, instead of E . With these variations let the
same theorem be applied as before, till no value of x can be obtained, and
the temperaments for that scale will be the best adjusted possible.
But as the scale which contains but 13 degrees, or 12 intervals, to the
octave, is in much more general use than every other, we shall content
ourselves with stating how the problem may be solved for scales containing
any intermediate number of degrees, and proceed directly to the
consideration of that which is so much the most practically important.

Lemma.

No arrangement of the intervals in the common scale of 12 degrees,
which renders none of the Vths or 3ds sharp, and none of the IIIds flat,
can make any change in the aggregate temperaments of all the
concords of the same name.
We will conceive the 12 Vths of the Douzeave scale to be arranged in
succession, as CG, GD, DA, &c. embracing 7 octaves. Let them at first be
all equal: they will each be flattened 49. I say that no change in these Vths
which preserves the two extreme octaves perfect, and renders none of them
sharp, can alter the sum of their temperaments. Let a, b, c, &c. be any
quantities, positive or negative, by which the points C, G, D, &c. may be
conceived to be raised above the corresponding points, belonging to the
scheme of equal Vths. Then as the mean temperament Vth = V – 49, the
first Vth in the supposed arrangement will be V – 49 + a. The distance from
C to D will be, in like manner, 2 · (V – 49) + b; and consequently the Vth
GD will be V – 49 + b – a. In the same manner the third Vth DE will be
V – 49 + c – b, &c. Hence the temperament of CG = -49 + a, of GD =
-49 + b – a, of DA = -49 + c – b, &c. Adding the 12 temperaments together,
we find their sum = -12 × 49 + a + b + &c. – a – b – &c. in which all the
terms except the first destroy each other, and leave their sum = –12 × 49
which is the aggregate temperament of the twelve equal Vths in the scheme
of equal semitones.
The same reasoning holds good if we bring these Vths within the
compass of an octave; since, if the octave be kept perfect, all the Vths on
the same letter, in whatever octave they are situated, must have the same
temperament.
The reasoning is precisely the same for the IIIds and 3ds, considering the
former as forming 4 distinct series of an octave each, beginning with C, C
, D and E ; and the latter as forming 3 distinct series of an octave each,
beginning with C, C and D. If the former be made all equal, each will be
sharpened 343; if the latter be made equal, each will be flattened 392. In
every system which renders none of the former flat, and none of the latter
sharp, the sum of their temperaments will be 12 × 343, and 12 × 392,
respectively.
Cor. The demonstration holds equally true, whatever be the magnitude of
a, b, c, &c.: only if they be such that the difference –a + b, –b + c, &c. of

any two successive ones be greater than the temperament of the
corresponding concord in the system of equal semitones, the temperament
of that chord must be reckoned negative, and the sum, in the enunciation of
the proposition, must be considered as the excess of those temperaments
which have the same sign with those of the same concords in the system of
equal semitones, above those which have the contrary sign. Hence it is
universally true that the excess of the flat above the sharp temperaments of
the Vths is equal to 12 × 49; that the excess of the sharp above the flat
temperaments of the IIIds is equal to 12 × 343; and that the excess of the
flat above the sharp temperaments of the 3ds is 12 × 392. Hence likewise
we have a very easy method of proving whether the temperaments of any
given system have been correctly calculated. It is only to add those which
have the same sign; and if the differences of the sums be equal to the
products just stated, the work is right.

Proposition IX.
If all the concords of the same name, in a scale of twelve intervals to the
octave, were of equally frequent occurrence, the best system of
temperament would be that of equal semitones.
It is evidently best, so far as the concords of the same name are
concerned, that if of equal frequency, they should be equally tempered,
unless by rendering them unequal, their medium temperament could be
diminished; but this appears, from the Lemma, to be impossible. By
tempering them unequally, the aggregate dissonance heard in a given time,
by supposition of their equal frequency, would not be diminished, whilst the
disadvantage of a transition from a better to a worse harmony would be
incurred. Some advocates of irregular systems of temperament have,
indeed, maintained this irregularity to be a positive advantage, as giving
variety of character to the different keys. But this variety of character is
obviously neither more nor less than that of greater and less degrees of
dissonance. Now, what performer on a perfect instrument ever struck his
intervals false, for the sake of variety? Who was ever gratified by the
variety produced in vocal music by a voice slightly out of tune? If this be
absurd, when applied to instruments capable of perfect harmony, it is
scarcely less so to urge variety of character as being of itself a sufficient
ground for introducing large temperaments into the scale. For these large

temperaments will have nearly the same effect, compared with the smaller
ones, that small temperaments would have, when compared with the perfect
harmony of voices and perfect instruments. Possibly a discordant interval,
or a concord largely tempered, might, in a few instances, add to the
resources of the composer. But when an instrument is once tuned, the
situation of these intervals is fixed beyond his control, and by occurring in a
passage where his design required the most perfect harmony, it might as
often thwart as favour the intended effect.
Since, then, the proposition is true in reference to the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds,
when separately considered, it will be equally true when they are
considered jointly, that is, as formed into harmonic triads, unless, by
rendering the concords of the same name unequal in their temperament, the
mean temperament of the Vths could be increased, and that of the IIIds and
3ds proportionally diminished. Could this be done, it might be a question
whether the more equal distribution of the temperament among the
concords of different names, might not justify the introduction of some
inequality among those of the same name. But it is demonstrated in the
Lemma, that the sum of the temperaments of each parcel of concords, in the
system of equal semitones, is the least possible. Hence no changes in the
Vths can diminish the average temperaments of the IIIds and 3ds.
Cor. Hence we derive an important practical conclusion: that whatever
irregularities are introduced into the scale, must be such as are demanded by
the different frequency of occurrence of the several concords. If we make
any alterations in the scale of equal semitones, this must be our sole
criterion. A given system of temperament is eligible, in proportion to the
accuracy with which it is deduced from the different frequency of the
different concords. And those who maintain that the frequency of different
intervals does not sensibly vary, or that it is of such a nature as not to be
susceptible of calculation, must, to be consistent, adhere to the scale of
equal semitones.

Proposition X.
To determine the best distribution of the temperaments of the concords in
the Douzeave Scale.

As the scale of equal semitones has been demonstrated to be the best, on
supposition that all the concords of the same name occurred equally often, it
ought to be made the standard from which all the variations, required by
their unequal frequency, are to be reckoned. To find a set of numbers
expressing the relative frequency of the several concords in the common
scale, we have only to unite the numbers in Table IV. standing against those
adjacent degrees which have but one sound in this scale. They will then
stand as in the following table:

TABLE IX.

Bases. Vths, 4ths, and IIIds, 6ths, and 3ds, VIths, and
Octaves. Octaves. Octaves.

B 221 135 1161
B 418 654 34
A 870 568 1085
G 57 82 365⅕
G 1207 1197 567¼
F 67 29½ 1072
F 639 924 78
E 548 323 1151
E 265⅓ 363½ 144½
D 1166 943 569
C 26 18 581
C 816 1131 184

The general theorem of Prop. V. is equally applicable to the
determination of the approximate place for any degree in this scale,
considering the numbers in the above table as those to be substituted for a,
a′, b, &c.; and m, n, and p, in the first instance, as 49, –343 and 392, the
uniform temperaments of the Vths, IIIds, and 3ds, in the scale of equal
semitones. Since, however, the temperaments of the IIIds in this scale are
sharp, which would require the signs of the 3d and 4th terms in the
numerator of the general formula to be continually changed, it will be
rendered more convenient for practice, if they are changed at first, so that it
will stand thus:
x = am –aa′m′ – bn + b′n′ + cp – c′p′
+ a′ + b + b′ + c + c′
.

Three successive applications of this theorem to each degree in the scale,
in the manner described Prop. VI., will bring them very near to the required
position, as appears by the smallness of the corrections in the 3d column
below, where the results of the several operations are exhibited at one view.

TABLE X.

First Second Third
Bases.
Operation. Operation. Operation.

B -140 -35 -2
B +308 +33 -1
A -8 -23 +2
G -257 -22 -2
G +107 +24 -8
F -264 -7 0
F +238 +40 +6
E -80 -34 -4
E +157 +2 -4
D +58 +8 0
C -352 -29 -1
C +176 +29 +4

Cor. Hence we may deduce, in the same manner as in Prop. VII., the
diatonic and chromatic intervals, the lengths of a string and their vibrations
in a second, and the temperaments and beats of all the concords for the
scale which results from the foregoing computations. They may be seen in
the two following tables:

TABLE XI.
DIATONIC AND CHROMATIC INTERVALS.

C ——— ——— C
2895 2895
B ——— ——— B
1991
4869 ——— B
2878
A ——— ——— A
2761
4865 ——— G
2104
G ——— ——— G
2903
4856 ——— F
1953
F ——— ——— F
2911 2911
E ——— ——— E
2235
4833 ——— E
2598
D ——— ——— D
2957
4874 ——— C
1917
C ——— ——— C

TABLE XII.

Temperaments of the Vibrations Beats in 10 Seconds of the
Lengths of
Bases. Vths per
IIIds 3ds Strings. Vths IIIds 3ds
Second.

B 143 675 149 53446 449,04 44,0 352,8 92,4
B 105 69 1114 55954 428,92 30,8 34,0 155,2
A 138 10. 154 59787 401,42 38,6 4,6 85,2
G 387 833 288 63712 376,79 98,7 360,5 155,4
G 106 43 175 66874 358,88 26,4 17,6 86,8
F 160 954 150 71496 335,68 37,2 372,8 69,8
F 124 30 957 74786 320,92 27,6 10,8 143,0
E 108 180 151 79970 300,10 22,2 66,6 62,0
E 136 311 818 84194 285,06 26,6 102,2 186,6
D 144 6 174 89384 268,50 26,6 2,2 64,0
C 52
1009 128 95682 250,83 10,9 295,3 44,8
C 135 16 446 100000 240,00 22,4 4,0 147,0

Nothing in the above tables will need explanation, except the anomalous
sharp beats of the 3ds, in the last column. These are derived from the
perfect ratio 6 : 7, because these 3ds are, in reality, much nearer to the ratio
of 6 : 7 than to that of 5 : 6; and hence could their beats be counted, they
would be those of the table, and not those which would be derived from
considering these 3ds as having flat temperaments of the ratio 5 : 6. But
although the beats are slower, the nearer they approach the ratio 6 : 7, this
ought not to be regarded as any sufficient reason for admitting so large
temperaments into the scale, were it not absolutely necessary, in order to
accommodate those 3ds which are of far more frequent occurrence.
Although the beats of these 3ds grow slower as their temperaments are

increased, yet they are losing their character in melody; and become, in this
respect, more and more offensive, the more they are tempered. Hence the
harmony and melody of the several intervals, jointly considered, are to be
judged of rather from their temperaments, in the three first columns, than
from their beats, in the three last.

Scholium 1.
It will be perceived, from a comparison of the temperaments in Table
XII. with the corresponding numbers in Table IX., that the harshness of the
several concords, especially of the IIIds and 3ds, is, in general, nearly in the
inverse ratio of their frequency. The contending claims of the different
concords render it impossible that this ratio should hold exactly. Including
the Vths, the harmony of the concords is much more nearly equal, than the
principle of rendering the temperament of each inversely as its frequency,
could it be carried into complete effect, would require.

Scholium 2.
The foregoing system may be put in practice, on the organ, by making
the Vths beat flat, with the exception of those on C , E , and G , which
must beat sharp, at the rate required in the table; proving the correctness of
the temperaments of the Vths, by comparing the beats of the IIIds, as they
rise, with those required by column two. Should less accuracy be required,
the IIIds on C, D, and A, might be made perfect, without producing any
essential change in the system. This would reduce the labour of counting
the beats to eight degrees only.

Scholium 3.
To show that the computations of the different frequency of occurrence
of the different concords, on which this system of temperament is founded,
may be relied on as practically correct, for music in general, it may be
proper to state, that a similar series of calculations had been before made,
from an enumeration of the concords in fifty scores of music entirely
different from that made use of in Prop. IV. They were not, indeed, made
with the same accuracy, for the music of which the chords were counted,
was too generally of the simpler kind, and the numbers corresponding to

those in the two columns under each concord in Table II., and those
belonging to the major and to the minor signatures, corresponding to the
numbers in Table III., were added, before the products were taken, instead
of keeping the modes distinct, which is necessary to perfect accuracy. Yet
the resulting scheme of temperament was essentially the same throughout,
with the one which has been just described. It had the same anomalous
temperaments, viz. the Vths on C , E , and G ; and the IIId on A; and
these anomalies were similar in degree. The greatest difference between any
two corresponding temperaments, was between those of the 3d on E ; the
first computation making it only 702, while the last has it 818.

Proposition XI.
The aggregate of dissonance, heard in a given time, in the system of
temperament unfolded in the last Proposition, will be less than in
either of the systems generally practised.
In order to compare the foregoing system with those which have been
most generally approved, the temperaments of all the concords have been
calculated, in the system of equal semitones; in that of Earl Stanhope,
which has had considerable celebrity; in that of Dr. T. Young; in that of Mr.
Hawkes; in that of Kirnberger, which has been extensively adopted in
Germany; and in that which is described by Rousseau and D'Alembert as
generally practised in France. If these temperaments be multiplied into the
corresponding numbers of Table IX., agreeably to what was shown under
Prop. VIII., and those products which belong to the several concords of the
same name be added, the sums, after the three right-hand figures are cut off,
will be as follows:

TABLE XIII.

Systems. Mean Young's. Kirnber- French. Stan- Hawkes'. New
Temp. ger's. hope's. Scale.
Disso- { Vths 309 494 681 561 595 665 810
nance { IIIds 2184 1541 1397 1346 1175 925 530
of the { 3ds 2740 2448 2019 2121 1992 1676 1363
Total 5233 4483 4097 4028 3762 3266 2703

From an inspection of the sums at the foot of the table, it will be seen that
the amount of dissonance heard in a given time is decidedly less in the new
scale than in either of the others; and that it is scarcely more than half as
great as in the scale of equal semitones. On the other hand, the temperament
is very unequally distributed, which must be admitted, cæteris paribus, to be
a disadvantage. It is even somewhat greater than in the scheme of Mr.
Hawkes, although by no means in the same ratio, as the aggregate
dissonance is less. It contains one Vth, which will be somewhat harsh, and
four IIIds and three 3ds, which will be quite harsh. But these, as will appear
from an inspection of Table IX., are, of all others, of by far the most
unfrequent occurrence; so that the unpleasant effect of a transition from a
better to a much worse harmony will be very seldom felt. In the six simplest
keys of the major, and in the three of most frequent occurrence in the minor
mode, they are never heard, except in occasional modulations; and even
then, generally no one, and rarely more than one is heard. Now these nine
keys, as will appear from Table III., comprise more than five times as much
of the music examined as all the rest. The same remarks might be extended
to three other minor keys, were it not that the sharp seventh is so generally
used, that it deserves to be considered as an essential note of the key.
But there are two important considerations, more than counterbalancing
the objection to this system, derived from the greater inequality in the
distribution of its temperaments, which have not been hitherto noticed, as
not being susceptible of mathematical computation.
1st. We have gone on the supposition that tunes on the more difficult
keys are as often performed, according to their number, as those on the

simpler keys; and have taken for the measure of dissonance, in different
systems, what would be actually heard, if the 1600 scores, whose signatures
were examined, were all played in succession, and on the keys to which
they are set. But the fact is, that those pieces which are set to the simpler
keys are oftener played, and with fuller harmony, on account of the greater
ease of execution, than those in which many of the short finger keys must
be used.
2d. Pieces on the more difficult keys are often played on the adjacent
easier keys, but the contrary is seldom or never done.
Giving to these two considerations no more than a reasonable weight,
they will counterbalance the objection, and will render it evident that the
sums under the several systems in the table may be taken as a true
exhibition of their respective merits, without any injustice to the more equal
systems at the left-hand of the table.
Cor. We may hence draw a comparison between the systems in common
use. Their merits, when every consideration is taken into view, are nearly in
the inverse ratio of the sums denoting their aggregate dissonance. That of
Mr. Hawkes is the best, and, in many respects, has a remarkable analogy to
the one derived from the preceding investigations.
Cor. 2. As the aggregate dissonance of the changeable scale is calculated
on the same principles, in Prop. VIII., as that of the Douzeave in this, a
comparison of the results in Table VIII. with those in Table XIII., will
furnish us with the relative dissonance of different systems for these
different scales. The relative dissonance of the two systems which form the
object of this essay, is nearly as 17 : 27. Hence it appears, that by inserting
eight new sounds between those of the common octave, the harshness of the
music executed, at a medium of all the keys, may be diminished by more
than one third of the whole, while the transition from a better to a worse
harmony will never be perceived.

Art. XXII. Notice of Colonel Trumbull's Picture of the Declaration of
Independence.

It is proper that some mention of this great national work should be made,
in publications less transient than newspapers; and as the fine arts are
included within the design of this Journal, it may with propriety be noticed
here. This is the greatest work which the art of painting has ever produced
in the United States. The picture is magnificent both in size and in
execution. The dimensions of the canvass are eighteen feet by twelve.
"This picture forms one of a series long since meditated by Mr. Trumbull,
in which it was intended to represent the most important events, civil and
military, of the American revolution, with portraits of the most
distinguished actors in the various scenes. The materials for this purpose
were collected many years ago, and two plates have been engraved from
paintings of the deaths of Gen. Warren and Gen. Montgomery;[27] but the
work was suspended, in consequence of the political convulsions, which,
during twenty-five years, were so fatal to the arts of peace.
"The government of the United States have ordered four of the subjects
originally proposed by Mr. Trumbull, to be painted by him, and to be
deposited in the capitol.
"No event in human history ever shed a more salutary influence over the
destinies of so great a mass of mankind: the wisdom of no political act was
ever so soon and so powerfully demonstrated, by such magnificent
consequences. And justly may the nation be proud of the act itself; and of
those eminent men, its authors, whose patriotism (rising above enthusiasm,
and the passions which have so often bewildered mankind) was calm,
dignified, persevering, and always under the guidance of reason and virtue.
"The painting represents the congress at the moment when the committee
advance to the table of the president to make their report.
"It contains faithful portraits of all those members who were living when
the picture was begun, and of all others of whom any authentic

representation could be obtained. Of a small number, no trace could be
discovered; and nothing was admitted which was not authentic."
This picture is now, by permission of government, exhibited in the
Academy of Arts in New-York, and will probably be shown in some of our
other principal cities, before it receives its final location at Washington.
It exhibits the interior of the then Congress Hall at Philadelphia. Most of
the members are represented as sitting in their respective chairs, or, in
various instances, as standing in different parts of the room. Almost all the
portraits were taken by Colonel Trumbull from the living men, and their
accuracy may therefore be relied on.
The president, John Hancock, sitting at a table, and elevated somewhat
by a low platform, is receiving the report of the committee declaring the
independence of the colonies; that committee, individually illustrious, and
in this august transaction collectively memorable, was composed of
Franklin, Adams, Sherman, Jefferson, and Livingston. Mr. Jefferson, in the
prime of life, is in the act of laying upon the table the great charter of a
nation's liberties; while his companions support him by their silent but
dignified presence, and the venerable Franklin, in particular, imposes new
obligations on his country's gratitude.
The figures are as large as the life; and it may safely be said, that the
world never beheld, on a similar occasion, a more noble assemblage. It was
the native and unchartered nobility of great talent, cultivated intelligence,
superior manners, high moral aim, and devoted patriotism. The crisis
demanded the utmost firmness of which the human mind is capable—a
firmness not produced, for the moment, by passion and enthusiasm, but
resting on the most able comprehension of both duties and dangers, and on
a principled determination to combat the one and to fulfil the other.
This moral effect has been produced in the fullest and finest manner by
this great painter; and no true American can contemplate this picture
without gratitude to the men who, under God, asserted his liberties, and to
the artist who has commemorated the event, and transmitted the very
features and persons of the actors to posterity. Such efforts of the pencil
tend powerfully also to invigorate patriotism, and to prompt the rising
generation to emulate such glorious examples.

The composition and execution in this picture are in a masterly style. The
grouping of so many full length portraits, in a scene in which there could
scarcely be any action, and in such a manner as to dispose of them without
monotony, was an attainment of no small difficulty. The painter could not
even avail himself of the adventitious relief of splendid costume and
furniture, and of magnificence or rich decorations in architecture; for on
this occasion both were characterized by an elegant simplicity only, such
however as became the actors and the crisis.
The composition has all the variety of which it is susceptible; and there is
also enough of it in the style of dress and of features to relieve the eye from
any danger of satiety.
It is believed, that in this picture, the United States possess a treasure to
which there is no parallel in the world. In no instance, within our
knowledge, is there an exhibition to an equal extent, of the actual portraits
of an illustrious assembly, concerned in so momentous a transaction.
It was a great thing to assert, in principle, the liberties of this country; but
it was also a great thing to vindicate them by arms; and we rejoice that
Colonel Trumbull is still to proceed, under the sanction of government, to
delineate other scenes, in which Washington and his illustrious American
coadjutors, and the flower of French chivalry, were the actors. In the
maturity of his experience, skill, and fame—possessed, as he is, of the
portraits of most of the great men of that period, taken principally from the
life, and having been himself largely and personally conversant with them
in their great deeds, we trust that the government will promptly second what
we doubt not the united voice of the nation will demand—that the
illustrious artist should dedicate the evening of his life to his country's
honour and glory.

INTELLIGENCE.

Art. XXIII. An Address to the People of the Western Country.

A number of the citizens of Cincinnati have recently instituted a society
for the collection, preservation, exhibition, and illustration of natural and
artificial curiosities, particularly those of the western country. The first
efforts of the managers will be directed to the establishment of a permanent
museum, on a scale so comprehensive as to receive specimens of every
thing curious which they may be able to procure. In attempting to form this
repository, they must of course solicit the aid of their fellow-citizens in all
quarters of the extensive region, whose ancient works and natural history
they propose to illustrate. The following are the classes of objects that will
especially attract their attention, and to which they are desirous, at an early
period, of directing the views of the community:
1. Our metals and minerals generally, including petrifactions.
2. Our indigenous animals, embracing the remains of those which are
now extinct.
3. The relics of the unknown people who constructed the ancient works
of the western country.
4. The various articles manufactured, for ornament or use, by the present
savage tribes.
The subjects of the first class are considered by the Society as extremely
interesting. Every citizen of the western country must feel the necessity of a
speedy developement of its mineral resources. To find beneath our own soil
an adequate supply of the various minerals which are now imported at an
enormous expense, must be regarded by all as a matter of the first and
greatest importance. The managers are anxious to be instrumental in the
advancement of this useful work, and earnestly solicit the co-operation of

the public. They will be thankful for specimens of all the rare or curious
minerals that may be discovered in this country. To every specimen that
may be transmitted, a label should be attached, stating either the kind of
rock or stratum to which it belonged, or its precise locality. Whenever it is
required, the managers will have a part of any specimen which is sent to
them, analyzed, and a correct report made of its nature, thus affording to the
discoverer a full opportunity of availing himself of all the pecuniary
advantages that may attend the discovery.
As objects of scientific interest, the managers intend, as early as possible,
to commence the formation of a cabinet of petrifactions. The rocks of few
other countries contain a greater number and variety of these animal
remains of the ancient ocean, than the limestone districts of the Ohio and
Mississippi. They both astonish and confound most of the travellers through
this region; and although objects of familiar examination to ourselves, they
have not been collected or described by our citizens. An extensive and well
arranged cabinet of these extraneous fossils would afford, both to the
zoologist and geologist, an exquisite feast. It is hoped that every specimen
sent to the Society will be accompanied by a label, stating the place where it
was found.
It is the wish of the Society to obtain and preserve specimens of all the
native animals of this country. Most of the larger quadrupeds having
receded before the unceasing extension of our settlements, are now so rare
as to be unknown to all but our oldest emigrants. Measures will be taken by
the managers to procure from the general retreat in the northwest, and
exhibit to the people in the Ohio countries, a specimen of every quadruped
which lately inhabited them; and while engaged in this enterprise, they hope
to import from the same distant wilderness, a variety of the animals which
are peculiar to it.
Our native birds have not retreated, like our quadrupeds, and are,
therefore, within our reach. The managers hope to see the Society, in due
time, in possession of a large collection of these beautiful animals. In the
accomplishment of this undertaking, it is easy to perceive that the Society
may be powerfully aided by the community: and a sanguine hope is
entertained, that no backwardness or indifference will be manifested by
those who may fortunately have it in their power to forward specimens.

In collecting the fishes and reptiles of the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the
Lakes, the managers will likewise need all the aid which their fellow-
citizens may feel disposed to give them. Although not a very interesting
department of zoology, no object of the Society offers so great a prospect of
novelty as that which embraces these animals. The managers, therefore,
flatter themselves that they will not be suffered to proceed unaided in this
portion of their labours.
The obscure and neglected race of insects will not be overlooked, and
any specimens sufficiently perfect to be introduced into a cabinet of
entomology, will be thankfully received.
The western country, from having afforded some of the most gigantic and
curious remains of land animals which have yet been discovered, seems
entitled to a museum of such relics. A collection of this kind will be one of
the earliest objects of the Society. Its funds will be liberally expended for
the purpose; and if aided by those who may be so fortunate as to discover
any of the great bones which lie buried in our alluvial or bottom lands, the
managers hope, at no distant period, to repair, in some degree, the losses
which have been repeatedly sustained by exportation of these interesting
fossils.
The third class comprises objects of very little utility, but of
extraordinary interest. Nothing, indeed, presented by the western country
seems to excite in a higher degree the curiosity of strangers, than the relics
and vestiges of the extinct and comparatively civilized population with
which it abounds.
The managers will make every possible effort to form an extensive
collection of these remains.
It is extremely unfortunate for those engaged in researches concerning
the objects of this class, that so many of them have been disseminated
abroad. To study them successfully, it is necessary that they should be
compared, and for this purpose they must be brought together. The
managers hope, therefore, that such persons as now hold, or may hereafter
possess any of these antiquities, will dispose of them to the Society, instead
of sending them out of the country. In this way, and in this only, can a
valuable collection of these unique curiosities be formed.

The remaining class comprehends the weapons, utensils, trinkets, and
other manufactures of our neighbouring Indians, of which the managers
hope, in a short time, to be able to exhibit a great variety.
The curiosities of this country are the primary, but not the exclusive
objects of the Society. It proposes in due time to open a gallery of paintings,
and thus offer to the lovers and cultivators of the fine arts, a few of those
models which are absolutely necessary to the gratification and improvement
of their taste.
The managers will be happy, moreover, to receive from such of their
eastern brethren as are desirous of contributing to the amelioration and
advancement of a new and remote community, any of the productions of
foreign countries that may be calculated to promote this object; and will, in
return, cheerfully exchange any specimens of the curiosities of this country
which they can spare without injury to their collection.
They will, if required, pay a reasonable price for every article which may
be deemed worthy of introduction into the museum. They intend to publish,
annually, a catalogue of all the more valuable donations which may be
made to the museum, with the names of the donors.
Elijah Slack,
James Findlay,
William Steele, Managers.
Jesse Embree,
Daniel Drake,
Cincinnati, Sept. 15, 1818.

Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville, Ohio, is engaged in writing Notes on
the State of Ohio, a work which is intended to embrace the most important
features and interests of this new and rising State.

To this laudable effort, and to that of the Western Museum Society,
whose address is published above, we cordially wish success. From the
zeal, talent, and industry of the gentlemen concerned, we have every reason
to expect a happy result.

We view, with much satisfaction, the efforts which have been already
made, and are rapidly increasing, to bring to light the resources, and to
develope the history, of the western States; and it will always give us
pleasure, if through the medium of this Journal, or in any other manner, we
can contribute to promote them.

Art. XXIV. Extract of a Letter from Colonel Gibbs to the Editor.
Sunswick, June, 1818.
Dear Sir,

Since I saw you, I have made only one experiment on magnetism. I
determined the power of my magnet, as it had been shut up in the dark for a
long time, and lying down. I then exposed it to the rays of the sun, also
lying down, and remote from the iron support, and I found that it had
gained 12 oz. power in 40 minutes, and 14 oz. power only in five hours.

Art. XXV. A New Lamp, without Flame.
From the Annals of Philosophy for March, 1818. Communicated by Mr. Thomas Gill.

This lamp is one of the results of the new discoveries in chemistry. It has
been found, by Sir H. Davy, that a fine platina wire, heated red hot, and
held in the vapour of ether, would continue ignited for some time; but, I
believe, no practical use has been made of this fact.
If a cylindrical coil of thin platina wire be placed, part of it round the
cotton wick of a spirit lamp, and part of it above the wick, and the lamp be
lighted, so as to heat the wire to redness; on the flame being blown out, the
vapour of the alcohol will keep the upper part of the wire red hot, for any
length of time, according to the supply of alcohol, and with little
expenditure thereof; so as to be in constant readiness to kindle German
fungus, or paper prepared with nitre, and, by this means, to light a sulphur
match at pleasure. This lamp affords sufficient light to show the hour of the
night by a watch, and to perform many other useful services; but does not
hinder the repose of persons unaccustomed to keep a light burning in their
bed-room, nor does it require to be snuffed.
The proper size of the platina wire is the 1/100th part of an inch: a larger
one will only yield a dull, red light, and a smaller one is difficult to use.
About 12 turns of the wire will be sufficient, coiled around any cylindrical
body suited to the size of the wick of the lamp; and four or five coils should
be placed on the wick, and the remainder of the wire above it; and which
will be the part ignited. A wick, composed of twelve threads of the ordinary
sized lamp cotton yarn, with the platina wire coiled around it, will require
about half an ounce of alcohol to keep it alight for eight hours.
An agreeable and slightly acid smell arises from this lamp during its
ignition. It is perfectly safe, as nothing can fall from it; and its novel
appearance, in a wick's keeping red hot for such a length of time, is very
surprising to persons unacquainted with its nature.
P.S.—When the wire has become oxided, it will be necessary to uncoil it,
and rub it bright again with fine glass-paper; which will cause it to act again

with increased effect.

REMARK.

Such wire as is here described may, probably, be obtained in
Philadelphia.

FOOTNOTES:
[17] In using the word "pit," instead of "mine," I have accommodated my
language to the custom of the country.
[18] Since the above article was written we have received some as large as a
finger.
[19] The green earth of most mineralogists. Editor.
[20] Formation—a geological phrase, of German origin.
[21] Doubtless the pea ore of the Wernerians. Editor.
[22] This jet of cold water being let into the cylinder itself, necessarily cooled it
at every stroke; and then it was necessary to heat it again to the boiling point,
before the piston would reascend, and thus a vast loss of heat occurred. Editor.
[23] But it is not necessary (as in the plate) to crowd the engine into the after-
part of the boat, the boilers maybe placed forward, and near them, or over them,
the cylinder, &c. The power is then communicated to the stern-wheel by a long
shaft, supported on, or immediately under, the deck. This arrangement gives
room for loading both behind and before the boilers and engine, and equalizes
the burden. This is the actual arrangement of the Merrimack boat.
[24] It is found with very high steam that the source of supply must be above the
chamber, or a small quantity of cold water introduced to condense the steam
therein.
[25] Taken from the Philosophical Magazine, and by that work from the Annales
de Chimie and de Physique, for January, 1818.
[26] A method of rendering changeable the sound of the same pipes in the organ,
which had occurred to the writer, but which was not inserted above on account
of the supposed difficulty of making the change sufficient in degree, he has since
found to have been executed by the Rev. H. Liston, who has succeeded, by
means of shaders capable of being brought before the mouths of his pipes by the
action of pedals, in giving them three distinct sounds each, varying by two
commas. (See the description of his Enharmonic organ, in Rees' Cyc. or Tilloch's
Phil. Mag.) His scale embraces 59 intervals to the octave, and is intended to
produce perfect harmony in all the keys. But as it will require the use of pedals
perpetually, even on the same key, and a ready and perfect knowledge of small
musical intervals, which practical musicians can seldom possess, there is no

probability that it will ever be extensively adopted. Perhaps, however, four or
five sounds, such as D , E , A , D , might be added to the common scale of 12
intervals by means of his mechanism, with advantage. An instrument thus
furnished would require the use of pedals but seldom, and would contain
chromatic degrees sufficient for the accurate performance of the great mass of
organ music.
[27] These picture, as is well known, represent the assault on Quebec, and the
battle of Bunker's Hill.

CONTENTS.

GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &C.
Page
Art. I. Hints on some of the Outlines of Geological
Arrangement, with particular Reference to the
System of Werner, in a letter to the Editor, from
William Maclure, Esq. dated Paris, 22d August,
1818 209
Art. II. On the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, and
Curiosities of Parts of Virginia, Tennessee, and
the Alabama and Mississippi Territories, &c.
with Miscellaneous Remarks, in a letter to the
Editor. By the Rev. Elias Cornelius 214
Art. III. Notice of the Scenery, Geology, Mineralogy,
Botany, &c. of Belmont County, Ohio, by Caleb
Atwater, Esq. of Circleville 226
Art. IV. Remarks on the Structure of the Calton Hill, near
Edinburgh, Scotland; and on the Aqueous
Origin of Wacke; by J. W. Webster, M.D. of
Boston 230
Art. V. Localities of Minerals 236
1. Localities by the Rev. F. C. Schaeffer ibid.
2. Minerals of Guadaloupe and Porto Rico 237
3. Molybdena in Shutesbury, Mass. 238
–————— Pettipaug, Con. 242
4. Rose Quartz in Southbury, Con. 238
Limpid Quartz in West Canada Creek, N. Y. 241
5. Plumbago in Cornwall, Con. 239
6. Coal at Zanesville, Ohio ibid.
—— in Muskingum, Ohio ibid.

—— in Suffield, Southington, &c. Con. 239 & 240
7. Mammoth's Tooth, from St. Francis River 239
8. Shells south of Lake Erie ibid.
9. Minerals of the Blue Ridge, &c. ibid.
10. Sulphat of Barytes, Southington, Con. 240
11. Scintillating Limestone, from Vermont 241
12. Beryl, in Haddam, &c. 242
13. Limpid Gypsum, near Cayuga Lake 243
14. Amianthus in the anthracite of Rhode Island ibid.
15. Red Pyroxene Augite, near Baltimore 244

BOTANY.
Art. VI. A List of Plants found in the neighbourhood of
Connasarga River, (Cherokee Country) where
Springplace is situated; made by Mrs. Gambold,
at the request of the Rev. Elias Cornelius 245
Art. VII. Description of a new species of Asclepias. By
Dr. Eli Ives, Professor, &c. in the Medical
Institution of Yale College 252
Art. VIII. Description of a New Genus of American Grass.
Diplocea Barbata, by C. S. Rafinesque, Esq. ibid.
Art. IX. Floral Calendar, &c. 254

ZOOLOGY.
Art. X. Notes on Herpetology, by Thomas Say, of
Philadelphia 256

PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.
Art. XI. Outline of a Theory of Meteors. By Wm. G.
Reynolds, M.D. Middletown Point, New-Jersey 266
Art. XII. Observations upon the prevailing Currents of Air 276
in the State of Ohio and the Regions of the
West, by Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville,
Ohio; in Letters addressed to His Excellency De
Witt Clinton, LL.D. Governor of the State of

New-York, and President of the Literary and
Philosophical Society
Art. XIII. On a singular Disruption of the Ground,
apparently by Frost, in Letters from Edward
Hitchcock, A. M. late Principal of Deerfield
Academy 286
Art. XIV. On a New Form of the Electrical Battery, by J.
F. Dana, M. D. Chemical Assistant in Harvard
University, and Lecturer on Chemistry and
Pharmacy in Dartmouth College 292
Art. XV. Chemical Examination of the Berries of the
Myrica Cerifera, or Wax Myrtle, by J. F. Dana,
M. D. Chemical Assistant in Harvard
University, and Lecturer on Chemistry and
Pharmacy in Dartmouth College 294
Art. XVI. Analysis of Wacke, by Dr. J. W. Webster, of
Boston 296

AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMICS.
Art. XVII. On the Comparative Quantity of Nutritious
Matter which may be obtained from an Acre of
Land when cultivated with Potatoes or Wheat,
by Dr. Eli Ives, Professor of Materia Medica
and Botany in Yale College 297

MISCELLANEOUS.
Art. XVIII. Biographical Notice of the late Archibald
Bruce, M. D. Professor of Materia Medica and
Mineralogy in the Medical Institution of the
State of New-York, and Queen's College, New-
Jersey; and Member of various Learned
Societies in America and Europe 299

INTELLIGENCE.
Art. XIX. 1. Dr. J. W. Webster's Lectures 304
2. Dr. Webster's Cabinet 305

3. Supposed identity of Copal and Amber 306
4. The Necronite.—(A supposed new mineral.) ibid.
5. Preservation of dead Bodies 307
6. Matches kindling without fire 308
7. Cleaveland's Mineralogy ibid.
8. A new Alkali 309
9. Ignited Platinum Wire ibid.
10. Red Rain ibid.
11. Gnephalium 310
12. Augite ibid.
13. A New Vegetable Alkali ibid.
14. New Minerals ibid.
15. New Metal ibid.
16. Pure Alumine ibid.
17. Collections of American Minerals ibid.
18. C. S. Rafinesque, Esq. 311
19. Medical College of Ohio ibid.
20. Notes on Ohio ibid.
21. Discovery of American Tungsten and
Tellurium 312
22. Mr. Sheldon's application of Chesnut Wood
to the arts of Tanning and dying ibid.
23. Additional note concerning the Tungsten
and Tellurium 316

THE

AMERICAN

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, &c.

GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, TOPOGRAPHY, &c.

Art. I. Hints on some of the Outlines of Geological Arrangement, with
particular Reference to the System of Werner, in a letter to the Editor,
from William Maclure, Esq. dated Paris, 22d August, 1818.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

Some years since, during Mr. Maclure's geological survey of the United
States, the editor had the pleasure of passing a few days, in company with
that gentleman, in exploring the geology of the vicinity of New-Haven.
Near that town, junctions, on an extensive scale, between widely different
formations, are to be observed. A radius of ten miles, with New-Haven for a
centre, will describe a circle within which the geological student may find
(with the exception of formations, unquestionably volcanic) most of the
important rocks of the globe, and a radius of even six or seven miles will
include the greater number of these. At, and near the terminations of the
primitive ranges, there are rocks which appear to have, in a high degree, the
characters of the transition class. Among them is the beautiful green marble
of the Milford Hills, seven miles from New-Haven. Mr. Maclure visited that
district, and even suggested the first hint which afterward led to the
discovery of the marble. Doubts being entertained concerning some of the
geological relations of those rocks, a letter was addressed to Mr. Maclure
(then in Philadelphia) on the subject. His answer is subjoined.

In giving it to the public, the editor takes a liberty which he hopes the
respectable author will pardon, because his production, although evidently
never intended for the public eye, contains statements and opinions of no
small importance to the young geologist, especially of this country.
Geology, at the present day, means not a merely theoretical and usually a
visionary and baseless speculation, concerning the origin of the globe; but,
on the contrary, the result of actual examination into the nature, structure,
and arrangement of the materials of which it is composed. It is therefore
obvious, that the opinions of those men, who, with competent talent and
science, have, with a direct reference to this subject, explored many
countries, and visited different continents, are entitled to pre-eminent
respect. Saussure, by his scientific journeys among the Alps, (although a
limited district) has given deserved celebrity to his own name, and, if it
were possible, has thrown an additional charm of attraction over those
romantic and sublime regions. Dolomieu has made us familiar with the
productions and phenomena of volcanoes, those awful and mysterious
laboratories of subterranean fire. Humboldt has surveyed the sublimest
peaks of both continents, and examined the structure of the globe amidst the
valleys of Mexico and the snows of Chimborazo and Pinchinca; and
Werner, with opportunities much more limited, (confined indeed to his
native country, Saxony) but with astonishing sagacity and perseverance,
deduced from what he saw, a classification of the rocks of our globe, which,
although not perfect, has done immense service to the science of Geology.
In this distinguished group (to which other important names might be
added) Mr. Maclure has unquestionably a right to be placed. Few men have
seen so much of the structure of our globe, and few have done so much with
such small pretensions. His work on American Geology is noticed with
becoming respect even in Edinburgh,[28] that focus of geological science.
His opinions on some of the more obscure and doubtful parts of the
Wernerian geology are worthy of peculiar consideration; for they are
founded on a course of observations vastly more extensive than Werner ever
had it in his power to make. The name of Werner will always be venerated
as long as geological science shall be cultivated, for geology owes more to
him than to any other man; but his pupils should not now demand that
implicit and unqualified adoption of ALL his opinions, which will allow no
other question to be raised, than what Werner taught or believed.

With these explanatory remarks, the following extract of Mr. Maclure's
letter is now subjoined:

DEAR SIR,

Your letter of the 26th June came just as I was embarking for Europe.
The information it requires concerning the primitive trap and flint slate, the
transition and secondary rocks, &c. &c. is difficult to give without the aid
of specimens, and frequently requires the examination of the relative
position of the strata before any correct idea can be formed. I will, however,
endeavour to give you the little my experience has brought me acquainted
with.
Following the nomenclature of Werner, I have given a list of his rocks;
but in describing them there are many of his names which I do not use;
because I never met with them. Primitive trap is one instance—I do not use
trap as a substantive, except in describing that kind of trap which Werner
calls the newest flætz trap, the nearest to which is your trap,[29] which
covers the oldest red sandstone.
The primitive flint slate is in the same predicament. I have always found
it on the borders of the transition, between it and the secondary.
Primitive gypsum I have not found.
What Werner calls primitive trap may perhaps be compact hornblende, or
perhaps the newest flætz trap, when it happens to cover the primitive; for,
this species of trap, like the currents of lava, covers indiscriminately all
classes of rocks, and is one reason why I consider it as the remains of
ancient lava.
Transition trap is a rock that I have not met with, and may perhaps be a
part of the flætz trap that happened to cover the transition, without any
immediate connexion, but like a current of lava, overlying all the classes of
rocks it meets with. This misapplication of names naturally arises from the
system of neptunian origin, on which the nomenclature of Werner is
founded.
Greywake and greywake slate are aggregates of rounded particles of
rocks, evidently the detritus of more ancient formations, and differ from the

aggregates of pudding and sandstone of the secondary class, in the
following properties, viz.
The aggregates of transition are harder and much more compact, than the
secondary; they are also cemented by argil, taking a slaty form.
This cement is in much greater quantity, in proportion to the particles
cemented, and has the appearance as if the cement at the time of formation,
had a consistence sufficient to prevent the particles from touching each
other.
They have, in common with all the transition rocks, a regular and
uniform dip from the horizon, from 10 to 40 degrees; and sometimes more.
This is perhaps the strongest mark of distinction which separates them from
the secondary, which are horizontal, or follow the inequalities of the surface
on which they were deposited.
The transition are distinguished from the primitive in being aggregates of
rounded particles, having little or no crystallization, and containing, or
alternating with strata, which contain organic matter.
The oldest red sandstone, with all its accompanying strata, I should
incline to put into the transition, as having many of the properties of that
class, and occupying the same relative situation in the stratification of the
globe. It is at a constant dip (although small) from the horizon; the cement
is in greater quantities in proportion to the particles cemented than in any of
the secondary aggregates, &c. &c.
The character of the secondary is a horizontal position, that perhaps does
not admit of the same facility of examining the relative situation of its
stratification. The compact limestone is, probably, with reason, considered
as the lowest of the secondary formation, and always under the coal
formation, but it appears to me that the secondary is deposited in basins
alongside of one another, and that each basin has a different order of
superposition, according to the nature of the agents employed in the
deposition; that it is a partial, and by no means a general deposition. The
secondary aggregates of sandstone and puddings have been evidently beds
of sand or gravel, and of course, in that state would be called alluvial, but
when cemented together by the infiltration of water, carrying along with it

lime, iron, or any other body capable of agglutinating the particles together,
become rocks, and may alternate in all proportions.
I am therefore inclined to think, that in geology the best mode for the
greatest part of the secondary would be to give the relative position of the
strata of each valley or basin; and I am rather of opinion that they would all
differ from one another.
The French and English basin having chalk for the lowest stratum, which
has occupied the geologists of both countries for these 10 or 15 years, is
perhaps the best known; yet they do not know the relative position of the
chalk and coals, because coals have not been found in the same basin with
chalk: coals occupy basins filled with different kinds of rocks, and have no
resemblance to the rocks found covering the chalk.

Art. II. On the Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery, and Curiosities of Parts of
Virginia, Tennessee, and the Alabama and Mississippi Territories, &c.
with Miscellaneous Remarks, in a letter to the Editor. By the Rev. Elias
Cornelius.
To Benjamin Silliman, Professor, &c.

SIR,

Having recently returned from a tour of considerable extent in the United
States, I avail myself with pleasure of the first leisure moment, to
communicate, agreeably to your request, some facts, relative to the
Mineralogy and Geology of that part of the country through which I passed.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

Before doing this, you will permit me to premise, that in consequence of
my limited acquaintance with these branches of Natural Science, and the
still more limited time, which other and important concerns allowed me to
devote to the subject, I can do little more than give a general description.
What my eye could catch, as I travelled from one country and wilderness to
another, preserving occasionally a few of the most interesting specimens,
was all I could do. The specimens you have received. The narrative I am
about to give, is drawn principally from the notes which were taken on the
journey, and will be confined to a simple statement of such facts as were
either observed by myself, or derived from good authority. Their application
to preconceived theories, I leave to those who have more leisure and
disposition for speculation than myself.
A description of a few natural and artificial curiosities which came under
particular notice, will not, I trust, be thought an improper digression. The
whole is committed to your disposal; and if it shall add but one mite to the
treasury of American Natural History, I shall be gratified, and rejoice to
have made even this small remuneration for your unwearied efforts, to
impart to one, formerly your pupil, a love for Natural Science.

The Author's Route.

My route was in a line nearly direct from Boston to New-Orleans;
passing through the principal cities to Washington; thence, diagonally,
through Virginia, East Tennessee, and the northwestern angle of Georgia; in
a western course through the north division of the Territory of Alabama, to
the northeastern boundary of the State of Mississippi; and thence in a line
nearly southwest to Natchez. From this last place I descended the river
Mississippi to New-Orleans. On my return I frequently varied from this
course, and had increased opportunities for surveying the country. In both
instances I passed through the countries belonging to the Cherokee,
Chickesaw, and Choctaw tribes of Indians, and travelled among them, in all,
about one thousand miles.

Geology of Virginia.

As others have described more minutely and accurately than I can, the
country north of Virginia, I shall begin with a few remarks on the geological
character of that State. It is there that the traveller, in passing from the
Atlantic to the interior, crosses successively the most important formations
of the earth, from the most recent alluvial to the oldest primitive. For a
considerable distance from the coast, the country is alluvial. It then assumes
an older secondary formation[30]—and sandstone and puddingstone are
frequent. This is the character of the District of Columbia, and indeed of a
great part of the valley of the Potomac.

Sandstone of the Capitol, &c.

In this valley, and adjacent to the river, is found the sandstone of which
the President's house, and the Capitol are constructed. It is composed of fine
silicious grains, is easily wrought, and from its colour, has the appearance at
a small distance of white marble.

Beautiful Breccia.

It is also in the valley of this river, and not far from its famous passage
through the Blue Ridge, that immense quarries of beautiful Breccia have
been opened. This rock was first brought into use by Mr. Latrobe, for some

years employed by the government as principal architect. It is composed of
pebbles, and fragments of silicious and calcareous stones of almost every
size, from a grain, to several inches in diameter, strongly and perfectly
cemented. Some are angular, others rounded. Their colours are very
various, and often bright. Red, white, brown, gray, and green, are
alternately conspicuous, with every intermediate shade. Owing to the
silicious stones which are frequently imbedded through the mass, it is
wrought with much difficulty; but when finished, shows a fine polish, and is
unquestionably one of the most beautifully variegated marbles, that ever
ornamented any place. It would be difficult to conceive of any thing more
grand than the hall of the Representatives, in the Capitol, supported as it is
by twenty or thirty pillars formed of the solid rock, and placed in an
amphitheatrical range; each pillar about three feet in diameter, and twenty
in height. Some idea of the labour which is employed in working the marble
may be formed from the fact, that the expense of each pillar is estimated at
five thousand dollars. The specimens in your possession, are good examples
of its general structure, but convey no adequate idea of its beauty.

Petrifaction of Wood.

It will be proper to notice in this place, a petrifaction of wood which is
found on the road from Washington to Fredericksburgh, 16 miles from the
latter, and four miles north of the court-house in Stafford county. It is
remarkable for its size, rather than for any singularity in the composition. It
was found by digging away the earth on the side of the road, and appears to
have been the trunk of a considerable tree. It is firmly fixed in the ground,
and penetrates it obliquely; how far has not yet been ascertained. At the
time I saw it about two feet had been exposed. The diameter is about eight
inches. Its colour is white, sometimes resembling that of wood. The fibres
are well preserved, and so is the general structure. It is much to be desired,
that some one would clear it from its bed, and give it entire to one of our
mineralogical cabinets.

Geological Features.

Next to the alluvial and secondary formations, as you pass to the west
and northwest, are to be found ranges of granite and shistose, and other
primitive rocks; interspersed with these may be seen sandstone, clay, slate,

quartz, and limestone. Granite ranges were particularly seen in the
neighbourhood of Fredericksburgh, crossing the Rappahannock; and in
Orange and Albemarle counties, extending nearly to the Blue Ridge. Great
quantities of quartz and quartz rock, sometimes covering with their
fragments the sides of hills, are frequent. Another, and more interesting rock
in the same connexion, is found in Albemarle county. For some time I
doubted to what class to refer it. But from its resemblance to the rocks of
the east and west mountains near New-Haven, I ventured to call it trap or
whinstone. It becomes more abundant as you approach the Blue Ridge, and
the granite disappears. On the sides and summit of the mountain, its
appearance is more decidedly that of greenstone. In crossing the southwest
mountain, the range to which Monticello belongs, and distant from the Blue
Ridge about 25 miles, I observed the same rock. Whether this opinion is
just, you will be able to decide from the specimens which have been
forwarded.

Blue Ridge.

I have repeatedly named the Blue Ridge. It is the first of those long and
parallel ranges of mountains, called the Alleghany; and constitutes one of
the most prominent features in the geology of the United States. Its height I
cannot determine with accuracy. Probably it would not average more than
one thousand feet. Its base may extend in diameter from one to two miles;
and yet such is the influence it has on the climate, that vegetation on the
eastern, is usually two weeks earlier than on the western side. And what is
remarkable, this difference obtains, on the former side at least, until you
arrive within a few hundred yards of the summit. I crossed the mountain in
two places, distant from each other one hundred miles, but observed
nothing essentially different in their mineralogy. At one of them called the
Rockfish-Gap, on the road from Charlotteville to Staunton, I spent a few
hours, and brought away specimens of all the varieties of minerals which I
could find. These have been submitted to your inspection. Among them,
you will, I think, see greenstone, epidote, and slate more or less allied to the
first. These are the most common rocks, and excepting the second, are
usually stratified. The epidote is generally associated with quartz, and
sometimes is imbedded in it. In some instances it has a porphyritic
appearance, and is very beautiful. In others, it is coated with small filaments

of a greenish asbestos. Other minerals were found, whose nature I could not
so easily determine. I regret exceedingly, that I cannot furnish you with a
more complete description of this interesting mountain. That its character is
peculiar, or different from the country on either side of it, must be obvious
to the most superficial observer. Its principal rock does indeed bear a
resemblance to the trap or whinstone of Albemarle county, and yet I think
you will say it is not the same. One fact of importance cannot be mistaken;
this mountain constitutes the great dividing line between the granite and
limestone countries. For you no sooner reach its western base, than the
greenstone and epidote disappear; and limestone pervades the country for
hundreds of miles in every direction. In all the distance from this mountain
to New-Orleans, I did not find a single specimen of granite, or greenstone.
This may appear singular, since Mr. Maclure and Professor Cleaveland have
a granite range on their maps, immediately west of the Blue Ridge; and
even that mountain is on those maps, in some parts of it, covered with the
granitic tinge. This may be true. I can answer for only two points of it, and
for that part of the country beyond, lying near the main road to Tennessee.
In this route I descended almost the whole length of the great valley
included between the Blue Ridge on the east, and the north mountain on the
west. But in no instance did I meet with specimens of granite; nor west of
the Blue Ridge with any prevailing rock but limestone. I know of no reason
why the Blue Ridge should not be regarded as the first great dividing line
between the granite and limestone countries. The change in the geological
formation is so sudden and striking, that it would be difficult for the most
careless traveller with his eyes open, not to observe it. The face of nature,
he cannot but perceive, wears a different aspect; the air is more cool and
lively; even the water which he drinks possesses new properties perceptible
to his taste. The inhabitants no longer speak of their "sandstone water;" but
every where he hears of "limestone water." Indeed for 800 miles in the
direction which I travelled, he tastes no other water. Every spring and every
rivulet, is strongly impregnated with carbonate of lime. The vessels in
which it is prepared for culinary use, soon become lined with a white
calcareous crust. Nor is its taste the only inconvenience experienced by the
traveller unaccustomed to it. It often injures the health of a stranger, and
covers the surface of the body with cutaneous eruptions.

Limestone country in inclined Strata.

The geological observer has now entered upon a very interesting field. Its
great extent, and its wonderful uniformity, give new facilities to
investigation. Two divisions of it seem to have been made in nature.
The first is that which includes the limestone lying in INCLINED STRATA.
This division extends from the Blue Ridge, to the Cumberland mountain in
East Tennessee, a distance in the direction of my route of 500 miles. Of
course it includes all the ranges, five in number, of the Alleghany
mountains. The strata lie in a course northeast and southwest, the same as
the general course of the mountains. The angle which they make with the
horizon is very variable, from 25° to 45°. The colour of the rock varies from
blue, and pale blue, to gray, or grayish white, frequently it presents a dull
earthy appearance. The fracture is more or less conchoidal. Sometimes the
rock assumes a different character, and the fracture is uneven, and the
texture firm. This last is distinguished from the former, not only by the
fracture, but by the colour. It is usually spoken of by the inhabitants as the
gray limestone, the colour of the other being usually of a bluish cast. It
differs from that also by being less brittle, and possessing the quality
denominated by stonecutters, "tough." In consequence of this, and its
enduring heat better, it is more frequently used in building than the other.
This variety of limestone is not uncommon. Its colour is not always gray,
sometimes it is a reddish brown, and sometimes white. Immense quantities
of it, possessing either a grayish or reddish brown colour, are found in the
vicinity of Knoxville, East Tennessee. One range of it is crossed by every
road, passing to the south and east of Knoxville. Its appearance is that of
some variegated marbles; white veins penetrate it, and wind through it in
every direction. Whether any part of it has a texture sufficiently fine and
firm to be wrought to advantage, is yet to be determined. To the eye of a
superficial observer, there are many indications that it has. A specimen of
very fine white marble, resembling the Italian white, was shown me in
Augusta county, Virginia, which was found 15 miles from Staunton, where
there is said to be a considerable quantity of it.

Limestone country in Horizontal Strata.

The second great division of the limestone country extends, on the route
which I took, two hundred miles from the Cumberland mountain, and others
associated with it southwest, as far as the Dividing Ridge, which separates

the waters flowing into the Tennessee from those which proceed direct to
the gulf of Mexico. The grand circumstance which distinguishes the
limestone of this division from that already described, is this, ITS STRATA ARE
HORIZONTAL. Frequently immense piles may be seen forming bold
precipices, but always in horizontal layers, differing in thickness, from a
few inches to many feet. How far this arrangement extends to the west and
north, I have not yet been able to learn. Travellers always speak of the
limestone rocks in West Tennessee and Kentucky as flat, from which
circumstance I conclude that the Cumberland mountain forms for a
considerable distance at least, the eastern boundary. I have observed but
three other particulars in which the strata of the horizontal differ from those
of the inclined limestone.
1. Its colour is not so strongly marked with the bluish tinge.
2. It is not so commonly penetrated with white veins of a semicrystallized
carbonate of lime; nor is it so frequently associated with the uneven
fractured species.
3. Petrifactions are oftener found in it.
I will here take the liberty to suggest, whether in our maps of geology,
some notice should not be taken of this very important division in the
limestone country. Such a division exists in fact; nature has made it; and if
geology depends on nature for its only legitimate inductions, there can be
no reason why a feature so prominent as this, should be overlooked. I shall
not undertake to account for their difference: but would not every
geological theorist consider them as distinct formations?[31]

Cumberland Mountain.

The Cumberland mountain, which forms a part of this dividing line, is
itself a singular formation. It belongs to the class called "Table mountains."
Its width varies from a few miles, to more than fifty. Its height is not
perceptibly different from that of the Blue Ridge. It forms a circuit, in a
shape somewhat resembling a half moon. Winding to the southwest, it
keeps a course north of the Tennessee river, in some places nearly parallel
with it; passes a few miles to the southeast of Huntsville in the Alabama
Territory, and not long after terminates. At one part, over which I crossed,

the mountain is eighteen miles wide. This is about 150 miles southwest of
Knoxville, a little north of the 35th degree of N. Lat. I had not ascended the
mountain more than halfway, before I found sandstone begin to intermingle
with limestone strata. As I drew near the summit, the limestone disappeared
entirely, and sandstone prevailed in abundance, with no other mineral
associated until I reached the western descent, where I met bold precipices
of horizontal limestone, reaching from the base to the summit. I examined
several sandstone rocks while crossing the mountain, found them usually
imbedded in the earth, generally with flat surfaces, of a fine grain, and
strong texture. The colour is usually a reddish brown, or grayish red. The
specimen which you have received is a good example. I crossed this
mountain in the vicinity of Huntsville, not less than one hundred miles
southwest of the place above-mentioned, and found it not wider than
mountains commonly are. Its height had also become less, and horizontal
limestone in regular strata prevailed in every part.
Although this mountain forms a part of the dividing line which has been
mentioned, it does not exclusively so: for the Rackoon mountain, which
crosses the Tennessee river, at the place so well known by the name of "the
Suck," and the Look-Out mountain, which terminates abruptly about 6
miles to the left of "the Suck," form an acute angle with the Cumberland,
and are composed of horizontal strata of limestone. Thus it would appear
the line which divides the two kingdoms of this rock, is nearly north and
south, inclining perhaps a few points to the east and west.

Scenery.

And here I cannot forbear pausing a moment to call your attention to the
grand and picturesque scenery which opens to the view of the admiring
spectator. The country is still possessed by the aborigines, and the hand of
civilization has done but little to soften the wild aspect of nature. The
Tennessee River, having concentrated into one mass, the numerous streams
it has received in its course of three or four hundred miles, glides through
an extended valley with a rapid and overwhelming current, half a mile in
width. At this place, a group of mountains stand ready to dispute its
progress. First, the "Look-Out," an independent range, commencing thirty
miles below, presents, opposite the River's course, its bold and rocky
termination of two thousand feet. Around its brow is a pallisade of naked

rocks, from seventy to one hundred feet. The River flows upon its base, and
instantly twines to the right. Passing on for six miles further it turns again,
and is met by the side of the Rackoon mountain. Collecting its strength into
a channel of seventy yards, it severs the mountain, and rushes tumultuously
through the rocky defile, wafting the trembling navigator at the rate of a
mile in two or three minutes. This passage is called "The Suck." The
summit of the Look-Out mountain overlooks the whole country. And to
those who can be delighted with the view of an interminable forest,
penetrated by the windings of a bold river, interspersed with hundreds of
verdant prairies, and broken by many ridges and mountains, furnishes in the
month of May, a landscape, which yields to few others in extent, variety or
beauty. Even the aborigines have not been insensible to its charms; for in
the name which they have given to the Look-Out mountain we have a
laconic, but very striking description of the scenery. This name in the
Cherokee language, without the aspirated sounds, is "O-tullēē-ton-tannâ-tâ-
kunnâ-ēē;" literally, "mountains looking at each other."
I have already remarked that the limestone of this mountain lies in
horizontal strata: one mile east from its base it is inclined. Like the
Cumberland, it contains immense rocks of sandstone, but of a coarser grain,
verging occasionally into pudding stone. I was told by a white man, a
professed millwright, that among these sandstone rocks, he knew of many
which were suitable for millstones. At the missionary establishment, called
"Brainerd," eight miles east of the mountain, I saw one of them which was
used for this purpose to much advantage. It is composed of fine and large
grains of silicious stones, nearly white, and resembling pebbles of white
quartz: the texture is firm.

Silicious Minerals, &c.

I will now notice an important fact, applicable to the whole extent of
limestone country, which has come under my observation. It is its
association with a description of minerals, all of which appear to be
silicious. To describe them minutely, would require several pages. From the
time I entered the limestone country till I left it this association was
observed. The minerals included in it differ much in their external character.
Their size varies from that of rocks to the smallest fragments. Usually they
lie loose upon the earth, in angular forms, having the appearance of a stone

that has been broken in pieces by the hammer. Sometimes they cover the
sides of hills and mountains in such abundance as to prevent or impede
vegetation. When the disintegration is minute, they are serviceable rather
than otherwise; and the farmer talks of his "good black," or "white gravel
land." It renders this service, I presume, not by decomposition, but by
preventing the soil and its manure from being washed away. Indeed the
different varieties of it are generally scattered over the surface, in pieces so
small, that for convenience sake, the whole may be denominated a silicious
gravel.
Sometimes the mineral is imbedded in limestone, in the form of nodules,
thus indicating their original connexion with it.
The varieties, so far as I have observed, are quartz, hornstone, flint,
jasper, and semi-opal; and several, which to me are non-descripts. Quartz is
the most abundant. It is found of different colours; compact, and porous or
cellular; of every size; simple and associated with other silicious stones;
massive and crystallized. In Augusta and Rockbridge counties in Virginia,
beautiful crystals of quartz, of a singular form, are found. They are six-
sided prisms, with double acuminations, that is, with six-sided pyramids,
mounted on the opposite ends of the prism. A specimen of two such crystals
united, you have received. It was found near Lexington. A curious variety of
the quartz gravel-stone occurs on both sides of Elk River, a few miles above
its junction with the Tennessee, in the Alabama territory. As you travel to
the west from Huntsville, it appears first in the neighbourhood of Fort
Hampton, two miles east of Elk River, and may be seen for ten miles west
of that river. The mineral is remarkable for containing a curious
petrifaction. Its first appearance is that of a solid screw. On examination,
however, you find it is not spiral; but consists of parallel concentric layers.
Their diameter varies in different specimens, from that of a pin to half an
inch. They stand in the centre of a hollow cylinder, extending its whole
length, and occupying about one-third of its dimensions. The stone is
sometimes perfectly filled with these forms. The petrifaction I could not
have named, had you not pronounced it the "Entrochite."
Hornstone, next to quartz, is the most abundant of the silicious minerals
associated with limestone. It is very often seen imbedded in rounded
masses, both in the inclined and horizontal strata.

Flint is more rare. Several fine specimens were observed on the western
declivity of the Look-Out Mountain, but in no instances in large masses or
quantities.
Semi-Opal was found in one instance on the dividing ridge, which
constitutes the southwestern boundary of the limestone strata.
Of the non-descripts you have several specimens. One variety strikes fire
with steel, is a milk-white colour, adheres slightly to the tongue, and has no
degree of translucency on its edges. As Mr. Kain has furnished you with an
interesting detail of particular minerals found in East Tennessee and
Western Virginia, I need not recapitulate what he has so well said.
(To be continued.)

Art. III. Notice of the Scenery, Geology, Mineralogy, Botany, &c. of
Belmont County, Ohio, by Caleb Atwater, Esq. of Circleville.

Belmont county is bounded on the north by Jefferson and Harrison, on the
west by Guernsey, and south by Monroe county, and on the east by the Ohio
river. It is 27 miles in length, and 21 in breadth, containing 535 square
miles. Its name, Belmont, or beautiful mountain, indicates its situation, for it
contains within its boundaries a fine body of land, rising gradually as you
are travelling from the Ohio to the west, until you arrive at about the middle
of it, where, from the elevation on which you stand, the eye in an eastern
direction, beholds one of the most charming prospects in the state. Looking
towards the east, in a pleasant morning, you behold a beautiful country of
hill and dale spread out before you, divided into convenient and well-
cultivated farms, intersected by glittering streams, meandering through
them towards the Ohio. You hear the lowing of numerous herds around you,
the shrill matin of the songsters of the forest, and the busy hum of the
industrious husbandman; you see here and there a clump of trees
interspersed among the cultivated parts of the country; you see the
comfortable dwelling-house, the substantial barn, and hear the rumbling
noise of the mill; and when you reflect that those who dwell here are
industrious and enterprising, virtuous, free, and happy, you behold with
pleasure, and listen with delight, while reflecting on the objects around you.

Geology and Mineralogy.

On the surface is seen a rich vegetable mould, made by the decay and
putrefaction of vegetable substances. Along the Ohio, a wide intervale of
the richest alluvion is found, which produces as luxuriant a growth of
vegetation as any in the world. On the banks of the creeks which pass
through this country the alluvial soil is not so wide as that on the river, but
equally rich and productive. On the hills (and there are many of them) there
are two kinds of soil, the silicious and the argillaceous, the first is formed
from the decomposition of the rocks which once covered the surface, the
latter from the slate which lay under them. Where these rocks are

decomposed, and the country is hilly, it will readily be believed that the two
kinds of soil are frequently blended together. In some places we see the best
of clay for bricks; whilst in other places, and those in the vicinity of the
former, we find the best of sand to mould them in when manufactured. Hard
limestone of the very best quality is found in detached fragments in the
sides of hills, and in strata, in abundance, along the beds of streams.
The ruins of the sandstone formation are here seen scattered about in
fragments, or decomposed and intimately blended with those of other
formations.
Fossil coal is every where found under the hills, of the very best quality,
and in sufficient quantity not only for the fuel of the present, but many
future generations, and is so easily obtained that the expense of fuel is a
mere trifle. The oxide of iron, or iron ore variously combined, is recognized
in many places, and water combined with muriate of soda, or common salt,
is as common. Salines or licks are found in many places, where animals
also, both wild and domesticated, resort in great numbers to drink the
waters. These are frequently near some little water-course. Several sulphur
and chalybeate springs are known to exist in this county, and some which
throw out considerable quantities of petroleum.
In a country where iron and fossil coal exist, it is no wonder that
copperas should be found. There are places where copperas exudes in a
state sufficiently pure in quality, and in quantities sufficient for several
families, who collect and use it in dying. The same may be said of alum,
which is collected in the same way for similar purposes.

Botany.

Though this county is very rich in the mineral, yet it is not less so in the
vegetable kingdom, as may be seen by a reference to the subjoined
catalogue, although numbers of trees, shrubs, and plants, are purposely
omitted, which are known to exist here.

Family. Species. Classical name. Remarks.
Oak, White, Quercus Alba, Abundant.
———— Black, ——— Nigra, Do.
Along the
———— Meadow, ——— Aquatica,
streams.
———— Chesnut, ——— Prunus, Scarce.
Maple, Sugar, Acer Saccharinum, Abundant.
———— White, ——— Alba.
Poplar or Tulip, White, Liriodendron, Abundant.
———— Yellow.
Walnut, Black, Juglans Nigra.
———— White, ——— Alba.
———— Shellbark Hickory, ——— Albaovata.
———— Pignut, ——— Minima.
Bitternut, and probably
————
several other species.
Beach, Two species, Fagus.
———— Chesnut, ——— Americana.
Ash, White, Fraxinus Alba.
———— Blue, ——— Purpurea.
———— Black, ——— Nigra.
———— Swamp, ——— Aquatica.
Elm, Two or three species, Ulmus.
Buckeye, Common, Æsculusflava Lutea?
———— Sweet, ——— Maxima?
Robinia Pseud
Locust, Four species,
Acacia, &c.
Persimmon, Diospyros Virginica.
Linn or Bass Wood, Tilia Europea.
Cucuminis
Cucumber,
Sylvestris.
Dog Wood, or
Two species.
American Box,
Platanus
Sycamore, Two species,
Occidentalis, &c.
Plum, Several species.
Thorn, do. do.

The red bud; the pawpaw; grape-vines of several species, and growing to a
great size; sassafras; the black willow, confined to the streams; the box
elder, the common elder, of two species; the sumach, of two species; several
species of gooseberries; and a great many others too numerous to be
mentioned here. Among the herbaceous plants we must not omit the
ginseng, the Virginia snakeroot, the columbo, and the puccoon, two or three
thousand pounds of the roots of which are annually carried by the

inhabitants to our Atlantic cities. Among the trees, those belonging to the
oak family are the most numerous, if not the most valuable. Split into rails,
the farmer builds fences with them, and sawed into plank, boards, and
scantling, they furnish materials for houses and barns. The sugar maple is
sufficiently abundant, so that brown sugar enough is manufactured for
domestic purposes. The sycamore is the largest tree along the river, and the
poplar is the largest on the hills. The latter grows by the side of the maple
and the beach, and is a most valuable wood for the house-builder and the
cabinetmaker. This tree is frequently four and five feet in diameter, and
continues of nearly the same size as it ascends, 40, 50, and sometimes even
60 feet.

Streams.

The Ohio is the eastern boundary of this county, forming wide intervales
along its banks. Indian Wheeling is a fine mill stream rising in Harrison
county, and after crossing this, empties into the Ohio, opposite the town of
Wheeling, which stands on the Virginia side.
Captina is another excellent mill stream, which after running about 17 or
18 miles in this county, puts into the Ohio 23 miles by water below
Wheeling. These streams visit and fertilize a considerable part of Belmont.
From the view we have taken of this county, its geology, mineralogy, and
botany, the reader will probably be prepared with us to conclude, that no
part of the union, of equal extent, contains within it greater natural
resources, or can support a more dense population.
The seat of justice is St. Clairsville, situated ten miles from the Ohio
river, at Wheeling. It contains three houses for public worship, 15 stores, a
printing-office, a bank, and 700 inhabitants.
Many of the inhabitants of this county are Quakers or Friends, who are
charitable, humane, frugal, enterprising, industrious, and strongly opposed
to slavery. From such a population, possessing such advantages, what may
we not hope and expect from their exertions? Their fertile valleys will be
turned into meadows, and their hills into pastures; the ox will fatten in the
former, whilst the flocks of Andalusia will whiten the latter.